ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE AND OTHER BRANCHES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 0h 0% Peper? WYAOW WY 4 é Yay ssyOyto “O2Caq BpuUyy “ATX FEAF LOTS ( Fy] 7, Az, w A Sa < \ FA PAS NAY ills GEEL “UOPUOT 9° 2 uP?) MANGLOT Aq “Gud Is4suyo ayqemne ‘TIX 6.N JIL WY AL YW JULY JIA SUL 77 TOYSTID TeULepeH‘TA a “Uglied §* TOD 47 4@ Culmany 0 Uutody parmmpa gy ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTAN Y i AND OTHER BRANCHES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY _ BS OF THE F HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, _ AND OF THE Soe eng, as TO Str RICHARD JENKINS, G.C.B., M.P., Chairman. ‘ WILLIAM BUTTERWORTH BAYLEY, Esq., Deputy Chairman. WILLIAM ASTELL, ESQ. HENRY ST. GEORGE TUCKER, ESQ. CAMPBELL MARJORIBANKS, ESQ. HENRY ALEXANDER, ESQ. HON. HUGH LINDSAY. SIR WILLIAM YOUNG, BART. WILLIAM STANLEY CLARKE, ESQ. JOHN FORBES, ESQ. JOHN THORNHILL, ESQ. HENRY SHANK, ESQ. SIR ROBERT CAMPBELL, BART. | RUSSELL ELLICE, ESQ. JOHN GOLDSBOROUGH RAVENSHAW, ESQ. JOHN COTTON, ESQ. JOHN LOCH, ESQ. JOHN SHEPHERD, ESQ. NEIL BENJAMIN EDMONSTONE, ESQ. FRANCIS WARDEN, ESQ. CHARLES MILLS, ESQ. SIR HENRY WILLOCK, K.L.S. JOHN MASTERMAN, ESQ. JAMES WEIR HOGG, ESQ., M.P. DIRECTORS OF THE Monourable East-AHudia Company, THIS WORK, Illustrating the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the stupendous Mountains which form the barrier between the British domi- nions in India and the territories of the Chinese; in which the Geographical Distribution of Plants, as connected with Climate, is considered, their Useful Properties detailed, and the principles which should guide their culture in new situations deduced ; Being the result of investigations when in charge of a Scientific Institution of the Honourable Company, and assisted by the information which has accumulated from their long-continued patronage of Botanical Science in India, IS DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, AS A TRIBUTE OF THE RESPECT OF ee. THE AUTHOR. London, 28th November 1839. PREFACE. Tue Author having been for several years Superintendant of the Honourable East-India Company’s Botanic Garden, at Saharunpore, in 30° of N. latitude, and near the foot of the Himalayas, had, neces- sarily, great advantages in acquiring a knowledge of the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of that little-known portion of the British dominions in India, These opportunities he was not disposed, either by duty or inclination, to neglect. Therefore, (as described in the Introductory Obser- vations, where the sources of information are detailed, pp. 1 to 3), with the Plants introduced into the Botanic Garden, preserved in the Herbarium, or drawn by the Hon. Company’s Painters, he collected specimens of the rocks he met with in his journeys, made observations on their dip and direc- tion; preserved the skins of Mammalia, of Birds, and of Reptiles, with the skeletons of some, and made a collection of the Insects both of the Plains and Mountains of N. W. India. He also made Meteoro- logical Observations with the Barometer, dry and wet Bulb ‘Thermometer, Rain-Guage, &c., all of which have served as bases for the observations in the Introductory Chapters of this Work. But his duties consisting also of the medical charge of the Station of Saharunpore, including two Hospitals, and the European residents, afforded less facility for travelling than was necessary for Natural History investi- gations. In making public the materials which had been collected, two courses appeared open to the Author ; either to treat of the several individual specimens, as objects of Natural History, entering minutely into their descriptive or distinctive characters, and interesting points of structure ; or as the collections were brought home, arranged according to the Natural Method of Classification, submitting the whole to the examination necessary for ascertaining the identity of old, or the certainty of new species; make use of the information obtained, for treating generally of the Flora of the Plains and Mountains of India, with respect to Geographical Distribution. This course has been preferred, as giving the most interesting and important general results, in consequence of the distribution of Plants being so much connected with soil and climate, and as leading to a just appreciation of the influence of physical agents on vegeta- tion, and elucidating those principles which require to be attended to in the culture, both of new, and of old plants in new situations. This also afforded great facilities in treating of the properties of plants as — connected with structure, and for showing the immense resources of British India, both as regards what- ever is necessary for the Agriculture, Manufactures, and Internal trade of the people, as for the supply of a much extended External Commerce. Much attention has also been paid to the Materia Medica of India, as this formed a principal object of the Author’s studies there, and the results of which are recorded in the MS. work on Materia Medica, alluded to by his friend Mr. James Prinsep, in the Journ. Asiat, Soc., vol. i. p. 459, 1832, and which he hopes soon to have leisure to publish. Before concluding, the Author begs to take this opportunity of expressing his grateful thanks to the several Friends who have assisted him in different parts of this Work. To Mr. De La Beche he is deeply indebted for the trouble he took in constructing the Geological Sections, from the Author’s notes _ and specimens, and which are also useful as indicating the precise localities and elevations at which many of the Plants were found. To Capt. Cautley his best thanks are due, for the beautiful ast oe Himalayan Fossils; and to Dr. Falconer for recent Geological and Botanical information. The Author is also much indebted to his Friends, the Rev. Mr, Hope, late President of the Ento- mological Society ; and to Mr.Ogilby, Secretary of the Zoological Society, for having enriched this Work — oe Vill PREFACE. with their very valuable Dissertations, on the distribution of the Insects and Mammalia of the Plains and Mountains of India, in which he has been much gratified by finding that their observations coincide so fully with the results which he obtained from investigating the Flora of the same regions. In the Botanical portion of the Work, the Author feels equally indebted to Dr. Robert Brown, ‘¢ Botanicorum Princeps,” for placing in his hands the Herbarium, collected in Kunawur by Mr. Inglis, of Canton, and for the character of Incarvillea ; to Mr. Bentham, for those of the Silenee, Leguminose, and Boraginee ; also for describing, in his own works, the Labiate and Scrophularinee ; to Pro- fessor Nees Von Esenbeck, of Breslau, for the kindness with which he has arranged and described the ~ new Genera and Species of Graminee and Cyperacee. The Author much regrets that want of space has compelled him to omit the characters of the former, which he has therefore made over to the Linnean Society. To Professor De Candolle, of Geneva, for examining and naming the Synantheree, and for the description of them published in his “ Prodromus ;” to Sir W. J. Hooker, for naming the Mosses. To Professor Don, also, the Author feels much obliged, for assistance in comparing his collection with the East-Indian and other Herbaria, deposited in the Museum of the Linnean Society, and for his account | of the Genus Ranunculus, of Gentianee, and the specific characters of the Smilacee and Tulipacee — figured. To Professor Lindley, for his Notes upon some of the Himalayan Umbellifere, as well as for examining the Orchidee of his Collection, and for the valuable advice he has received from him respecting every department of the Work. As the Work contains so much of Detail, combined with General Views, it would have been compara- - tively useless without easy means of reference. This has been supplied by the Analytical Table of Con- tents at the beginning, and the Alphabetical Indexes at the end of the Book : for all of which the Author is indebted to his Wife. In the former, the Plants figured by Drs. Roxburgh and Wallich have been referred to by the number of the Plate, and the number of species in the East-Indian Herbarium, _ according to the enumeration of Professor Von Martius, has likewise been added, as well as the number of genera and species in the Author’s Herbarium, according to the List which he published, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, at Calcutta, in March 1832. The Author has to express his extreme regret, for the very long delay which has taken place in the appearance of the latter part of the Work. As this proceeded from his accepting the Professorship of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in King’s College, and thus finding it impossible to give the Work the exclusive degree of attention which it required, and had hitherto received, he hopes that the delay, will be excused, as he found it was the only way in which he could do justice to the task he had under- taken. This has, however, given him the satisfaction of seeing many of the suggestions which he has made, carried out in India. He has also to apologize for the Work not being completed in Ten Numbers; but if the Details, together with the General Views which have been entered into, be consi- dered, as well as the constant comparisons made between the Flora of the Mountains and of the Plains of India with that of other parts of the world, and also the application of the results to the probable means of improving the resources of India, it will probably be readily admitted, that it was not possible to calculate the exact Sentty of letter-press into which the information might be compressed. In conelitiions, the Author must express his conviction of the skill which rhs Gauci has displayed in the representations of the Plants figured, and in which he has been well seconded, first by Mr. Clarke, and latterly by Mr. Barclay in the Colouring. He considers it also but justice to the Publishers, Messrs. Allen and Co., to state, that they have in every instance acceded very liberally to the suggestions of the Author, for whatever was considered to be of advantage to the Work. TABLE OF CONTENTS. a ‘ InrRopUCTION.— PHyYsIcaL GEoGRAPHY OF THE HimaLayAn Mounrarns.—Frontispiece. British’ Possessions in India, extent of, v. Mountain Ranges,;—Western or Malabar Ghauts. Eastern or. Coromandel Ghauts, vi. Table Land or Balaghaut of Peninsula. Payinghaut of the Malabar Coast. Eastern Coast. Carnatic. Cuttac. Country inundated in great storms. Chilka Lake. Windhya Zone, from Guzerat to Allahabad and Rajmahl, viii. Chandore, Gawilgurh, Satpoora and Mandoo Ranges. Shaizghur, Omerkuntuc. Table Land of Malwa. Rajasthan and Bundlecund. Aravalli Range. Mount Aboo. Sandy Plains westward of Jumna to Indus, ix. Maroosthuli. Looni River. Rin. Salt Lakes. Alluvial Plains of the great Gangetic Valley, x. Mountain Systems of Central Asia. The Himalayas, x. Snowy Range, Elevation of Peaks, Survey by Hodgson and Herbert, commenced at Saharunpore, xii. Height of Sub- Himalayan or Sewalic Range. Second Range of Mountains. Mussooree, Lundour, Kedarkanta, Choor, Simla, &c. Feeders of the Sutlej and Sources of rivers. Jumnotri Peaks or Bunder Pooch. Hot Springs. Snow-bed. Ganges, sources of. Jahnahvi and Bhagirethi branches. Snowy Peaks surrounding Gungotri. Webb’s Survey of Kemaon, from Plains of Rohilcund to the Snowy Passes, xv. Pilibhit. Casipore. First Range. Second or Ghagur Range. Srinuggur, Hawilbagh, Almora, Pethoragurh, Lohooghat. Temple of Chundur Budunee, of Kedar- nath, Budrinath, Melum, Pilkonta Churhai. Groups of Snowy Peaks, by Mr. Colebrooke. Juwahir Peak, near Darma Dhoulo Pass. Byans Pass. Uorrected height of Casipore, xvi. Height of Mountains in Nepal, by Col. Colebrooke. Dhaibun. Gossain Than. Himalayan Peaks compared with the Andes, xvii. Breadth of the Himalayas, Nature of Mountains; Peaks and Ridges without Table Land. Great Rivers cross transversely. Valleys,—of Nepal, Cashmere, Noakote, Rama Serai. Lakes,—Dul of Cashmere, Ruenka, near Nahn, Bheemtal, near Almora. River-beds and Passes of the Himalayas, first crossed by Jesuits. Neetee. Shatool. Gonas. Byans. Broang, &c. Sources of Rivers. Andrytee, Pabur, Roopin, Buspa, Tonse, Jumna, Berai Gunga. Bhagirethi. Eastern Passes. Bhotea Tribes, Mana, Neetee, Juwahir, Darma and Lebong Passes, xix. Nepal Passes into Chinese Territories. Crossed by Jesuits and by a Chinese Army, xx. Pass to Teshoo Loomboo, by Turner and Saunders. Chasms by which Gunduck, Arun, Kosi, and Teesta, pass through Himalayas. Passes from Assam into Tibet. Course of Burhampooter. Physical Features of the elevated country on the northern face of the Himalayas, as given by Turner, Moorcroft, and Gerard. At Zamsiri, 16,500 feet above the sea, gently sloping hills and tranquil rivulets, dry and cold climate, little snow, vegetation, numerous herds of cattle. Sources and courses of Sutlej, Indus, Sampoo, Burhampooter, xxi, Lakes Mansarowur, Rawan-hrad, and energie d xxii. Great evaporation. Kailas, and lofty snowy Ranges beyond the Himalayas, xxiii. GroLocicaL Features or THe Piarns anp Mounrarns or N. W. Inpra, xxiv. Plains of India. Sub-Himalayan ¢ or Sewalic range. Fossils. Himalayas. Stratified rocks. Unstratified rocks. Northern face of Himalayas. Fossils. Geological features of other parts of India. Geological sections, Pl. 1. Fossil plants, P]. 2. Fossils of Sewalic range, Pl. 6 and PI. 3, figs. 4 to 15. Fossils of the Northern face, Pl. 3. MErTEoROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, xxxii, At Saharunpore in the plains of N.W. India, At Mussorree, &c. in the Himalayas. On THE ENTOMOLOGY oF THE HIMALAYAS AND oF InpIA, By THE Rev, J. F, Horr, F.RS., President of the Entomological Society. General Observations on the Influence of Temperature and of Moisture. Range. Influence of Soil, xxxvii. Analysis of the CorzopTera of India, and of the Himalayas. On the remaining Orders. Character of Himalayan Entomology. Entomological Character of India. — ae of the Insects figured in Plates 9 and 10, by J.O. Westwood, Esq. i oe Meworr on THE Mammatocy or THE Hrmaxayas, By W. Ocripy, Esq. M.A., Sec. of the Zoological Society. General hier vations, . Ivi. Quadrumana. Cheiroptera. Insectivora. Carnivora Plantigrada. Carnivora ees gitigrada. Rodentia. cero — x Ruminantia, plates 4, 5. 2 CaraLoGuE or Brrps collected by the Author in the plains and mountains of N.W. India, “— 7, 8. INTRODUCTORY Oxsrn vations ON THE VEGETATION AND ANIMALS OF THE PLains or N.W. InpIA, AND or THE : Hiwatayas, IN CONNECTION WITH CLIMATE.—Sources of information Botanic Garden Saharunpore. Plan V. Plates. Herbarium, from Plains of N.V India, Himalayas between Ganges and Sutlej, Cashmere, and Kunawur. E.I. Herbarium. E.1. Company's Drawings. Natural Classification Varied Natural and Cultivated Products of different parts of India, 4. Climate, Vegetation, and Animals of Delhi, 5. Of Saharunpore, in in the Doab, with its cultivation. Base of Himalayas, 12. Sewalic Hills. Deyra Doon. Ascent of the Himalayas, 14. Belts of Vegetation, 1 5. - Central Belt, 16. Simla. Mussooree. Lundour. Tropical in rains, European in general. Chinese genera. American, ditto 17. European species, 18. Cultivation. Animals, 19. Upper Belt, 20—24. Extract from Journal. Choor. Changshel. Kedarkanta, 22. Webb in Kemao : Himalayas to S.E. and N.W. Peer Punjal. Valley of Cashmere. Valley of Nepal. (Neelgherries, in a note.) Valleys. constituting: river bed from plains to sources of rivers, 31, and leading to snowy passes, 32. Northern face of the Himalaya. Kunawur, Upper and I Lower. Limit Vegetation. Tartar province of Hungarung, 35. Chinese Tartary, 36. Highest cultivation. Zamsiri. Bekhur. Moorcroft’ s Jo ! Ghartope, 37. Cailas Range, 37. Country westward of Kunawur, 38. Causes of the great elevation of the Snow Tine, 39, | ‘Plants | Flora of Kunawur, 9. Similarity with that of the Altai, of Siberia, and of Europe. Animals of Kunawur. : : Conclusion. Plants of other countries suitable to India and its mountains. Himalayan ecw suitable to England, 48 SYNOPTIC TABLE OF CONTENTS OF THE NATURAL FAMILIES OF PLANTS. Geographical . . ai Disitibation. Plates figured, illustrating the Families. ; + |InHerb Fate Ama pelesnialans sae 2 = | Roylean <2 5 3 & , < | Names of the Natural | 3 F 21 5)8|2 | SEs InRoxburch’s| In Wallich’s Subjects of general | T Pamilies of Plants. 133 |—--——| 83 | 5 13s e2/38| & nhoxourgn s Pl. As. Rar. | iMterest referred to in : 123) a lealas| = 22 ma| ss : In the present Work. Coromandel | and _| the respective families. 5 cel ael es lael & |sclsel ee Plants. Z $*| 8) s2\35| = |E3|55|23| 2 Tent. Fl. Nep: Pages. te. No, of Plate. No, of Plate. c ais ~| (11. fig.1. Anemone discolor 2. Ranunculus polypetalus ; ‘ er 3. Isopyrum grandiflorum Bish, Bikhma, and Nirbisi, 1 |RANUNCULACEZE | 57 | 13 | 85 | 43 | 43 | 43 | 44 | 44 | 46 4,1 microphyllum 20.98.217. | of Indian Materia Me- 12. Delphinium Cashmerianum 188. — 129,264.41. dica. : 13. Aconitum heterophyllum 128. Synopsis of Himalayan Ra- U4, Cimicifuga frigida nunculacee, p. 51. 2 | DILLENIACEZ....... | 2] 58 | 58 | 58 | 58 | —} 58] .... ve bas 20. 22. 23.8. 3|MAGNOLIACEE ...| 14} 3| 4/58] 58/58/59} —| 59] ... Son een cs 266. 182.147, Interchange of American T.1.2.3.4.5. | and Nepal Magnoliaces. WintrrEZ . —}—/—/} 58) 58} — | —/! —} 58 eee le e eas pass Star Anise. 4 | ANONACEE. .......... | 81 | 3] 7| 59} 59/59] 59} 60/60] ... ... ~~ ss ae} 38,35,96.290. { 121. 122.265, | Custard Apple, &c. intro- 266. duced from America. 5 ee 42} 4) 11/61/61) 61) 61;};—]6l] 22 ue ee he ie Ree 6.17,| CocculusIndicus. Columba. e a aan a Ty) 1) 5 | 62) 62) —| 62) — | 62) .. eee eee ee ig oe oe 243. LyciumIndicum ofAncients. 7|PODOPHYLLEE ..| 1/ 1/ 2/64) 64/—/64;—j—| 2. —— ~ a ; 8 NYMPHEACES: .. Si iB) 6165108 108) ose 2M, ae fog tecg ese ee: ras. 9 PAPAVERACER . 9} 3) 8 | 66) 66 | —| 66 | — | 66 | 15. Meconopsis aculeata ome ae J Orrem.Some Indian Opium | 10 FUMARIACEE . | 12 | 8 | 15 | 67 | 67 hye. Paks Corrie Compenerince pe orenrc! see ie Eo re 8 . SS Dee : ‘ : : ‘ in . a CRUCIFERAE ssseeeees | 23 | 25 | 98 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 17. Teal alge ea _ ee Cultivation n of Mustard, eS | og CAPPARIDEZ..... ol 4 : = 72 72 Ts g< 72 "3 i eee Be eee eee ee oe — tiger: Bush. 13. FLACOURTIANE | 7] 1) 8) 73) 73) 73|—|—j|m) i... | 68.69.0282. = | 4 | BIXINES «...........| 3] 1| 1{ 93] 73| 2 |—|—| |. = : = _ ts Arnotto dye. | a5 VIO: CEE po 28 & 18. gel. Vibla kerpeay | me ese LA seeeeseecsen ll 21 8| 74) 74 74 | 74) 74) 74 \ a ag + caine _— — Ipecacuanha, substitutes for soe 16 DROSERACESE « sovoee | 5 1] ] 15 75 75 7\)—-|—~— eee a Leena tae eee _— nus Drosera, asa dye. es 19. es Polygala myrsinites ; “17 | POLYGALE weve | 32 | 1] 11 | 75| 75 | 751 75| 75 | 76 ages aloe fA Himalayan Polygala bo ri Sw pr rrtgge 284, figs.1.2. | 100.1941 85. L cure for Snake-bites. : S PITTOSPORE®..... 6) 2) 2,77) 77) 7) 77) —|— ee ee _ 278. : . : ELATINEE seeeeenccnee E 3 : 4 : dE TT VHA T — — — eae Pe ‘inten dae per 142. cae ae 0 CARVOPHYLLACE 39 | 62 | 62 | 77| 77 | 78| 78) — | 78} eo os 5) Ses = So cae = pti Pia tt a er 20. fig. 1. Silene Falconeriana Synopsis of Himalayan Si- See eee ssh | | : 2. Lychnis fimbriata aS ae { lenew, by G. Bentham, ae ssh sk ae . | 21. fig.1. Leucostemma latifolium ~~ 2 —. oe eee eeennae — — — : —_ en _ i — — = L x —— —— — —_ ee coal ia : renaria tucoi [India. NEE oe at Sif) 5 7 Ok) Gr | Sh Ol pet OR a. face Soe ~~ _ Flax might be cultivated in be | | ae ae Seed MALY. CEA sesssssee {158 | 11 | 59 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 83 { g.1. Gossypium herbaceum ) * probability | A x 84, 26 hasan 190.269. | 4.26.44.51.269. | Cotton being grown in Iie a 0} : BOMBACEA ee aneeene 4 a 2 S$ 101 101 101 — pea 8 101 soe ona eel See i ae 247. 79.80. brats sais 1 by 8 : 24.25.29.215, | 3.59.77.127, | J : 216.287. 235,262. 3 ; ) i i 264.265, 288. _ Cordage plants, SYNOPTIC TABLE OF CONTENTS. Geographical F ‘ ee | Distaivation: Plates figured, illustrating the Families. + In Herb: i & 3 * Roylean: be 8 | 3 : i, 2 Ea|E | se . i © |Names of the Natural) § - @.| slasl¢ |és z In Roxburgh’s| 12 Wallich’s Subjects of é S | Families of Plants. |£2 ——)_|&3| 2 |33/22|e2| 3 iF 1 | Pl. As. Rar. | interest referred to in 2 "178 | aloe las] © /@s | 2s! 38) 2 In the present Work. Coromandel irae" the respective families. E ge | seles £8) 2/85/52 23 : scr Tent. Fl. Nep: Zz, "| ss ae #\sz\se\68) & us oh Pages, No. of Plate. No, of Plate. 27 ELZOCARPEZZ eeesee 28 ] ] 104 104 104, — aes: 104 eee soi yg eee eee — — 28 | DIPTEROCARPEE 17 1 1 |105 |105 |105 | — | — 1106 Boe oo esas a 210.212.213. reentg per sreeeaeereae ste ie alayay and probably of 29 |TERNSTRCEMIACEZ| 41 | 3| 3 /107 |107 | — |107 | — |108 | 24. fig.1. Eurya acuminata ai 5.148. 178.256, |! soils climate and’ of | Tea districts, and culture in Jayan with Chinese Botany. 30 OLACINEZ... eesesecee 12 1 1 128 128 128 ware sae 129 . eee e. . 102. arte: 78 wale: 31 |AURANTIACEE. .., | 39| 7 | 12 {129 |129 [129 190 | — i390 |... ee ee fie nirne 6°) 32 |HYPERICINE® ... | 32 | 2 | 12 |130 [180 | — |130 130 |131 | 24, fig.2. Hypericum japonicum acs 220.244, 33 | GUTTIFERE. ......... 41} 2] 4/131 j131 |131]—|—jig2] .. .. —— .. .. | 196.270.9908. | 210.258, _|f Plants yielding Gamboge. Mangosteen. $4 /HIPPOCRATEACEE, 21 | 1| 1 (339 11399 i988) ~|— [1 A ee. 130.205. 278. 35 |ERYTHROXYLEE | 6 | — | — {133 (133 (133 | —| —|—| . Ao mee 88. ess 36 | MALPIGHIACEZ... | 17| 3| 4 |193 193 |134 |1s4|— |134] .. 9. ee 18.160. 13.168. 37 | ACERINES...........| 8] 2] 5 [134 134] — |1394| — ly95 |... — a 104.105.132. | Himalayan Maples, 38 |HIPPOCASTANEE | 2| 1| 1 (135 [195 | — |135 {185 |15 Fo pee int “ gr cee of Hima- 39 |SAPINDACE. ...... 1]. 6) 8 |196 |186 87 | —~ /196 119842 a ee a Ls nh 14, Lichee. Longan. Soap 40 |MILLINGTONIACEZ| 4| 1] 3 {139 |139| — |139/ —|—| . ee 254. _ ve : Toon. Chikrassee. Satin 41 MELIACE/: eeecee eeeree 46 2 5 139 140 140 Lesn ? 143 eee tee is hone: eee eee 17.64,260.261. 119. wood. -Rohuna bark. ; Neem tree. CEDRELEACEE sseeee —]| 1| 2/142 |142 [142 | — | — |142 | 25. Cedrela serrata _ —_ Lanae 42 | AMPELIDE®......... 168 | 3| 18 |144 /144 [144 |145 | — [145 ee es wi Native country of Grape- - C——— capreolata Vine. 43 |GERANIACEE ...... | 7| 8 | 13 |149 |149 | — {149 |150 |150 | 27. Geranium Lindleyanum — 209. AEE ae __ |J 28. fig.1. Impatiens bicolor 44.|BALSAMINEZ ...... | 48| 2] 9 |150 /150 [150 [150 |150 { a aegis oof 19.193.194 = 45 |OXALIDEZ ......... 6| 3| 4 [152 |152 |152 |152 |152 |152 geae fe: 46 | CONNARACEE ...... — | — | — [182 [153 [153 | — | — | — eee ote respecting lebakh of 47 | ZYGOPHYLLEE...| 4] 3] 4 |153 |153 [153 | — | — [153 | 30. Biebersteinia odora dips — the Arabians, and Persea of the Ancients. 48 RUTACEX fTrerrerri rs) 6 4 155 155 155 155 er 156 eee wee —— eee soe Lh ES BF : . Fe te sta 49 | DIOSME®. ............ 3} 1] 1 |156 156 | — |156 | — |156 | 29. Dictamnus himalayanus _— — a ae 50 | ZANTHOXYLER «..’) 27 | 1} 9 (157.|157 |157 [157 | — [187 | ce a eee — — Faghureh of Avicenna. . a ae | with the Egyptian and 51 |SIMARUBER ...0.62 (9 | -2)| 1 1150 1186 [186/186] mite} ee —_ — African Flora. ede 3 ag Of the Himalayan 52 | OCHNACEE. ......... 13| 1) 1 |165 165 |165}— | —|165]} eae 89. - ra j CORIARLE eveereesecas 1 ] 1 165 165 queen 165 ae 166 | eee eee oe eee eee — = 289. 54, |CELASTRINEZ...... | 70 | 4 | 12 {166 |166 [167 167 | — [167 | 31. fig.1. Euonymus echinata 279. gigas letersne .ccccsccs | 8 | 1] SOTHO Ne aes ae nn 292, 55 |RHAMNEZ............ | 51 | 4 | 15 {168 {168 [168 |169| — 169]... ee | 8.98. ae 56 |SAMYDEZ ............ | 12| 1| 5 170 [170 170 | — | — [170 | 3 poe 57 | HOMALINE®......... | 5. |— | — {170 |170 [170] —|—]—] oe = TS 58 |CHAILLETIACEE | 2 | — | — {170/170 170) — | —|— as ee 59 | AQUILARINE......| 1 | — | — 171 [171 \171 | — | — [171 | 36. fig.1. Aquilaria Agallocha. Pgh oe a 179 60 | TEREBINTHACEA: | 23 | 13 | 29 [174 |174 [174 |174 (175 {175 | 31. fig.2. Odina Wodier. on | en MORINGER cco | 114 7 eo te BO | SO | 5 cia ee aac see el SYNOPTIC TABLE OF CONTENTS. oka Ref AO Plates figured, illustrating the Families. z a | Roylean vila [2 3] T FGakjects. of geneill 3 ES ns se alah? u yec 8 0 gen Ta nS Names of the Natural as Ze gigs Fs a| 3s E InRoxburgh’s eth interest referred to in S| Families of Plants. 3 eee £3 S 28 |e2\38| 8 In the present Work. Coromandel “and _| the respective families. ee 3 +) 3 E 38/38) S3| 28] 2/25 |Sergs| & Plants. Tent. Fi. Nep: Zz z |26 20/2 | 8/88/22 a5) & Pages. No. of Plate. No. of Plate. “ S. 62 | LEGUMINOSZE. ...... [759 — |180 190 193 |191 |194 ec | 122.149. 175. Synopsis of Himalayan Le- MUIMOSEAS ccssveeeeses | —— | 7 | 24 (181 18] |18] {181 182 s woo — . 150.121.63. |124.130.177.124.| guminosz of European and 99. 100.119. Siberian forms, 174. 200.225. oo? 37. Cassia (Senna) lanceolata. grab egal A sygd soy : CSALPINE Bee eeeseee — | 10 | 37 |183 183 |184 |183 185 { 32. fig. = bbe ot raph — 16.209.286,285. 1.2.233. Catechu and astringents ‘33, fig.1. Uraria lagopoides. for, tanming: 2, Astragalus leucocepha-|193.195,259.286, lus, 209.16.113.115.| 241.60.279.24.1 : reat : *| Leguminous cultivation of ae : 34. fig.1. Caragana Gerardiana, (192.191.114.116.| 62.6.63.47.236. . : PAPILIONACES «0.0 66 |286 188 188 ,189 |188 189 2. C—(Genista) versicolor] 194.92. 221.248. | 253, 125,237.78. oe ea of India and of 35. fig.1. Parochetus (communis)) 24.9.21.22.219. | 94.157.37.116. ella grscetts oxalidifolia, 220. 2. Smithia ciliata. 36. fig.2. AstrazalusGrahamianus 39. fig. 1. Sieversia elata. 2. Dalibarda calycina. 40, fig.3. Sibbaldia purpurea. cee amr Almond, Peach, Nectarine, 63 |ROSACEZ ............ 81 | 11 | 67 201 [202 |202 [202 (202 204 |/ . eset Bates — 234, 228 Plum, Apricot, Cherry, 41, fig.1. P Saundersiana. : ‘nce Pace hia 2. P microphylla. cae Sass READ 3. P _Inglisii. 42. fig.1. Rosa sericea. 2. R-— Webbiana. Drupack# ......... 18} 5)13) —|—}—]|] —| — | —|} 38. fig. 2. Cerasus cornuta. _ 143.181. Pomace& Seeeeeeanens 22 6 22 erg ——, —, — rat — eee eee ae. eee ste — 173.189, Curysonatanem... | 4; I] 1 ete 202 |202 |202 | — 206 | 38. fig.1. Prinsepia utilis. - _ | 64 GRANATEE sooeeeee | 1} 1 | 3 208 208 | — (208 208 208) ... nee . — _ Pomegranate. 65 | MEMECYLEE......... | 16 | — | — 209 | — jo09}—|— 209] .. . —e ae 82. _ 66 |COMBRETACER ... | 53| 5| 7 209 (209 [209 | — | — (209 | 45. fig... Conocarpus latifolia. ae rch sie Myrobolans. : : £ 2 67— RHIZOPHOREZ eee a3) Comeeie) EREREUR 210 210 10 enone’ ain 210 aoe wee acu coe tee Bil. ar 68 |ONAGRARIZ........) 9) 5 | 28 210 [210 211 jen 211 ait |{ 49: fel Scie Beak 234, ~ Singhara, an article of diet. | 69 | HALORAGEE......... | 7 | — | — 211 [211 [211 | — 211 | — | 70 |CERATOPHYLLEZ | 1 | — | — 2i2 i212 | — 212 | — ‘1. | LYTHRARIA ......... | 34} 5 | 10 pie 212 |213 \212 \212 213 ix ee ee UL OLS. ae | 72 |TAMARISCINEE ...| 6| 1] 3 es 213 |213 |214 |214 214 | 44. fig. 2. Myricaria bracteata. _— 240,251.88. Arabian Manna. 73 |MELASTOMACEZ...| 62; 1{| 2 E 214 (215 (215 | — | — | 45. fig. 2. Sonerila tenera. —_ 7.23. 74 | ALANGIE®...........| 5| 1} 1 215 \215 215}—|— 215}... ... ote See, 283, = ss SE 46. fig.1. Philadelphus tomen- 75 | PHILADELPHEE... 4| 1} 1 215 215 | — j215 j215 | — tosus. = 191. he | 2. Deutzia stain cor yatbous er | 76 |MYRTACER ......... (157 9 | 15 216 l216 R16 16 | — a See ee oe 217.218. 108.161. {4 Cultivation of Cloves, Al- Soe oo [ a7. fig. L Cueumis pubescens. Sy Shy ecn eigen | 77 | CUCURBITACEEE ... | 66 | 12 | 50 217 \217 [218 pis | — 218 2.€ seopiitees ae 133. fin —|—!] ... co eee ste 139.140. 230.225. T.9. | Red Dyes. — : 92 |CAPRIFOLIACEE | 27| 5 | 23 |235 \235 | — [235 236 [936 | 53. fig.2. Lonicera bracteata ae en ae nae 106.5998. | 927.170.80.185,) Cultivation in India of the 93 | RUBIACEZ............ {260 | 21 | 56 |237 |237 [238 |237 |237 238 53. fig.1. Kohautia coccinea : 137.3.237 51 165.32.293, true berries : pees baad we and of 210. . 04 | VALERIANE ......| 8| 2] 9 [esi [241 | — je41 | — joe [f>% Ae-1, 2 Nardostachys Jata- a 263. (Jats of ado. 95 | DIPSACEZ............ | 8} 3| 10 jo44 jo44 | — leas | —| — oy bo Pa aighe igg es 202. ] La] & 5 | a) 5 96 |SYNANTHEREZ ... |421 | — 56. fig.1. ‘Echinops nivea a 59 (246 (246 1246 [246 |246 | — i he toga on ances | Ta a 138. Artichoke. ae 59. fig.1. ra jotaxie guapbalokdes at ee! Cictonsce.teweenss | — | 14 | 60 [247 [247 [247 fea7 | {B47 | 61. fg.1. Mulgediummacrorhizum) | reo a ml 3 CynarocrrHaLa... | — | 19 sagittatum ores ~ | Suecory. Mortisiaces......... | — | 3] 3 \247 [247 | — [247 | — [247 | 59. ba -aiade gossypina ae Ee . 58. fig.1. Aster angustifolius | 2. Calimeris flexuosa _ . i ConyMnIrEr” «..... | — | 72 (203 (248 [248 (248 (249 249 | — 3. Galatilla juncea _ 101. |. fig.1. Corvisartia indica 2. Liguiaris arnicoides 97 | LOBELIACE ...... | ll | — | — (252 (252 |252 (252 | — 252| ... soe _ 152. f 62. fig. 1. Cann penulaConihmerianal 98 | CAMPANULACEZ | 25| 4| 17 (252 252 253 (253 | —| — 2. Codonopsis rotundifolia’ ae 7 160... -B Oana ovat 99 | STYLIDEZ .......0000. | 2 | — | —~ (254 254 (254 | — | — | — 100 |GOODENOVI4....... | 1 | — | — |254 254 254) —|—|— 101 | EPACRIDEAZ .......... | 1] —| — 255 (255 63 a. or ‘ “di eee 102 | VACCINACEZ ...... | 8 | — | — [255 255 79. fig.1. Thibaudia variegata =| = 2. Gaylusacia serrata 103 | MONOTROPEZ...... | 1} 1] 1 /257 257 emer 104 ERICACEZ e408 weet eee 24 8 ; ll Ly 257 : : - STYRACEZ........... | 28] 1] 8{ 2 — ILICINEE ... ic... | | — | — (261 /167, ed hes _ = EBENACEZ eeterteee 37 1 $ 261 261 eee eee — one Ce gaged : Eee SAPOTEZ ............ | 2 | 3] 5 /262 26e lene = YRS fo ae Cie |MYRSINEM...........| 76 | 4| 11 |264 265 [265 [265 | — ee eee a aN eee |. loge |£65. mes Oe See eg |JASMINEZ............. | 47] 2 | 18 [267 |26s ees [268 268 209| .. | ae POTATIACER ...... | —|—| — eo 000 pf) APOCYNEZ ceeds | 7 | % | 4 SYNOPTIC TABLE OF CONTENTS. Geographical Plates figured, illustrating the Families. : Distribution. a In Herb: 7 > 8 I; ~\ 3 | Roylean: = #2 ES of D In Wallich’s Subjects of general = |Names of the Natural] g "B:| Siasla.i2e| z R h’ interest referred to i | Families of Plants. |83|/——~—\| £3] = ds/edice| s TnRoxburgh’s| Pl. As. Rar. i ilies, Z ae é ae ae |ts|se| 3 In the present Work. Coromandel and the respective families, Es 58/58/52) 38| 2 | 25/28/38) & Plants. | Tent. Fl. Nep. Zz s"\ 28 aaa 28m] 82/a8| & Pages. No, of Plate, No, of Plate. hast Siti 163.162.139.73| { Cordage Plants, Caout- ore lets ler ra |F F Holostemma Brasenana (20-7890. [J "ye7g75176,0 chotie, Indian’ Sarsapa. 114 | ASCLEPIADEZ...... 11 | 20 | 35 |272 |272 1 » Holostemma Brunoniana |} 94) 940.239. L 14ae 6 Pon |) fill, Modan, Supply of 3. Ceropegia Wallichii ge te Medicines in India. 67. fig.1. Swertia coerulea | 2.8 alternifolia 252,204,205,276. f Cheretta and Gentian of EE oes... | 50 | 9 | 52 (276 (276 \276 [276 277 |277 3. Gentiana contorta 115, 47.48. Himalayas. Calamus sg: (IS: VENSEANE | 68. fig.1. G coronata = : l aromaticus of Ancients, 2.G Kurroo Capiscum and Potatoe. Toxacco, History, Climate, 116 |SOLANEAE wes... . | 37 | 10 | 3g [279 (279 [279 [279 (279 |280 |... nk aes ~_ — Cultivation of in India, [phyla Henbane supplied to Me. 70. fig.1. Didymocarpus macro- patel daaes Lick de dical Depéts, 71. fig.2. Picrorhiza Kurrooa 161.90, 163, . 53.54, 117 |SCROPHULARINEZ |119 | 27 | 76 |289 289 |290 290 290 291 K 79. fig.2. Pedicularis versicolor | 189. T.8. 73.fig.3.Gymnandra Cashmeriana| 118 | OROBANCHEZ...... 3| 21 4 [291 [291 \292 292 202) -—| ...n.. ee 292.219. 219, 119 | LENTIBULAREZ... | 15 | 1] 5 |292 \292 | — \292;—j|—| .. .., ewe — ean ‘ 70. fig.2. Chirita bifolia. ve 141,140, 72.50, 12] | PEDALINE. ......... 3| 4| 7 (294 294 294 | — | — 294] ... ei a ame see — — Sesamum, or Til Oil. : 81.95,.96,183. 122 | BIGNONIACEZ ...| 51| 1] § |294 295 [295 | — | — (295 | 72. fig.1. Amphicome arguta. 144,145,214. |4 99." : 164, 295,31.82. | 7.127.177. || 4965. 179.35 123 | ACANTHACEZL...... (297 | 8 | 56 (296 [296 297 |298 298 208; .. = ana, 267 |) 112.98.66.186,| T-37. | : 93.21 92,118, : 6. 162,246,146. | { 215.226.294. 124 | VERBENACEA ...... |166 | 11 | 28 298 |298 298 1298 299 [299 | 73. fig.2. Lantana dubia. {203 ee | Teak tree. 74. Eremostachys superba. oe 116, 267.268, | { Fragrant herbs of Ancients 125 | LABIATZ®..........00006 199 | 38 |124 300 '300 |301 |301 |301 302 |; 75. oer Phiomis Cashmeriana. . 33.34.74, T.6. || Some in Himalayas, dscep leet: Boraginee Royleanee, by 126 | BORAGINE%. .........| 41 | 12 303 (303 304 304 |304 304 | 73. fig.1- Myosotis moltkioides. | 55.56,57.159, = G. Bentham, Esq. Alkanet, substitutes for. 127 | CORDIACEZ ..... we | 10] 1 306 (306 306 | — }306 307] ... teaot sno Ss Aas “se 48, eee, Scammony and Jalap, cul- 55 3 128 | CONVOLVOLACEZ: |126 | 7 | 40 {807 [307 (307 907 \307 |308 |... —— ase ase | 285,104, 49.75.186.111, tivation of in Indi and 129 |HYDROLEACEZ...| 1] 1] 1 1 - |130 | POLEMONIACE® | 1| 1 69, fig.1. Cyananthus lobata. 308 308 | — |s09 js09 | — |{ ®® *8-)- © : : : : : ass er 206. Anal of Belts of el = . SPTMT 2. ica. alogy 0 of eleva, 131 | PRIMULACEZ ......| 31 | 5 | 31 |809 309 309 (310 |310 | — }) a igi P aa. a TALS ATS | tion, with Zones of lati- 2. P—— purpurea tude. . 132 | PLUMBAGINEZ ...| 4] 1] 1 {811 (311 311 | — /311 |311 133 PLANTAGINEE ...| 1] 1 9 1312 |312 | — |312 1312 |312 | ... sc sa eos _ = Tspagool like psyllium. 134 | NYCTAGINEZ. ......|} 8| 2] 3 |312 [312 312} — |312 | — vemchee Ts 312 (313 313 313 | — (313 | 80. fig.1. Begonia echinata. — 97, "ue: aah ates . 78. fig.1. Rheum spiciforme. pes | 78 or 99. Rheum Webbianum fCountry of Rhubarb |136 POE GOnE® see} 55 | 4 | 55 (313 (313 (313 '313 |313 (316 te 2. sie! ogy vaccinifo- ~ 237, ‘[Rhubait frded Hiniabipas, : , ’ tes abet = Barilla plants, abundance ) ee 6. sis 137 | CHENOPODE......| 22 | 9 | 93 (318 |318 318 /318 318 |s19| . 2 ee 138 | PHYTOLACCEZ ...; 3{ 2] 2 319 (320 (320 320 320 |320 ae . 139, AMARANTACER os 4 |-———— - — Roylean 3\¢ Ed & con =) . , & |Names of the Natural | g. 2 \ 3 Bs s BE) | In Wallich’s Subjects ot general >| Families of PI ge i—_$_——_| 8s| © 183/2.\3a8| 4 InRoxburgh’s| Pj. As. Rar. interest referred to in 5 amilies of Plants. | 33 £ 8 |eeifsle % th famili = Od) calcal ae = ae eS ee z In the present Work. Coromandel and e respective _ s gales 3 £8 3 [33 FI B38 5 Plants. Tent. Fl. Nep. Z e120 tees 2 |) 8n1es aol & Pages, ge No. of Plate, es Nae of Plate. : eee: ae 147 | ARISTOLOCHIEH | 5/ 11] 1 |329 |329 [329 | — 329 e Gage Palliat pies ge = 103. Snake-bites, native cure for. 148 | BALANOPHOREE | 4| — | — |330 [330 |330 | — | — g30 |J 784 or 99. te gage cra oe dons 149 | PODOSTEMEZ......| 1| — | — (331 [331 | — |331 | — | — 150 | CHLORANTHEZ ...| 3 | — | — (331 |331 |331 | — | — 31 151 | SAURUREZE ......00004. 3| 2] $ [831 |331 |s31 | — [331 wi 152 | PIPERACEZ. ......... So | 2| 4 (SSI [8S@ [ase jsse] — jSS2 |... nn, es ae 91. Pepper, and Betel-leaf. . * f 83. fig.1. Procris racemosa. f Hemp, cultivation of; abun- 153 | URTICEZ.......... «| 63 | 4 | 27 |333 [334 |333 |333 (833 /333 | : ee eee _ a beer — ca Cas le —— obtusa. Cherris. Bread fruit. Mulberry. Ford 250,193,124 of Silk Worm. Figs. Jak 154 | ARTOCARPEA ...... 17 | 3 | 26 (935 (385 336 |s36 [336 [336 | <-+ — -2 —— sven {i9e, ie fruit. Caoutehoue of 155 | DATISCEZ ............| 1] 1] 1/340 |340 js40 | — | —|] — Himalayan Elms. 156 | ULMACEZ. ...........- 12| 2/12 ee S41 [B41 [941 41 [S41 | oe aoe 78. 200.290. — a. or 157 | ANTIDESMEZE ...... 10| 2) 2 341 |341 |341 | — | — (341 }|5 98. fig.2. Falconeria insignis 166,167, —_ L 3, F———— Wallichii | 158 | JUGLANDEZ......... 6] 1] 1 [842 [342 Isa2 [gaa 342 [342] ... 9 0 eels — — Oui < Chitank: Aig Birch, Willow, Poplar ) 84, fig. 2. Quercus dilatata 296. 17.106.87. reg esr a aaee 159 | AMENTACE@..........| 46 | 8 | 35 342 [342 (943 [943 (944 (344 84 a. or 98. fig.1. Populus ciliata 97. 107. | . as °P ar, native = 109.131. European Oaks. 160 | SCEPACER.......060. Sine tot Bis Be gig | | eT 3 161 HENSLOVIACES... 2 tite sens a5 346 346 346 — bascemi ‘a eee eee esate size ee wee —_—_ 221. : 162 | MYRICEZ .........| 6| 3| 3 346 [346 [346 [sae | — [347 { peter tela Pg sal T.45. 163 | GNETACEZ............| 1 | 1 | 1 '347 (847 [347 [gag | — | — Cycapacrs (note)... — (347 |347 347 | — | — /348 | | : oe ae ir green 30.246. 201, Yew. Tacos Cypress. 164 | CONIFERZ............| 35 | 8 | 19 |348 |348 | — |g49 |349 (350 vg es Geantans ae a ee 86. 1. Abies Pindrow Plantain& Banana, produc. 165 | MUSACEZ. ............ 2| L| 2 [S54 [854 [954 | — | — [S55 | oe cue tee 275,300. _ \\_ tiveness of, in America, 166 | MARANTACEZ......| 9} 1] 2 (355 [356 1956 |956 | — [S56 | .-- ove tae ae iia oe 286. Arrow root in India. — 2 (89. fig.1. Roscoea alpina | 258.226.276, | 285,27.56.24, |{ Cinger- Peon “stout 167 | SCITAMINEZ......... 87 | 8 | 19 356 [356 |357 [357 | — |s58 2.R lutea 126.227.277, | 25.55.58 9.10. |) “Kiosk Puchuk of com- LS R—— pupume | 151,201,228, | 57.3.242,255, || Kooth. | | (48.42 35.68. a : 87. fig. 1. Aceras angustifolia _ See ae ong: apg tga ot ee eee Poe [ 2. Peristylus Gc roides! 97.44, 41.42.43, ny gga SRE lao Fe tae 168 | ORCHIDEZ............ 221 | 32 | 82 |361 361 (364 [362 [364 |368 oe ue 3. 1 Cpe gramineum gg 39 40 271, glo “gap Sacer, plants yielding : oF Cyrtopera va ‘“ E . . nee m ee fe a - 90. fig-1. Crocus sativus aac ghee oe Salis: lec < 169 | IRIDACE .... sees. 6| 3} 9 |S71 [871 | — |g71 |s71 [371 im ae caring ee oe a, ee acre of Scripture. |l70 | BURMANNIACE® | — | — | — [873 [873 |s73.| 2 |a73 | — | 91. fig. 1. Burmannia celestis Rs cP eee pee er j171 |AMARYLLIDEZ® ...| 1| 6 | 12 [373 (373 (373 |974 | — /374 | 91. fig. 3. Hypoxis minor _ coat — = = ef 172 | HYPOXIDEZ......... | T] 2] & |875 |g75 875 975] — | — | we ee Bec oo Se -Bromentace.x (note) epee | Sg | pee | oe Pe oes _— 173 | HYDROCHARIDEE | 5| 2| 4 [876 |376 |376 | — [876 (377| ... 0... lid | PACUACER cious | S| | = S77 S77 SIT) 1 ie77 | S.. 175 | DIOSCOREZ. .........| 14} 1 6 /378 [878 [978 8978 | — [S78 | «. +. —— SYNOPTIC TABLE OF CONTENTS. : hor ae oe Plates figured, illustrating the Families. ss = | Roylean ws § 3/5 S Ss Db a6 &% | 83 ich’s | Subj f & |Names of the Natural] 3 o.1¢})so 4 \62| 3 , | In Wallich’s | Subjects general 5 | Families of Plants. | 23 S| 3 ae Eg cols InRoxburgh’s| P], As. Rar. | interest referred to in FI ot] & lhe Bq] SS) 2 I k del Q Od) alugigs ae =S\et| n the present Work. Coromande and the respective families, = e8) 52/53/28) 2/25 88/98! & Plants. Tent, Fl. Nep Z, z 28\2a\% | 8 |Sm Sa)a5| & sige f Pages. No. of Plate. No. of Plate. or Yer NF aa : = eee ie Govanianum 144,957.196 Sarsaparitta, kinds of, ania 5 379 [379 |379 379 | — |380 » Ag. }. Smilax maculata 32. son, {2 Substitutes for in India. 176 | SMILACEZ 4l 20 2, S— Villandia : 282.269. East India Sarsaparilla,a 96. fig.1. Ophipogon intermedius species of Hemidesmus, 171 | MELANTHACES: ...| 19 | 3| 4 /384 [384 | — [S84 |384 |995 |/ 96. fg.2. Uvularia Leschenaulti- -- 259, Colchicum. Hermodactyls, 178 | PONTEDERACE#...| 5| 1] 2 |386 |386 336)—|—|—]| |. se — 110.1)1. an ie fig. L Fritillaria Thomsoniana aE verticillata 119 | TULTPACEA «ww.n| 88 6 | 12 [986 886 586 1886 987 |898 |" 99, gy.2: Lioydia himalensis — peerices : le 3.L—— Kunawurensis sacs falar fi Gagea elegans 180 |HEMEROCALLIDEZ! — | 3)! 4 (389 |389 |386 |389 |s89 |390 ne “ nag ot on = 184. =o fAloes. African Bowstring ‘hemp. New Zealand flax. 181 | ASPHODELE-Z ...... | — | 12 | 25 [991 |391 |391 (892 js92 993 | |. gg Oe etti 138, 260. p Cocoaand Betel-nut Palms. f 71.72.73.74.75, Date, the Palm tree of 182 | PALMACEZ ........| 1| 7 | 10 [894 |894 (395 (394 [396 3907| | a. | 255.256.295, [211.222.223.224] Scripture. Palm wine & | 273. spirit. Jaggery, Sugar, Sago. 183 | JUNCACEZR.. .........| — | 2| 8 (400 [401 (401 (401 (401 (401 Cocoa Nut and Palm Oil. 184 | BUTOMACEZ.........| 2. | 1] 1 [401 |401 401 | — | — |401 | 95, fig. 1. Butomus lanceolatus — ~ 185 | ALISMACE®. ...... ...| 10} 21] 6 |402 |402 402 |402 |402 | — Juncacinez ........| — | 1] 1 (402 402 | — /402 |402 |402 186 | COMMELINACEZ...| 26 | 2] 9 |402 402 403 |403 | — |403 | 96, fig. 3. Murdannia scapiflora 107.108.109, ~ |197 | NAJADEZ oo... |. 4} 2} 7 |403 [403 /404 |404 404 [404 188 | PISTIACE.®............| 14| 2] 4 (404 (405 405/— 405/—/] .. 2. oe ol, 268. a 17 | 4) 14 |405 /405 |405 |405 406 tigi ios 189 | AROIDE. ............| 17 5 = i Hc en Sees 272,294, Heo tht8 1) 20] Atm, tubers of edible. : 406 s . * . | ACORACER..es00......| L | L{ 1 (406 (406 406 406 (406 |. wo toe ae — Akoron of the ancients. 190 TYPHACEA.......cce0es 1 2 407 407 407 408 407 408 ' 408 | — | — recA Ketg “is PANDANACE%...... ont 2 1 408 408 : 408 eee eee eee eae . 9495.96. pes ag Screw Pine, Keora ee. _ {193 | ERIOCAULONEZ...| 19 | 1 5 |409 409 |409 |409 | — | — | 97, fig. 1. Eriocaulon Sollyanum — | 246.249. 194 RESTIACE sectesece | _ a 410 |410 mic — “he 410 dee ia oe, . eee — — eet! ea De aioe Common in pastures, and ‘ -|195 | CYPERACEZ. ......... (234 | 21 |149 [410 |410 [410 [411 |412 |412 | |. a Sala 5 a 231, ss eaten by cattle in India. Kaen 4 : rae ae Cyperus and Papyrus of the ancients. 131.206.232 Cultivation of nh ag — ogg vo 97. fig.3. Andropogon Calamus { eer ey y | fey, 08 ae gg ts ee 196 | GRAMINEZ............ 121 | 78 |856 415 415 |415 427 \a16 |4e4 larommatden 182.156.157. | 919.980.973. |/ Vitivayr, Sehienos, and Cala e : ¢ Hordeum ZEgiceras. oe 4 9-BU0, ~~ sot agra of the an- : Cultivation of Sugar. 197 | FILICES........00....... [483 | 18 |111 |427 [428 /428 |4a8 |ae9 429)... is 16.48.59. 198 | EQUISETACE®.....| 3} 1] 5 /430 430 [431 |4g1 431 | ~ 199 MARSILIACES® .2..} S| 11 1 431 431 481 | — 431 |)—| ee a os = ——— in Fossil SALVINIACEZ: ......} 2] 1] 1 |431 /431 /431 |431 |431 | — | LYCOPODIACEZ...| 37| 1] 9 |432 l4se |432 [ase ase | — CHARACEE .........| 6| 1| 2 (493 \498 493 | — | —| — 203 MUSCI es 15 | 84 /433 |434 [434 435 [434 | — 204 | HEPATICEE .........| 28 | 2| 8 436 436 \736 436 |4s6 | — ‘LICHENES . oeseccsecces 4 14 52 436 437 437 437 437 438 aoe . pean egciem tint soe eee eng sg. gece Indian Lichens as dyes. | FUNGI ....ssee.eeee2 | — | 9 | 39 |439 |489 |489 |499 |439 |440 |ALGE Ii | — | — |441 (441 | — [441 | — 441] Ow... a ele See ie -_- —_ Cure for Goitre. : re Conctust0w reeseeees — — _ —_— fp INTRODUCTION. In a work on the Botany and Natural Productions in general of the Himalaya Mountains, any reference to the Climate and Natural History of other parts of India may by many be considered out of place, but if we are desirous of observing the changes in animal and vegetable forms dependent on climate, it is necessary, before we proceed to notice the European types found on the declivities of the Himalaya, to take a cursory view of those found at their bases which are characteristic of India. This, though involving a consideration of some of the causes which produce a difference in climate itself, will have the advantage of exhibiting that the great diversity of soil and climate to be found in the British possessions in India, is capable of supporting almost all the natural productions of every region of the globe. Though the British possessions do not extend beyond 31° of northern latitude, India, according to its natural boundaries, stretches from 35° to 22°, with its peninsula extending to 8° of northern latitude, and from 67° to 95° of eastern longitude. Its extreme length from Cape Comorin to Cashmere is about 2,000 miles, and its greatest breadth from the bend of the Burrampooter to the mouths of the Indus must be nearly as great; but from its irregular figure, the superficial area is not estimated higher than at 1,280,000 English miles. It is bounded on the S.W. by the Indus, and on the N.E. by the Himalayan mountains, while the Indian ocean washes its two remaining sides: the whole forming a kind of irregular diamond figure, to which the island of Ceylon forms a pendent. From the southern portions of India approaching so near to the Equator, while its northern provinces are nearly in the latitude of the southern parts of Europe, we may form some idea of the great extent of territory, and be prepared to find great diver- sities of climate, and consequently of the productions of every kingdom of Nature, from its long extended coasts, washed by a tropical ocean, to the tops of its several ranges of mountains, among which, as among those of the world, the Himalayas _ Stand pre-eminent, whether we consider their extent or elevation, their diversity of climate or of production. As the form and slope of the country, the direction of the rivers, and the climate of the different parts, depends in a great measure on the direction and elevation of the mountain masses, as well as the soil on their mineralogical. composition, it is obvious, that before proceeding to other subjects, we should first obtain a general idea of the number and position of the several mountain ranges of India, and this may be b : conveniently vi INTRODUCTION. conveniently done, by taking them as they naturally form four separate ranges: first, the Western and secondly the Eastern Ghauts, which run parallel to the Malabar and Coromandel coasts; thirdly, the Vindyha range, which runs east and west across the central part of India; and, fourthly, the Himalayas, which form its north-eastern boundary. The Western or Malabar Ghauts extend nearly north and south from Candeish to Cape Comorin, or from 21° to 8°, and form a nearly unbroken chain, except at the chasm, nearly sixteen miles in breadth, which opens into the valley of Coimbatore, and through which the river Poonyani escapes into the sea. _ The western face of this range is much more abrupt than its eastern, and its northern parts less elevated than the southern, as the former seldom exceeds three thousand feet in height. Between 17° and 18°, the Mahabuleshwur Hills, giving origin to the different sources of the Krishna, and resorted to by invalids from Bombay, form a table-land of nearly five thousand feet; but between 10° and 15° N. there are peaks of granite which rise to five and six thousand feet. Mr. Babington, indeed, describes Bonasson Hill as being seven thousand feet above the sea; and Dr. Young, in his recent description of the Neelgherries, assigns eight thousand seven hundred feet as the height of the peak of Dodapet, situated between 11° and 12° N. latitude. It is at these hills, as Mr. Calder remarks, that the junction of the Malabar and Coromandel ranges takes place; for here the Neelgherries or Blue Mountains “ rise into the loftiest summits of the Penin- *“‘sula, and form the southern boundary of the great table-land, and the northern “* boundary of the remarkable valley of Coimbatore :” from the opposite side of which, the continuation of the united chains proceeds in one central = to the southern extremity of the Peninsula, with a gradually diminishing elevation.” : The astern or Coromandel ‘Ghauts, less elevated and less continuous than the Western, from which all the rivers flow” towards and through them, are at the same time more rugged and barren. « They may be said to diverge into a’separate chain from the Neelgherries, and to proceed northwards and eastwards, “ breaking into a succession ‘« of parallel ranges, and, after branching off into subordinate hilly ranges, occupying a ‘* wide tract of unexplored country, and affording vallies for the passage of great rivers: ** this eastern range may be said to terminate at the same latitude as that of the com- ** mencement of the western.” ‘Their elevation — the — of —— = is the highest part, is estimated at three thousand feet. ’ : : a These two ranges support between them a great extent of elevated table-land, of which the climate and productions differ from the belts of low land which intervene between the sea and the bases of these mountains. The rise of this table-land is on the west very abrupt, but its declension to the eastward is so gradual by a succession of distant terraces, so as not to appear remarkable. Like the mountains by which it is supported, the elevation of this table-land increases from north to south, being in Aurungabad and the Dukhun about eighteen hundred feet above the level of the sea, while many parts of Mysore attain an elevation of from two thousand ‘five hundred to three thousand feet, and rein Fs INTRODUCTION. Vii and ‘the table-land. of the Neelgherries. is’ about»seyen thousand, feet, whence the country again declines towards Coimbatore.; Colonel Sykes. informs. us, that inthe Dukhun, on the top of, the Ghauts, there,are numerous.spurs or ranges of. mountains extending to the E..and S.E., the.vallies between which are either narrow, tortuous, and. fissure-like, or wide and flat... This, observation, will, apply in ‘a great measure to the, table-land.in. general, which: is tether undulating than Binh and ‘covered with nume- rous smalleriranges of hills.'s © ons 6 yd bodyniei ban | nisl | Foattin This table-land, Beopasible. Senne the coast by various passes, “is aibiy the natives called _ Balaghaut, or country aboye the Ghauts, and thelowlands, Payin-ghaut, or country below the Ghauts. This, low country, stretching and gradually declining from the Ghauts to the sea, is in the Concan thirty-five miles in breadth, intersected, by ravines, which are traversed by small streams; in Canara the Ghauts.approach within «a few miles of the sea. In South Malabar the coast is low, much broken, and, like that of Travancore, distinguished by the peculiarity of being intersected by long narrow inlets of the sea,which run parallel with the coast, sometimes at the distance of a few hundred yards; at.others of three or; four miles, to which the numerous mountain streams. flow, and with which the sea communicates by six shallow openings, of which the only one navigable for ships, is that on the south bank of which Cochin ‘is situated... By this backwater a system of inland navigation is carried on, which is always safe, and, by artificially connecting approximating inlets, has been extended to nearly three hundred miles. The breadth varies from twelve and fourteen miles to two hundred yards, and the depth from many fathoms to a few feet. ‘‘ In other parts where there are none ‘* of these salt inlets, the lowlands on the sea coast within the downs are overflowed, “‘ and the fresh water stagnates and evaporates.” On the eastern coast of the Peninsula, the Carnatic presents along strip of tet land, and the plains of the Coromandel coast form a broad, though unequal belt between the mountains and the sea. The soil is in most, places described as being composed of either sand or gravel; in others of the debris of granite and. trap-rocks, and the alluvial deposits of all the rivers which descend from the table-land, some of them conveying’ much decayed vegetable matter from the extensive forests through which they flow. | Parts of | the Carnatic and Coromandel coasts are described as being composed of plains of marine sand, in which remains of oysters and cockles are found ; but these may have been of very recent origin, as the whole coast may formerly have been overflowed, as Cuttack is at the present day, whenever a great storm occurs, as was the case in May 1830, and again on the 3lst of Oct. 1831, when the inundation extended from Kedgeree to Cuttack, but its greatest fury was Spent in the Midnapore district, and on the unfortunate coasts of Kedgeree, Hidgelee, and Balasore. The large bunds (embank- ments) of those coasts, behind which a numerous population slept in fancied security, were suddenly overwhelmed by a tremendous wave, which swept away with resistless force every house and every article of property in the native villages, at the same time destroying the rice crops, all the cattle of an extensive tract of country, and a large b2 portion Vili INTRODUCTION. portion of the inhabitants. (Vide Mr. G. A. Prinsep’s Work on Saugur Island.) These tremendous storms were repeated in October 1832 and in May 1833, the last more severe than any of the former, when ships were left stranded on dry land, the whole country covered with water, and the wretched inhabitants, who had escaped drowning, were in danger of dying not only of hunger, but excessive thirst. (Vide Calcutta Courier, 25th May 1833.) The tract extending between the sea and mountains in Orissa or Cuttack, is a plain level country, undisturbed by a single elevation; near the sea-shore, marshy and woody; having much resemblance to the sunderbuns (or Delta of the Ganges) in its swamps and marshes, innumerable winding streams, dense jungles, and noxious vapours. The Chilka lake on this coast, is supposed to have been formed by an inun- dation of the sea. The third great range of Indian mountains is the Vindyha or Central Zone: of this it is difficult to assign the length, breadth, or thickness, as the geography of Central India is but imperfectly known. But if the map of India be examined, it will be observed, that the Ganges and Jumna, after their junction at Allahabad, take an easterly course, though they had previously descended in a south-easterly direction. This deflection is caused by the extension of the Sandstone-hills to Mirzapore and Chunar, and maintained by the projection of the central mass at Monghir and Rajmahl. From this it crosses the whole continent of India, in its broadest part from east to west, terminating in the mountainous country of Guzerat. By Mr. Calder it has been considered as uniting “the northern extremities of the two great ranges already described, which terminate nearly in the same parallel of latitude, forming as it were the base of the triangle that elevates the table-land of the Peninsula. This range has numerous divisions, and a multitude of names, almost every district giving a change of denomination: but to the eye of the geologist, who considers things on an extended scale, there is a parallelism in the different parts, and a general connection and dependence on the central range; the substrata prove this fact, for in every case they preserve that parallelism.” The Chandore and Gawilgurh ranges, running east and west between 20° and 21° of latitude, form the separation between the streams which flow towards the Bay of Bengal, and those which flow towards the Gulf of Cambay. They are elevated about three thousand feet, and the descent from both is rapid on the north towards the Poorna and Tapty rivers. The Satpoora range divides the latter river from the Nerbuddah, both flowing in a parallel direction towards the west. ‘On the north of the Nerbuddah, the Mandoo or proper Vindhya range rises abruptly, and supports the elevated table-land of Malwa, which is elevated about two thousand feet in the southern parts, declining gradually towards the north. Shaizghur, the highest point of the range, is said to be elevated two thousand six hundred and twenty-eight feet above the sea; but, though - Jittle explored, the high country around Omerkuntuc, in lat. 28° and long. 82°, must be supposed to be the most elevated tract of country, as such rivers as the Nerbuddah and Sone flow from it, the one to the west, and the other to the east, and others to the south. Numerous ramifications being given off from this central range, the whole of the country to INTRODUCTION. ix to the northward is of a hilly nature, including much table-land in Malwa, Rajast’han and Bundlecund, where the soil is rich and the climate mild. The country declines generally towards the north, and also towards the east, so that the rivers descending from the crests of the Vindhya range take at first a northerly course, and winding round the different elevations, or taking advantage of chasms in the table-land, proceed subsequently in an easterly direction to fall into the Jumna. The Aravalli range, for a knowledge of which we are indebted to the zealous researches of Colonel Tod, the able author of the Annals of Rajast’han, has sometimes been considered a prolongation of the Eastern Ghauts, and at others a ramification of the Vindhya range, with which it is connected towards Champanair. From the latitude of 24°, or near the insulated Mount Aboo, elevated five thousand feet, and which overtops them by fifteen hundred feet, the Aravalli Mountains run in a north-easterly direction, gradually diminishing in height, until reduced to low rocky hills in lat. 284°; in the neighbourhood of Delhi they reach the Jumna, and cause it to deflect from the south-westerly course, with which, like the Ganges, it had descended from the Himalayas, and take a south-easterly direction to reach the Bay of Bengal, instead of, as its original course would have carried it, to the Gulf of Cutch. Westward of the Jumna and the Aravalli range the country is flat, with but few hills, and gradually declining towards the valley of the Indus. - The soil is sandy, and covered with saline efflorescence; the water brackish, and far below the surface, so that the wells are from one to three hundred feet in depth. The ‘‘ Sand-hills of the desert” are soon reached, but the most interesting object in this arid region, as observed by Colonel Tod, ‘‘ is the salt river, the Looni, with its many arms falling from the Aravalli to enrich the best portion of the principality of Jodpoor, and distinctly marking that line of ever-shifting sand, termed, in Hindu geography, MJaroosthuli, corrupted to Marwar. The Looni, after a course of more than three hundred miles, terminates in the great salt marsh called the Rin, which is one hundred and fifty miles in length and about seventy in breadth.” This Colonel Tod considers as having been formed by the deposits of the Looni, and the equally-saturated saline deposits from the southern desert of Dhat. By Dr. Govan, it is described as a dead flat, hardly elevated above the level of the sea, and compared to an arm of the ocean from which the water had receded, as it is covered with saline incrustations and marine exuvie. | Besides this saline efflorescence and brackish water, this tract of country is remarkable _ for containing many salt lakes, which, by evaporation during the heats of summer, yield a tolerably pure muriate of soda, which is much used in the upper provinces. Many alkaline plants are also produced, which, when burnt, yield an impure carbonate of soda, exported in large quantities into the more populous districts of Hindoosthan. ~ Small oases and large towns are found in many parts of this desert, which is traversed in every direction, as we learn from Mr. Elphinstone and Colonel Tod. The northern parts of the tract westward of the Jumna must be excepted from the character of barrenness, as x INTRODUCTION, as Hurriana is celebrated for its pasturage grasses, and for the herds of cattle which it supports. The Seik country also is very fertile. The elevated land of Central India having on the N: W. the desert, is separated on the N.E. from the Himalayas by the alluvial plains of the great Gangetic valley. The valley of the Indus, stretching from the ocean to the foot of the Himalaya, must evidently, from .the slow winding course: of the river, be a very gradual slope. Its’ eastern apex approaches the western bank of the Jumna,as the streams.on that side, even in the vicinity of that river, flow towards the Indus, instead of into the Gangetic valley. Though the points where the Sutlej and Jumna rivers emerge from the hills are separated about eighty miles, the separating line of the two vallies is within, twenty miles of the latter, or just beyond the sources of the Sombe, which is known to flow across the direction of the Delhicanal. | | ‘atimel? The great Gangetic valley! stretches aling: the foot of the Snalees for shout, twelve hundred miles, parallel to the mountain range, from this point to the ocean, in the Bay of Bengal, varying in. breadth from eighty to two hundred miles, being at least the ‘latter at Agra, and not more than the former at Monghir, while near Delhi it is about one hundred miles; the contraction at both places being evidently caused by the projection of ramifications from the great central mountain mass of India. The elevation of this great plain or alluvial valley, varies in different parts from the level of the sea to at least one thousand feet near Saharunpore, which is within nine miles of the eastern bank of the Jumna, but so gradual is the slope, that the Ganges is every where a slow and winding river; and if perpendiculars be: raised at the latitudes of Saharunpore, Delhi, Benares, and Calcutta, and the ascertained heights one thousand, eight hundred, three hundred and twenty-eight, and fifty feet of these places be laid off on them, a straight line will nearly pass through all the points. | . The four great: systems of mountains, which, according to. Humboldt cover the valen of Central Asia, are—lst. The Altai; 2d. The Thian Chan; 3d. The Kuenlun; and 4th. The Himalayas; which are the most southern and western, forming the north- eastern boundary of Hindoosthan, and extending in a N.E. and §.W. direction from between Cashmere and Fyzabad, where they join the Kuenlun to Bootan, or from 35° to 24° of latitude, and from long. 75° to long. 90° E.; beyond this they extend through much unknown country, but may be supposed dividing into two branches, one forming the N.E. boundary of Assam, Ava, and terminating in the Malayan Peninsula; the other penetrating to the Chinese province of Yunan, opposite to which the island of Formosa may be considered the termination of the chain. The first portion is that only of which any part of the Natural History will be illustrated in the present work. Beyond Cashmere, and to the westward of the Belor range, the united chains of the Himalaya and Kuenlun form the range of the Hindoo-kho, which Humboldt regards as a continuation of the Kuenlun, though it is generally considered a prolongation of the Himalaya. In this case the latter would form a range extending nearly from the Line to INTRODUCTION. xi to 45° of latitude, and over 73° of longitude. But the recent journey of Lieut. Burnes and Dr. Gerard across the Hindoo-kho, between Caubul and Balkh, has shown, that in their rounded nature and secondary formations they resemble rather the mountains ‘to the northward of Kunawur, than the primary-structured Indian Himalaya. The Himalaya, Himmaleh, Himachal, or Snowy Mountains, remarkable for their extent, are not less so for their elevation, seen from Kurnaul near N. lat. 30°, or from Patna 5° more to the southward, and from both at a distance of about 150 miles, these stupendous mountains present over 153° of longitude a long line of snow-white pin- nacles, which, on a nearer approach, are seen towering above the dark line of lower, but still lofty mountains. Those which are seen at the greatest distance, being situated within the Chinese boundaries, and only approachable through the territories of Nepal, still remain unexamined, as the Goorkhas have adopted the Chinese policy of excluding all strangers from their kingdoms. Dhawalagiri, or the White Mountain, supposed to be situated near the sources of the Ghunduc river, in its early course called Salagrami, from many of the stones containing remains of Ammonites, is stated by Mr. Colebrooke, on a mean of the two nearest observations, to be elevated (allowing 4 for refraction) 26,462 above Gorukhpore, or 26,862 above the level of the sea; but (allowing at for refraction) 27,551, and from the mean of three observations, and with middle refrac- tion, the whole height is more than 28,000 feet above the level of the sea. Chamalari, near which, after traversing Bootan, and crossing the frontier of Tibet, Captain Turner and Mr. Saunders passed on their journey to Teshoo Loomboo, is the same mountain, in their opinion, which is seen from Purnea, Rajmahl, and other places in Bengal, the most remote of which is distant not less than 232 English miles. This, as Mr. Cole- brooke states, requires an elevation exceeding 28,000 feet to be barely discernible at so great a distance in the mean state of the atmosphere, though much less elevation may suffice, under circumstances of extraordinary refraction. Mr. Moorcroft was of opinion, that some of the peaks which he saw on his journey to Lake Manasarowur were elevated at least 30,000 feet: one of the surveyors in Kunawur, from the angles of altitude which he obtained from the crest of a pass elevated 15,000 feet, thought some of the peaks he saw to the northward could not be less than 29,000 feet, and more recently Dr. Gerard, from some observations at great barometrically-ascertained heights, inferred that some snowy peaks which he also saw to the northward could not be less than 30,000 feet above the level of the ocean. These latter are only mentioned in conjunction with the former, as indicating the probability of the highest pinnacles being still to be ascertained in the Kailas portion of the great Himalayan range. | 7 : Fortunately we do not depend upon these approximations only for a true estimate of the height of the Himalayan peaks. These mountains have been so carefully and scientifically surveyed from the Sutlej to the Gogra by Captains Hodgson, Webb, and Herbert, and with a bias apparently to take the lowest rather than the highest results which their observations gave them, that it would not perhaps be advancing too much to Xi INTRODUCTION. to say, that if they err, it is rather on the side of deficiency than of excess. Before proceeding to give, as cursorily as possible, the results of these observations, it may be premised that the great mass of snowy peaks of the Indian Himalaya attain their greatest elevation between the sources of the Jumna and those of the Kalee or Gogra, and that the range declines in elevation to the N.E. towards Cashmere, and also, as far as we have information, towards the S.E. The passes leading into Cashmere are stated by M. Jacquemont to be not more than 8,000 or 9,000 feet, and the flanking peaks, judging from what they are in other parts of the Himalaya, cannot exceed this height by more than 2,000 or 3,000 feet. Dr. Gerard, in his enterprising attempt to reach Ludak by crossing the mountains which intervene between it and Belaspore, found the passes, less than he had been accustomed to climb, a little more to the S.E., as, for instance, the Rotung Pass elevated 13,000 feet, below which the Bias or Hyphasis originates. The survey of Captains Hodgson and Herbert, comprising the tract of the Himalaya, included between the Ganges and Sutlej rivers, is more especially interesting, as the majority of the objects of Natural History, illustrated in the present work, are from the same tract of country. The survey commenced at Saharunpore, from the house called Belville, of the late R. Grindall, Esq., Judge and Magistrate of that station, which was found to be élevated 1,013 feet,* and extended to the snowy peaks, which add so much sublimity to the view on the northward of Saharunpore. A base line of 21,754 feet, or about four miles, was measured in the Deyra Doon, elevated 2,350 feet, and the first stations of the small triangulation formed on the hills, which rise to 3,286 feet, within five miles of the base line, whence they were extended to such stations as Budraj, elevated 7,510, and Surkunda 9,271 feet, 154 miles in a direct line from Deyra, both on the range which rises from and forms the boundary of this valley to the N.E. From these points the principal stations in the survey could be seen within a distance of from twenty to fifty miles, so that there was little probability of error, with excellent instruments in the hands of such practised observers in so clear and uniform an atmosphere. From the result of the survey, it appears that refraction is greater when one of the stations is in the plains, and the mean of all the observations stated to be —-1,; but when both sta- tions were.in the Hills refraction was found to be +;1;+ for heights varying from 7,000 to 14,000 feet. Although the elevation of the snowy peaks far exceeds the latter height, Captains Hodgson and Herbert say, “‘ we might safely take a much smaller rate than +, yet, to be within the mark, we will content ourselves with that quantity.” The low range of hills frequently separated from the true Himalaya by diluvial vallies or doons, such as that of Deyra, seldom attains an elevation of more than 3,500 feet, or 2,500 feet above the plains of Northern India. The principal passes across this range were 2,339 and 2,935 feet before they were cut down. The second zone of mountains, extending between these and the snowy range, vary in height from 5,000 to 8,000 * From my barometrical observations, Mr. James Prinsep calculated that my house in the vicinity of the ’ Botanic Garden, was as near as possible 1,000 feet—V. Journ. Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1. p. 2. INTRODUCTION. xiii 8,000 or 9,000 feet. Within this tract is the military station of Sabathoo, elevated 4,200 feet, many hill-forts, and the summer residences of Simla 7,486, Mussooree 6,700, and Lundour at 7,559 feet of elevation. Many of the mountains, however, included in it, much exceed the average height, as Surkunda 9,271 feet, rising immediately above the N.E. angle of the Deyra valley; Kedarkanta, the peak of the ridge separating the Tonse and Jumna rivers, was ascertained geometrically to be elevated 12,689 feet. Barometrical observations since made by M. Jacquemont give the height 12,756 feet. Changshill, separating the Pabur and Roopin rivers, is 12,871; and Uchalaroo, a peak of the ridge which rises between the Jumna and Bhagirethi rivers, is elevated 14,302 feet, or 2,500 above the limit of forest, and on which only a few patches of snow remain unmelted in the month of Sep- tember. Whartoo, connected with the Choor by a ridge which runs southerly, separating the waters of the Pabur and Tonse from those of the Giree (the only river of any note which does not originate in the snowy chain), is elevated 10,673 feet. The Choor, ‘‘ the highest central point in the lower belt of mountains, sending out ridges, spurs, and ramifications, in every direction,” is a conspicuous object from whatever point it is viewed, and being only 3° 25’ 05” to the westward of north, at a distance of sixty-one miles from the principal station, Saharunpore, in the plains, was admirably adapted for the second, or northern station. Its summit is upwards of 11,000 feet higher than the station at Saharunpore, or 12,149 feet above the level of the sea. The actual station is 10,676 feet higher than that at Belville. Respecting the difference of level Colonel Hodgson makes the very interesting remark, that by cotemporary observations with two barometers by Lieutenant Herbert on the Choor, and himself at Saharunpore, the result was only fifty-two feet less than the true geometrical height, which Colonel Hodgson is inclined to ascribe to chance; but it will probably be found another instance of his and Captain Herbert's extreme accuracy, as the mean of the barometrical observations which I made on the same spot, approach within sixty-two feet of the geometrical height 11,689 feet assigned to the station in the survey. The series of snowy peaks, forming what Colonel Hodgson calls the Southern or Hither Himalaya, and which separate the feeders of the Sutlej from the sources of the various branches of the Roopin, Pabur, and Andrytie, were found to be elevated from 16,982 to 19,512 feet, and the passes which from the river beds lead between, and are flanked by these peaks, from 15,000 to 16,000 feet. The three peaks of the mountain standing between the sources of the Roopin and Tonse were found to vary from 20,501 to 20,688. The Jumnotri Peaks or Bunderpooch Mountains, whence the Tonse (the largest river), the Jumna and Berai Gunga, have their rise, range from 20,122 to 21,155 feet of elevation. At Jumnotri, or the hot springs of the temperature of 194°, near the sources of the Jumna, Colonel Hodgson found the baro- meter stood at 20°48 inches, which, taking 30:04 inches for the level of the sea, gave him 10,489 feet as the height of these springs. Subsequent observers have given 10,500 - as their elevation, which is a near approximation. The bed of snow which covers the c " stream, xiv INTRODUCTION. stream, is here about forty feet in thickness, the steam from the hot springs melting all the snow which it reaches, dome-like excavations are formed early in the season, which have a very striking appearance when seen from within. The snow-bed is bounded to the right and left by mural precipices. About 500 yards beyond the springs, part of the base of the great Jumnotri Mountain begins to rise, and its face, cased in ice and snow, is visible to the height of about 4,000 feet, closing up the defile in which the Jumna originates, which is seen falling in a shallow rill about three feet wide from the rock, where this becomes abrupt. The Jumna is separated from the Ganges by a ramification of the Jumnotri cluster of snowy peaks, which was first crossed by Mr. J. Fraser in 1816; and then by Captains Hodgson and Herbert, at the Bamsaroo Pass, ele- vated 15,447 feet, over deep snow in August 1818; lastly by Lieutenant James Stephen, to whom I am indebted for many specimens of the rocks and plants from the neighbour- hood of this very interesting locality. In tracing the Ganges to its source, the Bhagirethi branch of this river was found, forming a junction at Bhairo-ghatti, elevated 8,511 feet, with its foaming rival, the Jahnavi. This, the larger stream, by which there is a pass to Tibet, has its source to the northward of the ridge, which bounds the Bhagirethi to the N.E. It forces its way through the Himalaya, about three marches above Bhairo-ghatti. Beyond the snowy range its course appears to be N. 70° Ex, while that of the Ganges is considerably to the S. of E. above Bhairo-ghatti. It is not until it reaches Sookhee, that the Ganges, forcing through the snowy peaks within which it has been produced, assumes a course of about S. 20° W. By barometrical observation, the elevation of Gungotri, first visited by Mr. J. Fraser in 1816, was ascertained to be 10,319 feet. Beyond this Captains Hodgson and Herbert reached a very extensive snow-bed, and bivouacked at 11,160 feet of elevation. Next day, ascending the course of the snow-bed, they reached an elevation of 12,914 feet, and finding a piece of level ground, a primary base of 319 feet was measured, and with it a longer base of 667°2 feet obtained; the heights of three peaks, St. George, St. Patrick, and the Pyramid, were then found to be 9,326, 9,471, and 8,052 feet above the station, or 22,240, 22,385, and 20,966, above the level of the sea. Here Colonel Hodgson, justly “ struck with seeing so near these peaks which viewed from the plains of Hindoosthan, inspire the mind with ideas of their grandeur,” exclaims ‘‘ how much more must they do so when the whole bulk, cased in snow from the base to the summit, at once fills the eye! It falls to the lot of few to contemplate so magnificent an object as a snow-clad peak rising to the height of upwards of a mile and a half, at the short horizontal distance of only two and three-quarters miles.” Beyond this, or at an elevation of 13,800 feet, they found the Ganges issuing from under a very low arch, from which great hoary icicles depended, at the foot of the great snow-bed, here about 300 feet in thickness. ‘They still proceeded for some thousand paces up the inclined bed of snow, which seemed to fill up the hollow between the several peaks which Colonel Hodgson called Mount Moira and the Four Saints, geometrically ascertained to vary in height from 21,379 to 22,798. On the N.E. of the sources of the Ganges are two peaks, Roodro Himala and Surga INTRODUCTION. XV _Surga Rooer, which are still more elevated, being 22,390 and 22,906. These approach the lofty mountains in the neighbourhood of Kedarnath, measured in Captain Webb’s survey. This survey is not less interesting than the former, embracing the space included between the Bhagirethi branch of the Ganges on the N.W., and the Kalee river, which separates the British from the Nepalese territories on the S.E.; tracing the sources of the latter river, as well as of the Aluknunda branch of the Ganges, and extending from the plains of Rohilcund to the snowy passes: the whole embracing a space of about 10,967 square miles, which constitutes the present province of Kemaon. Proceeding from the plains of Rohilcund, where Captain Webb ascertained Pilibhit to be elevated 560 feet; and Casipore, further to the north, on the same inclined plane (v. p. x.) 757 feet; the first range, through which there are several passes, is found elevated 4,300 feet; and the second, or Ghagur range, between 7 and 8,000 feet. In the interior, the mountains are of less height, but the peaks from 8,000 to 9,000 feet in elevation. Serinuggur, the capital, being in a valley, is found to be not more than 1,708 feet, if ascertained by cotemporaneous observations at Paoree, but 1,834 feet, if compared with the barometer at Calcutta. Paoree itself is 5,238 feet from the mean of numerous observations. Hawulbagh is 3,976; Almora 5,400; Pethoragurh 5,462; Lohooghat 5,562. Nearer the snowy peaks we have the temple at Chundur budunee 7,427 feet if compared with Calcutta, 7,389 if with Paoree (7,666 in-map.) The temple at Kedarnath is 11,753; that of Budrinath 10,294; of Milum 11,682; and Pilkonta churhai 12,620 feet. The mountain masses and snowy peaks have. been arranged into several groupes by Mr. Colebrooke, and as this mode will best serve the general purposes of this abstract, they are here enumerated. First, a cluster extending from Kedarnath to Budrinath presents six peaks, varying in height from 22,130 to 23,441, and three contiguous ones from 19,178 to 21,683. Secondly, in a group of still loftier elevation, in the district of Juwahir, four peaks rise from 22,385 to 25,741 feet; the latter, the Juwahir peak, is the highest point ‘in the surveyed portion of the mountains. Two contiguous ones on the west are 20,758 and 15,805, and a multitude of positions towards the east have been measured, and found to be from 10,653 to 12,228 feet. In the third group on the westward of the Dhoulee river, leading to the Darma Dhoulee Pass, the loftiest peak is 22,707 feet high, encompassed by four others, towering from 18,066 to 21,511. Between this and the Byans Pass, three peaks were measured, varying in height from 19,171 to 21,222, and two others nearest to the pass, of which the highest is 22,513. On the S.E. of the Byans Pass, there is a peak 19,929, followed by others of less elevation, which lead to a fifth group of lofty peaks, of which the most elevated is 22,799 feet, followed by others declining from 22,310 to 20,995. The loftiest of this fifth group is distinctly visible from Pilibhit, as is the highest of the third cluster, and the southernmost of the second group. Their heights, as determined from the result of several measures by Captain c2 Webb, xvi INTRODUCTION. Webb, are 22,799; 22,707; and 22,385. One of these, as observed by Mr. Colebrooke, is no doubt the mountain which was observed by Colonel Colebrooke from his stations, Pilibhit and Jethpur; and the mean of his observations, calculated with an allowance of =}; of the intercepted arc for terrestrial refraction, gave 22,768. The loftiest of the second group (No. xiv.), commonly called the Juwahir Peak, was seen by Captain Webb from Casipore: it is also distinctly visible from Saharunpore, and had its position, as well as a fewothers, determined by, and afforded unexceptionable means of joining the two surveys. Captain Webb gives 25,741 as its height, the observed height of Casipore being 757 feet.* In Colonel Hodgson’s survey, 25,749 feet is given as the height of the same peak; that-of Saharunpore having been ascertained to be 1,000 feet above the level of the sea. To the S.E. of this survey there is a considerable tract of unexplored mountainous» country, before we come to Cathmandoo, where Colonel Crawford, in 1802, by careful observation, ascertained the distances of several selected points from various stations in Nepal, of which the relative situations were ascertained by a trigonometrical survey, proceeding from a base of 852% feet, carefully measured four times, and verified by another base of 1,582 feet, measured twice. The positions of the same mountains were also settled by observations made in the plains of Behar. The mountain, called Dhaibun, distant 35$g. ms. seen under an angle of 5° 4’ 21”, was found to be elevated 20,140 above the station from which the angle was taken, and which is itself more than 4,500 feet above the level of the sea; another exceeds the elevation of the same station by 17,819; another by 20,005; another by 18,662. The height of Gos- sainthan is marked 24,740 feet in Dr. Wallich’s Map. All these are visible from Patna, the nearest being nearly 170 English miles distant, and the furthest about 226 miles. Still further to the eastward, the continuation of the Himalayan range, which bounds Assim on the northward, still presents a long line of snowy peaks. Some in 28° of N. latitude, and between 924° and 93° of E. long. are mentioned in Lieutenant Wilcox’s Map, as varying in height from 20,720 to 21,600 feet; and the Himalayas are continued to beyond 98° of E. longitude. | | Though extensive tracts of the Sicendans 3 remain unexplored, the uniform result of every observation, and many of them within twenty miles, establishes the great elevation of the Himalayan chain; so that, Captain Herbert, speaking only of the surveyed portion * For the corrected heights here given of Casipore, and of the snowy peaks included in the Kemaon survey, which however correspond with those given in the large 4-inches to a mile-map, which has been published of this survey, I am indebted to the kindness of Captain Webb, who originally estimated the height of Casipore above the level of the sea, before any observations had been made, at 650 feet ; but subsequently found this estimate to be too low. The mean of a month’s observation, in Feb. 1818, with excellent barometers, gave 748 feet, and the mean of nearly another month in January and February 1819, gave 766 feet, as the difference of height between Casipore and Mr. Colvin’s barometer in Calcutta; the mean 757 feet has been taken at the height of Casipore, and as this exceeds the first estimate by 72 feet, this number requires to be added to all the elevations geometrically deduced, which were published in the 13th vol. of the “ Researches of the Asiatic Society.” Some addition still requires to be made for the height of Calcutta above the level of the sea. INTRODUCTION. Xvil portion of these mountains, has justly observed, that ‘‘ whilst in South America there is but one peak, Chimborazo, which exceeds 20,000, and not more than five which are about 18,000, there are no fewer than twenty-eight peaks in the Himalayas which overtop Chimborazo, one of which is above 25,000 feet, forty-four which exceed the three next of the American elevations, and more than a hundred which tower above the next in height ; facts more satisfactory, as proofs of the superior elevation of these mountains, than the greater loftiness of an isolated summit.””* From the foregoing observations, the great length and enormous height of the Hima- layas are evident ; but to form a true estimate of these mountains, it is necessary also to take into consideration their breadth. This is supposed to be greatest in the vicinity of the lofty peaks near which the great rivers have their rise ; but as the whole extent has not yet been surveyed, this can only be considered as conjectural. Crossing from the plains of Hindoosthan to the snowy passes, the distance is not less than 80 or 100 miles: the superficial extent of that portion comprised within the British terri- tories, is estimated by Captain Herbert at 23,000 square miles. In no part is there any thing like table-land to be found; but seen from the plains of Northern India, the Himalayas seem formed of a succession of parallel ranges, though nothing of this kind is apparent when we enter the mountains themselves; for in ascending any of the principal points, a number of arms are seen radiating in every direction, separating deep ravines, connecting the different mountains together, and throwing the waters of the several rivers in opposite directions: but notwithstanding this irregularity, the ridges generally run parallel to the direction of the mountain mass; for in proceeding transversely across it, we have constantly a series of ridges to ascend and descend, and narrow vallies to cross; In the bottom of these generally flow the rivulets collected by the various ravines from the surrounding peaks and ridges. At the foot of the Himalaya there is generally a longitudinal valley, but in the neighbourhood of the snowy passes, as the Messrs. Gerard have remarked, the glens are for the most part perpendicular to the range, or from N.N.E, and N.E. to S.S.W. and S.W. The face exposed to the N.W. is inva- riably rugged, and the opposite one, facing the S.E., shelving. The great rivers also may be observed making their way across the direction of the range; they may therefore be supposed to have taken advantage of natural breaks in the range, rather than to have been able to open a way for themselves through this great mountainous mass. The deficiency of level space the industry of the inhabitants has in a great measure supplied by cutting the slope of each mountain into a series of terraces, supported in front by dry stone walls, as is done in China. By this means, and from the diversity of climate, the agriculturist is enabled to cultivate rice near the beds of the rivers, * These remarks were made previous to our being informed that Mr. Pentland had measured some peaks"in the Andes, which were more elevated than Chimborazo; as the Cerro Nevada de Illimani 24,350, and the Cerro Nevada de Sorata 25,250 feet above the sea, both in the Eastern Cordillera of Bolivia: but as these are still only isolated summits, Captain Herbert's inferences apply with nearly equal force, particularly as a multi- tude of peaks, extending over several degrees of latitude and longitude, are not included in his estimate. - xvili INTRODUCTION. rivers, where the broadest levels are naturally found, and wheat and barley on the different elevated terraces of the mountain sides. Notwithstanding this general want of vallies, those of Nepal, p. 28, and of Cashmere, p- 27, form striking exceptions. Smaller ones, as of Noakote to the northward of Nepal, and Rama Serai on the 8. E. of Kedarkanta, may be mentioned, besides the longitudinal vallies at the plainward base of these mountains, which will be more fully treated of, with their geological structure. From the numerous transverse breaks by which the great rivers make their way to the plains, and towards which are inclined the various slopes and ravines which collect the streamlets from all the neighbouring mountains, few situations occur favourable for the formation of lakes ; many therefore are not met with; that of Cashmere, commonly called Dul, is best known: one called Bheemtal, of considerable depth, occurs on the road from Bhamouree to Almora, of which the length is about one mile, and the breadth about five furlongs, with an elevation above -the sea of 4,271 feet. To the northward of Nahn there is another called Ruenka tulao, which is also about a mile in length, and a gun-shot across. It is remarkable for con- ‘taining crocodiles. : The river-beds, besides giving exit to the drainage of the mountains, and affording ‘spaces for cultivation, serve also as entrances for penetrating into the Himalaya, and reaching the passes (v. p.32) by which travellers are enabled to cross from one face of these ‘mountains to the other. The first notice we have of any of these being crossed by an European, is that of the Jesuit Antonio d’Andrada, who set out in 1624 from Agra to Serinuggur, and thence proceeded to Budrinath, whence with great difficulty he crossed into Tibet. More recently the Neetee Pass‘was crossed by Messrs. Moorcroft and Hearsay ; the Shatool, in 1816, by Colonel Hodgson; the Gonas Pass, in 1819, by Captain Herbert; and the first, as well as the Byans, and other passes measured by Captain Webb, in 1816. Among the other adventurous travellers, the Messrs. Gerard require particular mention as second to none in energy and enterprize. Besides the Paralassa 16,500, and the Rhotung Pass 13,000, below which the Acesines and Hy- phasis have their rise, and which were traversed by Dr. Gerard, little is known of the passes, except in the surveyed portion of the Himalayan Mountains. To the westward of Shatool Captain Gerard enumerates three passes, Julsoo, Khealig, and Soongree ; but these are from 2,000 to 4,000 feet below the line of congelation. From Shatool to Budrinath no less than fifteen passes are enumerated by the same officer. These are ‘generally from eighteen to twenty-four miles in length, forming shout three stages for loaded people and two for those who are not so. ‘3 Shatool... 15,555 Rol to Atharabees, 14, 5. Neebrung 16,035 miles without fuel, open | 6. Gonas ... 1.05} From Choora to Sungla. : from June toNovember. | 7. Ghasool 15,851 2. Soondroo 16,000 Tangno to Rasgranee. _ 8. Roopin... 15,480 Doodrookoom to Sungla, 3. Yooso ... 15,877 Joonglee to ditto. an easy pass. 4. Broang... 15,171 Jungleeg to ditto, seven | 9, Nulgaon 14,591 Ditto to ditto. 0 miles without fuel, open | 10. Charung...17,348 Chitkool to Cheerung. seven or eight months. ll. Bunga INTRODUCTION. xix 11. Bunga Hiehew: Single, ‘Bakehurt,..avd 16. Sugla......... Chitkool to Boorasoo of 44) Lavwhere.: Chitkool to Lewar of Gurhwal, Gurhwal. 13. Marja)... like 5, 6, and 7, are crossed The first nine are across the S. Himalayas, the 14, Seenga . in different months ; 17 is the | rest from the Buspa into Gurhwal. The last seven easiest ; open from May to Dec. | are crossed by loaded sheep, but none of the first 15: Wise < Chitkool. to. Lewar, in May, | seven. June, and July. The rivers which. have their sources in the snow-beds, from under which they gene- rally flow out in a stream, and. of which the lower limits are about 13,000 feet of ele- vation in the south-eastern entrances of these passes, are the Andrytie, below the Shatool Pass, where the snow commenced in June, at 13,450 feet of elevation; the Pabur, below the Broang Pass, at 12,914 feet; the Roopin, below the Gonass Pass, nearly at the same elevation. The Buspa is on the northern face, and has a feeder from the last-mentioned pass, nearly at 14,000 feet of elevation. There are many other feeders of the above rivers, which it is unnecessary to particularize. The Tonse, the Jumna, and Berai Gunga, have their origin near the great Bunderpooch cluster of mountains; the first at 12,784; the second at 12,489; ahd the Jumna at about 12,000 feet. The Bhagirethi branch of the Ganges has already been mentioned as _— its origin at 13,800 feetiof elevation. The passes to the eastward: are fewer in number, but more elevated. The Bhotea tribes, of whom we have an interesting account from Mr. Trail, in the 17th volume of the Asiatic Researches, inhabit:'the space which extends on the north from the com- -‘mencement of the table-land of Tibet, : to the plainward base of the southern row of Himalayan peaks. The villages are-all on the northern face of these; and the country being more level, as indicated’ by the better roads and more moderate currents, as well as by the hills sloping more gradually and being enclosed between high mountains, heat is reflected from every side, and the temperature raised much above what would be supposed at.such elevations, Spring, summer, and autumn, are comprised in five months, from May to September. These passes cannot be visited before the middle of June or beginning of July, as even that to Budrinath isnot open before the beginning of May. By the commencement of October the cold becomes severe. Roads of communication exist, as Mr. Trail informs us, between the passes from east to west, but these are passable during a few days only in each year, and are considered dan- gerous by the Bhotias themselves. The crest only of these passes can now be visited, as every one is prohibited from crossing the frontier, for fear of exciting the jealousy of the Tibetan authorities, and disturbing the trans-Himalayan trade of the province of Kemaon. The passes are five in number. The Mana and the Neetee on the Saras- wati, and the Doolee branches of the Ganges. The Neetee Pass was ascertained by Captain Webb to be elevated 16,570 feet ; and the Mana estimated not less than 18,000, as a barometrical observation by his assistant, Mr. Tate, gave 17,172 feet as the height of Jograo, which is considerably below the Pass. Juwahir, Darma or Lebong, and Byans, are the three other passes on the Gouree, Dhoulee, and: Kalee rivers, branches of xx INTRODUCTION. of the Gogra. Mr. Trail gives 16,585 feet as the height of the Juwahir, and 17,777 as that of the Darma Pass. Captain Webb ascertained that the Mandarin’s camp, in the Byans Pass, was elevated 14,506 feet, and that the crest was about 3,000 feet more elevated. Captain Herbert, from the barometrical observations of a traveller who visited the Pass, computes it to be elevated 16,844 feet above Calcutta. To the eastward of the province of Kemaon, there must be many passes between the territories of the Chinese and those of Nepal; but the jealous policy of both powers has prevented their being visited by those qualified to make interesting observations. The pass between Lahassa and Catmandhoo was crossed by the Jesuits, Grueber and Dorville, in 1661, and is probably that by which the Chinese army invaded Nepal in 1792, when it ‘‘ advanced to Noakote, within twenty-six miles of Cathmandoo, and sixty of the ” British territories in the province of Bengal.” The road and passes between Teshoo- loomboo and Bengal were traversed by Messrs. Turner and Saunders in 1783, and the natural appearances described exactly coincide with those subsequently observed -by Messrs. Moorcroft and Gerard, in the more western parts of the same elevated tract. Many other passes are cursorily mentioned in Dr. Buchanan’s account of Nepal, which are probably of easy access, as we read of their being crossed by bodies of men. Some of these lead by the chasms through which such rivers as the Gunduck, the Arun, the Kosi, and the Teesta, which having their origin on the northern face, pass through the Himalayas, and take a south-easterly course to join the Ganges. Further to the S.E., and more recently, Messrs. Bedford, Wilcox, and Burlton, have attempted to cross from Assam into Tibet. In tracing the Burhampooter, and its several feeders, the diffi- culties were in every case considerable, but none were so insurmountable as the prejudices of the natives, who prevented their further progress at the very time when their object was almost accomplished. Crossing the Himalayas, the descent on the side of Tibet, according to the con- current testimony of all travellers, is gradual, and not of great extent, though the ascent up the southern face had been so considerable ; it is evident, therefore, that the land on the northern face is much elevated. It was traversed by Captain Turner in his route to Teshoo-loomboo, and by Moorcroft in his journey to Ghurtope and Lake Manasarowur; but as neither of these travellers carried barometers, we are unable to ascertain the elevation with the precision which is desirable. Captain Webb, from the angle which he obtained from the crest of the Neetee Pass, of the Sutlej flowing in the plain below, and taking the distance* measured by Mr. Moorcroft, which he had generally found to be correct, estimated the height of the table-land at 15,000 feet. * These distances having been given in paces of four feet, it has been objected that a man being employed to stride these, instead of stepping his usual paces, must have been a source of error. But the fact j is, that according to the native mode, only one foot was counted, so that each step taken by the Pundit was only half the quantity generally supposed, and what a man would naturally take in a hilly country. This fact I learnt from Captain Hearsay, who was one of the party, and protracted the route. It has been long known to Captain Webb. who is well satisfied with the general correctness of Captain H.’s Map. INTRODUCTION, XX feet. The Messrs. Gerard, in crossing the Keubrung Pass, which is reckoned the boun- dary between Kunawur and that part of Chinese Tartary which is under the authority of the Grand Lama of Lahasa, descended on the more western parts of this elevated land, and found Zamsiri 16,500 feet above the sea; but they saw only gently sloping hills and tranquil rivulets. Zinchin, the furthest point they reached, is 16,136 feet, and the eminences in the vicinity rise many hundred feet higher. In every direction horses were seen galloping about, and feeding on the very tops of the heights. This elevated plain is described as being of a gravelly nature, intersected by deep and broad ravines. Though the rivers on the southern face of the Himalaya, Mr. Moorcroft observes, are narrow and steep, those on the northern face have broad flat channels, the water draining into them more slowly from the table-land, and the more gradual and gentle slope of the hills. Looking to the south, the Himalayas were seen marked with snow in stripes ; on the north the snow lay in distinct masses on the Cailas mountains, the bases of which descend by easy slopes and diminishing swells. Further to the N.W., and beyond the hilly tracts of Kunawur and Kooloo, Dr. Gerard pitched his tent on the table-land of Tartary, nearly at 16,000 feet of elevation, where the Indus, at the distance of only three days’ march, intervened between him and Ludak. The appearances here are similar to those described by Mr. Moorcroft and by Captain Turner. Everywhere along the whole tract we have extensive plains, having on them moderate sized hilis and gently flowing streams ; a dry, cold, and clear atmosphere, little snow in comparison, arid-looking vege » tation, and numerous flocks of cattle. This table-land is not continuous, but interrupted by transverse ridges, which join the Indian to the Cailas or Tibetan range of the Hima- layas. : Of these ranges, one locks in the lakes Manasarowur and Rawan-hrad, as well as the sources of the Sutlej and Indus on the N.W.; and on the 8.E. gives origin to the Sampoo or Burhampooter. This, flowing parallel to the Himalayan chain and on its northern face, over the lofty table-land of Tibet, breaks through another transverse range before it descends by numerous rapids to the plains of Assam, where it is at first known by the name of the Dihong, but joined by numerous tributaries, it assumes that of Brahmputer or Burhampooter, which it relinquishes in the plains of. Bengal for that of the Megne, where uniting with the Ganges, near the sources of which it had arisen ; their united streams flow into the ocean, in the midst of the numerous islands which themselves have formed. The Indus and Sutlej originating on the northern face of the great chain, which on its southern aspect gives rise to the Ganges and its feeders, flow first in a north-westerly direction; the former over the high land of Little Tibet, until north of Cashmere, in 35° of latitude it breaks transversely through the mighty mass of Himalayan Mountains. Here, passing Attock, and forming the N.W. boundary of Hindoostan, it enters the sea by thirteen mouths, and is navigable for 1,000 miles for vessels not requiring more than twelve feet of water. The Sutlej, supposed to take its rise from Lake Rawan-hrad, flows at first parallel to the Indus, but then, encountering the transverse mountainous mass interposed between Great and Little Tibet, and d extending XXii INTRODUCTION. extending from the Himalayas to the Indus, descends from the table-land, and entering chasms in the mountains, passes through the province of Kunawur, v. p. 34, to the southern face of the Himalayas, with a gradually decreasing elevation of its bed from 10,005 at Shipkee, to 5,200 near Wangtoo, to the S.W. of which the snowy mountains terminate ; whence to Roopur there is a further fall of 4,000 feet to about 1,100, the ele- vation of the river, where it enters the plains of India, distant about eighty miles from the Jumna. As theelevation of these rivers is much the same, both gradually declining to the sea, the distance by which they are separated not too great, and the country consisting of level plains, it is not unreasonable to hope that they may one day be joined by a canal navigable for boats, by which the produce of Central Asia might be conveyed down either the Ganges or the Indus, and that of other parts of the world conveyed up the same rivers. One striking peculiarity of Central Asiais the lakes by which it is covered. Of these, Manasarowur has excited particular interest on account of the anomalous nature of the information, first communicated by Mr. Moorcroft. He described it as being fifteen miles long, and about eleven broad, and as having no streams issuing out of its northern, southern, or western sides, nor on its eastern, according to the accounts brought by two natives, whom he sent to examine the point. Captain Herbert also learnt from a Lama, who lived within four days’ journey of the lake, that no rivers issued out of it. Other testimonies contradict this evidence, and it is difficult to ascertain the truth, as it has been thought an improbable circumstance that a mountain-lake, fed by such vast snows, should dispose of the waters pouring into it by mere evaporation. Lake Rawan-hrad, supposed to give origin to the Sutlej, but which Mr. Moorcroft had not an opportunity of examining, he estimates to be four times as large as Manasarowur. Though we are not likely to have any direct testimony on the subject at present, it is interesting to find that Dr. Gerard records a similar set of phenomena, as characterizing Lake Chimororel, along which he skirted on his return from his attempt to reach Ludak. This he found elevated 18,000 feet, and in travelling along its shores found its whole circum- ference embayed by mountains, which on its N.E. shore entered the region of snow only at 19,000 feet of elevation above the sea. Neitherthis, nor another lake, which Dr. G. met with, had any exit, thus confirming the information given by Mr. Moorcroft respecting Manasarowur, on this point. He also found, at the time (July) he visited this lake, that its waters were much below its maximum of elevation; as the dry channels of water-courses, and the highest water-marks upon the shore being nearly five feet higher, made it probable that these lakes attain their maximum of elevation in spring, when “‘ returning warmth breaks up the frozen surface, and thaws the immediate snow.” Dr. G. further remarks, that if we consider the dryness of the climate, and the increased evaporation in so rarified an atmosphere, the phenomena are not so unaccount- able as they may appear to be at first sight. As instances of the aridity of the atmos- phere, he mentions, that frost is not visible upon grass, even “ though the thermometer ‘* be at zero, and that the traveller beholds ice permanent and unthawed in a tempera- ** ture INTRODUCTION. XXiil ‘ture of 50°, and torrents frozen fast in a medium almost 20° above the freezing *¢ point.” Beyond this elevated table-land rises the lofty snowy range, which appears to over- top even the Indian Himalayas. This has been already mentioned at p. xi., as the Cailas or Kailas portion of the Himalayas, and is sometimes called the Tibetan Hima- layas, and is that in which probably the most elevated peaks, as Dhawalagiri, &c. remain yet to be more accurately measured. That there is such a range would appear probable, even if we had no evidence on the subject, by considering that the Indus flowing N.W., and the Burrampooter 8.E., both retain a course parallel to the Hima- layas, instead of proceeding eastward towards the lower levels of the greater portion of China. The portion of this range which separates the valley of the Sutlej from that of the Indus, near the sources of these rivers, was crossed by Mr. Moorcroft on his way to Ghartope. At Zinchin, elevated 16,136, the most eastern point which has been reached by visitors proceeding from Kunawur, the Messrs. Gerard saw a lofty snowy range, which seemed to run N. 60° W. to 8. 50° E. beyond the rounded mountains, which are seen across and to the eastward of the Sutlej. One of the surveyors (pro- bably the late Capt. Gerard) who has been already mentioned, states, from the crest of the Hungarung Pass, he saw in font a granite range, upon which the snow found a resting place only at 19,000 feet ; beyond it, through a break, were seen snowy moun- tains, appearing to rise out of the table-land on the banks of the Indus, “‘ pale with distance, and like the memory of something that we have seen.” From the angles of altitude which he observed, their pale outline, and the broad margin of the snow, he estimated that they could not be less than 29,000 feet in elevation. Dr. Gerard, in his visit to lake Chimororel, near the most westerly point he was able to reach on this elevated tract of country, remarks, that looking southward towards the Spiti, the land- scape appeared very sharply peaked, and in clusters of white tops; but in the N.E. the mountains were of a vast contour, and the snow more uniformly defined. The three preceding pages, having been in type ever since the previous parts were published, might now be greatly extended, as much interesting information has been obtained by the travels of Mr. Vigne and of Dr. Falconer, still further to the N. W. than was reached by Dr. Gerard; but as this would require considerable space, I confine myself to a few points. Mr. Vigne (who resided much in Cashmere, crossed the Indus, traced a part of i its course, and attempted to do so with the Nobra branch, visited Astore and Iskardo), has favoured me with a small collection of plants, which I will take some future opportunity of noticing. With respect to the Passes into Cashmere, he informs me, that though some are not more than 9,000 feet high, others are elevated as much as 12,000 feet. Speaking of the lakes, he says that Cashmere is full of them; the principal is called the Wullur lake or dul, and is thirty miles from E. to W. The most extraordinary is the Kosah nag, among the peaks of Peer Punjal, which is above the region of birches, and about three-quarters of a mile in length, has two outlets, but both are underground, one towards the plains and the other towards the valley. Baron Hiigel, J.A.S., March 1836, states, that the passes from Bimbur to Cashmere, and from this to Iskardo, are the same in height—13,000 feet. The highest point of the Peer Punjal is 15,000 feet by the boiling point. The city of Cashmere (Srinuggue), is 6,300 feet above the sea. Lat. 34° 22’ 58”, long. 75° 12” 30”. : The Mountains of Tibet are usually at much the same elevation: that is, from 15,000 to 16,000 feet: but from any open summit, several mountains are seen that rise far above them, as Nanga Parbat, or Diarmal, d 2 3 which XXiV INTRODUCTION. which Mr.V. conceives to be 18,000 or 19,000. From the summit of the Passes between Ludak and Nobra, the Muztagh presents a most noble appearance, and Mr. Vigne thinks that the Hindoo Koosh may be said to be joined to the Himalaya of Tibet by the Laureh Pass between Chitral and the valley of the Dair ; that which joins the Kabul river at Hashtnagur, or the valley of Peshawar : Vide Journ. As. Soc. Calcutta, Sept. 1837 ; Proc. of the Royal Asiatic and of the Geographical Society, for November ‘1839. Mr. V. also informs me that there is no snowy range connecting the Muztagh with the Spiti mountains, but that there are a few isolated peaks of great altitude that rise above the others ; and there certainly is a break inthe Himalayan chain, if this may be called one, as he has distinctly seen it, both from Acho and the Passes to Nobra. Dr. Falconer, in travelling north from Cashmere, crossed the lofty ridge which separates the drainage of the Krishna Gtnga from that of the Indus. He crossed the Pass over extensive beds of snow, and descended through a steep and narrow gorge to Sookarun Murbul, a bleak rocky tract abounding with Tibetan Marmot. The great plain called Bearsah or Deosah, also described by Mr. Vigné, constitutes one of the principal features of the Tibetan region near Cashmere. Elevated 13,100 feet above the sea, and surrounded by lofty snowy peaks, it forms a nearly level plateau, about fifty miles in length and forty in breadth, occupying the interval between the Indus and the Krishna Gunga. High above the forest, or birch region, its vegetation is restricted to herbaceous species and a few dwarf willows, but these are so abundantly produced as to clothe it with verdure. At one extremity of this, he ascended the Boorgee Pass, the summit of which he found to be elevated 15,600 feet above the sea. This commands an extensive view of the mountains which stretch beyond the Indus towards Toorkistan, and of part of the immediate vicinity of Iskardo ; they looked down upon a level tract below, and countless lines of mountains running off into the remote distance ; but there, no signs of vegetation were visible; sterile sand and naked rugged rocks met the view on every side. Dr, F.'crossed the Indus, with the object of pushing north in the direction of the Muztagh range (Kuenlun of Humboldt), which separates the valley of the Indus from Chinese Tartary, and proceeded to Askolee in a Pass which leads from Little Tibet towards the Muztagh, in N. latitude 35° 30’, and reached the limit of cultivation; all beyond, on to the Pass across the Muztagh, was reported to be a region of ice. On returning, on the 30th of August, he crossed the Braldoh river, whence the road led over the lofty mountain of Skora, which was crossed at 16,200 feet above the level of the sea, while a pass between Iskardoh and Astore was 15,822 feet. With respect to the vegetation, Dr. F. writes me, under date of January and June, 1838, from Cashmere, whither he had proceeded on a Botanic mission in connexion with Sir Alex. Burnes’ Expedition, that “ The Flora of the Punjab is exactly that of the neighbourhood of Delhi; Peganum Harmala everywhere, with Cap- paridee, Crotolaria Bushia, Calotropis Hamiltonii, Alhagi Maurorum, Tamarix, Acacia modesta, &c. &c. Near Lahore I got what I believe to be a new Asclepiadeous genus, exactly intermediate between Calotropis and Parotropts, which I have called Eutropis. It is in great abundance in the Punjab. I met with the Dhak (Buteafrondosa) as far as the western bank of the Jhelum. The Flora begins to change at Rawul Pindee, which is elevated and continues so, on to the plain of Chuch, along the banks of the Attock. Here I first came on the famous Zuetoon, the wild olive, Olea ? and further on, at Hussan Abdal, I found Himalayan Rubi and a Cashmere Dianthus, white flowered and new to you. The lower part of the plain of Peshawur is sandy, and has exactly the Flora of the arid tracts of the Punjab; Salsolas, Chenopodee, Alhagi, Calotropis, Peganum, Tamarix, &c. But when we got to Peshawur, so much do the seasons differ, that peaches were _ coming into fruit the 15th August, and the Kurreel (Capparis aphylla) out of flower only lately. From Pesha- wur, I made an excursion to Cohaut, and from thence to the Salt Hills and the valley of Rungush. In the Salt Hills I got a Stapeliaceous Asclepiad, unfortunately neither in flower nor fruit, very probably one of Wight’s Carallumas or Boucerosias. Also the Cassia obovata, the Egyptian senna, in flower. I had previously got the same plant from near Delhi: no doubt about the species, certainly not the odtusa of Roxb.; the legumes always crested over the bulge of the seeds. From Attock, I made an attempt to run up the Indus into the hills ; I got on three marches, and was forcibly stopped at Durbund, and threatened with rather rough usage. I then turned across the hills, and rejoined Capt. Mackeson in the noble valley of Huzara. The vegeta- tion along the banks of the Indus, from Attock to Durbund, surprised me much. It is quite that of the charac- teristic forms of the Deyra Doon, and, taking difference of latitude and altitude into account, with the great distance westward, this might not have been looked for: Grislea tomentosa, Rottlera tinctoria, Hastingia coccinea, Acacia Catechu, Holostemma, &c. On the banks of the Indus, in the valley leading up to Cashmere from Huzara, I found the Dodoncea Burmanniana. You remark, in your notice of the Sapindacee, its absence from the Bengal and Hindoostan region ; its occurrence with a leap so far north is remarkable. From Huzara, we marched on by the military road to Mosufferabad. Near DrumberI came on the Hovenia dulcis. At Mosuffe- rabad I got ona high ridge, and followed it on to Cashmere, where we arrived early in October. It was now too INTRODUCTION. XXV too late in the season to exhaust the Flora of the valley and neighbourhood, so I made up my mind to winter here, and made a fresh start in spring, It would take pages to describe what I have observed about the Flora here, late as I came, but I have made many acquisitions. «The Flora of Cashmere has several anomalies : few, if any oaks descend on the northern side of the Peerpunjal into the valley ; I have not seen one yet. I have selected oaks as a very characteristic type. The same holds with respect to the plants that are associated with the oaks, &c. about Mussooree, as Andromeda, Rhododendron arboreum, Mahonia nepalensis, so common in the Hills elsewhere. The Conifere are, as to the eastward, 3 pines, 2 or 3 firs and Deodar, but I have not seen theCupressus torulosa, the lofty cypress of the Mussooree hills. In the lake you see Nelumbium and Euryale ferox, growing along with Menyanthes trifoliata ; and cotton, a poor sort, growing on the banks, while the sides of the bounding hills are skirted with pines. I got Staphylea Emodi growing along with Rides Grossularia (your Himalense?) while it grows, as you know, at Mussooree, on low slopes near Budraj. « Among Ranunculaceae, I have got species of Hepatica, Ceratocephalus, and Callianthemum, all of which 1 believe to be new, and making up the very blanks you notice in your ‘Illustrations.’ Of Callianthemum, I have no knowledge, besides your quotation, but my plant has leaves with umbelliferous habit, eight white strap- shaped clawed petals, with the nectariferous pore high up on the claw, and a pendulous ovulum. It cannot, therefore, be a Ranunculus, nor your R. pimpinelloides. Further, I have got a new Ranunculaceous genus, new unless Jacquemont has got it, having the habit of Trollius in its leaves and mode of inflorescence, eight herba- ceous sepals, twenty-four strap-shaped petals, plane, with no fovea at the claw, and solitary transversely attached ovula, being neither pendulous nor erect. It forms a transition from Adonis to the Ranunculee. This is another blank filled up in the desiderata so pointedly mentioned by you. I have called the genus Chrysocy- athus. It grows intermixed with Trollius, ‘inter nives deliquescentes,’ and till 1 examined it I took it for a Trollius. Ihave got a new species of Adoxa, forming, I believe, the second of the genus A. inodora (mihi), a larger plant than the A. Moschatellina, and with the lateral flower 12-androus, and six segments in the flowers. I have also a new Epimedium, a large handsome leaved herb, E. Hydaspidis (mihi), and two species of Alche- milla. Fritillaria imperialis, the Crown Imperial of English gardens, grows wild in the shady forests of Cash- mere. ‘The Cashmerees regard it to be unlucky, and grow it only near musjids and over graves. Ihave Dodonea brought to me from above Jummo, in the heart of the hills, growing along the banks of the Chenab. Fothergilla involucrata (mibi), belonging to the Hamamelidee, exists in vast abundance in Cashmere, forming whole tracts of low jungle ;—strange that it should not have been brought before, either to you or to me. It occupies the place that the hazel (Corylus Avellana) does in England, and at a little distance does not look unlike it. Thus, Hama- melidee are found at opposite ends of the Himalaya range, Bucklandia and Sedgwickia in Assam, and Fother- gilla in Cashmere, but none of the family have yet been met with in the intermediate tracts. Prangos pabularia I have found in vast abundance in several directions, most so on Ahatoong, a low trap hill, in the valley, but it is not here so vigorous a plant as in its Tibetan habitat. The Cashmerees do not know it for any useful pur- pose, except as a plant highly prized by Europeans. They sometimes use the roots to destroy worms, by steep- ing them in Dhan fields as Calamus aromaticus (dutch) is used in Hindoostan.” With respect to the Amomum and Koot, or Costus (v. p.360), which I had requested him to inquire about, he writes: «‘ Amomum, Humama, or Amamoon, is not known in Cashmere, nor to be had at the Punsarees. Koot is exported from Cashmere. It is a plant of the natural family of Composite, and grows on all the mountains surrounding Cashmere.” Dr. F. has formed it into a new genus,— Costia, and has introduced the plant into the Himalayas. He concludes: “I have already seen enough to convince me, from a trip to near Durass, on the Thibet frontier, that the Flora there will bear a close resemblance in many general relations to that of the Altai re gg shown ein Lede- bour and yourself.’”— Proceedings of the Linnean Society, Feb. 19, 1839. GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. Havre noticed the extent and physical features of the Indian empire, we might proceed to describe the materials of which its mountains and its plains are composed, as well as the soils produced by their disintegration. But the most cursory notice of the Geological features of so extensive a field would. require more space than can be allotted to the subject ; the Author must, therefore, confine himself to the part with which he is best acquainted, and which can be elucidated by his specimens and observations, which have attained some,value from the kindness, as stated in the Preface, of his friend Mr. De la Beche. But the sections can only be considered as giving a general idea of the dip, direction, and nature of the formations met with. The sections of the Himalayas correspond with that given, as far as it goes, by Dr. Falconer, in his Report on Tea cultivation, though he informs me that mine are erroneous; in the parts near the Snowy Peaks, where the Author relied for his information on Capts. Herbert and Hodg- son, as, instead of consisting of gneiss, they are formed by one of the grandest outbursts of granite in the world. The sections of the Central range of India, from Sherghatty to Roghonautpore, formed by Mr. De la Beche, from the Author’s specimens and observations, correspond with that previously pub- lished by the Rev. Mr. Everest, in 1831, in the third volume of the Gleanings of Science. The great Gangetic valley consists of an extensive plain, which is very gradual in its slope from Saha-_ ‘runpore to the Sunderbunds, v.p.x. The structure is not easily detected, from the universal flatness, and the horizontal nature of the depositions, while water being near the surface, wells, the only works, reveal only a few feet in depth below. The surface soil is generally sandy, with a varying proportion of clay, which predominates in the substratum, and is in most places sufficiently pure for making bricks. Calcareous particles are intermixed with the soil and substratum in most parts. ‘These in many places assume the form of spongy cavernous nodules: in some the form of stalactites or of roots, and are then apparently of modern origin ; in other places they are in masses sufficiently large to be worked and used as a building stone. But the nodular appearance is the most remarkable, especially from the nodules being so abundant in some places as to cover the soil, and give the appearance of the surface being covered as if with a fall of large hail-stones. This forms the extensively diffused Kunkur formation of India. In Calcutta, in deepening a tank, a group of full-grown trees were found standing erect, and appa- rently lopped off, three or four feet above the roots. In boring for water, rubbish and mould were first met with, then sandy clay, and, at twenty feet, a vein of pure sand, the source of the common springs of wells. Blue clay, with sand,—then black, above a stratum of peat; with pieces of wood, that of the Soondree, and at sixty feet, Kunkur nodules; reddish well-sand at seventy-five feet, whence the river 3 springs rise. Clays and sands, with some Kunkur, are found below this: a quicksand at 120 to 1386 feet ; and at 176 feet, quartzy sand and granitic gravel; and from 350 feet below the surface of Calcutta, the auger brought up a fossil bone, which is figured in J.A.S. for March 1837. At _ Benares, Mr. Prinsep, in cutting a tunnel and sinking shafts, found, fifteen feet below the surface, a = rere 2: half-quarried stones of a large size, on what he conceives must formerly have been the level of the ground ; at thirty feet, some kunkur was met with. At Saharunpore, in digging a well, after | ten feet, coarse moist sand was found, mixed with round pebbles, chiefly of quartz, and about twenty feet | feom the surface, pieces of kunkur or tufaceous limestone, were raised, together with dicotyledonous wood, apparently of veg of the Conifere. At Bihut, twenty miles north of Saharunpore, Capt. Cautley dis- - covered the site of an ancient town seventeen feet below the present surface of the country. The Indo- GEOLOGICAL FEATURES or tuzr HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. XXVli Indo-Scythic Coins which had been entombed in this oriental Herculaneum, Mr. Prinsep refers to the commencement of the Christian era. Capt. Cautley is of opinion that the enormous discharge of sand, clay, and shingle from the lower hills during the periods of the rainy season, are gradually causing a rise of the country skirting their base, and to this and the action of wind on sand, he ascribes the inhumation of this ancient city. The structure of the plains may also be seen in the raised hills which skirt the base of the Himalayas, and the banks of the Jumna afford a very interesting series of sections, of which the structure may be treated of either with that of the Gangetic valley or of Central India, as some of the peculiar formations of the latter seem to extend even to the beds of that river. Proceeding from the plains of India to ascend the Himalayas, we every where meet with a lower range of hills, which have been variously denominated “the Lower Hills, the Sandstone, Sub-Himalayan or Sewalic Hills.” These hills, in many parts, rest immediately upon the Himalayas, but in others are sepa- rated from them by a series of longitudinal valleys. The part with which the Author is best acquainted is the direct road from Saharunpore to Deyra and the Himalayas, through the Kheree pass, which is the broad, generally flat, stony bed of a hill stream, ascending by degrees to the crest of the pass, now much cut down, but from which there is a gradual descent to the valley or Doon of Deyra. Along this pass flows in a winding course a small stream of very clear water. On either side, and about fifty yards apart, arise the hills, and, according to the windings of the stream, are seen sometimes sloping, sometimes abrupt ; in the former case, covered with vegetation, in the latter, presenting a barren and precipitous display of their stratified structure. These strata dip to the N.E. or towards the Himalayas, at various angles from 20° to 38°, and the hills display every variety of appearance, partly from the destroying effects of water on so destructible a material, and partly to this being sometimes defended from its influ- ence by a covering of a boulder stone. They are formed by a succession of parallel ridges, abrupt towards the plains, and sloping towards the Himalayas. In many places, each hill, if separated, might be repre- sented by a right angled triangle, the base resting on the pass, the perpendicular facing towards the S.W., and the hypothenuse sloping towards the N.E., and corresponding in dip with the strata. This side is sometimes continued to the level of the pass; at others, ano‘her hill, with its perpendicular side, seems to arise from the middle of the last, and is itself, in like manner, succeeded by a third, forming a succession of abrupt and sloping sides, like the teeth of a saw. At Hurdwar, the sandstone character is complete, and the rock is sufficiently hard to be used as a building stone. About fifty or sixty feet were cut through to make a road between the river and the hills, by Capt. De Bude, of Engineers, at the back of whose house, on the Hill, rolled stones might also be seen lying upon the sandstone. These hills are composed of a series of clays, of a loose-grained sandstone, with much mica interspersed ; beds of gravel and rolled stones, which consist of the debris of every variety of rock: as granite and trap-rocks, limestone and clay slates, gneiss, micaceous and hornblende schists; in fact, of all the rocks of which the Himalayas are composed. Carbonate of lime is interspersed throughout the formation, form- ing stalactites and encrusting leaves, &c. Carbonate of soda is also found effloresced in many situa- tions. In some moist situations the boulders are sometimes so soft, that quartz crumbles in the hands more easily than a piece of sugar. : The gravel and boulders found on these hills are very extensively diffused. They are abundant in the series of longitudinal vallies which are bounded to the S.W. by the Sand-stone range, and on the N.E. by the Clay-slate formation of the Himalayas. These have been enumerated by Capt. Herbert as the Mokowala or Ropur, Pinjore, Kyarda, Deyra, and Patle, all between the Sutle} and the Gograh, and eee ae again, that of Chetuan, which lies to the north of Bettiah. They are from twenty to twenty-five milesin length, and of variable breadth, the widest being about fifteen miles. They have two outlets for their — drainage, and their highest level is usually near the middle. The surface is level or undulating, inter- — sected by ravines, or river beds; the rock is seldom seen, except on their boundaries. The soil of the. - XXVill GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF Deyra Valley, in most of the uncleared parts, as well as in many of those long cultivated, is intermixed with these rounded pebbles and boulders, which are also found at great depths. In the well dug by the Hon. Mr. Shore, they were brought up from two hundred and fifty feet ; but I observed that those from the greatest depths were angular, and composed of clay-slate and limestone similar to that of the nearest, or Mussooree range; but like the shingle of the Sandstone range, or that found in the beds of rivers, they are usually composed of every variety of rock. Though so deep in the centre of the valley, the debris thins off towards its extremities, where the sandstone is seen underlying the beds of shingle ; these boul- ders are also found filling up the vallies of the great Himalayan rivers, as those of the Ganges, Jumna, Tonse, Pabur, where flat terraces of considerable extent, sometimes cultivated, may frequently be seen, composed chiefly of great masses of boulders, with gravel and sand, with the river flowing at some depth below the flat terrace, and through which it appears to have cut its way. These exactly resemble the boulders in the channels of the rivers, or those found in the longitudinal vallies, or on the Sandstone hills, and may be traced, but smaller in size, to considerable distances: that is, to twenty or twenty-five miles in the plains, as may be seen in digging wells. They would be displayed in the same way as the Sandstone, or Sewalic range, if any portion of the present plains were by any means to be raised from their horizontal into an inclined position. This Sandstone range may be traced along the plainward base of the Himalayas, from Roopur, on the Sutlej, to the foot of the Siccim Hills, in lat. 263° long. 883°, where it was recognised by Capt. Her- bert, in his trip to Darjiling. Dr. Buchanan, in entering Nepal in long. 85°, describes the Hills as com- posed in general of clay, intermixed with various proportions of sand, mica, and gravel, disposed in strata, either horizontal or dipping towards the north, at an angle less than 25°, and that incrustations are abundant, from the deposition of calcareous matter, also lignite. The prolongation of these Hills from the Kalee to the Sutlej, or from long. 803° to 763°, has been minutely examined by Capt. Herbert, when employed on the Mineralogical Survey of the Himalayas, and their structure found to correspond with what has been described, and lignite found throughout. The dip is usually to N.E.; at Chikoom S.W.; but between Chilka and Dikoolee the beds are almost horizontal. At Hurdwar and Chandnee- puhar, on opposite sides of the river, the strata dip in opposite directions. On the N.E. side of the Deyra Valley, in ascending to Mussooree, by Beejapore, I found the sandstone dipping S.W., at an angle of 25°, and at Kalsee sandstone is also observed dipping to the S., and gradually passing to a dip E. by N. Capt. Cautley has observed, that though we may, on a large scale, lay down the dip and direc- tion with accuracy, the former as varying from 15° to 35°, and the latter from N.E. to S.W., local details give very different results, and that near Nahun the mass of mountains have been upheaved from a variety of centres, as if the upheaving power had been exerted irregularly over the face of the district. He has observed a section which gives an anticlinal point under the village of Derria, on the Murkunda river. My observations also give irregularity of dip in the mountains in the vicinity of Nahun. The elevatory force does not any where appear, by which these hills have been raised from the hori- zontal position in which they must have been deposited, into their present inclined one; but Dr. Falconer and Capt. Cautley have both seen appearances of trap in the neighbourhood of these disturb- ances. My specimens and observations indicate its vicinity on the northward of Nahun; also in the vici- nity of Khalsee, and in the ascent to Mussooree by Kuerkoolee. The nearest points to the southward where indications of trap are seen, are in the bed of the Jumna, and one of these is alluded to by Col. Sykes (Proc. Geol. Soc. Jan. 1832), when tracing the trap formation to the north, which I observed in a small island called Oudhar, below the village of Kuttea, and about three or four miles higher up the river than the Seeta Puhar, and about thirty miles above Allahabad, and therefore near Mhow, which is twenty miles below Murka, the two localities where volcanic rocks have been noticed by Mr. Dean, in the Journal of the Asiatic Society. These THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS XXix These hills have, however, in the last few years, attained great celebrity, from their containing one of the most extensive deposits of Fossil remains, which has any where been discovered, and which have been made public by several officers of the Bengal Army, whom I am proud to call my friends: as Dr. Fal- coner, my successor at Saharunpore ; Capt. Cautley, Superintendent of the Doab Canal; Lieuts. Baker and Durand, of the Bengal Engineers, in a series of excellent Papers in the Researches and Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and in the Transactions of the Geological Society of London. To the two former, this Society, the fountain of Geological honours, awarded two Wollaston Medals, in Feb. 1837, for their discoveries in Fossil Zoology, especially as displayed in their description of the Sivathe- rium giganteum, a huge Ruminant, which, they conceive, serves to fill up the blank which has always intervened between Ruminant and Pachydermatous quadrupeds, for it combines the teeth and horns of the former with the lip, face, and probably proboscis, of the latter. Lieuts. Baker and Durand are entitled to hardly less credit, for their Papers on the Fossil Horse, Hyzena, Bear, &c., and for having had the skill to detect, and for being the first to have the boldness to publish, in their Paper in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta for November 1836, the discovery of Fossil Quadrumana. This was two months previous to the presentation, on the 16th January 1837, to the Academy of Sciences at Paris, of a Memoir, by M. Lartet, respecting the discovery of the lower jaw of an ape, in the tertiary fresh water formation of Simorre, Sansan, &c. in the department of Gers, in the south of France, and at the foot of the Pyrenees, and which in its genera so closely resembles that of the fossil Sewalik Hills, found, it is curious, in the district of Sirmore. These dates are adduced, because Dr. Buck- land, in the Supplementary Notes to his Bridgewater Treatise, has announced M. Lartet as the first dis- coverer of Fossil Quadrumana. It is highly creditable to the Bengal Army that the only four officers in that part of the country should each and all have so highly distinguished themselves, in a science foreign to the pursuits upon which they are employed by the Indian Government, but which they have treated so as to merit the applause even of those who have made Fossil Zoology the business of their lives, v. Mr. Lyell’s Address to the Geological Society in 1837. The discovery of Fossils in the Sewaliks is recent, and its history easily traced; but it is difficult to ascertain who first discovered them in any part of the Himalayas. The Gunduck has long been known to bring down Fossil Ammonites, which are called Saligrammi, and are much esteemed by the Hindoos. The Fossils represented in the upper part of Plate 3, from the elevated Jand on the N.E. of the line of Snowy peaks, have also been long known in India by the name of Bijli ke har, or Lightning Bones, being employed by the natives in medicine. Capt. Webb and Mr. Traill were probably the first to bring them to the notice of the public ; the specimens figured are from the collection of the Geological Society, having been presented by Mr. Colebrooke, to whom they had been sent by those gentlemen. The fossil shells figured in the lower part of the same Plate, are due to the researches of the late Dr. Gerard, who, I believe, first discovered them in the elevated valley of the Spiti, N.W. of Kunawur, though the date when, is not well ascertained ; several, however, were figured at Calcutta in the Gleanings of Science for September 1831, where Capt. Herbert’s paper on the Geology and Fossils of the Himalayas is published. _ These fossils are all from the northern face, beyond what may be considered the true Himalayas. Nothing had then been discovered on the southern aspect of the mountains, with the exception of some at Caribari, in the small state of Cooch Behar, on the banks of the Brahmaputra, which were noticed by Mr. Colebrooke, in his account of the Geology of the N.E. border of Bengal. But this point was so remote from the parts of the Himalayas usually visited, that it was long before it was discovered that they formed a true clue to the nature of the formations at the base of these mountains. The Author also, in December 1831, discovered some fossil fragments on the banks of the Jumna, which, though at first doubted, were afterwards proved to be such by chemical analysis, v.J.A.S., p. 457. Abundance of e oa xxXX GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF fossils have since been discovered there by the engineers employed in improving the navigation of the Jumna: v. papers by Capt. E. Smith, and by Mr. Dean, J. A.S. i, p. 622, iii., p. 302, iv., p. 261. Dr. Govan, in September 1831, discovered some Himalayan limestone which bore the impression either of a reptile or of one of the crustacea, which has not yet been described, but with this exception, nothing had been found on the southern face of the Himalayas, or from the Plains to the Snowy Peaks, and yet diligent search had been made for fossils in the Sewaliks themselves, but chiefly from the Kheree Pass to Hurdwar, by Capt. Herbert, and by Mons. Jacquemont at Nahun and in the Kheree Pass, as professed geologists ; by Capt. Cautley and the author in their occasional visits to the latter and to Hurdwar. Capt. De Bude of the Engineers, when cutting down the rock at Hurdwar, and the shingly summit of the Kheree Pass, had been requested to look out for any appearance of fossil remains ; and one of the officers of the Engineers, who has since distinguished himself in such discoveries, almost threw himself upon what he con- ceived to be a deposit of fossils, when the police officer who is stationed near the head of the Kheree Pass came up and informed the party that a camel had died there in the previous year. Lignite had been discovered here, and described by Capts. Herbert and Cautley. To this the author projected a visit, before leaving that part of India, with Dr. Falconer; but, as time was wanting, the latter went alone, and “returned loaded, not only with lignite, but with noble fossils of the monsters of the deep ; bones of crocodilidse, fragments of the shell of large turtles, and a fragment of a bivalve shell as large as an oyster.”——Journ. As. Soc., i. p. 97,—as announced by the author in some notes read to the Asiatic Society in February 1832, when he was led to inquire whether those fossils did not probably belong to the same formation as those discovered by Dr. Wallich and Mr. Crawford on the Irawady. No further progress seems to have been made until April 1834, when Dr. Falconer picked up the shell of a fossil tortoise in the Timly Pass; Capt. Cautley immediately proceeded to the Kaloowala Pass, where he had discovered the lignite in 1827, when Dr. F’. recognized a bone, and in the course of the digging, they found teeth of crocodiles; shells of tortoises; teeth, apparently of squalus; and bones and teeth of a pachydermatous animal, apparently Anthracotherium, v. Plate 3, fig. 4to 15. The lignite lies between two -beds of marl, or clay conglomerate ; and in the upper of them the remains were found. Lieut. Durand, in September 1834, met with this marl, or clay conglomerate, on the north face of Nahun, with tortoise, Saurian, mammal, and fish remains. 3 But this discovery was eclipsed by that of the more extensive and important deposit of remains of fossil mammalia on the same range of hills to the westward of the Jumna, to which the duties of the Canal officers often led them. Attention was directed to this by Lieut. Baker having had given him, by the Nahun rajah, the fossil tooth of an elephant (Elephas primigenius) which had been picked up at Sumro- tee, near the Pinjore valley. Lieut. B. proceeded to the Ambwalla Pass, on the western side of the Jumna, — _— a large bone of some huge animal ; Capt. Cautley, with his characteristic zeal, immediately S05 Lieuts. Baker and Durand ; when they carefully examined the ravine and slip, and brought away 7 upper strata of sandstone seven fragments of bone, some of very large elephants, and the tibia, apparently, of a camel. A thin bed of blue clay, or blue marl, underlying the sandstone,.and dipping at an angle of 20° to 80°, was found full of fresh water shells, as of Planorbis and of Paludina, v. Journ. As. Soc., we: La Specimens were also procured from other parts of the range, proving that from the Jumna to = Pinjore valley these mountains abound in fossils; and, in March 1837, Dr. Falconer announced ene ue Ta iW i a | province of Kemaon. Since then, the progress of discovery * Though the Author refers to the Journal of the Asiatic Society, &e. as showing the publication of the information, yet he = chiefly from letters addressed to him by Capt. Cautle i resen ‘ " y, and which are those referred to by Mr. Lyell in his i i Wollaston medal, in 1837, to the Author, to be forwarded to Capt. Cautley and Dr. Falconer. oe ee THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. XXXi has been rapid, and is fully recorded in the works quoted. A more particular account of the localities, with sections of the mountains, is given by Capt. Cautley, in his paper read to the Geological Society (9th March 1836), and published in the Transactions, 2d Series, vol. v., p. 267, to which I gladly refer, and have only to give a brief enumeration of the genera and some of the species which have been dis- covered in the Sewalik hills. Capt. C. states particularly, that to the westward of the Jumna these hills are less abrupt; gravel beds are less frequent and abundant, and they are composed of varieties of clay-slate, and quartz, which can be traced to the neighbouring and nearest mountains. He distinguishes the lower marl strata from the upper sandstone beds ; the fossils of the former are figured in the middle of Plate 3, and those of the latter in Plate 6. List of Fossils found in the Sewauix Rancr, by Messrs. Fatconer, Cautiey, Cotvrx, Baker, and Duranp. QUADRUMANA. Three species of Quadrumana, v. Messrs. Baker and Durand, Jour. Asiatic Soc. Calcutta, Nov. 1836, Tab. 6, fig. ; Messrs. Falconer and Cautley, J.A.S., May 1837. One allied to Semnopithecus. PACHYDERMATA. M. latidens, Clift. Ticsliies cmaeionien, Mastodon i are se | —Elepha nivides, Clift. angustidens Fiippopotannis sivalensis, F'.& C., v. Tab. 6, fig. a. b. Rhinoceros sivalensis, F.& C., v. Tab. 6, fig. 4, a.b. dissimilis, F. & C. | Anthracotherium silistrense, v. Tab. 3, fig. 12—15. Anoplotherium posterogenium, F. & C. Cherotherium, F.& C., sivalense, F. & C. _ Rhinoceros angustistrictus, F. & C. Sus, (sp. undetermined). | RUMINANTIA. Sivatherium, F. & C. Cervus, '(sp. undetermined : numerous). giganteum, F.&C., v. Tab. 6, fig.1, Antilope, (sp. undetermined : numerous). Rise Dig iin Ms Bos, (sp. undetermined: 1 new section in the genus), Camelus (sp. undetermined : two undoubted). v. Tab. 6, fig. 5, a. b., and fig. 6, a. b. i . _ SOLIPEDA. Bas § Sivalensis F.&C. ¥- hl Me mn Boe _ CARNIVORA. a 7 Felis, (number, and character of species, eoletivinined), Hyena, Gages undetermined). Cats. Amyxodon, F. & C. Canis, (species undetermined). : — sivalensis, F. & C. Indications of other Genera. | 5 einer ae as ae RODENTIA. Hystrix, one, (sp. undetermined). Castor. Mus, (species undetermined). Lutra. | ea | XXXIl GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF REPTILIA. Ghurial, (Gavial of Naturalists), or Emys, (several species undetermined). Leptorhynchus gangeticus. Trionyx, (several species undetermined). Crocodile, (Muggur of Natives), or Megalochelys, F.& C. Crocodilus biporcatus, v. Tab. 3, fig.'7 to 9. ——_———_— sivalensis, F’. & C. The head of a very large Crocodile. PISCES. Heads, vertebrae, and scales, &c. of unknown genera and species. Teeth of Squalus, v. Tab. 3, fig. 4 & 5. Tongue of Raya? v. Tab. 3, fig. 6, being the only appearance of marine remains. TESTACEA. Univalves and Bivalves, chiefly undetermined, but apparently — Unio, Cyclas, Cyrene, Paludina, Planorbis, Helix. For detailed descriptions of these Fossils by the above gentlemen, see Asiatic Researches, Calcutta, 1836, Vol. xix., Part L., and Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 35, Vol. iii., p. 527; No. 45, 46, 48, Vol. iv., p. 495, 565, 706; No. 49, 53, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60, Vol. v., p. 38, 291, 294,486, 579, 661, 739, 768, as quoted by the Editor of the Transactions of the Geological Society, Second Series, Vol. v., p. 278. The Geological system of the Himalayas is extremely simple in the line of the sections, which are about fifty miles apart, and have been constructed from the Author’s specimens and observations, com- mencing from the plains in both, extending to Kedarkanta in the one, and to near Shalma in the other. The formations may be treated of under the heads, Ist, of the Stratified, and, 2d, of the Unstratified rocks. The Stratified rocks consist of Clay-slate, with Limestone imbedded in, or alternating with it, and surmounted by a Quartz conglomerate, often called in India Greywacke or Grauwacke. Clay- slate continues for some time, and this is succeeded by Micaceous and other Schists and Gneiss. The Unstratified rocks consist of Trap-rocks and of Granite. Srratiriep Rocxs—The Himalayas, between the Ganges and Sutlej rivers, like the Sewnlika, present towards the plains abruptly steep fronts, and a comparatively gradual slope in the opposite ‘direction, from the strata dipping towards the north-east. As this is frequently repeated, we have a succession of steep ascents and sloping sides, with a deep valley intervening between two successive ridges, in which usually runs a small river, flowing either towards the Ganges or into the Jumna, or their feeders, or into those of the Sutlej. The drainage of these great rivers is everywhere separated by transverse ridges, which connect the parallel rid ges, having the points of junction often projected into peaks, (v. p. xvii). By proceeding along these ridges, we may penetrate far into the interior, without having occasion to descend into the valleys; but the mountain paths usually take the direct course, and we have thus a succession of ridges and of vallies to cross, and to experience great vicissitudes of climate, as well as a repetition of the geological structure and of the animal and vegetable forms which are dependant on this and on the climate. The plain-ward face being thus abrupt towards the south-west, has the solar rays falling on it more perpendicularly, and therefore experiences greater heat and dryness. The strata dipping towards the north-east, also produce, from their disintegration, a greater accumula- tion of earth on that side, while the springs following the natural slopes are more frequent on the north- eastern than on the south-western face of these mountains, and therefore the vegetation of the two sides varies much more than would be anticipated by any one who had not observed the difference (v. p.16). Cray-State.—In ascending the Himalayas, between the Ganges and Jumna, Clay-slate is invariably met THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, XXXiil met with, of great variety of colour as well as of texture, and in many places most remarkably con- torted, as at Rikikes, &c. below Surkunda Debee. In the ascent to Mussooree it is soft, variously coloured, and crumbling into small quadrangular pieces. At Mutrogh, below Budraj, near the spring which supplies water to the village, it may be seen of a fine texture, blue colour, nearly perpendicular, and easily splitting into large slabs, is used as roofing slate. It may be seen of a still finer quality, and in still larger slabs on the ascent to Choor. In many places, nodules of quartz are seen imbedded in clay-slate, and in some places this is found passing into micaceous schist. Copper is found in it, in the neighbourhood of Khalsee. LimEstonr. — In the ascent to Mussooree, alternating with the clay-slate, we find Limestone, usually compact and hard, but often honey-combed and cavernous, bluish in colour, passing to grey, whitish and chalk-like in some places, and becoming in others even black. It occurs first at Jureepanee, and then at the top of the range; it is also met with at Sahunsudhara, alternating with clay-slate and dipping east. It is found also in the Suen range, in the Kaphnul valley, as well as in that of the Riknal, and very conspicuously, and of enormous thickness, and overtopping the clay-slate, at Deo- bund. It is not, however, found constantly alternating with the clay-slate, even in the range which intervenes between the Jumma and Ganges rivers, as it is wanting near Budraj; also between Lan- dour and Surkunda, though very abundant in the neighbourhood of Dhunoultee, one of the places which the Author recommended as an excellent site for a Sanatarium. The Limestone, though in such enormous, apparently amorphous masses, is rather partially diffused, when compared with the Clay- slate. Sometimes it is harder, and even non-effervescent, becoming also siliceous, and like chert ; though the pure blue limestone, in connection with clay-slate, is the most common. In some situations it passes into beautiful cale spar, as at Dhunoultee; in others, into white saccharine Limestone, formed of large crystals, as in some places in mica slate and gneiss, as well near the granite of the Choor Mountain, and of Gungotri. Gypsum is found associated with the Limestone in some situa- tions, as at Sahunsudhara, below Mussooree, and at Jurreepanee, v. Herbert and Cautley (As. Res.) Heavy Spar, or Sulphate of Barytes, is found in the ascent to Landour, of which, as well as of the rocks, specimens were sent by the Author to the Asiatic Society in 1828. The sulphurous spring in the vicinity of Sahunsudhara, with the dripping rocks and numerous stalactites hanging down from the roof of the cavernous limestone, with the leaves, &c. encrusted with carbonate of lime, have often attracted the attention of, and been described by travellers. QuartzosE ConcLomMERATE.—The Clay-slate formation is, in many of the peaks, surmounted by strata of a rock which Mr. De la Beche has denominated Quartz conglomerate. It varies much in appearance, being light grey coloured on Landour, coarse-grained and reddish on Budraj, formed of rounded grains of quartz, and therefore usually called sandstone. This varies in appearance, but is usually found at the summits of the peaks, as on Budraj, Landour, and Surkunda, and even on Deobun, in thin isolated strata above the limestone. In other situations, it alternates with the clay-slate, and then, as described by Mr. Everest, “it becomes a distinct greywacke, consisting of a greyish green base, with numerous angular fragments of clay-slate imbedded. No such appearances could be observed in the slates which alternate with the Mussooree limestone; and this circumstance, coupled with that of supet-position, seems to mark the quartz sandstone as the newest formation of the two.” Section No. 2.—The clay-slate met with in the interior is usually more uniform in appearance, espe- cially in the line of the section, as on Tuen, where, however, it is much waved and crossed by veins of | quartz, so on Acharanda and J: ountgurh, andon to Bhok tibba. In the Khulan valley, clay-slate is alone : found, and a precipitous slip shows the whole to be of uniform structure. At the head of the valley Pe limestone is met with in masses. The dip is very generally to the N.E., as shown in the Section. ae MicackEovs AND OTHER Scutsts.—Mica slate occurs in ascending the south-western — of the Bhok : _ tibba, XXXiV _ GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF tibba, though clay-slate forms the mass of the mountain, and is immediately succeeded by the mica slate and gneiss series. The clay-slate sometimes passes insensibly into what has been called quartz rock and even grauwacke in India, and in others into mica slate, which is, in some instances, fine grained and dark coloured, so as hardly to be distinguished from clay-slate. Mr. Everest, in proceeding from Mussooree, along the Ganges to its sources, mentions that quartz sandstone soon became the predominant rock, and that the slate had nearly disappeared, being only found in the lowest ground, opposite Balla- haut. The line of junction of the two was seen only a few feet above the level of the river. Somewhat before this, the slate had partly assumed the appearance of talc-slate, having a faint glimmering lustre and a soapy feel. Beyond Ballahaut, he continued travelling near the line of junction of the two formations, the slate gradually passing into a perfect talc-slate, and the quartzy sandstone becoming rather more crystalline than before. Perhaps the name of quartz-rock might be more appropriate to it, though it still exhibited, in some places, traces of round grains agglutinated together. About Batwaree, the quartz sandstone ceases on the low ground, and the slate contains a mixture of quartz and felspar, forming a talcose gneiss, with hornblende occasionally intermixed. Traces of the quartzy sandstone yet remain upon the cliffs above, for some miles farther to the north, where a gradual passage of it may be observed into the talcose gneiss.—J.A.S., Dec. 1835, p. 692. In the upper Section, No.1, after the sandstones of the Nahun and Jytuk ranges, red marl, with veins of carbonate of lime, is seen in descending to the Julal river ; and this is suceeeded by the lime- stone and clay-slate series. About Booraree, mica slate, with crystals of hornblende, is met with, and iron pyrites in the valleys on both sides; mica slate succeeds, occasionally fine textured, and scarcely to be distinguished from clay-slate : in ascending to Phagonee, it becomes coarse grained, and in some places abounds in garnets. Near Phagonee, a large vein of iron is seen, and some coarse grained crys- talline limestone; after which we pass to gneiss, before reaching the projecting masses of granite which form the summit of the Choor Mountain. Above Chowrass, a granite vein, running east and west, is seen crossing the mica slate. In descending, on the N.E. gneiss and mica slate, with garnets, are again seen. ‘Near Chepal, iron ore oceurs, and the slate becomes talcose in the bed of the rivulet, and a coarse plum- bago slate is seen near the Soonth. The same formations are repeated in proceeding towards Changshill and Kedarkanta. In ascending to Bumpta, the slate becomes very quartzose, with layers of mica, occa- sionally assuming a granitic structure. On Urukta, mica slate, with garnets, is found, and often with nodules of quartz. In the descent by Deyra, the slate is met with containing grains of magnetic iron, in sufficient quantity to be profitably worked, and which has been named Hornblende Slate by Mr. De la Beche (Manual, 3d Ed., p. 435): it is associated with gneiss and mica slate. Gneiss.—The system of slates is succeeded in the section by a more uniform formation of gneiss. The extent of which will vary according to our view of what is gneiss. Capt. Herbert calculated the gneiss to be of great breadth, forming a band of which the lowest point is 2,800, and the highest 25,709 feet high, thus including the lofty peaks and the snowy range; as he says: ‘The highest peaks are everywhere composed of gneiss, the strata of which may be clearly distinguished, when bare of snow, through a _ telescope. Granite has nowhere been found except in veins, and these veins are generally small, with one _ exception—Whangtoo on the Sutlej.” In this Capt. H. was incorrect, according to the testimony both of Dr. Falconer and of the Rev. Mr. Everest (v. infra). “The gneiss is of very various character, as far as colour and si are concerned, though always very regular, consisting of the usual ingredients, pportions ; garnets, schorl, kyanite, carbonate of lime, green quartz, and’ hyacinth, are chs Gately Seibcdided sedis: A speck of native gold has been found in a specimen from one of the granite vems.”— Gleanings of Science, v.3, p. 268. Gneiss is found in many of the Passes, associated with chlorite and hornblende schists, as well as quartz rock, sometimes passing into micaceous schist; it is often found in the vicinity of granite, but is soon succeeded THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. XXXV succeeded by micaceous schist, and this sometimes becoming talcose. The strata in general dip to the N.E., but great irregularities exist, and many instances are seen of their dipping in an opposite direc- tion, but only to a limited extent. Unstratiriep Rocxs.—Trap-rocks, though frequently met with in fragments, were not until lately, recognized as forming a remarkable feature in the structure of the Himalayas. ‘They were noticed by Capt. Herbert, and compared by him to Greenstone, as the schist in the descent to Khalsee, which he calls a Protean green slate, passing into a rock like greenstone. He also observes, that a trap-like rock is found in the vicinity of Bheemtal, and mentions a “'Toadstone, of which the original mass is doubtless to be detected.” But a vein of greenstone was discovered by Dr. Falconer in the neighbour- hood of Mussooree, and the presence of trap-rocks has since been detected in numerous situations. Previous to this, the elevatory force was supposed to depend upon granite, which is revealed at the sur- face in so many places in Kemaon, and was supposed to be concealed under the surface to the westward of the Ganges, and raised to a great elevation only at the Choor Mountain. Hot springs abound in the Himalayas, and evidences of recent volcanic action were observed by Mr. Vigne in Cashmere, and have been seen by Dr. Falconer. The igneous rocks, Dr. F. says, which have been found in the outer tracts, are of the green trap series, and are very generally met with in dykes, intersecting and rising through the regular strata, which are in all directions fractured or comminuted, and the limestone broken up into masses. The Mussooree vein is composed in some places principally of compact white felspar and pyroxene, and in others chiefly of hornblende, and may be traced for half-a-mile in a direction nearly parallel to the range of the mountains. Trap is also met with in one of the ascents to Mussooree, in the bed of the Jumna, and in the neighbourhood of Khalsee, and therefore abundantly displayed even within a limited extent. Mr. Everest mentions having crossed three different masses of greenstone in his journey from Mussooree to Gungotri: first, on the ridge before descending into the valley of the Ganges, and two others in the clay-slate and tale-slate. He could not in either case trace their connection with the sur- rounding rocks, but infers that it probably crossed them nearly at a right angle, and if so, their range must approach to a parallel with that of the granite. Granite.—From the foregoing extract from Capt. Herbert, the comparative absence of granite in the Himalayas might be inferred, though in the line of section a magnificent outburst is observed on the summit of the Choor Mountain, which is greyish coloured, coarse grained, with veins of quartz, and is porphyritic towards Roundee. Enormous boulders of it may be seen in the valleys, both to the north and south. It was suspected to occur in other places, as boulders and hand specimens were well known and totally different in character from the Choor granite. Capt. H. was well acquainted with its exist- _ ence in many places, as he says: “ Granite displays itself on the southern face in several places, as at Champawut, Dhie, Almorah, Shaee Debee, Dooarahath, Pale dhore, Kunyoor, and Choor, situated, except the latter, sa lie coe adn ec and a line passing through them all, has a direction to N. 60° W., the same as that of the strata and mountain range. West of the Ganges no such beds are found, but the granite occupies the summit of Choor; and this is the highest of the mountains — of the southern slope of the Himalayas, excepting only those which form the snowy peaks and passes.” In colouring these on the large map of the Himalayas they form a lime beautifully parallel to the direc- tion both of the Sandstone and the Himalaya range. On the higher belt and northern face, according to Capt. Herbert, and towards the central and highest parts, Granite veins are frequent, as at Whangtoo or _ Huttoo; and it is mentioned by himself, in his section of the Gonass Pass. But, notwithstanding __ this, he seems not to have recognized it at the sources of the Ganges, as Dr. Falconer writes me that ce ‘the section about the formation of Gungotri, instead of being of gneiss, is all, to the northward. of we Sookhee, purely granite, and most palpably so, a binary compound of felspar ore with b exryst as. XXXVl GEOLOGICAL FORMATION OF of tourmaline. It is the grand granitic axis of the Himalaya, and one of the greatest and most mag- nificent outbursts of granite in the world.” He went across the direction of it for many miles (up the Bhaghiretty, beyond the temple at Gungotri, and saw no end of it. The granite escarpments shooting up into the highest peaks, and the huge cairns of granitic blocks, many of them as large as a house, he describes as inconceivably grand. The Mines and Mineral productions of the Himalayas have been detailed by the late Capt. Herbert, Superintendent of the Mineralogical Survey of the Himalayas, in a Paper in the Asiatic Researches, Trans. of the Physical Class, 1829, Part I., p. 227, and may be enumerated as Sulphur, Sulphate of Iron, Alum, Bitumen, Graphite, Gypsum, Limestone, Dolomite, Potstone, or indurated Talc. To these Calc Spar and Heavy Spar may be added. Gotp, in many of the streams, and specks of it in the Granite, near Kedarnath. Copper, Grey Copper, and Copper Pyrites, and Green Carbonate. Iron.—Red Oxide, Red Hematite, Micaceous, Sealy, and Specular Iron Ore, Compact Red Iron Ore, Magnetic Iron Ore. Leap in form of fine granular Galena. Of the value’of the mines we may expect a fuller account from the investigations of Captain Drummond, accompanied by his Cornish miner. Kunawor and the northern face of the Himalayas. The Geology of this tract is little known, but we may expect a detailed account from the results of Mons. Jacquemont’s investigations. Capt. Herbert, Gl. iii., p. 269, has briefly indicated its characteristics. The Gneiss zone being stratified, and dipping at no great inclination to the N.E., the consequences to be expected are, that in proceeding to the north-eastward, the same succession of strata would be found, but at greater elevations. And this is the fact: although the development of rocks to the north is not equal in extent to those on the south side. Micaceous schist, with it sassociates, gradually gives way to grauwacke slate or grauwacke, which rocks are found at considerable elevations. Limestone, with orga- nic remains, is found in beds in these rocks, and at such an elevation that the tertiary strata may be expected to occur at very great heights, and even the superficial deposits which have been called diluvium. From the physical features of the country, v. p. xxi., the existence of tertiary strata might be expected, but these have been proved to exist by the Fossils, v. p.xxix, which have been figured in Plate 3, fig. 1 to 3, including the skull and lower jaw of a hollow-horned Ruminant (Antilope), that referred to by Capt. Herbert, Gl. iii., p. 270, with the tooth of a Rhinoceros. Those of the Horse, and Ox are also mentioned as having been found. The locality of these is not known, but Capt. H. concludes that they are from the northern face of the ridge which separates the basin of the Ganges from that of the Sutlej, and not far from the town of Dumpa. The Fossils figured in Plate 3, fig. 16 to 27, are described by Dr. Gerard, Gleanings iii., p- 92, as found by him in a loose stratum of black schist, elevated 13,000 to 15,000 feet upon the declivity of the Spiti. The Terebratule were particularly remarked on the Laitche Lang Chain, the third great ridge of the Himalayas, at an elevation of 17,000 feet, altogether distinct from the above formation. From the examination of the shells, the Rev. Mr. Everest concluded that there exist in the Himalayan range strata analogous to the early secondary and transition formations of Europe ; Gli iii, P- 30. Specimens of the shells having been sent to Mr. J.D. C. Sowerby, he coincides in this view, and considers some of them as identical with shells of the mountain Limestone, Inferior Oolite, and Lias of England. J.A.S. 13 p- 248. The species in my collection, obtained chiefly from Dr. Gerard, consist of Astarte, fig. 16, a genus of which it is extremely difficult to determine the species. Arca or Cucullea, fig.17 ; Avicula, fig. 19; Terebratula or Atrypa, fig. 20 and 21, with a species not figured. ‘Fig. 18, genus not determi- nable in my specimens: Delthyris? fig. 23; Ammonites, two species, fig. 22 and 24. The markings of THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. XXix* of both indicate that they belong to that division of the genus which range, from the Lias to the Chalk, both inclusive. Belemnites two species, fig. 25, 26, and 27. A section having been given of a portion of the Central Range of India, that is, from Sheerghatty to Rogonautpore, some details might be given respecting their Geological structure, but as the Author has already exhausted his space, he can only refer to the valuable papers of Dr.Voysey and of Colonel Sykes, as well as to that of Dr. Malcolmson, for the Geology of Central India, and to the Geological observa- tions made by the Rev. Mr. Everest, on a journey from Calcutta to Ghazipore, Gleanings, iii., p. 129. In the Section No, 4, is seen that the rocky basis of the range is composed of Gneiss, passing occasionally into mica slate ; and that this alternates with hornblende rock, which is most conspicuous at the -several Ghauts; and that they have both an anticlinal dip from the Granite and ‘Trap, which make their appear- ance at the Suspension Bridge, and in the Bulbul rivulet. The Granite is also seen in outliers, and on both flanks of the range. On the Gneiss, a gray micaceous sandstone is horizontally deposited, but much disturbed in some situations. With the shale, &c. impressions of fossil vegetables are found, as well as Coal. The Chinnakooree Coat formation, Section No. 3, resembles that of Ranigunj, on the Damooda, described by Mr. Jones and the Rev. Mr. Everest, and noticed by Mr. De la Beche in his Manual, p. 399, from the Author’s notes, but which he is compelled to suppress. Gneiss was seen near Pachette, but the hill over which the Author passed was found to be composed of Red Sandstone and Conglome- rate. The Coal is imbedded in shale, with loose-grained gray Sandstone, both above and below. See the above Authors, as well as Mr. Mc’Clelland’s able report of «* A Committee for investigating the Coal and Mineral Resources of India” (Calcutta, 1838), where the discovery of a raised beach of tertiary shells in the Kasya Hills is noticed, and a list is given of all the sites of Coal (and Lignite, as those in the Himalayas,) at present known to exist on the continent of India. They may briefly be enumerated as follows,—Burpwan, Ranigunj, Chinakooree, Adjai Seedpoorie, Pariharpoor, Darbadanaghat, Benares Road 149th mile stone, and other places ; Hazareebagh, Rasmanat, Patsandeh Baghelpoor, Skrigully, Hurra, Patamoo, two principal beds, Amarath. Brpsecuru, Nersuppa, Towar river, Hoshungabad, Jubulpoor, Sohagpore, Chanda, Warda nala. Currackx, Mahanadi. Assam Deupha- panee near Bramakoond, Namroop river, Suffry or Disung river, near Rungpore, Dhunsiree river, Jumoona river, Kossila river near Gowahate, Chilmari and Doorgapoor. Sinuet, Laour and other sites, Kasya hills Chirrapunjie, Sarrarim, Manipur near capital, Gendah on Kuenduan river. Arracan Sandoway District, Kyook Phyoo Island. Movimery, Anthracite at Bothoung. Sovrnrrn Inpra, Travancore, fossil seeds carbonized. Himataya, Kemaon lignite, Moradabad, lower range. Inpus, Cutch, Peshawur. 'To these may be added the indications of i discovered in — to a —— of 400 at Calcutta and 300 feet at Goga in Gujerat. The Shales of Ranigunj and Chinnakooree contain abundant remains of Ranigunj Reed ; Vertebraria indica, nob., Plate 2, fig. 1, 2, 3, and of another species, V. radiata, nob., fig. 5, 6, 7. Trizygia speciosa referred formerly to Sphenophyllum? De la Beche, Manual, p.400, and mentioned by Mr. Jones as “‘ impressions of flowers.” This appears to belong to the natural family of Marsileacee, v. p. 431. Of this new genus there is a second species found in Germany, and the Author has a third species lent him by Dr. Mantell, from the Anthracite of Mount Carbon, in Pennsylvania. Pustularia Calderiana, nob., Pecop- teris Lindleyana, fig. 4, and Glossopter's daneoides, fig. 9, are the other plants obtained from the same locality. Glossopteris angustifolia, and G. Browniana, are other species mentioned by M. Adolphe Brongniart. The presence of the latter is remarkable, as it was originally found in the carboniferous series of Eastern Australia by Dr. Robert Brown, v. De la Beche, Manual, p. 401. It would have been interesting to have concluded this cursory view of the Geology of parts of India with a notice of the various mineral resources of that country, which though little developed are very abundant, and some of which have long been known to, and formed articles of commerce to both the ancient and modern civilized nations of the Earth, as the Author has endeavoured to prove, 1 from p. 40 to 47, and p. 95 to p. 104, in his “‘ Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, London, ee e* : : THE METEOROLOGY OF THE PLAINS AND MOUNTAINS OF N. W. INDIA. ——_— Txovcn the Meteorology of a country is frequently omitted in Works treating of Natural History, there is no subject which is more interesting or more closely connected with its several branches, especially when it is desired to point out the connection between climate and the vegetable and animal forms which it supports. ‘This is still more important, indeed essentially necessary, when we desire to make any Practical application to the Arts of Culture of the results of our investigations into the Natural History of a country. India being so extended in territory and varied in surface, with lengthened coasts, washed by a tro- pical ocean, and the summits of its mountains, covered by eternal snows, necessarily presents every variety of climate. As it is intended in the present Work to notice the vegetation of its heated plains and vallies, and to compare this with that found on the slope of its mountains, it is desirable, therefore, for the sake of comparison, to notice the more striking characteristics of the climate of different parts of India. This can only be done very briefly ; but the Author hopes to be able to return to the subject, and give the details of his observations made at Saharunpore, from the year 1826 to 1830, with the Barometer, and both the Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer, with observations on Radiation, Temperature of Wells, Quantity of Rain, together with Horary Observations, with all the instruments, from 1 a.m. to midnight, or for one day (the 15th) in each month for one year; occasionally also at different elevations, and at the different seasons of the year, in the Himalayan Mountains. The instruments were compared with those of Capt. Herbert and of Mons. Jacquemont, when these gentlemen passed through Saharunpore, and subsequently with those of my friend Mr. James Prinsep, on my arrival in Calcutta, and the differences between all were very slight. As much of the vegetation of India is of a tropical nature, and as this is found extending into higher latitudes, or to considerable elevations, when local circumstances favour the production of a similar climate, we may therefore notice the characteristics of tropical climate, which consist in great uniformity of tem- perature, as well as of moisture, throughout the year. Various attempts have been made to ascertain by calculation the mean temperature of the Equator, assisted by the few observations which we possessed, of places in its vicinity. The illustrious Humboldt was induced to adopt 81° 5’ as the mean tempera- ture of the Equator. Mr. Atkinson, on the contrary, inferred, that it was at least 84° 53’; but when it is considered that five-sixths of this line passes over the Ocean, the mean temperature of which between the limits of 3° N. and 3° S. varies, in general, between 80° 24 and 82° 4/, and as the air which rests upon these waters is from 1° 8’ to 2° 7 cooler, it is probable that 81° 5’ is not too low for the mean temperature of the Equator. Sir David Brewster, indeed, from observations since made in Ceylon, Penang, and at Singapore, is inclined to think that this may be too high. _ The seasons in equatorial regions are well known to be characterized by great equability of tempera- ture, and, in fact, they are not distinguished, as in high latitudes, into hot and cold, but into wet and _ dry seasons, and are greatly regulated by the periodical winds. In Java and Sumatra the thermometer = ———- 85° or 90° on the coast, falling as low as10° at sunrise. The heaviest rains take place in December and January, the driest weather occurs in July and August, while the intermediate months _ afford variable weather. Singapore, from its insular nature, and being 1° 15’ North of the ‘Equator, ~— near the S. extremity of the Malayan Peninsula, is well suited to give an idea of an Equatorial — there we have, fortunately, thermometric observations carried on for six years by Capt. C. E. Davis, three times a-day: at 6 a.m., 6 p.m., and at Noon (v. Journ. As. Soc. 2, p. 428), though the a . mean temperature deduced from them may probably be a little too high; but in the whole time the Thermo- Taz METEOROLOGY or ruz PLAINS ayy MOUNTAINS or N.W. INDIA. xxxi* Thermometer never rose above 89°, or sunk below 71°, and the mean temperature deduced from the means of the extremes is 80° 04 in all the years. Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec, Maximum .ecoooe 845 85 87 87 89 88 8 888 88 86 8&6 Minimum ..... ae Te oe ww eS ee Ae ae ee en 75 795 8 85 B B BLS SIS BIS BIS 80 80=804 This degree of equability is found near the Equator only, but an approach is made to it during the rainy season of the year, both in higher latitudes and at considerable elevations, within the influence of the tropical rains, though the general characteristics of these situations is that of variableness of climate, or of a great range of the thermometer, both daily and annual. The result is the production, not only of great cold, but also of great heat, so that the thermometer is found to rise much higher at, and a little beyond the tropics, than in the neighbourhood of the Equator. This is accounted for, in some measure, by what has been observed by astronomers, that the sun, in his progress from the Equator towards the Tropic, advances in the first month 12°, and in the second 8°, so that at the end of the second month he is 20° from the Equator, and takes a month to advance the remaining 34°, and an equal time to return, so that during the whole of this period the solar rays must fall nearly perpendicularly at noon on all places between 20° and 233° of latitude, while a place situated under the Equator has the sun only during six days, as near the zenith, as the above places near the tropics have it for near two months ; and, therefore, we may expect a greater degree of heat, which is moreover increased by the greater length of the days. The larger proportion of land near and beyond the tropic of Cancer, as well as the sandy barren nature of the soil, perhaps originally a consequence of, but now acting as a cause, in increasing the heat, together with the dryness of the air, all contribute, as causes, in increasing the absorption of, and the subsequent radiation of the heat imparted by, the nearly perpendicular solar rays. Thus Ritchie and Lyon state, that during whole months the thermometer stood at 117°, and at 128° in the Oasis of Mourzouk ; Dr. Coulter mentions having observed it at 140° on the banks of the Rio Colorado, 32° 30’ N. lat., and we have it often stated as being 120°. Mr. Everest gives 111° as the highest at Ghazeepore; Mr. Prinsep as its being 114° at Benares. I have observed it at 107° at Saharunpore. The free radiation of the same open plains in the clear still nights of the winter months, causes a degree of cold which one is surprised to hear of as occurring in situations where the summer heat is so intense ; hence the coldness experienced. in some of the deserts of Africa, also by Lieut. Burnes, as well as in the plains of India. — The climate of many places in low latitudes has been ascertained, but of these we can only state the mean temperatures: as of places in Ceylon, from lat. 6° to 83°; of Point de Galle, 81°10’; of Colombo, 80° 75’; and of Trincomalee, 80° 56’; while the temperature of Madras, in lat. 13° 5’, has been ascer- tained, by numerous observations, to be 80° 42’. Pondicherry, on the dry and hot part of the Coroman- del Coast, and in N. lat. 11° 58’, has the highest observed mean temperature, this having been found to be 85° 28’. Seringapatam, in lat. 12° 45’ N. long. 76° 51’ E., and elevated about 2,412 feet above the level of the sea, has a mean temperature of 77° 06’; the mean at sunrise is 63° 17’; at 3 p.m., 90° 95’; of the day, 84°; of the night, 70° 11’; the highest temperature observed was 115°, and the lowest 48°. At Bangalore, the mean temperature is about 74° 39/. My friend Mr. James Prinsep, whose lamented illness all friends of science and of literature equally deplore, published, in the year 1882, the results of my observations, and as he has united them with others, I give his tables for the sake of comparison. « The whole presents a convenient epitome of meteorological phenomena between 12° and 30° of north latitude. Of the climate of Madras, the minutest details are recorded in the voluminous and careful soe reports of the late astronomer, Mr. Goldingham, whose results merely required to be reduced to the freezing point. The Ava tables are abstracted from Major Burney’s Registers, published - in a ee ae ‘ Gleanings ;’ the Benares tables are taken from the Oriental Magazine, 1820 ; = the Sa hat un) results we are indebted to Dr. aoe who allowed us to look through his der a -gisters XxXx1l* THE METEOROLOGY OF THE PLAINS pose. As the several barometers were never absolutely compared together, entire dependence cannot be placed upon the mean altitudes given; but with regard to Calcutta, Benares, and Saharunpore, as some opportunities occurred of comparison through the instruments of different travellers, the relative altitude of these places can be estimated tolerably well: thus, Saharunpore will be found to be almost exactly one thousand feet above the sea, as was before estimated by Captain Hodgson. Benares, in like manner, may be safely stated, in even numbers, to be three hundred feet above the sea, Montuty Deviations of the Barometer and THERMOMETER from their annual mean height at Calcutta; and at several other places, introduced for the sake of comparison. BAROMETER AT 32° Fanr. THERMOMETER. MontxH. Benares, Madras, mean 9€ | aya, rego, |o. 2h | US | Sebarur- |meanot st | va, 1800] a years ob year ab Seber iF96 0 1821. 1320-30-31] pfations, | 1826-27. servations, | 4a. [Tos minsmax.de min, 1826-27 Inch, Inch. Inch. Inch. Inch, D 5 Deg. Deg. Deg. January ...sscseceeseeee| +146 | 4-299 | 4-208 | +-273 | +274 | —os | —137 | —IT'6 | —17°0 | 218 February. ..ecccccesccscs +°131 +115 +172 +°175 +219 —4°5 —_ 4:9 = 6-0 a] 15 —?20°9 March eeeecessessesesees +:087 +:051 +:095 +:107 +:151 —1-8 _ 2°38 + 1:0 —_ 15 a 0+] Aprils sascvecissskesseto| 006 | 0081 20901 043 | 4-06 | 07 | 7-8 | + 61] 4 95 | 461 BY eocececesescccscvnace —°124 — 105 —152 — 136 — 060 +52 + 5-6 _ Lo +13-9 +11°6 June seeeseseceseessenee — 117 —°156 —:248 —289 — 217 +74 + 71 _ 5:5 +13-1 +17°5 July seseecececcceceseees| —*103 | —176 | —-218 | —-308 | —398] +3-9| + 4-4] + 46] + 6:9} +128 August eoereeessessseee —-088 — 126 ict] 94 —203 —278 +30 + 4] a 3°6 + 6-4 + 10-0 September er eeeeresesesee — 057 — 098 —-] 15 — 098 —158 +2-1 + 4:3 + 3°7 oa 5:8 — 95 October eee seseeseeeesee — (018 — 010 +-020 +:07 — 047 +0-1 + 2-2 + 9-5 + 1:3 — 0-8 November eesesseseseses +-006 +102 +:161 +:181 +-209 a3] _ 4-2 — 54 —_ 9-7 pee | 0-8 December eeeeesesresess +:124 +:201 +258 +27) +°245 —49 —10°1 ib E85 —17 6 pre Os 8 Ann. mean....| 29-810 | 29-573 | 29-764 | 29-464 | 28-766 | 81-69 | 78-39 | 78-13 77°81 W3°5 Range.--e0+--| -270| -405| -506| -587| 672) 139] 21-5] 191] 31:5| 393 ** It will be remarked, that the range of variation in the weight of the atmosphere increases with the latitude, even up to the foot of the Himalaya Mountains, and that it is accompanied by a corresponding increase in the range of the thermometer. *¢ We now come to the diurnal oscillation of the barometer, for which the same sources have furnished me with materials for framing a comparative table for five localities considerably distant from one another; we could have added Moorshedabad to the list, but that the thermometric series for that place was incomplete. At Saharunpore the horary observations were confined to a single day, the fifteenth of each month; at Madras to three similar days ; at Benares, perhaps, the hour of the minimum was not always exactly observed ; thus a little irregularity must be expected, but on the whole the results are wonderfully equable. Divenat Oscittations of the BaromETER and THERMOMETER at Calcutta, with Comparative Observations at other places. BaRroMETER AT 32°. THERMOMETER. Monts. | Madras, icsta, Benares, | Saharun- | | Benares, | Saharun- min.} Ava, pore, max.} Madras. every tenth|10 a.m. and) 940 a.m. 90 104.004 tin, off 4A. and HR Bt bess daily ex- | pore, un-rise oe 4pm, jand4 0pm) 4 io¢%,| medayin} 2 p.m, | 4 P.M, ie register | one day in ; —— “072 ‘ “144 "123 “097 “103 nb A a0 is on Fel PUAN Y+ +e eres evecesere 070 “126 117 103 *093 10-0 i 16-8 18+5 19-2 21-0 P io. SRE ‘076 “107 +125 "121 *146 7:0 90-8 14-0 20°7 26-0 A ru tele a eke tenn “081 “110 "124 "125 107 9-0 20-9 14-6 23-2 31-0 BY sev wcasesccnascenves “081 “113 “115 +124 -160 9-() 20-4 13-7 21:9 38:0 June eee ee eres ereseeves +092 *136 095 113 "178 9-0 9-0 : 5 € : . “6 16-1 ol pl eioky ahsas trae gee ie tale “097 +133 -090 077 103 7-0 6°6 my 9-0 153 ‘a UGUSE. ee eeevesececeeses, “15 109 “099 088 079 70 8-8 5-9 8-3 11-5 September ere seesasesean 094 +145 ‘101 103 “123 6-0 7:8 6 2 10-3 13-0 October cesar eessessenes 068 “144 ~ “110 : “100 120 8-0 : ohes 5-0 . : Soncuee: seeeeesccscecs ‘071 *127 "107 ‘107 “147 8-0 6-7 ind tee os CINDCr ceocvtecicscvrcs 071 "126 114 “098 .*]94 9-0 85 17-1 16:3 17:5 ~ Mean tide ........} 081 126 110 105 120. 8:5 10-6 12-2 16-6 24-2 AND MOUNTAINS OF N.W. INDIA. XXXIii* ** With due allowance for the difference of sensibility in the instruments, the above table shews that the average diurnal tide of the barometer between the Equator and 30° north latitude, exceeds one-tenth of an inch, and that it is progressively greater as the variation of temperature during the day is also greater. With regard to the nocturnal tide of the atmosphere, the Calcutta tables afford us no data, for want of an observation at 10 p.m., the hour of the supposed maximum at night; all that is indicated therein is, that the barometer is constantly ower at sunset than at sun-rise. At the Madras observatory, in 1823, a series of horary observations was made for three days in each month, which seems to establish the fact of a night-tide beyond a doubt to the extent of .04 inch; when, however, the corrections for the temperature of the mercury are applied, this amount is reduced to two-hundredths of an inch, which is one-fifth only of the diurnal tide. “ The same result is obtained from a month’s horary observations, undertaken by Col. Balfour, at Calcutta, in the year 1784. At Saharunpore, also, the existence of a nocturnal tide is equivocal: the following table exhibits all that we can gather towards the elucidation of the point in India, expressing by minus signs the real tide, or fall of the barometer, from 10 p.m. to 5 a.m., and vice versd.” Mr. Prinsep concludes by saying, “ There is still sufficient ambiguity respecting this second tide, therefore, to render further inquiry necessary, and it would be desirable to employ a barometer for the purpose, which should not require to have any correction applied for the temperature of the mercury ; this might be easily effected, by enclosing the barometer tube in an outer tube of the same length, also filled with mercury, upon the surface of which the scale might float.” Nocturna OscitLaTion of the BARoMETER from 10 P.M. to 5 a.m. reduced to 32° Fahr. Mon i ae Pe om a January ..seeee. eectan ones ee ae —-004 +034 —-043 +-018 February Pee eer ert eerste esen eee —*929 +:026 — 009 +009 PRACT wis Sse ows woe Po bee —-026 +-069 — 008 —002 BOT ens sao i aceee acew cceen’ — 027 +-008 — 007 +008 MAY: . wit aide Sass eWiew whee cess — (014 +-020 —020 +005 SUNG ose cee ke cock cc ee ees es —026 +:012 +-039 +-003 VOIP sis. Sess Ce ts CER ee TELE — 009 -000 — 005 — 002 Aupust ee se cetesecccceccveese —-0)28 +014 — 016 —007 Septemver so i wisi esi F446 wees — 024 +011 +011 —-012 OCtOBEr 2 oo6 oe cigar see vs ee —-033 +009 — 004 — 021 November! (issn ccc e cee si ae — 010 +009 +°024 +00] December ...-ssccsdseecscese —019 +:027 +015 —023 Means......+- —021 +020 — 001 — 002 Saharunpore, as we ove seen, is situated nearly at the head of the great Gangetic valley, in N. Jat. 29° 57’, long. 77° 32’ E., one thousand miles north-west of Calcutta, in the Doab, or space included between the Ganges and Jumna rivers, about twenty miles from the former, and nine from the latter, and about thirty miles from the Sewalik or Sub-Himalayan range of Mountains. It is celebrated as the station whence the Trigonometrical Survey of the Himalayas was commenced by Capts. Hodgson and Herbert (v. p. xii.) It was then calculated by Capt., now Col., Hodgson, to be elevated 1,013 feet above Calcutta. Mr. James Prinsep, from my observations, compared with his own, in Calcutta, calcu- lated that my house, situated in the vicinity of the Botanic Garden, was as near as possible one thousand feet above the sea (Journ. As. Soc., vol. i. p. 29). The characteristics of the climate are mentioned at. p. 7, in connection with the vegetation, which is described as being tropical at one season, and partially 2 European at another, and as having, in consequence, an equally varied cultivation. To display this = connection of climate with vegetation, it is desirable to give the temperature, so as to show the rise and fall 7 ; of the thermometer ; I have therefore thought it advisable to commence with the month of March, when. increase of temperature takes place so rapidly. The thermometer was placed on the northern side ae the house, but too near, for the extremes to be accurately observed, rad — the heat | was: ms probably ee xXxxiv* THE METEOROLOGY OF THE PLAINS greater, yet the cold was probably less, from the more confined radiation, as the minimum outside of a tent and not far from the house, was 27°, when the other was 38° 5’. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Maxima.... 89 96 1055 105 Ors... 2. B14 RS MS ww SAS OOF Minima.... 47 62 67:5 73 76 785 64:5 S75. 465. 44, . 386. oy —_—— — —_——- — —— Socemnieaemmel a Means .... 68 79 86°5 89 86°75 85:25 78 74 64:75 565 525 63°25 Mean temp. «--- 73°58 In connection with the thermometric observations at Saharunpore in the open plains of Upper India, it is interesting to give that of the Deyra Valley, in the same latitude, and about forty-five miles to the east. The observations were made by my late friend, the Hon. F. Shore, while Assistant Commissioner in the Deyra Doon. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Matin. So. oe oe OE a ae a Minima.. 48 53 64 q. 9n Ge OG. OL a Se em mem meme mem ame em a Dt se Hh Me US C8 eB 69 30-8B 8 eR I erence Mean. .-+ 67 73 81 86 83 = 8) 735 73:5 57 565 52°38 59:5==70°65 From the greater number of cloudy days, as well as from the greater moistness of the climate, it is found difficult to ripen some fruits which succeed in the plains, though others, as Bengal Plantain, Guavas, and several varieties of Limes, arrive at greater perfection. The greater degree of moisture must be ascribed to the surrounding mountains, and to the quantity of vegetation with which the uncleared parts of the valley are covered. Like other vallies, it is also more close, as the winds cannot blow so freely as in the open plains. The evenings and nights are, however, pleasant, as a cool breeze generally descends from the mountains, and at some seasons of the year the climate is delightful. In the ascent of the Himalayas, in the course of the Geological section, Jurreepanee is a mid-way station, where I have occasionally taken observations, and of which the temperature feels cool to those who are ascending, but warm to those descending from, the mountains : Ther. Moist Bulb. Barom. Merc. Spring of water. April 4, eight A.M. ...00... 64 49°5 24:84 2 he 63°5 Oct. 2, half-past seven a.m. 62°5 July 22, eight a.m. ...e00s. 68 655 = fOUF PM. occsesacee TO Mussooree and Landour are on the elevated range which rises immediately above the Deyra Doon, and where a Sanatarium for the recovery of the health of European soldiers has been established, as well as houses built by officers, and where I established a small Nursery-garden, which was abolished by Lord William Bentinck, but re-established by Lord Auckland. The range enjoys a delightful climate, presenting as great a degree of equability of temperature from summer to winter, and from day to night, as is desirable. In summer the temperature is low, and all accumulation of heat is prevented by the coolness of the breeze which ascends from the vallies. The transition to the rains, which commence about the 15th of J une, makes but little difference in the temperature, and the climate is remarkably equable ; and though moist _ and usually cloudy, it is not otherwise disagreeable or unhealthy. In the month of October, or at the ‘conclusion of the rainy season, and throughout November, the sky is so clear and serene, the air so mild and still, that the climate is perfectly delightful. The approach of the cold is so gradual, and its degree so moderate, as to be well calculated to brace the system, when improved by a previous residence in the hills. The coldest months are December, January, and February ; in the last the greatest cold, and some- times snow-storms, occur ; after this, the rise in temperature is very rapid. Though 5,500 and 6,000 feet more elevated, the minimum, however, is very little lower than at Saharunpore. The Author has already said, “that the cold of winter in these mountains, at least on the Mussooree Range, is not in proportion to the coolness of summer, It may be said, that with a winter temperature of AND MOUNTAINS OF N.W. INDIA. xxxy* of their own latitudes,—that is, of the plains at their base,—they have the summer temperature of European countries; so that, without exaggeration, it might be said :— Gurmush nu gurm ust,— Its warmth is not heat,— Surdush nu surd. Its coolness is not cold.” The mildness of the night, compared with the coolness of the day, appears to be owing to the descent of strata of the atmosphere, which the heat of the day had caused to ascend. These, in descending to a lower station, become more condensed, and thus having their capacity for heat diminished, give out a portion of their latent caloric, which necessarily prevents the sinking of the temperature to the degree it otherwise would, in consequence of the cooling effect of radiation from the surface of the soil. Favoured as this process is by the stillness and clearness of the night, its effects would be more perceptible, did not the breadth of the ridge bear but a small proportion to the mass of the air by which it is surrounded. This equability of temperature is observed, not only from day to night, but also from hour to hour, and from summer to winter. One great anomaly presents itself in consequence of the still calmness of the mornings; for though the nights are pleasant and the mornings cool, yet, from the rapid rise of the sun, and the great power of the solar rays, the heat becomes considerable, and even insupportable in the open air, until a gentle breeze rises, and ascending up the valley, continues through the day, apparently following the course of the sun. The maximum of temperature frequently occurs at ten, or, at all events, the increase after that is so slight as not to be perceptible to the senses. In the plains we know the temperature of the air goes on increasing until 2 or 3 p.m. As the latitude is nearly the same as that of Saharunpore, the power of the solar rays and the quantity of heat communicated in a given time must be nearly the same; but in the plains it is allowed to accumulate: in the hills, on the contrary, the breeze which sets in daily from the plains towards the hills, and which commences about 10 a.m. (the very time after which so little increase takes place in temperature), passes over the top of the range, and prevents the accumula- tion of any heat. This breeze, though caused by the heat of the sun rarefying the dense air, at the sur- face of the earth, might be expected to arrive at the mountain top in the hot and parched state in which it rose from the heated plains ; but the air as it ascends becomes still less dense, and in proportion to this diminution of density is its capacity for heat increased ; so that it absorbs all the caloric which, in the plains, was sensible to the feelings, or was observed by a thermometer, and thus, on arriving at the top of the range, it feels cool and refreshing.* At night, a similar, but more gentle breeze, sets in from the hills towards the plains, and the two may, with the strictest justice, be compared to the land and sea breezes of the Coast and of Equatorial islands. As instances of the very gradual rise and fall of the thermometer from hour to hour, as well as of the little diminution of heat during the night, the following observations shivangecaan which were all care- fully made in the open air, and on clear sunny days, but in the shade :— Time unacquainted with its leading features, I can derive my observations respecting it solely from the examination of the genera before me. I will, therefore, merely give concisely what groups attach themselves to particular soils in ‘different countries, and hope that the attempt, imperfect as it is, may induce other naturalists to undertake an inquiry which must lead to very important results. As the mountain, the valley, and the plain, have their own peculiar temperature, vegetation, and soil, they have also particular groups of animals attached to them; and if we look more closely, we shall find that particular families and genera are always to be met with in certain strata and soils, evincing, as it were, a partiality and adapta- tion, by frequenting and thriving in them. It may here be worth while to specify some of the genera of Insects attendant on the difference of soil. It is in the sandy districts of our own country that the few species of Cicindela, peculiar to our island, occur. Cicindela maritima, however, prefers the vicinity of the sea-shore, while several Oriental species, remarkable for their beauty and colouring, delight more in the alluvial soil of rivers. Frequenting the sandy heath are found the splendid Chlorion, the fetid Sphex, and restless Ammophilus, associated with numerous xhii ON THE ENTOMOLOGY OF THE numerous species of Andrena and Nomada. In the sand, washed from the mountain height, at the sources of our European rivers, some species of Nebria and Psammodius are exceedingly abundant. If we visit the parched and burning sands of Africa, we there meet with the rapacious Anthia, the desert-loving Graphiptera, the burrowing Scarites, and countless species of Heteromera and T'etramera. In the same soil also, on the banks of rivers, the geffera Epaphius and Trechus, Clivina and Dyschirius, are not unfrequent. On the sand of the sea-shore, Broschus, Bradytus, Pedinus, and Aigialia, occur in extraordinary numbers; and where it is habitually covered with salt water at the departure of the tide, we capture Cillenum, Pogonus, Hesperophilus, and Heterocerus, the singularly-formed Bledius, and wonderfully-abundant Ophonus pubescens, all of which I have reason to believe can live submerged beneath the sea a considerable period. Of all other soils, elay,* being naturally cold, attracts fewer Insects, excepting the widely-disseminated Harpali. In gravel, occur the genera Opatrum, Halictus, Cerceris, with numerous colonies of Ants. Toa chalky soil are attached the Ophoni, Licini, Cheetophora, and various species of Polyommata, Osmia spinulosa, and Andrena hemorrhoidalis. When “collecting i in the mud of the fresh-water marsh, we capture Blethisa, Chlanius, Omaseus, and Agonum, and several Cara- bide. In the slime of brackish waters, several Notaphi are exceedingly abundant, though rare elsewhere ; and in company with them we find the subaquatics Elophorus, Parnus, and springing Salda. It has also been observed, that Pimelia is only to be met with where the plants of the genus Salsola abound. Catascopus and Elaphrus frequent the alluvium of rivers. In the mud of lakes and pools various genera of Eupodina, Nothiophilus, Bembidiadz, and Trechide occur; and in vegetable mould, where the grass is luxuriant, numerous Diptera, and Larve of Lepidoptera, abound. Even in this short and imperfect account of different genera attached to varieties of soil, sufficient has already been stated to prove that it exerts an important control over the range and distribution of Insect races: however, to give the naturalist a better insight into Indian groups, I shall here add an analysis of the leading families and genera which have fallen under my observation, and then conclude with an abstract describing the leading characters of Himalayan and Indian Entomology. From what has already been written, it will appear that Insects, in their geographical distribution, are influenced by various causes; by temperature, by excess or deficiency of moisture, by the influence of vegetation, and by soil. There is yet, however, another, which materially affects, in some instances, particular groups, namely, the peculiarity of the organization of the Insects themselves. Should any genera of Insects occur which are deficient in the organs of locomotion, they would naturally be restricted to certain localities. How many genera of the Coleoptera and other orders are apterous, and are only found in particular situations; and they have necessarily particular functions to perform in their restricted limits, and also particular organs adapted to the work assigned them by the Creator. It is to the study then of the differences of organization adapted to differences of situation, and other external circumstances wherever we find Insects, that the entomologist should direct his attention. Contemplating all these instances of adaptation, we reverence the wisdom of a creative and the bene- ficence of a superintending Providence, that prevents diminution and increase, both extremes of which would prove injurious; for without these ‘“ armies of the living God,” to keep in check the fecundity. of nature, plague and pestilence would walk abroad, and depopulate not a single country, or one quarter of the globe, but the whole earth itself. * Mr. Shuckhard informs me, that Andrena labialis seems peculiarly attached to the London clay. + In concluding my observations on the geographical distribution of Insects, I think it may be stated, that naturalists on this subject have almost exclusively directed their attention to temperature. Where temperature fails, we may turn to vegetation ; and if the latter is not sufficient, then to the soil and strata of a country, and even to the organization of the Insects themselves, as well as other causes, No one by itself is sufficient to unravel the difficulties which arise; by uniting all, however, we may in a great measure account for the various discrepancies that occur. HIMALAYAS AND OF INDIA. * xiii * ANALYSIS , Or Tur ENTOMOLOGY or tuz HIMALAYAS anp or INDIA. CICINDELIDZ. The following genera belonging to this family are not uncommon in India, viz. Therates, Tricondyla, and Colliuris: the two former are characteristic of a southern range, while the latter is abundant throughout the eastern continent. Of Indian Cicindelide, more than sixty species have fallen under my notice: the most splendid of the race abound in Nepal. Among various species, however, peculiar to the Himalayas, only one approaches the form of our European Germanica. DRYPTID. : As I am only acquainted with a single species of Indian Casnonia, I pass on to Drypta, a Nepalese individual of this family belonging to the genus Desera, Leach, which is described in General Hardwicke’s collection. Five others are also recorded as inhabiting India. LEBIADZ. ‘Cymindis has not yet been discovered in India ; eventually it may occur in the Himalayas: it is difficult to imagine what genus takes its place. Lebia is of rare occurrence in the East ; a non-descript, named unicolor, in my collection, is from the Himalayas. Aploa is found at Poona. Orthogonius is common to Africa and Asia : the gigantic species, however, predominate in the latter country. a BRACHINIDA. The French writers appear unacquainted with the true type of Helluo, exclusively belonging to New Holland: the genus denominated Omphra by Dr. Leach, applies solely to the Indian Helluones. Ozena and Pseudo-zena inhabit Calcutta and Cayenne; while Trigonodactyla appears in Africa and Asia. The Graphiptera of the sandy deserts have no representative in the East. This genus appears to unite Brachinus and Anthia: the latter is found throughout the continent of India. Some of the specimens from Nepal, however, are very diminutive. Aptinus is partly confined to Northern Europe and America; while true Brachinus enjoys the unlimited range of the world. Catascopus is found in Nepal, and resembles in its habits Elaphrus of Europe, and probably occupies its place. Dyscolus, Promecoptera, and Thyreopterus, prefer the southern tropical regions, and are not found to range as far north as the Himalayas. SCRAITID. Siagona atrata is met with in Nepal and various parts of India: a specimen lately received from Egypt, if not the self-same, is so exceedingly alike in size and sculpture, that it is very difficult to distinguish. The Scaritidz abound in both hemispheres. Scapterus of India is represented by Oxy- stomus in the Brazils, and in Africa by Acanthoscelis. Morio and Clivina will, perhaps, be found in both the Old and New World; the latter, indeed, is common to all temperatures ; the former pad even- tually occur in Europe, perhaps in Sicily. : HARPALID. i Harpali are found dispersed nearly in all the countries of the globe: they abound more in the arctic than antarctic regions. The following genera are recorded as belonging to India, viz. Harpalus, Platy- metopus, Selenophorus, Cyclosomus, aud many others, Some species of siaiaien from aoe and Poona, closely resemble British species. sity space E Peas xliv » ON THE ENTOMOLOGY OF THE POGONID. Some of the genera of this family are not confined to the temperate zones; the major part of them prefer the polar regions. Pogonus and Cardiaderus are met with in Asia and Africa; while Patrobus is apparently peculiar to Northern Europe and America. CALATHIDA. Dolichus has not yet been discovered in India: it is probable, however, that it will occur there. Pristonychus inhabits Nepal and Europe; while Calathus prefers a northern more than a southern climate. | | FERONIAD 2. Instead of finding Peecilus in India, we meet with Trigonotoma, Catadromus, Lesticus, and Distrigus = most of them peculiar to that continent. Argutor antiqua occurs in the East; Omaseus and Platysma in Nepal; and Steropus in the vicinity of Poona. It is by mistake that Percus has been introduced’ among oriental genera. Cephalotes is found in Nepal and Australia: Stomis, Zabrus, and Pelorus prefer the temperature of Southern Europe. They may, however, be expected to appear in the Hima- layas. Amara is captured in Japan; In the early part of the year 1833, Professor Royle put into my hands an extensive Collection of Zoological Specimens, made during his excursions through the Western parts of the Himalayan Mountains, of which the rich Botanical results are now in course of publication, with a request that I would furnish him with a Catalogue Raisonnée of the different species of which it contained the spoils, to be added as an Appendix to his work. Whilst occupied in this easy and unostentatious task, various observations presented themselves, which induced me to propose to my friend a slight alteration of his original plan, so as to embrace a general outline of the Mammalogy of the Mountain Regions of Northern India, for the purpose of exhibiting, at one view, the intimate relations which I soon perceived to subsist between the animal productions of this elevated and extensive mountain chain and those of Northern Europe, Asia, and America. It soon became obvious, in fact, that the Zoology, like the Botany of the Hills, differed essentially from that of the sultry plains of India, which skirt their southern base; that, though occasionally mixed with tropical forms, it was, upon the whole, of a character closely resembling that of the more temperate and northern latitudes; and that the insulated position of these remarkable mountains, exhibiting, as they do, the rare and interesting phenomenon of a temperate and even a boreal climate on the very confines of the tropic, where the summer heat is necessarily greater than even under the equator itself, gave an importance to the inquiry, as connected with the geographical distribution of Animal Life, which promised the most important results. The nature of the problem, indeed, and the very different conditions of Animal Life, as compared with that of Vegetables, forbade me to anticipate the discovery of laws of distribution in the Animal Kingdom, so definite and circumscribed as those which Baron Humboldt has established with regard to Plants ; the principle of animality, if I may be allowed the expression, possesses an innate power of adaptation which renders Animals in some measure independent of climate, particularly as compared with Vegetables, and which increases in proportion as we ascend in the scale of life; but I felt that if any such laws of geographical distribution prevailed in Zoology, they might naturally be expected to be exhibited most clearly and unequivocally on a theatre like this, and therefore that the opportunity should not be — neglected of investigating the circumstances of a problem which appeared to promise so much scientific From the observation just made, viz. that the power which all animals possess, in a greater or less a degree, of adapting themselves to different varieties of climate, and of withstanding, uninjured, the effects of temperatures foreign to their natural habits, increases in proportion as we ascend from the lower to the higher tribes, it will be seen that the Mammalia—the class which I had undertaken to review—form one of the most unfavourable groups for the discussion of this important question. Indeed, were it not from their limited powers of locomotion, they would be the very worst of all, because their high position in the scale of life, and the superior intelligence and resources with which it MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. lvii it endows them, necessarily protect them against changes and casualties, which would prove fatal to more simply organized beings; but, deprived of the powers of flight, ordinary Mammals have not the means of traversing the wide deserts and oceans, which separate the habitable portions of the earth: the nature of their locomotive powers consequently confines them to particular regions; and, in spite of the more favourable circumstances of their physical organization, their more varied resources and superior intelligence, they afford better materials for studying the problem of geographical distribution, than the kindred class of Birds, whose faculty of rapid flight enables them to set oceans and deserts equally at defiance, in passing to the most distant quarters of the globe, and, as it were, to choose their own temperature and climate in the boundless fields of air. Hence it is that the circumstances of the impor- tant problem of geographical distribution are less favourably presented in Ornithology than in Mamma- logy ; but, with this exception, the observation above made holds good throughout all other classes of animals, and the simplest tribes will always be found to present the most certain results. Insulated families also occasionally occur, which possess peculiar advantages for the prosecution of this inquiry ; as, for instance, in the case of fresh-water Fishes, than which I am acquainted with no other group of animals so well calculated to illustrate the laws of geographical distribution, or so likely to repay a careful study under this point of view; and I am only surprised that no competent Ichthyologist has hitherto occupied himself with so promising an inquiry. The only other principle which can well be regarded as influencing the geographical distribution of Animals, viz. the dispersion of Plants, upon which all Animals live, either mediately or immediately, is obviously subordinate to that of climate, with which it has been shown to be most intimately connected. On a limited scale the distribution of particular species may be seriously affected by the influence which civilization and cultivation produce upon the face of particular countries; wild animals necessarily disappear with the woods and forests which afforded them food and shelter; the Wolf, the Bear, and the Beaver, have thus disappeared from our own country ; the Capercalzie, exterminated about a century ago, is once more spreading rapidly over the pine forests of Scotland; but these are partial cases, which do not bear upon the general problem of geographical distribution ; and it is obvious, that upon the great theatre of nature, climate and temperature are the only laws which regulate it, limited, indeed, by the physical structure of the animals, as has been already observed, and by their powers of transporting themselves to distant regions. Hence it is that terrestrial and fresh-water tribes are more favourable for this study than marine or pelagic; though even among the latter, the comparative simplicity of their structure, and their consequent susceptibility of changes in temperature, render the habitats of different genera and species more definite and confined than might otherwise be expected. Of the former, again, land and fresh-water Mollusks being among the most simply organized, are conse- quently most limited in point of range; the species of Insects are almost equally confined, unless in : the case of certain tribes, which are susceptible of being transported to distant countries in wood and other extraneous substances; next follow Reptiles and fresh-water Fishes; and, last of all, Birds and Mammals; the former, as already observed, having an almost unlimited range of habitat, from the faci- lities which they derive from their powers of flight, of passing to the most distant quarters of the globe. The common Sparrow, the Snipe, and the Woodcock, for instance, are found in the Himalayas and in Japan, as well as in the North of Europe; nature has endowed these birds with means of traversing the arid climes and extensive deserts which intervene between these localities, which she has denied to i Quadrupeds ; and hence we must not expect to find the Badger and the Fox so widely distributed as z eo a the Owl and the wild Goose. But if the same species of Mammals are confined to particular regions, the great question still remains, whether similar regions, wherever situated, or however separated from . S | one another by intervening seas and deserts sence me or analogous fie and it : \viil MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. is the general solution of this question in the affirmative, as far at least as the great continents of the globe are concerned, which renders the Mammalogy of the Himalayas so interesting in this point of view. We have here an insulated territory on the confines of the tropic, with a climate varying from the most intense heats of the Equator to the greatest rigours of the Pole; and we shall find, in discussing its animal inhabitants, that it presents, as it were, an epitome of the Mammalogy of the world; an inter- mixture, or rather a succession of species and genera similar to that which we meet in travelling from India to Kamtschatka, or from Brazil to Labrador. Having thus fully explained the objects, it now only remains for me to acknowledge the sources from whence I have derived the materials of the following Memoir. The principal of these has been, of course, the Collection of Professor Royle himself, and the few notes, rendered particularly valuable, however, by containing the native names and localities, made by that gentleman during his tours. Besides which, the extensive Collections of the British Museum, of the Museums of the Zoological Society, the East-India Company, and various private collections of less note, which are occasionally made by Officers, and sent to their friends in this country, many of which I have had the good fortune to examine, have furnished me with valuable materials; whilst the different Notices and Memoirs on Indian Zoology, dispersed through the pages of the Asiatic Researches, the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, the Zoological Proceed- ings, and other similar publications, have been consulted with the greatest advantage. By carefully quoting my authorities, I have invariably taken care to distinguish what I have seen or know myself, from what is merely given on the faith of others. Yet with all these resources at my command, I have found my materials much too limited to give any thing beyond a mere outline of the Mammalogy of the Himalayas; but if this Memoir should prove to be the means of inducing future travellers, or residents, in those interesting regions, to fill up the sketch thus imperfectly traced, or assist them to distinguish what is already well known, from what still continue to be desiderata, in these inquiries, it will not have been without its use. The present time, indeed, is peculiarly favourable for such pursuits. India now contains many able and zealous naturalists; and what is not less fortunate, has a Nobleman for its Supreme Governor who both understands and can appreciate the value of their pursuits. Drs, Cantor, M‘Clelland, and Falconer, are skilful and practised observers; and Mr. Hodgson appears only to want access to European libraries and museums, an advantage unfortunately beyond the reach of the Indian Naturalist, to illustrate the Mammalogy of Nepal in the most ample and satisfactory manner. Before leaving this part of the subject, I shall take the opportunity of offering a few remarks, which may be useful to that numerous class of intelligent and educated gentlemen, who are dispersed over every part of India; and who, from their taste for field sports and the facilities afforded by their situations, have the means of making the most valuable observations in various departments of Natural History ; but which are too often neglected, not from any deficiency of zeal or inclination on the part of the observers, but from a want of practical experience in observing, from the difficulty of naming and describing the animals which fall under their notice, and from not knowing exactly what points to attend to. ‘An accurate knowledge of specific differences, however, is by no means indispensable for this purpose ; generally speaking, it is sufficient to indicate the affinity of the animal to the most approximate European species, and to ascertain its native name, in order to enable the more practised Z ole gis to recognize it with sufficient accuracy, especially if the forms of the feet, teeth, ears, &c. be arefu ly noted : but the main points to be attended to, and those, unfortunately, which the generality of observers most neglect, are the habits and economy of the animals which fall under their notice ; their manners, whether aquatic, arborial or terrestrial ; whether they inhabit burrows, or reside among thick jungle, or on the naked open plain; whether they live in society or solitary ; ‘the number of young which they produce at a birth; their period of gestation; the duration of life; their instincts, and MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. lix and the stratagems which they employ to capture their prey or to escape from their enemies; the nature of their food; whether they hibernate or migrate from place to place, according to the season; whether they are turned to any account by the natives, or are capable of yielding any products applicable to the purposes of commerce or domestic economy. These, and other similar inquiries, of the utmost impor- tance to the philosophical Zoologist, are within the ordinary range of daily observation to most gentle- men in India, with respect to many rare and interesting animals; whilst they are, generally speaking, attended with so little trouble, and at the same time productive of so much mental recreation and instruc- tion, that it is only surprising how much they have been heretofore neglected. One principal cause of the apathy which our countrymen in India have shown, if not in making, at least in recording, their observations on various branches of Natural History, may, indeed, have arisen from the want of some common central institution, where they could be properly arranged and published; but the establish- ment of the Zoological Society of London, and the unrivalled resources which it possesses, offer facilities for this purpose, which it is hoped will hereafter be made extensively available by Englishmen in all parts of the world. It is scarcely necessary to add, that any interesting details relative to the habits and manners of foreign animals, observed in their native climates, will be gladly received from any quarter, and published in the Proceedings of the Society ; especially if accompanied by the skins of the animals (the skulls, legs, and tail, being carefully preserved), for the purpose of identification. The Journal of the Asiatic Society contains numerous articles on Natural History, but its contributions in this department are fewer than could be wished: whilst the Bengal Sporting Magazine, hitherto in a great measure confined to mere journals of shooting excursions, might likewise be made a ready and appropriate medium for the publication of such observations; and the contributions of its various correspondents prove them abundantly qualified for this higher and more important object. These introductory observations being premised, I shall now proceed to enumerate such Mammals as I know to inhabit the great Himalayan Chain; and without following any formal arrangement, shall throw them into such natural groups or families, as appear best suited to illustrate their geographical distribution with respect to climate and temperature, the principal object of the present Memoir. QUADRUMANA. Throughout Bengal and the northern provinces of British India, there appear to be only two species of Simice, the Hoonuman (Semnopithecus Entellus), and the Bhunder (Papio Rhesus) ; both of which ascend the hills to a very considerable elevation during the siminer heats, and return again to the plains at the commencement of the cold season. This migration is a very interesting fact in the history of these Simie ; it is the only instance of a similar phenomenon, which has been recorded of this family of Mammals, and may become of great value in its application to geological reasoning on the climate and temperature of Europe during the tertiary epochs, i in the deposits of which periods the bones of Apes and Monkeys have lately been found, associated with the remains of Pachydermata, and other inhabitants of more tropical latitudes. The Hoonuman, called Lungoor by the Hill tribes, is not unfrequently found at an elevation of from 9,000 to 11,000 feet, as among the Pine forests in the neighbourhood of Choor, and sometimes even at the verge of the snow-line. Nay, it even appears to have succeeded in crossing the mountains ; Turner* mentions having seen a large troop of these monkeys and is capable of subsisting in a state of nature, at a considerable elevation, and a comparatively low — temperature, is sufficiently evinced by these facts, as well as by the testimony of Fraser,+ Tre it * Journey to Thibet, p. 147. + Journey in the Himalayas, p. 351. in Bootan, where they are held in the same veneration as in Hindustan; and that it has found its way, ees Ix MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. and other intelligent travellers. Dr. Royle found it common enough in the neighbourhood of Hurdwar in April, and on Tuen and Manma at 9,000 feet of elevation in the latter end of May and in June. The Bhunder, Bender, or Bandar, the Common Monkey of Bengal and Upper India (Papio Rhesus), though said by Mr. Hodgson to exist in the central regions of Nepal, only in the vicinity of the temples, and in a semi-domestic state, whence he conjectures it to have been introduced from religious motives, is also reported to abound in Kumaon; and it is highly probable, that the nearly allied species (Papio Assamensis) lately discovered by Mr. M‘Clelland in Assam, ascends the more eastern hills, as its congener does the central and western ranges. Of this, however, we have no positive knowledge, though the close affinity of the animals gives a strong degree of probability to the fact ; but the various species of Monkeys which Mr. Fraser thinks may be found along the upper courses of the Jumna and Ganges, rest on more questionable authority ; and it is not unlikely that this intelligent traveller, as indeed he has himself conjectured, was deceived by distance, variety of size, and other circumstances, which give a very different appearance to individuals of the same species. Mr. Hodgson* gives the Bonnet Monkey (Cercopithecus radiatus) as a native of Nepal; but this species is confined, as far as at present known, to the Peninsula and western coast of India, and seems to have been confounded by Mr. H. with the Papio Rhesus, or Bhunder of Hindustan. The same gentleman, in a letter to the Zoological Society, written some years ago, mentions that his shooters were once alarmed in the Kachar, or Alpine regions of Nepal, by the appearance of a wild man, which walked erect, was covered with long dark hair, and had no tail. The improbability of finding a real Ape in such a situation led him to question the truth of the report; but it is well known that the woods of the lower ranges to the east of Nepal contain at least one species of Gibbon, Hylobates Scyritus, called Hooloo or Hooloc by the Assamese ; and it is not improbable that individuals may occasionally wander to the higher and more remote forests of the Central Hills. CHEIROPTERA. When it is recollected that of the sixteen species of Bats, now known to inhabit the British islands, no fewer than ten have been discovered within the last few years, it will not appear surprising that we should be so imperfectly acquainted with this department of Himalayan Mammalogy. Mr. Hodgson, indeed, is the only author who has furnished us with any details on the subject: his “* Synopsis of the Vespertilionide of Nepal,” published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. p.699, contains an enumeration of seven species of Cheiroptera: but, as he himself very candidly observes, his specific identifications must be received with considerable caution, from his want of access to extensive libraries and museums, for the purpose of comparison. Of the two species of Pteropus, for instance, which he has there briefly described under the names of P. leucocephalus and P. pyrivorus, the former does not appear to differ from the P. medius or Edwardsii of the Plains; and the probability of its identity with that species is increased by the fact, which Mr. Hodgson mentions, of its only _ visiting the temperate regions of Nepal during the autumn, returning of course to the more sultry _ plains of India on the approach of the cold season. The Pteropus rubicollis of Mr. M‘Clelland’s _ “list of objects of Natural History collected in Assam,” is likewise identical with the P. Ed- wardsii. The only other species of tailless Pteropus known to inhabit the continent of India, _ Pteropus Dussumieri, is very different in its characters from Pteropus medius; and as Dr. Royle brought undoubted specimens of this latter species from the lower hills a little farther west, it is but reasonable to suppose that it is equally common in Nepal, and consequently identical with Mr. * Proc. Zool. Soe. II. 96. Hele: _MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixi Hodgson’s animal. The Pteropus pyrivorus, to judge from the short description given by Mr. Hodgson, appears to be less questionably a new species: it belongs to the second section of the genus, having a short tail, partly free, and partly enveloped in the membrane, and derives its specifie name from the depredations which it commits among the ripe pears in the central regions of Nepal. The migratory habits ascribed to these Pteropi are common to the Pteropus poliocephalus of New South Wales, and many other species of the same genus; for these large frugivorous Cheiroptera are essen- tially tropical in their habitats, and only visit more temperate climates during the summer and autumn heats, when the ripe fruits tempt them to wander from their native regions. They are consequently but occasional visitors to the higher elevations and latitudes of the globe ; and the Pteropus dasymallus and Pteropus pselaphon, which have been hitherto observed only in Japan, comparatively a high latitude for these animals, do not probably form an exception to the general law. Of the Insectivorous Cheiroptera, a family far more abundantly and extensively dispersed over the surface of the globe, Mr. Hodgson indicates only five species as natives of Nepal. Three of these are described as Vespertiliones, by the specific names of formosa, fuliginosa, and labiata, and two as Rhinolophi, by the names of armiger and tragatus respectively ; but without a more careful exami- nation and comparison with other species than Mr. Hodgson had it in his power to make, it is impos- sible to say how far these Bats may be distinct from, or identical with, species already described. One thing at least is certain, that the temperate and more elevated regions of the Himalayas must contain many species of Jnsectivorous Cheiroptera, still unknown or undistinguished, besides those enumerated by Mr. Hodgson ; it has been already observed, that this section of the family is very widely and generally distributed in temperate climates; and the rich harvest which has attended the researches of British naturalists, within the last few years, in their own country, ought to stimulate our Indian brethren to a pursuit which cannot fail to be rewarded by still more extensive discoveries. It would be extremely interesting, for example, to procure a complete series of Himalayan Bats, with the seasons, temperatures, and elevations at which they were captured carefully noted down, so as to compare them with analogous species of higher latitudes, and thus ascertain what law of succession the different forms may follow, or within what limits they may be confined in respect to temperature, in their geographical distribution over the surface of the earth. Speaking of these Jnsectivorous Bats, Mr. Hodgson observes, that “they are neither migratory nor subject to hibernation ;” two properties which in more northern climates would be considered incompatible with one another, and which even in the central regions of the Himalayas require a very careful revision before they can be admitted as established facts. I am not aware that these animals ever migrate in any climate; hibernation is the resource which nature has provided to preserve them during the season when their natural food disappears ; and it is the general opinion, that even within the tropics, the Insect-feeding Bats go to ‘sleep at certain seasons, as they do throughout the winter in more northern latitudes : should the fact be otherwise, it would prove a highly interesting addition to our knowledge of their habits ; but it is possible that Mr. Hodgson may have been led into error, by the casual appearance of a few individuals during an occasional fine evening, as sometimes occurs in Britain even in the depth of winter. The subject is well worth the attention of Indian Zoologists. INSECTIVORA. Ascending gradually from the frugivorous Cheiroptera of the Plains of India, fia visit thi. hills os | only during the summer heats, through the insectivorous genera of the same family, which remain = : : throughout the whole year, we next come to the Insectivora, properly so called; a family which 2 . au belongs almost exclusively to the temperate regions of the earth ; and of which it is therefore extremely aoe es: xii MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. interesting to find the common forms of Europe and Northern Asia occurring in the analogous climates of the Himalayas. No fewer than three distinct species of Hedgehogs, for instance, have been described from the Western Hills: Erinaceus spatangus, a small dark-coloured species, not more than twice the size of a large mouse ; Erinaceus Grayjii, of a grizzled black and yellow, from the spines being annulated with these two colours, rather smaller than the common European species ; and Erinaceus collaris, by some supposed to be identical with EF. Grayii, but easily distinguished by a white collar half surrounding the neck. All these species, however, require a careful revision; they are founded on single specimens, those of the two former deposited in the Zoological Society’s Collec- tion, that of the last in the British Museum, and of which a figure is published in the Indian Zoology of Messrs. Hardwick and Gray. It is possible that more extensive and accurate observation may prove the whole three to be identical: at all events, it is certain that one, either of these, or a different species (Erinaceus indicus of Royle’s Illustrations, &c. p. 6), inhabits the neighbourhood of Delhi, where it would be interesting to observe the phenomena attending its hibernation, such as the temperature of its body, the nature of its respiration, &c. during the period of repose. Mr. Hodgson, in the letter to the Zoological Society, already referred to, denies that there are any Hedgehogs in Nepal, but mentions a small dull slaty-blue variety of the common Indian Shrew or Musk Rat (Sorex indicus), as common in the lower and central regions, to which he speaks of it as being confined. Other species no doubt exist in the more temperate parts of the mountains, though their small size and shy habits screen them from observation. ‘The same gentleman mentions the Mole (Talpa), as abounding in the Kachar, or northern region of Nepal, and Traill* says it is common in Kemaon; but no one appears to have described, or even examined it, and we are ignorant of every thing relating to it, except the name. It will probably prove to be a distinct species from its European congener, if it exist at all; but the question is involved in great doubt, and is well worthy of a careful examination. CARNIVORA PLANTIGRADA. _ Of this family, the majority of which likewise belong to the temperate regions of the earth, various forms and species occur among the Himalayas. First, of the genus Ursus, we have the Bhaloo, or Common Bear of India (Ursus labiatus), and, according to Mr. Hodgson,+ the Malay Bear (Ursus Malayanus), inhabiting the Turai, or sultry regions, at the base of the mountains, to which localities he appears to intimate that they are confined. But the habitat here assigned to the Malay Bear is | extremely doubtful. It rests solely on the authority of Mr. Hodgson, who, from the want of proper _ means of comparison, is often mistaken in the identification of species; moreover, we have never _ received this animal from any part of Continental India, but only from the great islands of the Indian Archipelago ; and it is therefore not improbable that it may have been in this instance confounded with — the Ursus Thibetanus, which, from the general similarity of the two species, may have readily hap- _ pened. Mr. Hodgson, indeed, expressly mentions this latter species as an inhabitant of the Central . and Northern regions of Nepal; and Dr. Royle informs me, that it is confined among the more - western hills, to the Doon and warm valleys, where it is called Reech by the natives. Lieut. T. Smith, . of the 15th: regi rim N.1., however, an officer well acquainted with the Mammals of the Himalayas, anda keen s sportsman, assures me that the Common Sloth Bear (Ursus labiatus) does not ascend above ~ the: nies pea IPA ead Mountain Chain of Northern India; that it is there replaced by the Reech or Reek, which occupies the whole of the more elevated hills, as far up as the snow line, where it is wancceded 2 in its turn Ru the wn or Yellow Bear (Ursus isabellinus), a species hitherto very imper- fectly * Asa Revers, vl x 153, | __ t Proc. Zool. Soe Soe., i. 96. MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. xiii fectly described, though mentioned by every tourist as extremely abundant in the higher regions of the Himalayas. Capt. Skinner* met with it in the neighbourhood of Bhairo Ghati; Traill+ found it in Kemaon, though he says it is peculiar to Bhot; and it is probably the Brown Bear mentioned by Mr. Fraser :{ so that upon the whole it appears, that whilst the Common Sloth Bear (Ursus labiatus) is on all hands admitted to be confined to the sultry plains of India, the Reech (Ursus thibetanws) succeeds it, as the legitimate representative of the European Bear (Ursus Arctos), and of its American analogue (Ursus americanus), in the middle or temperate regions of the hills, to be itself replaced among the frozen peaks of the higher mountains, by the Barji, or Yellow Bear of the Himalayas (Ursus isabellinus), a species in all respects analogous, in its colour and habitat, as well as in its decidedly carnivorous appetite, to its congener, the Polar or Sea Bear of the North (Ursus maritimus). Various animals, either belonging or closely allied to the Gluttons and Badgers (Gulo and Meles), pre-eminently northern forms, likewise inhabit the elevated ranges of the Himalayas. Among the lower terraces we have the Ratel (Rattelus mellivorus), called Peejoo by the Hindoos, which is common over all the plains of Northern India, and differs from the same animal, as found at the Cape of Good Hope, only in being of a lighter colour on the back. 'This wide distribution of the Carnivora, and the common occurrence of the same species in India, and the most remote parts of Africa, will be more particularly mentioned in the following article: Mr. Hodgson,§ under the erroneous impression that the Peejoo, which the Nepalese call Bharsiah, was an unknown animal, and evidently misled by some imperfect or faulty account of its dentition, has recently described it as a new genus under the name of Ursitaxus inauritus ; but the species has long been well known in Europe. M. F. Cuvier figured, and accurately described its teeth in the “ Dents des Mammiferes,” so long ago as the year 1825; and the late Mr. Bennett described and figured the animal itself in 1830, from an Indian specimen then living in the menagerie of the Zoological Society.|| The Balloo-soor, (perhaps more properly Bhalloo- soor ?), Meles coliaris,4{ which M. F. Cuvier likewise elevated to the rank of a generic form, under the name of Arctonyx, upon the faith of a distorted native drawing sent to him by M. Duvaucel, is a real Badger, and was described and figured by the celebrated Bewick, at least thirty years before M. Duvaucel’s visit to India. It inhabits the northern plains of Hindostan, and probably ascends the hills, but of this fact I have no certain information. Of the Gluttons, properly so called, the Gulo nepalensis of Mr. Hodgson, which does not differ specifically from the Gulo orientalis of Dr. Hors- field, the only distinction being in a lighter shade of ground colour, inhabits the lower terraces of the hills; whilst the Wah, or Chitwah (Ailurus fulgens) and the Benturong (Arctitis albifrons)** are said to be confined to the Kachar, and regions bordering on the snow-line. As regards the Wah, there is no doubt about the truth of the habitat here assigned to it; but the Benturong is a native of the Indian Archipelago, and of the Peninsula of Malacca; and I strongly suspect, that it has been con- founded with some other animal, poring: with Paradowurus bondar, or some closely allied species. The habitat of Bootan, assigned to it in the Regne Animal, is altogether erroneous. — _ Messrs. Gray | and Isidore Geoffroy have proposed to consider the Gulo nepalensis as the type of anew genus, the former under the name of Helictis moschata, the latter under that of Melogale personata. = CARNIVORA DIGITIGRADA. It was mentioned incidentally in the preceding article, that many species of ian ors doa ee to India, and the Continent of Africa ; and it is not a little singular, that this migration appears to have — — from west to east, and never in the a direction ; or, in othe hat & ckion te SR: t Asiat. Des, xvi. 16. " $ Journey, &e. p. 351. § Res. Asiat, Soc. xix., and Journal of Asiat. Soc., v. en. e ) Gard, and Menag., &c. i. 13. € Penny Cyclopzedia, iii. 264. -* Mr, Hodgson, in ot Pes lxiv MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. whilst the Carnivora of Africa have found their way freely into the neighbouring Continent, those of India have never passed the Arabian desert. I do not pretend to account for this. Perhaps it may depend upon the physical character of the two Continents, and the influence which this circumstance exerts in modifying the nature and habits of their respective inhabitants. The Lion of the burning Sahara, for instance, like the wild Taurick or Bedoween of the same regions, would find the parched deserts of Syria and Persia no barrier to his progress towards the East ; whilst, on the other hand, the Tiger of the moist jungles of Bengal could no more pass the arid plains of Arabia than the puny and luxurious Hindoo, accustomed to the same humid soil and atmosphere. But whatever may be its cause, the fact itself is as undoubted as it is interesting. ‘The common distribution of the Ratel over both Continents has been already mentioned. This animal is spread over the whole of Africa; it is common in every part of the Cape colony, and Denham and Clapperton brought it from Bornou ; and though its geographical limits have not been accurately ascertained in Asia, we know that it abounds on the plains of Northern India, which do not differ much in their physical structure from the Karroos of South Africa. So likewise the Lion (Felis Leo), the Leopard or Panther, for they are both the same species (Felis Pardus and Leopardus), the Cheetah (Felis jubata), the Persian and Red-eared Lynxes (Felis Caracal and Felis Chaus), the striped Hyena (Hyena virgata), and the Jackall (Canis aureus), all pre-eminently African species, are found in most parts of India, without offering any striking variety cither in form or colour; whilst the Tigers, Wolves, Paradoxures, &c. of the latter country have never passed far to the west of the Indus, and some of these are even without generic representation on the Continent of Africa: nor is it less singular that, as far at least as at present known, this migration should have been confined to the Carnivora. There is not a single authen- ticated instance of any of the numerous Antelopes in which Africa abounds above all other parts of the world, and which nature has peculiarly adapted to inhabit the most parched and arid deserts, having crossed the Isthmus of Suez, any more than of the various species of Deer so common throughout the whole extent of Asia having migrated in an opposite direction. If the various indications which Mr. Hodgson has given of the occurrence of species known to inhabit the great islands of the Indian Archi- : pelago, and the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, such as the Benturong (Arctitis albifrons), the Malay Bear (Ursus malayanus), and the Javanese Ichneumon (Herpestes javanica), in the forests of the Turai, which skirt the southern foot of the Himalayas, should turn out to be correct, (and it is certain that Felis minuta and Gulo orientalis are common to both these localities), it would appear that India Proper, besides its own appropriate Mammals, is a kind of neutral ground upon which the species of the most distant countries to the east and west of it meet and mingle together.* One fact, abundantly singular, but which I have never seen accounted for, is the alleged total absence of every species of the genus Canis, so numerous and so common throughout all parts of India, in Burma, Siam, and those other countries east of the Brahmapootra, which compose the great Malay Peninsula. This is a phenomenon well worth the attention of Indian Naturalists. As far as regards the occurrence of the Digitigrade Carnivora among the Himalayan Mountains, itis certain that the Lion, called Baug by the Indians, ascends the western hills to a very considerable elevation. _Mr. Frazer often heard of it during his journey to the sources of the Ganges and J umna,+ and Bemier, whilst travelling to Cashmere, in the train of Aurungzebe, had frequent opportunities of oe ticceirin Ue chace of this animal: the amusement was reserved for the Emperor alone, and the success of * See the observations on the distribution of Plants of different countries in India, p. 158. J.F.R. + [beg to observe here, that I frequently made inquiries on this subject, and could never learn anything positive on the subject ; nor had any of the numerous sportsmen to whom I spoke on the subject, ever seen a Lion or its skin, obtained from within the Himalayas. At seg the Lion i is Ibelieve only found to the west of the Jumna, especially on the edge of the desert, near Hansi. J.F.R. MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixv of a day’s sport was recorded by the Imperial Historiographer in the annals of the empire. The same indifference to climate characterises the Lion in Africa; in the time of Herodotus and Aristotle, he was common among the coldest mountains of Macedon; at the present day he is as often found among the snowy peaks of the Atlas, or on the chilly slopes of the Snueuberg, as in the desert of Barca, or on the banks of the Gareip. Travellers should look for him to the east of the Brahmapootra, as though not known to inhabit any part of Eastern India, the Burmese are said to have figures which can be intended for no other animal, and which can only have been drawn from the living model. The Tiger and Leopard are well known to inhabit every part of the Himalayas, even to the line of perpetual congelation: they exist equally in Japan, in the Caucasus, and in the Altai Mountains in Southern Siberia.* The Tiger of Bockhara is less than the Bengal variety, and chiefly confined to the Valley of the Oxus ;+ whilst in Japan he is covered with a thick coat of long soft fur, to protect him from the rigours of that northern climate. The Cheetah is said by Mr. Hodgson} to occur chiefly among the lower valleys of the Himalayas, but Pallas found it as far north as the Caspian Sea and the deserts of the Khirgis Tartars, so that it may possibly ascend the Hills to a greater height than has yet been suspected. Lieut. Smith mentions a small dark coloured variety of the Leopard, called Luckur-backer, extremely fierce, and common in every part of the Hills. Among the smaller species of the genus Felis, the Moormi Cat (Felis moormansis) first described by Mr. Hodgson, and hitherto observed only by that gentleman, as likewise the Felis bengalensis or nepalensis, are stated to inhabit the middle terraces of Nepal.t The Felis Viverrinus, first described by Mr. Bennett§ in 1833, and three years afterwards by Mr. Hodgson, under the nearly identical name of Felis Viverriceps,|| inhabits the lower terraces and valleys of the Turai. Felis Chaus, (called Biraloo in Nepal), of which I have compared numerous African and Indian specimens, extends over every part of the Hills: it is the Felis erythrotus of Mr. Hodgson ;|| and there is a specimen of a Hima- layan Cat in the Museum of the Zoological Society, so closely resembling the common Wild Cat of Europe, that it differs only in the absence of the dark transverse and longitudinal stripes which mark that species, and which may not improbably be a mere effect of locality. Mr. Hodgson] has described three species of Paradoxuri as inhabitants of the Southern, Central, and Northern regions of Nepal respectively, two of which at least I have seen from the more Western Hills ; P. Bondar (P. hirsutus, Hodg.) is confined to the Turai; P. nepalensis, Hodg. frequents the middle ranges of the mountains, and P. larvatus, (P. lanigerus? Hodg.) is only found in the higher regions. Two species of Mungoos (Herpestes) likewise inhabit the lower terraces; H. griseus, called Nyool in Nepal, does not extend beyond the Turai, but H. Edwardsii (H. auropunctata, Hodg.)§ ascends the central hills; whilst Viverra Rasse and indica, and Viverra raat Me _ to ee the same localities respectively. ; nee The true Mustela, a genus proper to more northern latitudes, abound in the tdines, where there appear to be many different species, some of which, according to Mr. Hodgson, differ but little from those of Northern Europe and Asia. It is to be remarked, however, that they have never been properly compared ; but it is interesting to find this additional instance of the relation between generic forms and climate. In the central region, besides Mustela flavigula, Mr. Hodgson mentions two closely allied species, one larger and of a fuller habit of body, (query, Paradoxurus larvatus?); the other, which he has described under the name of Mustela Kathiah, is much smaller, and often domesticated by the Nepalese for the purpose of destroying vermin, and sometimes even large animals.** This appears to _ Se be the Kukar of Kemaon, where it likewise frequents the villages, burrows in the walls of ——e — is : " * Pallas Zoog, Ros.,i. 16. + Burnes’ Travels, ii. 178. ¢ Zool. Proc., ii. 97. § Zool. Proc., i. 68. | Journ. Asiat. Soc., v. 232. q Asiat. Res., xix, I. 72. ** Journ. As. Soc.. » iv. 703. as a ee pe Ixvi MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. similarly protected by the inhabitants.* The Mustela lanigera of Mr. Hodgson resembles the common Weasel of Europe, but differs in its spirally twisted hair; and the same gentleman mentioned another species so nearly approaching our common Pole-cat, that he is unable to perceive any specific difference ; however it will probably turn out to be distinct. Both these latter species abound in the northern and central regions. No fewer than seven species of Otters are said by Mr. Hodgson to inhabit the Himalayas; but they require to be carefully studied and compared, before we can venture to pronounce definitely upon their specific distinction. It is certain, indeed, that several species do actually exist in these Hills ; Mr. Hodgson has himself given brief characters of four which he regards as new,+ besides the two common species of the plains, (Lutrae Nair and Leptonyx), and seems to intimate that the seventh may be no more than a variety of the common European Otter.t The following is the substance of Mr. Hodgson’s observations in the letter already referred to, and I give them at length in the hope that they may induce other observers to co-operate with that gentleman in filling up the sketch of which he has given an outline. “Of Lutra we have seven species, five differing from the two usually found in the plains, as well as from all described species, except the common Otter (L. vulgaris), of which the largest Nepal species seems to be only a variety. It is five feet long, including the tail, and is the largest, though not the longest of our species. It is peculiar to the lower region, where also three other species inhabit: two more belong to the central, and one to the Kachar. One species is yellowish brown all over; the others brown, more or less dark, some having the chin and throat much paler than the rest of the body, and approaching nearly to white or yellow. They differ in length from five feet to one and a half feet ; some being quite vermiform, and others as bulky as the Badger. Detailed descrip- tions, skulls, and skins of these animals, are much want Of the genus Canis, different species are found everywhere. The common Pariah Dog is universally dispersed through the mountains, but the Thibet Mastiff is confined to the Kachar, into which it is imported from its native country. There are many distinct varieties of this noble animal. That called Sassa, a large black kind, with dew claws on the hind feet, is esteemed the finest: another called Mustang is of a bright red colour. The common ‘Wild Dog, called simply Janglee Coota in the Plains and Buansu in Nepal (Canis Duckunensis of Sykes, and C. primeevas of Hodgson) is only found in the lower regions, but is replaced farther up by two other wild species, likewise called Jwnglee Coota by English sportsmen. Lieut. Smith informs me that one of these is larger and the other smaller than the Junglee Coota of the Plains, from which they both differ in having shorter tails and a lighter or more ashy colour: both species ascend the Hills even to the snow line; they hunt in packs, and inhabit ravines and rocky dells ; but, being excessively shy, are not very often seen. The Junglee Coota of the Plains, in other respects, does not appear to me to differ from the Canis Sumatrensis of Genera Hardwicke. The Kokree, or small Indian fox (Canis Corsac, Indicus, Bengalensis, Kokree, &c.); and the Berria, or Wolf of India (Canis pallipes, Sykes), never ascend the Hills. The Jackal (Canis aureus), : is however occasionally said to be found in the central regions; but the higher mountains are inhabited _ bya very beautiful species of Fox, which Dr. Royle first noticed as the Hill Fox,§ and of which he brought home the first skin ever seen in England, and which was described at the time in the present a memoir, and afterwards in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, Part iv. p: 103, by the name oo : eur — Mr. Pearson, then Curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, = kewise escrib it about the same time as the latter;|] and as he had a few months priority in point of publ ication, his: name of Canis montana must have the preference. The Hyena of India — virgata), a native of the Plains, sometimes ascends even to Simla. RODENTIA * Asiat. Res., xvii. 16. + Journ, As, Soc., viii, 319. § Journ. As, Soc. 71, p. 99, 1832, ¢ Letter to Zool. Soc. | Journ, As, Soc., vy. 113, MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixvil RODENTIA. The remark which was formerly made to account for our limited knowledge of the Cheiroptera and Insec- tivora of these mountains, may be applied with equal force to the present family ; viv. that the compara- tively diminutive size and timid habits of the animals which compose it screen them from general obser- vation. Still we have much more detailed accounts of the Himalayan Rodentia than of either of the two former families, though even these are far from being so complete as could be wished. The striped Squirrel of the Plains (S$. palmarum) is, according to Mr. Hodgson,* abundant in the lower hills of Nepal; and I have seen a second species (Sciurus Lokriah, Hodg.) of the same size, but of a uniform earthy brown colour, tipped with golden yellow, which is said to be an inhabitant of the central regions. Mr. Hodgson mentions a third (S'. Lokroides) similar to the latter, and perhaps not spe- cifically distinct. Two beautiful species of flying Squirrelt (Pteromys magnificus and P. alboniger, Hodg.) are found both in the northern and central regions, but do not extend to the very elevated parts of the mountains.§ Here, however, are found a small brown kind of Marmot, called Bhia\\ by the natives, hitherto undescribed ; and an equally undescribed species of Rat, with a tail not more than half an inch in length, most probably a Lemming (Georychus, Illiger), if it be not rather a Lagomys, of which rare and essentially arctic genus Dr. Royle has brought a beautiful specimen from the Choor Mountain. Capt. Herbert, in his tour up the Valley of the Sutlej,|| met with this tailless rat at an elevation of 12,000 feet, and observes that the ground was every where cut up into groves by it in search of food. He conjectures the animal to be a species of Spalax, but Dr. Royle is rather disposed to think that it was no other than the Lagomys, as he observed the ground similarly cut up in the vicinity of the spot where he obtained his specimen. The circumstance of the tail, however, which, short as it is, is expressly mentioned by both Capt. Herbert and Mr. Traill, appears to me to preclude Dr. Royle’s supposition, since the Lagomys of the Himalayas, like the rest of its congeners, is absolutely without any rudiment of this organ. It is not improbable, indeed, that species of all the three genera here mentioned may be found among the more elevated ridges of the Himalayas, of which the climate is perfectly adapted to their habits: and it is to be hoped that future observers will direct their attention ‘ to the elucidation of this, as well as the numerous other unsettled points of Himalayan Mammalogy, to which I have already been so frequently obliged to refer. Dr. Falconer, in the report of his recent journey to Cashmere and Little Thibet, mentions a Rodent under the name of the Thibet Marmot, which he says was first found in a bleak and rocky tract of country, immediately after passing to the northern slope of the great Himalayan range; but we have no farther knowledge of its characters: however, this is precisely the locality in which Mammals of this 2 description might naturally be expected to abound. Rats and Mice, differing little, if at all, from our common European species, are abundant in all the houses. Mr. _ Hodgson, | indeed, expressly states that both our black and brown, or Norway rats, (Mus Rattus and M. decumanus), are the common “species of Nepal, and Mr. Traill mentions them incidentally ; as inhabitants of the province of Kemaon. This _ is another interesting and important point of similarity between the Zoology of the Himalayas ond that of the more northern parts of Europe and Asia; nor can we attribute the presence of these animals, in this part of the globe, to the introduction of European conquerors, as is well ascertained to have been “the case in America] and Australia, since they are confined to the mountains, and altogether unknown in the Plains of India, except perhaps in some of the larger seaports. They must consequently have travelled south to reach their present habitat ; and, no doubt, exist in Thibet, Tartary, and other inter mediate countries, where the climate is suitable, as far as Northern Asia, from which at least one og the | Proc, Zool. Soe., ii. 98. + Asiat. Res, xvi, 153, prs on § Journ. As. Soc., v, 252. {| Asiat. Res., xv. 5. { Proc. noe each 98. Ixviii MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. species (M. decumanus) is said to have been originally introduced into Europe. Besides these, Mr. Hodgson describes two other species (Mus niviventur and M. nemorivagus) as peculiar to the Himalayas ; and I have received a Rat from Dr. Royle, which in the dried state of the specimen I cannot distinguish from the common European Campagnol (Arvicola vulgaris), a fact the more interesting from this genus being confined to the temperate and colder regions of the Old World. The Bandicoot, or great Rat of the Plains (M. giganteus) does not exist in Nepal ;* but various kinds of Field Mice, of what precise species is not mentioned, are stated to be sufficiently common.-+ The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata var. leucarus, Sykes) is found in Kemaon,} and the lower and central regions of Nepal.§ _ Mr. Hodgson || mentions two species of Hares as inhabiting Nepal. One he calls the common small species, (probably the black-necked Hare of F. Cuvier, ‘ Lepus nigricollis’), which, he says, is confined to the Turai; the other, which he considers a new species, as large as the common English Hare and nearly resembling it, inhabits the higher and colder parts of the mountains. This is probably the red- tailed Hare of M. Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire,@] (L. ruficaudatus), of which Dr. Royle obtained a specimen at Hurdwar (?), and which, he informs me, is very common in the Doon and in the neigh- bourhood of Delhi. As M. Is. Geoffroy’s short description of this species is necessarily imperfect, from the mutilated state of the only skin which he had an opportunity of examining, the following more detailed account will not be unacceptable to the scientific Zoologist :— The skin obtained by Dr. Royle is that of a full-grown female ; it isin perfect condition, and measures one foot ten inches from the nose to the origin of the tail : the ears are about five inches in length, and the tail fourinches. The face, back and sides are regularly brindled, or variegated with alternate wavy linesof black and light sandy brown, arising from the hairs on those parts being annulated with these two colours. The whole coat is short, smooth and glossy ; it consists of a short fine internal fur, of a cottony texture, and pale bluish white colour, and of a long, coarse, external hair, which, as just observed, is annulated with black and light sandy brown, and gives the general colour to the upper parts of the body. In the distribution of these colours, each hair is divided into three equal parts, the top and bottom being black, and the centre light reddish brown. ‘The dark colour predominates most on the face, hips, and along the median line of the back, but becomes gradually fainter upon the shoulders and flanks, and is sepa-— _rated from the pure white of the belly by a narrow band of pale rufous. The cheeks are grey, pointed or intermixed with black; a light grey spot occupies the space in front of each eye; the chin is also grey, and the moustaches long and stiff, black at the roots and grey at the points. The ears appear to be reddish brown tipped with black, but the hair has been partly rubbed off in the specimen described, which prevents me from speaking with certainty. The whole upper part of the neck is pure unmixed sandy red, the fur being of the same quality as the internal fur upon other parts of the body, and without any intermixture of the long external silky hairs. The outer face of the arms, the whole of the _ fore legs, and the outer face of the hind, are also red ; the tail red, or rather reddish brown above, and | : pure white beneath; and the belly and under parts of the body unmixed white. The animal had pro- __bably been killed whilst suckling her young, as the skin exhibited four very large teats, one pair on the breast and the other on the abdomen. These were all I could observe, but there may have been more, of ‘asthe akin had been a good deal rubbed about these parts. . But by far the most interesting and unexpected acquisition, which Dr. Royle’s discoveries among the Bivmaiale has produced to the Zoologist, is a new and beautiful species of Lagomys, a genus heretofore - found i in Nor ern Asia and among the rocky mountains in North America. This discovery, of _ *Asiat. Res., xvi. 153. == Riehardson Faun. Bor. Amer., i. 140-1. } Journ, As. Soc., v. 234. /§ Proc. Zool. Soc., ii, 97,98. -——‘ Traill in Asiat. Res, xvi, 153. { Dict. Class., ix. 381. fe _MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS, lxix the greatest importance to our inquiries into the principles which regulate the geographical distribution of animals, is entirely due to Dr. Royle, and furnishes another, and a most glaring instance of the para- mount influence of climate upon the dispersion of animals, as well as of vegetables. Unfortunately, the only skin which Dr. Royle has brought to England, is too imperfect to admit of so detailed a description as would be desirable. The skull has been taken out, (it is now in the Museum of University Col- lege, and, Professor Grant informs me, exhibits the same form of dentition as the other species of Lagomys described by Drs. Pallas and Richardson), and the hind legs cut off, but in other respects it is in a sufficiently good state of preservation to enable me to assign its specific characters. I propose, under the specific denomination of Lagomys Roylii, to dedicate it to my friend Dr. Royle, in comme- moration of the important service which that distinguished Botanist has rendered by its discovery to the kindred science of Zoology, v. Tab. 4, where the animal and its dentition are figured. The L. Roylit more nearly resembles the Sulgan (L. pusillus, Pallas), and the American species (L. princeps, Richardson), than either the Pica or Ogotona (L. alpinus and Ogotona of Pallas). With the exception of the Pica, however, it is considerably larger than any other species of Lagomys : the skin here described, notwithstanding its imperfect state—for the hinder parts have been partially mutilated, measuring eight and a half inches in length, which is more than one-third as large again as the Ogotona, Sulgan or American species. From the Ogotona, however, it is easily distinguished by its colours, which, in that species, are light grey above and pure white beneath, as well as by its naked soles. The triangular form of the ears in L. pusillus, prevents that animal from being confounded with any other species, and the Pica (L. alpinus), which alone approaches the size of L. Roylii, is at once distinguished by the sandy red colour of its fur. The L. princeps of Dr. Richardson is the only remaining species of the genus at present known; it is very similar to our animal in the colour and quality of the fur, but may be readily distinguished by its inferior size, and by the deep black hair which covers the external surface of its ears, and which is replaced in L. Roylii by long fur of a pure white colour. The fur of this species is of two kinds, a very soft and fine internal one of a beautiful blue black over every part of the head and body, as well above as below, and a coarser external kind, of the same colour at the base, but afterwards marked with a broad ring of a greyish yellow colour, and finally tipped with dark brown. These two kinds of fur, however, are not produced by an actual difference in the indivi- dual hairs; on the contrary, the same hairs exhibit both the appearances here described, being extremely soft and fine at the root, and assuming a harsh and rigid structure towards the extremity. These harsh tips, being the only parts of the fur seen from without, give their general colour to the whole body. On the upper parts of the body, the head, back and sides, this is uniform brown, slightly mixed with yellowish grey, very dark on the back, much more so, for instance, than in the common Rat (M. Decumanus), but rather paler on the sides, and yellowish white on the belly; the hairs on this part wanting the harsh brown point, though in other respects perfectly similar to those of the back. The fur on the body is about an inch in length, and nearly as long on the head, which gives the face a rough shaggy appearance. The nose is entirely covered with short harsh hair of a uniform brown colour ; the upper lip is bilobed as in the Hare; the ears are of an elliptical form with regularly rounded tops, covered internally with very short brown hair, and on the outside with long white hair at the base, and short brown at the top, the posterior edges having a scarcely perceptible narrow white border. They are about half an inch broad and three quarters of an inch in length, with a small internal lobe about a quarter of an inch long, and have the folding inwards of the anterior margin, and, consequently, the | resulting funnel shape of their basal portions, which Pallas noticed in the species of Northern Asia. — 2 Dr. Richardson could observe nothing of this appearance in his L. princeps, but I presume this must ns in a part so liable to be injured, since an individual have arisen from the imperfect state of his specime Ixx MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. in the British Museum exhibits the structure too obviously to have otherwise escaped the notice of that accurate Zoologist. The vibrissze of L. Roylii are nearly as long as the head and ears together, and of a uniform brown colour. The arms and fore-arms, and, I presume, the thighs and legs, for, as I have already observed, the posterior members are wanting in the specimen, are covered with fur of the same colour and quality as that on the body, only shorter; but the whole upper face of the carpus, and probably also of the tarsus, is covered with short adpressed hair of a bright reddish yellow colour. The soles of the fore feet present four naked tubercles, corresponding to the extremities of the toes, and a fifth, considerably farther back, which represents the heel, and is separated from the others by a space covered with very short brown hair. The thumb is situated behind the other toes, and, like them, has a small sharp claw of a dusky horn colour. Dr. Royle obtained his specimen on the Choor Mountain. I take it to be this animal which Captain Mundy* met with during his interesting tour recently published, and which he describes as something between a hare and a guinea-pig; and it is probably, also, the tailless rat which Turner observed. in Thibet, where the banks of a lake were everywhere perforated by its burrows.{ EDENTATA. Of this family, the only species known to inhabit the Continent of Asia, the short-tailed Manis, or Scaly Anteater of authors (Manis pentadactyla of Linneus, M. macroura of Desmarest) is found in the lower and less elevated parts of the central regions: but all the Edentata are essentially inhabitants of the warmer parts of the earth, more especially of tropical America, and we cannot therefore expect to find their forms reproduced in the Himalayas. Mr. Hodgson has described the Manis of Nepal as a new species, under the name of M. auritus,§ on the supposition of its being distinct from the common species of the plains of Upper India, the Badjarkita of the Bengalese (M. macroura), which has been known ever since the expedition of Alexander the Great, and is mentioned by A®lian under the name of Parray ne ; but Mr. Hodgson in this, as in many other instances, has been misled by Griffith’s Transla- tion of the Regne Animal, a compilation which has obtained a much greater authority in India than its merits entitle it to, or than it enjoys at home. PACHYDERMATA. The great Saul Forest, which extends for many hundred miles along the bases of the Himalayan Mountains, affords shelter to vast multitudes of animals, of which it is probable that many species still remain undescribed. Among other genera, the large Pachydermata abound in these situations ; the Elepnant and Rhinoceros (Elephas indicus and Rhinoceros unicornis), are extremely numerous; and in the rainy season, or in times of scarcity, make frequent inroads into the lower hills, and commit great depredations among the crops of the natives. The Indian Rhinoceros affords a remarkable instance of the obstructions which the progress of knowledge may suffer, and the gross absurdities which not unfrequently result from the wrong application of a name. This animal, to whose horn the superstition of the Persians and Arabs has in all ages attributed peculiar virtues, became known to the Greeks _ through the description of Ctesias, a credulous physician of that nation, who appears to have resided at the court of Persia in the time of the younger Cyrus, about 400 years before the birth of Christ. His - account, though mixed up with great deal of credulous absurdity, contains a very tolerable and per- | fectly recognizable description of the Rhinoceros, under the ridiculous name, however, of the Indian sce Ass ; * Tour in India, II., 196. t Journey to Thibet, 211. ¢ I have since seen perfect specimens of this animal, but have nothing to add to the description here given. § Journ. As. Soc, V. 234, : PR MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixxi Ass ; and as he attributed to it a whole hoof, like the horse, and a single horn in the forehead, specula~ tion required but one step further to produce the fabulous Unicorn, such as it appears in the royal arms of England, and such as it has retained its hold on popular credulity for the last two thousand years. ‘The works of Ctesias have perished, but this curious passage is preserved by Phocius;* Aristotle adopted his statements regarding the Indian Ass, from Ctesias; and no other passage of his writings has given rise to a tenth part of the commentaries, discussions, and speculations which have originated. in this. Religion was, as usual, pressed into the discussion, and as the Septuagint had used the word Monoceros, it was at one time next to rank heresy to doubt the existence of the Unicorn, and might have brought the imprudent sceptic to the stake. But it is not my intention to renew this fruitless and childish discussion ; my only wish is to point out the perfect applicability of Ctesias’s description to the Indian Rhinoceros, as it is now well known to naturalists; those who wish to pursue a subject of consi- derable interest in the history of human knowledge, will find many curious details in the writings of the learned Bochart,{ in Scaliger, Hardouin, Sivry, and others of the older commentators on Aristotle andl Pliny. Wild Hogs, but of a smaller variety than those of Bengal, are extremely numerous in all the wooded parts of the mountains ; they donot appear to be specifically different from the common wild boar or Europe. Horses do not breed on the southern face of the mountains, but are imported from Thibet.§ A valuable and sure-footed variety, called Tangun, is described by Turner.|| The Ass does not appear to have been introduced into any part of the mountains, at least neither Dr. Hamilton nor Mr. Hodgson makes any allusion to its being found in Nepal,4] and Mr. Traill expressly states that it does not exist in Kemaon.** The Dziggetai, however, (Equus hemionus), is found on the plains of Thibet and Tartary, and is called Kiang by the natives. : RUMINANTIA. The Ruminantia of the Himalayas, as composed of the larger four-footed game most commonly followed by sportsmen, are probably better known than any other department of Hill Mammalogy. Yet even here much still remains to be done to make us thoroughly acquainted with all the different species or varieties which have been mentioned by Mr. Hodgson++ and other writers ; the nomenclature, in parti- cular, is extremely confused, and there is strong reason to believe that the number of species, particularly among the deer tribe, has been greatly increased by the variety of names given to the same animal in the ever varying dialects of the hill tribes. I have, however, only mentioned those of which the exist- ence is known with some degree of certainty. : ae The Musk (Moschus moschiferus), called Kastooree, is not uncommon in the higher hills. It is said to derive its peculiar odoriferous secretion from feeding on the Kastooree plant, a kind of ground nut, which is strongly impregnated with the same pungent scent, and which the animal digs up with its long tusk. Mr. Hodgson, in a recent number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society,t! 3g expresses his belief in the existence of three different species ‘of this animal among the ‘Himalayas, and even assigns them dis- tinct names; but the characters are founded entirely on the difference of colour, which i is too variable to be depended on for the purpose of specific distinction ; and, in fact, Lieut. Smith assures me that the colours vary with the age of the animal ; a remark on which Iam disposed to place the greater reliance from its agreeing with my own observations, made on many individuals preserved i in the museums of this country and the Continent. Whether the “Second species of Musk,” mentioned by Dr. Falconer s having been discovered during his recent journey into Cashmere and Little Thibet, be founded on more : * Photii Biblioth. cod., 72, p. 91. T Hist., lib. ii., c. 1. + Hierozoi, lib. iii., cd age § Mundy’s Tour, ii., 75. ~«. © Praser’s Journey, p. 351. § Hamilton's Nepaul, 19 ~ ee ** Journey, Zl. z ' + t Asiat. Res., xvi., 351. } # New Series, 1,20 ee ee k 2 oe Ixxn MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. important characters, we have no means of ascertaining, that Naturalist not having yet published his observations. Of the genus Cervus, the Chittra or Spotted Axis (C. aais), and the Laguna or Para and Stigoriah, called also Jhou Laghuna and Khar Laguna, or spotted and brown varieties of the Hog-deer (C. por- cinus) are common in the lower hills and forests, but do not ascend the mountains. The specific distinc- tion or identity of the two latter animals has long been a subject of dispute among naturalists; Lieut. Smith believes that the spotted variety is only the young; but I have myself seen animals at least three or four years old, with a row of spots on each side of the spine, though, at the same time, I do not believe them to be distinct from the plain coloured or common brown variety, with which they perfectly agreed in every other respect. The subject is worth the attention of those who have an opportunity of settling the question. Three other species of the Axine group of deer are mentioned by Mr. Hodgson, under the collective name of Jarai, but individually distinguished by the Nepalese as the Phiisro, Rato, and Kalo, or hoary, red, and black Jarais respectively. The two former have been identified with the Cervus Hippelaphus and Cervus equinus of Cuvier, the latter certainly without foundation, and the former at least very doubtful ; the third, said to be undescribed, is probably the C. Aristotelis of Cuvier ; but the truth is, that we know very little about them, nor are these different species mentioned by any other author besides Mr. Hodgson. The Cervus Hippelaphus, indeed, called Sawmer or Sambre in the Plains, is well known in this country, where he has long existed in our menageries, and is probably the C. Aristotelis, which is familiarly called Ek in the Hills, and of which the native name in the British hill provinces is Jerow for the male, and Maha for the female, names which have been not unfrequently applied to different species ; of the Phisro, or Hoary Jarai of Mr. Hodgson, which, what- ever else it may be, is certainly not the C. equinus, since that species does not inhabit Continental India, nothing is known but the name, if, indeed, it be not a mere variety of sex or age. Lieut. Smith describes the Jerow of the Hills as a larger and heavier animal, and with finer horns, than the Saumer of the Plains: the tan and black colours of these two species appears to identify them with the Rato and Kalo Jarais of Mr. Hodgson. No fewer than three species of deer, with characters approaching to those of the common stag (C. Elaphus) of Europe, have been mentioned as inhabitants of Nepal. T'wo of these, the Cervus Wallichii and Cervus Duvaucellii of Cuvier, are known, though not so perfectly as could be wished; the third, which has been identified with the common stag, appears to be founded upon error. Mr. Hodgson has briefly described the Cervus Duvaucellii under the name of C. Elaphoides, and I have seen a full-grown male in the Zoological Gardens ; the comparison of the skull figured by Mr. Hodgson* with the horns in the Ossemens Fossiles leaves no doubt as to the identity of the species. It is called in Nepal Baraiya, and, according to Mr. Hodgson, Maha in the Western Hills, a name which, as observed above, Licut. Smith applies to the female Jerow. Cervus Wallichii, called Bérah Singha, is mentioned by Mr. Waltert+ as an inhabitant of the mountains of Silhet, and by Mr. Hodgson,+ who confounds it with the common stag, as found in the Saul Forest, which skirts the foot of the Nepal Mountains, whence it was originally sent to Calcutta by Dr. Wallich. _ There is no grounds for supposing the existence of a third species of _ this group in the Himalayas, identical with the Red Deer of Europe (C. Elaphus), though the fact is distinctly stated both by Duvaucel and Mr. Hodgson :§ these authors appear to have mistaken the C. | Wallichii. for that animal, though the specific distinction was afterwards well known to Duvaucel, who sent to Baron Cuvier the description published in the “ Ossemens Fossiles.” Dr. Falconer mentions the discovery of a new species of deer in the Report of his recent Journey to Cashmere and Little Thibet,|| | and . Journ. Roy. As. Sees IV., 648. E: T Asiat. Res., xvii, 499. t Loe. Cit. § Asiat. Reg., xv., 120. | Journ, Asiat. Soc., iv., 710. MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixxill and Dr. Royle has figured (tab. 5, fig. 1) a female under the name of C. Dodur, by which it is known about Saharunpore. He describes it as being about the size of the female Hirn (Antilope cervicapra), lighter and more graceful than the Hog-deer, and of an ashy brown colour ; but this is all I know of the animal, nor do I find it even mentioned by any other writer. It appears to be unquestionably a new species, and is well worth the attention of Indian naturalists. Of the Muntjac tribe of deer, I am acquainted with three distinct species inhabiting the Indian con- tinent : one entirely black (C. melas), one of a light sandy fawn colour, probably the Ratwa of the Nepalese (C. ratwa, Hodg.), and the third the common Muntjac, called Kacker by the natives, and Barking Deer by the Europeans (C. Muntyjac, Lin.), of a deeper bay and much smaller size than the Ratwa: the former is scarcely the size of the Roe-buck (C. Capreolus) ; the latter nearly equals the Fallow Deer (C. Dama, Lin.) Dr. Royle has figured the “ Barking Deer” of the North Western Himalayas, v. tab. 5, fig. 2, under the name of Cervus Rutwa, conceiving it to be identical with Mr. Hodgson’s species. Al] these animals may be readily distinguished from the other species of Deer, by their long projecting tusks, horns mounted upon Jong bony pedicles, and the glandular folds of skin on the forehead. They require, however, to be more attentively examined, and compared with one another. Of Hollow-horned Ruminants, the Ghoral and Thar (Antilope Ghoral and A. Thar), are now pretty well known from the researches of Mr. Hodgson, who has set a praiseworthy example to our Indian countrymen, by the laudable zeal with which he perseveres in illustrating the Zoology of Nepal. Both these species are proper to the middle and northern regions of the Hills. The Thar of Mr. Hodgson is universally called ‘row and Imoo in the more western parts of the Mountains, the latter name predo- minating in the higher, and the former in the lower hills: the name of Thar, according to Lieut. Smith, is there applied exclusively to the species of goat which Mr. Hodgson calls the Jharal. That beautiful and stately antelope, the Chiru (A. Hodgsonii), of which our knowledge is entirely due to Mr. Hodgson’s researches, is confined to Bhot, Thibet, and the surrounding countries; it appears to be altogether unknown on the southern face of the Mountains, except from an occasional specimen imported by the traders, either for presents or barter. The common Indian antelope, called Hirn, and the Chickarra, or four-horned species (4. cervicapra and quadricornis), are confined to the lower hills and forests, and the Neel-ghau (A. picta) principally to the plains and jungles of the north-western districts. Mr. Colebrooke says that, in the opinion of the Hindoos, the resort of the Antelope sanctifies the countries graced by his presence, while his absence degrades the regions which he avoids. This seems more connected with physical observation than with popular prejudice. The wide and open range in which the Antelope delights is equally denied by the forests of the mountain and by the inundation of the fens.* These are the only antelopes of which we have any precise knowledge, as inhabitants of this part of India; but it is probable that others still remain undescribed. Capt. Herbert,+ in his “ Tour to the Sutlej,” mentions two animals by the names of Skin and War, the accounts of which do not agree with any known species, and which are therefore well worth the attention of future observers. The War, according to Capt. Herbert, — is somewhat like the Musk Deer (Moschus Moschiferus), but with a face more like that of a sheep, divided hoofs, and horns more nearly resembling those of a buffalo than of any other animal; a deserip- tion which, in spite of the similarity of names, is inapplicable either to the Thar or Jharal, though indeed, little dependence is to be placed in the descriptions of unscientific observers. The Neel-ghau deserves a more particular notice, for the purpose of clearing up a point in its bisecoys equally interesting to the Classical Scholar and to the Zoologist. It has been already observed that Modern Naturalists, after the example of Baron Cuvier, have identified the great Saumer Deer of India _ with the animal which Aristotle describes by the name of Hippelaphus. ‘“ The Hippelepars, “says the | aire * Colebrooke on Bengal Husbandry, t Asiat. Reseex¥s5 90%. > Ixxiv MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Greek philosopher,* “has also a mane, (he is talking of the mane of the Horse), above the shoulders, but from this to the head along the top of the neck #¢ is very thin; it has a likewise a beard on the laryna ; seseeeit is about the size of the Stag......the female has no horns...... those of the male resemble the horns of the Dorcas, (A. Gavelle)......it inhabits Arachosia.” Any one acquainted with the Neel-ghaw will readily perceive the applicability of this passage to its most obvious characters: in fact Aristotle’s description of this animal, under the name of Hippelaphus, is more exact and minute than the descrip- tion of any other animal mentioned in his history; it is evidently taken from personal observation, and it is surprising that the application should have hitherto escaped the penetration both of critics and Zoologists. The older naturalists, such as Gesner and Aldrovandus may be excused for misapplying the passage in question, sometimes to the Elk, sometimes to the common Stag in his winter-dress, when the hair of the neck becomes longer than ordinary, since they were unacquainted with the form and characters of the Neel-ghaw ; but the continuation of the mistake by their successors, to whom the animal has been long familiar, is altogether unpardonable. This identification, indeed, was absurd enough from the beginning: the habitat of Arachosia, and the assigned form of the horns, were alone sufficient to distinguish the Hippelaphus from either the Elk or common Stag, independently of the critical absurdity of supposing Aristotle to describe such well-known animals at such length and under a new name: but the truth is, that all modern commentators have been misled by a wrong translation of the term Aopxac, employed by Aristotle, as the name of an animal, to the horns of which he compares those of the Hippelaphus. Now, it is to be observed that the Dorcas of the Greeks and Romans is universally admitted to be the Gazelle of Egypt and Northern Africa, as may be easily proved from many passages in Herodotus and other ancient writers. ‘Theodore Gaza, himself a Greek, and the first translator of Aristotle, very properly renders the word by capra, but Buffon} having criticised Gaza’s ignorance, and affirmed that the word should really be translated caprea, every body has since followed the translation of Buffon, and the Dorcas of Aristotle has been accordingly considered identical with the Roe-buck, whilst the Dorcas of all other ancient writers is acknowledged to be the Gazelle. This seems to have been one of the principal sources of error which misled Baron Cuvier, after the example of his predecessors, to identify the Hippelaphus of Aristotle with a species of Deer. The head and skin of the large Indian Sawmer had been sent to Paris by Diard and Duvaucel ; the hair of the neck was observed to be considerably longer and coarser than that on the rest of the body, the horns had only two antlers, like those of the Roe-buck, and it came from India. Baron Cuvier immediately concluded that he had discovered the real Hippelaphus of Aristotle, and takes considerable pains to prove it.{| Against this opinion of the most distinguished of modern naturalists, however, I have to urge objections as grave as those which lay against the ancient error which identified the Hippelaphus with the Stag and Elk. In the first place, as I have just shown, the fancied similarity of the horns of the Hippelaphus to those of the Roe-buck, arises from.a false translation of the word Dorcas ; when this term is properly translated, Gazelle, the horns of the Hippelaphus, to be similar to those of the Dorcas, should be small, round, and without branches ;—such are the horns of Neel-ghau, and such are not the horns of the Saumer. In the second place, the Saewmer Deer has certainly longer and stiffer _ hair on the neck than elsewhere, but it is equally long and rough over the whole neck, as well on the sides as above and below, and has no resemblance whatever to the mane of the Horse and Mule to which ‘Aristotle compares it, In fact the description of Aristotle does not apply to it in any particular. The ‘Saumer does not show the least appearance of the thin mane along the top of the neck, longest and thickest on the shoulders ; neither has it anything that can be called a beard, distinct, at least from the general roughness of the neck which Baron Cuvier calls its mane. But even allowing the rough hair on the 4+ Oss. Foss. IV. 42. * Hist. ih, Ilia 5 + Hist. Nat. XI, 402. MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. Ixxv the under surface to be called a beard, still Aristotle’s description does not apply, for this rough hair covers the whole throat in the Saumer from the head to the chest, whilst the Greek philosopher restricts the beard of the Hippelaphus to the larynz, and this is precisely the situation in which the long bunch of coarse hair, nearly a foot in length, is found on the throat of the Neel-ghau. In fact there is not a single point, even to the most minute particular, the habitat of Arachosia, for instance, the modern Punjab, where the Neel-ghau is extremely abundant, and where the Saumer does not exist, at least we have no evidence of the fact,—in which Aristotle’s description of the Hippelaphus does not perfectly agree with this now well-known animal; and we may therefore safely conclude that we have at length finally settled a question which has long puzzled both critics and Zoologists. The Neel-ghaw should consequently assume in future the specific appellation of Antilope Hippelaphus, whilst the Saumer Deer, to which that name has been erroneously applied, may be more appropriately called Cervus Sawmer. Two distinct species of the genus Capra occur in the Himalayas: Capra jemblaica of Hamilton Smith, called Jharal in Nepal, and Thar in the British provinces, is by far the more common of the two, and is stated by Mr. Hodgson* to differ from other goats by having four teats. The second species has never been described, but its existence is placed beyond a doubt ; Major Kennedy, while resident at Simla, had two stuffed specimens, procured in the neighbouring mountains, and the animal is mentioned by various tourists under the name of the Ibex, which it appears to resemble in the form of the horns and other characters. Dr. Falconer, in the Report of his late Journey to Cashmere and Little Thibet, mentions the discovery of two new species of goats ; but as he does not enter into any detail on the subject, we have no means of ascertaining how far they may prove to be identical with, or different from, the two species here mentioned. Different varieties of the domestic goat, the most valuable of which are the Changra, or shawl goats, of two breeds, distinguished as the larger and the smaller Changra, are found in the more alpine regions ; their wool forms an article of extensive traffic, but we are much in want of detailed com- parative descriptions and good figures of these, as of all the different breeds of cattle and other domestic animals in India; a subject of great interest, which has been extensively illustrated at home, but which has met with little or no attention out of Europe. Of sheep there are likewise two wild species, and numerous domestic varieties, found in these moun- tains. The Burrhal, called Nahoor by the Nepalese (Ovis Nahoor of Mr. Hodgson), is intermediate in character between the Mouflon (O. Musmon) of Corsica, the supposed parent of our domestic sheep, and the Aoudad (0. tragelaphus) of Northern Africa, which latter species it resembles in the form of the horns and the absence of the crumens, or tear-pits, which distinguish the rest of the genus. The second species, called Banbhera in Nepal, is less known, but appears to approach very nearly to the Argali of Siberia (0. Ammon), if, indeed, it be not identical with that animal. I have seen the skull and horns in the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society, to which it was presented by Sir Alexander Burnes ; but as there is no specimen of the Argali in this country with which to compare it, I can offer no opinion as to its specific difference. The animal seems to be more properly a native of Thibet and Chinese Tartary, and seldom appears on the southern part of the Himalayas; at least none of my sporting acquaintances ever met with it, and Mr. Hodgson was long doubtful of its existence. Of the domestic sheep of the Hills, besides the Dimba, or common variety of Upper India, Mr. Hodgson mentions a breed called Barwal as occurring in the Kachar, and another called Hoaniah, peculiar to Thibet : these are used as beasts of burden for carrying grain and other products across the mountains, but we know little of their . peculiar forms or qualities. Of the genus Bos, the buffalo (B. Bubalus), and its representative, the Arnee, or Urnee Bhinse, are 2 ee confined to the sultry forests at the foot of the mountains. The latter is a very distinct variety, ‘if not _ - different © * Journ. Asiat. Soc., iv. 710. . Ixxiv MAMMALOGY OF THE HIMALAYAS. different species, from the Junglee Bhinse of Bengal and Assam, so well known for the great length of itshorns; the Arnee of the Saul forest is the short thick horned variety, of which there are many skulls, preserved in our Museums, and is said to be a much lighter made animal, though with a thicker skin than the Junglee Bhinse. The Zebu (Bos indicus) is common in every part of the Hills; but the pecu- liar and appropriate species of the Himalayas is the Changree, or Yak (Bos pephagus, Pallas), which composes the domestic cattle of Tartary, and is not uncommon on the southern slopes of the higher Mountains, where a cross between it and the Zebu, or common Indian Ox, is much used in agriculture, and preferred to either of the pure races. This hybrid is not uncommon at Simla, and it is to be hoped that some intelligent observer will take advantage of this circumstance to ascertain from actual experi- ments whether the sexes be productive inter se, or when united with one of the pure races; or whether, like the common mule, they be absolutely barren. Lieut. Smith informs me that he has seen the Yak wild on the confines of Chinese Tartary. LIST OF BIRDS IN THE AUTHOR’S COLLECTION MADE AT SAHARUNPORE AND IN THE HIMALAYAS. Raprores. Vulturide. Vultur leuconotus—gid. Saharunpore and Khe- ree Pass. Gypaetus barbatus—Simla. Neophron Percnopterus— Cheel—Saharunpore. Falconide. Halizeetus—Saharunpore. — . Pondicerianus — Choohmar — Saharun- pore. Astur Hyder—Saharunpore—migratory. Accipiter Nisus—Hills. — Dussumieri—Sabarunpore. Hematornis undulatus — Foorjbaj — Saharun- pore. Falco peregrinus— Hills. — Chicquera—Shikra—Hills, visits plains. — pallidus, mas, fem. — Saharunpore, killed in S.B.G. — cinereus ?—buchree—Hills. Circus variegatus—Saharunpore. — Teesa—tesa—Saharunpore. Pernis apivorus—Saharunpore. Elanus melanopterus —Dhobun — Saharunpore, banks of rivulets. Milvus Govinda—Saharunpore. Strigide. Otus bengalensis—oolloo—Saharunpore,. — brachyotos — oolloo — Saharunpore dis- trict. Strix passerina~putohree, H. chogud—Saharun- pore. Noctua—Saharunpore district. INSESSORES. FissirostREs. Meropide. Nyctiornis Amherstiana—Deyra Doon. Merops javanicus—Aurriul—Saharunpore. — viridis—hurriul—Saharunpore. Hirundinide. Cypselus affinis—Huwa bilbill. kunchya—Plains, " Hirundo filifera—Ababeel— Plains. — erythropygia—Adbabeel— Plains. Hirundo — Caprimulgide. Caprimulgus indicus— Chupta— Plains. Todide. *Eurylaimus Dalhousiee—Mussooree—in Rains Tab. vii. fig. 2, Jameson, Edinb. Phil. Journ. Halcyonide. Alcedo rudis—goree macherunga—Plains. — Bengalensis —golee macherunga— Plains and within hills. Halcyon Smyrnensis—muchee mar ; macherunga —Plains. DeENTIROSTRES. Muscicapide, Muscicapa. — several species— Plains. Muscipeta Melanops. — Paradisii— Sa-boolbool— Foot of hills. Muscipeta indica—boolbool—Foot of hills. Rhipidura albifrontata— Chukdeel— Plains. — fuscoventris—Chukdeel—Plains. Cryptolopha poiocephala. Pheenicornis princeps— Sahelee—Hills. — peregina— Sahelee—Hills. Laniade. Dicrurus Balicassius—Jhamp—Plains. Hypsipetes Psaroides—Hills. Lanius muscicapoides—/utora— Plains. Collurio Lahtora—lutora—Plains. — erythronotus—lutora—Plains. — Hardwickii—lutora—Plains. — undetermined. Ceblepyris—Hills. Merulide. Myophonus Temminckii—Custoora— Hills, — - Nepalensis. * Pitta Brachyura, vy. Tab. vii. fig. 3—Hills. -Turdus saularis—dhier— Plains. dhier—Piains. — atrogularis—Hills, — pecilopterus—Hills. — erythrogaster. — albocinctus, Royle—Hills. _ * — = albicollis, Royle, vy. Tab. viii. fig. 3. Cinclosoma leucolophum—Lower hills. — melanocephalum—Hills. — striatum—Kheree Pass. Oriolus aureus—peeluk— Plains and Kheree Pass. —— melanocephalus— peluk, zurduk— Plains and Kheree Pass. Timalia Somervillii—Doomnee, Chutrea, Sutbuya —Plains. — chatarea— Cheelchel—Plains. Petrocincla cinclorhyncha—Hills. Ixos melanocephalus—Hills. — cafer—boolbool—Plains. kandoo boolbool —Hills. Tora Tiphia. Sylviade. Sylvia sibilatrix. — rufa—Plains. — Trochilus. — several species—undetermined. — kalcheera—Piains. Motacilla alba—meemla — Saharunpore, in cold weather. — Dukhunensis—meemla—Saharunpore, in cold weather. Pheenicura atrata—thurthur kumpa—Plains. — frontalis—ihurthur kumpa—Plains. — leucocephala—kaleepholia—MohunGhat. — ceruliocephala, Budytes melanocephala — Saharunpore — Near water. Enicurus maculatus—khunjun—Hills. Anthus agilis—Plains. Zosterops. Saxicola rubicola. — bicolor—Plains. ] Pipride. Parus melanophus. — erythrocephalus. — _ xanthogenys. — monticolus, Conrrostres. Fringillide. Emberiza—Cheerya—Hills. — Cia—Hills, — cristata—Hills. Alauda—Piains. — Plains. — Plains. * Carduelis caniceps—Saira—Cashmere, y. Tab. viii. fig. 2. — spinoides—Saira—Cashmere. Ploceus—Denarbuya— Plains. — Phillipensis—Phool buya, Chichur buya— Plains. Fringilla rodochroa—Cheerya, Plains. Hills. Lonchura nisoria — Nuggernul muena — Deyra Doon. — melanocephala—Deyra Doon. — Cheet—Churchura—Plains. Passer domestica— Cheerya— Plains, Pyrrhula erythrocephala—Hills. Sturnide. Sturnus vulgaris—tilliury—Plains, in spring- Pastor tristis—bel salik—Plains. — roseus—goolabee muena— Plains. — pagodarum—kumooa paoee— Plains. — Mahrattensis—dhudhee—Plains. — — ubluk—Plains. Corvide. Pica erythrorhynca— Hills. Dendrocitta vagabunda—lat, —Kheree Pass, visits plains. Garrulus lanceolatus—Mussooree. * — bispecularis—Mussooree,v.Tab.viii. fig. 1. = leucocephalus—Hills. Corvus Corax—puharee kag—Hills, visits plains. — splendens—desee kag—Plains. Coracias Bengalensis —gurrar, neel tas, neel kunth— Plains. Buceride. Buceros gingianus — Dhuner, — Kheree Pass, _ visits S.B.G, — Cavatus—Hurdwar, Kheree Pass. ScansoreEs. Psittacide. Palzornis torquatus—tota H.— Plains. — flaviclolaris—tooyan, H.—Plains. — Alexandri—gullur tota—Hills. — schisticeps—Mussooree. _ Bucco grandis—Busunt kulan—Mussooree. — ig mas, and fem.—Busunt — _ caniceps—Miussooree. Ke Picus ee Doon and Kheres Ixxvili Picus Malaccensis. — Mahrattensis. — Squamatus, fem.—Mussooree. young male.—Mussooree. — Strennus — lukkur kut (wood-cutter) — Kheree Pass. Deyra Doon. — Himalayanus—Mussooree. — Hyperythrus. — Nepalensis. — brunnifrons. Yunx Torquilla—sS. B, G—migratory. Cuculide. Antropus phillipensis—joolaha, Makooha, H. Coccyzus chrysogaster—Saharunpore district. Leptosomus afer — papeea — S.B.G.— Rains, note peeo-peeo. CuculusCanorus—Kookoo—Hills, warm weather —Saharunpore, in rains. — fugax—S.B.G.—migratory, March, — sparverioides— Chip Cheep, H.—S.B.G. —migratory, March. — Himalayanus. Eudynamys orientalis — koel— §.B.G.— April, till end of rains. fem. Ahohal—S.B.G. Certhiadee. Certhia Goalpariensis, v. Tab. vii. fig. 1—Deyra Doon, Upupa Epops—hood hood, thok budhya—Piains. ‘TENUIROSTRES. Cynniride. Cynniris Mahrattensis. Meliphagide. Chloropsis—Hills. Pomatorhinus. — erythrogenys—Hills. Prinia— Hills. Rasores. Columbide. Vinago sphenura—huryul—Mussooree. Columba Meenah—punduk—Plains and bills. — tigrina—chitla—Plains. — humilis—Manukmow. — Cambayensis—S.B.G. — leuconota. . — javanica—Deyra Doon. Phasianide. Gallus Bankiva—junglee mor—Hurdwar, Khe- ree Pass, Deyra Doon. LIST OF BIRDS. Gallus Sonnerati. Lopophorus Impeyanus— Monal, Moorg zureen —Dhunoultee, Mussooree, Choor. Pavo cristatus, (mas. and fem).— mor — Hurd- war. Tragopan Hastingii (Satyrus melanocephalus)— —jeenar—RHills, near snow. Phasianus Pucrasia—koklas—Mussooree. — albo-cristatus—Kalij— Kheree Pass. — Wallichii (P. Staceyi)—Cher—Tuen Tib- ba, &c. Tetraonide. Coturnix textilis—butter— Plains. — Pentah—Plains. Perdix Chukor— Chukor—Hills, passim. — olivacea—teetur—Mussooree—Hill par- tridge. — Ponticeriana — teetur — Saharunpore — Grey partridge. Pterocles exustus, fem.—Kheree. Francolinus vulgaris, mas. and fem.—kala teetur— Plains and hills—Black partridge. Hemipodius nigricollis—lwwe— Plains. Struthionide. Otis aurita—leek— Foot of hills. — deliciosa (Bengalensis)—churg—Kheree Pass. GRALLATORES. Ardeade. Ardea cinerea—Saharunpore. — vulgaris—kang—Saharunpore. — Antigone— Sarus—Saharunpore district. — Egretta—Suffed boogla—Saharunpore. — Malaccensis—hanee bug—Saharunpore — russata—Suffed boogla—Saharunpore dis- trict. — Grayii— Goroo bug—Saharunpore district. Botaurus stellaris—Saharunpore district. Ciconia Australis, — leucocephala—Manuk jor—Saharunpore district. Mycteria—/oa jung—Saharunpore district. Tantalide. Anastomus Typus— Siam khol—Saharunpore. Tantalus leucocephalus—Jhangeer—Saharun- pore district— Rains. Ibis. religiosa—huechea chora, heethee chora—Sa- harunpore district.—October. Scolopacide. Numenius, black — Saharunpore, common in April. Totanus fuscus—Saharunpore. — glottoides—Choghul—Saharunpore. — glareola—Saharunpore. Limosa melanura—Saharunpore. Scolopax rusticola—Nalapanee, Mussooree. — Gallinago—Chaha—Saharunpore. Rynchea capensis— Chaha—Saharunpore. Tringa ochropus. Two or three undetermined species. Charadride. Cursorius asiaticus—Saharunpore. Vanellus goensis—tuteree—Saharunpore. Rallide. Parra Sinenis—Jul peea—Saharunpore, and Ma- nukmow, in rains. Glareola orientalis—Saharunpore. Rallus aquaticus—Doulutpore jheel. Crex pusilla—Saharunpore in Demola nuddee. Gallinula javanica—Jul Moorg—Saharunpore. — undetermined—kora—Saharunpore. Porphyrio hyacinthinus—kan—Dadoopore. Fulica atra, NarvaTores, Anatide. Anser indica—Saharunpore. Plectropterus melanotus—Wukta—Saharunpore. Anas leucophthalmos—Saharunpore. — pecilorhyncos—Saharunpore. — eristata—Saharunpore. — Crecca—Saharunpore. — clypeata—Saharunpore. — Girra—Saharunpore. — Penelope—Saharunpore. — Querquedula — Saharunpore — Native name buttuk and moorghabbee, of most of the species. Mareca Awsuree—Saharunpore. — _ fistularis—Saharunpore. Pelicanide. Pelecanus Onocrotalus—gugun bher- Manukmow. Phalacrocorax Javanicus—Jul kag—Mozuffer nuggur. Laride. Sterna Seena— Gang cheel—Saharunpore. In publishing the foregoing List of Birds, the Author hoped it would have been accompanied by observations on their Geogra- - _ so far North as 30° of latitude, in small num phical distribution by a distinguished Ornithologist. This, it is hoped, will still be done, with a more complete List than it is now possible to publish. Though the specimens have not been subjected toa minute comparison with the species indicated, yet, as Mr. = Vigors, Mr. Gould, Col. Sykes, aud Dr. Horsefield, have seen and named the Birds, there can be little doubt respecting the correct- _ness of the names published. Mr. Ogilby has justly observed, p.lvii, that as the faculty of rapid flight enables birds to set oceans and deserts at defiance, so it enables them to choose their own temperature and climate, and therefore renders them not so well adapted as Mammals and _ fresh-water fishes for studying all the laws of Geographical distribution, But as they transport themselves from one country to another, as the seasons vary and become favourable for affording them food and a suitable climate, so are they better adapted than any other class of animals for appreciating the changes which take place in the climate of a place at different seasons of the year; ae et is this the case, that in some places many of the operations of husbandry have been regulated by the appeat- ance and dis appearance of birds. ; Knowing the changes which take place in the climate, vegetation, and cultivation, both of the plains and iat of India, as shown in the Meteorological Observations, p. xxxvii*, and at pp. 7, 9, 13, 14, 16, 20, &c. and that the —ae forms varied also according to seasons 2s well as elevations, two plates of birds are figured, while a few of the animals of different elevations ata PP 6, 11, 12, 19, 24, 37, and 41. Birds (Plate 8) characteristic of the Himalayas, being in form allied to those of European climates, are Carduelis caniceps, Garrulus bispecularis, and Turdus albicollis, Nob., of which the specific name should be changed to T. albocinctus, as the former name is pre-occupied. Tropical forms, as exhibited in Certhia Goalpariensis, Pitta brachyura, and Eurylaimus Dalhousie, are represented in Plate 7, as these, though common to the 8.E,, occur bers, and only during the rainy season, of which the peculiariti i a Toye aero os tee A ee a any : a peculiarities of climate and vegeta _ tion are indicated in the above-cited passages. The specimen of Ewrylaimus Dalhousi« figured was shot at Mussooree, at 6,500 feet of elevation. This species was first described by Professor Jameson, in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, and not by Mr. Wilson, as indicated in the Plate, and as I had been erroneously informed. es Page. Line, viii — 4 from bottom, for lat. 28° read lat. 23°. ix — 9, for Eastern read Western. — 12 from bottom, for N.E. and S. W. read N.W. to S.E. — 10 from bottom, for to 24° of latitude read 27° of latitude. — 10 from bottom, for long. 75° read 74°. — 10 from bottom, for long. 90° E. read 95° E. — ‘1, for Patna 5° read Patna 4°. — 95, forN.E. read N.W. — 13, for Fagonia Mysoriensis read Mysorensis. — 14 from bottom, for Xanthochymus dulcis read pictorius. — 14, for khadir read bangur land. — 15, for bangur read khadir. — 14 from bottom, for ocymum read ocimum. — 21, for Lolium temulentun read temulentum. ~— 6from bottom, for Forskaol read Forskal. — 2, from bottom, for Boa constrictor read Python. — 20, for Bauhinia corymbosa read racemosa. — 3, for Apocyene read Apocynee. — 25, for Geoneptrix read Goneptrix. ~—- 4 from bottom, for stawberries read strawberries. ~— 19, for Napalensis read Nepalensis. ~— 29, for Saussurea religiosa read Dolomizea macrocephala. — 6 from bottom, for Gualtheria read Gaultheria. ~ 4, and page 30 lowest line, for Trophis read Trapa. — 10, for Cucubalus baccifer read bacciferus. — 29, for southward read south-east. — 12 from bottom, for C. Sasanquha read Sasanqua. — 6, for Abies excelsa read Pinus excelsa. ~— 13, for Carduus macrocephalus read Dolomiea macroceplhiala. ~— 19, for Squarrosa read Squamosa. ~— 18 and 37, also page 40 line 14, for Genista read Caragana, ~— 26, for Lophophurus read Lophophorus. — 7 from bottom, for Delpia read Delphia. — 9 from bottom, for Aconitia read Aconitina, — I], for accidens read accedens, — 28, for p. 48 read p. 44. — 15, before Brassica Napus insert Rape. — 16, before Myagrum insert Colsa. — 14, for Sida abutilon read Sida tiliefolia. 105 —- 4 from bottom, for Dipterocarpee read Dipterocarpus. 118 — 17, and p. 122 line 4 from bottom, for Eleococcus verrucosus read Eleococca verrucosa. 119 — 9 from bottom, mad pe sheegrncins for Bronymos rad ony mus. . ne 121 — 4, for Biieymias eisai pola 127 — 27, for Tab. 25 read 24. ; 132 — lowest, for Siam read China. 133 — 14, for Mesuaread Mesua. 137 — 11 from bottom, for Dodonxa read Dodonieae, 146 — 24, for quantas read quintas. 155 — 12 from bottom, for woAn read wwrv, 157 — and elsewhere, for Zanthoxylum read Xedlajion: 161 — lowest, for Elais read Eleis. POSE PESSRRSSSSSLSRRRST ETO SCSCIASCOM WH KR HX ee 27, for Mandrogora read Man 370 — 15, for compestris read 388 — 15, insert Tab. 92, fig. $88 — 4 from bottom, for fig. 1 read fig. 2. jet 413 — 6 from bottom, for S. Stig ook ick ace. CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA. Page. Line. 164 — 3, for Venice turpentine read Chian. 164 — 4, for landanum read ladanum. 167 — 21, for C. Royleanus read Royleana, 167 — 22, for C. spinosus read spinosa. 168 — 17, for M. Brongniart read Adolphe Brongniart. 170 — 2 from bottom, for 4,038 & 7,443 read 4038 & 7443. 171 — 21, for Excecaria Agallochum read Agallocha. 181 — 4, for Cesalpinem read Cxesalpiner. 182 — 6, and page 183 line 17, for A, leucophwa read leucophiwa. 185 — 25, after Cassia auriculata add turwar. 188 — 9, for ou read on. 189 — 25, for Crotalaria read Crotolaria. 195 — 4 from bottom, for yield Dragon’s blood read yield a kind of Dragon’s blood, 196 — 24, for Tab. 34 read 32. 196 — 32,for Tab. 34 read $2. 196 — 41, dele such and as. 197 — 12 from bottom, for Hb. Hm. read Hb. Ham. 233 — 6, in Osmorrhiza dele r. 239 — 9, for 10° of N. & S. read 10° of N. & 20° of S. 240 — 12, for of 20° read of 30°. 246 — 10 from bottom, for E. nivea read niveus. 246 — 9 frum bottom, for cornigera read cornigerus. 250 — 11 from bottom, for xapades read xamadeus, 253 — 14 from bottom, for thalactrifolia read thalictrifolia. 256 — 2, for symplicifolia read symplocifolia. 256 — 10, for macrocarpum read macrocarpus. 259 — 22, for chrysanthemum read chrysanthum. 268 — 8, for J. fruticosum read Jasminum fruticosum. 270 — 10 from bottom, for idnebted read indebted. 273 — 8 from bottom, for sylvestris read sylvestre. 274. — 12 from bottom, for ashmatica read asthmatica. 274. — 7 from bottom, for curassivica read curassavica. 295 — 14, for Tab. 70 read 72. 298 — 6, for boerhavizefolia read boerhaavifolia. 309 — 18, insert Tab. 69, fig. 1. 309 — 20, insert Tab. 69, fig. 2. 323 — 27, for India read Asia, ; 8 — 21, for Beilschmeidea read Beliotamieta — 26, for fig. 2 read fig. 3. paris 5 ae i oes ee ig ite 364 — 6, for Pleurothallidew read Pleu 388 — 27, insert F. verticillata, Tab. 92, fig. 2 416 — 14 from bottom, dele stop between Saccharum and Sara. ae 420 — 18 from bottom, for P. So oe! oe aan” oa .+» February 1839, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. Tue introductory observations having enabled us to appreciate the extent and general nature of the territories comprised within the boundaries of India, and shown the general uniformity, or rather almost insensible gradation of temperature, on which so greatly depends the natural distribution of animal and vegetable forms, as well as those which are the product of art, we now proceed to the more immediate object of this work; that of illustrating the Flora of the Himalaya Mountains. Here we shall find the changes in climate more rapid at successive elevations, and the modifications in plants correspondingly great, whether we ascend the great moun- tain ranges near the Southern extremity of India or those towards its most Northern limits. It is necessary only to enumerate the sources whence our information has been drawn, to show that these have been sufficiently extended to allow some reliance being placed on the inferences which are deduced. The situation of the Honourable Company’s Botanic Garden at Saharunpore in 30° of Northern latitude, one thousand miles to the north-west of Calcutta, elevated as many feet above the level of the sea, and placed nearly at the head of the extensive plain which forms the great Gangetic valley, was admirably adapted for enabling an observer to obtain a knowledge of the Flora of the plains of Northern India, as well as of the Himalayan Mountains, it being within thirty miles of the commencement of the successive ranges which form that great barrier between the dominions of the British and the territories of the Chinese. The herbarium consists of at least 3,500 species; collected, Ist, in the plains which form some of the north-western provinces of India, from 28° to 31° of N. lat. or from about Delhi to the banks of the Sutledge; 2d, ‘of plants growing in the mountainous tract included between the latter river and the Ganges, or between 30° and 314° of ie N. lat. 2 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF N. lat. from the level of the plains up to the Snowy Passes; with these may be enumerated the plants of Cashmere, which can only be considered a valley of the _ Himalaya; the third portion consists of plants from Kunawur, a country which being beyond the influence of the periodical rains, has its climate, and consequently many of its animal and vegetable productions, sufficiently modified to entitle them to a separate consideration. The researches both in the hills and the plains having been carried on at all seasons for a series of years, the collection may be considered as giving (with the exception of the lower tribes of Cryptogamic plants) a very fair idea of the Flora of that part of India. The plants from Cashmere were obtained in 1828, 1829, and 1831, by means of native plant collectors sent with the northern merchants, on their return to that valley after disposing of their annual investments of fruit and shawls in the plains of India, Along with dried specimens, seeds and living plants were also brought down, and grown either in the Saharunpore Botanic Garden or in the Experimental Nursery in the Hills. This collection can only be considered as giving a general idea of the nature of. the Flora of that far-famed valley. The collection from Kunawur, consisting of several hundred species from a cold and arid country, made in two years during the seasons of vegetation, will give a very good idea of the nature of the Flora of that tract. The first collection was made for me in 1825, by the late Lieutenant Maxwell, of his Majesty’s 11th Dragoons, and the second by my plant collectors in 1831. With these, through the kindness of the distinguished Mr. Brown, I have had an opportunity of comparing a collection in his possession, made by R. Inglis, Esq. of Canton, in the year 1830, as well as a small collection in the British Museum made by that adventurous traveller the late Mr. Moorcroft, in his journey beyond the Himalaya; a few specimens from the same tract of country sent to Dr. Wallich by Messrs. Webb, Moorcroft, and Gerard, may be se en in the East-India Herbarium. x * That attention may not appear to have been confined to too limited a portion of the Himalaya, the magnificent herbarium formed by Dr. Wallich, and presented by the Honourable the Court of Directors of the East-India Company to the Linnean Society, has been constantly consulted, for the purpose of showing either analogy or difference in the vegetation of different portions of the Himalayas. The plants of these mountains in the above collection consist of specimens from Dr. Wallich’s plant collectors in Kemaon, a portion of the Himalaya extending from the Ganges to the Gogra, together with many sent by Drs. Govan and Gerard, from Garhwal and Sirmore. The great proportion, however, consists of plants collected by Dr. Wallich himself in Nepal and its mountains, together with some from the same country collected by Dr. Buchanan Hamilton. The most southern and also most western point from which any considerable collection has been obtained by Dr. Wallich’s plant collectors is from the mountains above Silhet and Pundooa,—so that a THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 3 that the space whence the several collections have been formed extends over ten degrees of latitude and nearly twenty of longitude. Though there is no intention, in the present work, of treating of the Botany of india in general, yet as it is proposed particularly to note, not only the difference in the vegetation of the Hills and of the Plains and the distribution of particular families, but also for what other plants, chiefly the useful products of similarly constituted countries, India is peculiarly adapted, it may not be improper to remark, that the observations respecting the distribution of different tribes will be deduced from the collections and works of Drs. Roxburgh and Buchanan, Wallich and Wight, as well as from the author’s own collections made in the most northern provinces of India. It is hardly necessary, after the liberality with which Dr. Wallich placed his treasures in the hands of the Botanical World, to mention, that previous to his departure for India he expressed his most anxious desire that every possible use should be made of that portion of his collection which he had not himself had an opportunity of publishing, and joined in an application to the Honourable the Court of Directors, that his unpublished drawings should be placed at the disposal of the author for the purpose of selections being made for the present work. Major-General Hardwicke has also most kindly placed in the author’s hands ten volumes of drawings made in the plains of Northern India, and also while travelling nearly thirty years ago in the Himalayas. These, when so used, will be duly acknowledged, but the greater portion of the illustrations will be from drawings made under the author’s own direction. These were executed by the Honourable Company’s painters, who during Dr. Wallich’s absence in England were by the orders of the then Governor- General of India, the Earl of Amherst, sent from the Botanic Garden at Calcutta to that of Saharunpore. Some explanation may perhaps be expected upon the preference given to the publication of the illustrations according to the natural families, as well as upon the particular series which has been adopted. For the latter no better reason than that of convenience can be assigned, as the celebrated De Candolle is the only bo- tanist who has attempted an arrangement of all plants according to their natural families. For the adoption of the natural method of classification, no apology is in the present day necessary, as the advantages have been so frequently displayed ever since the illustrious Mr. Brown proved them in his Prodromus of the Plants of New Holland, and has so often illustrated them by his luminous observations on the Flora of different countries; a course which has been followed by the great Humboldt and other celebrated botanists. For whether we consider the structure, classification, geographical distribution, properties, or uses of plants, in every way does the natural method afford numerous advantages, particularly as our observations, instead of being confined to species and genera, may in general be made applicable to whole tribes of plants. This we shall see to be more silken the case in noticing the geographical B 2 distribution 4 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF distribution and uses of different families of plants, and in making the application to India of the result of our observations; for no where is the field more extended, and at the same time more favourable for acclimating the useful productions of dif- ferent countries. In the peninsula of India, and in the neighbouring island of Cey- lon, we have a climate capable of producing cinnamon, cassia, pepper, and carda- moms. The coffee grown on the Malabar Coast is of so superior a quality as to be taken to Arabia and re-exported as Mocha coffee; the Tinnevelly senna brings the highest price in the London market; and there is little doubt that many other valu- able products of tropical countries may be acclimated, particularly as several are already in a flourishing condition in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, such as the cocoa and nutmeg, as well as the camphor, pimento, cajeput, and cashew-nut trees. In the Neelgherries a favourable site might without doubt be found for the cinchona, as well as the different kinds of ipecacuanha; and as the potatoe has been intro- duced into almost every part of India, equal success and considerable benefit would probably result from introducing the different kinds of arracacha, so much prized for their roots as food for the natives of South America. Along the coasts of the Bay of Bengal the cocoa and areca-nut palms flourish and abound, and the continent every where produces indigo, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and - opium. The first, hardly of any note as an Indian product thirty years ago, is now imported in the largest quantities into England. The cotton, though indigenous to India, has not been in any way improved, though many provinces seem peculiarly well adapted for the culture, particularly Malwa, and those to the north-west. The tobacco brought home by Dr. Wallich from Martaban was pronounced by competent judges in England to be equal to the best from America; while the Persian tobacco, the produce of a peculiar species, the Nicotiana persica of Dr. Lindley, is celebrated, and commands a high price both in India and Europe. This, there is every proba- bility in considering, would succeed well in the N.W. provinces which are nearest its native country. The opium of Patna is preferred in China, and that of Malwa bids fair to rival Turkey opium in the European market. The sugar-cane is cultivated in every part of India, but very inferior sugar has hitherto been produced; lately, however, a manufactory has been established near Calna, a new mine opened in the Burdwan coal formation, and very superior specimens of sugar sent home. Here the occurrence of sugar at the surface of the soil, and coal only a few feet below it, in a country where labour is so cheap, ought to be attended with decidedly favourable results. If from these we turn our attention to other products, we shall still see that there are great capabilities even where we should least expect them: for though ‘India is generally looked upon chiefly as a rice country, wheat has been imported into and sold at a profit in England from the northern provinces, and flour for making starch is now one of the annual exports from Calcutta. Of dyes, medi- cinal drugs, resins, and gums, there are great varieties, and more might be success- fully introduced. Timber of every kind is every where abundant, the coasts pro- ducing THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. oo ducing teak, ebony, and many others; the interior, saul, sissoo, bamboos, and rattans, while a great variety of plants, though but little known, yield excellent material for cordage. : The northern provinces and the hills forming the more immediate object of this work, will be more fully considered in the sequel ; it is sufficient at present to observe, that at one season they grow European grains and at another those which are peculiar to the tropics: and that many perennials of both these two climates seem to succeed equally well in the northern provinces of India; here, therefore, many of the useful pncen of Persia, Arabia, and Barbary, might be grown. | The hill provinces enjoy nearly similar advantages; the forests are formed of oaks and pines, and the hill-men make their strongest ropes for crossing rivers with hemp, which every where abounds and is of the finest quality; opium, rhubarb, and turpentine, form articles of commerce, as well as musk, Thibet wool, and borax from the other kingdoms of Nature. : Somewhere in the valleys at the foot of these hills, or at moderate elevations, the more generally useful productions of European countries might be successfully intro- duced, as the olive and the hop; the latter would be particularly beneficial, as a brewery has been established in the hills, where the climate is excellent. Here also, as I have recommended in a report to Government, there is considerable prospect of success in the cultivation of the tea plant, for the different elevations allow of every variety of climate being selected, and ‘ the geographical distribution of this plant is sufficiently extended to warrant its being beneficially cultivated.” The above few examples will be sufficient to show that in the climates where these varied productions grow, others from different countries may be successfully introduced. It is not to be expected that equal success will attend every attempt, but where so many circumstances are favourable there is little probability of failure in many, if the proper means are adopted for ensuring success; and these consist chiefly in applying to one country our knowledge of the climate and productions of another, where any similarity of circumstances occur; and I entertain sanguine expectations that, with moderate attention and proper encouragement, the products of India may be still more varied, almost indefinitely increased in quantity, and very much improved in quality. ‘Hitherto, instead of endeavouring to call forth the resources of the country, it seems rather to have been wished to repress its energies, by charging upon articles of well-known inferior quality a higher estes if imported from the East-Indies than from other parts of the world. Having mentioned that considerable uniformity of temperature and of vegetable pro- ductions occurs over a very great expanse of Indian territory, we proceed to adduce specimens from some of the most northern parts as an indication of the truth of the observation. Delhi, the capital of Northern India, situated on the western bank of the Jumna, nearly at the upper part of the inclined slope which forms the plains of India, is elevated about eight hundred feet above the level of the sea. The soil is barren and « remarkable 6 : ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF remarkable for its saline efflorescence, and the wells for the brackishness of their water. The rocky soil, always exposed to the solar rays, absorbs much heat, and a high temperature with considerable dryness is produced in the hot weather; but from the openness of the country, and exposure to winds which pass over extensive lakes in the vicinity, a greater degree-of cold is produced in winter than we should otherwise expect. We do not therefore find in the Flora round Delhi such plants as Guttifere, Anonace@, and Strychnee, which requiring moisture with heat, flourish in the southern provinces of India. But the climate in general being favourable, and the minimum of cold not long continued, we find many of the plants which are common in warmer parts of India, but which are not found at Saharunpore. Among these may be enumerated Adantus excelsa, Prosopis spicigera, and Salvadora persica, with Capparis aphylla, and species of Hibiscus, Grewia, and Flacourtia, as shrubs, together with such herbaceous plants as Anisochilus carnosus, Acrua Javanica, Elytraria crenata, Fagonia Mysoriensis, Lepidagathis cristata, Acanthus Madraspatensis, Echinops echinatus, Cenchrus echinoides, also species of Cocculus, Leucas, Aristolochia, Polygala, and Ionidium. Cochlearia flava spreads along the banks of the Jumna, nearly up to Delhi. A species of Farsetia and Linaria ramo- sissima are found; the latter only enumerated in the Flora of more southern parts of India; while a Salsola, which is common, indicates the saline nature of the soil. Balanites Agyptiaca, Alhagi maurorum, Salvadora persica, and species of Ethulia, Heliotropium, &c. are remarkable as occurring all over the Northern provinces of Hin- dostan, and being equally common in Egypt, while the presence of a species of Picnomon and one of Kentrophyllum is interesting, as forming a point of resemblance to the Flora of the South of Europe. Most of the plants which have been enumerated, I also found on the hills near Lohargaon and Mirzapore; several were recognized by Dr. Wight as occurring in the most southern parts of the peninsula, and nearly all have been described by Dr. Rox- burgh as occurring in the neighbourhood of Samulcottah. To show the effects of protection and culture, Xanthochymus dulcis may be adduced as a remarkable instance ; this tree, which is found only in the southern parts of India, and which would not live in the more exposed climate of Saharunpore, exists as a large tree in the garden of the King of Delhi; but here, surrounded by the numerous buildings within the lofty palace wall, in the midst of almost a forest of trees, with perpetual irrigation from a branch of the canal which flows through the garden ; an artificial climate is produced which enables a plant even so sensitive of cold as one of the Guttifere to flourish in the open air at Delhi, where it is highly prized, and reported to have milk thrown over its roots, as well as its fruit protected from plunder by a guard of soldiers. _ The animal kingdom does not present many peculiarities to distinguish this district from that of India in general. The Lion is however almost peculiar, -being found beyond Hansi on the edge of the desert. The Neel-gae is common in the plains, and the Porcupine and a species of Hedgehog which I have called Erinaceus Indicus, and the short-tailed Manis, are common about Delhi. In THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 7 In crossing the Jumna in the latitude of Delhi, and entering the Doab or flat country between that river and the Ganges, a considerable difference is observed in the vegetation, the arid-looking thorny shrubs having disappeared, aid the trees become more luxuriant; tlris is consequent chiefly upon a change of soil, and is more observable as we approach Meerut and Saharunpore ;—if we take the latter as an example, we shall obtain a fair specimen of the Flora of the plains of northern India. - The district is flat with but slight inequalities, intersected by several rivulets and watered by the Doab canal. The soil is generally clayey with a proportion of sand, having a substratum in many places of hard and retentive brick clay, and in some situations kunkur, imbedded in masses sometimes large enough to be used in the erection of tombs, but is generally employed only for making a coarse kind of lime. Below ~ this, small gravel is brought up in digging wells. A part of the district is rather more elevated than the rest, therefore drier; and water being more distant from the surface, the wells are deeper; this tract is called khadir, while towards the hills and beyond Kheree, the eround being low, moist, and frequently overflowed, is called bangur land. The climate has been described as being that of India in general; but modified by the more northern position of Saharunpore, as the cold commences earlier, con- tinues later, and is succeeded by a short spring in February and March, when the deciduous trees come into leaf, and the greater number into flower; the heat in May and June is considerable, and the rains plentiful. The periods of occurrence of the maximum and minimum temperature (105° and 37° in June and January) being remote, the rise and fall very gradual and divided between several months, a degree — and continuance of cold weather is produced, which allows of the growth of many annuals apparently incompatible with the Flora of the country; while the great rise of temperature in the hot months, and the influence of the periodical rains, permit the successful cultivation of tropical plants, which appear equally at variance with the European-like cultivation of the cold-weather months; as the great heat, however, is never very long continued, nor the cold excessive, many perennials both of tropical and temperate climates thrive here in the open air, and this latitude may be considered as being nearly the northern limit of the Flora of India, as well as the southern boundary of that which is called the Oriental or Persian region. Tropical plants cannot easily extend beyond this, for though they can resist a - moderate degree of cold in a dry atmosphere, in the north-western provinces there is always a good deal of rain about Christmas, when the cold, much increased in consequence of the freer radiation which ensues on the clearance of the atmosphere, combined with the moisture, is injurious to many plants, which have besides to undergo great vicissitudes of temperature instead of the equality of the tropics. Hence in valleys and in the midst of thick forests, where the climate is moister, the radiation less free, and the range of the thermometer less extensive, we find the same plants reaching a much higher latitude than in the open plains. This we shall see strikingly exemplified as we pass through the belt of jungle in ascending tlie 8 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF the Himalayas from the plains. With respect to perennials of more temperate cli- mates, though many thrive, others, as well as most from alpine situations, suffer, not so much from the great hea® which when shaded from the direct rays of the sun they resist, nor from the equable moisture of the rains, but from the clear weather which succeeds, when there is always a good deal of moisture, with great heat during the day and considerable cold at night: a state of the atmosphere which is not only hurtful to. plants, but injurious to the human frame; we cannot there, fore expect to find, either in a wild or cultivated state, such plants as the Gut- tiferé, impatient of the least degree of cold; for even the mangoe, though flourish- ing as a tree and producing fine fruit, requires when young to be defended from - the cold by a covering of grass; the same may be said of the custard apple (Anona squamosa), of which indeed old plants are frequently killed by the cold of winter. The plantain, covered by sheathing petioles, is enabled to resist a greater degree of cold, and survive through the winter, while the more delicate Papaya is generally killed. The pine apple does not flourish, but the Agave is as vigorous as in more southern latitudes, and Pandanus odoratissimus is only kept alive in the shade of trees. The arboreous vegetation is the same as generally found in the plains of upper India, consisting almost entirely of Dicotyledonous trees, which lose their leaves in the cold weather as completely as trees in more northern climates. The Monocotylenous trees consist only of Phenix sylvestris, and of the almost stemless Phenix humilis. The most common trees are Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia Serissa, Arabica, and Farnesiana, Cedrela Toona, Butea frondosa, Aigle marmelos, Feronia elephantum, Nageia Putranjiva, and species of Mela, Ficus, Morus, Trophis, Bauhinia, Cordia, Gmelina, and Premna. Of shrubs, species of Zizyphus, Cap- paris, Carissa, Vitis, Vitex negundo, Buddleia Neemda, Guilandina Bonduc, and Crateva religiosa, The smaller herbaceous plants consist chiefly of species of Cassia, Hedysarea, Justicia, Barleria, several Cucurbitacee, Euphorbiacee, Sida, Carduus, Cirsium, Chondrilla, Ca@sulia, Cotula sternutatoria, Ocymum, Leucas, Cis- sampelos, Yallaris pergulana, Cardiospermum Halicacabum, Plumbago Zeylanica, Gisekia pharnacioides ; also of Corchorus, Achyranthes, Portulacca, Trianthema, Celsia, Trichodesma, Heliotropium, Boerhaavia, Aneilema, Aloe, Anthericum, Gloriosa superba ; Costus Nepalensis is the only one of the Scitaminee, which escapes to any distance from the hills, and Zeuzina sulcata the only orchideous plant found in the arid plains, and this is spread all over India, from Ceylon to Saharunpore. The bam- boo is only found in a cultivated state; the other gramina consist of Sporobolus, Polypogon, Eragrostis, Rottboellia, Saccharum, Andropogon, and Anthistiria, with species of Panicum, Paspalum and Elytrophorus. In the vicinity of water and in moist situations, many of the same plants, that are common in other parts of India in similar situations, are found here. Herpestis monniera, Gratiola Juncea, Hydrolea Zeylanica, Sphenoclea Zeylanica, Limnophila = atioloides, Jussiaa repens, Marsilea quadrifolia, together with species of Coir, Leersia, aaa THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 9 Leersia, Sagittaria, Pontedera and Butomus ; and with these along the edges of streams - we generally find species of Polygonum, Rumex and Tamarix, and as aquatics Nelumbium speciosum, Euryale JSerox, Damasonium Indicum, Trapa bispinosa, several species of Nymphea, Utricularia, Potamogeton, Lemna, one Typha and Vallisneria ; along with these Ranunculus sceleratus and aquatilis are found; the former in every part of India, but the latter I have only met with in the Northern provinces. Here we have a good instance of the equalizing effects of water in producing uniformity of temperature, for we have in one situation many of the same kind of plants which occur in more northern latitudes, as well as in the most southern parts of India. The plants hitherto enumerated are either those which, from being perennial, give the character to the Flora, or occurring in the rainy season, assimilate it more to that of tropical countries. But in the cold weather, or from November to March, when the temperature becomes low, and the ground as well as the atmosphere dry, species, gene- rally only single ones, of colder latitudes, elevated sites, or of European genera, make their appearance, as of Potentilla, Campanula, Arenaria, Spergula, Lithospermum, Tradescantia and Poa. The following plants appear to be identified with those found in northern latitudes; some have no doubt been spread with the Cerealia, others have crept down from the hills, or spread themselves from more northern latitudes: Malva rotundifolia, Veronica hederifolia, Fumaria Vaillanti, Anagallis cerulea, Sonchus oleraceus, Antirrhinum Orontium, Silene conoidea, Saponaria vaccaria, Avena fatua and Lolium temulentun; Verbena officinalis and Zapania nodiflora, more extensively diffused, are also found here; Peganum Harmaia is found a little to the north of the district near the Sutledge, and also in the vicinity of Agra, but it has probably been introduced into the latter, as its seeds still continue to be used in medicine by the natives of India. From the foregoing enumeration it is evident that, with the trifling exceptions men- tioned, there is great uniformity in the vegetation of different parts of the widely extended plains of India, as several of the plants found in the northern parts of the Continent are equally so in the southern parts of the Peninsula, as well as in the island of Ceylon, and some even, as enumerated by Mr. Brown, on the eastern coast of New Holland. Aloe perfoliata, Guilandina Bondue, and Gisekia pharnacioides, occur in Africa, as well as in every part of India; while species of Crateva are found in both, as well as in America. Lantana is generally considered an American genus; but there is no doubt that one, if not more species, are indigenous to India, as I have found it common in the north-western provinces, and Dr. Wallich in Rohilcund. He had also a species sent him from the Neelgherries; and L. nivea of Ventenat was also most likely obtained from the Peninsula, while Forskaol met with L. viburnoides in Arabia. Cactus Indicus, Roxvb., another plant common about Saha- runpore, and indeed over all India, is the only species, not only of the genus, but of the family found out of the New World; though Dr. Roxburgh has also a Cactus Chinensis, but it is doubtful whether the former may not have been introduced into India. c Having 10 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF Having seen that both the climate and vegetation partake at different seasons of the year of the nature of both temperate and tropical parts of the world, we shall be less surprised at finding the cultivation likewise participating in this double nature, and the northern enjoying, like the southern parts of India, two crops during the year: the one called the khureef or rain crop, sown in May and June and reaped in October ; the other sown in October and reaped in March and April, called the rubbee crop. The latter, embracing the months which approximate in temperature to that of the seasons of cultivation im colder countries, corresponds with them also in the nature of the grains cultivated ; as, for instance, of gramina, wheat, barley, oats, and millet; of leguminous plants, peas, beans, vetch, tares, chick, and pigeon peas; of crucifere, species of Sinapis and allied genera cultivated for oil seeds ; and of the wmbellifere, the carrot, coriander, cummin, species of Ptychotis and Feniculum panmorium ; as well as of other tribes, tobacco, flax, safflower, and succory. Hemp exists in abundance in a wild state, but is only used for making an intoxicating drug. Almost all the esculent vegetables of European countries succeed remarkably well in the cold weather in India. In the rainy season a totally different set of plants engages the agriculturist’s atten- tion, as rice, cotton, indigo, maize; Holcus Sorghum, species of Panicum, Paspalum, and leusine ; of leguminous plants, species of Phaseolus and Dolichos ; many of the _ Cucurbitacee@, as well as Sesamum, and the species of Solanum for their esculent fruit. Ginger, turmeric, and pan, or betel leaf, do not extend quite so far to the northward. The Crotalaria juncea and Hibiscus cannabinus are every where cultivated for the purpose of yielding fibre for rope-making. As we have seen with perennials of other kinds, so it is with those yielding fruit of an edible nature; many, both of tropical and temperate climates, succeed nearly equally well in the northern parts of India; so that, taking the Saharunpore garden as an example, we have collected in one place, and naturalized in the open air, the various fruit-trees of very different countries, as. of India and China, Caubul, Europe, and America. Of those belonging to hot countries, we have the plantain, custard-apple, shaddock, orange, lemon, and guava, with the mangoe, tamarind, and others, which are common in every part of India. Of Chinese fruits, the Leechee, Loguat, Longan, Wampee, flat peach, and digitated citron, are perfectly naturalized. Of fruit-trees from more northern countries, as Caubul and Cashmere, and from the Hills or Europe, there are the almond , peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, pomegranate, grape vine, apple, pear, quince, mul- berry, fig, and walnut. Of useful trees of cold countries, which thrive in what is at some seasons so hot a climate, pines, oak, maple, dog-wood, service-tree, holly, juniper, and box. Of American trees, besides those first enumerated, the logwood, mahogany, Parkinsonia aculeata and Acer negundo may be instanced as perfectly naturalized. | : That to hope for success in the cultivation of a still greater number of the useful plants of other countries is not chimerical, is evident from the result which has already attended egy seems wcenaaenatatntien omsinenenanmeegime mma THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. i] attended the attempts which have been made, particularly when we take into con- sideration that countries which have many valuable productions of their own, have already possessed themselves of those which were originally peculiar to India. It is of some parts of China and Japan, as well as of America, New Holland, and the Cape, parts of Persia, Arabia, and the north of Africa, corresponding in latitude and a good deal in climate, particularly in having hot summers and rather cold winters, that it would be the most desirable to acquire the productions, whether these be the gift of Nature, or the result of the successful application of Art. The distribution of the animal kingdom does not present any thing requiring particular notice, except in those which are migratory, for the others being always subject to the influence of temperature, partake of the uniformity in distribution all over India, which we have seen to characterize the climate and vegetation. The camel, buffalo, and bullock form the beasts of burden; the latter alone used for agricultural purposes; though the climate and soil being dry, and the pasturage good, the district is favourable to horses, and the breed has been of late years much improved by means of the Company’s stud. Tigers were formerly common in the very centre of the district, but the increase of cultivation has removed the jungles, with its inmates, to the outskirts: now the antelope roams over the plains, and the peacock is found near most villages where there are groves of trees. The other M/ammaiia are those common in almost every part of India. The otters, which are very abundant near all the rivulets, are perhaps less common in the southern provinces. The rattel is con- sidered only a variety of that found at the Cape, while the caracal is identical with that found in Persia and the north of Africa. With regard to the feathered creation the variety is greater, as they have the power of changing their habitation according to the seasons. In the rains numerous Grad/@ and Anseres make their appearance ; among the latter the pelican, with many, towards the close of the season and in the cold weather, which are well known as English ducks and teal. The Chinese jacana and purple gallinule are also seen, as well as coots and rails; together with the ibis, curlew, bittern, and egret. The different kinds of game, as black and grey partridge, quail and snipe, and among the latter, Scolopar capensis. The starling, oriole, and cuckoo, make their appearance chiefly in the spring. The insects met with are those common in every part of India, and several have been recognized in my collection by Mr. Wilson Saunders as also found by him at Calcutta and Madras. Of these may be instanced the fire-fly, which attracts every one’s attention, as well as several of the Coleoptera, as the Copris Molossus, Lamia rubus ; and of butterflies, Papilio Epius, Vanessa Almana, Pieris hyparote, Terias Hecabe, Eublea Plerippus, and Phalanta antica, are among others which are common in the northern, as in the most southern parts of India,* It * These, together with some hill specimens, have been examined and named by Mr. Samouelle, of the British Museum, to whom I feel much indebted for his kindness, c2 12 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF It is generally well known that the bases of the mountains in India are every where covered with a thick, and often impenetrable jungle, and that a broad strip of this nature extends along the whole foot of the Himalaya from Chittagong to the Sutledge. This gradually diminishes in breadth and density the further we proceed to the north- ward, until in the country beyond the Jumna it is scarcely perceptible. The greater portion of the land occupied by this tract of jungle is low, and being inundated during the rainy season, as well as by the hill streams frequently overflowing their banks, is generally in a moist state, and has hence been called the Zurrai, or moist land. The powerful rays of a nearly vertical sun beating upon this, and a dense mass of vegetation, where there is little circulation of air, produce a heated and moist atmosphere highly favourable to the production of tropical plants. From the southern and eastern parts of this tract, on the confines of Silhet and Chittagong, Drs. Roxburgh and Wallich obtained their splendid specimens of tree-ferns, and numerous species of Scitaminea, of Epiphytal Orchidee, of Piperacee, Ebenacee, Bignoniacee, Myrtaceae, Byttneriacea, Malvaceae, Guttifere, Dipterocarpee, Anonacee and Dilleniacee. According, however, as we approach the north-western limits of this tract, so do we find that, as the same causes operate in a less degree, so does the jungle diminish in breadth and density, the country becomes drier, and the atmosphere less moist. In consequence, however, of the increased cold of the winter months, the more strikingly tropical forms disappear, and some of a European type by degrees make their appear- ance; but as there is still considerable heat combined with moisture, so do we find many of the plants which are common in Bengal and Silhet, in the Peninsula, and even in Java, creeping to a much higher northern latitude along this favourable tract, than they can do in the open plains. In the most northern parts, the jungle consists generally of large trees and long grass ; the latter is annually burnt down for the purpose of allowing cattle to feed upon the young blade, which immediately shoots up on the removal of the old grass. The low range of hills is covered with trees and herbaceous vegetation, and the valley of Deyra, in the uncleared parts, with dense and almost impenetrable forests. It is unnecessary at present to take separate notice of the distinctions in the Flora of these low hills and of the valley, as there is between them a general uniformity, adapting each for the support of many of the animals and plants which occur in perfection in more southern latitudes. For though the rhinoceros and wild buffalo are not found to the northward of the Ganges, the elephant here reaches his most northern limit. Tigers, leopards, hyenas, lynxes, and bears are common, as well as Simia rhesus and Entellus, together with the stag, the spotted and hog deers, with the four-horned antelope. The jungle fowl, florikin and leek (Otis Bengalensis and auritus), horn-bill, and a green pigeon (Columba Javanica), with Picus Bengalensis, are common as birds ; and the Papilio parakekte is remarkable as a butterfly found also by Dr. Horsfield in Java. A species of Boa constrictor is found in the lower hills as well as in those of Central India. As indicating the vicinity of a cooler climate, a species of pheasant (P. leuconotus) ‘ieee mene emery encanta eR THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 13 (P. leuconotus) may be noticed as existing with the jungle fowl in these hills, and the woodcock is occasionally shot in the Doon in winter. According as we have seen to be the case in the plains of Upper India, so do the valleys at the foot of the Himalaya enjoy a climate and vegetation partaking at different seasons of both the temperate and torrid zones. At Deyra, elevated about two thousand feet, with a maximum and minimum temperature of 101° and 37°, where snow occasionally falls, we find many of the plants of Lower India more flourishing than in the neighbouring plains. As, for instance, Artocarpus integrifolia, Psidium pyriferum, and different kinds of limes and plantains. Rice, with many of the smaller grains, forms the chief cultivation, though wheat and barley are not neglected, but very little gram (Cicer arietinum) is cultivated. This difference in a cooler climate can only be ascribed to the greater moisture, as well as to the less free radiation which takes place during night in these valleys than in the open plains, As arboreous vegetation is characteristic of tropical countries, so we find in the doons or valleys at the foot of the Himalaya a profusion of trees, many of which are common in more southern parts of India; and arborescent species of genera, of which herbaceous ones are found in colder parts of the world, as of Terebinthacee, Seme- carpus anacardium, Buchanania latifolia, Spondias mangifera, Boswellia glabra, Garuga pinnata, Odina Wodier; of Leguminose, arborescent species of Cassia, Bauhinia, Dalber- gia, Pongamia; Bauhinia corymbosa and Robinia macrophylla exist as immense climbers, and the Acacia Catechu in great abundance, affording its extract as one of the articles of commerce; while Cathartocarpus fistula, Butea frondosa, and a species of Erythrina when in flower, form the great ornaments of the forest. Of Malvacee and Tiliacee, several species of JHibiscus and Grewia; Byttneriacee, species of Sterculia and. Kydia ; Aurantiacee, Murraya, Glycosmis and Citrus; Bombax heptaphylium, with its trunk supported by great buttresses. J/yrtacee, Eugenia and Careya ; Combretacee, species of Terminalia, Conocarpus and Pentaptera; species of Nauclea and Hymeno- dictyon, Rondeletia, with Coffea Bengalensis, and others exist as species of Rubiacee ; of arborescent Boraginee, species of Ehretia; and of Euphorbiaceae, Phyllanthus Em- blica, species of Rottlera, Briedeha, and frutescent species of Euphorbia; of Urticee, Artocarpus lacucha, numerous species of Ficus and of Trophis. Among the other trees worthy of notice Diospyros Embryopteris and Moringa pterygosperma may be mentioned, as well as the Saul or Shorea robusta, with its durable resinous wood, shining leaves, and showy clusters of flowers, forming in many places a forest extending for many miles without the interposition of any. other tree. Marlea begonifolia, Pogostemon plectranthoides, Panax odora, Psoralea corylifolia, Biophytum sensitivum, and Smithia sensitiva may be instanced as plants found in the most southern parts of India, and some even in Java. Of herbaceous plants the forms are also very tropical, consisting of species of Curcuma, Zingiber and Globba, as well as of Pothos, Piper and Begonia; Platanthera gigantea, and Saccolabium guttatum may be taken as specimens of the Orchidee. -Cyrtopera obtusa and flava, with Eulophia herbacea 14 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF herbacea occurring in the valley within the hills, and the last also in the Kheree Pass. Bamboos are common at the foot of the hills, and the plantain seems to be wild in some places. It is not the least interesting feature in the Flora of the northern portion of this tract that the palms here attain their highest limits, a species of Calamus being found in the valley itself; and a Phenix, which I have called humilis, from its never attaining above a few feet of elevation, exists alongside of the Pinus longifolia, which is the only one of the Indian Conifere found at so low an elevation as two thousand feet. The existence of European and tropical forms in juxtaposition is an interesting fact for the Geologist, particularly when it is considered that the vicinity of lofty hills affords a still greater number of the former, while the valley is filled with the latter. That it is not, however, devoid of other characteristics of a more temperate cli- : mate, we observe, from finding species, generally only single ones, of the following genera: Pinus, Ulmus, Salix, Gentiana, Campanula, Geranium, Rosa, Rubus, Cle- matis, Viola, and Galium. That similar vegetation characterises the forests further to the eastward may be seen in the accounts, by General Hardwicke and Mr. Traill, of that passed through in entering Kemaon, which is described by the latter as consisting of Saul, Sissoo, and bamboos, and called in Bishop Heber’s Journal “ the belt of death.” If we pro- ceed still further in the same direction, the low land lying between Nipal and the plains of India will be found of the same nature, both with regard to climate and vegetation. Dr. Buchanan describes it as hot and unhealthy, the vegetation the same as in other parts of India, and similar to what we have already seen charac- - terizing the tract between the Ganges and Jumna. Bounding this on the north is a region of nearly the same breadth, consisting of small hills covered with numerous trees, which, according to Dr. B., resemble those of Goalpara; and from the instances given, likewise those found in the hills near Hurdwar, as we find among them Saud, Sissoo, Toon, Catechu, and Pinus longifolia. The nature of the vegetation in the most southern part of this tract has already been indicated as occurring in the districts of Silhet and Chittagong, where the several Palms are found with the Tree-fern. As in ascending mountains, the same decrease of temperature is observed as in receding from the equator, so do we observe a similar change in vegetation; and it has been remarked, that the same families and genera which approach nearest to the poles, are those which attain the highest elevations in mountainous regions. This is no where better exemplified than when we depart from the tropical vegetation of the plains of India, and passing through the intermediate changes which may be observed in proceeding from the equator to either pole, we attain a moderate elevation, and find a mild temperature, with the climate and many of the productions, both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, of the temperate zone. At a still greater elevation, where from the late melting of the snow in summer, and its early fall in autumn, the season of vegetation is as short as in polar regions, we have in place of either an Indian or a European THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 15 a European one, a perfectly Alpine Flora. But as the decrease of temperature is gradual, so is the disappearance of Indian forms, and we continue for some time to meet plants with which we are familiar in every part of the plains, many of which indeed must originally have been derived from the bases of these mountains. Among these may be mentioned Butea frondosa, Carissa sepiaria, Justicia Adhatoda, Nyctanthes arbor tristis, Grislea tomentosa, Sterculia villosa, Kydia calycina, and Leea aspera. Nerium Oleander is found at the base of these mountains; and as in Syria and Barbary, along the banks of streams; Bassia butyracea, to which the shea tree of Bruce is probably allied, is indigenous in the neighbourhood of Almora, while the other species are found in warmer parts of India. The mangoe, though its fruit does not ripen, is found as high as four thousand feet, near Deyra, as well as at Nahn: and Gloriosa superba attains an equal elevation, but it only exposes its annual shoots during summer, while the subterranean situation of its tubers protects them from the great vicissitudes of temperature. An European, on his first arrival in a tropical country, is struck by the magnificent peculiarities of its vegetation ; but to one who has long resided in such a clime these become familiar, and his attention is more quickly excited by the re-appearance of forms with which he was familiar in his youth, and which characterize the more humble and verdant, but not less beautiful Flora of temperate climates. In pro- portion as we ascend these mountains, the plants of India disappear, and we are de- lighted at finding the increase in number and variety of those belonging to European genera. At first we see only a few straggling towards the plains, which in a more temperate climate would be their favourite resort; and it is not until we have attained a considerable elevation that, having apparently lost all traces of tropical vegetation, — we enter a forest of pines or oaks, and lofty rhododendrons, where none but Euro- pean forms are recognizable. The genera of which species descend to the lowest levels, are chiefly Clematis, Berberis, Viburnum, Hypericum, Rhus, Euonymus, Rubia, Geranium, and Viola. ' 7 This disappearance of tropical forms is not so complete as would appear at first, on visiting the mountains in the spring or summer months ; for the southern slope of the Himalaya being within the full influence of the tropical rains, a peculiarity of atmos- pherical phenomena is induced, which favours the existence of a series of forms not otherwise to be expected in a climate of which the mean temperature is so low. - For the attainment of greater precision in our ideas respecting the peculiarities of vegetation as connected with the climate of successive elevations, it is proposed to divide the slope of the Himalaya into three several belts, and take separate notice of each. The first has been already considered, and may be supposed to extend to between four and five thousand feet of elevation, as several tropical perennials extend to the latter, and snow does not usually fall below the former. The second belt may be conceived to embrace the space between five and nine thousand feet of elevation, as the winter's snow is always melted from such elevations before the accession of the rainy season, and the upper 16 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF upper is nearly the limit to which the herbaceous plants of tropical genera extend. The third belt may be taken from this elevation up to the highest limits from which snow melts away on the southern face of the Himalayan Mountains. The bounds are in a ereat measure arbitrary to which each of these belts have been restricted, for the changes, both in temperature and vegetation, are so gradual, that it is impossible to draw any line where the peculiarities of one can be so clearly defined as not to interfere with those which are considered characteristic of another; and this difficulty is further increased by the change which is continually taking place in the climate and productions of similar elevations the further we penetrate into the Himalayas, for even where the mean temperature is the same, the range of the thermometer is greater, and the line of perpetual congelation higher in the internal than in the external ranges of these moun- tains. A further difficulty is also produced by the great difference in the vegetation of the northern and southern faces of the very same range or mountain, so that frequently a straight line running along the summit of the ridge may be seen dividing the luxuriant arboreous and shrubby vegetation of the northern face from the brown, barren, and grassy covering of the southern slope. This difference has been observed by all travel- lers, and may be ascribed in part to the greater depth of the soil on the northern face ; but chiefly, I conceive, to the less direct influence of the solar rays on this than on the southern side. The stations of Simla, Mussooree, and Lundour having been much resorted to for health, their climate and vegetation attentively observed, and offering an altitude of seven thousand five hundred feet, will afford a good illustration of the peculiarities of the central belt. The details of meteorological phenomena being confined to the intro- ductory chapter, it is sufficient here to remark, that with a range of the thermometer of 53°, from 27° to 80°, anda mean temperature of about 55° observed at this elevation in 80° of N. lat., we could not expect the existence of any plants either belonging or allied to tropical genera; and certainly we do not meet with them in the clear dry months of the autumn, spring, or summer, but only in the rainy season, when a moderate and uniform degree of evaporation, in a moist, mild, and equable atmosphere, is favourable to the growth of plants usually considered indicative of a tropical climate. These generally consist of only a few species of genera belonging to such tribes as have perennial roots and annual stems or their tuber-like stems secure in the earth from the cold of winter. The families and genera of which the species come into flower when the mild tempe- rature and moist atmosphere are so congenial, consist of Scitaminee, Canna, Hedychium, Roscoea, and Globba; Orchidea, Habenaria intermedia, pectinata, and marginata, “species of Platanthera, Pleione, Herminium, and Satyrium Nepalense ; Commeline, spe- cies of Commelina and Tradescantia ; and of Gramine a few species of Panicum, Era- grostis, and Andropogon ; of other tribes Begonia, Osbeckia, Drosera. Almost every rock is covered with species of Cyrtandracee and Platystemma Violoides, and the ground with Balsaminee ; of Acanthacee, a few species of Justicia and Ruellia are found; the Leguminose THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 17 Leguminosé consist of a few shrubby Indigofere, Acacie, and Desmodia, as well as of small species of Cassia and Crotalaria. Species of Vitis are found in the valleys and at moderate elevations; of Tiliacee, Corchorus and Grewia; of Apocyene, Alstonia ; of Asclepiadee, a few species of Cynanchum, Oxystelma, Marsdenia, and Hoya ; and of Myrsine@, two or three shrubby species of Myrsine and Beobotrys. That the arboreous vegetation corresponds almost entirely with that of temperate climates, will be evident from a mere enumeration of the plants which constitute the forests at elevations of from seven to eight thousand feet. These consist almost entirely of Rhododendron arboreum, and species of Quercus, Acer, Ulmus, Carpinus, with, more frequently on the northern aspect, the different Himalayan Pines. Of smaller trees, there are species of Cornus, Benthamia, Euonymus, Rhamnus, Rhus, Ilex, Andromeda ; and of shrubs, Berberis, Buus, Daphne, Crategus, and Coriaria, with others of the Rosacee, Caprifoliacee, and Smilacee. Among the trees which produce edible fruits, now cultivated in almost every part of the world (here growing appa- rently wild, but some may have been introduced from the mountains of Caubul and the hilly regions further to the north-westward), we have Juglans regia, Arme- niaca vulgaris, Persica vulgaris, and Punica Granatum, with species of Pyrus, Cerasus, Rubus, and Morus. Species of Abelia and Stauntonia are interesting, as the only other species are found in China; and species of Deutzia, Kadsura, and Hovenia are found here, in Nipal, and Japan, as well as Boehmeria frutescens, Daphne can- nabina, Cleyera ochnacea, and Lonicera japonica. Senacia nepalensis is remarkable as belonging to a genus of which the other species are found in Mauritius, and the rest of the family scattered from New Zealand in the southern to Madeira in the northern. hemisphere, nearly in the same latitude, to which the Himalayan species of Senacia extends. Many of the trees and shrubs belong to the same genera as those of the northern parts of America, but the genus Triosteum is peculiar in being confined to North America and to parts of the Himalaya. So also Onoseris nepalensis and Leuco- meris spectabilis belong to genera of which the rest of the tribe are South American. But as the climate has been shewn to correspond in so many respects with that of the temperate zone, so do we find the distinguishing characteristic of this mid region of the Himalaya to be that which is the most pleasing feature of climes where man, as De Candolle observes, attains the greatest perfection. Here, in a rich thick sward, nume- rous delicate annuals are found, .of which the congeners are so abundant in European countries, and which to enumerate at present would be tedious and out of place:. but they may be described in general terms as belonging to the great European families of Ranunculaceae, Umbellifere, Sarifragee, Crassulacee, Caryophylleea, Hypericinee, Geraniacee, Violacez, and a few Crucifere. Among the monopetalous tribes, Cam- panulacee, Plantaginee, Dipsacee, Valerianee ; and of Composite, species of Carduus, Echinops, Lactuca, Hieracium, and Mulgedium, as well as of Solidago, Diplopappus, Aster, Achillea, Artemisia, Gnaphalium, Carpesium, and Senecio; together with species of Stellate, Gentianee, Primulacee, Pediculares, and Labiate. The monocotyledons consist D of 1s ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF of Iride@, Juncee, herbaceous Asphodelee, Liliaceae, Aroidee. The Graminee consist of species of Agrostis, Polypogon, Trisetum, Poa, Festuca, Brachypodium, Keleria, and Vilfa; with of Cyperacee several species of Carer. Of Rutacee, a single species, Ruta Albiflora is extremely abundant. Ovvalis Corniculata and Centranthera hispida, as well as other plants, are found both in the hills and the plains. This’ is accounted for by observing that the cold weather of the latter and the warm weather of the former approximate much nearer the same degree of temperature than would at first be sup- posed, and these are the respective seasons of vegetation of many of these plants. It is not necessary to be more minute on the present occasion, but some plants may be more particularly alluded to, as they are remarkable on account of their geographical distribution ; as for instance, we have among the herbaceous, as among the shrubby yegetation, an affinity to the Flora of China and Japan, in Ophiopogon spicatus and Japonicus, Pardanthus Chinensis, and Houttuynia cordata being found here as well as in _ those countries. With reference to the Flora of North America, analogous species of Podophyllum, Monotropa, Phytolacca, Ampelopsis, and other genera have been found, and the specific identity of American and Himalayan specimens of Panaxr quinguefolium, Phryma leptostachya, and Datura Stramonium has been ascertained ; while Chaptala gossypina is a Himalayan species of a South American genus and tribe. But what is still more remarkable, a species of Sclerocarpus, which does not seem to differ from S. africanus,* has been found at Mussoree and at Simla as well as in Africa, while a species of Melianthus, a genus belonging to the Cape of Good Hope, exists also in Kemaon. With respect to the Flora of Europe, the number of identical species already ascertained is more numerous, and others I have no doubt will be determined to be so in the families which remain to be examined. Of those already ascertained, it will be sufficient to mention Ranunculus arvensis, Ti hlaspi arvense, Capsella Bursa Pastoris, Hedera Helix, Galium Aparine, Leontodon Taraxacum, -Acorus Calamus, Alisma Plan- tago, Prunella vulgaris, Carduus nutans, Phleum alpinum, Alopecurus geniculaius, Pha- laris canariensis, Cynodon Dactylon, Poa annua, Lolium temulentum. Samolus Valerandi is a remarkable instance of a plant found in many parts of the world, but in no part of India except at moderate elevations in moist situations in the interior of the Himalaya. In the same way that we have seen the plains, from their northern latitude, and from being also within the influence of the periodical rains, enjoying the benefits both of an European and a tropical climate, with respect to the seasons and the nature of their cultivation ; so do we find the hilly regions, with their cool summits and heated valleys equally deluged by the same rains, partaking of the same advantages; and we may sometimes, at the same time, see wheat being cut on the top of a mountain and rice ‘sown in the valley at its base: or immediately that the former is removed, the ground “Sao prepared * This plant was recognised in my collection by Mr. David Don, who informs me that he had also seen a specimen in a collection formed by the Countess of Dalhousie at Simla. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 19 prepared for the reception of the latter. On account both of the climate and the facilities for irrigation, rice is generally cultivated in the valleys, though not restricted to them; particularly the variety which does not require irrigation, as this is sown at elevations of five thousand feet on the terraced flats of the mountain side, where, as soon as the wheat is ripe, the ears are merely picked off, the straw burnt on the ground for manure, and the rice sown immediately after the first shower of rain, of which there are generally some falls in the months of April and May. Maize, millet, Lleusine coracana, and many of the other small grains, constitute, as in the plains, the rain crop; together with species of Amaranthus, Polygonum, and an Arum, of which the root is much in use as the ordinary food of the hill people. Capsicum, turmeric, and ginger, the last as high as four thousand feet, are also cultivated, and form articles of export to the plains. Mr. Traill describes the little cotton that is produced in Kemaon, as ‘ su- perior to that of the plains in softness of texture, gloss of colour, and length of fibre.” Hemp is also cultivated, of excellent quality for the manufacture of both cloth and cordage. The cold weather cultivation of moderate, and the only one of higher elevations, consists chiefly of wheat, barley, buckwheat, peas, opium, and a little tobacco: the last only in small quantities, but the opium of very superior quality. As few of the villages extend above this central belt, so is there little cultivation to be found beyond it. I have not myself seen wheat and barley at a greater elevation than eight thousand feet on the sides of Urukta, and higher on this than on Choor, a more exterior mountain; but no where have I seen finer crops than at seven thousand feet on the shoulders of the latter. Mr. Gerard has seen wheat at ten thousand feet, and Captain | Webb at twelve thousand feet of elevation, still on the southern slope of the Himalaya; but these being included within the limits of a higher belt, will be afterwards considered. The mustard tribe is also cultivated as oil seeds, which is also afforded in large quantities, of a very fine quality, by the kernels of the apricot at the highest villages. It may not be uninteresting to remark, that at some of these, where fodder is with difficulty or not at ali to be procured in the winter months, the cattle are fed upon the leaves of trees which have been stacked for that purpose in the autumn. The kinds preferred are species of Grewia, Ulmus, and Quercus ; but those of the Conifere are also employed: first, as bedding for their cattle, and afterwards as manure for their fields. Since the introduction of the potatoe its cultivation has been much increased, and the quality, which had deteriorated, much improved by renewing the stock from seed. It is fortunate, both for growers and consumers, that the Hill potatoes are not ready until those cultivated in the plains are either spoilt or expended. The animal forms which are associated with the foregoing vegetation display alike the powerful influence of climate and the admixture of European with Tropical forms. Of the monkeys, the Entel/us alone ascends in the summer months as high as nine thousand feet, where may also be seen one of the Scitaminee, which, though not entirely agreeing with the generic character, I have called Roscoea alpina: but this makes its appearance only with the first showers, while its tubers, as well by the depth to D2 which 20 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF which they are sunk as by the layer of snow, have been well protected from the excess of cold, at a season when the Entellus had retired to the neighbouring plains. The Tiger, Leopard, and others of the feline tribe, travel upwards to a considerable height in search of prey. The Mustela Hardwickit is common, and the Himalayan Fox is distinguished from that of the plains both by size and colour, and in both approximates to. the English variety. The Porcupine: of the hills does not seem to differ from that in the plains, but as it lives under ground, where greater equability of temperature: is preserved, a more extended diffusion of the species takes place. The Wild Dog is, like the Hog, found at every eleyation. The Flying Squirrel supplies the place of the so-called Flying Fox or Fox Bat of the plains. The Jurao or great Stag is the largest and most common of the tribe, and the Muntjac (Cervus Rutwa. Hodgs.) the smallest, and always recognised by the peculiar noise he makes, from which he has by English travellers been called ‘‘ the Barking Deer.” The Antelope Hodgsonii, A. ghoral, and the Musk, though inhabitants of a higher and colder region, are at particular seasons seen within this limit. The Eagle and Bearded Vulture are here, as elsewhere in the mountains, seen soaring aloft. The Pheasants peculiar and: most common to these heights are Phasianus leuconotus and pokras; others may be seen when the season is inclement in loftier regions. Corvus erythorhynchus is common to these hills and to.China, while Garrulus. bispecularis and lanceolatus nearly approach to European forms of Jay; and Pica vagabunda is iden- tical. The Cuckoo is. most common,. and heard every where; and like many others, indicates the temperate nature of the climate. Among insects, the Glow-worm strikes every one with the brilliancy of its light, and the Cicadas with the incessant noise they make; while the existence of the Stag Beetle, and of the following Butterflies, proves the analogy with European forms; Colias edura, Geoneptrix rhamni, Vanessa cardui et urtice, Pontia brassice, Argynnis tephnia. We shall now proceed to take a general view of the higher belt, where we shall find the affinities both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, as well as in the meteorological phenomena, to be considerable with those of cold and Alpine regions of the globe. As lofty summits in the interior of the Himalaya are covered with snow until May and June, perennial roots, are always protected from excessive cold’ while annuals and the herbaceous parts of perennials are destroyed. The snow not melting until the sun has nearly reached his most northern limit, the increase of temperature is great and sudden, and the vegetation proportionally rapid, exactly as we know to be the case in polar regions. To give the reader a clearer idea of tle appearances which present themselves while ascending these lofty peaks, a few abridged extracts from the author’s journal are subjoined. «« In ascending the Choor mountain on the 9th of May, at first the ordinary Himalayan trees, such as Rhododendron arboreum and Quercus lanata, were met with; the pines then made their appearance. Every thing looked like the revival of spring, some of the trees and shrubs were putting forth new leaves, others, as Viburnum, Acer, and Ribes, were De vos i ee ei iain THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 21 were in full flower. The ground was covered with a profusion of beautiful flowers, among which Primula denticulata and petiolaris, Potentilla atrosanguinea and splendens, with species of Trillium, Anemone, Ranunculus, Viola, Convallaria, Corydalis, Caltha, and Morina were chiefly conspicuous. Higher up, patches of snow were seen, and the Himalayan bamboo, which. had been levelled with the ground. The barometer stood at 21-324. Beyond this every thing had.a wintry aspect: the snow lay in masses though detached, having melted away from round the trunks of many trees and the blocks of gneiss rock. Few plants were even in leaf, but the Yew was in flower, and the Juniper seen straggling over the rocks, and Primulas peeping up in the warmer situations. At-first the Coniferé and other trees were intermixed with oaks, but latterly the oak alone (Quercus semecarpifolia) formed the forest. On emerging from this’ there is only a short ascent to the peak which formed the principal station in Captains Hodgson and Herbert’s survey.” ‘«* The highest of the two. peaks of Choor (12,149 feet) was covered with snow and inaccessible. The second, composed of great granitic blocks, was like the other bare of trees, but the snow had melted from the more open places. The Juniper and Currant were the only shrubs; the sward looked perfectly brown and dried up. The withered ferns and other plants, such as Rhubarb, which had been levelled with the ground by the snow, were just putting forth new leaves, and some few were in flower, as Primula denticulata, a Saxifrage and Gentian. The Bearded Vulture, Raven, and Siberian Pika were seen. The atmosphere was clear and cold, the wind west. The thermometer ranged from 42° to 60°; and with a blackened bulb, rose to 120° when placed near the ground. The barometers in the twenty-four hours ranged from 19°7 to 19°8, indicating, when compared with simultaneous observations made at Calcutta, an elevation varying from 11,550 to 11,850, according to the hours selected for comparison, but not more than 11,460 when deduced from observations. made at Saharunpore. The height assigned in the survey is 11,689 feet. Nothing could be more magnificent than the view from: this culminating point,. having the plains of India indefinitely extended to the southward, and on the north the snowy peaks of the Himalaya towering even above this great height. On the northern face, the snow was observed to be lying in conti- nuous beds. At its lowest limit on the ridge, in descending, an observation was taken (Bar. 21.08, Ther. attd. 65°, Ther. detd. 56°), but in sheltered places it extended much lower.” ‘« The most northern mountain. ascended was.a branch of that called Changshel, in lat. 31° 5’,. and no where were the trees more magnificent, consisting of Pine, Walnut, Birch, and Elm, with, as usual, Oaks and Pines. As plants were the principal objects of the excursion, the highest ridge of this mountain, at this time covered with snow, was not attempted to be ascended.” But as it was passed over by Capt. Herbert and Lieut. Gerard in the month of September, it will be interesting to give the result of their observations. Capt. H. describes Changshel ‘‘ as a ramification from the snowy range of great height, separating the waters of the Pabur and Roopin. Their path lay along 22 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF along the summit, and their camp on the 24th September attained an elevation of 11,280 feet. Here the Juniper, with Black and Red Currants, were found. The thermometer in the sun rose at noon to 79°, and in the shade to 67:5°. The following morning it was 41° at daybreak. In proceeding along this ridge they attained an eleva- tion of thirteen thousand feet. This part of the mountain was of course far above the limit of forest : it was however clothed with luxuriant pasturage, richly enamelled with a thousand flowers, many of which were familiar to them as the production of Europe.” ‘‘ The highest mountain ascended, though a little to the southward of this, was Kedarkanta. Crossing the Tonse, where the thermometer rose to 102°, though the point of junction of this river with the Roopin is elevated nearly five thousand feet, we ascend a pretty gradual slope, and pass through a very splendid forest, composed of the same trees as seen elsewhere at similar heights. The encampment was in an open glade, surrounded with magnificent trees of Pinus Webbiana and Quercus Semecarpifolia, among which Rhododendron campanulatum formed a large straggling shrub, in full flower even in the midst of the melting snow. An excellent view was obtained of the snowy mountains: many of the peaks were completely covered with snow, others in many places displayed the bare rock. The thermometer was in the evening at 61°, and sunk in the morning to 46°. The road continued through the forest, where the Birch and Hazel were seen in flower. On emerging from this, the ground was found level, extended, covered with a thick coating of grass, and much furrowed by an Alpine Arvicola ; a little stream produced by the melting snow flowed across ; its temperature was 42°, and its sides were lined with a species of Sphagnum. Primula Stuartii and denticulata, with a deep blue Gentian and Caltha Napalensis, formed a bright contrast of colours. Barometer 20.25, thermometer attached 70°. From this the highest peak, elevated twelve thousand six hundred and eighty-nine feet, was found covered with deep beds of snow, which had in many places melted away from the lower one. On ascend- ing the latter, a beautiful purple Primula, nearly allied to P. Stuartii, and Ranunculus polypetalus, were alone found in flower; a little below these, a Phalangium, a Fritillaria and Bistorta, were found ; with Rhododendron lepidotum and anthopogon, as well as Salix Lindleyana, forming diminutive shrubs. From the higher peak, at a late season of the year, I have also received many of the same plants, with Ranunculus hirtellus, and species of Draba, Agrostis, and Festuca. The barometer at noon stood at 19°55, thermometer attached 70°. Thermometer detached 63°.” Further to the eastward, in the province of Kemaon, the same appearances pre- sent themselves. Captain Webb, on the 2Ist June 1818, at eleven thousand six hundred and eighty feet of elevation, to the southward of Josheemuth, found woods of oak, long-leaved pine (P. excelsa?), and Rhododrendron, and the surface covered with rich vegetation as high as the knee, with beds of stawberries and currant bushes in full flower all around. On the following day he ascended the pass of Pilgointi or Pilkonta, and found its elevation to be more than twelve thousand seven hundred feet above the sea; no snow was seen contiguous to the spot. The surface was covered THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 93 covered with strawberry plants, buttercups, dandelions, and a profusion of other flowers.—(Quarterly Review, No. 44.) 3 These brief notices will give some idea of the vegetation at ten and twelve thousand feet of elevation on the southern face of the Himalaya, as Choor, Kedarkanta, and Changshel are some of the loftiest mountains not included in the snowy range itself, from which the snow annually melts in June, July, and August. Though but small shrubs are found in the vicinity of the highest peaks, no where are more splendid pines to be seen than at eleven and eleven thousand five hundred feet of elevation. The species most common are, Pinus Webbiana, Deodara, excelsa, and Morinda. Quercus Semecarpifolia generally forms the forests, at their highest limits. Below, other species of Quercus are found, with Taxus, Betula, Acer, Cerasus, and Populus. The smaller trees and shrubs which are found as high as at twelve thousand feet of elevation, are species of Juniperus, Salixv and Ribes. Viburnum, Euonymus, Xylosteum, Pyrus lanata, and P. crenata do not reach so great a height; but the most ornamental certainly are Rhododendron campanulatum, Anagyris nepalensis, Rosa tetrapetala, and Clematis nepalensis, all found at considerable heights, with species of Gualtheria, Sibbaldia, Staphylea, Sambucus, and Syringa. The more diminutive shrubs, found at still greater elevations, are the smaller species of Rhododendron (R. lepidotum and anthopogon), with Andromeda fastigiata (the heather of Mr. Fraser), and Salix Lindleyana. In addition to the small herbaceous and showy flowering plants enumerated in the Journal, and also to other more Alpine species of Eurepean genera, of which species are also found at lower elevations, the following may be enumerated as being chiefly found at higher elevations :—Peonia, Actea, Podophyllum, Monotropa, Circea, Fragaria, Chrysosplenium, Onosma,Euphrasia, Caragana, Conopodium, Nasturtium, Turritis, Arabis, and Erysimum; with species of Lappa, Saussurea, Diplurandra, Hieracium, and Mul- gedium. The genera of monocotyledons, which furnish species growing at the highest elevations, are Phalangium, Fritillaria, Gagea, Trillium, Iris, Allium, Tulipa, and Cypripedium. The grasses belong chiefly to Agrostis, Poa, Festuca, Bromus, and Phleum; while ef Cyperacee many Carices are found. Ferns are less common, but mosses and lichens abound, both on rocks and the trunks of trees. As the long-continued covering of snow, and its remoyal in the hottest months of the year during the partial prevalence of the rains, presents some of the same meteorological phenomena as observed at lower elevations, so we may meet with some plants which we would not otherwise expect, or be able to account for. The Roscoea has been already mentioned as being common at nine thousand feet of elevation. What is more remarkable, one of the Bamboo tribe, and which in the hills is used for the same purposes as the bamboo in the plains, is found commonly at elevations of from seven thousand five hundred to ten thousand feet, but its annual stems are yearly beaten down by the falls of snow, which protect its perennial roots from excessive frost. This does not, however, belong to the genus Bambusa, but is nearly allied to the Chusquea of Humboldt and Kunth, found by the former, the most accomplished 2 of 24 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF of travellers, in the cold mountains of Quito and Santa Fé de Bogota. An Euphorbia also is found at great elevations, but its great tuberous root sunk in the ground sends up long peduncles bearing flowers only in the warmest month of the year. Investigations have not yet been sufficiently extended to enable us to detail all the instances of identity in species found in this belt with that of the Flora of other countries, but the following may be mentioned, in addition to those enumerated, with the vegetation of the central belt: Pyrus baccata, Spirea ‘kamtschatica, Fritillaria verticillata, Thymus serpyllum, Lamium amplexicaule, Arenaria serpyllifolia. Within this belt there is but little cultivation, though Mr. Gerard has seen it as high as ten thousand feet, and a village at nine thousand five hundred feet; but there the crops are frequently cut green. Capt. Webb saw extensive fields of buckwheat and Tartarian barley, between the village and temple of Milem, at the respective elevations of eleven thousand four hundred and five and eleven thousand six hundred and eighty-two feet above Calcutta; but these, though not beyond the snowy passes, par- take more.of the climate and peculiarities of the northern than of the southern face of the Himalaya, and in the former, as has been well ascertained, both by the Messrs. Gerard and by Captain Herbert, both habitations and cultivation extend to a much greater height than on the latter. The animal kingdom affords many of the same indications of the Alpine nature of the country, as we have seen presented by the vegetable kingdom. The Thibetan musk is found on the mountains in the vicinity of the snow. The Antelope ghoral, A. thar, and A. Hodgsonii, peculiar to these mountains, are generally found on the most inaccessible places in the warm weather; but in the colder, like most other animals, they come down to lower elevations for the benefit of a milder climate and better pasturage. The Pika does not appear to differ from that found in Siberia by Pallas, and like the Arvicola, lays up a winter store, and continues to thrive in a climate apparently incompatible with animal existence, being, like others of its tribe, so admirably adapted for fulfilling the functions of the: link which they form in the animal creation, that of converting vegetable into animal matter, as Dr. Grant so beautifully shows in his interesting and most philosophical course of lectures. Gypaetos barbatus is found, as in the Alps, soaring above the highest peaks; and the Raven, frequently seen in the plains in winter, is here found in the neighbour- hood of the snow in the month of May. The different species of Himalayan Pheasant, so celebrated for the beauty and splendour of their plumage, Satyra Melanocephala, Lophophorus Impeyanus, and Phasianus Waillichii, may, like the Antelopes, be found according to the seasons at different elevations, but lower and nearer to the plains, according as the weather in the interior becomes more inclement. ‘Having obtained a general idea of the vegetation at successive elevations in the tract of the Himalaya included between the Ganges and Jumna rivers, it remains only to show that the observations respecting these will apply generally to similar elevations in other parts of the range. Between the vegetation of the mountains of Gurhwal and bess THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 25 and Kemaon, a general uniformity is observed; if we compare with these the plants obtained by Dr. Wallich from Gossaingthan, a lofty mountain and place of religious ° resort, in 28° of N. latitude, and about seven days’ journey N. by W. from Katmandoo, in Nepal, we shall find that many of the same families and genera prevail in each, as well as a great many of the same species. In the more northern mountains we find an excess in the families of Ranunculacee, Crucifere, Caryophyllee, Umbellifera, Gen- tianee, Boraginee, Pediculares, and Primulacee@, and in some sections of Leguminosae, Composite, Labiate, and Graminee ; but that the same botanical features mark both parts of this extended range will be evident, if we observe that almost all the new genera discovered in the mountains of Nepal are also to be found in those of Gurhwal. Of these may be enumerated Cyananthus, Codonopsis, Crawfurdia, Hemi- phragma, Parochetus, Argostemma, Platystemma, Leycesteria, Astilbe, Leucostemma, Acosmia, Cyclostegia, Roylea, Colquhounia. Of species, it will be sufficient to mention that many of the Conifere, Amentacee, Rosacea, Campanulacee, Caprifoliacee, Savi- Ffragee, Valerianeea, Dipsacee, and Composite are the same in both, and that we equally find in each such plants as Rhododendron campanulatum, lepidotum, and anthopogon, Andromeda fastigiata, Sambucus adnata, Nardostachys Jatamansi, Salvia nubicola, Primula Stuartii and denticulata, with many others. To these it may be added, that the same species of the following genera, of which only single ones have yet been found in the Himalaya, are met with along the whole extent investigated ; viz. of Actea, Cimi- cifuga, Podophyllum, Sambucus, Monotropa, Philadelphus, §c. Among Cryptogamic plants there is here, as elsewhere, a much greater uniformity over a great extent of space. : Though there is this great similarity in the botanical features, it is not to be sup- posed that it is universal, for several genera belonging to the mountains of Nepal have not yet been discovered in those to the northward: as Triosteum, Tricyrtis, Neillia, Sanguisorba, Glossocomia, Dactylicapnos, Eriophytum, &c.. So also there are some in the latter which are not enumerated as forming a portion of the Flora of the former : as Isopyrum, Dictamnus, Turritis, Melianthus, Orobus, Polemonium, Abelia, Echium, Onosma, Moltkia, Syringa, Oxyria, Euphrasia, Hippophae, Datisca, and Ephedra. If instead of the eastward and southward we proceed to the westward and north, we shall find, though with considerable modifications, that many of the same appearances present themselves; for though changes take place, yet every thing indicates as in ascending from the plains, or in proceeding from the equator to the poles, so from east- ward to westward, that all changes are gradual whenever no great natural obstacles intervene to prevent plants diffusing themselves by degrees all around; and this we would see to be more strikingly the case if we could examine the spaces intervening between Nepal and Cashmere, or between the latter and Caucasus. The most northern point of the Himalaya accessible to my plant collectors was the mountain barrier which encircles the valley of Cashmere: to reach this by the com- mencement of the rains, when from the melting of the snow the passes become acces- E sible, ~ + 26 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF sible, they left the plains of India by the commencement of May. At different times they crossed both the pass of Bunal, entered by Forster, and that of Peerpunjal, described by Bernier when he accompanied the Emperor Aurungzebe into Cashmere. The latter I had always concluded, from the plants brought me, and allowing for its more northern position, to be at least ten thousand feet in elevation; by M. Jacquemont the pass he entered is said to be the lowest, and elevated only eight thousand two hundred feet, equal only to one-half of the medium height of the Himalayan passes. Bernier was surprised, on the first night that he left Bember and entered these moun- tains, to find himself transported as if from the torrid into a temperate zone, and from the vegetation would have concluded that, instead of being in India, he was on one of the mountains of Auvergne; and seems to have been particularly struck by observing that, though both sides of the mountain were covered with plants, there was this great difference, that on the side which was exposed to the south, towards India, there was a mixture of Indian and European plants, but on that exposed to the north, he only saw European ones. In crossing Peerpunjal, he remarks that three things particularly attracted his notice: first, that in one hour he experienced both summer and winter ; secondly, that within the space of two hundred paces he encountered two directly contrary winds; and thirdly, being informed that every noise made in these mountains excites storms and furious tempests ; an opinion which is also entertained by the moun- taineers to the eastward. | Among the plants brought me by my plant collectors from this very mountain are many of those which must be alluded to by Bemier, as reminding him of the Flora of Europe. In the following enumeration I have only mentioned those which show the analogy existing between the vegetation of Peerpunjal and that of Kedarkanta and other lofty mountains within the limits of the British territories. Among the most conspicuous of these plants I may mention Delphinium vestitum, Aconitum heterophyllum, Actea Srigida, Meconopsis aculeata, Lappa himalayana, Picris hispida, Gentiana caerulea, Onosma bracteatum, Salvia nubicola and Moorcroftiana, Primula den- ticulata and Stuartii, Acosmia rupestris, Saussurea religiosa, Rheum Emodi, some of the Himalayan species of Fritillaria and Allium, with many others. Besides these, new species make their appearance, chiefly of Boraginee, Ranunculacea, Labiata, and of the genera Potentilla, Saxifraga, Gentiana, and Pedicularis, and also some new genera, as Trollius, Moltkia, Anchusa, but these in general are the same as found in more eastern parts of the Himalaya. Among the trees and shrubs may be mentioned some of the Conifere, as Pinus Gerardiana, and species of Taxus and Juniperus, as wellas of Quercus, Betula, Acer, Pavia, Corylus, Rhododendron, and Gualtheria, with Fravinus Xanthoxyloides, Staphylea Emodi, and Sambucus adnata. As showing the analogy with other parts of the world, it is interesting to observe that Senecio asplenifolius is found here, and is identical, as I am informed by Mr. Don, with specimens in the Herbarium of Pallas from Cau- casus. This analogy with the Flora of Caucasus is observed in several other plants, as will appear in the sequel. Elsholtzia cristata is found here, as in other parts of the Himalaya, THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 27 Himalaya, and in Siberia. The European species which have been identified are Thymus Serpyllum, Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Polemonium ceruleum. If, instead of keeping on mountain tops, we descend into the vallies on their northern face, we shall observe that, with many of the phenomena peculiar to such localities, there is considerable modification in the vegetation of each, according to elevation and latitude. The valley of Cashmere, situated between the thirty-fourth and . thirty- fifth parallels of latitude, in the most northern part of the Himalaya, and to which we descend from the snow-clad summit of Peerpunjal, is described as being of an oval form, encircled by mountains clothed with vegetation, which are themselves girded by a higher range covered with snow. The level of the vailey is of considerable extent, being about sixty miles in length, and about forty in breadth in the widest part ; its elevation is estimated by the late lamented traveller M. Jacquemont to be from five thousand two hundred and forty-eight to five thousand five hundred and seventy-six feet; he how- ever states that the beauty of this valley has been much exaggerated, both by his countryman Bernier and by Mr. Forster. But there is no doubt that, in consequence of its being copiously watered by numerous streams, lakes, and canals, there is consi- derable moisture both of soil and climate, and almost constant verdure ; while the nume- rous gardens, and the great variety of fruit-trees and of beautiful flowers, must always strike visitors from the arid plains of India, whether Europeans, as Bernier and Forster, or Asiatics, as Abul Fuzl. From the mixed nature of the cultivation the climate must evidently be mild and temperate, for even in the warmest months of summer the breezes which descend at night from the mountains are always cool and pleasant ; the periodical rains consist of gentle showers, and the snows which fall in winter cannot remain long upon the ground. Abul Fuzl says that it rains and snows here at the same season as in Tartary and Persia; and that during the periodical rains in Hindoostan light showers only fall here, though with great violence on the mountains which form the barrier to the south-east. | From the northern latitude and great.elevation of the valley of Cashmere, we are not surprised at finding in its flora a great resemblance to that of European countries; but the moisture of the climate, and its mild temperature in the season of vegetation, causes so great an extension of the herbaceous parts, as well as of the flowers of plants, that many of them rival in luxuriance those of tropical countries.. The mildness and moisture of the climate is indicated by the extensive cultivation of rice, as well as by the success- fal cultivation of the Cucurbitacee, as no where are there finer and larger melons, water- melons, gourds, and cucumbers. The kidney bean, though not common in the gardens of the north-western provinces, thrives remarkably well in Cashmere, as well as the egg- plant and the capsicum. The lakes abound with Zrophis bispinosa, and species of Nymphaea and Menyanthes. The existence of hemp and of f species of balsam, of marsh-, tree-, and common mallow, all indicate a temperate climate, as do the cultivation of wheat, barley, and saffron, together with the culture in their gardens of such European vegetables as turnip, radish, beet-root, and cabbage; and the usage of clover as fodder 2 for a _ e 28 ee ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF for cattle ; all proving the approximation in vegetation to that of European countries, as has been already indicated with regard to the climate by the testimony of so many travellers. The other genera of which species have been. brought down by the plant collectors are chiefly European, as Viola, Trollius, Dianthus, Mathiola, Cheiranthus, Draba, Capsella, Hypericum, Lythrum, Spirea, Rubus, Geum, Myricaria, Eryngium, Euphrasia, Salvia, Nepeta, Phlomis, Trifolium, Vicia, Orobus, Ononis, Medicago, Lactuca, Sonchus, Iris, Narcissus, and Crocus. The species which have been already identified with those of Europe are the following : Mentha viridis, Mentha arvensis, Mentha sylvestris, Hibiscus Trionum, Centaurea moschata, Hieracium sabaudum, Dianthus barbatus, Lychnis coro- naria, Myosotis palustris, Dactylis glomerata, Cucubalus baccifer. In the arboreous vegetation the same resemblance exists to the Flora of Europe : the Walnut, Aspen, Poplar, and Willow are, with the Oriental Plane, the most common trees. The fruit trees are so abundant as to be described by natives from India as constituting a jungle: they consist of the Apple, Pear, Peach, Quince, Cherry, Apricot, Pomegranate, Plum, Mulberry, Hazle, and Vine; while the drying of raisins, and the conversion of the grape into wine, would of themselves be sufficient to determine the temperate nature of the climate. With their fruit and saffron the northern merchants also bring down rhubarb and musk, which they procure from Tibet. The Salep is produced in the hills between Jumboo and Cashmere; specimens of the plant, with the root, leaves, and seed-vessel, but without flowers, were brought down, and appear to Dr. Lindley to belong to Eulophia ; and as I have no doubt of its being the plant which yields the salep of Indian commerce, I have ventured to call it Eulophia vera. Of animals we have few notices, but they may be supposed, from the specimens procured, to approximate to those of Europe and cold climates. The shawl-wool it is well ‘known is procured from Tibet; but the merchants bring down the Chowry ox (Bos grunniens), large dogs, the Persian cat, broad-tailed sheep, and rams for fighting; as well as the blackbird, thrush, goldfinch (Carduelis caniceps), and.Carduelis spinoides. If we proceed to the soutiseeniads and take the valley of Nepal as an example, we shall have, with a great proportion of European forms, a greater mixture of tropical ones, and the prevalence of genera of which the greater number of species are found in more southern latitudes. The low hills which separate Nepal from the plains of India are themselves separated from the high mountains by vallies of considerable length, varying in elevation from three to six thousand feet; so that we may expect considerable difference in their respective temperatures and productions. The valley of Nepal proper is an oval of about sixteen miles in length, elevated about four thousand five hundred feet. That of ‘Noakote, though more to the northward, is far less elevated, and therefore hotter in summer and milder in winter: its vegetable productions correspond, according to Dr. Wallich, with the lower parts of Nepal. The temperature of the latter is described by Mr. Hodgson as being generally from ten to fifteen degrees lower than that of India. From nace THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 29 From Dr. Buchanan’s observations, the thermometer has a range of 55°, the maximum and minimum, 86° and 31°, occurring in July and January. The winters are described as never being very severe ; but Nepal being within the influence of the tropical rains, there is at that season of the year considerable moisture of climate, and the mean tempe- rature of eight months in the year being above 60°, even in the open country about Cat- mandoo, and must be higher in some of the lower and more close vallies, we shall not be surprised at finding so many of the natural productions approximating to those both of the temperate and tropical zones. The general nature of the European-like Flora may be appreciated by a reference to that which has been enumerated as characterizing the central belt of the Himalayan slope. The greater prevalence of tropical forms is indicated in the existence of species of Semecarpus, Hirea, Hiptage, Triumfetta, Grewia, Utricularia, Dysophylla, Premna, Callicarpa, Anisochilus, and still more by the genera Podocarpus, Schepfia, Aschynanthus, Leucosceptrum, Gomphostemma, Geniosporum, Oxyspora, Sarcopyramis, Turpinia, and Apostasia being found here, while their remaining species are found in Sylhet, and still further to the southward and eastward. That considerable diversity of climate is met with in the several valleys which are comprehended under the general term Nepal might be inferred from their several eleva- tions, and is proved by some of them abounding in bamboos and ratans, where the pine-apple thrives and ripens its fruit, while in others oaks, walnuts, hornbeams and pines abound. We cease, therefore, to be surprised at finding a lofty palm, the Chame- rops Martiana of Dr. Wallich, in this valley, as well as a species of Balanophora, the rest of the genus being found both in the Indian and Malayan peninsula, as well as in the island of Java. Passiflora and Melastoma have each a species in Nepal, the former distributed chiefly over South America and the West-Indies, and the latter confined almost entirely within the Tropics; but species of the nearly allied Osbeckia found here, extend also as far as 31° of N. latitude along these mountains. The affinity to the Flora of China. may be observed in the several plants being found here previously mentioned as being common to that country and the Himalayas. To these may be added, Hovenia dulcis, Lonicera confusa, longifolia, and chinensis. Camellia Kissi, closely allied to both C. Sasanguha and oleifera, according to Dr. Wallich; is a plant of Nepal, where the tea shrub succeeds so well, that a young plant introduced from China had in 1818 attained a height of nine or ten feet. The Magnoliacee, of which several species are found in Nepal, form a link connecting its Flora with that of China and North America. Being within the influence of the tropical rains, we find rice, particularly when transplanted, forming the chief cultivation in Nepal, with maize and the other grains cultivated in India during that season, together with cotton, sugar-cane, ginger, a large kind of cardamom, the produce of a species of Amomum, and the Indian Madder or Rubia Munjista. Wheat and barley are cultivated in the winter months, which are however so mild as to ripen the orange in the open air; though European fruits do not succeed so well, from the shortness of the spring. The influence of the rains may also 30 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF also be seen in the presence during that season of: numerous species of Gralle and Anseres, as illustrated by Mr. Hodgson, who observes, that many of these generally make a mere stage of the valley in ‘their migrations to and from the vast plains of India and Tibet. The migration southwards of snipes, teal, ducks, herons, storks, cranes, and woodcocks, respectively follows in succession from August to November, and their return takes place in the same order, beginning with the commencement of March and continuing till the middle of May.* | In * In connection with this notice of the vegetation of the Himalayas, it will be interesting to ascertain if the same phenomena result from elevation in a still more southern mass. The Neelgherries, in 11° of N. latitude, have their highest peak, Dodapet, elevated eight thousand seven hundred feet. The general elevation of the level ground around Ootacamund is about eight thousand, andiat Dimhutty about six thousand feet above the level of the sea. The mass is considerable, being in length thirty-five miles, and fifteen in breadth, containing four hundred and seventy square miles of undulating country. The temperature is described as being generally 30° below that of the neigbouring plains. At their base these mountains are surrounded by a dense jungle, in which elephants, bisons,and tigers abound, where formerly rice, sugar-cane, betle, cocoa-nut, and plantain were cultivated. The acclivities are likewise covered with a gigantic forest of teak, tamarind, mangoe, ebony and bamboos; among which, in favourable situations, Borassus flabelliformis and Phenix sylvestris occur as palms. The Mimosas, Cassias and Pongamia glabra afford specimens of arborescent Leguminosae, while Thespesia populnea is a malvaceous tree. Hopea supplies the place of Shorea as one of the Diptercocarpee ; Xanthochymus and Garcinia exist as Guttifere; and species of Strychnos are found here, though not occurring in the jungles of the Northern provinces, while Myrsinee, Laurin and arborescent Euphorbiacee are common to both. This belt of jungle extends from three thousand five hundred to five thousand feet of elevation, is very unhealthy, and the distinctly marked region of fever. Above this the country is open, the wood in clumps and patches, the climate delightful and healthy. The range of the thermometer is about 43°, from 31° the minimum in winter, to 74° the maximum in summer: but this, from the mode in which the observations are recorded, I have not been able to ascertain so exactly as I could wish. During the cold season Mr, Young gives the utmost range of the thermometer as 28°, between 31° and 59°, but as not more than 10° during the rest of the year. The maximum he states in the sun to be 85°, and the minimum 56°, but in the shade 20° to 25° lower ; and that the average in the rainy season is about 64°, from which the thermometer hardly ever varies above two or three degrees. The Neelgherries experience the influence of both the S.W. and N.E.monsoons. The elasticity of the air is proved whe the distance to which sounds are conveyed, and by its effects on the animal spirits. ' Though materials do not exist in such abundance for giving a view of the vegetation of the Neelgherries, yet there are sufficient to shew that a similarity in vegetation is produced by a correspondence with the Himalayas in meteorological phenomena. Many of the plants of the Neelgherries are enumerated in Dr. Wallich’s catalogue of the East-Indian Herbarium ; a list of genera was published by M. Leschenault de la Tour, and Dr. Wight has furnished me with several additional names, so that the materials are sufficient for giving a general idea of the nature of the vegetation; but a difficulty occurs in the exact localities of the plants not being given, nor the seasons of vegetation indicated ; but as no snow falls, and the cold weather is of shorter tinus nee, we may expect the Flora to be less completely European, particularly as the long-continued equabilit - of the rest of the year, and the rainy season, will be favourable to many genera of tropical families. Thus, though none of the pines or other Conifere are found, the scarlet flowers of the Rhododendron arboreum, with a white rose climbing to the tops of the highest trees, form the ornament of these as of the northern hills. The other European genera are Andromeda, Gualtheria, Vaccinium Ranunculus, Thalictrum, Clematis, ™ Anemone, THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 31 In addition to the vallies of Cashmere and Nepal, we may notice the peculiarities of vegetation in another set of vallies—those which constitute river beds. These forming inclined slopes, of which the lower end rests on the plains of India and the upper at the sources of rivers touching the limits of perpetual congelation, will present every variety of temperature and organic life to be met with in ascending the mountains themselves. Hence, according to thé part of these vallies which we examine, we may meet with either the plants of tropical or of alpine regions ; and this will explain the anomaly which frequently presents itself in finding so many plants requiring quite different climates enumerated as occurring in the same locality. Thus, if we notice the vegetation on the banks of either the Ganges or Jumna, where they emerge from the mountains into the plains, we shall find it perfectly tropical, and jungly; consisting of bamboos, ratans, and such trees as saul, toon, sissoo, and ebony, with many others enumerated as forming the tract of jungle which runs along the foot of the hills. Thirty miles higher up we have the banks of both rivers covered with Alders and Pinus longifolia; still further up we have species of Olea, Eleagnus, Hippophae and Frazinus Xanthoryloides ; but if we ascend to the sources themselves of the two rivers near Gangotri and Jumnotri, we shall see only the plants Anemone, Adonis, Rosa, Rubus, Fragaria, Berberis, Geranium, Viola, Parnassia, Lonicera, Euonymus, Viburnum, Salix, Salvia, Wulfenia, Scutellaria, Lysimachia, Daphne, Plantago, and Lobelia. The gigantic L. excelsa attains there an elevation of twelve feet. The plants allied to tropical genera are both herbaceous and perennial ; the former we may suppose occur in the rainy season, while the exact localities of the latter not being given, we are unable to form any inferences respecting the climate ; but the greatest cold, if not long continued, will not be fatal to many, as several of the same genera exist in the northern provinces of India. The herbaceous genera alluded to are Canna, Costus, Hedychium, Curcuma, Begonia, Piper, Melastoma, Osbeckia, Sonerila, Impatiens, together with species of Sida, Crotalaria, Callicarpa, Convolvulus, Thunbergia, Solanum, and Ardisia, as small shrubs; while species of Grewia, Sterculia, Kydia, Strychnos, and Syzygium exist as trees; but these are probably not found in the highest parts. Species of Pittosporum and Lantana are also found here ; and — tomentosa affords an edible berry. The grains cultivated are nearly the same as those of Northern India, consisting of wheat, barley, millet, mustard, peas, in the cold weather, and the smaller grains during the monsoons, though rice does. not at all succeed. The svil and climate are most favourable for gardening, as all kinds of European vegetables are described as attaining an enormous size, and some as living for two or three years. The climate is equally favourable for European fruit-trees, but the early accession of the rainy season prevents the proper ripening of the fruit of many, though some requiring a shorter season produce very fine fruit. aaincsieae live, but de not thrive in the Neelgherries. The animal kingdom displays the same mixture of European and tropical forms as we have seen existing among vegetables. Many of the common Indian mammalia are found on the Neelgherries, as well as the elk, the wild sheep and wild dog, and with these a black monkey (an Simia (Macacus) Silenus, the Ouanderou ?) with the peacock and jungle fowl ; the raven, blackbird, thrush, lark, and woodcock are also seen —Hough on the Neelgherries ; Young on the Topography of the Neelgherries; Transactions of the Medical and Physica) Society of Calcutta, vol. iv. 32 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF plants found on the highest mountains, as Choor and Kedarkanta. The elevation is certainly great, being at least ten thousand feet; but the trees, which are elsewhere found looking down upon vallies, are here themselves situated in them, having moun- tains towering above them covered with snow, which, on melting below the line of perpetual congelation, gives place to a lowly but rich vegetation. The trees consist of Abies excelsa and Betula Bhgjputra; with them are found species of juniper, hazle, and a new Quercus. Walnut and apricot trees exist in the vicinity of the nearest villages. Wheat and buckwheat are cultivated, but are green even in July, when the water of the river is cold, but the sun’s rays very powerful. A kind of gooseberry, rhubarb, and currant are also found ; and among the most remarkable flowers are species of Dictamnus, Isopyrum, Phalangium, and Aconitum ; Hemiphragma is one of the new forms produced in this somewhat peculiar situation. Andromeda fastigiata, Saussurea gossypina, Carduus macrocephalus, and Nardostachys Jatamansi, are with many others found in the mountains in the vicinity. | From the frozen sources of rivers, the transition is easy to the snowy passes of the Himalaya. These always lead over the lowest parts of the snowy range, are gene- rally from fifteen to sixteen thousand feet high, though some to the eastward are more elevated, and mostly flanked by peaks which are three or four thousand feet higher. Being for the greater part if not for the whole year covered with snow, their vegetation is only interesting as affording examples of the plants which attain the highest limits, but they afford the most favourable sites for observing the elevation of the line of per- petual congelation. These passes have been explored and described by Captains Hodgson, Webb, Herbert, and the Messrs. Gerard. By the first, the air within the mountains has been described as clear, light, and very dry, in which evaporation is very rapid; the sky of a deep blue colour; and the stars of great brilliancy, appearing and disappearing instantaneously, without any apparent augmentation of their size. The country leading to these passes is generally very rugged and barren below the limit of snow. Above the pine forests, or from eleven thousand to eleven thousand eight hun- dred feet of elevation, a few dwarf oaks, junipers, and stunted birches are met with, as well as Rhododendron lepidotum, and a species of Allium and wild rose above twelve thou- sand feet. The raven and Alpine hare are also seen. The genera, of which species have been brought me from the highest extent of vegetation in these passes, are Ranunculus, Aconitum, Geranium, Potentilla, Epilobium, Carduus, Senecio, Inula, Cineraria, Cyno- glossum, Myosotis, Primula, Pedicularis, Salvia, Lamium, Ori iganum, and Polygonum ; of the last there are several species from such localities. On descending the northern face, a peculiarity is observed in finding a pine, which is not met with on the southern face, owing most likely to the influence of the rains. This is the Pinus Neoza of Dr. Govan, Pe Gerardiana of Dr. Wallich, and most probably the Chilghoza of Mr. Elphinstone. Rhododendron lepidotum i is found as high as fourteen thousand two hundred feet, villages and cultivation at ten thousand five hundred and eleven thousand five hundred feet. Snow was found at thirteen thousand four hundred feet in June by the Messrs. Gerard on THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 33° on the southern face, but they mention that it would be melted at this height a month later. Capt. Herbert gives thirteen thousand feet as the limit of snow on _ northern face in the beginning of October. To the eastward the general elevation of the country must be raised, as it is nearer the sources of the great rivers and the passes are higher. The Beans Pass was estimated by Capt. Webb, who found snow at the.end of May, at seventeen thousand five hundred and ninety-eight feet, and more recently, by the Editor of the Gleanings in Science, at sixteen thousand eight hundred and forty-four feet, from the observations of a traveller in October 1828, who had only some new snow, but no old beds to cross. The Neetee — Pass, elevated sixteen thousand eight hundred and fourteen feet, had no snow on it when visited by Capt. Webb, nor any on a ridge three hundred feet above, whence the lower point of congelation was estimated at not less than seventeen thousand feet on the northern side of the Himalayan Mountains. In the neighbourhood of these passes the’snow does not entirely disappear until July, _ which, with half of August, constitutes the summer, a season when, on the southern face, rain frequently falls; autumn extends to the end of September, and winter com- mences with October. . Above the limit of forest, which is composed of the same oaks, pines, yew, birch, and poplar as found to the westward, Cypress and Junipers are found (Cupressus torulosa, Juniperus communis and squarrosa), with Rhubarb, Gooseberry, Rose-bushes, and a species of Astragalus, the furze of travellers. The grains cultivated in the nearest villages are the same as have been elsewhere enumerated as those peculiar to such heights. Cultivation was found by Capt. Webb in this direction above eleven thou- sand five hundred feet of elevation, though not above ten thousand by Capt. Gerard near the Western Passes; but here the occurrence of loftier mountains to the southward produces some of the same effects as are witnessed on the northern face of the Himalayas,—a confinement of all the solar rays imparted, and their reverberation from two sides, instead of one of a mountain, by which, and by the general raising of the vallies, the lower limit of congelation becomes considerably elevated, and with it the limit of vegetation, as well as of villages and cultivation. This is still better exemplified if we. notice the highest cultivation in the mountains which intervene between the snowy range and the plains of India, where we shall see that the height of cultivation diminishes as we proceed to the outer range of mountains. Thus: in the line of the geological section, we have wheat near Rol at ten thousand, at Bumpta on Urukta at eight thousand, and above Chowras on Choor not much above seven thousand feet of elevation, while on Mussooree, the most external range, I have seen it but little above six thousand feet, though parts of the range are fifteen hundred and two thousand feet higher. This must in‘some measure be ascribed to the diminished height of mountains lowering the sources of irrigation, but principally 1 conceive to the effects of the breeze, which always blows up the mountains from the plains, and which, besides being very drying, has its capacity for heat increased as its density is diminished, and ~ thus prevents the accumulation of heat on the mountain sides over which it passes. " n 34 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF On desbénding the western passes of the Himalaya, we enter the district of Kunawur, which has been described by Captain Herbert as comprehending the valley of the Sutlej and its principal feeders, from lat. 31° 33’, long. 77°47’, to lat. 31° 51’, long. 78° 42/. It is bounded on the north-east and west by Tartar provinces, under the influence of China, and may be said to be contained within the Himalayas; for on the south it has the Indian snowy range, and on the north the Parkyul ridge, the highest peak of which is twenty-two thousand feet. There is no table land, or undulating plain ; the mountains are tipped with snow, and the villages of Kunawur are situated in the valley of the Sutlej itself, or in glens watered by its principal feeders: their general elevation is from eight to nine thousand feet ; though some are below, others are much above this height, being at least twelve thousand feet in the interior. Lower Kunawur commences near Seran, of which the climate is fine, though Ram- pore, the capital of Bissehir, not far distant, elevated: three thousand three hundred feet, but situated in a valley, has sultry days (the thermometer as high sometimes as 100°, and even 110°) and chilly nights, with hot summers and cold winters. ‘Some of the | lower villages are subject to the periodical rains, which make their way up the valley of the Sutlej and across the lower part of the Himalaya. Near these, grapes do not thrive, but long rank grass, a species of Saccharum, eight or ten feet in length, with Aneilema, and other tropical genera, ‘are found; higher up the river, the villages are more elevated, and the rains less regular and heavy. Here there are luxuriant vineyards, where the delicious grapes are dried as raisins, and converted into a kind of wine ; orchards of apricot, apple, walnut, and in-some places of peaches are seen, with pear- trees, of which also the fruit is dried. The forest-trees consist of Pinus Deodara and. _Gerardiana, with yew, holly, oaks, and horse-chesnuts. | Upper Kunawur is still higher up the stream, and completely beyond the influence of the periodical rains, the height of the outer chain of the Himalaya being sufficient to exclude them from this, as well as from a part.of Lower Kunawur; the climate is there- fore dry and cold, the country covered with snow in winter, but insummer enjoying a few months of powerful sun. The nights become frosty in the middle of September, and the thermometer sinks below the freezing point in the mornings in October, and snow falls towards the end of that month, or in the beginning of November, and covers the ground until March or April. The climate being sodry, the falls of snow are not heavy, but the winters are extremely rigorous. In July and August, there are alternately light clouds and sunshine, the air is somewhat humid, and there is occasionally a little rain. In some villages, surrounded by high mountains, the sun is not seen for more than nine hours, but in others the temperature is high, as the thermometer ranges in July and August from 55° to 58° in the morning, to 80° and even 85° at noon, in villages elevated ‘ten thousand feet. Th comparison of the Tartar districts more to the northward, Kunawur exhibits a green and lively picture of vegetation, as there are forests of pines, poplars, willows, junipers, and cypresses. ‘‘ The pasture zones occupy a belt between the limit of trees and THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, 35 and the confines of perpetual snow.” Some of the villages, as Kanum and Soongnum, are populous and wealthy, with luxuriant vineyards, and orchards of apples, apricots, and walnuts, of most of which the fruit is ripe in September. Gooseberries are also met with, and wheat and Siberian barley thrive at great elevations. Captain Herbert describes the two crops in the year, as consisting of wheat, ooa, barley, cheena (Panicum miliaceum), phapur, ogla (two species of Polygonum), and turnips; the three last following barley, but wheat and cheena exhaust the soil. To these may be added. peas and beans, mentioned by the Messrs. Gerard. Kunawur is every where intersected by very elevated ranges, which are crossed by passes varying in elevation from twelve to eight&n thousand feet; on some of these to the eastward, even at the latter height, little snow is seen, and that only in streaks. Vegetation extends to sixteen thousand six hundred feet, junipers are found at fourteen thousand five hundred, birches as high as fourteen thousand, and Rhododendron lepidotum above them; pines do not appear to extend beyond twelve thousand three hundred feet. The highest cultivation seen was to the eastward of Dabling, where, at thirteen thousand six hundred feet, crops of barley, buckwheat, and turnips were seen by the Messrs. Gerard; and a little lower the ground was covered with thyme, sage, and many other aromatic plants, besides juniper, Tartaric furze (Genista versicolor), sweet briar, and goose- berries. Even at this great height the sun was at times found very powerful, and the thermometer rose to 68° on the 23d July, at fourteen thousand seven hundred feet of elevation. Near the Charang Pass, continuous snow-beds commenced about the height of sixteen thousand three hundred feet. Upon the left bank of the Tagla, no snow appears at sixteen thousand feet; on the right bank, at eighteen thousand feet, there is only a little in streaks. 4 If we proceed to the northward of Kunawur, we shall see how much the intervention of even a single range can alter the face of a country, for crossing the Hungarung pass, at an elevation of fourteen thousand eight hundred feet, coinciding here with the limit of snow, we enter the Tartar pergunnah of Hungarung, which, besides being destitute of trees, differs from Kunawur considerably in the nature of its climate, and in having but one crop in the year. The mountains, instead of the pointed pinnacles of the Himalaya, present only a rounded outline, -with gentle declivities, covered at top with a little snow, but bare of forests, and every where presenting the traveller a picture of arid barrenness. The stunted trees, consisting of apricots, willows, walnut, are only found in the neighbourhood of villages, with the dog-rose, gooseberry, and currant; and two kinds of fruit not familiar to Captain Herbert, the one yellow and acid, about the size of a currant (an Hippophae?), the other red and mawkishly sweet (an Eleagnus?), The Whin and Furze of travellers are now known to be species of Genista and Astragalus. The elevation of the villages is from ten to twelve thousand feet, and cultivation is carried on ata still greater height. Nako, on the western face of Parkyul, and on the eastern bank of the Spiti, is at least twelve thousand feet above the level of the sea; yet there are produced most luxuriant crops of wheat, barley, buckwheat, and seni F 2 rising 36 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF rising by steps to near seven hundred feet higher, in fields enclosed by hedges of goose- berry and barberry, with Juniper and Tartaric furze, extending above thirteen thousand feet. The seasons are similar to those of northern latitudes, grain being sown in March and April, and reaped in August and September. Snow generally falls towards the end of October: it seldom exceeds two feet in depth, but does not leave the ground for near six months.’ Want of moisture in the air must prevent its earlier descent, as the tem- perature at sunrise in October is seldom above 20°; in August it was 75° at noon, and never below 52°. At Chango, elevated ten thousand feet, the temperature rises to 80° in the same month ; the seasons are a month earlier, and more rain falls in April and May. The crops, besides those noticed at Nako, consist of ogal (Polygonum emar- ginatum), millet, peas, and beans. At Shalkur, the most northern part of Hungarung, as well as at Lari and Dunkur in the adjoining province of Ludak, houses are built of unburnt brick, these being sufficient to resist the weather, as very little rain falls, and that only in May and June. From this position, all the mountains to the northward have a rounded outline, with but little snow resting on them in the summer months; while the irregular and snowy peaks of the Himalaya are all seen to the southward. 3 On the eastern boundaries of Kunawur lies that part of Chinese Tartary which is under the authority of the Grand Lama of Lahasa; Shipkee is the first village, elevated ten thousand five hundred feet. The mountains still further to the eastward are of a rounded form, with a gentle slope, of inferior elevation, and said to be of a gravelly structure. On the southern bank of the Sutlej they rise from the water’s-edge up to eighteen or nineteen thousand feet, without forests or even a bush, clothed with a withered and russet vegetation, and bare of snow; a hedge of gooseberry and a row. of willows are noticed as remarkable. Chukors and Monals (Perdix Chukor and Lopho- phurus Impeyanus) were seen while the thermometer in October stood at 33°. Shirang Mountain, beyond Shipkee, on the road to Garoo, exceeds eighteen thousand three hundred feet in elevation, yet only one strip of snow could be seen. In a late journey through the north-eastern parts of Kunawur, Dr. Gerard writes that he ‘‘ came upon a village at a height of fourteen thousand seven hundred feet. It was the middle of October, and the thermometer on two mornings was 17°, yet the sun’s rays were oppressive, and all the streams and lakes, which were sheeted with ice during the night, were free and running by two o'clock. The finest crops of barley are reared here, and to irrigation and solar heat are the people indebted for a crop. The barometer gave for the highest field fourteen thousand nine hundred feet of elevation; ‘‘ and this,” Dr. Gerard adds, ‘“ verifies the inferences on the limit of cultivation in the upper course of the Sutlej, and I think it quite probable that crops may vegetate at sixteen and seventeen thousand feet. The Yaks and Shawl goats seemed finer than at any other spot within my observation.” Further on he continues: ‘“ On the north-eastern frontier of Kunawur, close to the stone bridge (near Changrezing), I attained a height of more than twenty thousand feet, without crossing snow, the barometer shewing 14-320, THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. a 14°320, thermometer 27°, at one p.m.* Notwithstanding this elevation, I felt oppressed by the sun’s rays, though the air in the shade was freezing.” A little to the southward, and more to the eastward of Shipkee, the Keubrung. Pass forms the boundary between Kunawur and Chinese Tartary; though elevated eighteen thousand three hundred and thirteen feet, snow was only found by the Messrs. Gerard in sheltered places contiguous to the pass, and mountains leading to it about fifteen hundred feet more elevated were just tipped with snow. The Tama or Tartaric furze extended as high as seventeen thousand feet; beyond this, every thing was barren and desolate. At Zamsiri, Zinchin, and Bekhur, the same appearances were observed, as well as by Mr. Moorcroft still further to the eastward, in crossing from Neetee Ghat to Ghar- tope, the elevated plain which separates the Himalayan and Cailas ranges, which he describes as a dreary waste with a few furze bushes (species of Genista and Astragalus), but without a tree or shrub, ‘‘ the woolly plant, like everlasting, is probably one in Mr. M.’s collection, havmg the external appearance of a Leon- _topodium, with much-divided hairy leaves; besides these, Mr. M. only enumerates tufts of silky grass, and a species of moss; but in his collection there is also a diminutive Primula and a Pedicularis from near Daba. Beyond this, he notices gold- finches in poplars, and several flowering shrubs of Tamarisk, a new species of Myri- caria which I have also received from other parts of the hills. The rhubarb is probably R. spiciforme, or a new species distinct from R. Emodi. The animals enumerated as having been seen, are eagles, ravens, blue pigeons, partridges, larks, and linnets. The plains are also filled with the bural, yak, and shawl-wool goat; herds of wild horses and wild asses were seen, as also hares and marmots ; he describes the latter as being like a young hare, they are therefore most probably the Prka. In crossing the Cailas range, he saw numerous hares, and a bird resembling grouse, probably the etraogallus of General Hardwicke and Mr. Gray; also, Brahminee geese, Anas Casarca. At Ghartope, he notices the Gurkur or wild ass, and mentions that with frosty nights the thermometer frequently exceeded 80° in the day-time in July. Still further to the eastward, Messrs. Turner and Saunders, in their journey to Teshoo Loomboo, likewise describe the elevated plains as bare of vegetation, the atmosphere dry and clear, the cold excessive, with little snow, but the sun’s rays as very powerful. : if * The date is not mentioned. Using the mean results for October observed in Calcutta, this gives twenty thousand four hundred and nineteen feet as the elevation.—( Note by the este of the Gleanings in Science, vol, i. p. 107.) This valuable periodical, established in Calcutta under er modest title by Capt. Herbert, ne from its great success, been permitted by the Society to assume the igh’ “ The Journal “4 the Asiatic Society.” The first volume, completed under the editorship of my talented friend Mr. James sre rt: that it is not unworthy of the name, being filled with abstracts of papers presented to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, and with scientific communications respecting the country from correspondents in India.—(Vide Philosophical Magazine, May 1833, p. 371.) 38 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF If we turn our attention to the westward of Kunawur, we witness a repetition of the same appearances: a road leads from Soongnum up the bed of the Dabrung to Penoo and Dunkur, over very elevated passes. Dwarf pines are noticed at ten thousand feet, fields of beans, and orchards of apricots are passed through at a considerable elevation, and towards Pamacheen a belt of birches at fourteen thousand. Here a juniper, called Pama, is used as fuel. On this road the Manerang Pass is elevated eighteen thousand six hundred and twelve feet, the last half mile covered with perpetual snow ; and some stunted vegetation is observed at the base of the mountains. At sunrise the thermometer stood at 31°, and must have been lower during night, as the blankets of the Messrs. Gerard were tough as leather. In proceeding towards Manes, they found bushes and wild leeks at fifteen thousand feet, and passed over gravelly hills covered with tama bushes, and found cultivation of wheat, barley, and ooa at twelve thousand feet above the sea. The grain was almost ripe, and there were a few poplars, and some barberry and other bushes in the vicinity. At Manes, elevated eleven thousand nine hundred feet, the temperature ranged, on Ist September, from 52° in the morning, to 81° at the hottest time of the day.. One of the Surveyors, in a letter published in the Asiatic Journal for May 1825, p. 629, gives a most animated account of the excessive rigour of the climate at the commencement of winter in these regions, and of the fierceness with which the sun’s rays dart through the rarefied air of great elevations, so as to produce a feeling of scorching in the midst of almost unbear- able cold; of this may be adduced as instances, that, at the fort of Dunkur, elevated . thirteen thousand feet, while the temperature of the air was 32°, a thermometer in the sun rose to 126°, and the inhabitants were thus enabled to keep themselves comfortable on the roofs of their houses even in winter. At Rangreek, elevated twelve thousand five hundred feet, the thermometer fell to 6° during the night, and ‘rose, at eleven in the forenoon, only to 20°; and yet the greatest inconvenience was experienced, as well from the dazzling reflection from the snow as from the great power of the sun’s rays ; the latter made more sensible by the sharp chill of the air, which was:never heated beyond 25°. Towards evening,’a sudden gust of ‘piercingly cold wind destroyed several of their followers, the breath of the travellers congealed upon their beards, and their clothes grew stiff on their backs. In fording a stream, the water froze as fast as it touched them, until their feet and legs became stiff as wicker-work. After a fresh and heavy fall of snow, the weather became settled and serene, but the cold increased so much that the thermometer fell 2° below zero; and yet, in such regions as the-valley of the Peenoo, there are villages and cultivation at not less than thirteen ‘thousand five hundred feet of elevation, and, not far distant, poplar trees ‘twelve feet in girth. The most western regions of which we have any accounts are those traversed by Mr. Moor- croft and Dr. Gerard on the road to Leh or Ludak, through the district of Kooloo. In this direction the highest habitation seen by the latter was at eleven thousand feet, the thermometer 84° in the shade. On the plateau of Tartary, elevated sixteen thousand feet, he saw before him a black ridge, having the uniform height of three thousand feet above : » THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 39 above the camp, and yet there was ‘no snow on its summit. On mountains on the N.E. shores of lake Chimororel, which is elevated fifteen thousand feet, the region of snow had an uniform margin of nineteen thousand feet. B3 The above extended notices will serve to give a good idea of the nature of the country and climate to be found to the northward of the Indian Himalayas, and enable us to appreciate the causes which favour vegetation at such great elevations: the same facts have occasionally been repeated, at the danger even of being considered prolix, in - consequence of the disposition some time prevalent to doubt the accuracy of observa- tions, because they were considered incompatible with theories which were themselves deduced from facts, but occurring in regions where all the circumstances are not similar. From the details which have been given, it seems abundantly clear that the elevation of the Indian snowy range is sufficient to prevent the passage across of the cloudy masses which deluge the plains of Northern India with rain, both in the cold and in the warm season. The atmosphere, therefore, on the northern face of the Himalayas preserves unimpaired the dryness, which is the characteristic of the rarefied air of lofty situations : hence the little deposition of snow which takes place in winter in proportion to the lowness of the temperature. The returning warmth of spring rapidly dissolves this thin layer of snow from level places, in consequence, it appears, of the undiminished power of the solar rays in passing through so rare and transparent a medium; a fact tending to confirm Mr. Daniels’ views respecting the superior energy of the solar rays in the higher regions of the air; and as this seems already to have been done with respect to his opinions of their great power in polar regions, the fact is interesting as giving an additional cause for the analogy between alpine and polar vegetation. When the snow is once melted, these elevated tracts, surrounded and confined by towering mountains, absorb heat as readily during the presence of the sun, as they radiate it freely while he is absent, and becoming, like the surface of the earth at ordinary levels, the source whence the heat received from the sun is diffused to surrounding objects, they cause the line of perpetual congelation to recede higher and higher in proportion to their own elevation. Peaks and pinnacles, on the contrary, projected into. - the air like promontories into the ocean, partake rather of the equability of tempe- rature of the media into which they intrude, than impress on them, like plains and table-lands, their own extremes of heat and cold, “The plants obtained from the most elevated regions of Ludak are few in number, and the localities not sufficiently defined to enable us to draw any inferences respecting the climate. All were sent by Mr. Mooreroft to Dr. Wallich, and are enumerated in his catalogue. The genera are all European, but the species new: the former being Gentiana, Aquilegia, Iris, Salsola, Aryris, Potentilla, Campanula, Corydalis, and Salvia. - The shrubs are Astragalus, Fraxinus, and Eleagnus, all with the specific name of the discoverer. From the fruit of the last, a spirituous liquor is said to be distilled. Some of the finest rhubarb that I have ever seen was sent by Mr. Moorcroft from Ludak. In the same regions he discovered the celebrated Prangos Hay Plant (Prangos pabularia, : : Lindley), -_ 40 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF Lindley), the seed of which is brought down by the northern merchants, and sold in the bazars of Northern India under the name of ()J\.\b3 fiturusaliyoon, to which in the Persian works on Materia Medica, is attached a translation of the description of Petro- selinum, mergorcduvoy of Dioscorides, lib. il. c. 77. The fruit-trees and cultivated grains of Kunawur having been enumerated, with their localities, it is only necessary here to mention, that the former belong to the genera Pyrus, Persica, Armeniaca, and Vitis, and the latter to Triticum, Hordeum, Polygonum, while Juglans, Corylus, and Pinus Gerardiana, afford edible nuts; the other species of the latter genus are P. Deodara and Webbiana; Juniperus excelsa and recurva with Cupressus torulosa and Ephedra Gerardiana, forming the other Conifere ; species of Quercus, Acer, Betula, Populus, Saliv, Fravinus, and Pavia, the remaining trees. The shrubs consist of species of Eleagnus, Rhododendron, Lonicera, Berberis, Capparis, Crategus, Rosa, Ribes, and Rubus ; with, of Leguminosae, Colutea, Caragana, Genista, and Astragalus: G. Versicolor, and A. Moorcroftianus, spinosissimus, Webbianus and Gerardianus, forming the different kinds of Tartaric furze so frequently mentioned by travellers. The remaining Leguminose belong to the genera Medicago, Lotus, Vicia, and Orobus. The other herbaceous families and genera are, of Ranunculacee, Thalic- trum, Anemone, Isopyrum, Adonis, Ranunculus, Aquilegia, Aconitum ; of Crucifere, Cardamine, Arabis, Dentaria, Draba, Hesperis, Sisymbrium, Erysimum, Tauscheria, Crambe ; of Caryophyllee, Gypsophila, Dianthus, Silene, Arenaria, Stellaria, Cerastium; of Umbellifere, Ptychotis, Bupleurum, Heracleum, Cuminum, Thapsia, Cherophyllum, Myrrhis, Hymenolena; of Composite, Saussurea, Serratula, Lappa, Cirsium, Carduus, Eriocoryne, Diplurandra, Scorzonera, Crepis, Mulgedium, Lactuca, Ganaphalium, Aster, Erigeron, Tanacetum, Artemisia, Tussilago ; of Boraginee, Onosma, Moltkia, Anchusa, Cynoglossum, Echium, Lithospermum; of Scrophularinee, Veronica, Scrophu- laria, Euphrasia, Pedicularis ; of Labiate, Salvia, Scutellaria, Marmoritis, Dracocephalum, Erianthera, Leonurus, Phiomis ; of Primulacee, Lysimachia, Androsace, Primula; of Chenopodee, Chenopodium, Blitum, Salsola; of Polygonee, Rumer, Rheum, Polygonum, Oxyria.. The other genera, generally only single ones of other families are, Corydalis, Viola, Polygala, Linum, Malva, Vitis, Impatiens, Potentilla, Epilobium, Circea, Myricaria, Illecebrum, Herniaria, Sedum, Savifraga, Chrysosplenium, Galium, Rubia, Valeriana, Scabiosa, Macrostemma, a new genus of Asclepiadee, Gentiana, Atropa, Orobanche, Euphorbia. The monocotyledons consist of Iris, Alisma, Allium, Gagea, Convallaria, Juncus, the Orchidee of Epipactis and Gymnadenia, and the grasses of species of Phleuwm, Pennisetum, Poa, Festuca, Bromus, Brachypodium, Melica, Hordeum, Alopecurus. Among the ferns is the only Acrostichum in my collection, and a few ete of Pteris, Osmunda, and a Lycopodium. The most cursory comparison of this enumeration with the list of genera and species given in Ledebour’s Fora Altaica, will show the great analogy which exists between the Flora of those mountains and of the south of Siberia with that of Tibet, or of the northern face of the Himalayan mountains, which, consisting entirely of the elevated land included between THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, 41 between the latter mountains and the Kuen-lun, makes up by elevation for its more southern latitude. It is sufficient at present to mention Zauscheria desertorum; Biebers- tenia odora, Lsopyrum. grandiflorum, and: Dracocephalum Sibiricum,, as. \species ‘common to these two countries; and.that.among other European plants found on the northern slope of the Himalayas, we have Hyoscyamus niger, Lithospermum. arvense, Myosotis palustris, Lamium, amplexicaule; Prunella vulgaris, Samolus Valerandi ; with Datisca cannabina,; Cuminum Cyminum, and Scutellaria orientalis, found’ in more southern. lati- tudes, Several also. of the new species of Himalayan plants, especially those found on such sites.as Kedarkanta and Peerpunjal, are also found. along this.tract, though the vegetation resembles the Siberian rather than the Himalayan. Flora; and this. most probably is also the case along the whole extent of Tibet, as many of the phenomena of climate, general appearance, and productions, are the same in the account of. Messrs; Turner and Saunders’ visit to Teshoo-lomboo, — b ofidnigoa'y | The plants of Kunawur have generally a dry sombre aspect, few leaves, and, those small, frequently inserted in a cluster round the root, from the centre of which rises the scape of generally large and showy flowers. The petioles. not: undergoing decom- position, from the dryness of the climate, remain attached. round the plant, and as they become: pushed .outwards by the growth of internal parts, the .cellular parts are destroyed, while the fibrous remain, and protect the root, as with a covering of hair, from the severity of the weather. One peculiarity is remarkable, and that is, the resemblance externally between the plants of this cold region and those of the desert-like country near Delhi; but this is observable only in the parts of vegetation, and not in those of fructification, for in the cold climate the flowers are large and showy, and in the hot, small and inconspicuous: in both the shrubs are stunted, thorny, and frequently hairy ; the wood scanty, hard, and: compact; while the surface of each is dry, and of an ash grey or pale green colour. The only similarity in climate is, that in each there is great dryness of the atmosphere ; the resemblance therefore is probably dependent on pecu- liarity of the transpiratory surface. Capparis and Sa/sola are almost the only genera common to both situations; the latter evidently owing to the soil of each PENG. covered with saline efflorescence. Among the animals which inhabit this cold and arid region, ‘the heshinosene tribes : are particularly conspicuous, for number, variety, and flourishing condition, notwithstanding that the country appears barren of vegetation; but the grasses belong to the genera which furnish the best pasturage grasses of Europe, and the Astragali afford legumes, which must be as nourishing as peas and beans. The Tiger is mentioned by Mr. Hodgson as extending his wanderings to the neighbourhood of the snow, and by Mr. Moorcroft has been traced as far as Khoten, nearly as far nortli as by Ehrenberg. The Tibetan Dog is remarkable for his size and fierceness. Hares are common, and most likely also the Pika, as Moorcroft compares his Marmots to young Hares; and Captain Turner mentions seeing Rats without tails. The Tibetan Musk is of course a native; Antelope Hodgsonii and A. thar., the latter allied to the Chamois, are aiso found, G while 42 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY, &c. while the Shawl Wool Goat thrives only in these regions. The Sheep, unrivalled for size and beauty, as well as for fineness of wool, are, like the Goat, used for carriage, and both, as also the Dog, are furnished with a fine wool under the rough upper covering of shaggy hair. The Bhural, Asiatic Argali, or Ovis Ammon, is also found here, with the shaggy-tailed Yak or Bos grunniens. The Wild Horse, the Guckur or Wild Ass, and the Dziggtai or Equus Hemionus of Pallas, (the Mule of travellers) complete the list of Mammalia on the N. face of the Himalaya. The Birds enume- rated as having been seen, are Eagles, Ravens, Grouse, Linnets, and Goldfinches, and the lakes are described as being covered in summer with Geese, Ducks, and numerous Gralle ; Vultur barbatus, Perdix Chukor, Satyrus melanocephalus, Lophophorus Impey- anus, Phasianus Wallichii, and a bird, with red beak and legs, like Fragilis gracula, ~ have also been seen in Kunawur, which in the distribution of the animal, as in that of the vegetable kingdom, approximates to the Altai mountains. In the foregoing general view of the climate and productions of the tract of country whence the collections have been formed, it was impossible to be more minute regarding species; but the details respecting such as it will be requisite to notice, will be introduced after the general observations on the natural orders to which they respectively belong. At the same time also will be noticed the particular plants of other countries, which it would be advisable to introduce into India; and there is no doubt that, with the warm climate of the Plains, moist in the lower and dry in the upper provinces, and the temperate one of the Hill provinces, the facilities are great, and the field most extended for increasing the resources and improving the comforts of an immense population. The results which have already attended the introduction into India of such foreign products as Tobacco, Capsicum, the Guava, Pine, and Custard-apples, which are so completely acclimated as. to appear indi- genous, are our best guarantees for further success; particularly as the most valuable products of the plains of India, as Rice, Sugar-cane, Ginger, now form a part of the principal resources of the warmer parts of the New World, which possess many valuable products peculiar to themselyes. Many also of the useful and ornamental productions of the Hill provinces, may no doubt be introduced into England and the rest of Europe; the principal of these will be pointed out; and here, again, there is every reason to hope for considerable success, as many of the trees and shrubs of Northern India are now flourishing in the open air of England, especially in the gardens of the Horticultural Society of London, and of the Messrs. Loddige, where may be seen: Pinus Deodara, Webbiana, exeelsa, Gerardiana and Morinda ; Rhododendron arboreum, aristatum, campanulatum and lepidotum; Pyrus vestita and variolosa ; Crategus glauca; Cotoneaster microphylla, rotundifolia, and several other species; Benthamia fragifera; Rosa sericea, macrophylla, and Brunonis ; Berberis Asiatica, aristata and Wallichiana; Potentilla atrosanguinea and Nepalensis, Salvia nubi- cola, with many others. ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. RANUNCULACES. Tue Ranunculaceae, named from their principal genus, and well known from containing many most ornamental garden flowers, as well as affording several very energetic medicines, form a family well suited to commence the series, and display the advantages of the natural method of classification, from presenting so many points of affinity in organic structure, geographical distribution, and in the possession of similar sensible and medical properties. They are extensively diffused throughout the cold and temperate parts of the globe, with only a few chiefly aquatic species existing in warmer regions. They are found every where in mountainous regions, from the bleak and exposed summits in the neighbourhood of melting snow, to the rich, shady, and moist valleys everywhere occurring in hilly regions where the elevation is sufficient to ensure moderation of temperature. As nearly one hundred species of Ranunculacee have been discovered in the Himalayas, their preponderance over many other natural orders which are properly considered characteristic of warm regions, displays at the first step how different must be the climate and Flora of the Himalayan mountains from that of India in general. But as several of these species have been ascertained to be identical with, while others which are new, have been found to be closely allied to those indigenous to other countries, considerable resemblance in climate may be inferred from the similarity in vegetable productions. In the plains of India but few of this family are found. Ranunculus aquatilis and sceleratus, from their existence in or vicinity to water, experiencing greater equability both of temperature and moisture than if more exposed to atmospherical changes, are found in most parts of the world. So the former is found in the north-western provinces, and the latter exists in every G 2 part 44 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Ranunculacee. part of India. The tribe of Clematidea, distinguished from the other Ranunculacee by their valvular estivation, opposite leaves, and generally scandent habit, may therefore be considered the least ranunculaceous of the family, have also a few species in the plains of India. Naravelia Zeylanica, belonging toa genus peculiar to India, is common in Ceylon, and everywhere in the Peninsula, but not found above the province of Bengal ; Clematis Gouriana, common in hedges and in the jungle at the foot of hills, extends from the Neelgherries and from Dindygul, near the extremity of the Peninsula, up to the Deyra Doon, in 30° of N. latitude, along the foot of the Himalaya: but it is worthy of remark, that this species, as well as C. grata, flowers only in the autumn, or at the commencement of the cold season of the plains, while the Himalayan species flower in the spring, or at the commencement of the warm weather of the mountains, that is, according to elevation, either in April or May; and it is remarkable, that April and October: are the two months in which the mean temperature of the year is found to occur in most places; and though the temperature of October and November in the plains is above that of May and Apmil in the hills, yet the approximation is greater than if the respective species flowered in the same months in the different places. Nigella sativa, found in the south of Europe, Asia Minor, and Syria, exists only in the gardens of India, but where, from its numerous Indian names and uses, it must, as well as Delphinium Ajacis, have been long acclimated, and formed a part of the ornamental flower-garden of the cold weather months. The genera of Ranunculacee of which species are found in the Himalayas, are Clemaiis, Thalictrum, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Caltha, distributed also throughout the cold and temperate parts. of both the northern and southern hemispheres, and with these we have also species of Adonis, Trollius, Aquilegia, Delphinium, Aconitum, Cimicifuga, Actéa; and. Peonia, which. the. Himalayas share in common with Siberia, Europe, and America. No genus of this family has yet been discovered peculiar to these mountains, as Knowltonia to the Cape of Good. Hope, Hamadryas to South, and Hepaticu, Hydrastis, and Zanthorhiza to North America. It is interesting to observe, that the genera, of which only. species are found in the highest. latitudes, are those also which are alone found on the highest peaks of the Himalaya: thus Ranunculus afinis and Caltha arctica were found in Melville Island, so I found only. R. polypetalus and C. Himalqyanus on the top of Kedarkanta, with Anemone discolor a little lower down; of this. genus species extend as far as 68° of N. latitude. Species of Thalictrum are found in the same situations later in the year, but as the Himalayas are within the influence of the periodical rains, a degree of moisture‘and equability of temperature .is produced during that season, which allows of the existence of genera and species at, elevations where they could not; otherwise. ‘exist, The Himalayan genera of Ranunculacee, with the _ exception. of -Cerotocephalus, are exactly those enumerated by. Ledebour, as those of which, cles are found in the Altai mountains; and also, with the exception: of Helleborus and. Nigella, which do not extend either eastward to the Altai or southward to the Himalaya, the, same genera as those enumerated by Meyer and Bieberstein, as being | Ranunculacee_] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 45° being indigenous to the ranges of Taurus and Caucasus. Many of the species are identical with those found in more northern latitudes, as Ranunculus arvensis, bulbosus, Flammula and salsuginosus, Isopyrum grandiflorum, Delphinium pubescens and Adonis @stivalis, while of those which are new, many are in like manner allied to those described by Ledebour, Bieberstein, and Meyer, in the Floras Altaica and Taurico Caucasica, as Thalictrum Marwellii to T. flavum and appendiculatum. Anemone Wallichiana to A. albana and Bungeana, Trollius pumilus to T. patulus. Aquilegia Moorcroftiana to A. Sibirica. Aconitum leve to A. septentrionale, and A. multifidum to A. anthora. Ranunculus polypetalus must be allied to Ficaria? glacialis of Fischer, this being described as having the habit of Caltha appendiculata, a six sepaled calyx and a corolla with thirteen petals; while R. pimpinelloides being nearly allied to R. rutefolius must be so to the new genus Callianthemum of Ledebour, formed of this. species. Some of these Himalayan species assist, though in a small degree, in shewing the analogy of Ranunculacee with the other families which have long been pointed out. Thus the broad filaments of many of the species show the mode of formation of the petals of Nympheacee ; and Anemone tetrasepala with its umbel and partial umbels, supported by an involucrum and involucels, points out the relation of this family with the Umbelii- Sere. The plants of this family figured in Dr. Wallich’s Plante Asiatice Rariores, as well as those in the present Illustrations, will give a very good idea of the highly orna- mental nature of the Himalayan species of this family; and there is no doubt, from the nature of the climate where they are indigenous, that many of them would be perfectly at home in England, where already so many of their European and Siberian congeners flourish ; but perhaps Clematis grata from its fragrance, and C. montana from the showy nature of its garlands of numerous white rose-like flowers, are the most desirable as orna- mental flowers, and Aconitum ferox and. heterophyllum as medicinal plants. To mention the rest in detail would be tedious, but there are many others highly ornamental, as may: be judged of from the drawings and descriptions. 3 | The Ranunculaceé form avery natural family, not only with respect to structure and geographical distribution, but also in possessing the same sensible properties and modes of action on the human frame.. This is owing to their containing in all parts an acrid principle, which Krapf ascertained to be neither acid nor alkaline, but of so volatile a nature, that in most cases simple drying in the air, or infusion, or decoction in water, is sufficient to destroy_it; that its activity is increased by acids, sugar, honey, wine, and spirits, and is only effectually destroyed by water and vegetable acids. (Fee, Cours. ad’ Hist. Nat. Pharm. v.i. p. 373.) Two vegetable alkalies, Delpia and Aconitia, the latter little known, are produced by the plants of this family ; if the acrid principle be always of the volatile nature, that it is represented, the porrentul effects attendant on the administration of the root of ‘Aconitum feror even after it had been pre- canted som years, must. be ascribed to the presence af some papeinic of a shone. permanent nature. According apparently to the proportion of the acrid principle to the rest of. the vegetable substance, or perhaps owing to the peculiar nature of the ote ee : acrid 46 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF (Ranunculaceae. acrid principle in each species, it is found that they act either on the system generally, or in different degrees on particular organs. Thus several species of Ranunculus are used as rubefacients and vesicatories; while the roots of Zanthorhiza, Coptis, and Hydrastis, as tonics ; and those of Thalictrum majus as a substitute for rhubarb. Hellebore has long been known as a powerful cathartic, and Aconite as a no less powerful narcotic and poison ;. while some from the destructibleness of their noxious property by water have been used as food. The Mahomedan physicians in India having derived their knowledge of drugs chiefly from. Arabian authors, who. translated from the Greek, it is not surprising to find such articles as Hellebore, Paony, Lycoctonum, and. Stavesacre, all of which as well as others might be grown in the Himalayas, prescribed in every part of India, though the druggists, calculating upon the ignorance of both practitioners and patients respecting the true drug, generally substitute some which they consider an equivalent. Yet it is interesting to observe, that independent observation has intro- duced into Indian practice several drugs from this family, to which the same properties are ascribed as in Europe. Thus Ranunculus sceleratus is used as a vesicatory. The roots of Thalictrum foliolosum as a bitter in the cure of fevers—those of Aconitum heterophyllumas a tonic, and of Aconitum feror, though a poison, as a narcotic in rheuma- tism. Nigella sativa is alone cultivated in India, as in most Eastern countries, and continues in the present day, as in the most ancient times, to be used both as a condi- ment and a medicine. The celebrated Indian poison called Bish or Bikh, being referred by all authorities to Ranunculace@, requires to be noticed, though it would not be easy, even in the present state of confusion of Indian Materia Medica, to find an article of, which it is more difficult to give a satisfactory account, and of which, at the same time, it is so necessary that we should have a clear idea. The subject to be entered into, with the detail which it requires, would claim a much greater space than can be allotted to it here : little more therefore can be done than to state the little that is known, and to urge observers, who may be favourably situated, to prosecute the inquiry. Dr. Buchanan first acquainted the European world with the existence of four kinds of Bikh. 1. Singya Bikh. 2. Bish or Bikh, the poison.. 3. Bikhma, a powerful bitter. 4. Nirbisi; also without deleterious properties. The first Dr. B. referred to a species of Smilax; the author has had two species of Convallaria, called meetha-doodhya, and mohura-doodhya, represented to him as being of a poisonous nature. The three other kinds of Bikh Dr. B. refers to the genus Caltha, but for what reason it is difficult to discover, as the flower of the species he describes are without the characteristics of the genus ; and the plant, he allows, differs much in habit from Caltha palustris. It may be supposed, therefore, that he had only an opportunity of examining the flowers in a young state, and it is known that when he published his description, he was without his specimens. These are now in the East-Indian Herbarium, and have been all referred by Dr.Wallich to the genus Aconitum. Thespecimens of Cualtha?. Nirbisi and C.? Codoa of Dr. Buchanan, appear to be Dr. Wallich’s Aconitum feror, while those of C. ? Bishma, Ranunculaceae.) THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 47 Bishma, his Aconitum palmatum, all evidently in a young state, and without flowers or fructification. That the virulent poison, emphatically called Bish, i.e. the poison, is the root of Aconitum feror, admits, I think, of no doubt. The root is brought down to the plains of India from the mountains where this plant is indigenous; that it was produced by it was first learnt by Dr. Wallich in Nepal; the fact was. confirmed by Dr. Govan in Sirmore, and the information communicated to the author on the same mountains was, that Bikh is the name applied to Aconitum feror and Meetha tellia to the root, which, though a violent poison, is occasionally used in medicine. It may further be stated, that the specimens of Aconitum feror in the author’s Herbarium, have the fusiform roots attached side by side, black and wrinkled externally, and of a brownish colour internally; they impress upon the tongue and fauces a peculiar burning sen- sation, and increase the flow of saliva, as is described to be the case with the Bikh. They moreover exactly resemble the specimens bought in the Indian bazars, of Meetha tellia, in the author’s collection of Materia Medica. Both Drs. Buchanan and Wallich have mentioned the uncertainty and confusion existing in the names of the several articles of the Indian Materia Medica. This is no doubt true, and it therefore becomes more necessary to elucidate the subject when such powerful drugs are sold and administered as remedies for disease. Considerable assist- ance will be derived in this labour, if, when consulting native works on the sub- ject, we at the same time procure as many as possible of the drugs which are described. Without this, no satisfactory progress can be made, as we have no means of ascertaining when the same drug is given in different parts of the country, under different names, nor when, which is sometimes the case, different articles are given under the same name. | : Dr. Buchanan (Brewst. Journal, i. p. 250) gives Bish, Bikh, and Kodoya bish or bikh, as the synonymes, to these Meetha ought to be added, instead of eing referred to bikhma. Professor H. Wilson (Cal. Med. Trans. Vol. ii. p. 280) referring to this article, says, that Bish, Bikh, or Vish, means poison simply, and that it has several Sanscrit synonymes, as Amritam, Vatsanabhu, Visham, &c. Dr. Carey, in his Bengalee Dictionary, refers Bish to Aconitum feror, and quotes as synonymes with Vatsanabhu, Mitha, or Mitha zuher (sweet poison). Dr. W. Hunter (Cal. Med. Trans. Vol. ii. p. 410) has Meetha suhur, Meetha bikh, and simply Mithaassynonymes. Dr.Wallich (Plante Asiat. Rar. i. p. 41) mentions that Dr. Govan found the root called Meetha-doodya and Meetha-telya, and gives as synonymes, Visha, i.e. Venenum, et Ati visha, summum venenum; Hindee, Vish or Bikh; Newar, Bikh and Bikma. In the Mukhzun-ool-Adwieh, probably the best Persian work on Materia Medica in use in India, several kinds of Bish are enumerated ; as—1. Seengheea, so called from its resemblance to the horn of a Deer. 2. Buchnag, like judwar. 4. Teezuk. 5. Kuroon-ool-soombul. 6. Buhra- soorut. 7. Burhmunee. 8. Muhoodah. 9. Huldeh. 10. Kala koot. 11. Sutwa. 12. Tellia. But as it is doubtful whether these are varieties or species, or whether more than those already mentioned, can be referred to the genus Aconitum, they are : only 48 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Ranunculacece. only enumerated as subjects for further inquiry. In the Zaleef-Shereef;an Indian work on Materia Medica, lately translated by Mr. Playfair, Singia and Bechnak. are given as two names of a most deadly poisonous root from Nepal, no doubt the Aconite. - In all'the native works, the Bikh is represented as being a deadly poison, even in the smallest doses. ‘The Hindoo works quoted by Dr. Hunter, describe it as being at first sweetish (hence the affix meetha, sweet), and then followed’ bya roughness on the tongue, or as it is expressed in one work, ‘‘ seizing’ the throat.” Dr. Buchanan ‘has informed us,, that it is equally fatal when taken into'the stomach, and when applied to wounds: hence used for poisoning arrows and killing wild animals. The futility of the Gorkhas attempt- ing to poison the springs of water was shown in the last campaign, and Dr. Govan has proved the improbability ofdeleterious exhalations from this plant being the cause of the unpleasant sensations experienced at great elevations, inasmuch as itis only found much below where these are experienced. But as it is a root of such virulent: powers, it has no doubt been frequently employed asa poison, and its sale was therefore prohibited by the native powers in India. Notwithstanding, this,'the Hindoo physicians, noted for the employment of ‘powerful drugs, such as arsenic, nux vomica, and croton, do not hesitate to employ this also in medicine. In the Zaleef-Shereef it is directed never to be given alone; but mixed with several other drugs, it is recommended in a variety of diseases, as cholera, intermittent fever, rheumatism, tooth-ache, and bites of snakes. It is also used as an external application in rheumatism in the north-western provinces. Mr. Pereira’s experiments have shown that this root, either in the form of powder, watery extract, or spirituous extract, is a most virulent poison: but of these forms the last is by far the most powerful. ‘‘ The effects were tried by introducing this extract into the ** jugular vein, by placing it in the cavity of the peritoneum, by applying it to the ‘* cellular tissue of the back, and by introducing it into the stomach. In all these cases, ‘* except the last, the effects were very similar; namely, difficulty of breathing, weak- “ness, and subsequently paralysis, which generally commenced in the posterior ‘* extremities, vertigoes, convulsions, dilatation of the pupil, and death, apparently from ‘* asphyxia.” (v. Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar, loc. cit.) With respect to the Bikhma, or the second kind of Bish, the difficulties are greater, as the specimens of Caltha? Bikhma; which Dr. Buchanan was informed produced the febrifuge root, belong to Dr. Wallich’s Aconitum palmatum, Cat. No. 4723; this may therefore produce a root possessed of the properties ascribed to the Bikhma by Dr. Buchanan’s informants. Though we have no further information respecting it than its name, properties, and the short description of Radix tuberosa to guide us, it is interesting to endeavour if it can be traced in other parts of India, though names, especially pro- vincial ones, we have seen vary in different districts, and the properties ascribed to a drug is rather an uncertain guide in the present state of the Indian Materia Medica ; but it appears to be more than an accidental coincidence, that the author, in his inquiries, has met with a tuberous root produced by a species of Aconite, which is extensively used in India as a tonic medicine. In the native works on Materia Medica, as Ranunculacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 49 as well as in the common Persian and Hindoostanee and English Dictionaries, Atees is described. as being the root of an Indian plant used im medicine. This the author learnt was the produce of the Himalayas: he therefore sent to one of the commercial entre- pots situated at the foot of the hills, and procured some of the root, making inquiries respecting the part of the mountains whence it was procured. The plant-collectors in their next excursion were directed to bring the plant, with the root attached to it, as the only evidence which would be admitted as satisfactory. The first specimens thus procured are represented in Plate 13, and the root Atees having been thus ascertained to be the produce of a new species of Aconite, it was named Aconitum atees (Journ. Asiat. Soc. i. p. 459), but which has since been ascertained to be the Aconitém heterophyllum of Dr. Wallich. The roots obtained in different parts of the country resemble one another, as well as those attached to the plant. _They are about an inch in length, of an oblong oval-pointed form, light greyish colour externally, white in the inside, and of a pure bitter taste. .That its substance is not so injurious as the Bish, I conclude from its being attacked by insects, while the other remains sound and untouched. The natives describe it as being of two kinds, one black, the other white, and both as bitter, astringent, pungent, and heating, aiding digestion, useful as a tonic and aphrodisiac. By inquiries in Nepal it might easily be ascertained whether this has any resem- blance to the Bikhma of Dr. Buchanan. © Respecting the third kind of Bish, Nirbisi, Nirbishi, or Nirbikhi, the uncertainties are also considerable; as we have only the information that it is a tuberous root without deleterious properties; while Dr. B.’s specimens of Caltha? Nirbisia are not to be distinguished from those of his Caltha? Codoa, which have been shown to be those of Aconitum feror in a young state. It is evident, therefore, that the people employed did not take the necessary precautions, and, perhaps, brought the leaves of the latter plant, because they thought it was like the true one, and it may therefore be supposed to be one of the Ranunculacee, particularly as the author, in the mountains of Sirmore and Gurhwal, found the name Nirbisa applied to Delphinium pauciflorum ; and the roots brought down from these mountains with that name have the closest resemblance to the roots of some species of this genus, though he did not suc- ceed in tracing it to the particular one; but that which is reckoned the best kind of Nirbisi in the Indian bazars is of a very different nature, and brought down from Bissehur and from Umritseer, the commercial capital of Lahore. This kind is fusiform, somewhat flattened and wrinkled, of a black colour externally, and in some respects resembling the Bikh itself; when cut, the substance is found to be compact, and of a brownish colour, with a slight degree of bitterness and acrimony. The name Nirbisi, with its Persian and Arabic synonymes, yudwar and zudwar, has been already applied by Mr. Colebrooke to the roots of Curcuma Zedoaria, because they agree pretty well with the round zedoary (zedoaria rotunda) of the shops ; but that distinguished scholar, with a caution dictated by his extensive knowledge of the subject, observes, that if the drug be not the true zedoary, the synonymes must be transferred to H some 50 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Ranunculaceae. some other plant. The term Nirdisi, as observed by Mr. Colebrooke, implies that the drug is used as an antidote to poison, being composed of the privative preposition nir and bis, poison; and in the Mukhzun ool Adwieh, it is further explained, as repelling from and purifying the body from deadly poisons. It may therefore be considered as a medicine of considerable importance’ in Eastern countries, and that it is not only so at present, but has been reckoned such from very ancient records, will appear from the following quotations. The Arabic synonyme Zudwar, leads us at once to the accounts of the Zedoaria of old authors, and the Geidwar of Avicenna. Thus, Mathiolus (Commentaries on Dioscorides, lib. ii. c. 154), tells us, ‘‘ Zedoaria (ut cap. clxxii. testis est ” Serapio) convehitur e Sinarum regione ultra extremas | Indie oras;” adding, after giving the medical properties, ‘‘ etin antidotis additur. Ideoque dixit Avicenna nihil esse ea preestantius ad ebibitum Napellum.” Garcias ab Orta, who was for so many years one of the physicians at Goa, writes: ‘‘ Quod nos hic Zedoariam appellamus, Avicenne, lib. ii. cap. 734, Geiduar dicitur ; aliud nomen ignoro, quia nascitur regionibus Sinen- — sium provincie vicinis. Magno vero emitur Geidwar; nec facile invenias, nisi apud circumforaneos quosdam et circulatores, quos Indi jogwes, Mauretani Calandares appellent, hominum genus quod peregrinationibus et stipem amendicando vitam sustentat. Ab his enim et reges et magnates Geiduar emunt.” ‘ Utile est autem istud Geiduar ad plurima, sed presertim adversus venena, et virulentorum animalium ictus morsusque.” Clusius, at p. 378 of the same work, ‘‘ Exoticorum libri decem” having obtained some specimens, ‘‘ Gedwar veri nomine inscriptas,” gives a figure, and compares them with the roots of Anthora, which was at onetime thought to be the Zedoary ; they resemble a good deal those of atees, as represented in pl. 13. The Persian authors, after giving the synonymes, mention that there are five kinds of Judwar. The best, called Khutai, or Chinese, procured from the mountains of that country. The two next kinds are the produce of the mountains of Tibet, of Nepal, of Morung, and Rungpore ; the fourth kind is from the hills of the Dukhun; and the fifth, called Antuleh, is the produce of Andaloosee, or Spain. A long account follows of the properties and uses of Judwar, of which it is needless to adduce more than that it is considered a powerful antidote to poison, par- ticularly of the dish; more so, indeed, than the tiryak farook, the ingredients of which are given by Prosper Alpinus De Medicin. A’gypt. lib. iv. c. 9. It is_therefore probable, that the Mrdisi is the true Zedoary or Geiduar of Avicenna, whatever may be the plant which produces it ; that itis not likely to have been what is now so called, the produce of a species of Curcuma, is evident from the difficulty which Garcias ab Orta had in procuring it even in India, Further, if the descriptions in the Persian works on Materia Medica be compared with those of the old Arabian authors, they will be found to refer to the same article, of which in India the name is Nirdisi. It may therefore be recom- mended as an interesting subject of inquiry for travellers in the Himalayas from Silhet to Cashmere, to ascertain the plant or plants which furnish the different kinds of Nirbisi, Judwar, Zudwar, or Antuleh.. Cissampelos convolvulacea is called dukh ‘Mnirbisee in the N.W. provinces, Synopsis Ranunculacee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 51 SYNOPSIS Of the Genera and Speciss of RanuNcULACEz found in the Himalayan Mountains, in the Tract between the Ganges and Indus Rivers, or from N. Lat. 30° to N. lat. 35°. Tris. I. CLEMATIDEZ. I. Cuematis. 1. C. Gouriana.—Roxb. F). Ind. ii. 670. D.C. Prod. 1. 3. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. No. 4673. Has. Deyra Doon, N. Lat. 30° flowering in October. Var. 8. subovata, foliolis brevioribus, ovato-acuminatis, Has. Sahunsadhara, near Deyra Doon; flowering in November. 2. C. cordata; caule scandente, foliis pinnatisectis, segmentis submembranaceis condato- -oblongis acuminatis dentato-serratis 5-nerviis. Has. J umboo, Lat. 33° between Lahore and Cashmere. 3. C. grata—Wall. Pl. Asiat. Rar. 1. 83. tab. 98, Cat. 4668. Has. Suen range in Sirmore; flowering in Oc- tober and November in the Botanic Garden at Saharunpore. 4. C€. Buchananiana—D.C. Pr. 1. 4, Don Prod. FI. Nep. 19]. Wall. Cat.4677. Has. Mussooree and Suen range; flowering in October. 5. C. nutans; caule scandente, foliis pinnatisectis . foliolis tripartitis, segmentis ovato-lanceolatis trinerviis, lateralibus sepe irregulariter lobatis terminali integro; petiolis brachiatis, pedunculis folii longitudine trifloris, floribus nutantibus, sepalis apice revolutis. Has. Suen range, and on the banks of the Giree ; flowering in May. 6. €. venosa:; caule scandente, foliis pinnatisectis, fo- liolis cordatis acuminatis argute serratis glabris membra- naceis reticulato-venosis, pedunculis trifloris folio brevio- ribus, sepalis acutiusculis apice revolutis, Has. Mountains between Lahore and Cashmere; flowers in September; and ripens its fruit in Oc- tober. Simla, Nagkanda.—R. Inglis, Esq. 7. €. globosa; caule scandente, foliis biternatim sectis, segmentis oblongis lobato-dentatis integerrimisve, petiolulis cirrhosis, pedunculis 3-v. 5-floris, alabastris subglobosis, sepalis ovatis patentibus, Has. Soongnum lat. 314°. Elevation 9,000 feet. 8. C. tenuifolia; foliis biternatim sectis, segmentis lineari:lanceolatis subdentatis, pedunculis inferioribus uni- floris, superioribus trifidis trifloris nedio bi-bracteatis, sepalis lanceolatis ciliatis patulis staminibus longioribus, Has. Jumboo. 9. C. montana.—D.C. Prod. 1. 9. Wall. Cat, 4681. C. anemonifiora. Don Prod. F1. Nep. 192. Has. Mussooree, and every where in the Himalayan Mountains between 5,000 and 7,000 feet of elevation; a highly ornamental plant flower- ing in April. 10. C. Nepalensis.—D.C, Prod.1.9. Wall. Cat. 4680. C. montana. Don Prod. 192. Has. Choor, Urukta, and other mountains, at elevations of from 9,000 to 10,000 feet; flowering in May. II. Narave ta. ll. WN. Zeylanica.—D.C. Prod. 1. 10. Wall, Cat. 4687. Atragene Zeylanica, Roxb. Corom, 2. 47, t. 188. Has. Bengal. Turn. Il, ANEMONES: III, Tuaricrrum. 12, TZ. elegans—(Wall. Cat. 4728)—floribus dioicis ? caule angulato, foliis quadriternatim sectis exstipellatis, segmentis cuneato-rotundatis subtrilobis, carpellis longe stipitatis umbellatim patentibus obovatis inflatis apice obliquis. Has. Choor Mountain; in fruit in August. 13, 7. foliolosum.—D.C. Prod. 1. 12, Don Prod. 192, Wall. Cat. 3711. Has. Mussooree and every where in the Hima- layas at 7,000 feet of elevation, flowering in April. Root used as a cure for agues, and called in the Hills pelijurree and shuprak.—All my EY present male flowers only. 14. 7. newrocarpum ; pericarpiis stipitatis dolabrifor- mibus compressis aristatis 3-costatis marginatis, foliis quadriternatim decompositis, foliolis cordatis obtusis inciso- crenatis membranaceis.—An. 7. foliolosi secret Has. Choor. Seed ripe in August. 15. T. microphylium ; seapo nudo, foliis subbipinnatis, foliolis petiolulatis ternatis dum sessilibus cuneiformibus apice tridentatis, racemo spiciformi, bracteis trilobatis lobo medio elongato, carpellis stipitatis costatis nutantibus apice obliquis.— 7. alpino omnino simile; seapus palmaris. Has. Lofty mountains, as Kedarkanta, at an ele- vation of between 12,000 and gs feet; flowers in June. 16, T. marginatum ; scapo nudo, foliis bipinnatis, jugis inferioribus ternatis superioribus simplicibus, foliolis rotun-_ datis subbilobis coriaccis, racemo spiciforme paucifloro, H2 bracteis 52 bracteis oblongis membranaceis subdentatis.—Scapus pal- maris. Has. Chango in Kunawur. “ 17. 7. vaginatum ; caule tereti striato subflexuoso, foliis semiamplexicaulibus tripinnatis petiolulis articulatis, one ovato-cuneatis trifidis subtus glaucis, lobis acutis dentatis, loribus paniculatis cernuis, stigmatibus dilatatis, carpellis vvato-acuminatis.—Planta bipedalis, ZT. minorz et Sibirico affinis; 7. cultrato Wall. Cat. 3715 quoque affinis sed folia obtusiora, Has. Rogee in Kunawur. 18, 7. Marwellii ;* foliis decrescente tripinnatis petio- lulis angulatis; foliolis latis oblongis basi cordatis y. ovatis, apice grosse 3 y, 5-dentatis, subtus glaucescentibus venosis, paniculis axillaribus terminalibusque ramosissimis, floribus erectis, stigmatibus dilatatis—Planta tripedalis. 7’. ap- pendiculato et flavo affinis, a priori quo flores erecti, fila- menta longissima, anthera brevia.—Ledeb. I¢. pl. F], Ross. alt. t. 164, differt floribus nutantibus, filamentis brevibus, 19, 7. radiatum ; foliis longe petiolatis triternatis: foliolis rotundatis obtuse lobatis membranaceis subtus glaucis, peduneulis dichotomis radiatis, stylis areuatis apice circinatis, carpellis substipitatis, Has. This plant I have only found at an elevation of 6,500 feet at Mussooree, in flower in the rainy season, where it is found growing luxuriantly with such Orchidecee as Mycrostylis Wallichii and Em- pusa paradoxa,on the branches of trees in the thick coating of mosses and ferns with which these are covered during themoisture of the rainy months. 20. T. pauciflorum ; caule folioso, foliis triternatis sub- _ Sessilibus, foliolis cuneato-rotundatis trilobis glaucis venosis, pedunculis longis axillaribus unifloris.—Caulis spithameus, 21. A. Wallichiana ; foliis pinnatis scapo dimidio bre- vioribus, foliolis 3 y, 5-sectis ‘segmentis cuneatis: apice tridentatis, petiolis foliolis involucrisque villosis, pedunculis involucro duplo longioribus, flore subnutante, sepalis 6 patentibus elliptico-oblongis extus sericeis intus glabris, Affinis 4. Bungeane et Albane. — Has, Chango in Kunawur. 22. A. discolor ; scapo unifloro maculato foliis 3 y, 5. partitis sericeo-villosissimis, lobis obtuse inciso-serratis cuneato-oyatis, inyolucris triphyllis sessilibus, foliolis cuneatis lobatis dentatis, sepalis 7 ovalibus extus pilosis, intus glabris, ovariis ovatis hirsutis. (Tab. 11, fig. 1.) Has. This species of Anemone, is that chiefly found on the tops of lofty mountains in the Hima-. laya, along with 4. obtusiloba, of which it may ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Ranunculacee. possibly be a variety, though distinguished by a sufficient number of positive characters. I have found it in flower in April and May on the top of Choor, Urukta, and Kedarkanta, at elevations of about 10,000 feet, where it is highly orna- mental, from the variety of its colours, and from making its appearance shortly after the melting of the snow. The root is fusiform, and appears thicker than it actually is, in consequence of being surrounded by the sheathing bases of the petioles of former years, which as happens in many other plants of the Himalayas and of Kunawar, remaining undecom- posed, protect the root from the inclemencies of the seasons. The radical leaves form a spreading tuft, the petioles are broad, sheathing, membranous at the base, and parallel-veined; the Jeaf, auriculate, acuminate, 3 or 5-lobed, lobes frequently subtrifid oblong-cuneate, coarsely serrate, villose, soft and velvetty. The involucrum composed of 3 sessile leaflets, which are entire and dentate, or 3-lobed, with the lobes oblong linear 3-dentate. The scape is erect or ascending, round, striated, frequently spotted, hairy. Pedicels either single or double, in the former case equal in length to the involucrum during estivation, afterwards twice or thrice as long; where there are two flowers, one is nearly sessile, the other long pedicelled, with frequently a two-leafed involucel. The flowers are erect. The sepals generally seven in number, imbricate, obovate, three times as long as the stamens, yarying in colour from white on the upper, and blue on the lower surface, to entire blue, and even to a livid hue. The stamens, with broad filaments tapering towards the apex. ‘The ovary ovate, oblong, and: very hairy. : ' 23. A. obtusiloba; Don Prod. Fl. Nep. 174. 4; Gova- niana, Wall. Cat. 4688. Has. Choor Mountain, at elevations: of from 10,000 to 12,000 feet ; flowering in May. 24. A. vitifolia; D.C. Pr. 1. 21. Don Prod, 193, Wall. Cat. 4695, Ic. ined, 428, Royle, Ie. ined, 4, Has. Mussooree, and every where in the Hima- layas, at elevations of from 5,000 to 7,000 feet; flowering in June and July. Le 25. A. rivularis; D.C. Pr. 1. 21. Don Prod. Fl. Nep- 193. Wall. Ic. ined, 973. Cat. 4694. sub nomine A. hispida, _ Haz. Common at Mussoorée and in the Hima- layas, in the vicinity of water; found also in ‘Kunawur. 26. A, villosa; foliis radicalibus villosis cordato-rotun- ‘datis 5-lobis, lobis cuneatis inciso-dentatis, involucris sessi- ‘libus cuneiformibus trilobis, lobis tridentatis, floribus umbel- atis, pedicellis involucro longioribus nudis v. inyolucella - ly, Ranunculacee.] 1 y. bifolia gerentibus, sepalis 5 obovatis super glabris, ovariis ovatis glabris. A. narcissiflore affinis. Has. Lippa and Cheenee in Kunawur. 27. A. tetrasepala; foliis radicalibus longe petiolatis triangulari-cordatis 3 v. 5-lobatis, lobis quneatis dentatis super glabris subalveolatis, infra pallidis pilosis, involueris '4-foliis, duobus externis laté cuneatis 3-lobis, internis exter- nis alternantibus cuneatis serratis, umbellis 5-radiatis, umbellulis 3 ad 5-floris, involucellis 3-phyllis, sepalis 4 obovato-rotundatis patentibus, - Has. Jumboo. “he 98. Adonis estivalis; Lin. D.C. Prod. 1. 24. A. Inglesii; MSS. calyce basi soluto glabro. sepalis 5 patentibus striatis submembranaceis, petalis 5—8 concavo- conniventibus calyce } majoribus sanguineis striatis basi nigrescentibus, carpellis subreticulatis stylo recto vel sub- arcuato acuminatis in capitulum ovato-oblongum aggregatis, caule ramoso. This plant brought me from Hango I first saw in the collection, now in the possession of Mr. Brown, made in Kunawur by R. Inglis, Esq., which that gentleman -allowed me to look through on his arrival at Saharunpore. I was at first inclined to consider it a new species, and named it after the dis- coverer, but it appears to be a variety of A. estivalis, and therefore closely allied to A. parviflora of Fis- cher, found by him in the south of Siberia. Tars. III. RANUNCULEZ. -RANUNCULOS HERBARII ROYLEANI IN ORDINEM DIGESSIT DAVID DON. V. RANUNCULUS. 29, R. bulbosus. L.—A planté Europea nullo modo differt, nisi pilis copiosids ornata. : Has. Kunawur. - 30. R. glabellus (Royle), candice elongato, caule villoso - unifloro, foliis tripartitis lobatis glabris, bractea tripartita, earpellorum rostro recurvato.—R. polyrhizo affinis, sed diversus caudice distincto, caule villoso, carpellorum rostro filamentisque longioribus. Has. Shalkur in Kunawur. 31. R. distans (Royle), adpress? pilosus; foliis trifidis lobato-dentatis, carpellis ovatis acutis glabris margine callosis, caule multifloro.—An a sequente satis distinctus ? Has. Mountains towards Cashmere, and at Joo- nug near Simla. jee 32, R. letus (Wall.), adpressé pilosus ; foliis palmatis acut® inciso-dentatis, calyce patulo hirsuto, carpellis ovatis muticis compressis glabris. Ranunculus letus, Wall. Cat. n. 4702. ex-parte.—R. acri nimis affinis, et vix ac ne vix diversus videtur; staturé tamen robustiore, et foliis radicalibus maximis discrepat. Has. Mussooree, and every where in the Hima- layas. ; 5 33. R. hirtellus (Royle), pubescens ; foliis tripartitis lobatis dentatisque; superioribus subsessilibus digitatis, carpellis pubescentibus : rostro revoluto.-R, villoso et caucasico THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 53 affinis, sed pilis brevibus vestito, floribus minoribus, carpellis pubescentibus, rostro tripld breviori revoluto distinguitur. Has. Deobun and Kedarkanta, also at Lippa in Kunawur. ; 34. R. attenuatus (Royle), villosus; foliis radicalibus tripartitis inciso-lobatis; caulinis digitatis: segmentis lineari-lanceolatis basi attenuatis, carpellis gibbosis pubes- centibus. Has. Lippa in Kunawur. 35. R. nervosus (Royle), glabriusculus; foliis caulinis pedatis: segmentis lineari-lanceolatis basi dilatatis, carpellis ventricosis pubescentibus.—A precedente tantim differt foliorum caulinorum segmentis basi dilatatis, nec attenuatis. Has. Mussooree. 36. R. Choorensis(Royle), subcanescens ; foliis radicalibus trilobatis inciso-dentatis ; caulinis palmatis, calyce hirsu- tissimo, carpellis tomentosis: rostro elongato recto. Has. Choor Mountain, and Kedarkanta. 37. R. vitifolius (Royle), decumbens, hirsutus ; foliis trilobatis: lobis ovatis inciso-serratis, petalis ovalibus, carpellis angulatis punctatis: rostro brevissimo adunco, Has. Mussooree. 38. R. mollis (Wall.), procumbens, hirsutus; foliis sub- rotundo-cordatis trifidis: segmentis obtus® lobato-dentatis, pedunculis oppositifoliis, carpellis lanceolatis acutis com- pressis levissimis. . Ranunculus mollis. Wall. Cat. n. 4704. BR. hydro- cotyloides. Ejusd. n. 4703.—R. parvifioro affinis, diversus tamen foliis latioribus, carpellisque lanceolatis levibus. 39. R.arvensis. L.—Planta patria dubia, semper arvicola. Has. Suen range. 40. R. sceleratus. L. Ranunculus carnosus. Wall. Cat. 4699.—R. indicus. Roxb. Fl. Ind. ii. 671.—Planta Linnei omnind. Has. Found everywhere near water, and used as a vesicatory in the north-western provinces of India. 41. R. pimpinelloides ; caulibus procumbentibus uni- floris, foliis subtripinnati-sectis glaucis: segmentis incisis, carpellis ventricosis scrobiculatis! muticis.— Planta perennis, depressa, cespitosa, glaberrima, caudice rudimentis foliorum fibrosis undique vestito, facie feré Nardostachyos. Caules plures, procumbentes, simplices, uniflori, 2-3-unciales. Folia subtripinnati-secta, glauca; caulina petiolata, plerum- que solitaria: Jobis cuneatis, incisis, obtusis, coriaceis, Petioli bipollicares, basi valdé dilatati, membranacei. Pedur- culi pollicares. Calycis folivla ovalia, coriacea, glabra. Petala nondim vidi. Torus globosus. Carpelia subrotunda, ovata, ventricosa, obtusa, scrobiculata! glabra. Has. Soongnum in Kunawur. — 42. R. membranaceus (Royle), foliis radicalibus ovato- lanceolatis dentatis subtis lanatis ; caulinis trifidis, carpellis lanceolatis muticis. Has, Lippa in Kunawur 43. R. salsuginosus, Pall—Cum planta Pallasianaé om- nind convenit, folia tamen rotundiora. Has. Soongnum in Kunawur. 44, R. Flammula. L. Ranunculus salsuginosus et Moorcroftianus.—Wall. Cat. 4708. 54 4708. In paludosis per totius fer? orbis regiones temper- atas et frigidas provenit. Has. Soongnum in Kunawur. 45, R. aquatilis p. capillaceus. Dee. Prod. 1. 26.—Planta polymorpha, in aquosis per Europam, Asiam, et Americam communissima, ores minores, albi. Carpella scabra. Has. Small streamsin the vicinity of Saharunpore. 46. RR. polypetalus (Royle), scapo unifloro, foliis reni- formibus crenatis calyceque glabris, petalis oblongis nume- rosis. (Tab. 11, fig. 2.)\—Species distinctissima, ad Ficariam accidens. Herba perennis, cespitosa, rudimentis foliorum emarcidorum supra tecta, Radix fibrosa, fusca. Scapi erecti, filiformes, glabri, uniflori, semi v. pollicares. Folia petio- lata, reniformi-cordata, crenata, glabra, 3 y, 4-lineas lata: dentilus 7-10, magnis, obtusissimis.. Petioli glabri, semi- unciales. Calycis foliola 5, elliptica, obtusa, subcoriacea, glabra, persistentia. Petala 10 v. 15, spathulato-oblonga, obtusa, flava, calyce longiora, 3 v. 5-nervia, basi angustata, poro tubuloso esquamato aucta. Stamina duplici ordine numerosa: filamenta dilatata: anthere subrotunde! Torus | sphericus. Carpella compressa, g abra: rostro subulato, recto, elongato. e Has. This new and very distinct species has been hitherto found only on the peak of Kedarkanta, enamelling the ground with its rich yellow flowers immediately on the melting of the snow, It appears to be nearly allied to Ficaria? glacialis of Fischer, D.C. Prod. 1. p. 48, found also on the top of a mountain in Dahuria. For the foregoing account of the genus Ranuwn- eulus, the author is indebted to Mr. David Don, who also favoured him with detailed descriptions of the new species, of which the nature of the present work has for the present precluded the publication, Tris. 1V. HELLEBOREA, VI. Cautna. ; : 47. C. Govaniana ; (Wall. Cat. 4710) caule erecto folioso,. foliis amplis rotundato-cordatis serrato-dentatis, auriculis magnis approximatis, foliis floralibus inciso-serratis, floribus subumbellatis, sepalis 5 oblongo-ovalibus, stigmatibus elon- gatis subaduncis.—Caulis pedalis, bipedalisve, Sepala sul- phurea, basi lutea, Has. Choor. Urukta. 48. C. Himalensis (Don Prod. FI. N, ep. 195) caule erecto nudo paucifloro, foliis radicalibus longé petiolatis cordato- reniformibus argute serrato-crenatis, floralibus consimilibus auriculis rotundatis hiantibus, sepalis 5 y. 6 latis ovatis paralleli-venosis, capsulis rectis rostratis.—Caulis dodran- talis. Flores intens lutei. An prioris varietas ?. Has. Kedarkanta. VII. Troturs. 49. T. pumilus (Don. Prod. 193). ; Has. Tuwe kedhar towards Cashmere. Gos. sainthan, Wallich. VIII. Isopyvrun, Sect. 1, Caules foliosi, multiflori Huc pertinent 7 Sumarivides, £ thalictroides, et J, aaoxoides, ee ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Ranunculacee. Sect. 2. Cauliculi subnudi, uniflori, 50. L. grandiflorum (Fisch. D.C, Prod. 1. 48) capsulis 5, foliis biternatis, foliolis cuneatis apice tridentatis, v. tripartitis lobis lineari-oblongis, petalis emarginatis basi subtubulosis. (Tab. 1. fig. _ Has. Kunawur. Kherang Pass, July. R. In- glis, Esq. This plant is one of those common to Kunawur and the Altai mountains, flowering in the former in the month of July. The root is perennial, the stem extremely short, either simple, or immediately dividing into several equally short branches, each surrounded by a cluster of the dilated persistent bases of the petioles of former years, from the centre of which arise the single flowered scape and a few long petioled /eaves. These are biternate, with the leaflets small, cuneate, tridentate at the apex, or tripartite, with linear oblong divisions, the petioles dilated at the base and auriculate. The slender, simple, single-flowered stem or peduncle, rises from the centre of the leaves, bearing two minute, linear or awnshaped bracte-like leaves, with gene- rally expanded rounded membranous bases. These leaves are opposite, sometimes alternate, frequently of a lance-shape, or bifid, and supported by a short. petiole. The flower is large and showy for the genus. The sepals five imbricate, ovate obtuse, veined, and coloured. The petals five, about one-fourth the length of the sepals, oblong, a little tubular at the base, and emarginate at the apex. Stamens numerous, half the length of the sepals; filaments linear; anthers oblong, fixed by their base, two-celled, cells opening laterally, Ovaries five oblong-acuminate, terminated by the elongated style, straight on the inner angle, ventri- cose externally, five or six seeded. The specimens of this plant from Kunawur differ so much among themselves, that if it were not for the gradations, they would appear to belong to different species. Some are four times the size represented in the figure, and varying in the subdivisions of their leaves, but none have the petals bifid, as described by Ledebour, and to be seen in the specimens of this plant in Professor Lindley’s herbarium. 51, I. microphyllum mn capsulis 5, foliis ternatim supra- deconipositis, foliolis tripartitis, lobis-cuneatis trifidis seg mentis oblongis acutis obtusisve, petalis emarginatis,— (Tab. 1. fig. 4.) Has. Jumnotri: Buddrinath, Wallich, I am indebted to Wilson Saunders, Esq., for the excellent drawing of this plant, of which, specimens in an imperfect state exist in the East-Indian Her- barium, Ranunculacee.] barium, procured by Dr. Wallich’s plant collectors in the neighbourhood of Budrinath. It is abundant in the neighbourhood of Jumnotri, whence I first obtained a specimen from the late M. Victor Jacquemont. The root of this species-is perennial, long, cylindrical and stem-like, insinuating itself between the crevices of the rocks: at the apex it divides like the former species into several little tufts of leaves, from the centre of which arises the very simple stem or single-flowered scape. The petioles are long, dilated, membranous, or as if winged at the base. The leaves most delicately divided, supradecompound with ternate subdivi- sions, the ultimate leaflets three-parted, segments cuneate, three-lobed, lobes oblong, separated by obtuse angles. The stem or scape is slender, longer than the leaves, single flowered, having, as in the former species, two bracte-like leaves, which are _ broad, rounded and membranous at the base, and either simple, lanceolate, or trifid at the upper _ part. The sepals are five, four times longer than the petals, ovate, blunt, coloured. Petals five, minute, cuneate, emarginate. Stamens nume- rous, half the length of the sepals. Pistils five, oblong, acuminate, terminated by the lengthened style. 1X. Nieevia. 52, N. sativa; Lin, var Indica. D,C. Syst. Veg. 1. 330. N. Indica. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. 646. Arab, Shoonez and hub-ool-sowda. Pers. Seeah dana. Hind., Kulownjee, kala zeera v. jeera, mungrela. Sans. Musavi, Krishna jiraka. Melanthium, Melanospermum, Cuminum nigrum et Nigella veterwm. Has. Cultivated in India. X. AQUILEGIA. 53. A. pubiflora (Wall. Cat. 4714) calcaribus incurvis petalorum limbo brevioribus, capsulis villosis, caule multi- floro dichotomo folioso pubescente, stylis stamina non superantibus. Has. Mussooree, Choor, and common at eleva- tions of from 6,000 to 10,000 feet. Var p. Mussooriensis calcaribus incurvis, petalorum limbo quadruplo brevioribus, capsulis villosis, sepalis acutis, caule striato folioso petiolis foliisque pilosis, stylis stamina non superantibus. Has. This, which in my catalogue I had marked as a distinct species, does not appear to be more than a variety of A. pubiflora; when growing on the Mussooree range the stems were thicker, more hairy, the leaves more fleshy, and of a deeper green, and the flowers of a lurid hue. 54. 4. Moorcroftiana (Wall. Cat. 4713) calcaribus elon- gatis incurvis limbum obovatum equantibus sepalis lanceolatis duplo longioribus, stylis stamina non superantibus petalis ‘brevioribus, capsulis 5 villosis—Herba elata gracilis. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 55 Folia longe petiolata, foliola membranacea glauca, Fores erecti magni. Has. Luddak. Moorcroft. and mountains of Cashmere. ‘XI. De.rarnivm. 55. D, Ajacis, Lin. Has. Cultivated in gardens in India during the cold weather.—Hind, na furman. 56. D. pubescens. Lin. Has. Cashmere. 57. D. pauciflorum. Don Prod, 196.—D, denudatum. Wall. 4719. Has. Mussooree, and every where in the Hima- layas at moderate elevations. Hill name, Nirbisa. 58, D. incanum; petiolis brevibus vix dilatatis paralleli- venosis, foliis palmatim multipartitis lobis lineari-lanceolatis divergentibus subtus incanis, pedicellis bractea multo longioribus, petalis calyce brevioribus, duobus inferioribus bifidis extus barbatis, caleare recto acuto pedicello sube- quali, capsulis pendulis demum erectis oblongis apice obliquis subtorulosis pilosis; seminibus 3-angulatis, rugis alatis transversim armatis.—Caulis erectus rotundus striatus incanus bipedalis; racemus elongatus, axillaris terminalisque. Flores magni cerulei. Planta tota D. grandifloro similis, sed petala inferiora bifida, semina rugosa transversim alata. Has. Cashmere. Purbunee, July. R. Inglis, Esq. 59. D. Cashmerianum ; petiolis basi non dilatatis, foliis latis cordatis 5-lobis dentato-serratis utrumque pilosis, superioribus sessilibus, racemo laxo paucifloro, pedicellis flore longioribus, sepalis latis ovalibus petalis longioribus, calcare subrecto sepalis equali. (Tab. 12.) Has, The specimens of this plant were brought me from the garden of Shalimar, in Cashmere, where it was described as being a highly ornamental plant. It is easily distinguished from the other Himalayan species by the form of its leaves, size of its flowers, and lanceolate bracteoles. Stem round, slender, hairy, Petioles long, scarcely dilated at the base, equalling the leaves in length. ‘The leaves are broad, cordate, 5-lobed, lobes cuneate, dentate, serrate, with both surfaces hairy. Racemes lax, few flowered. Pedicels long, slender, hairy; bractea 3-lobed sessile: bracteole narrow lanceolate, opposite or alternate, about the middle of pedicels. The flowers large, showy, few in number, of a fine blue colour: the sepals broad, oval, reticulato-venose, hairy: the spur broad, straight, nipple-shaped, equal to the sepals in length: the two inferior petals with slender claws, limbs broad, inserted obliquely, bifid, divergingly veined: the two upper petals straight, broad and crenate at upper end, tapering towards end of spur: the stamens numerous, filaments broad-membranous tapering towards apex: ovaries three. 60. D. vestitwm (Wall, Cat, 4715), petioiis longis basi dilatato-vaginantibus, foliis latis cordatis 5 lobis, lobis cuneatis 56 cuneatis grosse dentato-serratis hirsutis, racemo elongato conferto; calyce basi bibracteolato, caleare rectiusculo ven- tricoso pedicellis breviore sepalis squali, ovariis tribus hirsutis. Caulis erectus hirsutus bipedalis. Has. Choor. Tuen. Nagkanda, Peer Punjal. 61. D. rectivenium ; foliis floralibus sessilibus trilobatis subintegris rectiveniis, superioribus lanceolatis pedicello subequali, caleare incurvo pedicello breviore, petalis om- nibus apice barbatis, ovariis tribus subglabris. Has. Tuen tibba; flowering in October, 62. D. Brunonianum ; petiolis basi dilatato-vaginantibus, foliis rotundatis 5-lobis, auriculis approximatis, omnibus cuneatis grosse dentatis, bracteis trilobatis superioribus cuneatis dentatis, racemo coarctato, caleare brevissimo obtuso, sepalis maximis ovalibus petalis que undique lanatis, ovariis 5 villosis,—Radia# perennis; caulis dodrantalis folio sus, Flores maximi cerulei, Petalorum superiorum cal- cara incurva, inferiorum lineari-unguiculata ; limbus-bifidus segmentis angustis, ilamenta lata, petaloidea. Has. This very distinct and well-marked species I have named, in honour of the illustrious botanist to whom I am indebted for the use of the Herba- rium collected ‘by R. Inglis, Esq., in Kunawur. This plant was found by that gentleman on the Kongno Pass; flowering in August. . 63. D. pyramidale ; petiolis basi vix dilatatis, foliis cor- datis acuminatis 5-lobis inciso-serratis, racemis elongatis. axillaribus patulis, calyee basi bi-bracteolato, caleare elon- gato pedicello subequali, petalis inferioribus bifidis limbis ‘obliquis extus barbatis, ovariis tribus ovatis acuminatis pilosis, Has. Peer Punjal. XII, Aconitum, | eu 64. A, dissectum. Don Prod. 119. Wall. Cat. 4724, Anthoris associandum, aks Has. Aorgaon below Kedarkanta. It is remark- able that all the specimens yet seen of this plant are without fructification. It must therefore be still considered as an uncertain species. . : 65. A. multifidum; floribus paniculatis, panicula floribus- que pubescentibus, galea subconicd apice acuminata, sacco cucullorum magno, calcare obtuso, labio elongato emar- ginato, filamentis basi alatis, alis membranaceis cuspidatis, ovariis 5 villosissimis, foliis longe petiolatis multifidis segmentis linearibus, folliculis 5 inflatis membranaceis transyersim venosis stylo persistente mucronatis,—Planta 4, Aathore: afinis. Caules 2 v 3 ex eadem radice, glas berrimi apice pubescentes, Folia radicalia numerosa ot equate, conline superiora breviter petiolata, omnia segmentis linearibus dissecta, Flores ochroleuci ceruleo variegati, | Oe Has. Mountains bounding Cashmere to the SW. Wyrung Pass. Sept., R. Inglis, Feo # galea conico-cylindracea basi subclava: caleare ineuryo, labio ¢ acuminato, filamentis ae dilatatis, ovariis 3 glabriusculis, foliis amplis glaberrimis ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF (Ranunculaceae. serratis ciliatis—Planta 4. Lycoctono affinis. Caulis 3« pedalis striatus infra levis super pilosus, pili horizontales. Flores \utei paniculati, panicule axillares terminales- que, pedicelli pilosi, bractese long lanceolate, bracteolee subulate. Has. Choor, Kunawur, and Peer Punjal. 67. 4. cordatum ; floribus racemosis galea glabra semi- circulari adscendente, sepalis patulis, caleare ovoideo obtuso, limbo erispo reflexo, filamentis sagittato-alatis, ovariis 5 villosissimis, bracteolis remotis petiolatis basi latis cuneatis, apice acuminatis dentato-serratis, foliis cordatis rotundatis vel acuminatis coriaceis 5-costatis serrato-vel inciso-den= tatis mucronatis.—Planta 4. heterophyllo affinis, an ejus varietas ?—Caulis pedalis, teres, subtus levis, super pubes~ cens, folia inferiora longe petiolata, superiora sessilia forma varia, Racemus pauciflorus ; pedieelli longissimi, Flores cerulei. Has. Cashmere. 68. A. heterophylium. Wall, Cat. 4722. (A. atees, Royle. Journ. As. Soc. 1. 459.—floribus racemoso-paniculatis ; galea pubescente semicirculari adscendente antice acumi- nata, caleare ovoideo obtuso limbo elongato recuryato, filamentis sagittato-alatis, ovariis 5 pubescentibus, bracteolis approximatis rotundatis y. oblongis integris, foliis cordatis acuminatis vel cordatis subquinque-lobatis acuminatis den- tato-serratis v. sinuato-dentatis coriaceis 5-costatis. (Tab. 13.) Has. This highly ornamental species is found on such lofty mountains as Choor, Shalma, and Kedar- kanta, at elevations of about 9,000 to 10,000 feet, and is particularly interesting on account of its roots, called atees, having long been an article of Indian Materia Medica. It varies a good deal in size as well as in the form of its leaves, whence the specific name assigned to it by Dr.Wallich, The . root is composed of two oblong oval tubers;of & light ash colour externally, and white in the inside, of a pure bitter taste; fibres numerous, spreading ; the stem is generally from two to three feet in height, obscurely angled, smooth and shining below, round and pubescent above 3; the lower leaves are long-petioled, round or sagittate-cordate, acuminate occasionally almost lobed, five or more ribbed, the lateral ones spreading, the central slightly curved, running from the base to the apex of the leaf; margins divided into broad lengthened teeth, which are generally mucronate, or sharp serratures, of a leathery consistence 3 both surfaces without any kind of pubescence. The upper leaves are short petioled or sessile, embracing the stem, cordate-acuminate, five-ribbed, margins Inciso-serrate, or serrate, serratures mucronate, The inflorescence is a panicled raceme, or the Tacemes are axillary and terminal. Pedicels long, pubescent, thickened towards apex, closely applied to stem. Bracte leaf-like, cordate, bracteoles oval or oblong, acuminate, entire sub-opposite inserted Ranunculaceae.) inserted near, and supporting the calyx. The galea or helmet is broad, arched, convex, slightly acuminate, reticulato-venose: the wings equal in size to the helmet, obliquely. triangular, the lower sepals lanceolate, smooth, pendulous and spreading. The superior petals, an inch in length, long-clawed, incurved: the spur short, egg-shaped, blunt, forming a small sac; the limb a little elongated, acuminate, with a slightly reflexed border; the inferior petals abortive. Stamens numerous, fila- ments dilated and bidentate at the apex of the dilated membranous base, slightly hairy. Ovaries five, oblong-acuminate, pubescent; style short; stigma pointed. Capsules follicular, inflated, ob- long, rounded on the inner, and straight on the outer angle, terminated by the small persistent style. Seeds numerous, inserted along the inner angle, flat, surrounded by a circular membranous wing. Plate 13. The upper part of the Plant, with the tuberous root. 1. Flower. 2. The two upper Petals, with the Stamens and Pistils. 3. ene 4. Seed. 69. A. ferow. Wall. Plante Asiat. Rar. 1, p. 35 t, 41. Has. Choor, Kedarkanta, Gossainthan, and Sheopore. Hind. Bikh, v. p. 45. 70. A. palmatum. Don Prod. 196. Wall. Cat. 4723. Has. This species, though not found by the author, no doubt exists in the same tract of country as the foregoing species, as there is a drawing from Dr. Govan, marked A. hibiscifolium, by Dr. Wallich, which is quite different from any of the foregoing, though a good deal resembling this species. Trib, V.P PHLONTACE, XIV. Cimiciruea. 71. C. frigida ; ovariis 3.8 glabris stipitatis, racemis pani- culatis, foliis bipinnatim biternatimve sectis, segmentis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis inciso-dentatis v. serratis ter- minali trilobato.—Actea frigida, Wall. Cat. 4725. Has, This plant, procured by Dr.Wallich from Gossainthan, was brought to me from Cashmere. It is closely allied to the Siberian species C. fetida. The stem is four or five feet in height, hollow or filled with pith, obscurely angled, striated, smooth. ‘The. leaves alternate, petioled, either bipinnately or biternately divided; terminal segment 3lobed: the others ovate-lanceolate, frequently THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. folliculis tomentosis erectis.— Planta tripedalis. 57 with a lengthened point; margins either inciso- serrate or dentate; both surfaces smooth, the lower pale-coloured. The inflorescence an elon- gated panicled racemes, with recurved spike-like raceme from the axilla of the upper leaves. Pedicels short, pubescent, supported by a small subulate bracte. ‘The flowers vary in the number of their parts from five to seven, and no distinction is perceptible between the calyx and corolla: the sepals are imbricate, concave, oval, ciliate, one or two of the interior ones frequently marked with a central line of junction, bifid at the apex, the upper part of a white colour, frequently having a jointed appearance, looking like an incompletely- formed anther. The stamens are numerous, fila- ments, at first equal to, afterwards longer than petals ; anthers globular, two-celled ; cells opening laterally. Pistils two to five or more ; ovary oblong, tapering towards both ends; style short; stigma pointed. Carpella oblong, compressed, obtuse with an oblique apex, terminated by the elongated recurved style. Seeds 6-8, oblong, oval, covered, especially on the edges, with membranous scales, which from their closeness in the fresh state, appear to be continuous, and have also this appearance in the figure from the indistinctness of the impression. Plate 14. Cimicifuga frigida.—a. Upper part of raceme.—b. A leaf.—c. A flower seen from above.—d. The same from below.—e. The car- pella—f. rows of flax and safflower ‘are generally intermixed.’ About the end of January, or later, : the 94 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Malvacee. the oil-seeds are plucked, the field is hoed, and manured with cow-dung and ashes, mud from tanks, and oil-cake ; it is then watered once in from eight to twelve days. The cotton is gathered between the middle of April and the middle of June, and its pro- duce may be from 360 to 500 lbs. am acre. In the most northern provinces of India, I have never observed so much care bestowed on the cultivation. The seasons for sowing are about the middle of March and April, after the winter crops have been gathered in, and again about the commencement of the rainy season; the crops are commenced being gathered about the conclusion of the rains, and. during October and November; after which the cold becomes considerable, and the Christmas raims severe. About the beginning of February the cotton plants shoot forth new leaves, produce fresh flowers, and a second crop of cotton is produced, which is gathered during March and beginning of April. The same occurs with the cottons of Central India, one crop being collected after the rains, and the. other in February, and what is late in the beginning of March. Experiments having been frequently made to introduce into India the finer kinds of American cotton, and these having generally proved unsuccessful, it would appear an unnecessary expense to repeat them; but as it is, highly desirable to substitute a superior kind for the coarse cottons now in cultivation, the experiments should still, I conceive, be continued, both with foreign seed and with that which is indigenous to India. The late attempts which have been made in Bengal: have proved unsuccessful with the long staple cottons; and as it is stated: that the plant runs too much into leaf, the ill success would appear to be owing to the climate, and therefore irremediable with that kind of cotton; but this was ascertained many years ago by Dr. Roxburgh, who mentions that the Bourbon cotton: attains) a good size in Bengal, but yields little cotton, and that it succeeds better in the more elevated, dryer, and less fertile soil of Coromandel. Much, however, may no doubt be done by selecting such seeds as are best suited to the pecu- liarities of the soil and climate, especially as some cotton grown in the fields by Mr. Piddington forty miles, N.E. of Calcutta, imstead of degenerating, had improved in quality, and was so luxuriant, as to oblige him frequently to root it up.. This was pronounced by sevem cotton-brokers: of Liverpool to be a very useful description of cotton, werth 63d. per pound, whilst the average quality of Surat and Bengal was not more than 5d, per pound, and that of nine-tenths of the cotton grown in the United States of America of the value of 63d. per pound. The introduction of the Bourbon cotton into the southern part of the Indian Peninsula has been eminently successful, as the soil and climate are said to be favourable ; but the experiment had also the advan- tage of Mr. Hughes’ skill and superintendence; and his cotton and senna have both long been known as the best from India. The former has frequently sold for Is: per pound, when other Indian cottons did not fetch half the price. Mr. Charles Groves, te whose intelligence as a merchant I have been indebted for much valuable information respecting the commercial products of India, has been good enough to procure Malvacee.| THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 95 procure for me the following note respecting the last investment imported of this supe- rior cotton: 8 bales of it, of 300Ibs. each, were sold 10th September last, marked «Hughes, Tinnevelly cotton,” at 10}d., at the same time with 222 bales of a very superior kind, at 84d. and 8d. The ordinary Madras, grown in the same country, being at the same time worth 7d., and some of the other Indian cottons not more than 53d. The principal superiority of this cotton consisted in its being of a more silky quality and of longer staple, though a small part of its value was also owing to its being cleaner. Though the island of Salsette and the coasts of Guzerat and Cutch appear particularly eligible for the cultivation of cottons, the experiments on the introduction of American long staple cottons have hitherto failed, though the first crop has sometimes been good, from the subsequent deterioration of the seed. This might perhaps be remedied by exchanges of seed between different districts, particularly as” upwards of thirty years ago cotton was grown by Dr. Scott in the island of Salsette, which was considered equal to Bourbon cotton. Much might here, as elsewhere, be done by trying all the varieties of seed, improving the native seed, varying the cultivation according to circum- stances, and when all the information possible has been obtained by experiments on a small scale, extending the cultivation to the desired extent. The introduction of American seed into the upper provinces of India does not seem to have inspired the experimenters with any idea of the imapplicability of the climate of India for the production of the finer cottons ; though Mr. Colebrooke relates a failure which occurred at Benares. Mr. Gisborne mentions that a friend of his procured a few seeds, he believes of Brazil cotton, from which he in time obtained three bales of cotton, which was sold in London for a shilling a-pound, at the time that Indian cotton generally was between 4d. and 5d. Mr. Huggins raised cotton from the Upland Georgia seed about Allahabad, of which the produce was much more abundant than from any other description of cotton that he had seen, the pod more than double the size, the cotton good, and the plants did not require more labour than the common cotton of the country. Major Colvin also sowed some seed of American cotton early in 1832, in the vicinity of the Delhi canal, and the produce was obtained about the middle of October, and during the following month; the capsules were very large, and the superiority of the cotton in quantity and quality over that usually grown in the country where cotton is very extensively cultivated, was so manifest, that all the zumeendars were anxious to procure some of the seed. | So few attempts have been made to improve the cottons indigenous to India, that no idea can be formed of what is practicable. From some experiments made with Broach and Surat cotton, it appears, that by bestowing more care in picking and cleaning, some sold for 54d., and some which was still more carefully cleaned sold for 64d., which was quite as high as that of Upland American cotton at the time. I commenced some experiments at Saharunpore, which it was my intention to have prosecuted, as the results, though the soil was too clayey, were satisfactory. The Bourbon cotton, which had been several 96 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Malvaceae. several years in the garden, but in too luxuriant a state, produced some cotton, which Mr. Saunders pronounced of a much better staple than that usually cultivated in India; but he considered that produced by the tree cotton (Gossypium arboreum) of the best description, as both the fabric and staple were good. It appears worthy of being subjected to further trials, particularly to ascertain its productiveness, for of the fineness and silky nature of its staple there can be no doubt, as it is employed by the natives for making only the finest muslins... It was cultivated like the common Indian cotton, and gave its-produce in the first year in October and November, and a second crop in February. | LG er At p. 4, it is stated that Malwa and the north-western provinces of India seemed well adapted for the cultivation of cotton. It is already extensively cultivated there, and that so cheaply, being sold at 2d. and 24d. per pound, that it supports a successful competition in Bengal, notwithstanding the heavy expenses of distant transport by land and water. — (Colebrooke.) From the westward it is conyeyed on bullocks to Calpee, Banda, and Mir- zapore, where it goes down the Jumna and Ganges rivers, with the cotton grown in the northern provinces. The cotton plants which I saw in many places from Agra to Allahabad seemed more prolific than any I have seen elsewhere. Notwithstanding the careless culti- vation, the cotton in the capsules was more abundant; these were larger and more nume- rous than I had seen either higher up or lower down the country. The climate also, I conceive, well suited to them) notwithstanding the great heat of the months of April, May, and June; as the plants grow well, and attain maturity during the rainy months, which terminate just when the drying up of the soil, the dryness and clearness of the atmosphere are most necessary to check vegetative vigour, and determine the secretions towards the formation of fruit, and the perfecting of the seed. Bundlecund above the Ghauts, and Malwa, are also extensive cotton districts, and peculiarly eligible, on account of the soil, which is frequently emphatically called a black cotton soil, and a climate which is also most favourable. . The soil, formed in many parts of decomposed trap-rocks, is a loose friable black earth, penetrable by the most delicate fibrils. The temperature of this province, from its elevation, is moderate, when compared with the plains; the range of the thermometer is small, the hot winds comparatively mild, and of short duration, the fall of rain less than in the plains; and though fevers occur at their conclusion, the climate may be considered on the whole salubrious.—(Hamilt. Gaz.) From the slope of the country, and its elevation, we may conclude that the circulation of air is free, and evaporation favoured,soas to induce dryness of the atmosphere, which seems essential for the formation of fruit of any kind. In such a climate it would not appear a work of great difficulty to substitute a superior species or variety for that which is already cultivated, It may be added, that the author has heard that Sir John Malcolm, than whom no one was better acquainted with Malwa, was of opinion that it was particularly well adapted for the cultivation of cotton, and that it could supply an amazingly increased quantity. It would be interesting to ascertain precisely what peculiarities of climate are best suited Malvacee] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 97 suited to the formation of cotton-wool, but so few meteorological registers give the dry- ness and moisture of a climate, as well as its temperature, that we cannot at present draw any just conclusions, An insular climate, though comparatively moist, may be useful from the equability of temperature, the freedom of atmospheric circulation which pro- motes evaporation, as much as from mere vicinity to the sea. “Considering, therefore, that Mr. Bennet, after years of experience and attentive observation, concludes his statement by saying, “ that he has hitherto gained some new insight every year, and sees clearly that there is an hundred times more to be learned about cotton than its planters imagine,” (Zrop. Agricult. p. 46.) it is not unreasonable to suppose that much may be done’ for its improvement in India, where few have paid sufficient attention to the subject, and the cultivation has hitherto been left almost entirely in the hands of the natives. Much also may be hoped from the experiments of the ‘* Agricultural Society of India” being extended to every part of the country. I have no doubt that by the importation of foreign, and the selection of native seed; attention to the peculiarities not only of soil, but also of climate, as regards the course of the seasons ; and the temperature, dryness, and moisture of the atmosphere ; as well as attention to the mode of cultivation, such as preparing the soil, sowing in lines, so as to facilitate the circulation of air; weeding, ascertaining whether the mixture of other crops with the cotton be injurious or otherwise, pruning, picking the cotton ag it ripens, and keeping it clean; great improvement must take place in the quality of the cotton. Experiments may at first be more expensive than the ordinary culture, but the natives of India, when taught by example, would adopt the improved processes as regularly and as easily.as the other; and as labour is no where cheaper, any extra outlay would be repaid fully as profitably as in countries where the best cottons are at present. produced. The subject is one of great importance not only to India, but also to England, as the latter must always be interested in having her manufactures supplied from as wide a surface as possible, so as to be independent at all times of temporary interruptions to commerce. To India the subject is one of vast consequence, as the consumption of cotton in England is about 300,000,000 pounds annually, of which India does not supply above a twentieth part ; any improvement, therefore, in the quality of the cotton or the productiveness of the plant, could not fail to be of great benefit, both to the agriculturist and to the merchant. : In addition to the above considerations, in attempting improvements in the cultivation of cotton, it is necessary to ascertain the species or varieties which are cultivated in different countries; but in this, there are great, and, in some respects, insurmountable difficulties, as botanists have generally neglected the subject,and omitted mentioning the cultivated species; while cultivators have used provincial names, or applied new ones of their own, to the exclusion of any notice of the names in use among botanists. This has rendered it impossible for others to ascertain to what species their otherwise valuable obser- vations refer. 'The celebrated De Candolle has admitted thirteen species, observing that they are all uncertain, and that no genus more requires the labours of a monographist; two additional species have been described by Dr. Roxburgh, one by Reeusch, and another in the Flore de Senegambie. Dr. oO * Von 98 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Malvaceae. Von Rohr describes 29 species or varieties, Mr. Badier 18, and Mr. Bennet mentions that he knew more than 100 kinds, and that they appeared to him never ending. But there is no doubt that species have been established from imperfect specimens, indifferent drawings, and frequently from insufficient characters, and these liable to change. Swartz and others -have observed, that the several species varied in the size of parts, in the division of leaves, in the number of glands, in hairiness, in having the leaflets of the exterior calyx more or less divided, in the capsules having three or four cells; in the colour of both the seeds and the wool, as well as in the adherence and tenacity of the latter; so that from the difficulty of distinguishing the several species, Swartz thought that they might easily be believed to be only varieties of one species. Some intelligent cultivators, as Rohr and Badier, who found it difficult to refer their varieties to the small number of recognised species, have made the same observation. To the first, the seeds appeared to furnish the most certain and least changeable characters. But it may be doubted whether from being unaccustomed to make those nice distinctions, and at the same time make allowances for the variations due to culture, cultivators have not exaggerated the difficulties, and as they were most interested in the produce of _the seed, ascribed a higher value on its permanency than even their own observations will warrant, especially as Mr. Spalding, in the interesting letter given in by Mr. Crawford to the East-India Com- ‘mittee, states that “the same cotton-seed planted in one cotton-field will give quite a black and “ naked seed; while planted in another, different in soil and situation, will be prone to run into large « cotton with long boles, and with seeds tufted at the ends with fuzz.” But this liability to run into varieties, so far from being accounted a disadvantage, ought to be considered the reverse, as it is the great distinction between a cultivable plant, and one that is not so; it is desirable only to know the species from which the most useful varieties have been procured in countries where the best cottons are grown. This is a work, as has been before mentioned, of considerable difficulty ; but with the assistance of the observations of Dr. Roxburgh, who states having studied the subject for thirty years (Flora Indica, vol. 8. p. 187), and those of Dr. Swartz, who has described with great care (Observ. Bot. p. 265) the species of cotton which he found cultivated in the West-Indies, the author hopes that he has been able to refer some of the kinds cultivated in different countries, to their true species. 1, G. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Shrubby, very ramous. Leaves ‘small, with three, rarely five, obtuse, ovate, entire lobes, Stipules faleate. The evterior calyw with entire divisions, Capsules ovate, cells three-seeded. Seeds free, and clothed with firmly-adhering, short greenish-gray down, under a small portion of ash-coloured wool.—Rowb, Fl. Indica. marked with black spots. eaves hairy, palmate, 3, gene- rally 5-lobed, in herbaceous varieties, lobes broad and rounded with a little point ; in those which are woody sub- lanceolate and acute, with or without glands. Stipules faleate-lanceolate. Flowers axillary, generally solitary towards the extremities of the branches, petals of a lively vol. 3. p. 183. A native of Ceylon, but not cultivated. Flowers during the rains and cold season in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta. 2. G. acwminatum (Roxb.) Sub-arboreous. eaves from three to five lobed, lobes oblong, tapering, very acute. Exterior calye deeply laciniate. Stipules linear-lanceolate. Capsules long, ovate, much pointed. Seeds many, adhering firmly to each other, black, and free of every pubescence, except the long white wool, which is easily removed.— Rob. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 186. Dr. Roxburgh states, that this species is easily distin- guished by its superior size and large black seeds, which adhere firmly to each other, It is said to be a native of the mountains to the north and westward of Bengal, but he does not find that it is ever cultivated; but it is apparently > species well worthy of trial in different parts of India, as itis indigenous, and desirable on account of the facility with which the wool separates from the naked seeds. ~ 3. G. herbacewm (Lin,) Stems woody, bi-triennial, 4-6 feet high in tropical, herbaceous and two feet high, in temperate climates, the ‘older parts reddish, the younger, as well as the flower and foot-stalks, hairy, frequently yellow colour, with a purple spot near. the claw. Segments of the exterior Calyx or involucel, ‘D. C. cordate at the base, margin dentate,sometimes entire. Capsules ovate, pointed, 3 or 4-celled. Seeds free, about five in number, clothed with firmly-adhering, grayish down, under the short-staple white wool,—Xylon s. Gossypium antiquorum.—G. herbaceum. Linn, sp. Pl. 3. p. 355, Lamarck Encycl, 2. p, 133; . Cav. Diss. 6. p. 310. t. 164. £2. Wild. 3, p- 803. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3, p. 184, D.C. Prod. 1. p. 456.. This and its varieties are by far the most generally cultivated in India. Dr. Roxburgh particularly distinguishes three varieties :—Ist, Dacca Cot- ton, which furnishes that fine long soft cotton-wool, employed in manufacturing the very delicate beautiful muslins of that place. v, Roxb, Corom. Plants, vol. iii, t. 269, 2d. Berar Cotton, distinguished by growing to a greater size, and having smooth and straight branches, leaflets of the exterior calyx more deeply divided, and the wool of a finer quality, than in the common variety of this species. This is cultivated in Berar and the Northern Circars, and with its cotton the fine Madras, more properly Northern Circar, long-cloth is made, 3d. China Cotton, introduced into Bengal, where its wool, according to Dr. Roxburgh, is reckoned 25 per cent. Malvacee.} cent. better than that of Surat. Lamarck’s G. indicum. Encycel, 2. p.134, Capas, Rumph, Amb. 4. p. 33. t. 12. Dr. R. says, is no doubt one of these varieties; Cavanilles (Diss. 6. p. 314, t. 169.) having seen it in flower in Paris, was of the same opinion. The variety cultivated about Cawnpore and in the Doab, is figured tab. 23. fig. 1. froma drawing in General Hardwicke’s collection, There are also specimens from Saluen and Tavoy. Besides India, this species is cultivated in Syria, Asia Minor, and the Mediterranean. Specimens of it have been brought by Mr, Wilkinson from Egypt. ‘“ Wild cotton from the oases,” appears to be also a variety, as well as gotun, biladi, in the same collection deposited in the British Museum. G, punctatum, cultivated on the banks of the Senegal, and in the country between it and the river Gam- bia, is nearly allied to it, according to the authors of the Flore de Senegambie. Varieties must have been introduced into America, as seed is said to have been taken from Smyrna, when the Americans commenced the cultivation of cotton, 4. G. arboreum, Stem arboreous, 15 to 20 feet, some- times shrubby, young parts hairy, tinged of a reddish colour, Leaves palmate, 3 or 5-lobed, hairy, dotted with blackish spots, of a dark green colour, lobes elongated, lanceolate, sometimes mucronate, sinus obtuse, glands one, sometimes three. Stipules awl-shaped. Flowers solitary, with short peduncles, red,.with a yellowish tinge near the claws, Leaflets of the exterior calyx cordate-ovate, entire, sometimes dentate. Capsule ovate-pointed, 3 or 4 celled, four to five seeds, covered with a greenish-coloured fur, enveloped in a fine silky yellowish-white wool—Xylon arboreum auctorum. Gossypium arboreum gotnem segiar (i.e. the large cotton) Prosp. Alp, Exot. t. 38. G.herbacewm vel Xylon maderaspatense rubicundo flore pentaphylleum. Pluk, Alm. 172, t. 188. f.3. G,arboreum. cotn el sadjar. Forsk, ASgyp. p. 70.° dn G, rubrum. Forsk. p. 116, Wild. 3. p. 804, Lamarck Encyel. 2. p. 135, Cav. Diss. 6. p, 310. t. 165. Roxb; Fl. Ind, 3. p. 182, DC, Prod, 1. p. 456. Dr, Roxburgh was of opinion, that Cadu pariti of Rheede, Hort. Mal. 1. p. 55. t. 31. is not this plant; but observes, it may be G. religiosum of Gaertner. 2. p. 246. t. 134. £1, kt is remarkable, that one specimen of G. barbadense is marked G. arborewm in the Linnean Herbarium, and that it should be marked G. religiosum in Heyne’s Herbarium. I was informed by Huree Sing, the head-gardener inthe H. C.’s Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, that the cotton of this plant was never used for making any of the lower gar- ments, but only for turbans for the head, as it was sacred to their deities. Some legend of this kind. may have reached Linneus, though the name is now applied to a different species, G. arboreum is found in the island of Celebes, in Arabia, Egypt, and in India; in the latter it is called nurma-barree, and is generally found in the clumps of trees which surround temples, or the abodes of - Fuqueers. As stated at p. 96,it may be cultivated like the common cottons. 5. G. micranthum (Cav.) Stem branched, reddish- coloured, free from pubescence, but covered with black spots, Leaves 5-lobed, lobes roundish acuminate, with a single gland. Stipules lanceolate. Flowers solitary oppo- site to the leaves, Leaflets of the exterior calyx cordate, THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 99 | striated and laciniate, much longer than the corolla, three: whitish glands between the base of the inner and the divi- sions of the outer calyx. Corol yellow, petals ovate acute, rather hairy, claws purple. Germen globose.—Cav. Diss. 6. p. 311. t. 193. This species, grown in Persia, near Ispahan, flowered in the Paris Garden, and enabled Cava-~ _nelles to write his description, I have not been able ta ascertain what species is cultivated in Persia, but the cotton from that country is frequently of good quality. Mr, Bruce, in a short notice communicated to the Agricultural Society of India, states that the cotton improves the nearer it is to the sea-coast ; and also that the same plant is annually cut down, and springs up again, so as to bear a erop for twenty or thirty years in succession. 6. G. religiosum. Perennial. Stem 3-4 feet, branches and petioles a little velyetty, hirsute towards the apex, and loaded with black points, Leaves cordate, superior 3-lobed, inferior 5-lobed, deeply divided, lobes ovate-acuminate, - entire pubescent (some of the lower ones ovate-acuminate), one to three glands, Stipules lanceolate deciduous (cordate acuminate. Row.) Flowers large fulvous, peduncles short, dotted. Leaflets of the exterior calyw large, cordate acumi- nate, deeply laciniate, hairy and dotted. Capsule ovate acuminate, dotted, 3, 4, or 5-celled. Seeds black, covered with firmly-adhering, short tawny fur, under the long tawny-coloured wool.—Swartz. Observ. Bot. p. 267. Rowb. ’ Fl. Indica. 3, p, 185. Sir James Smith says, “ what Linneus intended by G. religivsum is rather doubtful ; that in his herbarium ap- pears to be G. Barbadense.” Rees Cycl. The distinguishing characteristic of what is at present considered snch, is the bearing ¢awny instead of white cotton; but there is consi- derable difficulty in ascertaining whether only one or more species have such, or whether the colour is sufficiently per- manent to allow of its being depended on as a specific character, There are certainly two distinct localities for it, one China, the other Siam. Swartz described the species from plants cultivated in Jamaica from seed sent from China, under the name of Nankin cotton. Dr. Rox. burgh also describes from cotton introduced into Bengal, and called Nankeen cotton. Specimens, in Dr. Lindley’s Herbariam, from the neighbourhood of Macao, with tawny cotton, show the species to be very distinct from the other cultivated cottons. A specimen in the British Museum, brought from Otaheite by the Forsters, and marked G. reli- giosum, much dotted, and with small globular acuminated capsules and tawny cotton, resembles that from Macao, A specimen from the Sandwich Islands, with downy-looking dotted velvetty leaves, also belongs to this species, and is marked G. religiosum. In America and the West-Indies the tawny-coloured cotton seems to be generally considered the produce of Siam. Lamarck alludes to areddish-coloured cot- ton from Siam, and mentions that inthe Antilles asimilar kind is cultivated, called “ Cotonnier de Siam.” Rohr has three species, “ Cotonnier de Siam a duvet brun;” “ Coton lisse de Siam brun ;” “ Cotonnier de Siam couronné brun.” Cavanilles describes his G. religiosum as being from the Cape of Good Hope, but with very white wool ; and refers to it G. tricuspidatum of Lamarck, believed to be from the’ warm parts of America, Poiret, Dict. des Sc. Nat, also o 2 unites’ e 160 unites them; the first states, that in the Royal Garden at Paris he had seen a plant, known as the yellow cotton of Siam, which very much resembled his @. redigiosum, but that its cotton was of a yellow colour. Dr. Roxburgh con- siders the species he describes under this name, Nankeen cotton, as allied to G. hirsutum, and says, that it is not productive. Mr. Spalding states, that in Georgia the tawny cotton is most productive ; if it proved so in India, though of inferior quality, it would be useful as clothing for the natives. It appears to me that two distinct species yield tawny- coloured cotton, one with small velvetty-looking leaves, and much dotted in every part, to which may be referred Dr. Lindley’s specimen from Macao, as well as that from Otaheite. Of this there is also a specimen in the British Museum from Guzerat. The other is a much larger plant, with the general appearance and leaves of G. Barbadense ; of it there is an excellent specimen in the East-Indian Her- barium, No. 1875. This is marked, Herb. Madras. (a.) G. frore albo leviter flavescente dat xylon obscure flavescentum ; another is (b.) G. hirsuti var. Nanquin Baumwolle ; Tan- jore, April 1813. Mr, Wilkinson has brought specimens from Egypt of rather tawny-coloured cotton, with brownish seed, free from fur, which is there called gotun hindee. 7. G. hirsutum ; Shrubby, about six feet high, young parts very hairy. Leaves, the upper undivided cordate, acute, the lower 3 or 5-lobed, lobes ovate, acute (trian- gular Aowb.) hairy on the under, and smooth on the upper surface. Petioles very hairy, dotted with black spots. Glands 1 or 2 to 3. Stipules lanceolate (Cav.) Coro, base yellow, purplish towards apex (uniform yellow Rozb.) Exterior calyx, ovate-acute very hairy (cordate, 3-toothed Cav. laciniate Rowb.) Capsule large, ovate-acute. Seeds many, free, clothed with firmly-adhering green down, under the fine long white wool.—Swartz, Observ. Bot. p. 265. Roxb. Fl. Ind.3. p. 187. Cavanilles Diss. 6. p. 312. t. 167. This species, according to Swartz, is cultivated in Ja- maica, where it is frequently called French cotton, and every where in the West-India islands. It would appear from the character of the seed, to be the green-seeded short. staple or upland cotton of the Americans. Smith, in Rees’ Cycl. supposes this to be onlya hairy variety of G. herbacewm. Dr. Roxburgh states that this green-seeded variety had only been lately introduced into India, where the cotton was much admired by the natives. Specimens, apparently of this species, from the hairiness of the leaves, and dentate cordate exterior calyces, and marked G. indicum, may be seen in a paper with G, arboreum (marked G. religiosum), and G. herbaceum, in the East-Indian Herbarium. 8. G. Barbadense. Stem shrubby, 6-15 feet, smooth, Leaves, the upper 3-lobed, the lower 5-lobed, lobes ovate, acute, smooth, often pubescent on the under surface, Leaflets of exterior calyx large, deeply laciniate. Flowers yellow. Capsule ovate-acuminate smooth, Seeds 8-12, free, oblong, black, and without any other pubescence than the long, fine, easily separable white wool.—Swartz, Obs. Bot. p- 266. Roxb. Fl. Ind, 3. p. 187.—@. vittfolium, Cav. Diss. 6. p. 311. tab. 166. G. barbadense was first taken up from Plukenet, dim. t. 188. f. 1., published in 1695, but this figure may answer equally well for some other species. That described by Swartz under this name, he states is more extensively ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Malvaceae. cultivated than any other kind in the West-Indies, Dr. Roxburgh says, that G. barbadense was intrcduced into India from the Isle of Bourbon; hence it is known there by the name of Bourbon cotton, aad, at what period it was introduced from the West-Indies into that island is uncertain, Sir James Smith was of opinion, that G. bar- badense, of the Linnean Herbarium, was the G, vitifolium. of Cavanilles; previous to knowing this, I had formed the opinion that G, vitifolium, of which I first saw a specimen from Egypt in Professor Lindley’s Herbarium, which agreed in every respect with the description by Cavanilles, was the same as the G. barbadense, or Bourbon cotton of India, On examining the Linnean Herbarium, I could observe no difference between G, barbadense of that collec. tion, and that grown in India, and known by that name, nor between these and G, vitifolium, in Smith’s Herbarium, from the Isle of France ; and all correspond with the figure and description, by Cavanilles, of G, vitifolium, which are from a plant in Commerson’s Herbarium, gathered also in the Isle of France, I have, therefore, no doubt but that G. barbadense of Swartz and Roxburgh, is the same as G. vitifolium of Cavanilles, and consequently of many other authors. It is singular that the latter author, when de- scribing all the species which he could procure of Gossy- pium, mentions G. barbadense as a plant unknown to him ;- and Swartz, in describing the West-Indian species, omits all mention of G, vitifolium; but the information that his G. barbadense is the species most cultivated in the West- Indies, is important, as showing that from it, probably, some of the most valuable of the cultivated varieties of cotton have been obtained. Specimens, marked G, bar- badense, in B.M., brought by Dr.Wright from Jamaica, may be referred to this species, and considered the type of the variety vitifolium. ‘The leaves are palmate, 5-lobed, acuminate, like those of Ricinus communis, hairy under- neath, with stellate pubescence, stem reddish, as well as the cordate, deeply laciniate leaflets of the exterior calyx. The corol is large and yellow. A specimen bearing leaves of both ene may be seen in the Smithian Her- barium, : Taking the smooth and shining stem and leaves, black seed enveloped only in the easily-separable long wool, as the characteristics of this species, we may refer to it, several varieties of cultivated cottons in the British Mu- seum, brought by Mr. Millington from the West-Indies ; also, G. vitifolium, brought by M. Bové, as the cotton cultivated near Cairo, in Dr. Lindley’s Herbarium. It was also brought by Mr.Wilkinson, as one of the cultivated cottons of Egypt. It seems to be distributed in the Pacific Ocean, as Dr. Lindley has a specimen from Owhyhee. As the Egyptian was most probably imported from Ame- rica, the best cotton country when the cultivation was re-established in Egypt, it is more than probable that the Sea-island, or long-staple, is a variety of this species, as its seeds agree in character. As it succeeds so well in Egypt, of which the climate in many respects resembles that of the north-western provinces of India, some of its varieties may probably succeed as an article of culture in that coun-— try; that it does so as a plant there can be no doubt, as it has been for many years in the Saharunpore Botanic Garden, _It exists in the East-Indian Herbarium, under the name of Maurice Bombacea.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. | 101 Maurice cotton, from Tanjore. Dr. Roxburgh was of opi- nion, that it succeeds better in the more elevated, dryer, | from the want of specimens, to ascertain whether they and less fertile soil of Coromandel, than in Bengal. are entitled to the distinction, or should only be considered G. vitifolium is cultivated in Brazil, according to M. St. | varieties. 6, peruvianum, figured by Cavanilles, tab. 168, Hilaire, in the province of Mines, near Rio de Janeiro, | js nearly allied to his G. vitifolium, at tab. 167; and the and also in other parts, according to M,Gaudichaud. M., | seeds are black and free from fur. G.7racemosum is sup- Martius adduces, among the common plants of the province, posed to afford the cotton of Porto Rico. Specimens of this and some other species, as G. herbacewm and G. barba- | other species may be seen in the British Museum, which it dense, Without specimens or a full description, it is impos- | js difficult to know where to refer, as one from the Sand- sible to know to what plants these names refer, nor the | wich Islands, which is very large, with shining coriaceous plant which Dr. Roxburgh describes under this name, | leaves, and large entire cordate-acuminate leaflets of the having seed clothed with firmly-adhering short greenish | exterior calyx: flowers having a bilabiate appearance, with gray down, under the long fine white wool, respecting | 9 very long style. which, however, he himself appears uncertain, as he does not mention it in his enumeration of the number of distinct species he had been able to make out, Several other species are enumerated; but it is impossible, 23. BOMBACEZ. The Bombacee, closely allied in structure and properties to the last order, are chiefly. confined to the warmer parts of South America and the West Indies; but several species of Helicteres have been discovered by Dr. Wallich within the Burhmese territories, and others are found in China. In India, some of the same genera are found, but only a few species of each. Bombar Malabaricum referred to B. heptaphyllum by Dr. Rox- burgh, and Helicteres Isora, extend from one end of India to the other, particularly along the foot of the Himalaya. Eriodendrom anfractuosum is confined to the Peninsula, and Durio zibethinus, or Durian tree, remarkable for having fruit foetid in smell, and delicious in taste, is found only in Penang, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Adansonia digitata, an African plant, must have been long introduced into India, as large trees of it exist at Allahabad ; also in the Peninsula, and in the island of Ceylon. The plants of this family, allied to the Malvacee in structure, are equally so in properties, as many are mucilaginous, and the inner bark of others affords material for cordage ; while the silky cotton, which envelopes the seeds of Bomba, and some other genera, is employed in stuffing cushions and pillows, as it is unfit for the purposes of spinning. Several species of Bombax have, in the relations of travellers, been called the cotton-tree ; and hence some confusion has resulted, as these have been mistaken for the true tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum. The wood of Bombax malabaricum is white, light, and spongy, frequently used in India for floating rafts. An astringent gum-resin is yielded by this tree, called mochrus, which, as well as the young roots, called mooslee-suffed, are considered very strengthening. The natives of India, like those of Europe in former times, believing that external signs point out the properses a by plants, consider that the twisted fruit of Helicteres Tsora, soompi ine it is useful, and they therefore prescribe it in pains of the bowels. eect digitata, - — tree, though not a native, is quite at home in India. It is emollient and mucilaginous in all its parts. The leaves dried and reduced to powder, neces “mye mane daily by the Africans to diminish excessive perspiration. — seed slightly anh and agreeable, is frequently eaten, while the expressed juice, mixed with sugar, is valued as an antiseptic drink.—Hooker Bot. Mag. 2792. 24, ByTTNERIACE#. 102 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Byttneriacee. 24. BYTTNERIACEZ. This order, sometimes called Sterculiacee, includes plants agreeing in many respects among themselves, as well as with the following and the two last orders, but differing in some particulars so as to require subdivision into sections: they are chiefly found in the hot parts of Africa, America, and Asia. They extend as far north as 31° of lati- tude in India, and southward as far as New Holland and the Cape of Good Hope. _ The genera Sterculia, Byttneria, Pentapetes, Reidleia, Waltheria, and Melochia, are common to India, as well as to America, and the two first to other parts of the world; while Heretiera, Abroma, and Pterospermum, extend from the Moluccas and Indian Islands into the Peninsula, and southern parts of the province of Bengal. riolena, Wallichia, Microlena, and Kydia, are genera which have only been found in India; the last in every part, and the others in the forests which skirt Nepal and Kemaon. The species of Bytineriacee, which are found in the most northern parts of the plains of India, are Melochia. corchorifolia, an annual, which springs up during. the rainy season; Waltheria indica in the Deyra Doon; while of arboreous species, a yellow variety of Sterculia coccinea, S. villosa, and Kydia. calycina, are found in the tract of forest, which extends from Hurdwar to the Jumna, and as high as four thousand feet above the level of the sea, on the road from Rajpore toJurreepanee. But though the arboreous species are absent from the plains, those which have been intro- duced succeed remarkably well in the. Botanic Garden at Saharunpore; as Pteros- permum acerifolium, suberifolium and. semisagittatum, and. Abroma augusta ; the last would succeed in every part of India, as the climate of Saharunpore so far to the north is favour- able to it.. Guazuma ulmifolia, from America, is also now perfectly acclimated in many parts of India, as at Allahabad, and in the Saharunpore Botanic Garden. As the nearly allied order, JZalvacee, has. been shown to abound in, mucilage and in fibre useful for its tenacity, so. is it with many of the Bytineriacee, The young bark of Guazuma ulmifolia, abounding in mucilage, is used in Martinique to clarify sugar. The bark of Kydia. calycina is employed in the northern provinces of India for the same purpose, as well as Abelmoschus: moschatus, both abounding in mucilage. The gum Tragacanth, of Sierra Leone is produced, as we are informed by Dr. Lindley, by a species of Sterculia, which he has called S. Tragacantha. Sterculia urens, a native of the mountains on. the coast of Coromandel, as well as of Hindoosthan, yields a gum which is exceedingly like Zragacanth, and has been imported as such into England. ' Sterculia guttata yields a bark, which the Malabars convert into a flaxy substance, of which the natives of Wynaad make a sort of clothing. ord, Fl. Ind. 3. p. 149. Microlena spectabilis yields fibres fit for rope-making, and Abroma augusta abounds in strong white fibres, which make a good substitute for hemp, and as. the plant succeeds well in every part of India, grows quickly, and yields annually two, three, or even four crops of cuttings fit for peeling; it is particularly recommended by Dr. Roxburgh for cultivation. As the seeds of Ster¢ulia chicka are eaten by the Brazilians, so Tiliaceié?) © \THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 103 so are those of S. Balanghas, urens, and fetida, after being roasted, in India. The concrete oil, or buttery substance, called cacao, accompanied by an agreeable aromatic principle, yielded by the seed of Theobroma cacao, and from which chocolate is pre- pared, is too wéll known to require notice ; but it is not uninteresting to remark, that this plant thrives and bears fruit in the Botanic Garden of Calcutta, nearly in 225° of N. latitude, and that it succeeds: remarkably well at Courtallum in 9° of N. latitude. The: cultivation therefore may probably be undertaken with every prospect of success in shady places.in the Tinniyelly district. ) 95. TILIACER. _ The Ziliacee, though named from an, European timber-tree, are chiefly found in tropical countries. The genera Corchorus,. Triumfetta, and Grewia, of which numerous species are found in India, are also abundant in the warm parts both of Africa and America; and as has been remarked with the plants of some other families, many of the same species are found in the most widely separated parts of India. Grewia betule- folia, with Corchorus linearis and: fascicularis, extend from the Peninsula up to the arid région on the western bank of the Jumna, where a new species, C. prostratus, is also found. Corchorus capsularis and. acutangulus,. as, well, as Triumfetta angulata, are common, at Saharunpore, as in the’ most southern provinces. In the tract of jungle and forest, which: clothes the foot of the Himalaya, we have several of ‘the species which are found in similar situations in Bengal and Assam, as Triumfetta estuans, Grewia helicterifolia, titefolia, and. sapida, which is apparently the same as G. pumila, Don, and G. nana, Wall. Triumfetta oblongata extends as high as Jureepanee, or five thousand feet above the sea; and Corchorus humilis (nob) shews itself fifteen hundred feet higher up, but both only during the rainy season. Grewia sclerophylla, didyma, oppositifolia, and elastica, are found in the Kheree Pass, in the Doon, as well as higher up within the Himalaya, particularly in: the neighbourhood of villages. As we have seen with the Malvacee, and the other allied orders, so are the Tiliacee remarkable for mucilaginous properties, as well as for tenacity of fibre; and several species of the genus Grewia have pleasantly-tasted acid berries, as was found among the Malvacee, in the fruit. of Hibiscus. Sabdariffa. Corchorus, olitorius is in India, as in Egypt, used as a pot-herb, and is in Bengal cultivated:for the fibres of the bark, which are called jute and pat. C. capsularis is likewise cultivated in Bengal as in China, for the same purpose. Its. fibres, as well as those of. C. olitorius, are employed, in making a coarse kind of cloth, called tat, of which gunny, or rice-bags, are made; also a coarse kind of linen worn by the poorer people in some parts of Bengal; as we are informed by Dr. B. Hamilton; of it also the cordage employed in agriculture, and for rigging boats, is formed, and itis the material from which paper 1s made. The inner bark of Grewia oppositifolia, as that of Tilia, or lime-tree, is in Europe, is employed. for the same purposes, at lower elevations within the Himalaya; and the leaves of some species, 104 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Tiliacee. species, as of G. didyma, are given as fodder to cattle, and are even stacked up for winter use. As the wood of the limé-tree is valued for its close grain, lightness, and smoothness, so Berria Amomnilla, or Trincomalee wood-tree, affords timber, valued also for its lightness and strength, and is employed in the construction of the excellent Massoola boats of Madras. Grewia elastica, figured at Pl. 22, called dhamnoo by the natives, and common in the Himalayas in northern latitudes, at moderate elevations, affords timber which is highly valued for its strength and elasticity, and therefore much used for bows, buggy shafts, and bangy sticks. Some of the species of Grewia, as before mentioned, yield pleasant acid berries, much used for making sherbet. Of these, G. asiatica may be instanced as common in gardens; but G. sapida, helecterifolia, sclerophylla, and others, are used for the same purpose. Grewia elastica; foliis 5-nerviis ovatis acuminatis sepe subtrilobatis serratis, supra stellato-pilosis subtus stellato-tomentosis canis transversim reticulatis, pedunculis 3-floris petiolo longioribus, sepalis I-nerviis petala triplo superantibus.—Hab. This tree is common in the Himalayas, in the tract between the Ganges and Sutlej rivers, and well known, as above mentioned, for the elasticity of its timber, whence the specific name has been applied. It attains a height of from fifteen to twenty feet, the older branches smooth, the younger densely hoary or rufous, with stellate pubescence. Leaves ovate-acuminate, frequently tapering towards and unequal at the base, sometimes obscurely 3-lobed towards the apex. Petioles short, thickened towards the apex. Stipules subulate, very hairy. Peduneles lateral or axillary, solitary or aggregated, twice as long as petioles, hoary as all the young parts, 3-flowered, each pedicel supported by a subulate bracte. Alabastra globose, hoary. Sepals coriaceous, hoary externally, coloured and rather smooth internally. Petais small, oblong, smooth. Stamens very numerous. Germ very hairy, 4celled. v. Tab. 22. Grewia elastica.—1. A flower.—2. The same, with the sepals and petals separated.—3. Anther magnified.—4. 'T'wo ripe drupes.—5. One cut transversely, contain- ing, by abortion, two nuts.—6. Another, containing only one nut. 26. HUGONIACEZ. Hugonia temporarily placed at the end of Chlenacee by M. De Candolle, has been formed into a separate order by Dr.Wight and Mr. Arnott. The three known species of the genus are distributed between the island of Mauritius and that of Ceylon; the one, H. mystar, found in the latter, extends into the coast of Malabar, but not higher up in India. : 27. ELZEOCARPEZ. This family, formed of few genera, but which are distributed over a very extensive space, being found in Penang, Cochin-china, and the Moluccas, in New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand, as well as in Chili and Peru, has several spe- cies of the genus Elgocarpus in India, which has itself the distribution of the order in the Old World. The Indian species are found in the Peninsula and from the Burhmese territories, along the foot of the Himalayas, and one species, EZ. serratus, as far north as the province of Kemaon; but [ have not met with it, or any other species, to the northward of the Ganges. The name ju/pai, or olive, is applied to the fruit of some species of E/@ocarpus, which is eaten ; while that of others is dried and used in the curries of the natives of India, and also pickled, according to Dr. Roxburgh, though he mentions having been unable to extract Dipterocarpex.| THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 105 extract any oil from the fruit. The hard ‘and dry, deeply-grooved and elegantly- sculptured seeds of this genus, particularly of the species E. ganitrus, tuberculatus, and lanceolatus, are frequently worn as beads, by the holy men in India; and set in gold, are sometimes even sold as ornaments in shops in Europe. 28. ‘DIPTEROCARPER.. The existence of this order was first indicated by the junior Gertner, who described and figured together the genera Shorea, Dipterocarpus, and Dryobalanops, pointing out their close affinity to one other, as well as to his father’s Caryolobis. . Dr. Roxburgh also fully recognized its distinctness ; and in addition to the two first, referred to it his Hopea, as well as Vateria of Linneus. The order he named Shoreace@, but his work having remained so many years in manuscript, the name Dipterocarpee was applied by Blume, and has been generally received. This order is readily recognised by the fruit being surrounded by the dilated, foliaceous, frequently unequal calyx : it has been shewn by Blume and Dr. Lindley to be allied to Malvaceae, by its crumpled cotyledons, and the contorted estivation of the corolla ; in the latter respect, it is allied to Bombacee, but may be readily distinguished from both by its calyx not being valved, a8 well as by its free filaments, two-celled subulate anthers opening towards the apex, and by the coriaceous one-celled fruit, From Byttneriacee it is only distinguished by the imbricate estivation of the calyx, free stamens, and inverse embryo ; approaches Tiliacee in the free stamens and stipulate leaves, and Eleocarpee in habit and in the form of the anther, but may be distinguished by its petals not being fringed, and by the want of albumen. Their resinous juice, solitary superior ovarium, drupaceous fruit, numerous long anthers, irregular-coloured calyx, and single exalbuminous seed, allies them, as Blume remarks, to Guttifere, from which their stipule and the estiva- tion of the corolla abundantly distinguishes them. . (Lindl. Nat. Syst.of Botany, p.42.) _ Dr. Lindley includes them in his Nixus, Malvales, with Byttneriacea, Malvaceae, (of which Bombacee is considered a section), El@ocarpee and Tiliacee: Mr. Don places them near Ochnacee. The dilated persistent leaflets of the calyx seem to be useful in preventing the seed sinking into the ground, as those of Shorea robusta will not germi- nate, unless kept near the surface. The distribution of this order is peculiarly Aeaks, almost Salers pA i from the line up to 31° of northern latitude. Caryolobis is only referred to the East Indies. The genera Dryobalanops and Dipterocarpus are found, the first only in Sumatra, and the second, though occurring in Java, is also found in India, with Shorea, Hopea, and Vateria; the two latter only in the peninsula of India, though the first is mentioned by Dr, Roxburgh as occurring in the Balaghaut Mountains, but all three, with Dipterocarpee, in the lower provinces of Bengal, such as Tippera and Chittagong, whence, with the exception of Vateria, they extend southwards into the Buffhese territories and the Malayan peninsula. Shorea robusta alone extends to the most northern distribution of the order, being found all along the foot of the Himalaya, P to 106 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Dipterocarpee. to the neighbourhood of the Jumna, forming vast forests, frequently unmixed with any other tree, but generally confined in the most northern parts within the first range of hills. The trees of this family are conspicuous for their size, beauty, and for the excellent timber which most of them afford—Shorea robusta or Sal affording the best and most extensively-used timber in India; the goodness of which must depend in a great measure on the resin, called ral in the northern, and dhoona in the southern provinces, which it contains, and for which so many of the family are conspicuous. Dryobalanops Camphora, the Shorea Camphorifera of Dr. Roxburgh, is, perhaps, the most remarkable species of the order, as it affords both the camphor and camphor-oil of Borneo and Sumatra. Mr. Prince, of Tappanooly, on the western coast of the latter island, writes that this tree grows spontaneously in the forests, and is to be found in abundance from the back of Ayers Bongry as far north as Bacongan, a distance of twenty-five miles. It is one of the largest trees that grows on that coast, several being six or seven, others only two and a-half feet in diameter. The same tree which yields the oil, would have produced camphor, if unmolested; the former being supposed to be the first stage of the latter’s forming, and is consequently found in younger trees (Rozb. Fl. Ind.*2. p: 616.) This camphor is highly valued by the Chinese, as we learn from the writings of Sir G. Staunton and Dr. Abel. By Mr. C. Groves I was informed that they actually give a higher price for it in its coarse state, than they afterwards sell it for when purified. This is confirmed by what Sir G. Staunton relates, that ‘‘ owing to the Borneo camphor being so pure and strong, as readily to communicate its odour and virtues to other inspissated oils, which thus pass for real camphor; and this adulterated drug is sold by Chinese artists, at a vastly lower price than they themselves give for the genuine substance from Borneo.” (Staunton. Trav. vol. ili. p. 289.) This can be accounted for, only by supposing that they dilute it, when purifying, by subliming it with their own camphor, obtained by the sublimation of the substance procured from the maceration and decoction of the branches of Laurus Camphora; of this the timber is too valuable to allow of its being cut up for the much purer and stronger camphor, which it contains in a solid state. | As many of the Dipterocarpee might, without doubt, be extensively introduced either as timber-trees, or for the products which they yield, into the southern provinces of India, I annex the remarks which Mr. Colebrooke has subjoined to his paper on Dryobalanops Camphora. By this able summing up of details, appa- rently taken from Dr. Roxburgh’s manuscripts, it will be seen that this philosophical botanist early appreciated the advantages of studying the properties of all the plants of a natural order, in conjunction with their structure. “Shorea robusta and Tumbugaia,” Mr.Colebrooke remarks, ‘‘and aaa other species of the genus, yield in great abundance the resin, called by the Hindoostanees dhoona, and by the English, in India, dammer, which is very generally used as a gps 8] pitch for marine purposes. The natives of India also employ it in their temples, in the manner of incense. Dipterocarpus costatus, turbinatus, incanus, alatus, and probably other Zernstreemiacea. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 107 other species of the genus, afford the several. sorts of balsam, called by the natives of India gurjun; by the Cinghalese dhoonatil; and by the English wood-oil. Vateria indica produces the resin in India called copal, (in England known by the name of gum anime,) as very nearly approaching the true resin of that name. The best specimens are employed as ornaments, under the denomination of amber (kahroba), to which it bears external resemblance : in its recent and fluid state it is used as a varnish (called Piney varnish) in the south of India (Buchanan's. Mysore, ii. p. 476,) and dissolved by heat, in closed vessels, is employed for the same purpose in other parts of India. Another plant of the same genus, V. lanceefolia, affords a resin, from which the Indians prepare one of the materials of their religious oblations.” (As. Res. xii p. 539.) 29. TERNSTROEMIACER. _ This order, with Camelliee, first formed by Messrs. De Candolle and Mirbel, of some genera separated from Jussieu’s Aurantia, was subdivided by the former into several sections, Dr. Lindley, however, states that ‘‘no solid difference exists between this order and Camelliee, the Theaceé of Mirbel; and Cambessedes, after a careful revision of the whole, has come to the conclusion, that even the sections proposed by De Can- dolle among Ternstremiacee, are untenable.” As this opinion appears to me the most correct, I have followed the two latter authors in uniting the two orders. The geographical distribution of this order is particularly interesting, on account of its containing a plant, which, scarcely known a century ago, has given rise to a most extensive commerce, and changed the habits of the most civilized nations, who hardly, in any other respect, agree with the people from whom they receive, and follow in the use of the refreshing beverage, afforded by the leaf of the tea-plant. This order, numerous in genera, though few of these are very abundant in species, is confined to the warm parts of Asia and America, with only one genus ( Ventenatia) of doubtful affinity, consisting of but a single species existing in Africa, The Asiatic species are chiefly confined to China and the mountains which form a barrier between it and India; and as there is considerable resemblance it will be seen between the cultivation of the plains, so is there no less analogy in the vegetation of the mountains of the two countries; and this order is well suited to prove the point. The genera Camellia and Thea, forming the Camellice of De Candolle, and Zheacee of Mirbel, distinguished from Fernstremiacee on account of the seeds being destitute of albumen, were at one time considered exclusively Chinese. Species of the former were originally found in China and Japan. C. Japonica was figured by Kempfer at p. 851; C. Sasanqua by Thunberg, in t. 29, in their Floras of Japan ; and C. oleifera by Dr. Abel, in his Journey in China, at p.174. In addition to the original Chinese species, others have been discovered in India, where species have been found by Drs.Wallich and Buchanan in the mountains near Munnipoor, Pundua, and Silhet, about 24° of N. latitude; and one species, Camellia Kissi, in the mountains surrounding the valley of Nepal, between 27° and 28° of N. latitude, which is figured p2 at 108 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Ternstreemiacea. at t. 256 of Dr.Wallich’s magnificent work, Plante Asiatice Rariores. The genus Thea, which is itself referred by some botanists to Camellia, is almost exclusively confined to China and Japan, and some of the neighbouring islands; but consisting chiefly of cultivated plants, it is difficult to ascertain the native country of the genus. . With respect to the distribution of the other genera of this order; Cleyera and Eurya were both thought peculiar to China; but of the former, the variety Wallichiana of C. ochnacea has been found in Nepal, the other variety Kempferiana, is figured in Sir Joseph Banks’s plates of Kempfer’s plants; and C. Japonica, in Kempfer’s own work, at p. 774. So also Ewrya, of which the two first known species were found, the one in Japan, figured by Thunberg, tab. 25; and the other in China, figured in Dr. Abel’s Journey, p. 378, has also afforded several Himalayan species, of which E. acuminata is figured at tab. 24 of the present work, occurring at an elevation of 6,500 feet, in 30° of N. latitude, near pines, and among oaks and thododendrons ; the rest of the species extend along the Himalaya, in Kemaon, Nepal, and the mountains of Silhet and Pundua. Species are also found in both the Indian and Malayan peninsulas, as well as in the island of Penang. Dr.Wallich’s new genus Anneslea (Pl. As. Rar. t. 5), allied to Cleyera, is found at Moulmein. The genera Saurauja, Gordonia, and Cochlospermum, are. divided between India and America. 5S. Nepalensis (Pl. As. t. 148) extends as far north as Eurya acuminata, but is found at lower elevations, as about Sahunsadhara, near the Deyra Doon, whence it extends with S. fastigiata (Pl. As. t.178) to Kemaon and Nepal. The other Asiatic species are found in Silhet, Penang, and Java, and the American species in Mexico. Cochlospermum, of which one species is found in Merico and Brazil, has another, which is found in all the ‘hilly parts of India. This, C. gossypium, D.C. (Bombar gossypium of authors) Dr.Wight has figured (Suppl. Hooker’s Fl. Exot. P|. xviii.) from a drawing made in the “Peninsula; Dr. Roxburgh describes it as common in the Circar Mountains; I have seen it. in abundance in Bundlecund, on the hills round and near Adjigurh and Kallinjur, as well as on those near Hurdwar and the Kheree Pass. The genus Gordonia, of which species exist in Jamaica, as well as in Virginia and Carolina, has also one species, G. Wallichii, in Nepal, Silhet, and Chittagong; and others in the Malayan Peninsula. Several other plants from the Malayan Peninsula have been referred, but all with doubt, to the genus Zernstremia, from which the order is named, and of which the species are found in the warm parts of America. _ The properties, with the exception of those of tea, are not well known of the plants of this family. The leaves of the tea-plant, owing to the tannin and gallic acid which they contain, are tonic and astringent, while the fragrant volatile principle which they likewise contain, makes them act as ‘stimulants, and be injurious to some eonstitutions ; though affording a highly grateful and refreshing beverage to the gene- rality of people. The leaves of Thea Cochinchinensis are likewise used to make a warm and diluent beverage. The seeds of the common tea-plants contain much oil, but it is expressed only from those of 7". oleosa, and used in Canton and Macao for many economical Thea.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. . 109 economical purposes. In like manner some species of Camellia, as C. drupifera, in Cochin-china, and. C. oleifera, extensively cultivated in China, yield, especially the latter, a valuable esculent oil. Camellia Japonica is chiefly known as one of the most ornamental of plants; but C. Sasangua is said by Thunberg to have leaves with a very agreeable odour, which are sometimes mixed with tea to improve its flavour. So also. the Nepal Camellia, C. kissi, is conspicuous for the oiliness of its seed, and for - the leaves acquiring on being dried the peculiar fragrance of tea. ( Wallich. As. Res. xiii. p. 429.) The seeds of Cochlospermum Gossypium are surrounded with cotton of a soft silky nature, and the tree yields the gum called kuteera, which in the north-western provinces of India is substituted for tragacanth: a decoction of the roots of C. insigne is supposed in Brazil to have the power of healing internal abscesses. (Lindl. Nat. Orders, p. 44.) , . But of all those which belong to this family, the Tea-Panr is alone of any commer- cial importance, but this in so pre-eminent a degree as to render it a most desirable acquisition to other countries. An inquiry into its history and habits therefore becomes interesting, that we may ascertain whether it be so local and peculiar in its nature, as to render futile any attempt to introduce it elsewhere. To do this satisfactorily, it will be necessary to enter into some detail, respecting the varieties or species which afford the different teas of commerce, the extent of their distribution, the climate, soil and culture, which they prefer, as well as the plants with which they are associated, either in a wild or cultivated state. i _) The tea-plant has been supposed to be indigenous in the mountains which separate China from the Burmese. territories ; but we are informed by Dr. Abel that he found a small shrub, of what is commonly considered the green variety, apparently in its natural habitat, and near no plantation, at See-chou, in the province of Kiang-see about N. lat. 26°, where the hills were covered with pines. Thunberg states that tea grows every where in Japan, both naturally (sponte) and cultivated, on the margins of fields. One species, so named, is described by Loureiro, as found both cultivated and in a wild state, in the northern provinces of Cochin-china; and the same author describes 7. oleosa as common about Canton, both wild and cultivated. . To the kind- ness of Mr. Reeves, I am indebted for the information that there is a species of Thea, growing wild in the neighbourhood of Macao, which is much larger in the leaf than either the black or. green tea plants. af f-gi- sail 7 _ But it has been made a question, whether the varieties of tea known in commerce are due to difference in species, or only to differences in soil, climate, culture, and mode of preparation. The latter appears to be the opinion of Kempfer, Thunberg, and Siebold, as they admit of but one species of Zhea, and is that now generally entertained; Thunberg notices two varieties of Thea bohea, but says they can hardly be distinguished into species. Siebold states that the variety viridis of T. chinensis, D.C.., is a shrub every where cultivated in Japan; but the variety bohea he had only seen in gardens, introduced from China. From this fact one would be inclined to conclude that 110 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. that they were distinct; and as all the observations were made in Japan, it is pro- bable they all three only saw one species cultivated there: as there is reason for believing, that the opinion of Linneus that two species of Thea yield the teas of com- merce, is the more correct. Dr. Abel, when passing through the tea country, had little doubt of there being two species of tea-plant; but he could not at the time define the character, and was unfortunate in losing his specimens in the shipwreck of the Alceste. But he mentions that the plants from the black and green tea-districts differed in the form, colour, and texture of their leaves; those of the green tea being larger, thinner, and of a lighter colour than those of the black, though growing in the same soil : these differences he also observed in a large plantation near Macao. Dr. Hooker, in the Botanical Magazine, t. 3148, has given the characters of the two species. Thea viridis, which is the species figured, he describes as “a large, strong-growing, almost hardy, plant, with spreading branches ; its leaves three to five inches long, very broadly lanceolate, pale green, sin- gularly waved, with the margin reflexed ; the flowers large, solitary, mostly confined to the upper axil. These appear in autumn, six weeks or two months earlier than those of T. Bohea, which is of smaller size, with remarkably erect stiff branches ; leaves not above half or two-thirds the size of the former, perfectly flat, more coriaceous, of a dark green, bearing in the axils of numerous leaves two or three flowers, which are smaller, and have a slight fragrance ; and are in perfection during winter. This plant cannot withstand the frosts of an English climate.” Mr. Reeves, whose opinions, from his long residence in China, and attention to subjects of natural history, are entitled to the greatest weight, is the most recent author who has referred to this subject; and he expresses his surprise ‘‘ that any person who has been in China, or, indeed, any one who has seen the difference in the colour of the infusions of black and greea tea, could suppose for a moment that they were the produce of the same plant, differing only in the mode of curing; particularly as they do not etow in the neighbourhood of each other.” (Loudon’s Gard. Mag., v. ix. p. 713.) To this opinion, it will be seen, he still adheres, as in a letter with which I have been favoured, he informs me that he believes that the Thea viridis of the gardens is the plant from which the green tea of commerce is prepared, and that the plant which produces the black tea of commerce, as souchong, congou, &c., is not so common in England. Both may be seen in great perfection in the Messrs. Loddige’s rich and extensive nursery- grounds at Hackney,where a green-tea plant has lived for many years in the open air. The first impression on seeing them, is that of surprise at their ever having been confounded; as nothing can be more distinct, than the large, membranous, light green, wavy leaf, with large and irregular serratures, and straggling habit of the green-tea plant, from the smaller, flat, thick and coriaceous, dark green leaf, with small and even serratures, and erect port of the black tea. Both plants have been figured in Loddige’s Bot. Cab. t. 226 and 227, and the characters well given, as also in the above extract from Dr. Hooker. I would only add, that the flowers, though commonly, are not always single in the axils of * Thea. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 111 of Thea viridis; and this, though earlier in flowering, is not so much so as described. The green tea being the hardier, is cultivated, as we shall see, in the northern, and the black tea in the southern provinces of China. The former is the only kind cultivated in Japan, according to Siebold, and is that figured by Keempfer, Amen. Erot., p. 607. Notwithstanding the above opinions, and the distinctness in the characters of the two species, as above given, there is an unaccountable discrepancy in the statements, as to the plants which afford the green and black teas of commerce, especially as Dr. Abel, after giving his opinion that there were two species of tea-plant, mentions that ‘* from persons perfectly conversant with the Chinese method, he learnt that either of the two plants will afford the black or green tea of the shops; but that the broad thin-leaved plant is preferred for making the green tea.” (Journ. to China, p. 222.) This is in conformity with the information communicated to Dr. Hooker, and also with that originally given by Mr. Pigou (As. An. Reg. 1802), on the authority of a Chinese, who had been eight times in the bohea country, remaining there from four to six.months each time, and who stated that ‘* bohea may be cured as hyson, and hyson as bohea.” To this Mr. Reeves replies in the letter to which I have alluded, that ‘“ the Chinese manufacturers do not, and they say they cannot convert black tea into green, and vice versa: and this I believe to be true; indeed, the colour of the infusions is alone sufficient evidence.” The discrepancy in the information Mr. Reeves explains, by adding, that “*there is a species of tea grown in the province of Canton of a pale-coloured leaf (occasionally mixed with congou tea, to make the tea imported under the name of. bohea), and this tea ean be coloured and made up to imitate various qualities of green tea, and large quantities are yearly thus made ; but still it is only an appearance that can be given; the deception is detected as soon as it is put into water.” Owing no doubt to these mixtures, is the difficulty in detecting the two kinds of leaf in the teas of commerce ; but in good teas they may be distinctly recognised. Dr. Abel’s information having been obtained from hearsay at Canton, most probably refers to the kind described by Mr. Reeves, as he most particularly distinguishes, and lays down on his map, the green and black tea districts ; but arguing upon the correctness of the information he had obtained, concludes that the differences observed may be produced by a due manage- ment of the heat used in drying the plant. Mr. Millet’s account, Mr. Reeves says, he himself knows refers to some of this tea. Be A very important consideration being to ascertain the climates in which the tea-plants are chiefly cultivated, it is necessary, in the first instance, to determine the extent over which they are distributed, before we can form any idea of the degree of heat and cold to which they are subjected. Dr. Abel states, that “the green-tea district in the province of Keang-nan is embraced between the 29th and 3l1st degrees of north latitude, and is situated on the north-western base of a ridge of mountains, which divides the provinces of Che-kiang and Keang-nan. The biack-tea district, in the province of Fokien, ‘s contained within the 27th and 28th degrees of north latitude, and is situated on the south-eastern declivities of a ridge of mountains, dividing the province of Fokien from that 112 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF (Thea. that of Keang-see.” p. 223. Hence we perceive that the tea districts have both a north- western and a south-eastern aspect, and that Dr. Hooker’s statement that the Thea viridis is able to withstand the greater degree of cold, is confirmed by the fact of the green teas being procured from the more northern latitudes. This has reference to the teas usually manufactured for foreign trade, and is conformable to the information given by Mr. Reeves (Bot. Mag. 1. c.), who states that ‘‘ the black teas are chiefly grown in the N.W. corner of the province of Fokien, in about lat. 27° 50’, long. 1° 30’ E. of Peking, and the green tea in the southern part of Keang-nan province, about lat. - 29° 58’, long. 2° E. of Peking.” At Hwuy-chow-Foo in the latter, the greater proportion of hyson and twankay is manufactured, and the black teas at Gan-ki-hien in Fokien. By Mr. Reeves I am further informed, that in a Chinese Herbal, in which the plants used in medicine are described, tea is said to be produced (among other places to the northward of 31°) in nine places in Hoo-Qwang, three places in Ho-Nan, one place in Shensi, and two places in Shan-tung; one of these latter, and the most northward of the whole is Tang-chow-Foo, in 36° 30’ north latitude. From Kempfer, Thunberg, “and Siebold, we learn that the tea-plant is extensively cultivated in the islands which form the Japanese territory ; and these extend from 30° to 41° of north latitude. It is also cultivated in the southern province of Yunan, whence we learn from Du Halde and Sir G. Staunton, the tea is procured, which is made up into balls; and likewise at Ho-ping in the province of Quang-tung; Dr.Wallich further mentions, that it is also cultivated in Cochin-china, as far south as 17° of north latitude. But as from the information obtained by Sir G. Staunton, we learn that the tea-plant thrives best between 234° and 30°, and as the principal cultivation of the best teas for the foreign trade is between 27° and 31° of north latitude, the space included between these forms a belt, which will serve as a criterion of the soil and climate best suited to this plant. With respect to the former, Dr. Abel gives the only precise information I have been able to obtain, and he states that from every account given of the tea-plant, it succeeds best on the sides of mountains, where there can be but little accumulation of vegetable mould. The plantations which he saw were always at some elevation above the plains, in a kind of gravelly soil, formed in some places by disintegrated sandstone, and in others by the debris of primitive rocks. A large and flourishing plantation of all the varieties of the plant brought together by Mr. Ball, the principal tea-inspector at Canton, is situated on an island close to Macao, in a loose gravelly soil, formed by the disintegration of large grained granite. ‘‘ Judging from specimens,” Dr. Abel continues, “ collected in our route through the province of Keang-nan, whence the green tea is procured, its rocks consist chiefly of sandstone, schistus, and granite. As to what may be the exact nature of the rocks of the black tea country in the province of Fokien, I have no precise information. But as the great ridge separating that province from Keang-si is a continuation of the one dividing the latter from Canton, it is perhaps legitimate to conclude, that their con- stituent rocks are the same; and that the hills and soil on the eastern are the same as we Thea. | .THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 113 *. we found them on the western side of the ridge, or that they are covered by a soil like that in which the Camellia flourishes.” (Adel, p- 224.) This is most likely to be the case, as Sir G. Staunton states, that a chain of granite mountains begins at Hang- choo-foo, with a direction to the southward, and that vast tracts of hilly land are planted with tea in the province of Fokien. Mr. Reeves, from the views he has of Soo-Ei-Shan, where the best black teas are grown, suspects that the hills are schistose. With regard to the climate of this tract of country, or that best suited to the cultivation of the tea-plants, we are without precise information, as no one competent to make observations has resided throughout the year in the principal tea districts; but the approximative results we are able to obtain will perhaps be sufficient for practical purposes, particularly if connected with a view of the vegetation. In the first place, if we look at the tables which have been calculated, and those of Mr. Harvey are the latest, we shall find the probable mean temperatures of Canton, of the parallels of latitude of 29° and of 31°, as well as of Pekin, to be 74.73° ; 72.62°; 69.86°; and 62.43° respectively. But it is desirable to have these theoretical results confirmed by practical observations, especially as temperature is not invariably found to go along with latitude, particularly with regard to the eastern and western sides of continents. This the illustrious Humboldt has long ago shewn in his paper on Isothermal lines: where he has remarked that ‘‘ the whole of Europe, compared with the eastern and western parts of America and Asia, has an insular climate, and upon the same isothermal line, the summer becomes warmer, and the winters colder, in proportion as we advance from the meridian of Mont Blanc towards the east or the west ; the western parts of ail continents are not only warmer at equal latitudes than the eastern, but even in the zones of equal annual temperature, the winters are more rigorous, and the summers hotter on the eastern, than upon the western coasts of the two continents. The northern part of China, like the Atlantic region of the United States, exhibits excessive climates (as Buffon indicated) and seasons strongly contrasted, while the coasts of New California and the embouchure of the Columbia, have winters and summers almost equally temperate. Thus we find at New York, the summer of Rome and the winter of Copenhagen ; at Quebec, the summer of Paris and the winter of Petersburgh. In China, at Pekin, for example, where the mean temperature of the year is that of the coasts of Brittany, the scorching heats of summer are greater than at Cairo, and the winters as rigorous as at Upsal.” These results have been deduced by their illustrious author from the observations of Amyot, which were carried on for a period of six years : by these it appears, that Pekin, in-N. lat. 39° 54’ and E. long. 116° 27’, and at the level of the ocean, has an annual mean temperature of 54° 9, that of the warmest month being 84° 38’, and of the coldest 24° 62’; while the mean temperature of the three winter months is 26° 42’. The severity of the cold may be judged of by this, and by the thermometer sometimes falling, it is said, as low as 63° below zero, as well as by the great thickness of the ice with which the rivers are frozen over. The summer is as warm as that at Naples, with a mean temperature of 82° 58, and the greatest Q heat 114 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. . heat as high it is said as 121°. The mean temperature of the three spring months is 56.30°, and of those of autumn 54.32°, but it frequently freezes in both March and November; the mean temperature, however, of seven months is above 51.8°, or that of the months in which trees vegetate that lose their foliage. The temperature of the spring months being of March 41.4°, of April 57.0°, of May 70.3°, and of June 84,2°: the increase of the vernal temperature and the differences between these four months are seen to be very great, and very equal (15.7°, 13.3°, and 13.9°) as charac- teristic of climates where the division of the annual heat between the seasons is very unequal (Humboldt on Isothermal lines. Brewst. Journal, vol. iii. iv.) In some works it is stated that there are properly only two seasons at Pekin, summer and winter, or the seasons of snow and rain. The months of June, July, and August, are stated to be very rainy, and the average of rainy days to be fifty-eight. The climate of the northern provinces must, however, be considered a dry one, as we learn, from both Sir G. Staunton and Dr. Abel, that large stacks of salt are left in the open air, on the banks of the Pei-ho, covered only by bamboo matting under a coating of clay. The showers are described as being light ; no indications of a damp atmosphere are mentioned, but heavy dews occur in the evening. The season in which China was visited by Lord Macartney’s embassy was peculiarly dry, as it is mentioned that from July to November scarcely a shower had fallen, and the country had been traversed from Zhehol to 30° of N. latitude. Lord Amhert’s embassy also, which arrived on the Pei-ho on the 12th of August, had hardly any rain until the beginning of November, when they had got into the teacountry. Le Compte also mentions a drought which had continued for five months in the year he arrived in China. The foregoing view of the climate of Pekin, though more severe than what the tea-plant is subjected to, will serve as an approach to a true estimate of the extremes of temperature which it is capable of bearing, as it is cultivated in 363° north, and also in Japan. As an indication of a southern climate where the tea-plant is cultivated, and the only one of which we have any account, it will be useful to refer to the following view of the climate of Canton furnished by Mr. Reeves to Dr. Lindley. I have deduced the mean temperatures from the maxima and minima, the results, therefore, though somewhat too low, cannot be very far from the truth. The range of the thermometer, and its means in the several months at Canton, are: in Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Maxima 74 78 82 86 88 90 94 90 88 85 80 70 Minima 29 oe 00. Oe 6 16 10 Ot: a ae Means 515 58 63 70.5 76 82 86.5 825 79 71 60 57.5 ... 69.7 Mean annual temperature. The cold weather months, or from November to February, are fine, dry, and bracing, with a range of the thermometer from noon to night of 10° and 20°, the prevailing winds being N. and N.E. February is cold and rainy, March warm and foggy. In April and May the weather is warm, but pleasant, with variable winds, chiefly from the S. and 8.E. In June and July there are often heavy showers with thunder, lightning, and Thea.) THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 115 and occasionally typhons. During these two months and in August, the thermometer attains its highest elevation, but seldom exceeds 90°. The heat, however, is very oppressive to many ; for at the latter part of this period, when the wind is westerly, there is little variation of the thermometer night or day, a sufficient indication of the . moisture of the climate during this season. It would be desirable to know the quantity of rain which falls, but the only register that I have met with is one kept at Macao, and appended to the above thermometrical register of Canton. The climate is much the same in the two places, with the exception of a much smaller range of the thermometer at Macao, as might be expected ‘nan insular climate ; for though the heats are nearly as great in the warm months, the fall of the thermometer at night and in winter is much less. The quantity of rain which falls at Macao, on an average of eighteen years, is about 694 inches annually—107 inches is the largest, and 49 the smallest quantity which fell in any year. Some rain generally falls in almost every month, though comparatively little from November to March ; about five inches in both April and October, and about ten inches in each of the months from May to September, both included. If we compare the climate of Canton with that of Calcutta, which is not a degree to the southward, we shall find that with a maximum temperature of 93.6°, 3.6° above that recorded at Canton, the minimum is only 56.8°, being 27.8° above that at Canton; and while the mean temperature of the latter is 69.7° (74° according to some), that at Calcutta is above 78°. : But as a great part of China, with a portion of the tea districts, has been traversed by the two British embassies, it will be useful to refer to the thermometrical observations which were made, though only for a short period of the year. The only meteorological register saved from the shipwreck of the Alceste, was that kept by Dr. Lynn during Dr. Abel’s illness, from the 8th September to the 24th of November, that is, from Tiensing, near lat. 39°, to Nanchang-foo, about lat. 28° 40’, which is about the northern extent of the black tea, and the southern limit of the green-tea district. Previous to this, and while at Tung-chow, nearly in N. lat. 40°, Dr. Abel observes, that Fahrenheit’s thermometer from 20th August to the 2d of September, frequently stood in the shade during the day at 88°, rose once to 93°, and never fell below 83°, In the night it generally fell to 72° and 70°, and the weather felt chilly. From the above register, it appears that the range of the thermometer was: in the ° Morning. Noon. Evening. Province of Pechelee from 8th to 15th Sept. CW TT 82° ... 76° to 80° (1) +, Shantung ... 16th Sept. to2d Oct. 54 — 64 72 — 80 ...66 to77 Keangnan~.. 3d to 18th Oct. 54 — G5 cee ee G5 — TO wee ove to 70 ae... 6 end Oct. 56 — 62 «+ ++ 60 — 72 Ditto, ons: oma in. tolth Bw 08 on wo, 0476 first met with Kiangsee «-. = :18th Noe. 8h Se ce, OS (1I)A month later in the season, Lord Macartney’s embassy had found the thermometer at Tien-Sing varying from 40° in the morning to 80° at noon. Q 2 If 116 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. if we compare the range of the thermometer in the two latter periods, or during the month of November, when the embassy passed from 31° to 28° 40° of N. latitude, as before, with some place in India, we shall find that Saharunpore, in lat. 30°, and elevated 1,000 feet, approximates in climate during this month, as the thermometer ranges from 45° to 55° in the mornings, and from 60° to 84° at the hottest time of the day, which is always, at least, two hours after noon. If we suppose the decrease of temperature to be only equal to what takes place at Saharunpore, we shall have a mean temperature of 52° in the coldest month, January; with the thermometer some- times down to the freezing point, and ranging up to 65° in the warmest part of the day: but the extremes we know must be greater from what takes place both at Canton and Pekin, on account of the eastern exposure of China. This is confirmed by Mr. Reeves, who informs me, that ‘‘ snow has been on the ground for days together upon the green teas, and the manufacturers of the black tea complain of the coldness of their country at times.” With respect to moisture, we have seen that the largest pro- portion of rain falls at and near Canton, while the sun is in the neighbourhood of the tropic of Cancer; so that there may be said to be a rainy season there, though not so decidedly as in Bengal; and Mr. Reeves has known the black-tea manufacturers com- plain ‘‘ that their first picking (in May and J une), often suffers from rain, and cold easterly winds.”’ 3 These few indications of the climate being premised, it would be interesting to con- nect with them a precise idea of the vegetation; but this is hardly attainable, as so little is known of the interior of China, from the want of competent observers of the localities of plants; but there is. no doubt that the vegetation must differ in the northern and southern provinces, and also, where these consist of elevated lands or of plain country. From Du, Halde, and the progress of the British embassies through the provinces of Pe-che-lee, Shan-tung, and, the northern portion of Kiang-nan, we learn that from Tien-sing nearly to, Nankin, or from N. lat. 39° to about N. lat. 32°, and in a S.E. direction to the termination of the grand canal at Hang-cheu-foo, the country consists of level and extensive alluvial plains, rich and highly cultivated; intersected by numérous rivers and canals, and:covered in some places with extensive swamps and broad lakes. In the most northern parts of this. tract, with many genera found in temperate and European climates, we find some plants, which we should expect to find only in more southern latitudes, as Lagerstremia. indica, Ipomea Quamoclit, Celosia cristata, Gom- phrena globosa, species of Gynandropsis, Tribulus, Clerodendron, &e.; the lakes abounding with Nelumbium speciosum, Trapa. bicornis, Pontederia vaginata, and others; while the fields are cultivated with rice, millet, cotton, sesasum, and. castor-oil plant. Sida tiliefolia, referred by Dr. Roxburgh to S. abutilon, affords fibres for rope-making ; and the gardens capsicums, gourds, melons, and water-melons, the egg-plant, yams, and sweet potatoes, with species of Saja, Dolichos, and Lablab, all of which are also culti- vated in every part of the plains of India. As the two embassies separated at the great river Yang-tse-kiang, and both shortly afterwards Thea. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 117 afterwards met with hilly country, as well as with the tea-plant, it is necessary to notice both, and more in detail than we have done above. Lord Macartney’s embassy found a chain of granite mountains extending southwards from Hang-cheu-foo, about lat. 30° 20’, on each side of the river Che-tang-chaung, along which they proceeded after issuing from the grand canal. Here they found the large-leafed chestnut, and the towering larch; the purple-leafed tallow-tree growing near, and the shining- leafed camphor-tree further from the water, with 7hwya orientalis in the valleys. About lat. 29° 40’ the banks receded from the river, and were chiefly cultivated with sugar- cane in the neighbourhood of groves of orange-trees. About this part of the route they were supplied with grapes, oranges, apples, pears, chestnuts, walnuts, pome- granates, melons, and a kind of date, as well as the Chinese fruits see-chee (Diospyros), and lee-chee (Euphoria). On the sides of the hills, pines were met with, and on the sides and tops of earthen embankments, dividing the gardens and groves of oranges, the tea-plant was first seen growing like a common shrub, and along with it the ot/-plant or Camellia oleifera. Lord Amherst’s embassy having taken the direct route to Canton, proceeded up the Yang-tse-kiang first to Nankin, and then along the sides of the Poyang lake, to Nan-chang-foo, where the two routes united. In the neighbourhood of Nankin they found the country become hilly, fir-trees were first seen, and the cultivation of the mulberry and tallow-trees with that of rice and cotton. Near that town Dr. Abel found Rosa Banksiana, Cotyledon spinosa, Hamamelis chinensis, and Ficus repens abundant, as well as Pinus chinensis (Pinus Massoniana, Abel), with Salisburia adiantifolia. Near Tatung, about lat. 31°, which they reached on the 2d of November, where the country was hilly and picturesque, the chief interest was owing to the plants. The tallow- tree was abundant, and the éea-plant was first seen; the barometer on the river stood about 30.13°; but on the hills close to it five species of oak were found, among them Quercus densifolia and chinensis, dwarf chestnuts, and among the many ferns Pteris piloselloides. Much ginger was.also grown here. A few days’ further progress brought them to the confines of the. province of Keang-see ; near this they found the tea-plant cultivated on the hills, which also. abounded with oaks and fir-trees; and near the banks of the river there was extensive cultivation of rice, cotton, and bamboos. The province of Keang-see, which in its northern parts is flat, full of rivers and marshes, and in winter has a mean temperature of 60° (Enc. Metrop. Art. China) the embassy traversed along the borders of the Poyang lake, of which the neighbourhood is hilly, and covered with plantations of oaks and firs, to which were now added Cunning- hamia sinensis (Pinus lanceolata), and Abelia chinensis. There were considerable quantities of the tallow, varnish, and camphor-trees. At Nan-kang-foo, situated about lat. 295°, at the foot of a lofty mountain, of which the top was covered with snow, which melted next day, pines were seen at the greatest elevation. The barometer on the river stood at about thirty inches, so that the neighbouring country must be about the level of the sea, and the banks were covered with rice, cotton, and bamboo, and with them were cultivated 118 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF ( Thea. cultivated Arum esculentum and Arachis hypogea. On the hills many ferns were found, as species of Adiantum, Asplenium, Aspidium, Blechnum, Davallia, Polypodium, Pteris, and Woodwardia; an Ilex allied to I. aquifolium, Pinus chinensis, several species of oak and the tallow and camphor trees. | At Nan-chang-foo the route of the two embassies becomes again united. From the 24th Nov. to the 18th Dec. Lord Amherst’s embassy proceeded up the river Kan- kiang, which flows into the Poyang lake; the banks were chiefly composed of red sandstone, resting on granite; when low, cultivated with rice, sugar-cane, bamboo, camphor-tree, and a Ficus, much resembling the banyan-tree; and when high, with the oil bearing Camellia, or C. oleifera, which was first met with by Dr. Abel shortly after leaving Nan-chang-foo, bearing abundance of flowers in November, varying in height from six and eight feet to that of a moderate-sized cherry-tree, and flourishing best in a red sandy soil; deer, pheasants, and partridges were seen; and a woodcock, at Quachow. The sugar-cane was observed ready to be cut down, and great fields of wheat were springing up. On the 6th Dec. Pinus chinensis and Cunninghamia sinensis were aguin met with; and on the 8th at Seechou, about lat. 26°, the tea-plant was found apparently wild; in the neighbourhood of E/gococcus verrucosus (Dryandra cordata) and Eugenia microphylla. Beyond this were extensive plantations of Camellia oleifera, where Eurya japonica was abundant. On the 20th Dec. they crossed the Meiling Mountain, which divides Keangsee from Quantung, where groves of fir-trees skirted their way; and a species of Prunus was seen in full flower at the top. On descending from this, they entered the province of Canton, which at first they found mountainous and barren, but shortly met with groves of Pinus chinensis, intermixed with Cunninghamia sinensis. The vegetation on the surface of the hills least decomposed, consisted of the species of Lycopodium, which resembles a tree in miniature. A few days after passing Chaou-chou-fou, which is situated near the 25th parallel of latitude, they found the neighbourhood of their anchorage hilly, and very abundant in wild plants. Myrtus tomentosa was of great size, and very abundant, Smilax China, famed for its sudorific properties, scarcely less in quantity ; with another species, like S. lanceolata. A Begonia, resembling B. grandis, was also found growing to the height of twenty feet; and a wild species of Camellia, which Dr. Abel considered to be probably a variety of C. oleifera; while the rocky banks of some small streams were covered with species of Jarchantia and Jungermannia. Two Rhezias of doubtful species grew in the rocks, with several plants of questionable genera. (Abel, p. 199.) Plantations of sugar-cane were frequent in this part of their route, as well as in the southern portion of the province of Kiang-see. As they approached Canton, groves of orange-trees, of bananas, and of the rose-apple, relieved extensive fields of rice. A great extent of this province towards the coasts consists of level plains, and though so near the tropic, the winters we have seen are severe ; ice is sometimes formed, but snow does not fall: owing, however, to the general mildness of the climate, and the alternations of hot and cold months, two crops, as in India, are annually obtained ; Thea. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 119 obtained ; and sugar, rice, and cotton, cultivated, as well as an inferior kind of tea. The fruits consist of oranges and shaddocks, bananas, pine-apples, and jack-fruit ; with those which are peculiar to China, as the lee-chee, longan, wampee, &c.: grapes, pears, prunes, chestnuts, and peaches, are also found, but do not ripen well. In a garden near Canton, Dr. Abel found the J/outan Paeony, Camellias, Azaleas, and roses, with the black and green-tea plants, which he also saw in a plantation at Macao; as well as Vaccinium formosum, the tree like Lycopodium, and the dwarf elm. The province of Fokien, which is celebrated for the production of the best black tea, lies to the north- ward of the province of Canton, between the tropic of Cancer and 28° of north latitude. It is mountainous, but warm and healthy. The mountains are terraced, and covered with firs: the cultivation consists of rice and sugar, and in the cold season of wheat ; oranges, lee-chees and longans are abundant. From the above few notices of the temperature and vegetation, though during only a portion of the year, in some of the provinces of China, we may perceive a considerable resemblance to what we have seen to be the characteristics of the Flora of India and its mountains: that is, considerable uniformity in these respects over an immense extent of plain country, and a rapid change from a tropical to a European vegetation, whenever we begin to ascend the mountains. But this is a more remarkable occurrence in China than in India, as its plains stretch into more northern latitudes, and the extremes of temperature between winter and summer, as well as the differences in this respect between the northern and southern provinces, is much greater than in India. But if we enter more particularly into details, we shall find that this resemblance in the vegetation and cultivation of different provinces with one another, and of all with India, is almost entirely confined to annuals. Such plants, cultivated in summer, are subjected ~ every where to nearly similar degrees of heat; while those which constitute the winter crops, meet only with congenial cold. But the perennials of mountainous situations, as well as those of the northern provinces, being exposed alike to the severity of a Chinese winter and the heats of summer, which, though great, are excessive only for a short time, resemble the plants of northern latitudes, and such as are found on the slope of the Himalaya: belonging to such genera as Pinus, Taxus, Juniperus, Cupressus, Quercus, Betula, Populus, Salix, Celtis, Ulnus, sculus, Castanea, Morus, Frazinus, Syringa, Tilia, Acer, Rhododendron, Andromeda, Azalea, Rhus, Juglans, Pyrus, Prunus, Crategus, Cydonia ; together with Berberis, Sambucus, Viburnum, Lonicera, Evonymus, Rhamnus, Ilex, and Staphylea; and among herbaceous plants, many Ranunculacee, Fumariacee, Crucifere, Caryophyllee, Rosacee, Sempervive, Umbellifere, and Primu- lacee; as well as species belonging to the genera Viola, Erodium, Geranium, Hypericum, Ruta, Lythrum, Savifraga, Chrysosplenium, Rubia, Galium, Linaria, Hyoscyamus, Statice, Plantago, Iris, Lilium, Allium, Convallaria, and Paris. With these genera are asso- ciated others, of which the species are most prevalent about the centre of the temperate zone, and to which great extremes of temperature may be supposed to be obnoxious, as Pistacia, Olea, Punica, Cercis, Nerium Oleander, Papaver Somniferum and Rhoeas ; and 120 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF { Thea. and others, of which the species are chiefly diffused through tropical countries, as Melia, Diospyros, Sterculia, Grewia, Zanthoxylum, Acacia, Tamarix, Indigofera, Lespedesa, Hedy- sarum s but of these only single species have in general been enumerated in the northern provinces of China, in the same way that we have seen species of the same genera, extending to the most northern parts of India, and ascending up the sides of the Himalaya within the thick covering of jungle and forest, when they could not exist in the moderate cold even of the open places of Northern India. But the great resemblance of the Flora of the mountains, and of the northern pro- vinces of China and Japan, is to that of Europe, as may be inferred from the existence in each of the above genera and a number of the same species; as Humulus Lupulus, Chelidonium majus, Hyoscyamus niger, Hedera Helix, Lithospermum arvense, Thiaspi arvense, and Capsella Bursa Pastoris ; with several others, which are likewise found in the mountains and north of India. But as the north of China forms the southern boundary of Tatary; which indeed terminates only at the range of mountains, over the vallies and across the ridges of which the great wall is built, we may expect to find in the province of Pe-che-lee, many of the plants of the Tatarian and Siberian Regions, which are them- selves nearly identical in genera, but distinct in species, in consequence of the greater dryness of the former: but all three have a considerable resemblance in, being subjected to great dryness and great extremes of heat and cold. Hence we meet with many of the plants of Pallas, Ledebour, and others, as included by Bungé in his enumeration of the plants of China. (Mem. De lAcad. Imp. des Sciences de St.Petersbourg.) As for instance, Clematis angustifolia, Delphinium grandiflorum, Menispermum dauricum, Pa- paver nudicaule, Viola variegata, Amygdalus pedunculata, Potentilla supina, bifurca, soongorica, and fragarioides ; with Astragalus adsurgens and melilotoides, and species of Caragana, Oxytropis, and Patrinia, which are characteristic of these regions; with many others, as Serratula centauroides, Aster tataricus, Scorzonera radiata, Apocynum and Cynanchum sibiricum, Gentiana squarrosa, Convolvulus subvolubilis, Iris dichotoma, Lilium tenuifolium, and Asparagus maritimus. As Kunawur forms the western limit of the Tatarian region, we have some of the plants which extended into it from more northern latitudes, found-also in this part of China, as Ranunculus salsuginosus, and Stsymbrium Sophia. And as some resemblance was shown to exist, in appearance at least, between the plants of Kunawur and those of Delhi, we have some of the genera of the’ latter in the pro- vince of Pechelee; as Ailanthus, Lycium, and Salsola. Thunberg has long ago remarked, that in Japan the cold is greatin winter, and the heat considerable in summer; and that its botany resembles that of the north of China: this is fully confirmed by a comparison of his Flora with Bunge’s list. He at the same time alluded to the affinity with the Flora of Northern America: this may be seen in the prevalence of the genera Magnolia Ilicium; and Gleditschia. Panawx pseudo-ginseng, found by Dr.Wallich on Sheopore in Nepal, differs but little from the American P. quinguefolium, which is supposed to be the same as the plant yielding the Chinese ginseng; some species are identical,as Veronica virginica, Ribes Cynosbati, and Datura Stramonium; of which the last, as well as the genera Thea.} THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 121 genera Chaptalia and Ampelopsis, has been found in America, China, and the Hima- layas. Between the two latter, however, the analogy in genera is the greatest; and even some species which were first discovered in the Himalayas are now enumerated in the Flora of China; as Evonymus micranthus, Fraxinus Jloribunda, Rhamnus globosus (R. virgatus? Roxb.) and Convallaria cirrhifolia; while others, which were only known as Chinese and Japan plants, are found in abundance within the Himalayas, as Houttuynia cordata, Hovenia dulcis, Ophiopogon spicatus and japonicus, Kadsura Japonica, Hastingia coccinea, Murraya exotica, Hypericum patulum, Spirea callosa, Viola prionantha Bge, Lonicera japonica and chinensis, with Daphne cannabina, and many others. In conjunction with such genera as were first enumerated, it may excite surprise to see so many annuals and such cultivation as we expect to meet with only in tropical countries ; but this is far from surprising, when we consider that the temperature of the summer months diminishes but little, and in some places rather increases with the latitude; as Bruce, in Abyssinia, found the climate on account of the rain 12° cooler when the sun was over-head, than when 36° distant to the southward. Thus, at Cal- cutta, the temperature of the three warmest months, April, May, and June, is 85.05°, and of the rainy months, July, August, and September, 82.83°; at Benares, in N. lat. 25.18°, the mean temperature of the first period is 90.99°, and of the second 83.01°; and at Saharunpore 84.3° and 82.3°; while at Canton, in the three warmest months, it is 83.6°, and at Pekin 82.58°; while at the last, the temperature of no less than seven months, is above 51.8°. Hence we find the lakes in the northern asin the southern provinces, abounding with Nelumbium speciosum and Trapa bicornis, and like those of India with Euryale ferov, and species of Nymphea, Pontederia, Sagittaria, Utricularia, Myriophyllum and Leersia. Saururus supplies the place of Aponogeton; Phrynium capi- tatum employed in making the excellent Calcutta mats, is found in both countries. Species of Scirpus, as in India, yield tuberous roots, which are used as food; and species of Typha, Acorus, Lemna, Ceratophyllum, and Menyanthes, are found as in more northern latitudes; while in the plains of the northern provinces, as we have seen, many tropical plants occur. In the central provinces, as we learn from the list given by Sir G. Staunton of the plants found in Shan-tung and Kiang-nan; we have such tropical plants, as Grislea tomentosa, Vitex negundo and trifolia, Biophytum sensi- tivum, Boerhaavia repanda; species of Jasminum, Clerodendrum, Justicia, Basella, Rottboellia, Anthistiria, Andropogon, and Cenchrus, with many of those beforementioned, as occurring in the most northern provinces. With these there is a mixture of European genera, such as exist also in the southern province of Canton, where species of Galium, Scabiosa, Lycium, Chelidonium, Saxifraga, Sedum, and Reseda, are stated as occurring by Loureiro. It may also be mentioned, that many of the same flowers are common to Indiati and Chinese gardens, some of which may also be seen in the summer in gardens in Europe; while others which have been introduced from China, are now common in every part of India, as Chinese Aster, Dianthus, Iris, Pardanthus, and Justicia ; with R Lagerstremia 122 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. Lagerstramia indica; Dracena ferrea, Hypericum monogynum; Kerria Faponia, Hiptage obtusifolia, Olea fragrans, Thuya orientalis, &c. It is not surprising, therefore, that the cultivation of every part in the warm weather months, is, as we have seen it to be the case even in the most northern province, like that of India; to the list there given we’have only to add sugar; and the mulberry for the silk-worm, to have a’ cultivation identical with that of India during the warm weather. and’ rainy season: Irrigation:supplies in China the want of a'regular rainy season in the most northern provinces. «The analogy is still greater, for at the termination of the rice and millet crop, we. find wheat, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, lucern, and tobacco, are grown. For we learn from Staunton and Abel, that as the Sorghum vulgare, the Jooar of India, and Kow-/eang, or tall corn of the Chinese, was cutting down in the northern, and sugar-cane in the southern provinces, wheat was seen springing up, and about two inches high, about the middle of October and November. Thunberg states, that it flowers in March; so that the crop must be gathered in, about the same time as in India, that is, about the end:of March or beginning of April. Mr. Gutzlaff more specifically mentions the two crops, one of rice, and the other of wheat, in the cold season, That the accession of the: cold weather is sudden we may infer from being | informed by Mr. Bell, that’on their arrival in China, near the great wall, they were supplied with water and musk-melons, and on the 6th November, only a few days afterwards, they encountered: a ‘‘ great: fall of snow, and a cold frosty wind.” Mr. Gutzlaff also states, that the 9th of November, when in 40° of latitude, was a very pleasant day, but during the night the wind changed, and a strong northerly breeze began to blow, the cold was piercing, and in a few hours the rivers and creeks were frozen over. | ( Voy. to. China, p. 147.) | That the perennials and the botany in general of the southern provinces is very distinct from what we have seen to characterise the central and northern provinces, with the exception of a few annual species of European genera, allowed to exist during the coolness of the winter months, we may learn from the writings of Loureiro and Roxburgh, the relations of travellers, and the plants which have been introduced into Europe. From these sources we learn the existence of a species of Nepenthes, near Macao, with numerous Scitamineé, and tropical: Epiphytal Orchidee, several Palms, as the Cocoa, Areca, and Cane palms, together with species of Caryota, Rhapis, Chamerops and Tacca, in the most southern provinces ; with Pandanus odoratissimus, and Cycas inermis. Aloexylon Agallochum, the Eagle wood of the ancients, and Aloes wood of the moderns, Baryaxylum rufum, iron wood, with species of Canarium, Phyllanthus Emblica, and Guilandina Bonduc, are specimens of some of the trees. Laurus Cinnamomum, Camphora and Culilaban, affording camphor and cinnamon. Augia sinensis, Eleococcus verrucosus, and Stillingia sebifera, yielding varnish, wood-oil, and vegetable tallow, are some of those affording useful products; while the fruits consist of pine-apples, papayas, — custard-apples, and such as are mentioned at p. 118. The Thea. ' ‘THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 123 The principal families to which the rest of the known plants of the’ southern ‘provinces of China may be referred are, Dilleniacee,; Anonaceea,, Malvacee, Aurantiacee, Sapin- dacee ; tropical Leguminosae, as Anagyris, Poinciana, Erythrina; Melastomacea, many tropical Rubiacee and. Synantheree, Scrophularinee, Verbenacee and Acanthacee, Laurine, Euphorbiacee, Urticee,, Commelinee, and tropical, Graminee.. Species of the genera Cocculus, Capparis, Helieteres, Hiptage, Aglaia, Cissus, Combretum, Quisqualis, Marlea, Lawsonia, Myrtus, Eugenia, Passifiora, Callicarpa, Cordia, Convolvulus, Argyreia (Lett- somia. Roxb.) Bignonia, Jasminum, Hoya, Ardisia; Sideroxylon, Trophis, Antidesma, Boehmeria, Basella, Begonia, Musa, Crinum, Philydrum, Aloe, ‘Amaryllis, Asphodelus, Melanthium and Eriocaulon... nit] i . If we compare this with the Flora of, Southern India, we shall find that the same great features are common to both; and though the northern provinces of China are more European in. their Flora than we any where; meet with in the plains of India, yet do their lakes abound with the same plants, and their plains are covered with similar crops. But the Flora of the mountains, including that of the most northern parts of China, has an almost universal identity of genera with that found covering the elevated belt of the Himalaya. If we commence with the bases of these mountains, and pass succes- sively through the several belts, and analogous to what takes place between the parallels of latitude of 40° and 45°, experience the rapid decrease of mean temperatures, and the quick succession of vegetable productions, we shall first find a vegetation similar to that of the southern provinces; with the agriculture of the banks of the canal, consisting of rice, millet, amaranth, and an esculent arum, with ginger, turmeric, a little cotton and sugar, at one season, succeeded by wheat, barley, and buckwheat, in the cold weather months, (v. p. 18); even the mountain rice, lauded by Loureiro, meets here with a congenial climate. Along with plantains, oleander, and some of the orange tribe, and the various plants enumerated at p. 13, we meet with some which were long considered peculiar to China; as Marlea begonifolia, and Houttuynia cordata, with species of Chioranthus, Incarvillea, and Hiptage. At the foot of the mountains of Silhet we meet even with the Chinese fruit Zongan and other species of Euphoria. In ascending we pass through different gradations of vegetation, until reaching the regions of the oaks, and rhododendrons, which is immediately succeeded by that of the pines, we meet in the mid region with a Flora which must approximate to that of the mountains of the central provinces of China; for here we find the Chinese genera Aelia and Eurya, together with Stauntonia, Kadsura, Hovenia, Ophiopogon, and Pardanthus, as well as Deutzia, first found in Japan, to which new species have been added by Bungé from the north of China, and by Dr.Wallich from the Himalayas. In Nepal the latter has also discovered Hovenia dulcis, Taxus nucifera, and species of the equally Chinese genera Camellia, Cleyera, Podocarpus, Raphiolepis, Photinia, and Eriobotrya.* But it is in * A resemblance may also be carried on between the products of the mountains of the two countries. As the camphor, varnish, wood-oil, oil and tallow trees, constitute a part of the natural riches of China ; so we have in the Himalayas and at their foot, Camphora glandulifera, discovered by Dr.Wallich, containing solid . R 2 grains 124 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. in the midst of similar vegetation that the tea-plant is everywhere found; and as we have some of the very genera and species, which were first found in the tea regions, they point out, that here it may most fitly be introduced. It cannot be a difficult task to transfer from one country to another a plant, which grows naturally and is cultivated extensively, in one which possesses so many of the plants which are common to the two, and not found elsewhere. Particularly when we consider that a tea-plant introduced from China by one of the triennial embassies, has lived for many years in the open air in Nepal, and was there seen ten feet high by Dr.Wallich. There is little doubt, therefore, that many situations fit for the growth of the tea- plant, may be found in the Himalayas; but it is important to consider whether all the circumstances are so similar, as to render it probable, that the leaves would secrete only the present quantity of astringent, and retain the full proportion of volatile and fragrant matter, upon which their virtues especially depend. The territories of the British in the Himalayas, as Kemaon, or those under their protection, as Gurhwal and Sirmore, extend from 28° to 314° of N. latitude, and present every diversity of climate and vegetation from their tropical bases to their snow-clad summits (v. p. 12 to 24): but as the same latitudes are warmer in India than in China, we must go further north, or ascend higher to obtain a similar temperature. Dr. Abel, from the correspondence in climate, and the soil being composed of the detritus of granite, s¢histus and sandstone, recommended the Cape of Good Hope as well suited to: the cultivation of the tea-plant; but the soil in the Himalayas, consisting chiefly of the debris of primary rocks (v. Geol. Sect. Pl. 1. Sect. 1 and 2), must’ be equally eligible for the purpose. Further, as he advises hilly situations, a meagre soil, and a moderate temperature, while another author states, that leaves of the finest quality are only produced in light stony ground, we may hope to see the slopes of the Himalaya covered, and the edges of the terraced flats—for here, more completely than either in Italy or China, ‘‘ The peaks are shelved and terraced round,”—surrounded with plantations of the tea-plant. A climate less severe than that of Pekin, but cooler than that of Canton, is indicated. Dr. Wallich has stated a temperature between 30° and 80° as requisite, and this cannot | | be grains of camphor in its wood, while his Melanorrhea usitata (P1. As. Rar. p. 9 t, 11 and 12) yields abundance of excellent varnish ; besides Rhus vernicifera, the varnish-tree of Japan is common in the Himalaya. Wood-oil is yielded by several species of Dipterocarpus. Oil is procured as in China from the apricot, and also from Prinsepia ulilis and other plants; and even a vegetable butter is yielded by Bassia butyracea, commion in the hills about Almorah, and most probably allied to the shea-tree of Bruce. Paper is equally made in both countries from Daphne cannabina; and the Indian Shola is analogous to the Chinese rice-paper. But a few Chinese genera have not been found in India or its mountains, as Illicium, Nandina, Bocconia (Maclayea) Koelreuteria, Vatica, which may, however, be the same as Vateria, Chimonanthus, Broussonetia, Astranthus, Apactis, Bladhia, Beckea, Aucuba, Polychroa, El@ococcus, Salisburia, Cunninghamia, and Hamamelis ; though Bucklandia, a new genus of the small, but widely-spread order of Hamamelidee, is found in the mountains above Silhet. Cookia, Triphasia, and several of the Chinese fruits succeed in every part of India. A few new genera have, moreover, been added by Bunge from the north of China, 7. Thea.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 125 be far from the truth. Mussooree (v. p. 16, and Geol. Section, Pl. 1. fig. 2) has a range of the thermometer from 27° to 80°, and Deyra (v. p. 13) in the valley at its foot, one from 101° to 37° ; on the slope intervening between them, Jurreepanee elevated 5,000 feet, is a particularly eligible situation; but experiments on a small scale might be made at all three stations ; and at the same time be carried on in Kemaon, at Almorah, and Hawulbagh, as well as in the neighbourhood of the lake, called Bheemtal (v. p. xviil.); and in Sirmore, near Nahn, as well as at Sabathoo; and in a warmer situation in the garden of Shalimar, in the Pinjore valley. Keeping in mind that Thea viridis, or the green-tea plant in China, as in Europe, is able to bear the greater degree of cold, while Thea bohea will succeed only in sheltered situations, as it is only produced in the southern provinces of China, and cannot bear exposure in England. But as temperature is not the only thing desirable, we shall find that the course also of the seasons is favourable, and that even the strong contrasts of a Chinese climate may be met with, and taken advantage of, if desired. For although the tops of peaks and ranges, from the equalizing effects of the atmosphere, have a small annual range of the thermometer, yet the cleared and elevated vallies within these mountains, (very different from the low, moist, and forest-covered flats at the plainward base) have — a great contrast of temperature between summer and winter. Because during the short days of the latter, owing to their obliquity, few of the sun’s rays reach the sheltered valleys, while the free radiation in a clear atmosphere greatly increases the cold. But the nearly perpendicular rays of a summer sun, impinging on the same places, are greedily absorbed, and being reverberated from side to side increase the temperature much beyond what we should expect, either in the latitude or elevation. As the finest crops of tea-leaves are obtained when they are young, and as the revival of natute takes place at Mussooree about the month of March, there is abundance of time for two crops of leaves to be collected before the accession (about the middle of June) of the more severe rainy season. The seeds would ripen in the autumn at the same time as the nearly allied Camellia and Eurya of these mountains. Being so important and valuable a plant, it may be asked, why, if so easily trans- ferable, it has remained so long confined to its native country; and without consi- deration, it has been inferred, that it must, like the cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, cardamom or camphor-trees, be very peculiar in its nature, and confined in its habitat; and it has therefore resisted the attempts made to cultivate it in Java, Penang, and Ceylon, as well as at Rio Janeiro. With the cold and deserts of Tatary on the north, and the continual heats of the tropics on the south, it could only have spread in the zone of favourable temperature, but here the ocean throws a barrier on the east, and the snow- clad Himalayas an equally impassable one on the west. But where it was possible, we have seen that the tea-plants have spread in their native country over a wide extent of territory, and are subjected to a great diversity of climate. The attempts which have been made to introduce it elsewhere, so far from deterring, ought rather to encourage its cultivation in more congenial climates; for the experiments have proved that the plant 126 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Thea. plant will thrive under the Line, and the green tea even in the open air.in England, especially in Devonshire; so that Desfontaines recommended its cultivation in ithe south of France. Dr.Wallich has already remarked, “ that a very slight acquaintance with the character of the countries where the attempts were made to introduce the culti- vation of the tea-plant, is sufficient to account for the total failure of them. "—(Observ. on the Cultiv. of the Tea-plant, App. Report of the East-India Committee.) The most southern limit of the regular tea country being 27° of N) latitude, and its having been calculated that in tropical countries every 396 feet of vertical ascent is equivalent to 1° of latitude, we require at the Line an elevation of 10,692 feet, at the tenth parallel 6,732, and at the 20th an elevation of 2,772 feet, to.attain a temperature equivalent to that of open flat countries in 27° of latitude; but the tea-plant is even in that latitude fond of a hilly country. ‘‘In Penang, situated between 5° and 6° N. of the Equator, where the highest hill does not exceed 2,500 feet in elevation, vand every feature of the vegetation is tropical,” Mr. Brown, as we are informed by Dr.Wallich, ‘‘ established a tea-plantation at Glugor, and procured Chinese to superintend the under- taking ; but it is not surprising that though the plants grew well, the leaves were not ' well flavoured.” Neither was success to be expected in Java or Ceylon, where there is little contrast of seasons, and the vegetation in both is tropical; but in all, as well as in Calcutta, the plants thrived well. At Rio Janeiro, in 23° of S. latitude, we are informed by Dr. Abel, that many Chinese plants were growing in full vigour, as the tallow-tree, the wax-tree, Ligustrum lucidum, and Camellia sasanqua; and that the tea-plant had been successfully cultivated, and effectively manufactured. But the vegetation and seasons are so tropical, that the situation cannot be considered favourable, and the culti- vation has since been given up, it is reported, in consequence of the expence of labour, but the produce is said also to have had a bad flavour. At St. Helena, in 20° of N. latitude, the tea-plant also grows vigorously; but here the country is elevated, and enjoys the equability of an insular climate, with a range of the thermometer from 64° to 78°. The English oak and Scotch fir, with the common furze, grow in the open air as luxuriantly as Araucarias, Mimosas from New Holland, and Furcrea gigantea from South America, with some Nepal plants; and alongside of them may be seen plantains, arborescent Cassias, Ficus indica and religiosa, the banyan and peepul- trees of India. But in the Himalayas, where so great an analogy exists in latitude, elevation, soil, climate, and the course of the seasons, as well as considerable identity of vegetation, there cannot in my mind be a doubt of success in introducing the cultivation of tea, with the strongest probability of all its properties remaining unchanged, as every requisite is so similar to what it experiences in its native country. It is not an unimportant consideration, that the cheapness of labour exceeds even that i in China, where, I am informed by Mr. Reeves, about eightpence a-day is earned in the tea countries; but in India and its mountains women and children get about a fourth, and able-bodied labourers not more than one-half that sum. But even supposing that the finest flavoured teas Thea. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 127 teas should not at first be successfully: cultivated, an immense- ‘consumption would be found among Asiatic nations for even infériof kinds, which would still be superior to what they now use. This would greatly i increase the resources of the Hill provinces, give rise to an extended “commerce with Northern and Central Asia, as_ the Tatar nations habitually use it, and all Asiatics, even the natives of India, think so highly of the virtues of tea, as to have recourse to it, whenever they can procure even the most inferior kinds in cases of sickness. But at all events, an article of which the exports amount in quantity to about fifty millions of pounds weight, and its yalue to about two and a-half millions of money, is well worthy the consideration of a Government which possesses territories apparently so favourable for its cultivation, To shew that these opinions have not been hastily formed, or adopted in consequence of the change in Indian commerce, I beg to quote a few lines from a report which I ad- dressed to Dr. Wallich for the information of the Indian Government, by which it will be seen that so long ago as the end of the year 1827, when it would have been my duty, had it been desired to have carried the suggestion into execution, in recommending the culti- vation of the tea-plant in the Northern and Hill provinces of India, I remarked that ‘‘ does not appear by any means so delicate or so limited in geographical distribution as is generally supposed. It is said to delight particularly in sheltered valleys, the declivities of hills, or the banks of rivers, where it enjoys a southern exposure to the sun, These warm situations do not, however, appear to be essential to its welfare, as it is, found on the rugged tops of mountains; and although it appears to attain the greatest perfection in the mild climate about Nankin, yet it flourishes in the northern latitude of Pekin and in Japan, as well-as about Canton ; and thus appears to be confined within, the parallels of 20° and 40° of northern latitude.”* Eurya acuminata; (Wall. Cat. N. 1464) ramulis ultimis pilosiusculis, foliis elliptico-oblongis acumi- natis inferioribus caducis, floribus axillaribus fasciculatis.—E. acuminata et E. multiflora. D.C. Prod. 1. p. 525. v. Tab. 25. fig. 1—This shrub attains a height of about eight to ten feet, and is common at 6,500 feet * Though not essential to the above attempt at proving the strong probability of a successful cultivation of tea in the northern parts of India, it will render it more complete to add a short account of the cares which are bestowed on the cultivation and subsequent preparation. These appear to be few and simple. The month of February is said to be the usual time for sowing the seeds. Siebold, however, states (and from the oiliness of the seeds most likely very correctly) that they should be sown in autumn. Several are dropped into a hole afew inches deep, which are in rows from four to five feet asunder. The seeds come up easily, and the plants require little subsequent culture, except keeping them free from weeds, which must also be useful in stirring the soil. When the plants are three years old, the first crop of leaves is gathered ; and when three or four years older, they are.cut down to encourage the production of fresh shoots, which abound more than the old in leaves. In the province of Kiangnan, the green-tea plant is kept low by pruning ; but in the black-tea country the plant is allowed to attain its full height. The Ieaves are usually gathered singly ; first in March, when the young leaves are scarcely expanded ; the second in May and June; and the third in August... But authors vary in their accounts of the numbers and the seasons of the crops ; and differences must necessarily exist according to the nature of the crop which is desired, as well as according to the climate in which it is grown; though many of the varieties are known to be produced by mixtures at Canton. When the tea- leaves 128 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Olacinee. 6,500 feet of elevation on the Mussooree range. ‘Vhe leaves are thick, coriaceous, finely serrate and smooth, the younger ones hairy.. The flowers, owing to the early fall of the leaves from the lower parts of the branches, appear to be lateral, but actually arise from the axilla of the fallen leaves, either solitary or 2-3-fascicled, short peduncled, supported by two small bractee (f.b), which are of the form and consistence of the sepals, but smaller. Sepals (a) 5, imbricate, unequal in size, coriaceous, the three inner the largest, rounded, ciliate, concave, and covered with a few hairs on the inside, one or two _ of them sometimes bifid. Petals (c) five, conjoined at the base, short and rounded at the apex, two exterior, larger. Stamens about fifteen in number, inserted into the receptacle ; anthers (f) adnate, point of filament projecting beyond the two lobes, which are placed on the opposite sides of the oblong connectivum, and open laterally by a longitudinal slit. Pistid none. In the female flowers, the calyx and corolla, as in the male. Ovary ovate. Styles 3, very short, spreading. Stigma simple. Capsule (d and e) 3-celled. Seeds flattish, triangular, numerous, suspended by a long funicle from an axillary placenta. 30. OLACINEA. The place of this small order in the natural series is uncertain. By M. De Candolle ‘it is placed next Aurantiacee, to which it has some affinities. | By Mr. Brown it has been shewn, that in possessing a unilocular ovarium, with a central columnar placenta, at the top of which three pendulous ovules are inserted, Olaz is allied to Santalacee ; but to this it has been objected, as originally stated by Mr. Brown himself, the double - floral envelope and ovarium superum of Olaz,which is opposed to the simple perianthium and ovarium inferum in Santalacee. Of this family there are several species belonging to the genus from which the order is named. The Indian species extend from Ceylon up to Monghir, and from Silhet along the foot and within. the valleys of the Himalaya to the most northern portion of the British territories. Olav scandens and zeylanica do not extend, the former beyond Rajmahl, and the latter the Peninsula. O. nana, allied in structure to them, was first found by Dr. Hamilton at Gorakpore. I have seen it in large quantities on the banks of the Tonse and Jumna, within the mountains, and beyond 31° of northern latitude. A species of the genus was found on the Congo, and the remainder referred by Labillardiere to the genus Spermaxyrum, in New Holland. Ximenia is found / leaves are gathered, they are cured in houses which contajn small furnaces about three feet high, on each of which there is a large flat iron pan. Upon this,when heated, a few pounds of the fresh-gathered leaves are thrown. These crackle, and require frequent shifting. When all become properly roasted, they are thrown out with a shovel upon mats before the rollers, who, taking small quantities at a time, roll them in the palms of their hands in one direction,while others are fanning them, that they may cool the more speedily, and retain their curl. This process is said to be repeated two or three times, and should, in the first instance, on making any experiments on the subject, be intrusted to Chinese, who have been accustomed: to the process ; as was done in both Penang and Rio Janeiro: and there would be no difficulty in getting some of the numerous Chinese, who migrate to almost every part of Asia, to accept employment in the northern provinces of India. With a little scientific attention in the choice of a suitable climate and soil for the growth of the plant, and the application of prac- tical experience in the preparation of the leaf, there can be but little doubt, after the details we have entered into, with respect to the successful issue of an experiment, which need not be very expensive, if not commenced on too large a scale. Aurantiacea] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 129 found in the warm parts of America and Jamaica; and one species, X. Russeliana, in the Peninsula of India. The rest of the order is found in Africa and its islands. A genus, common to Africa and Guiana, affords Heisteria coccinea, the partridge wood of cabinet-makers, imported from Martinique. 31. AURANTIACEZ. This family, well known from containing oranges, lemons, and limes, is remarkable for the dotted appearance of all parts of the plants, in consequence of their abounding in little cells filled with volatile, frequently highly fragrant oil. The orderis allied, on one hand, to Amyride@, and on the other to some Rutacee, and is almost entirely confined to India and China, where all the genera are found in some part or other of their widely-extended territories; with some species only spreading into the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and a few into Java, and some even as far south as Madagascar. The genera Atalantia and Triphasia are found only in the southern parts; but Bergera, Glycosmis, Feronia, AEgle, Limonia, Murraya, and Citrus, also in the most northern parts of India. The three last, with Triphasia, are common to it and China. Feronia elephantum and Afgle marmelos, are found every where in the plains; but Murraya exotica, Bergera Kenigii, Limonia crenulata, and Glycosmis pentaphylla, extend in the jungly tract along the foot of the Himalaya, nearly as far north as the banks of the Sutlej. age ; So great a diversity of opinion being entertained respecting the different plants of the genus Citrus, whether they should constitute species or varieties, it becomes difficult to say what are such, if only seen in a state of cultivation; but as some are still found wild, an opinion may be formed, at least respecting those. In the tract of forest so frequently alluded to, as well as in the valleys within the Himalaya, I have seen two plants growing apparently wild, one called bijowree, and the other biharee nimboo ; the first having the characteristics of the citron, and the other, called also puharee kaguzee, those of the demon: both when transferred to gardens retain their peculiar characters. From the Rungpore forests a round kind of lime is obtained: in those of Silhet, and as it is stated also on the sides of the Neelgherries, the orange is found wild. Captain Turner describes the oranges as delicious, and Mr. Saunders, who accompanied him, mentions finding many orange and lime-trees at the foot of the hills in approaching Buxedwar (v. Turner’s Tibet, p- 20 and p. 387). Citrus decumanus, Shaddock or Pompel- moes, does not appear indigenous to India, as its name, batavi nimboo or Batavia lime, denotes, as remarked by Dr. Roxburgh, its being an exotic; and as it retains its charac- teristics even where it does not succeed as a fruit, it may also be reckoned a distinct species. I therefore feel inclined to consider as distinct species, the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and shaddock, without being able to say whether the sweet kinds should be considered varieties of the acid, or ranked as distinct species. : One thing remarkable in the orange tribe is, that though a tropical genus, it ripens its fruit only in the winter months; and has thus probably been enabled to travel from | India s 130 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Hypericinee. India to: the southern: shores of Europe, and find a congenial elimate in the equable and temperate climate: of the Azores. In confirmation. of their being natives of India, it may be adduced, that the Asiatie names of the orange are, in Sanscrit, Nagrunga ; Hind. Narungee; Arab. Narunj; and of the lemon, Sans. Nimbooka ; Beng. neeboo ; Hind. neemoo, leemoo, leemboo. It is further worthy of notice, that the Persian and Arabian authors do not, as is their wont, give any Greek synonyme of either, but of the citron, which is supposed to have, been, known to the Remans; they say that MAT SSK \inmwale 8 the Yoonanee, and; atrogha: \,\\ the Syrian name, neither of which haye I been able, to trace. The Sanscrit name of the citron is, Beejapoora, the. Arabic ooturuj, and) the Persian toorun). a the latter it is also known. in, the northern, proviness of India., Limonia, laureola, figured: by Dx.Wallich (Pi. As. Rar. t. 246), 3 is octane: as the only: plant, of this family, found, on, the tops of cold and lefty mountains, where: iti is for. some months of the; year buried, under the snow. The, Hill people call it kidar- patri and kuthar-chaya,.and fancy that, it is by feeding: on its: leaves that the musk acquires its, peculiag flavour. As. the leaves. are highly fragrant, they are, like others of a. similar kind, employed: in, the religious ceremonies: of the inhabitants of the: hills. The wood: of many. of the orange: tribe;is hard, compact, and durable; that: of Feronia clephantum attains a considerable size, and a gum exudes from the! tree. Most of this: family abound in stimulant essential oil: the pulp of the fruit of many is sweet, and of others acid, yielding abundance, of citric: acids, In:addition to those commonly known as, yielding; edible fruit, the Chinese wampee;, Coohia punctata, may be’ mentioned, as well as Aigle marmelos and, Feronia elephantum, Glycosmis. citrifolia, Triphasia, trifoliata, and Limonia, pentaphylia, The astringent rind of the fruit.of gle marmelos, bel of the Hindoos,. is. used in. dyeing yellow, while the glutinous and tenacious, matter which. summounds, the seeds is considered, an: excellent. addition, to: mortar, especially in well- building. Bergera Kanigii is. cultivated: near villages,. as its leaves are: considered: in the, northern, as in the southern provinces; a pleasant addition to curries and other dishes in; use among the natives of India. 32, HYPERICINES. This order is of very extensive distribution, particularly with respect to the genus Hypericum, which is found in most parts of the world. In the Himalayas, where about fifteen species have been discovered, it is met with at very different elevations, as well as on the: mountains of the Peninsula. Hf cernuum, Roxb. (HZ. speciosum, Wall.) of which the seeds were originally procured by General’ Hardwicke in the neighbourhood of Hurdwar and Sireenuggur, is very nearly allied to H.chinense. It is met with in Nepal-and: Kemaon, and in the hills above the Deyra Doon, at 3,000 feet of elevation, where the ‘heat is’ considerable at the hottest’ time of the year; while the species’ H. uralum, elodeoides, and lysimachioides, are found on the tops of the mountains; the last only’ on the highest, as Kedarkanta, with H. Japonicum and perforatum, where the snow covers the soil for nearly six months in the year. The last, found in most parts of the world, Guttifera ] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, . 131 world, is also common in many parts in the Himalayas and in Cashmere: the former, found originally in Japan, has a most extensive distribution along the Himalayas from Silhet to Sirmore, and also on the Neelgherries. H. patudum is another plant common to Japan and Nepal, from which H.oblongifolium does not appear to me to differ. Two new species, both from the Mussooree range, may be added to those already enumerated as Himalayan plants: H. debile, which is allied to, and may be a variety of H. perforatum ; and H. coriaceum, which resembles Hl. lysimachioides, of which the leaves are like those of the rowns or Cotoneaster acwninatwn. | In the soft parts of many of this tribe being covered with dotted glands, which con- tain a fragrant oil, this family resembles Aurantiacee ; and in secreting a yellow juice, the Guttifere ; to which, moreover, it is in many points of structure closely allied. In the European species, this yellow juice being in small proportion to the essential oil and the rest of the vegetable matter, they have been used as tonics and astringents. H. perforatum and H.Androsemum, in use in the earliest times, are referred to by Persian authors under the name hoofarikoon, corrupted from the Greek. The former we have seen is common in the Himalayas, and is ayailable, if necessary, for the Indian Materia Medica. Some of the American species of this order are possessed of more copious yellow juice, and more energetic properties; that obtained from Vismia Guianensis, a Mexican and Surinam tree, is known in commerce, and called American Gummi Gutta. Some of the more remarkable arborescent species of this order from the south of India, and from Penang and Singapore, may possess similar properties; but they are, of course, less valuable where the original and more energetic gamboge is so easily procurable. _ Hypericum Japonicum ; D.C. Prod. 1. p. 588.—Thunb, Fl. Japonica, p. 295. t. 81.—Wall. Cat. E. I. Herb, N. 4,871. v. Tab. 24, f..2. (a)-Flower seen from above. {b) Do. from below. (c) Capsule with persistent calyx and withered corol.—This plant, enjoying a very extended distribution, as above- mentioned, is subject to considerable variation in appearance, as may be seen in the E. I. Herbarium. It is frequently long, slender, and straggling ; but the specimens I have met with are short, erect or ascending, frequently dichotomous. Stems 4-cornered, leafy. Leaves shorter than internodia, opposite, eval, entire, half embracing the stem. Flowers single in axille of leaves or terminal, short peluvaled, yellow, withering. Bracts leaflike. Sepals 5, oval, acute, dotted, straight-veined, erect, persistent, Petais 5, oval-oblong, nearly equal to the sepals, light yellow, of delicate texture, 3 or 5. parallel- veined ; in dried specimens rolled up at the apex, so as to appear much shorter than the calyx. a 3, spreading. Capsules 3-celled ; cells many seeded. Seeds ovoid. | | _ 33, GUTTIFERA. This family, named from many of the species producing the genie, grpesonests juice, resembling gamboge, which was formerly called gummi gutta, is strictly a tropical order, and abundant in the Malayan Peninsula and islands to the eastward of the bay of Bengal. A few-species are found in Ceylon and the Peninsula of India, 3 Cale phyllum inophyllum and spurium, Mesua ferrea, Xanthochymus pictorius and ovalifolius, Garcinia cambogia, zeylanica and pictoria, the last from the higher parts of Wynaad, where, as Dr. Roxburgh remarks, there is constant moisture from fogs during the dry = s2 season, 132 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Guttifere. season, and abundant rains during the wet. Species ofall the Indian genera, as above enumerated, are also found in Silhet, whence they extend a little further northward along the tract of forest. Garcinia cowa was found by Dr. Hamilton at Monghir, and Mesua speciosa by Dr.Wallich in Nepal ; but there we know there are valleys with a tropical vegetation, where the heat is great, and the moisture considerable. The effects of culture and of an artificial climate have been mentioned at p. 6, where it has been shewn that one of the Guttifere can exist even so far north as Delhi, in 28° of N. lati- tude, when no other species are known to grow nearer than 4° further south. This is Xanthochymus pictorius, the dephul of the natives ; but X. dulcis, which it closely resem- bles in foliage, has been inadvertently mentioned: the same reasoning will, however, equally apply to both species. The greater portion, however, of the genera belonging to this order is not found in India, though the species are numerous; but in the West Indies and warm parts of South America, as well as in Madagascar, where the approxi- mation in climate is greatest to the Malayan and Indian Peninsulas, as well as to thé climate of Chittagong and Silhet. The Guétifere are in some points related to the Ebenacee,as may be seen by comparing species of Garcinia with some species of Diospyros. The natural method is in no point better calculated to display its advantages to the general observer, than in the fact that the properties or products of the same parts of the plants of a family have in general the closest resemblance to one another ; and though anomalies present themselves, yet these appear more numerous than they are likely to do, because from the little investigation that plants were formerly subjected to, we are not yet acquainted with all the anomalies of structure. This possession of similar properties is strikingly exemplified in so many plants of this family producing a resinous exudation, which is similar in both physical and. medical properties to gamboge, ossareh- rewund, thubarb-juice of Persian authors. This has long been known as a pigment and as a drastic purgative, introduced by Clusius, for which we are indebted to the East > but the tree has not been well ascertained, probably in consequence of so many of the family yielding a similar product. Two kinds are known in Indian _bazars ; one, the best, is the produce of Siam: this is in rolls, having been apparently rolled or cast in moulds when in a soft state: it is solid and compact in texture, and forms the best pigment. It is supposed to be procured from Stalagmitis Cambogioides, a plant which, according to Dr. Wight and Mr. Arnott, is a species of the genus Garcinia, and probably identical with G. cochinchinensis. The other kind, in smaller pieces, granular, brittle, less valued as a colour, and less effective as a purgative, is the produce of Ceylon. This, there can be little doubt, is the produce of Xanthochymus ovalifolius, the only plant in Ceylon (W. and A.) that yields a gamboge fit for the arts; an indifferent kind is also yielded by X. pictorius. Garcinia zeylanica, cowa, cornea, and, pictoria, all yield, like most plants of this order, an inferior kind of gamboge. The last, originally sent by Mr. Dyer, surgeon, at Tellicherry, to Dr. Roxburgh, who found it, even in its crude unprepared state, superior in colour while recent to every other kind, but not so perma- nent as that from Siam. (1. Ind. 2. p. 629.) It Malpighiacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 133 It is not contrary to natural analogies to find different kinds of juices secreted in different parts of the plants of the same family. Thus we find the mangosteen, the most delicious of fruits, according to the concurrent testimony of travellers, is afforded by one of the Guttifere. This, the Garcinia mangostana, is confined to the Malayan Peninsula, and the islands to the eastward of the bay of Bengal, which form the India aquosa of old authors as quoted by Dr. Jack; but is so local in its habits as to have resisted all Dr. Roxburgh’s attempts, repeated through a course of thirty-five years, to get it to thrive, no further north than 234° of latitude. Other species yield an edible, but less palatable fruit, as G. cowa, lanceefolia, kydia, and paniculata, the last is most like the mangosteen. G. pedunculata, yields an acid fruit (Rorb. 2. p. 626) ; Xanthochymus dulcis, pictorius, and ovalifolius, that which is edible. Many would no doubt afford useful timber, as Calophyllum angustifolium yields the. straight spars called peon, at Penang, and in the islands to the eastward of the bay of Bengal. The blossoms of Mesua ferrea are to be found in a dried state in every bazar, under the name nag- kesur, being used in medicine, as well as esteemed for their fragrance. The seeds ot Calophyllum inophyllum yield an oil, and a resin exudes from the roots, which is supposed by some authors to be the same as the Tacamahaca of the Isle of Bourbon. 34. HIPPOCRATEACEZ. | This small order is placed by M. De Candolle between Marcgraviacee and Erythrorylee. By Mr. Brown it was shewn to be in some important respects allied to Celastrinee, which some of the species also resemble in general appearance. It is chiefly found in the warm parts of America, and also in Africa. In India it is found in the Peninsula, whence one species, Hippocratea indica (Roxb. Corom. t. 130) extends up into Bengal as far as the prolongation of the central range of mountains at Monghyr; while H. arborea (Roxb. Corom. t. 205) is found at the foot of the mountains on the N.E. frontier, as Silhet, Morung, Tipperah, and Chittagong. The genus Salacia, to which Johnia of Roxburgh has been referred in Dr. Wallich’s Catalogue, has a similar distribution, with one species from Nepal, probably from the low forests or warm valleys, whenee they extend downwards along the N.E. frontier, to the Burmese territories and the Malayan Peninsula. I have not met with any of the species in the northern parts of India. © : 35. ERYTHROXYLEZ. The Erythroxylee form a small order separated from Malpighiacee, to which they are, however, considered by Mr. Brown to be closely allied. They are distributed in South America and the West Indies, and some species are found in Madagascar and the islands of Mauritius and Bourbon. One, the only species of the genus Sethia, has been n India, and this only in the Peninsula up to the Circar mountains. This, S. indica, found i r species from Silhet has D.C., is the Erythrorylum monogynum of Roxburgh. Anothe been referred, with doubt, by Dr. Wallich, to this order. 36. MALPIGHIACES. This order, named from an American genus, is nearly confined to that quarter of the globe, 134 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Acerinee. globe, as out of about 200 species only fifteen are found in India and the Burmese territories, about half as many in Java, only one in China, Arabia, and the Cape of Good Hope ; a few in the equinoctial parts of Africa and the island of Madagascar. Niotais referred by M. Ad. de Jussieu to Simaroubee ;* but Dr. Wallich has added a new genus, Ancistrocladus, of which four species have been discovered, distributed from Penang up to Pundua. Of A. ertensus there is a figure, No. 1,264, among Dr. Wallich’s collee- tion of the East-India Company's unpublished drawings. A new genus, Platynema, has been formed by Messrs.Wight and Arnott, of Gertuera Jaurifolia, found in the Indian Peninsula. The only genera found in every part of India, and these both climbers, are Hiptage and Hirga. The former, common to India and China, and the latter chiefly found in the warm parts of America; with a few species in Java, and one at the Cape of Good Hope. liptage Madabiota extends from the Peninsula up the foot of the Himalaya to the warm valley of Noakote, in Nepal, and as far north as the Deyra Doon, and other valleys within the Himalaya,where it.climbs to the tops of lofty trees, and may frequently be seen, with its racemes of elegantly-fringed white flowers, delicately tinged with pink and yellow, covering the saul-tree, or Shorea robusta, the winged- seed vessels of which, those of this plant much resemble in external appearance The Chinese species, H. obtusifola, is perfectly naturalized in the gardens of Northern India. Hirea nutans, from which H. lanuginosa (Wall. No. 1,058) does not appear to me to differ, is similar in its distribution and habit, though a more humble climber. H. indica is confined to the Peninsula and the province of Silhet; while other species extend along the Burmese territories to more southern latitudes. T have not learnt that any of the Indian species are applied to any use, nor are the properties of the plants of this tribe well known ; but the fruit of some species of MJalpighia is eaten in the West Indies, and called Barbadoes cherry. 37. ACERINEE. This order, named from so common and well-known a genus as that which contains the maple and sycamore, indicates that some at least of its species require a temperate climate. But all are found in such, in Europe, North America, Taurus, Tatary, and Japan. And as none in other countries extend to southern latitudes, so we are without them in the plains of India, and also on the Neelgherries. But immediately we commence ascending the Himalayas, either in Nepal or Sirmore, we meet with species of this family, especially of the genus Acer. Of this seven new species have been discovered in these mountains, of which A. oblongum is that which descends to the lowest level, being found in Nepal and further north in the Deyra Doon, between 2,000 and 3,000 feet of elevation. Acer cultratum is found at 6,500 feet on the Mussooree range, and’ at similar heights in Sirmore and Gurhwal, while A. caudatum (Wall. Pl. As. Rar. t. 132, and A. acuminatum? Don) sterculiaceum and villosum, are only seen with pines and birches on a ee * Vol. ii. p. 4. Fippocastanee. ] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 135 on the loftiest mountains, which are for many months covered with snow. A. sterculia- ceum (Wall. Pl. As. Rar. t. 105) is closely allied to A. villosum, which differs but little from A. pseudo-platanus, or sycamore ; and as this affords timber which, from being light and tough, is much used by turners, and for making the trees of saddles, so it is probable that both the Himalayan species would answer equally well for the same purposes. The wood of A. cultratum is white, light and fine-grained, and might be turned to the same uses as that of the maple, which is esteemed by turners, and also occasionally for making gun-stocks. A. caudatum is also found in Kunawur, and A. sterculiaceum extends to Cashmere. Though this family contains only another genus, Negundo, which has been separated from Acer, a new one, Dobinea, has been discovered in Nepal by Dr. Hamilton ; and is distinguished, according to Mr. Don, by its monecious flowers, companulate 4-toothed calyx, with the eight stamens united into a column round the sterile style. It is only a shrub of six feet in height, but judging from the dried specimens, it must, when in flower, have a very light and elegant appearance. Acer oblongum and Negundo fraxinifolium, the latter a native of North America, from which sugar is said to be made, succeed remarkably well in the plains of Northern India ; and there is no doubt that Acer saccharinum, or sugar maple, would succeed equally well in the valleys and slopes of the Himalaya, if it should be thought worthy of being introduced ; and it might be a valuable gift to the people of the Hills, who are often too poor to How i sugar, and cannot grow the cane. 38. HIPPOCASTANEZ. The few plants which compose this order are confined: to the temperate parts of North America, and mountainous parts of Asia. The native country of Asculus Hippocastanum, or the common horse chestnut, is yet unknown, though: stated in some works to be the north of India, but it is not enumerated in Dr.Wallich’s Catalogue, nor has: it ever been distributed by him. I have never met with it, though often visiting the lofty mountains of Northern India, where, if any where, it was likely to be’ found, and where the nearly allied Indian Pavia is so abundant.. The genus Pavia, common to North America and the Himalayas, frequently included in Zsculus, is distinguished from it by the surface of its. fruit being destitute of the spines with which that of the horse chestnut is covered. Pavia indica, or Indian horse chestnut, called by the Hill people kunowr and: pangia, is found on mountains at elevations of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet in Kemaon, Gurhwal, and Sirmore ; also near the sources of the Ganges and in Kunawur. It is a lofty and not less ornamental tree than the common horse chestnut. The bulky seed of this species containing a large proportion of fecula, though combined with some bitter principle, is eaten in the. Himalayas, as those of the horse chestnut have been in other parts of the world; in times.of famine. The bark of tlie latter, from its astringent properties, being employed as a tonic and febrifuge, it is worthy of inquiry whether the Himalayan species of Pavia is possessed of any of the same properties. 39. SAPINDACEA. 136 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Sapindaceee. 39. SAPINDACEX. This order, named from the genus of which the fruit is remarkable for its saponaceous properties, is almost entirely confined to the equinoctial parts, both of the Old and of the New World. Thus the greater number of the species and genera are found in the West Indies, in Mexico, and the warm parts of South America; a few of them in Africa, and in the islands of Madagascar, Bourbon, and Mauritius, whence we trace them into the Indian Archipelago and the Malayan and Indian Peninsulas. In the southern parts of India they are abundant, and a few of them extend into China. _ It has been remarked, that as the Sapindacee come near to Meliacee, so they resemble them in habit and in their pinnated leaves, and thus dried specimens of the two orders are apt to get mixed together, of which an instance occurs in the unadjusted portion of the East-Indian Herbarium, where some of the Meliucee, as well as species of Milling- tonia, have got intermingled with the Sapindacee: and as there is also resemblance ‘between these and some of the Terebinthacee, so some of the species of AZLillingtonia, closely allied to the former, were found among the roughly-adjusted portion of the latter. Odina wodier resembles some genera of Sapindaceé in a few points of structure, as well as in general appearance, when seen in a dried state. In India are found species of the genera Cardiospermum, Sapindus, Schmidelia, Cupania, Melicocca, and Dodonea, all of which are also found in the. warm parts of America. The last also extends from the islands of Ceylon and Bourbon. to New Holland. Har- pullia is a new genus, formed by Dr. Roxburgh, of a tree found in Chittagong, which is allied to Cupania, and comes near Tina. (Fl. Ind. ed Wall. 2. p. 442.) The genus Euphoria is common to India and China, several species having been found in the dis- trict of Silhet ; and even the Chinese fruit, E. Longan, Dr. Roxburgh mentions being indigenous in the mountainous country which forms the eastern frontier of Bengal, as well as cultivated inChina. Specimens of it may be seen in the East-Indian Herbarium, procured by Dr.Wallich from the same tract of country, where the fruit is eaten, and called gooloom. Dr. Roxburgh also states having had specimens even of the Li-chi sent him from old trees growing on the Garrow mountains, when the trees in Bengal were but small. The genus Pierardia, of which P. sapida affords an edible fruit in Tippera, to the east of Calcutta, and P. dulcis, in the Malayan Peninsula, would appear also to be cultivated in China, as Dr. R. was informed by his Chinese gardeners, that P. sapida, — iutco of the Hindoos, is also a native of their country, where it is called Lutgua, and is cultivated for its agreeable fruit. With the exception of Cupania and Dodonea, which seem restricted to the Peninsula, all the above genera are found in Silhet and the neighbouring districts, which would appear to be the head-quarters of this family in : India. Here there is also a new genus, Cardiopteris of Dr. Wallich, referred by him to - the section Paulliniee, of which the greater proportion are natives of America. This, in its climbing habit and lobed leaves, somewhat resembles a Bryony, but has a winged fruit something like a Hira. This was called Sioja sanguinaria by Dr. Hamilton, and first Sapindacer.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, 137 first found by him at Goalpara, specimens of, apparently, the same species were pro- cured by Dr. Wallich from Silhet and from Ava. The species of this family in Dr. Roxburgh’s Flora Indica are thirty in number, in which are included a few from the countries to the eastward of India. More than twice as many are enumerated in the unadjusted Sapindacee of the East-Indian Herbarium; but among these are necessarily included many of the described species, while others are probably only varieties, as are some, perhaps, of Dr. Roxburgh’s species ; but, of these, without having an opportunity of seeing their habits in the living state in addition to their appearance in a dried one, I am unwilling to*suppress any, from the care and acuteness which he usually displayed in the elucidation of species. It is seldom that any botanist enjoys the opportunities of Dr. Roxburgh, who, after studying the botany of the Peninsula, was transferred to the Calcutta Garden and the ‘tropical riches of the eastern frontier of Bengal. | The only genera which are found over all parts of India are, Cardiospermum, Sapindus, and Melicocca. Of the first, the species C. Halicacabum, which extends also into Arabia, is found in every part of India. Of Sapindus, though so tropical a genus, we find a species, S. acuminatus, in the most northern parts of India, having been found by Dr. Wallich in Silhet, at Bechiaco on the entrance into Nepal, and by myself, attaining a great size on the banks of rivers in the valleys within the Himalaya in 303° N. latitude. Melicocca trijuga (Schleichera, Roxb.) is found in similar situ- ations, being common at the foot of the hills in the Deyra Doon, and also in the most southern parts, as well as in the Peninsula. The species of Schmidelia (Ornitrophe, Roxb.) do not extend northwards, though common in Silhet, and southwards in the Malayan as well as in the*Indian Peninsula. Adlophyllus ternatus (Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p- 263), of which there is a specimen in the East-Indian Herbarium under Dr. Rox- burgh’s first name, A. ornitrophioides, appears from the characters which he gives of the genus, to be distinct from Schmidelia. The species of Dodonea seem to be entirely confined to the, Peninsula. — The Sapindacee having been divided into sections on account of differences in botanical structure, a like difference is observed in the properties of the plants belonging to the respective sections. Thus, of the Dodonea, Magonia pubescens and glabrata, according to M. A. St. Hilaire, are, like some of the Paulline@ which are acrid and narcotic, used as Paullinia pinnata for stupifying fish. Seriana triternata is employed for the same pur- pose. Paullinia australis, and some other species of the genus, are said to be poisonous ; and P. cupania Humb. is used for making an intoxicating liquor. P. subrotunda is an exception, in furnishing, like so many of the following section, an edible aril. Of these, the Sapindee, the species of the genus Sapindus, are remarkable for so many of them being used as a substitute for soap. Thus, in America, the S. Saponaria, and in | Java S. Rarak, and in India S. acuminatus, laurifolius, emarginatus and detergens (the last, according to Dr. Roxburgh, nearly allied to S. Saponaria,) are all used for the purposes of soap; owing, it is now ascertained, to the presence of the vegetable prin- T ciple 138 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Sapindacee. ciple called saponine. This has been traced in many other vegetables, which have the property of forming a lather with water, or as Messrs. Merat and De Lens express it, ‘dans toutes les plantes blanchissantes.” ‘In some recent works, as in the excellent one of M. Fée, it is stated, in speaking of the soap-berry, that ‘< les fruits ont une chair ‘« ‘huileuse dans laquelle la potasse abonde ;” reference ‘is ‘at the “same ‘time “made “to Raffles’ Java, where it is mentioned, that these berries have been ‘analysed, and ‘the ton- stituent ’principles of the best ‘soap “obtained. ‘The ‘root ‘and bark of many ‘species are also said to be‘saponacéous. The exact natiire of this principle might be advan- tageously investigated ‘by chemists favourably ‘situated ‘in the ‘native countries of the plants, and thenature of the changes ascertained which takes place from the unripe and acrid, to the bland and saponaceous ripe fruit. ‘The subject is interesting, as so many of this section afford ‘edible fruit; ‘and our igno- rance of the exact constituents may sometimes induce us to adduce as exceptions to the rule of the properties of plants being in conformity to their structure, that which may be only a‘confirmation. Thus even some ofthis. genus, as Sapindits ‘esculentus and senegalensis, yield edible fruit. That of Euphoria Li-chi is one of the most delicious and delicate-flavoured of the East, and though a native’of China, would succeed well in most parts of India, as it does so in Calcutta, and “also in the ‘Botanic Garden at Saharunpore. E.Longan and Nephelium, the Rambootan of ‘the Malayan Archipe- lago, yield edible fruits; as well as EZ. rimosa‘and rubra, both inhabitants of the Silhet district, which are eaten by the natives of that district; so are those of Jelicocca trijuga, called even in the distant parts of India, where this tree is indigenous, kusoombha and guosum, and where, as in the Doon in April, it may be readily recognised at a distance by the red: colour of its young leaves. Allits parts of fructification are liable to considerable variation. The pulpy subacid aril, as Dr. Roxburgh remarks, forms a - grateful fruit; the wood is -hard and used as timber. Schmidelia serrata, of which the root ‘is said to be astringent, yields also an edible fruit. The wood of several species is close grained and hard, and forms valuable timber, as of Sapindus rubiginosus, and of Euphoria Longan and Li-chi; the latter also one of the most ornamental of trees. The edible-fruit of the Indian and Malayan species (P. sativa and dulcis) of Pierardia, a genus referred by M. Blume to Luphorbiacee, has been already mentioned. The latter, Dr: Jack is of opinion, consists of two varieties; the Rambeh, of which Mr. Marsden has given a figure ‘in his History of Sumatra, pl. vi. p. 101, belonging to the peninsula of ‘Malacca, but unknown at Bencoolen; while the Choopa, from which Dr. Jack has described the’ species, is abundant at the latter place, but not found in the former. To this genus is nearly allied, as Dr. Jack states (Lin. Trans. xiv. p. 118), his Hedy- carpus; of which the only species, H. Malayanus, yields the Tampui, a fruit ranking _in point of taste and flavour along with the Lanseh. ‘This, belonging to the genus Lansium of Jack (1. c.:p. 115) is closely allied to Milnea of Roxburgh, also yielding an edible fruit, and both belonging to the MJeliacee, and in many respects resem- bling Pierardia, and shewing the connection between the two families. Sapindus Meliacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 139 Sapindus acuminatus (Wall. MSS. E. I. Herb.) ; rachi foliorum angustissime marginata, foliolis 5-6- jugis oblique lanceolatis acuminatis lucidis suboppositis breye petiolatis, unico breviore terminali: panicula ramosissima terminalii—Hap. Deyra Doon and other valleys within the Himalaya, flowering in May ; also at Bechiaco, in the entrance to Nepal and at Silhet: the native name reetha. Fruit used for the same purposes as the soap berries of the West Indies and South America. 40. MILLINGTONIACER. Dr. Roxburgh having found it necessary to deprive the late Sir S. Millington of the genus assigned to his memory, in consequence of ascertaining the only species thereof to be a true Bignonia, restored the name to the system by assigning it to two timber-trees, which at that time, as he expresses himself (Fl. Ind. i. p. 102), « constituted this strongly-marked family,” of which one species, M. simplicifolia, was figured in t. 254 of his Coromandel plants ; and with it, another species described in the Flora Indica. In 1824 Dr. Wallich sent to England what he considered three more species; AZ. dille- nifolia, pungens, and integrifolia; of these the two last appear to me identical, as no great reliance can be placed on the entireness of the leaves, as some with entire and spinulose margins may occasionally be seen on the same specimen. M. pinnata was procured from Silhet; J. simplicifolia and pungens from that district, and the entrance into Nepal; the two last were also found by Dr.Wight; the first on the Neelgherries, and the second on the mountains of Madura. M. dillenifolia Dr.Wallich obtained from Chundraghiry, and other elevated mountains in Nepal. The trees I have met with belong to Dr.Wallich’s two species, M. dillenifolia and pungens: the former found about Dhunoultee and Simla, between 6,000 and 7,000 feet of elevation ; and M. pungens is common about the rivers below both the Mussooree and Suen ranges. To this is allied another tree found in the valley about Mugra, which I have called MW. acuminata, but it may be only a variety of A/. pungens. This genus, therefore, consisting of four or five species, is spread over a considerable extent of territory from 10° to 314° of northern latitude, or from the Neelgherries and Madura, along Silhet and the foot of Nepal to Mussooree and Simla; and has been formed into an order, and an excellent account given by Messrs. Wight and Arnott in Jameson’s Journal for July 1833, p. 178; at which time they state (Prod. Fl. Indie Penins. p. 115) theyhad not seen the similar remarks made by Jack (Mal. Misc. 2. p. 32). The authors observe, that the habit of the MJillingtonias is much that of Semecarpus ° mangifera and Buchanania: it may be added, that in inflorescence they also resemble the mango. In some of the species, extending to a considerable elevation in the Hima- layas, they also, resemble some of the Zerebinthacee; but Dr. Hooker having sug- gested an affinity with Sapindacee, the authors see little objection to its forming the type of a new order next them, . ‘ 41. MELIACE®. The Aelacee@, it has been observed, are closely allied to Sapindacee; and it has been further remarked by M. Adrien de Jussieu, in his excellent memoir on the former Ta order . 140 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Meliacee. order, that the genus from which the latter takes its name, presents a disk or short annular tube, situated between the petals and stamens; which if elongated to the height of the stamens, and united with the filaments applied on its surface, would afford a counterpart of the staminal apparatus of the Afeliacee. M. Ad. Jussieu further remarks, that they are moreover allied in the number, as well as in the relative situation of the parts of the flower, and the structure of the seeds is absolutely that of the TZrichiliee, or the largest group of MJeliacee. The resemblance in habit is considerable, as already mentioned under Sapindacee: the edible fruit afforded by so many species of the latter, is also produced by some of the Meliacee, as by Lanseh (Marsden’s Sumatra, v. p. 101), and by Lansium montanum, the characters of which, Dr. Jack remarks, coincide very nearly with those of Milnea edulis; the large succulent, lucid, and edible aril of which is compared by Dr. Roxburgh to that of the Li-chi. From this resemblance in so many points, and their affording conjointly the variety of highly-esteemed fruits, which, as Dr. Jack remarks, may be considered peculiar to the Malayan Archipelago, one is induced to wish to see them in the same natural order ; but it has been observed by M. Ad. Jussieu, that in classification, Monadelphia, or the ‘union of stamens, appears to him of consequence, particularly as so much importance is attached to the union of the several pieces which compose the corolla. The Meliacee being a family found chiefly in the equinoctial parts of the world, may be expected in the plains and southern provinces of India, but not as forming a portion of the Flora of the Himalayas. M. A. Jussieu has remarked that they are found in equal numbers in America and Asia, but only about one-fourth the number in Africa; though this may be owing to the less perfect investigation of that continent. They — extend in the two hemispheres beyond 40° of latitude, as Melia Azedarach is naturalized in Provence, a Cedrela is found near Pekin, and a Hartighsea in New Zealand. But these isolated species become more and more numerous as we approach the tropics, _ between which they have their maxima of numbers. In the most northern parts of India we have three genera and five species, of which one at least seems to have been introduced from Persia, and the others are common either in the plains of India, or occur in the belt of the tropical forest which girds the base of the Himalaya. As we proceed southwards, they increase in numbers until they reach their maximum in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, By Mr. Brown they have been divided into Melia- cee and Cedrelacee ; those by M.A. Jussieu into the tribes Meliee and Trichiliee, and these into Swieteniee and Cedrelee. Some species of all the tribes are found in India. Of Meliee, which are confined to Asia and Africa, and of which+one species has crept into Europe, and another is mentioned with doubt as being a native of America, species of most of the genera are found in India. The Neem tree, or Margosa tree of _ the Peninsula, has been separated from Melia into a distinct genus, Azadirachta (from the Persian name azad-i-durukht, the free or excellent tree), on account chiefly of its ternary, not quinary structure of the parts of the pistil, and its single-seeded fruit. ‘Of the genus Melia, two species are found in Northern India :—one, there called deh, the Meliacee.) THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, . 14] the Melia Azedarach, or Persian lilac, Hill margosa of Dr. Ainslie, mentioned by Dr. Roxburgh as being a native of China, &c.; the other species, is one, which has by Dr. Roxburgh been considered the same as the American M. sempervirens of Swartz, and both by some authors accounted only varieties of M. Azedarach; The Indian plant no doubt very closely resembles this both in inflorescence and foliage, but may be easily distinguished by its larger berries and extremely hard pentagonal nut, covered with a sweetish viscid sarcocarp, which, on drying, assumes a semi-transparent appearance, like that of soap-berries; the leaves also in my specimens are longer, the pinne more nume- rous, and the leaflets more membranous and less serrated. This is universally distinguished in the northern provinces of India from Melia Azedarach or dek, by the Hindoostanee name bukayun or bukain, of which the synonimous Arabic name given is ban, the Persian azad-i-durukht, and the tree said to be a native of Persia; its Synonymes, moreover, in the northern provinces of that country are also given. It is probable, therefore, that this, if not exclusively, at least in conjunction with Melia Azedarach, is the Azedarach of Avicenna. Dr. Roxburgh also states the bukayun to be a native of Persia, though common throughout India, and that its Arabic name is ban. This, in addition to the specimens in the East-Indian Herbarium, perfectly identifies his’ plant with that of Northern India. The Sanscrit name of maha-nimba, or great neem, corresponds rather with its appearance in the northern than in the southern provinces of India, where Dr. Roxburgh describes it is as a small delicate evergreen of short duration, perfectly distinct from Azedarach. He considers it, however, the same as Melia sempervirens of Swartz, mentioning that plants reared in the Calcutta Botanic Garden, from seed received from the West Indies, did not in any respect differ from the Asiatic sort. Having con- sidered the subject as settled, I regret that I did not pay more minute attention to the plants in the living state; for on referring to an original specimen of Melia semper- virens from Dr. Swartz, in the late Sir James Smith’s Herbarium, it does not appear to me to correspond with that to which the same name has been applied in India, and which, I conceive, is a distinct spécies. This I would propose calling Aelia bukayun, easily distinguished ‘from MJ. Azedarach by its fruit, as MM. sempervirens is, according to Swartz, by being “ planta minor et sepe floret biennis, quod foliola lete _viridia raro plusquam 7, rugosiuscula, profundius et magis inequaliter serrata et acuminata.” The author of the Mukhzun-ool-Udwieh moreover describes four kinds of Neem, or Melia, as formerly constituted,—1. Neem; 2. Bukayun; 3. Dek; and the 4th without a name, may perhaps be the Melia composita of the Peninsula, Mallea ( Ekebergia indica, Roxb.) is found at the foot of the Circar Mountains, and, as well as Sandoricum indicum, in the Peninsula. The species of Turr@a seem confined to . the Indian Islands, as T. pinnata, P|. As. Rar. t. 119, a native of Silhet, is mentioned with doubt as belonging to this genus. Of the tribe Trichiliege (abundant in South America, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and extending to New Holland), we have also species in India, especially in the southern parts. Heynea trijuga, Amoora lara, and Spherosacme fragrans, Wall. (Aglaia decandra, Wall. F). Ind. 2. p. 427) extend as far north 142 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Meliacee. north as the valleys of Nepal. The other species of Amoora, Roxb. Corom. Plants, (Andersonia, of the Flora Indica; Aphanamizis? of Blume) extend from Silhet to the Delta of the Ganges, and from that to the Peninsula. A. cucullata, and Xylocarpus granatum, mentioned by Dr.Wallich, under Lamarck’s name Carapa moluccensis, are also found in the two latter situations. From Amoora must be kept distinct the decan- drous species which constitute the genus Spherosacme of Dr. Wallich, of which one species has been mentioned above, and is represented at t. 853, and another SS. spectabilis, at t. 351, of his unpublished plates. The dissections given in these plates resemble those given of Lansium by Dr. Jack, in Lin. Trans., vol. xiv. t. 4. In Silhet are also found Milnea edulis, allied to Lansium; species of Walsura; and the several plants which have been referred to Guarea, but which do not agree with the characters of that genus, as defined by M. Ad. de Jussieu; who states that Dr. Roxburgh’s two species, G. binectarifera and paniculata, ought to be referred to some other genus. The authors of the Prodromus of the Flora of the Indian Peninsula* have referred the first to Epicharis, and the second to Disorylon, genera which are both indigenous in Java. Dr.Wallich’s species they have referred to the last genus, and to Hartighsea. To one of these also, or to Epicharis, ought probably to be referred Dr.Wallich’s Melia penduliflora, No. 1255. Of the small order of Cedreleacea, Soymida (Swietenia, Roxb.) febrifuga, is found in all the central and southern parts of India, and Chikrassia tabularis in the Peninsula, - with Chlororylon Swietenia. Cedrela toona extends over every part of India, and may be seen all along the foot of the Himalaya. The specimens from Nepal having fre- quently a sixth part added, Dr.Wallich was induced to call this variety C. hexandra. There is, however, a distinct species, C. serrata, which may be readily recognised by the great length of its racemes of flowers, and may frequently be seen with Sapindus acuminatus, growing in the close valleys within the Himalayas. The group of Meliacee was admitted by M. De Candolle as one of those which rather confirm than-weaken the rule of the accordance of properties with the affinities and structure of vegetables. This has been proved by extended experience, and the better ‘defined nature of the order. The Cedreleace@, as remarked by Ad. de Jussieu, are remarkable for the bitterness and astringency of several of their parts; to which is | frequently added an aromatic principle. To this is owing the absence of insects from their wood, and its consequent durability; and the febrifuge properties for which these plants are noted in their native country. Thus, Soymida febrifuga, the rohuna of Hindoostan, known for its astringent and particularly bitter taste, is reckoned a good . stomachic and powerful febrifuge, and an excellent substitute for the Peruyian bark. (As. Res. xi. p. 190.) So-the Khaya is employed for the cure of fevers, on the banks of the Gambia. In India, again, the bark of Cedrela toona, as well as that of the Chikrassee, fmt A> ve been made from a hasty glance at a * This valuable work I have just received ; the previous references he copy in sheets, with a sight of which I was favoured by Dr. Wight, previous to his departure for India. Meliacee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 143 Chikrassee, is described as being astringent, but without bitterness; and is useful, as the Cedrela febrifuga of M. Blume, and the bark of Swietenia mahogani, in the cure of ‘intermittent fevers. ! It is not unworthy of remark, that many of the Cedreleacee are remarkable for the excellence ‘of their wood. The mahogany is too well known to require further notice, than that it succeeds ‘well in the most northern, as in the southern parts of India. The Cedrela toona, though a lighter and more open-textured wood, forms the mahogany of India, and is much used for making furniture. The Chikrassee, also, a large timber-tree, is much esteemed for its “ light-coloured, elegantly-veined, close-grained wood,” as well as the satin-wood, afforded by another of this tribe, the Chlororylon Swietenia. All might with great benefit to the country be more extensively cultivated in different parts of India. .M. Jussieu remarks ‘that the existence of an essential oil is indicated in Chloroxylon and Flindersia by the transparent points in their leaves. The former is mentioned by Dr. Ainslie as one of those yielding wood-oil in India. ; . M. Adrien Jussieu remarks that the bitter, astringent, and tonic principles found in most of the Cedreleacee, may also be observed in some of the Meliacee, but with easily- _ observable differences ; while principles of a more energetic nature develope themselves, which make others of the tribe dangerous of employment. A tree, of the name of jito, is known to be of a purgative nature in Brazil, and said to be oftener of a poisonous than remedial-nature. M. Jussieu ‘Supposes it probable that the same name may be applied to several of the Meliacee, rather than to only one species of Guarea. Guarea Aubletii-and.G. trichilioides have bark, which is purgative-and emetic: Trichilia cathar- tica and _S. trifoliata have both the former property ; and Forskal informs us, that in an Arab book, his Elkaja, Trichilia emetica is described as being of an emetic nature. In India, the bark of Walsura piscidia is thrown into ponds to kill fish, which, “coming to the surface, are easily taken, and :not considered injurious to be eaten. Melia Azedarach has been accounted poisonous from the time of Avicenna, but it is only in larger doses that its fruit can be considered such. Loureiro recognises the utility of Azedarach in worm cases, and M. Blume states, that both JZ. Azedarach and Azadirachta are employed in Java as anthelmintics. The root of the former, which is bitter and nauseous, is considered a powerful anthelmintic in America: by Dr. Barton, as one of the best. A decoction of the leaves is said to be astringent and stomachic, and also to be injurious to insects, and employed with success against porrigo, . In India the Azadirachta is much more employed than the Azedarach, every part, but especially the bark, being bitter, and considered a valuable tonic: Mr. Piddington, in consequence, presented the Medical Society of Calcutta with a sulphate of Azadirine, which had for its base the bitter principle of the Azadirachta. The fruit is said to be useful in leprosy, and yields a bitter fixed oil, which ‘is anthelmintic and stimulant :-— another instance (as well as the Azedarach) after the olive, as observed by M. Richard (Lindl, Nat. Ord. p. 121), of the pericarp yielding a substance usually afforded by the seed. 144 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF Ampelidece. seed. Neem leaves are universally used in India for poultices; and the seeds called nibuolee, are employed for killing insects, being first skinned; the kernel powdered and ‘mixed with water is used for washing the hair. A kind of toddy is, moreover, pro- cured from tapping healthy young margosa trees, according to Dr. Ainslie. The seeds of Melia bukayun, called hub-ool-ban, are considered emetic, laxative, and anthelmintic; and the bark is accounted bitter and anthelmintic in Java, that is, if JZ. sempervirens be the same as bukayun. Many of the other Meliacee possess bitter and tonic principles, as the bark, leaves, and tender parts of Heynea trijuga. M. Blume ascribes to Sandoricum indicum some of the same properties as to Melia: it is employed as an astringent, with the bark of Carapa obovata. The bark of Xylocarpus granatum, as well as the steds, is very bitter. Cedrela serrata; foliolis 12-jugis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis marginibus irregulariter serratis subtus glaucescentibus, racemis pendulis foliis longioribus. v. Tab. 25.—This tree, called durloo by the natives, is found in the valleys of the Himalaya, growing in similar situations with the toon,but with lighter- coloured wood, and attains a smaller size; though it may be readily recognised by its large leaves, which are, however, exceeded in length by the immense racemes of flowers, which are diminished more than one-half in the figure. The flowers are also larger than those of C. Toona, and have five sterile sta- mens, which have not, however, been represented by the artist, alternating with the erect fertile ones. 42. AMPELIDEX. This order, named from the Greek name of the grape-vine, is also called Sarmentacee, Vites, and Vinifere. It includes the genera Cissus and Vitis, which are now generally united into one, under the latter name, forming, with Ampelopsis, one section of the order, while Leea and Lasianthera form another :—the latter an African genus, the _ former confined to India and the islands of Ceylon and Mauritius. The genus Ampe- lopsis, formed by Michaux of some North American plants, distinguished from Vitis by its distinct and spreading petals, has also been found in the north, both of Africa and of China, as well as in the Himalayas, at Mussooree and Simla. The genus Vitis is found in the equinoxial parts, both of the Old and New World, extending into both the temperate zones; as southwards, to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland, and northwards, to Japan and North America, as well as from the plains of India to the defiles of Caucasus. We may therefore expect to meet species of the genus, as we have done so many others with a similar geographical distribution, at the foot as well as at moderate elevations in the Himalaya. The species of Vitis are numerous in India, as Dr.Wallich has enumerated upwards of fifty in his Catalogue; of these several are common to the peninsula of India, the lower parts of Bengal, and the country about Silhet. V. auriculata, tomentosa, and adnata, travel upwards towards Rajmahl and Monghir. V. guadrangularis. may be traced further north in the plains of India, near villages and the abodes of Fuqueers ; but Vitis (Cissus, Roxb.) carnosa is common in the plains of Northern India; and V. latifolia in the jungles towards Kheree and at the foot of the hills: both send up their young shoots during the rainy season, and have their great roots, or rather under-ground stems, covered by the ground from Ampelidee.| THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. : 145 from the cold of winter, as well as the great drought of the hot weather. V. Janata (rugosa, Wall.), Jlanceolaria, repens (glauca, Wall.), common in the Indian and Malayan Peninsulas, extend northwards from Silhet to Nepal; and the first, with Cissus rosea nob. t. 26, f. 1, is found in the Deyra Doon and the jungles at the foot of the mountains of Kemaon and Sirmore. C. Jeminea, Roxb., was recognised in my Herbarium .by Dr. Wight, as his Vitis Rorburghii. It therefore exists in the Peninsula, as well as in thevalley of the Agurwal, beyond 30° of N. latitude, and may be found in intermediate situations, but is not mentioned in Dr. Wallich’s Catalogue. Having found it always hermaphrodite, though otherwise agreeing in every respect with Dr. Roxburgh’s description, I had a drawing made, that it might afford _ better means of future comparison. (v. Lc. ined., t. 58.) Cissus Nepalensis, obtained from Dr. Wallich, is the only Himalayan species mentioned by De Candolle, but is not contained in the East-Indian Herbarium ; at least under that name. Mr. Don has a Vitis capreolata, Prod. Fl. Nep. p- 188, which I have figured at t. 26, f. 2, and consider the same as V. hederacea, N. 6019 of Dr. Wallich, and to which, _ from its habit of clinging to and climbing up trees, I had given the same name. This may possibly be the V. serrulata of Dr. Roxburgh (vy. Wallich’s Cat. 6034), in which - case this name must be substituted for V. capreolata. In addition to these, Dr.Wallich has seven Nepal species of Vitis. Of these I am acquainted with V. parvifolia, cymosa, and obtecta, which are found in the higher vallies near, as well as on Mussooree, where, however, a new species, V. macrophylla, is most conspicuous, from climbing trees and hanging down in elegant festoons from their tops. The species of Leea ascend as high as 5,000 feet on the mountain side, one species, _ L. rubra, being found near Jurreepanee, and also about the Kheree jungle. Leea aspera, found by Dr.Wallich in Nepal, also occurs in the Doon and about Nahn. The other species of this genus are found in Silhet and the Indian and Malayan Peninsulas. With respect to the properties of the plants of this family, little can be said that has not reference to the grape-vine, which has almost exclusiv ely engrossed the atten- tion of botanists. But several species of Cissus are remarkable for being acid, especially the fruit, owing to the presence of tartaric acid; hence Cissus carnosa, (of which a variety was at one time called C. acida by Dr. Roxburgh,) is used in Hindoo medicine, as well as the foots of C. latifolia, called kusar ; Forskal also describes three species of Cissus sider his name 2 Selanthes, of which the leaves are acid, and edible, when cooked; but not the stems and roots. But the leaves of C. cordata and C. setosa are described by Dr. Roxburgh as being acrid, as well as the berries of the latter, of which the leaves are said to be useful in bringing indolent tumours to suppuration. The young, tender, and succulent stems of Vitis (Cissus) quadrangularis are said, by Dr. Roxburgh, to be very generally eaten by the | natives of India. When old, it is considered acrid in the parts of India where I have | seen it, and accounted useful in medicine; as it is also stated to be by Dr. Ainslie, as well as by Forskal in Arabia, who says, ‘ Venenatum potent incole Morenses; : w 4 linguam 146 . ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Ampelidee. linguam manusque urente dolore afficit. Sectio caulis, aquam copiose emittit. Solent Arabes dorsi dolore laborantes, hujus caules nocte sibi substernere.” (Descr. p. 34:) But the, grape-vine is alone of any importance for the utility of its products. The sap was at one time used in médicine, and the juice of the leaves, particularly of a variety in which they are red, considered astringent. Verjuice, expressed from unripé 7 grapes, is well known for its acidity, and use in making syrups, &e. Lieut. Burnes mentions, that in Caubul they use grape powder, obtained by drying and powdering the unripe fruit, as a pleasant acid. When ripe it is every where valued as a fruit, either fresh, or in the state of raisins, and of one variety, as currants. The juice of the ripe fruit, called must, is useful as an agreeable beverage, froni containing sugar. By fermentation, other valuable products are procured, 48 wine, alcohol, and vinegar ; while the lees yield tartar or impure cream of tartar, from whieh tartaric acid may be obtained : an oil is sometimes extracted from the seeds, and even the ashes are con- sidered useful in medicine, from containing, like that of so many other woods, salts of potass. The grape-vine being a plant of so much value and importance, its distribution is an _ interesting subject of inquiry, though there is little prospect of its becoming in India of greater value than as affording an agreeable fruit; though this is of sufficient importance to render highly desirable the introduction and trial of different and superior kinds from Europe. The native country of the vine seems now to be better ascertained than that of niany othér as extensively cultivated plants. Bieberstein, in his Flora Tauro- Caucasica (1. p. 174) states, “ Nusquam non preter alpestria, per omnem de qua sermonem facimus regionem sponte in sylvis atque dumetis nascitur, et altissimas quan- doque arbores ascendens, totas quantas occupat.” The author of the “ Mukhzun- | ool-udwieh,”? who was an inhabitant of the district, describes the vine, as found both wild and in gardens at Tinkaboon, in Deilim, about lat. 37°, on the southern shores of the Caspian, and that it is there called dewaz. Humboldt, also, in his “ Geographie des Plantes,” p. 26, mentions that the vine “‘ grows wild on the coasts of the Caspian Sea, in Armenia, and in Caramania. The species of Vitis, which are found wild in North America, and which gave the name of Winenland to the first part of the New Continent which Europeans discovered, are very different from our Vitis vinifera.” These, as we learn from Pursh, are Vitis labrusca, called fox-grape; V. estivalis, summer- grape; and V. cordifolia, winter-grape. From the sacred writings we know that the grape was cultivated in Asia in the earliest periods. M.Bové, the latest scientific traveller, informs us (Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1834, p. 172) that it is still cultivated, and a good wine made in the vicinity of Jerusalem; but that in Egypt he found wine made only at Medinet-el-Fayoum (1. c. p. 76) which is in lat. 29°20’. “ From Asia,” Humboldt continues, ‘‘ it passed into Greece, and thence into Sicily. The Phoceeans carried it into the south of France, the Romans planted it on the banks of the Rhine ;” and we have it now extending to 51°, or even 52°, in England, where it ripens well, as in the present fine season, in the open air ; and wine is made in a few places in Devon- shire. ae Ampelidee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 147 shire. Southward the vine extends as far as 12° of northern latitude; as we learn from Dr. Ainslie (Ind, Mat. Med. 1. p. 166) that ‘*the French are particularly successful in cultivating the grape at Pondicherry, notwithstanding the great heat of the Carnatic.” The illustrious Humboldt, in his Proleg. de distrib. Geograph. Plant. p. 159, where, from the examination of a multitude of facts, he has deduced the requisites for the successful cultivation of many plants, has observed, that “ the vine in Europe yields a generous and excellent wine between the latitudes of 36° and 48°, where the mean annual temperature is from 62° to 50°, or even 47°-5, provided that of winter is not | below 38°, nor that of summer below 66° or 68°. ‘These conditions are fulfilled on the sea-coast as high as lat. 47°, in the interior as high as lat. 50°, and in North America only as high as lat. 40°. The vine may therefore be cultivated for wine in a belt of from 12° to 15° of latitude in breadth on both sides of the Line; though to a much greater ex- tent, if required, for its fruit only: but for both purposes, in a narrower space in the New than in the Old World. Further north than 48° of latitude, grapes do not generally secrete sufficient succharine matter to undergo a proper vinous fermentation, and further south than 35° (or 32° in an insular situation like Madeira), though they are both sweet and high-flavoured, the temperature is so great that the juice passes rapidly into the acetous fermentation; and therefore the grapes of the most southern parts of Europe are more frequently dried as raisins than converted into wine. The climate of India is such as to exclude it from benefiting either by preserving the grape, or converting it into wine; though: e north-western provinces, the vines thrive well and bear abundantly. They flower ary, and ripen the fruit (which is well, though perhaps not so deli- cately flavoured as in more temperate climates) about the middle of June, or about the time the vine is said to flower in Caucasus: at this time the mean temperature being about 90°, is evidently much too. great to allow of a slow and gradual vinous fermentation; while the accession of the rainy season immediately afterwards produces so great a degree of moisture, as to render it impossible to dry the grapes as raisins, unless this could be effected in ovens, after being plunged in boiling water, as is done in some parts of Europe. It might, perhaps, be practicable even to make wine by growing the grapes at i foot of the mountains, where free from jungles, as in the country beyond the Jumna, and conveying them to a moderate temperature on the mountain side. A brewery has been established in a situation where the mean temperature in the houses hardly ever varied from 60° in the warm weather, and the distance was so inconsiderable, that it was thought preferable to bring the barley from the plains, rather than use that which was grown on the spot. The Deyra Doon would be a particularly favourable situation; but at present there is too much uncleared jungle, and the climate too moist, to ripen the grape praperly in the short season, from the middle of March to ‘the middle of June; the greatest pains were taken in their cultivation, but without suecess, by the Hon. Mr. Shore while resident there. But it is observed, that when the warmth of a low latitude is compensated for by elevation, or a barrier is opposed to the inundating influence of the rainy season, . CZ grapes ee 148 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Ampelidece. grapes are ripened as fruit, dried as raisins, and converted into wine. Thus, in Kuna- wur, between N. lat. 31° and 32°, or nearly that of Madeira, where elevation produces the same moderation of temperature, that is, in the latter, the consequence of its insular situation, we have luxuriant vineyards between 9,000 and 10,000 feet of elevation, with grapes of delicious flavour, which the moderation of temperature in September allows of being converted into wine, and the dryness (v. p. 34) to be preserved as raisins, Two degrees further north, or in the valley of Cashmere, at an elevation of 5,500 feet, we have grapes both excellent and plentiful, as we learn from both Mr. Foster and Mr. Moorcroft. The latter says, that ‘‘ many thousands of acres skirting the foot of the hills, are covered with apple and pear trees in full bearing, but without owners.” (Jour. of Geog. Society, 1. p. 241 and 253.) My plant collectors expressed their admiration, by describing the fruit-trees as forming a perfect jungle in Cashmere. The moderation of temperature, with the existence of moisture, has been mentioned at p. 27, as account- ing for the magnitude attained by many species of European genera. This will also explain the great size of the vines, which Mr. Moorcroft informs us, ‘scales the summit of the poplar,” as well as for the want of a fine flavour, observed in the grapes brdtght to India, packed in layers of cotton. At Khoten, also, the vine is’ described by Mr. Moorcroft as being very productive. The different kinds of raisins called monukka, kishmish, and bedana, are brought chiefly from Istaulik. At Cabool, nearly in the same latitude, but more to the eastward than Cashmere, and elevated 6,000 feet, the grapes are described by Lieut. Burnes to be so plentiful, as to be given for three months to cattle. They are also abundant at Bokhara, and in both places are c mnverted into wine, and dried as raisins. Astrakhan, in 46° of N. latitude, seems to be the most northern point in Asia where the grape thrives, and there the vineyards are described as being numerous, Every traveller mentions the grapes and wine of Persia. Dr. Ainslie says, it was from thence, as well as from the banks of the Rhine, that grape-plants were originally sent to the Cape of Good Hope, and that some of these from Persia now produce the red and white Constantia. This is generally considered the only good wine from that settlement. Dr. Ainslie thinks highly of the Madeira, made from the groene druyf; but Pontac is also a good and verysound wine. The Persians, it may be added, claim the discovery of wine, and call it suhr-i-khoosh, or the delightful poison.* — “4 Vitis * It may not be uninteresting to mention, that in the northern provinces of India, where we have at one season a climate analogous to that of European latitudes, and at another a degree of heat which is never attained even within the tropics, the only wines which are relished, after the stimulus of a single glass of Madeira, are the light Clarets of France, or the Hock of Germany ; while in the cold weather Port is fre- quently drank, though never seen at any other season of the year, upless sometimes during the moisture of a damp situation in the rains ;—showing that climate influences the taste of northern nations for the stronger wines, rather than the habit one regrets to see ascribed to the English in a work generally of much research, published only during the present year: “Les Anglois ne boivent guére que des vins alcoholisés, ils trouvent les naturels trop doux ou trop faibles, ce qui ne doit pas étonner de gens qui usent, a leurs repas ordinaires, de l’eau de vie coupe de moitié d’eau, en place de vin.”—Dict. de Mat. Med. tom. vi. p. 935. Paris 1834. 7. a & > Geraniaced THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. _ 149 Vitis (Cissus) rosea; foliis rotundato-cordatis acuminatis, marginibus sinuato-serrulatis, ramis, petiolis pedunculisque pilosis, stipulis coloratis ovato-oblongis villosis, umbellis decompositis foliis oppositis, fructibus oblongis utrinque attenuatis (v. Tab. 26. f.1.) This elegant species of Vitis, found in the Kheree Pass and similar situations at the foot of the Himalaya, very nearly approaches C. cordata of Roxburgh from Amboyna; which is referred to V. repens by M. De Candolle, but may be distin- guished by its villous habit and barberry-shaped fruit, in which respect it resembles C. vitigenia, D.C. The stems are climbing, round, striated, hairy ; stipules small, rounded, hairy; peduncles leaf-opposed longer than petioles; hairy bractes at each subdivision of the compound umbel or cyme. Petals 4, _ distinct, spreading, of a light pink colour (a.b.) Stamens 4, inserted into the disk (c.) Germen surrounded by disk with truncate style, two-celled, 4-seeded (c.d.) Fruit pyriform (c.), one or two seeded, when double, each is flattened, with radicle and cotyledons, as in the genus (d. e. f.) “Vitis (Cissus) capreolata ; foliis pedato-5-foliolatis glabris, foliolis ovalibus utrinque’ attenuatis setacco-serratis, pedunculis petiolo longioribus, umbellis multifloribus.—Cissus capreolata, Don Prod. Fil. Nep. p. 188. - Vitis hederacea, Wall. Cat. N. 6019.b. Cissus hederacea, Royle MSS., 'Tab. 26. f. 2. (a. b.) flowers. 2.* The fruit. The species which has been figured in this plate, I am informed by Mr. Don is his Cissus capreolata, though his character does not in all respects agree with the plant. The group with pedate leaves (of which the two lateral ones are in pairs) to which this belongs, contains several species so nearly allied to one another—as Vitis japonica, nepalensis, serrulata and cymosa—that it is difficult to ascertain whether the differences in appearance be dependent on distinction of spe- cies or on differences of locality. The two last are found at the foot of the hills, and may be distin- guished by the great size of their bractee ; and V. serrulata, obtained first by Dr. Roxburgh from Chittagong, by the fewness of flowers in each umbel, shortness of the peduncles, and by its straggling habit. V. capreolata is found at elevations of 6,000 and 7,000 feet, clinging to the trunks of trees as closely as ivy, some of the cirrhi performing the office of roots in fixing the plant in the covering of moss, &c. with which the bark is covered in the rainy season, and perhaps even drawing nourishment from that receptacle of moisture. Ampelopsis Himalayana ; foliis palmato-3-foliolatis, foliolis coriaceis petiolatis utrinque glabris subtus glaucescentibus _ r ato-venosis mucronato-dentatis, medio basi attenuato, lateralibus inzequalibus, omnibus apice acu inatis, racemis dichotomo-corymbosis.—This, I was informed by Dr.Wight, was immediately recogni d by Dr. Torrie, on his late visit to England, as a genuine species of Ampelopsis, when seen by him in the splendid collection formed by the Countess of Dalhousie at Simla. My speci- mens, belonging to the same species, were procured at Mussooree, where the plant is common, climbing to the tops of lofty trees. Vitis semi-cordata, Wall. No. 6020, Ic: ined. 852, appears also to be a species of Ampelopsis from Nepal,—Whether this genus be continued distinct, or considered only a section of Vitis, the geographical distribution of its species will be equally interesting. 43. GERANIACE®. This order is well known from the Geraniums, or Cranesbills, being common in every forming favourite flowers in every part of the world. The latter (natives chiefly of the Cape of Good Hope) are also found in New Holland, and may be seen growing every where apparently wild in the island of St. Helena. The genera Geranium and Erodium, found in most parts of the World where there is moderate temperature, as in the plains of the northern half of the temperate zone and the mountains of tropical countries, are fqund in the Himalayas, where about fifteen species have been discovered at. various heights, as in the mountains above Silhet, in Nepal, and every where in Kemaon, Gurhwal, and Sirmore. Geranium bicolor nob. is that which occurs at the lowest elevations, being found in the Kheree Pass. At an elevation of from 5,000 to 7,000 feet, as at Mussooree, G. Wallichianum and Nepalense are common, with some new species, as . field in Europe, and the Pé/argoniums, to which the former nanie is generally applied, | . 150 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Balsaminea. as G. heterotrichon Sm. pedunculatum, and levigatum, nob., the last nearly allied to G. luci- dum of English botany. Mr. Don describes G. eriostemon of Fischer, found in Dahuria, as occurring among Dr.Wallich’s specimens from Gossainthan. On loftier mountains, as Choor and Urukta, G. Lindleyanum and Choorense are found, with a pale variety of G. Nepalense, which has also been brought me from Cashmere, with a hairy variety of G. Wallichianum. G. Grevilleanum, Wall. Pl. As. Rar. T. 209, found on Gossainthan, appears to be the same as a species found by Mr. Inglis on the Kherung Pass. A species of Erodium, E. himalayanum, nob., is also found in the northern portion of the Himalayas, as well as in Cashmere; ‘but is not common, as I only met with it once on the barren hills above Raengurh. The plants of this family are possessed of but little medical properties. Some.of the Pelargoniums (which, it may be mentioned, though injured by the rains, generally suc- ceed well in India,) are remarkable for their fragrance; and some of the Geraniums for their feetid qualities. Several of the species have been employed in medicine, from possessing astringent properties ; G. maculatum is so used in North America, and called Alum root. Geranium Lindleyanum; pilosissimum: caule ramoso adscendente, foliis inferioribus umbellatim dispositis longe petiolatis palmato 7-partitis, lobis multipartitis inciso-dentatis, caulinis oppositis, ramis axillaribus, pedunculis e dichotomia ramorum ramos superantibus, lateralibus terminalibus dimidio bre- vioribus, omnibus apice breve bibracteolatis bifloris, calycibus pilosis mucronatis, petalis integris.— Tab. 27. (a.b.) The flowers, half and full blown. (c.) Stamens. (d.) Stamens and Petals removed. I have had much pleasure in naming this plant (which I found at Urukta in flower in May) after my friend, Professor Lindley, from whom I have received great assistance during the progress of this work. 44, BALSAMINEZ. . This order is especially an East-Indian one, only a few species being found in moist places in other parts of the world. Dr. Wallich, in his Catalogue, enumerates forty- seven species of Impatiens, and though a few of these may be only varieties, others, as some of the Nepal species, contain evidently two species under one name: the above number will therefore probably remain undiminished. Of these, twenty-two are found in the mountains above Silhet and Pundooa, in Nepal, and Kemaon. In addition to four of these, I have five other species from the mountains to the northward of the Ganges, and along the range as far as Cashmere, whence two more species have been brought me; and analogous to what we have seen to be the resem- blance in the flora of Kunawur, on the northern face of the Himalayas to that of Siberia, so do we find one species closely allied to, if nof identical with, J. parviflora, of Siberia. In Mr. Inglis’s collection there is another species, J. Inglisii, nob., from Cheeni, also in Kunawur. It is remarkable that of the above forty-seven species, nearly the whole of the remainder, or at least twenty-two species, are found in the peninsula of India. A singular equality of numbers, seeing that we have hitherto found Peninsular and South of India genera confined to the base of the mountains, and if found existing on them, generally, only as single species; but here we : have Balsaminee.} THE“ HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 151 have them in equal numbers, some of them extending to an elevation of 7,000 feet. This anomaly can only be explained, and a stronger fact could not be adduced in its confirmation, than that the moisture and moderate temperature of the rainy season in the hills (for it is at this season only that they are found) is as favourable to their growth as the heat and moisture of the Peninsula. I have never met with any in the plains of India; but have heard from travellers that they are abandant ‘in Central India, whence we may expect some new species, as well as from the Neelgherries. The peculiarity of the Hill climate has been explained in the introductory chapter and at p. 16, where the moderation and equability of temperature, excess of moisture, and consequent smallness of evaporation during the rainy season, has been shewn to be favourable to the existence of tropical plants. At this season the balsams may be seen apparently unchanged for weeks together, with other plants which delight in a moist atmosphere, as Orchidee, Scitaminee, a few Melastomacee, Cyrtandracee, Begonias, the beautiful Platystemma violivides, and others of which the genera are considered peculiar to a tropical climate ; and of so loose, moist, and cellular a texture, as would at any other season in this locality be destroyed in a single day. It may, perhaps, be to this loose- ness of texture, of which we may suppose a degree of pliability to be characteristic, that we are to ascribe the great number of species, as well as their limited dis- tribution: for we find few of the Peninsular species in Bengal; not many of those from Silhet, in Nepal; and few of the latter in Gurhwal ; though of these, J. Hamit- toniana and insignis, with J. bicolor and pumila, nob., are common from Jurreepanee to Mussooree, flowering abundantly in the rainy season. A variety of, or one of the species nearly allied to, Z. Balsamina, is found in Sirmore, and near Simla. J. speciosa, one of the most splendid species, was brought me from the interior; and J. glandulifera, one of the largest, was produced from Cashmere seed. But the identification of species is - difficult in this genus, particularly in the dried state, without a minute examination of all the parts of the flower, and as I am without any specimens of Dr. Wallich’s species, I must refer the whole to Professor Henslow, of Cambridge, who has kindly undertaken, and will no doubt, with his usual ability, elaborate my species of the genus. Impatiens, at the same time with those in Dr.Wallich’s Herbarium. Impatiens bicolor ; erecta levis, apice flexuosa: foliis alternis ovato-acuminatis basi attenuatis petio- latis crenatis, crenis superioribus mucronilatis inferioribus glandulosis, pedunculis axillaribus trifloris, terminalibus multifloris subracemosis, pedicellis elongatis bracteis cordatis suffultis, sepalis lateralibus cordatis, caleare lineari inflexo, flore dimidio breviore capsulis glabris oblongis acuminatis.:—Hab. Mussooree and Simla. v. T. 28. fig. 1. (a.) The two lateral and the anterior calcarate sepal; (b.) the upper sepal; (c.c.) the four petals united in pairs; (d.) the stamens; (e.) the same, with the filaments separating at their base; (g.) capsule; (h.) the same bursting. I. glandulifera ; erecta, frutescens, ramosissima: foliis ternis lanceolatis acuminatis argute setratis, serris inferioribus, petiolis nodisque glanduliferis, pedunculis axillaribus terminalibusque multifloris racemosis, pedicellis elongatis, caleare brevissimo viridi glanduloso, capsula obovata apice spinulosa basi attenuata.—This gigantic species, obtained from Cashmere seed, is from its size very inadequately represented at Tab. 28. fig. 2, and the leaves are not sufficiently lanceolate. It succeeds well, both in the Saharunpore Botanic Garden and the Mussooree Experimental Nursery. 45. OXALIDEA. 152 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Connaracece. 45. OXALIDEZ. Mr. Brown, in shewing the relation of Averrhoa with Cnestis, belonging to the order which he then established of Connaracee (Tuckey’s Congo. p. 432), proposed also the name Ovalidee for the Sensitive of Batsch, an order composed of Averrhoa and Ovalis ; the former agreeing with the latter in every important point of structure of its flower, and in most respects in that of its seed. To these has been added Biophytum, formed of the species composing the natural division of the genus Ovalis, having abruptly pinnate leaves and annual stems. Of these four genera, three are found in India; and though the order is composed in De Candolle’s Prodromus of 159 species, only four are found in India. Averrhoa Carambola, and Bilimbi, are common in the gardens of Northern, as . they are in those of Southern India. Ovalis corniculata belonging to a genus found in most parts of the world, is itself a species of very extensive distribution, being found in Europe, North America, and Mexico, as well as in Japan, and in some of the African islands. It is likewise found in every part of the plains of India, in the cold weather, as well as in both Peninsulas, in the valleys at the foot of the Himalayas, and in the mountains at 7,000 feet of elevation. The Hill specimens do not in any way differ from those found in the plains; though in the latter, the variety with small and crowded numerous leaves approaching O. pusilla, is also found. Biophytum sensitivum is found as far as 30° N. lat. at the mouth of the Kheree Pass, also on the sandstone range near Allahabad. By Dr. Hamilton it was found near Rajmahl and Monghir. It has also been found in Silhet, Rangoon, and the Indian Peninsula. Biophyium sensitivum agrees also with Averrhoa Carambola, but especially with A. Bilimbi ‘in the foliola when irritated being reflected or dependent, which is likewise “¢ their position, in the state of collapsion or sleep, in all the species of both genera.” (Brown, 1. c.) The analogy of structure is confirmed by the possession of similar properties. Thus, Averrhoa Carambola, and Bilimbi, both have acid fruits, which are © used as seasoning ; and, being accounted refrigerant, also in making sherbets. Of the former there is also a sweet variety; but the latter is so acid as to be only used as a substitute for lemons, or for taking out stains. The different species of Ovalis are well known to contain oxalic acid, combined with potass. O. acetosella, called in England wood-sorrel, well known for its acid leaves and as a substitute for Ruwmevr acetosella, is represented in India by O. corniculata, which is there called chooka tiputtee, or three- leaved sorrel, and prescribed as a cooling medicine. The roots of Ovalis tuberosa are eaten in Chili, when cooked. Those of O. crenata, a plant of Columbia, bearing tubers like small potatoes, is one of those called Arracacha, and has been introduced into England as a substitute for that invaluable root; it might be so into India, and be useful wherever the soil and climate are better suited to it than to the potatoe. 46. CONNARACEZ. This family, consisting of Connarus, Lam., Cnestis, Juss., and Rourea, of Aublet, or Robergia, of Schreber, was separated from Terebinthacee by Mr. Brown; and as the “<< insertion * Zygophyllee.) THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 153 ‘« insertion of stamina in this family may be considered perhaps in all the genera rather as hypogynous than perigynous,” they are better placed here than with Zerebinthacee, from which they are distinguished by the want of resinous juice. Mr, Brown considers Cnestis to approximate to Averrhoa, and Cnestis, according to M. Ad. de Jussieu, is allied to Zanthorylee through Brunellia; though, on the other hand, “‘ Connarus can only be distinguished from some leguminosz, by the radicle of the seed being at the extremity most distant from the hilum.” This is truly an equinoctial family being found within the tropics of the Old and New World ; a few species of each of the genera are found in Ceylon, the Peninsula of India, and the forests of Chittagong and Silhet, but do not appear to extend further north. 47. ZYGOPHYLLEZ. M. Adrien de Jussieu, in his admirable memoir on the Rutacee@, has treated of the several families composing this great group or class under the names of Zygophylice, Rutea, Diosmee, Zanthorylea, and Simarubee. , | The Zygophyllee, allied to Geraniacee, as well as to Ovalis, are found in the warmer parts of the world; Zribulus and Fagonia existing as single species in the south of Europe, and with Zygophyllum, forming a prominent feature in the Flora of the Oriental or Syrian région, extend from Egypt to India, where also they occur as single species. Fagonia mysorensis is common in the plains about Delhi, as well as at elevated situations in the southern provinces of India (W. and A.) Tribulus lanuginosus spreads also from the northern provinces even to Ceylon. Thence we may trace species of this genus to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland, as well as to China and Japan, and a few occur in the warm parts of America. It is probable from the nature of the country and the distribution of the genus, that some species of Zygophyllum may be found in the extensive space which stretches from Delhi to Surat. The most important species of this family is Guaiacum officinale, which, with its congeners, is found in the West-Indies, and might, without doubt, be successfully cultivated in Bengal. The sudorific properties for which it is celebrated, are also par- ticipated in by Porliera hygrometrica, though dependent in the former on the presence of a peculiar principle, called Guaiacine. Some species of Tribulus and Zygophyllum are also used medicinally in different countries, but their properties are not very decided. The plants of the latter, however, are said to remain untouched, even in the desert, where the equally thorny A/hagi maurorum is greedily eaten by camels; but the seeds of Zygophyllum coccincum are said by Delile to be collected by the Arabs, and sold ‘comme epice aux droguistes du Kaire.” It is remarkable that the genera MJelianthus and Biebersteinia, generally considered as allied to Zygophyllee, should also be found in India, as well as Balanites, placed here with doubt. Biedersteinia, of which the first species, B. odora, was found in the Altai mountains, and the second, B. multifida, in Persia, has also been found in x Kunawur, 154 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Zyoophyllece. Kunawur, whence B. odora was brought: me by my plant collectors and also found there by Mr. Inglis; it was at once recognised in my Herbarium by Mr. Brown. The dissections. of this interesting plant, represented at Tab. 30, were drawn by Mr. C. Curtis, under the directions of this illustrious botanist: . The best generic character. has been given by M. Ad. de Jussieu in his memoir on the Rutacee. The similarity in the appearance of many of the plants of this cold, arid, and frequently saline region, to those found in the equally arid and saline, though hot region about Delhi, was formerly noticed, p. 39. It is interesting to find in the former, a genus allied to Zygophyllee, which are common in the latter; and in both there is an approximation to the Flora of the Oriental region. Melianthus was thought peculiar to the Cape of Good Hope, until Dr.Wallich’s plant-collectors discovered a decided species of this genus in the lofty mountains of Kemaon. Balanites Zgyptiaca (Ximenia, Auct.) which, though so strongly resembling Zygo- phyllum in having its leaves in pairs, has long since been stated by Mr. Brown not to belong to this order. By M. Delile it is referred to Aurantiacee, and by the authors of the Mora Senegambie to Olacinee; with neither of which does it appear tome to be more closely allied than with the order from which it has been ‘removed. It is interesting to find this plant common in the country about Delhi, and in the Doab as far as Allahabad, especially on the banks of the Jumna, as it serves with the other plants mentioned p.5, to shew an analogy in the Flora of this part of India with that of Egypt, where also this plant is found, as well as in both the interior and on the western coast of Africa. This was first discovered by Dr. Roxburgh, as belonging to the Indian Flora, when he suggested that it should be formed into a new genus, rather than be referred to Ximenia, and described it as common on the driest and most barren parts of the Circars ; it is found only in similar situations in the north of India, and is one of those plants referred to at p. 5, as shewing the great uniformity of vegetation over a great extent of the plains of India. In the neighbourhood of Delhi, there is also a very distinct variety, if not a new species, with small narrow lanceolate leaves, which in my journal I named rigidum, in contradistinction to the other, which I called arboreum, referring both with a doubt to Zygophyllum, as they were at that time with- out flowers or fruit. From an officer of rank in the medical service I also received a drawing of a variety with yellow flowers, from the neighbourhood of Cawnpore, which may also be a distinct species. The fact would be interesting, as assisting in ascertaining the native country of the first species, in accordance with Mr. Brown’s rule, that a plant would more probably ‘‘ belong to that country in which all the other species of the same genus were found decidedly indigenous, than to that where it was the only species of the genus known to exist.” In the present instance, there can be no doubt about this plant being indigenous in India, whatever it may be in Africa. M. Silvestre de Sacy, in the learned and invaluable notes attached to his translation of the “ Relation de l’ Egypte par Abd-allatif,’ bas proved that the lebakh of Arabian authors is the Persea of the ancients ; which he however concludes has entirely disap- peared Rutacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. ‘155 peared from Egypt. M. Delile supposes that Balanites 4gyptiaca is the tree :—there is no doubt that in some points it does agree ; but the fruit of Persea, though astringent before ripening, is described .as being afterwards sweet, and good to eat, though not very agreeable. Of the fruit of the Balanites, M. Delile himself says, “ils etoient astringens et fermes avant leur maturité: j’en gardai quelques uns, qui se ramolloient et prirent une saveur douce que je ne trouvai point agréable ;” and it is difficult to suppose how they could ever become so; as Dr. Roxburgh describes ‘‘ the pulp as exceedingly bitter, having an offensive greasy smell.” I never met with it except inits unripe state ; and the only use to which it was applied, is that alluded to by Dr. R. as a firework; the nut being scooped out, by a hole made at one end, is filled with gunpowder, which, when let off, makes a loud report, on account of the denseness and tenacity of the shell. A recent author supposes that this plant produces the myrrh, but for this opinion there does not appear to be any foundation. . 48. RUTACEZ. This family, in Professor De Candolle’s Prodromus, includes the Rutee and Diosmee of M. Adrien de Jussieu. The former, called Rutacee by Dr. Lindley, contains, with some others, the genera Ruta, Peganum, and Cyminosma. Peganum is placed here by M. Ad. de Jussieu, although, as observed by Dr. Lindley, ‘‘ its stipulate leaves, destitute of pellucid dots, appear to determine its greatest affinity to be with Zygo- phyllee.”” P. Harmala, the only species of the genus found in the south of Europe and in the Syrian region, also occurs in several parts of India. It has been brought me from between Shahpoor and Bussoulee, on the banks of the Ravee or Hydraotes ; it was seen by Dr.Wallich in the Taj Muhul garden at Agra, at which place I have also found it, but near the banks of the river; and it is included in the Flora of the Peninsula. Lahoree hoormul, the name by which the seed still used in medicine is now known in Northern India, indicates its probable introduction from the northward. In the Mukhzun-ool-Udwieh, moolee or moly is given as the Yoonanee or Greek name, evidently the poh of Dioscorides, who also mentions that by some it is called harmala, —a striking instance of the permanence of some at least of the Asiatic names. Ruta albiflora, figured by Dr. Hooker, Ex. Fi. t. 79, is common in the Himalayas, at elevations of from 5,000 to 8,000 feet, having been found in Nepal and Kemaon by Dr.Wallich, and by myself in Gurhwal. Another species, R. angustifolia, Pers., or a variety of Ruta Chalepensis, Lin., called Sudab, may be met with in gardens; also introduced on account of its uses in medicine, as the Greek name is said to be fekhun, or ufghanin, evidently a corruption of eye, owing to the want of the letter P in the Arabic alphabet. The rest of the species of this genus are found, like the Zygophyllee, in the southern parts of Europe, the north of Africa, and the Syrian region, as well as in China and Japan. Cyminosma, which is common to the southern parts of India, China, and Cochin-China, forms, with the above and Aplophyllum (a genus including x 2 the 156 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Diosmea. the simple-leaved species of Ruta) the small order of Rutee ; so that India possesses representatives of nearly all its genera. pecatie The medical properties of the Rutacee are owing to a bitter principle, accompanied with essential oil: the latter giving them their strong and peculiar odour, and the other the bitter taste, on which account common rue is considered emmenagogue and anthel- mintic. Ruta angustifolia, said to be common in Persia, Caubul, and Tinkaboon, is given in India as a substitute for R. graveolens, and considered emmenagogue, as well as Peganum Harmala. R. albiflora is employed as a stimulant in the hills, 49. DIOSMEZ. The Diosmee M. A. de Jussieu divides into four sections, according to the countries where they are produced, because he finds their fructification correspond with their geographical distribution. 1. European; 2. African, found in dry and sunny places, and characterising the Flora of the Gape; 3. Australasian, of which several in external appearance resemble some from the Cape; and, 4. American, of which the first sub-section contains Evodia, to which Dr. Wallich refers some species, and the second nearly corresponds with the Cuspariee of M. De Candolle. The first section, called European,—from the then single genus and species Dictamnus Fravinella having only been found in the southern parts of Europe,—exists also in the northern parts of Asia; as the species or variety, D. albus, has been fotind in Caucasus by Bieberstein, and with D. fravinella by Ledebour, in the Altai mountains. As we have seen in so many other instances a similarity between the vegetation of these regions and that of the Himalayas, so has a species of this genus, allied to D. altaica of Fischer, been found to exist in these mountains. ita ‘ Dictamnus, though used as a medicinal agent, does not, like many of this family, possess any very powerful properties; but the Déiosmas, Bocho or Bucku plants of the Cape, as well as some Boronias, &c. containing much essential oil, and noted for their powerful odour, have been employed as stimulants ; while the tribe of Cusparie, containing Cusparia febrifuga, noted as an aromatic tonic, as well as species of Monnieria, Ticorea, and Evodia, used in the cure of intermittent fevers, are accounted powerful tonics. Of these the species would no doubt succetd well in Bengal and the south of India; while the north is suited to the Diosmee of the Cape and New Holland. Dictamnus Himalayanus; foliis 6-jugis cum impari, rachi non alato, foliolis ovato-lanceolatis membranaceis, calyci persistenti, petalis subsequalibus, ovario sessili—Hab. First found by Lieut. J. W. Stephens at Jumnotri; subsequently specimens have been brought me from Kunawur, where it was also found by Mr. Inglis at Mirung. v. Tab. 29. 1. Flower, with some Petals and Stamens removed, to shew the sessile ovarium and declined style. 2. The 5-carpelle, with the persistent 5-fid calyx, 3. A single carpel opening internally, and terminating at its apex in a kind of hook. 4. The horny endocarp supporting two seeds. 6, A seed removed, 5. The same, cut longitudinally. 7. Em- " bryo, separated from the albumen. 50. ZANTHOXYLEZ: Zanthoxrylee.] es, THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 157 50. ZANTHOXYLE. The removal of Zanthoxylum from Terebinthacee, rendered necessary that of some other genera, which were placed with and closely allied to it. These form the family or tribe of Zanthoxylee, which are chiefly found within the tropics of Asia and America, with only a few species in Africa. But as we have species of Zanthoxylum, which now includes Fagara, extending northwards into the temperate zone, so do we have species of the same genus in China and Japan, and extending in India to Simla in 31° of N. latitude, where Z. hostile, differing little from Z. alatum, is found. Other species run southwards along the Himalayas to Nepal and Silhet, and then to the Malayan and Indian Peninsulas, whence we may trace them to the African islands on the east of that continent, as well as to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland. The other genera, of which species are found in India, are Zoddalia and Brucea, the latter about Silhet ; but species of the former in the Indian Peninsula, and as far northwards as Nepal, whence Dr.Wallich has figured his 7. floribunda (PI. As. Rar. t. 232), nearly allied to T. aculeata (Scopolia, Roxb.) which is found in the Deyra Doon and lower hills, Ailanthus excelsa, belonging to a genus nearly allied to this family, is found at Delhi, along the Jumna, as well as on the Coromandel coast. The other species of this genus are found in China and the Moluccas. Among Dr.Wallich’s unpublished drawings, are two species.of Tetradium, T.cymosum, T. 883, and T. fravinifolium, T. 884, 7 from the Silhet forests. The affinity of this order to Zerebinthacee is evident from the genera composing it having formerly been placed there; and both are allied to Awrantiacee. These the Zanthorylee especially resemble, in different parts of their substance being overspread, as remarked by M. Ad. de Jussieu, with vesicles of essential oil, which cover the leaves with transparent dots, and the rind of the fruit with opaque areole. To the presence of this essential oil is owing the aromatic pungency for which so many of this tribe are remarkable, and to this being frequently combined with a bitter principle, called Xanthopicrine (Fée), is owing their being employed as tonics as well as stimulants. Thus, in North America, as well as in Brazil, species are prescribed as stimulants, and in Japan the capsules of Z. piperitum are employed as a substitute for pepper. So, in India, Z. Budrunga, Rhetsa, alatum, and hostile, are used, wherever they are indige- nous, for the warm spicy pepper-like pungency of their capsules, a property which is participated in by their bark, and other parts. The capsules and seeds of Z. hostile, called tej-bul by the natives, are employed in Northern India for intoxicating fish, and chewed as a remedy for tooth-ache: they are also given as the Faghureh of Avicenna, . as Z. piperitum and Avicenne are in China and Japan, and are considered an antidote against all poisons. I have no doubt that in many cases they would be of considerable use asa stimulantremedy. Thestems and branches are cut as walking-sticks, and compared by General Hardwicke to the herculean clubs afforded by an American species of this genus. Species of Péelea and Brucea are possessed of bitter properties. From the green 158 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF < [ Sumarubee. green parts of B. Sumatrana, naturalised in the Calcutta Garden, being simply and intensely bitter, Dr. Roxburgh concludes, that it may be as useful a medicine as Bruce’s Abyssinian Wooginos. The bark of the root of Toddalia aculeata is also said by him to be employed as a cure for the remittent fevers caught in the Hill jungles. 51. SIMARUBEZ. This order, intermediate between Rutacee and Ochnacee, consisting of but few genera and species, is found chiefly in the equinoctial parts both of the Old and df the New World. The species of Quassia, Simaruba, and Simaba, are confined to some of the West-India islands, Guiana, and Brazil; but Semadera of Gertner; to which M. Adrien de Jussieu has referred Vittmannia, Vahl, and Niota, Lam., is found in Madagascar and Java, as well as in Ceylon and the southern parts of India; and on the Martaban coast, whence Dr.Wallich obtained his Niota lucida. Pl. As. Rar. 2. T. 168. In the Himalayas, also, there is a representative of this family in Nima quassioides of Dr. Hamilton, referred by Mr. Don to Simaba, but considered by M. Adrien de Jussieu as only allied to this family: but from its general appearance, and intensely bitter taste of every part, it is too closely allied to be separated, even though the sta- mens are pentandrous, as in Simaruba? excelsa; the flowers are moreover polygamous, the petals erect and greenish-coloured, with the single ovuled ovaries seated in a gyno- base, from the. base of which the stamens arise; style separating at top into five stigmas, and towards the base into as many styles, each of which enters the correspond- ing ovule, about its middle, while the indihiscent drupes enclose seeds, having a mem- branous integument and short radicle retracted between the large fleshy cotyledons. It was discovered in Nepal by Dr. Hamilton; I have met with it in Gurhwal in valleys, and at moderate elevations within the Himalayas, and have also received it from Turanda, on the banks of the Sutlej, which is in more than 31° of N. latitude.) i tix The Simarubee are as closely allied in botanical characters, as in the possession of a similar intense but pure bitterness, diffused over every part, owing to the presence of the bitter principle called guassine. From the similarity in climate and productions of the countries where they grow, there is no doubt but that all the Quassias and Sima- rubas would succeed well in Bengal. But the light-coloured, pure, bitter wood of the Himalayan species, is well calculated alone to supply the place of any of the tribe. India would appear to be the Aedyhyama, or central country, botanically, which the natives fancy it to be geographically. Thus, we have seen the southern parts of India, including, the Peninsula, Bengal, and the forests of Silhet and Chittagong, supporting a tropical vegetation, which in many respects approximates to the floras of ‘the: other equinoctial parts of Asia, as well as of America; while a strip of tro- pical jungle runs up along the southern or plainward base of the Himalayas, nearly to the most northern limits of Hindoostan. The Himalayas themselves we have seen supporting a.different vegetation at different elevations:—Indian at the base and within the Simarubee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. . 159 the valleys; European as we ascend; and almost polar when we reach the summits of lofty mountains, which are only for a few months freed trom their covering of snow. Intermixed with the Indian and European-like Floras, we have many of the genera, and even ‘species, which were thought peculiar to China, as fully detailed in the account _of the Tea-plants, p. 119 to 123, and with these many also of the genera, p. 18, which were considered as existing only in North America. Of these, as well as of the others, we shall find the instances multiply as we proceed. It is less remarkable to find a great resemblance to the Rosaceous Flora of Caubul, for this is a kingdom included within the ramifications of the Hindookhoosh, which is but an extension, and not far removed from the loftiest part of the Himalayan range. The northern face of the Himalayas,—cut off by their lofty and snowy summits from the influence’of the tropical rains, enjoying a dry, cold, and rarified atmosphere, with a few months of powerful sun, and every where, adry and barren soil, as we learn from Messrs. Turner and Saunders, Mr. Moorcroft, and Messrs. Gerard and Herbert,—has a flora bearing the closest resemblance to that of the Altai mountains, and of the south of Siberia, v. p- 40, whether we regard the distribu- tion of families or genera, and even of some species. This should correctly be considered as belonging to the Tatarian rather than to the Himalayan region. Atp. 41, it was also mentioned that along with these Altai plants, many were found showing an analogy with the flora of the south of Europe ; and others, as Cuminum cyminum and Scutellaria orien- talis, with that of the Oriental region. This, if space allowed, might easily be more fully shewn; but it is unnecessary, as it will be adverted to on a future occasion, as well as in the observations on the distribution of the different families of plants. The fact is interesting at present, in connection with the observation made at p. 41, of the external resem- blance between the plants of Kunawur and those of the neighbourhood of Delhi, in consequence, it was presumed, of the great aridity of the soil and climate of both countries. Here also it is curious to observe, we have many of the plants of the Syrian region (v. p. 70) which is characterised by aridity and heat, as that of Tatary is by aridity and cold; but between their floras there is considerable resemblance, and that of India dove-tailing between them, may be said to be flanked on its north-western face by this, as it is on the south-eastern by the flora of the Syrian region. It will be as well, on the present occasion, to allude more fully to the latter fact, in connection with the occurrence of the Zygophyllee in this quarter of India. In comparing the flora of the northern part of India with that of Egypt, it may be useful to advert to the observations made by Mr. Brown respecting the accordance of the flora of the western coast of Africa with that of India in general, where he remarks that ‘‘ with the flora of India, that of Congo agrees not only in the proportions of many of its principal families, or in what may be termed the equinoctial relation, but also, ‘to a certain degree, in the more extensive genera of which several of these families consist : and there are even about forty species common to these distant regions ;” that this accordance extends over a considerable surface, may be inferred from another observation Mr. Brown makes, which is, that from ‘* 16° N. to 6° S. there is remark- able 160 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Simarubee. able uniformity in the vegetation, not only as to the principal natural orders and genera, but even to a considerable extent in the species of which it consists;” and we may consequently have an agreement with the flora of India over nearly the same extent: as ‘we may see by a reference to the flora of Senegal, which Mr. Brown, no doubt, had in view. If we examine the first volume of the Flora Senegambie,—in which, following the series in De Candolle’s Prodromus, forty-five families are treated of, from Ranun- culacee to Myrtacee,—there are only three of which species are not found in the plains of India. Of these, Frankeniacee belongs to the flora of the Mediterranean region ; and of Geraniacee and Simarubee there are species at the foot of the mountains in India. The families consist of 157 genera, of which only forty-six are not found in India: a number which might-probably be reduced, if we had leisure to examine the extent of some of the new genera. Among the species, also, in addition to those enu- merated by Mr. Brown, there are several found equally in India; of these some probably have been introduced, while the cultivated grains are nearly the same as those of India. | Mr. Brown remarks, that there is a certain degree of resemblance between the vegetation of the banks of the Congo and that of Madagascar, and the isles of France and Bourbon ; that the flora of the east coast of Africa is little known; while with that of Abyssinia there was little affinity, though some characteristics of Southern Africa have been found, as Protea abyssinica, Pelargonium abyssinicum, and Geisorhiza abys- sinica, but ‘‘to the flora of Egypt that of Congo has still less relation, either in the | number or proportion of its natural families.” It has been observed, that owing to the great uniformity of temperature over a great extent of Indian territory, many of the same plants spread from the southern to the most northern parts of the plains of India, so that we have many Peninsular plants extending north even as far as Delhi, where also it was observed (p. 6) there is an approximation to the flora of Egypt, as well as’ to that of the south of Europe. On consideration, it does not appear remarkable, that the western side of the great Gangetic valley should approximate in its flora to that of Egypt, for Cairo and Saharunpore are situated nearly in 30° of N. latitude, whence both India and Egypt stretch southwards; but the Ganges flowing in the same direction, becomes tropical towards its delta, while the Nile, from its northern “course, becomes more European in its flora the nearer we approach its mouth. Both rivers, or their branches, in the upper part of their course, traverse or touch upon the desert, which every where crosses Asia and Africa in that belt where the sun’s rays, not attempered by the influence of the tropical rains, have the greatest power in drying up the parched and barren soil. In India the desert is found between the Aravalli Mountains, the Jumna, and the Indus; and in Egypt every where beyond the valley of the Nile. From near coincidence in latitude, there is great similarity between the temperature at Saha- runpore and at Cairo; but in Egypt, lying open to the Mediterranean, the heat is attempered, which in Saharunpore, from its inland situation, would become more excessive Simarubee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 161 excessive than it is, were it not for the accession of the rainy season, which in moderating the temperature, also fertilises the country more effectually, because more generally, even than the overflowing of the Nile does Egypt. There, on the drying up of the inun- dations, as in India on the cessation of the rains, wheat and barley are sown, and with the exception of clover and lupins, nearly the same crops are cultivated as are mentioned at p. 10 as constituting the cold weather crops of Northern India. These are in both countries gathered in about April; while, analogous to the cultivation of India, the winter harvest of Egypt is immediately followed by the sowing of the summer crops, which depend for their growth solely on irrigation, and consist of rice, naize, sorghum, and the other grains which are enumerated as the rain crops of India. | The arboreous vegetation of Egypt, consisting chiefly of figs, acacias, tamarisks, with the date and doum palms,—to which have been added Melia azedarach, Cassia Jistula, Cordia mya, and others,—has great resemblance to that of Northern India; while the fruit-trees grown in Lower Egypt are much the same, with the exception chiefly of the Chinese . ones that have been enumerated as growing in the open air at Saharunpore. The species " common to equinoctial Africa and India have been mentioned by Mr. Brown (Tuckey’s Congo, p..478). Some of these are found in the most northern parts of the latter. M. Delile has likewise given a list of the species which are common to Egypt and India; and at p. 6 of the present work, some additional species were mentioned common to these two countries, while the existence of analogous species of Farsetia, Cadaba, Linaria, has been adverted to in the observations on the different families. To these may be added species of Echinops, Pergularia, Pennisetum, Cenchrus, Trisetum, Phalaris, together with such species as Lycium Europaum, Indigofera paucifolia, Cassia absus, Carthamus oxyacantha, Microlonchus divaricatus, Franceuria crispa. A single fern is enumerated in the flora of Egypt, so one only is found in the neighbourhood of Delhi. | At the foot of the hills and in the mountains, other plants are found, which show the extension of the Oriental flora to the northern parts of India, as Echenais cirsioides and Cotula anthemoides, found in the Deyra Doon, and Carduus nutans, Lappa major, Jurinea? tricholepis, Gynactis sinapifolia, Carpesium abrotanoides, as well as a species of Pyrethrum, P. Roylei of M. De Candolle, in the Himalayas. _ Interesting as are these facts in-a scientific point of view, they are not less so when looked to with regard to their practical application. For, as we have seen a resemblance to the flora and cultivation of India in general on the western coast of Africa, and to those of its northern parts in Egypt, while both these countries have acclimated many of its useful productions, so it will be easy to find in it many places suited to the production of the different articles for which they themselves are noted; and many of these would be doubly valuable, as the places adapted to their growth are those which are the least favourable for the staple articles of Indian commerce. Thus, Acacia verek yielding gum Senegal ; and Pterocarpus erinaceus the African kino; with Elais guienensis the oil palm ; Adansonia digitata ; Parkia Africana, the Nitta Fs or 162 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF . [ Simarubee. or doura tree Sterculia acuminata, the Kola; and a species of Pentadesma, called the tallow-tree, might all be introduced into India: while Khaya Senegalensis, Mammea Africana, and the African teak, to'whatever genus (possibly Dalbergia) it may belong, would form additional’ useful timber trees. Anona Senegalensis, Chrysobalanus Icaco, Sarcocephalus esculentus, Blighia sapida, Parinarium excelsum, Codarium. acutifolium, the cream-fruit' yielded by one of the Apocynee, and Safu by one of the Amyridea, might form useful additions to the fruits of the warmer parts of India; while Unona Ethiopica, Monodora Myristica, and the Amomum yielding Melaguetta pepper, might be cultivated as drugs; and as Africa has adopted the use of the Cassava, and the cultivation of Voandezia (Glycine) subterranea, so might they be introduced as articles of food into India. Eastward from Egypt and Nubia, we have the southern parts of Arabia, which were at one time supposed to abound in all the riches of the East, but for which we now know she was chiefly indebted to her commerce with India. But. coffee, its most valuable indigenous product, if it be not originally a native of Abyssinia, has been most success- fully introduced into the opposite coast of Malabar (v. p. 4); and senna of excellent — quality is grown both at Tinnivelly and Saharunpore, separated by more than 20° of ° latitude. The ‘balsam of Gilead and the myrth-tree, the latter probably, as is the former, a species of Balsamodendron (v. Terebinthacee), might also be cultivated ; as well as the best aloes manufactured in many parts of India. This, as well as myrrh, is said by Persian authors to’ be produced in the island of Socotra. On the other hand, it would not be difficult in the northern parts to grow cotton as good as the Egyptian,* and at the same time acclimate some of its useful. productions: as Acacia nilotica and Seyal, yielding gums superior to that produced in India; the different kinds of senna, of which one has already been successfully introduced, as well as the date; the doum palm would succeed. in every part, as it does in the Penin- sula; sowould the true sycamore ; and Alexandrian clover (Trifolium Alexandrinum), (which, as well as Fenugrec, is cultivated for food and fodder) would probably succeed better than the European species which I introduced into the Saharanpore Botanic : Garden. ’ * While this sheet is passing through the press, I have had the pleasure of hearing from my friend, Mr. Charles Groves, now of Liverpool, that lately four bales of cotton from Bombay, grown in one of the Com- pany’s experimental gardens, had sold for one shilling a-pound, which was more than three-fourths of the American cotton was selling for. This, he justly. observes, connected. with the fact of Mr. Hughes continuing to grow his superior Tinnivelly cotton, is sufficient to settle the point of India being capable of producing very ‘superior cottons. He also mentions a fact, which will be new to many, that merchants give about thirty shillings per ewt. for American, and not more than fifteen shillings for East-India rice ; so that, if the latter were not protected by a duty of fifteen shillings, it would be entirely driven out of the market. It will not surely be said, that India is incapable of producing the superior kinds of rice! But there is one difficulty, and that is, India being a great consumer, .as well as grower, of both rice and cotton; and. therefore the best kinds of the former, or large quantities of the latter, may not be sent to England. | It is apposite and not uninteresting to mention, that the present intelligent ruler of Egypt, in lately sending an unlimited order for plants to be sent to-him from England, particularly specified the useful plants of India! Swmarubee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 163 Garden. The Egyptian wheat also (Triticum durum) would be a valuable acquisition, as yielding a very abundant crop upon almost sterile soils ; but with these are growing some other plants, which promise to be still more useful, if introduced into India, as the olive and the carob tree. The first, extensively cultivated in the driest and hottest parts of the south of Europe, aswell as in Egypt and in Syria, was seen by Mr. Elphin- stone near Caubul: it has grown for many years in the open air in the Botanic-Garden at Calcutta, and would flourish at Saharunpore, as, according to Delile, ** Jes vignes, . les olives, et les roses contribuent a la richesse de Fayoum,” which is nearly in the same latitude. The carob-tree (Ceratopiu siliqua), khurnoob shamee of Persian authors, first suggested (as well as the cork-tree) to me by Dr. Lindley, as apparently well suited to the climate of Northern India, would be a particularly valuable acquisition ; as, seeking its nourishment under-ground, it is independent of surface irrigation. It would be available in many places in years of scarcity or of famine, and in ordinary times for feeding cattle. That it is very retentive of life we may conclude from a fact men- — tioned by M. Boyé, of a tree supposed to be nearly 300 years,old, which was cut down by the French in their invasion of Egypt; thirty years afterwards, Ibrahim Pacha having cleared the ground and sunk wells in the neighbourhood, the return of moisture induced. the springing out of some branches, which in three years were from ten to twelve feet in height. The abundance of the produce of the carob—some trees yielding as much as: 800 or 900 pounds of fruit or pods—renders these so cheap, that they are eaten by the poorest people, and even given to cattle, mules, asses, and horses, in Egypt, Syria, and the south of Europe.. During the Peninsular war, I am informed by Dr. Lindley (who learnt the fact from several officers who had served there), that the horses of the British cavalry were often fed, and thrived upon the seeds or beans, as they were there called, of the carob-trees. (v. also Loudon Encyc. of Plants, p. 868.) But, in fact, the whole of this tract is included in what Mirbel has so well designated as the temperate transition zone, which, commencing at the south of Europe and the north of Africa, extending eastwards, includes Asia Minor, Syria, and the Caucasian regions ; whence, as we have seen, some representatives of the flora extend even to the north of India, with which, in many respects, correspond the southern parts of Persia and Beloochistan, and the country northwards towards Mooltan and Caubul. In the northern parts of this zone, as the southern parts of Spain, Italy, and Sicily, and even of France and Greece, the sun is powerful, the heat considerable, and the ground dry and parched up in summer, with but a moderate degree of cold in winter. Many of the productions are such, that we see them extending to the southern parts of the temperate, and some even into the equinoctial zone: as the date, doum, and pal- metto palms,—several Asiatic and African mimosas and acacias,—Melia azedarach, Agave Americana, Yucca aloifolia, Aloe perfoliata, Nerium oleander, Lawsonia inermis, Calotropis gigantea and procera ; and with these are cultivated limes, lemons, and oranges, the jujube and pomegranate, with bananas, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, sorghum, maize, millet, and rice. y2 ; But 164 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Simarubee. _ But growing with these are many useful plants, of which some might be successfully introduced into India, as the olive and carob trees already mentioned ; the laurel and sweet bay, manna ash, pistachio, mastick, and Venice turpentine trees ; the species of Cistus yielding laudanum, as C. ladaniferus, and creticus ; Styrax officinale yielding storar ; and the species of Astragalus, from which tragacanth is obtained, as. A. verus, gummifer and creticus : to these might be added, sumach, savine, scammony, and colocynth ; while the cork-tree covering the hot and arid plains of Spain, might, with the Ilex, Kermes, Dyer’s and Barbary oaks, be grown in the north of India, where . some of the Himalayan species do not refuse fo, flourish. The Cactus opuntia has been strongly recommended by Colonel Herriott for introduction from the south of Italy to . the north of India; and it seems well suited to the climate of the northern provinces; where also. Poterium spinosum, valued as fodder for cattle, might be a valuable acqui- sition. — ‘ _~ Several of the plants enumerated, as the sumach and pistachio, have already been introduced into the Saharunpore Botanic Garden, where they grow in the open air, with pines, walnuts, poplar, &c. (v. p. 10), and to none of those of the Oriental region did the climate appear unfavourable ; it may therefore be suited to others, though it would be unreasonable to expect that it should be equally so to all: but between the mountains and the plains, there is reason to suppose that suitable situations may be found for the greater number, as will be more apparent from the observations on the distribution of the natural orders to which they respectively belong. For the very families which oceur in the highest proportions in the Oriental region, are those which exist in the largest numbers in the Author’s Herbarium, formed in the plains and mountains of Northern India: as Leguminose, Composite, Graminea, Cyperacee, Labiate, Crucifere, Rosacee, Umbellifere, Ranunculacee, Caryophyllee, Boraginea, and Gentianee. In the plains there are numerous species of Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, and Cucurbitacee. The extent to which the acclitnitation of plants may be carried, or the benefit which may be derived, it is at present difficult to conceive, for not many years have elapsed gince true principles have even in England been applied to the subject, where, as my friend Dr.Graham expresses it, ‘‘ every rare plant was supposed to require heat ;” and now the gardens and shrubberies are adorned with the richest varieties, and all intelligent culti- vators seek for plants from congenial climates. India, open by sea to the productions of South America, has already possessed herself of such, as the guava, custard-apple, pine-apple, tobacco, maize, capsicum, and others, which appear as much at home as its native productions ; but the difficulty of communication on the north, and the nature of the countries and people which ‘intervene, are sufficient to account for the few productions of the Oriental region which have travelled southward. It is fortunate that the Honourable Company’s Botanic Garden at Saharunpore, with a nursery in the Hills, is so favourably situated for carrying on the experiments necessary for the accli- m tation of the useful plants of this region; which no doubt the present zealous super- intendent, Dr. Falconer, will carry into execution, as the means are afforded or oppor- tunities . . Coriariee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 165 tunities offer. Such experiments, though they can be extensively or beneficially carried on only when the climate and natural products of a country have been ascertained, are well calculated to convince those who, unacquainted with a subject, are yet inclined to question its utility ; and though incapable of appreciating the worth of the information obtained, or the truth or error of the inferences deduced, yet consider themselves fully qualified to pronounce upon their value. But the botanist, contemplating his science in all the bearings with which modern improvements have invested it, in examining the peculiarities of a new vegetation, ascertains also what it is capable of yielding useful to man, either as diet, in medicine, or in the arts; and connecting structure with the ‘climate in which it is found, infers, with almost unerring certainty, for what useful productions of other countries it is particularly adapted: and has thus the gratification of contributing at once towards the perfecting of his science, and pointing to the means for i improving the resources of the country for the benefit of which his investigations are, in the first instance, especially intended. 52. OCHNACEZ. The plants of this small family, allied to Simarubee, are found in the hot parts of ‘South America, as well as of Africa, and in the islands of Madagascar and Mauritius; whence we trace them into Ceylon and the Indian Peninsula, and across the ocean to Arabia, which participates with India in many of the same genera. On the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, we have them running up the Malayan Peninsula to Silhet, where Ochna squarrosa is found, as well as at Prome and in the Indian Peninsula; and still higher we have, as frequently noticed, a diminutive species of a tropical genus as we proceed northwards. This, O. pumila, Ham., which is probably the same as both O. nana and O. humilis, is found at Goruckpore ; but in gardens, O. squarrosa succeeds in the open air as far as Saharunpore. In the Peninsula the species of Gomphia prevail with Ochna. The plants of this family possess but little sensible property ; but that little is of a bitter and rather astringent nature, so that some of the species are employed as tonics, 53. CORIARIEZ. This family, consisting of a single genus, and of but few species, has a very wide distribution, single species occurring in very different parts of the world ; as one in the south of Europe and north of Africa, another in New Zealand, a third in Mexico, and a fourth in the Himalayas, with the remaining four species in Peru ; so that few inferences can be drawn from their distribution, except that they require a cool climate. The Himalayan species, C. Nepalensis, has been figured by Dr.Wallich in Pl.'As. Rar. t.289; and there is a representation of both the male and female plant in No. 71 of the series of drawings made by the Honourable Company’s painters while under my direction. This species, originally found in Nepal, is common at Mussooree, from 5,000 to 7,000 feet of elevation, to which, from its abundance, it — given its own name AMJussooree. M. De * 166 “ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Celastrinee. M. De Candolle having considered all the floral envelopes as calyx, Professor Lindley remarks, ‘‘ I do not see upon what principle, either of ‘structure or analogy ;” and the inner row of sepals, narrower than the outer, appear to all intents to be petals as much as the others are sepals, as all are modifications of the same substance. In the Himalayan species—which is polygamous, if not dizecious—there are in the male flowers five sepals and ten stamens, with the rudiments of the five pistils; in the female flower there are five sepals, alternating with an inner row of five narrow petals, which again alternate with five imperfect stamens, the whole surrounding five well-developed pistils. | The pseudo-berry, or fruit formed by the junction of the several pistils, is frequently eaten in the hills; though that of the European species is considered poisonous, when taken in any quantity. It is related that several soldiers of the French army in Cata- lonia were affected by eating them: fifteen became stupified and three died. (v. Lindley and Fée.) C.myrtifolia, rich in tannin, is used in Europe by dyers for staining black ; and C.ruscifolia, inChili. The stems and leayes of the former are also considered pernicious; those of C. myrtifolia have unfortunately in France been employed to adul- terate senna-leaves, and have produced fatal consequences, where these have been. prescribed. (v. Fée.) B. CALYCIFLORZ.. As the foregoing families belong to M. De Candolle’s area sub-class of Thalamifiore, so do the following to his Calyciflore : 54, CELASTRINEZ. This order, separated from Rhamnee, with which it was formerly united, may be readily distinguished by its alternate stamens, imbricate calyx, and hypogynous disk. It is related to Euphorbiacee; hence, in unexamined herbaria, plants of the one order are apt to be referred to the other. By M. Brongniart it is considered to be allied to Malpighiacee, through Hippocrateacee. In Celastrinee, M. De Candolle has included the In1c1ne# of M. Brongniart, and the SraruyLeace of Dr. Lindley; the latter distinguished by their opposite and pinnate stipulate leaves, and indicating an affinity between Celastrinee and Sapindacee. Of these, the species of Staphylea are single species distributed in the south of Europe, in North America, and Peru; one species has also been found in Japan and in the Hima- layas. The latter, the S. Emodi of Dr.Wallich, was procured by him from Srinuggur ; I have found it on Urukta, about 7,000 feet of elevation, also near Burkote, and have had it brought me from near Peer Punjal. Zwrpinia, of which the original species is a native of St. Domingo and the mountains of Mexico, has been ascertained to be identical with _the Dalrymplea of Dr. Roxburgh, of which the original species, D. now 7. pomifera, was : found in Silhet, and the second, D. Nepalensis, in Nepal, as wellas in the Peninsula. A species of this genus has also, as I learnt from Mr. Arnott, been obtained from near Canton, 7 Celastrinee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 167 Canton, and serves, with numerous others, to show the analogy in vegetation between the southern parts of China and India, as mentioned at p. 122 ; and with the flora of the latter, the jungly base of Nepal, as we have frequently seen, is almost identical ; while the existence of Staphylea in Japan, and at moderate elevations in the Himalayas, is an additional instance of their correspondence in vegetation. Of the Luonymee or true Celastrinee, Euonymus having almost the distribution of Staphylea, occurs also in the Himalayas in considerable numbers. Of the eight species enumerated by Dr. Wallich, seven are found to the northward of the Ganges; EL. Hamul- toniana, in the Beyra Doon, according to Dr.Wallich, and £.tingens, echinata, and vagans, at moderate elevations, as from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. Z. pendula, Wall., consi- dered by some botanists fo be identical with EZ. Japonica, is found in similar localities; but E, frigida and fimbriata decur only on such localities as Choor and Urukta, at about 8,000 feet of elevation. £. (lacerus, Don) grandiflora, Wall. Pl. As. Rar. t. 254, is found in Nepal and Kemaon, and E.? theefolia on Chirraponjee. Other species are found on the other mountains of Silhet, and two on those of the Peninsula. This is another of the genera, which shows the analogy in vegetation between Japan and parts of China with the Himalayas. - The species of Ce/astrus found in warm parts of the world, occur also in India, in the Peninsula, and along the foot of hills. The Nepal species, C. dependens, rufa, stylosa, and neglecta, are probably found in valleys, as I have never seen any of the species: in other situations. C. nutans occurs in the Deyra Doon and Kheree Pass, and C. Royleanus, in the latter, and near the Suen Range. To these, another species, C. spinosus\nob. Te.Zined. t. 7 3, may he added from similar localities. With C. nutans is also found in the Deyra Doon Elaodendron (Nerija, Roxb.) dichotomum, both of which also occur in the most southern parts of India. In addition to these, Dr.Wallich has formed two new genera: Kurrimia, allied to Maytenus, and Microtropis, of Dr. Roxburgh’s Euony- mus garcinifolia; but neither of these extend further north than Silhet. Of the Llicinee,—placed here by M. De Candolle, but considered by M. Brongniart more allied to Ebenaceé, among the Monopetalee,—species of the genus from which the order has been named exist. in most parts of the world in mountainous and cool situ- ations; so J/er dipyrena is common at, Mussooree, and every where in the Himalayas, bearing very close resemblance to the common holly, especially when covered with its clusters of scarlet berries in November and December. J. excelsa, Wall. N.4328,—which © has, however, been also referred to Cassine and to Prinos,—is, also found in Nepal and | Kemaon ; and at Mussooree another lofty species, J. serrata, nob. The properties of the plants of Celastrinee have not been much investigated, but an acrid principle has been detected, which acts with more or less activity in difterent species; and the seeds of several yield oil, which is used for burning. That of Celastrus nutans is said, in India, to be of a stimulant nature, and used in medicine. The bark of Ewonymus tingens is in the inside of a beautiful light yellow colour, similar to that of ‘some of the nearly allied genus Rhamnus ; it is used to mark the tka on the forehead of Hindoos ; * 168 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Rhamnee. Hindoos; and might be employed as a dye. I was informed by Sir Charles Grey, on his return from Simla, that it is also considered useful*in diseases of the eye. The leaves of Celastrus edulis, \3 kat of the Arabs, cultivated with the coffee, would appear from Forskal’s account to be of a stimulating nature. The wood of the several species of Evonymus might be used for the same purposes as that of the spindle-tree is in Europe. Of the Ldiciee, the holly is well known to be employed for making bird-lime, as some of the figs are in India; and the genus is remarkable for containing the ler para- guariensis, or maté-tree, which produces the famous Paraguay tea, now an article of considerable South American commerce, for which, if it was thought desirable, a suitable locality might no doubt be found within the Indian territories. The Llex vomitoria is considered to be tonic, inebriating, and in larger doses emétic ; while Prinos verticil- latus is accounted in North America a powerful febrifuge. . : Euonymus echinata, Wall. x. Fl. Ind. ed. Wall. 2. p.410. Hooker Bot. Mag. t. 2,767. Tab. 31. f.1. (a.) The flowers; (b.) the same reversed ; (c.) capsule cut transversely; (d.) the seed enveloped in the arillus; (¢,f) the same with the latter opened. 55. RHAMNEA., The true Rhamnee are, like the Celastrinee, allied to Euphorbiacee. M. Brongniart remarks, that if we consider the insertion of stamens the most important distinction of plants, they will come among polypetalous orders with perigynous stamens, nearest to Pomacee ; but if this be left out of consideration, they will be found to have many characters in common with Byttneriacee. Rhamnee are found in almost every part of the globe within the temperate and equi- noctial zones, and the different genera affect respectively cool and warm situations. Thus Zizyphus is found chiefly in the latter, from the equator to the north of Africa and Syria, and southwards to the Cape of Good Hope; every where in the plains of India, and also in the Himalayas, but only within the valleys. Z. fleruosa, which Dr.Wallich describes from the neighbourhood of Gossainthan, I have also received from the foot of mountains towards Cashmere; but in the valleys of Gurhwal and Sirmore, Z. acuminata is found, as well as Z. mauritiana? Near Kheree there is Z. énoplia, with a new species, Z. bhunder ; but in the plains of N. India, Z. Jujuba is the most common species. Near Delhi, and on the banks of. the Jumna, 7. @noplia is found, as well as Z. napeca, Roxb. In the mountainous country from-Sherghatty to Roghonautpore, Z. (latifolia, Roxb.) rugosa and xylopyra are, common with some new species, as Z. ruminata, Ham., and Mirzaporiensis, nob. Gouania, a genus found in the West-Indies and South America, extends in India from the Peninsula to the Deyra Doon, where G.. leptostachya is found, with another Peninsular plant, Ventilago maderaspatana. Dr.Wallich has also a Gouania nepalensis; and. G. lanceolata is common about Hurdwar, near Saharunpore, and also at Delhi, according to Dr. Wallich. Ceanothus, as formerly constituted, is another genus found in warm parts of the world, but as now restricted, chiefly in Mexico and North America. Ceanothus, now Colubrina Asiatica, is found in the Indian and Malayan Penin- sulas ; * Rhantnéee:] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 169 sulas ; and Scutia indica, which includes Ceanothus zeylanicus and circumscissus, is not mentioned out of the former. Dr. Wallich has, however, two Nepal species, C. nepalensis and C. triquetra ; the latter, with the exception of the emarginate petals, agreeing with the character of Scutia, extends from Kemaon to the Deyra Doon and to Mussooree, at 6,500 feet of elevation, as well as to many parts of the hills. C. venosus, nob., is found at Nagkanda. Hovenia dulcis is common to India, China, and the Himalayas, and is certainly indigenous in the latter, as I have found it wild in the woods about Mussooree, at 6,500 feet of elevation. Berchemia and Sageretia, genera common to China and North America, with species of the latter, also in South America, are both found in India and at the foot of the Himalayas. B. parviflora in the Peninsula; B. Jlavescens towards Gossainthan ; B. floribunda, in Nepal and Kemaon ; and B. lara, of which the fruit is that of the genus, is found in the low and sheltered valley of Sahunsadhara, as well as in the Kheree Pass. Sageretia oppositifolia and ramosa, are found in Nepal; of these the ‘former extends to the Deyra Doon. Paliurus, found in Syria and the south of Europe, has also a species, P. virgatus, Don. Bot. Mag. t. 2,535, in Nepal, where Rhamnus, a genus of very wide distribution, has also a representative. This, the R. virgatus of Dr. Roxburgh, is common in both Kemaon and Gurhwal. At Mussooree, it is found ef 6,500 feet of elevation ; where also R. rupestris, nob., is common; while another new species, 2. purpureus, is found at Simla, and on the sides of Choor. The berries of one species of Rhamnus, or buckthorn, have long been known from their cathartic nature: this property is participated in by those of other species, as well as by their inner bark. The berries of R. catharticus, infectorius, saxatilis, and amyg- dalinus, known as French and Turkey berries, graines d’ Avignon and graines jaunes, also furnish a colour, which varies from yellow to green. This M. Brongniart supposes is Owing rather to different degrees of ripeness than to essential differences in nature; it is probable, therefore, that the Himalayan species, especially R. virgatus, so common everywhere, and so loaded with berries, might form an effectual substitute, and be useful as a dye in the country, or serve as an additional article of commerce. The fruit of Zizyphus, on the contrary, is of an edible nature, frequently sub-acid, pleasant-tasted, aid nourishing. This is an anomaly not unfrequently presented, M. Brongniart re- marks, by the fleshy part of the fruit, when every other part of two plants may agree in possessing the same properties, as for instance, the peach and almond. Z. vulgaris, or _ jujube, introduced from Syria, is cultivated in the south of Europe for its pleasant-tasted fruit; the long-famed Z. /otus, in Africa, and Z. spina christi, in Syria, afford edible fruit in their respective countries ; so in India and China, Z. jujuba, nitida, napeca, Roxb., and other species, yield a fruit, which is much eaten by the natives of these coun- tries. The first with round fruit is the most common species in the jungles of Northern India, but in the gardens there is a variety or’ distinct species, with oblong fruit, which attains a considerable size, and when grafted, yields a very pleasant-tasted fruit, called ber, which may be styled the Indian jujube. In Persian works, berree and jharree are said to be its Hindoostanee ; Aimar and khial its Persian; nebbek and sidr its Arabic zZ names; * 170 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Chailletiacee. names ;’the two latter, as. we learn: from several authors, are in Arabia and Africa applied to Z. lotus and Z. spinachristi.. The fruit of the wild kind is dried and powdered, as was done with the /otus of the Lotophagi: this powder, in Arabic, is.called suvekoon- nebbek ; in Persian, arud-i-kinar ; and in Hindee, ber-choonee. This kind bears a kind of lac; in Northern India called beree-ke-lakh, which is used for dyeing leather, cotton, and silk. Some of the species of this order are said to possess astringent leaves, and some are remarkable for the denseness and goodness of their wood. cd] 56. SAMYDER. - This order is placed in Dichlamydee by M. De Candolle, though the flowers of all the species are apetalous; it ought therefore to be removed to Monochlamydee, to preserve the principle of arrangement, as it is not particularly allied to the families near which it is placed; plants belonging to it may be easily distinguished by their leaves-having a mixture of round and linear pellucid dots. They are found only in the warm parts’ of the world, as in the West-India Islands, Mexico, and South America ; in Asia, we have them in J ava, Ceylon, and Penang, extending into the Peninsula of India, and from Silhet up to the banks of the Jumna. The distribution of the Indian, species is, however, difficult to ascertain, as the leaves of each vary so much at different ages, and the specimens in the East-India Herbarium show them generally only at one age, and without fruit. Casearia vareca, Roxb., seems to be confined to Goalpara and Silhet. C. cheela, nob., an C. piscidia? Hb. Ham., is found with C. tomentosa and C. pauciflora, nob., in the Doon and valleys within the hills. Another species, with smooth leaves, is found in the valleys, near the Choor, C. alnifolia, nob., an C. Hamiltonii, Wall. In the central range, on the line of the great military road, C. canziala, Hb. Ham., referred by Dr. Wallich to C. ovata, is common. ‘ : The leaves of some of the species are said to be astringent, but of one species are eaten by the natives of India, according to Dr. Roxburgh. 57. HOMALINE. Of the Homalinee, found only in warm parts of the world, species’ of \Blackwella are alone found in India. This genus, found in the African islands of Mauritius and Mada- gascar, as well as in Java, extends upwards along the Malayan Peninsula, and the tropical jungle at the base of the Himalaya, as far as Nepal, where B. nepalensis is found ; but which I have not met with further north. . 58. CHAILLETIACEZ. | Of this small order, found in Guiana, Sierra Leone, Madagascar, and the island of Timor, there are no indications in India, as No. 4,038 and 7,443 of the East-Indian : Herbarium, wee here by Mr. Brown, are only found in the Malayan Peninsula. 59. AQUILARINES. Aguilarinee] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 171 59. AQUILARINEE. — This order, consisting of but few genera and species, and these found chiefly in the Indo-chinese territories, hardly admits of notice in the present work, though one species extends northwards as far as the forests of Silhet, were it not for the opportunity of publishing.a drawing of Dr. Hamilton’s, from the*collection of the East-India Company, of the tree which yields one at least of the kinds of Agallochum of the ancients... This has long been traced to India, Malacca, Siam, and Cochin-china. Loureiro is confident that all the kinds of true aloes-wood, especially the most valuable, called Calambac, was produced by his Aloexylum Agallochum, which he places in the Linnean class and order, Decandria Monogynia, and. which De Candolle refers to the natural. family of Leguminosé. This tree grows in the lofty mountains of Cochin-china, called Cham- pava, in 13° of N. latitude, near the great river Lavum (Mei-kong ?). which flows between Cochin-china and -the Laos. From the positive testimony of Loureiro, as well as from the information obtained from the Siamese by my late friend, Mr. Fin- layson, when at ,Chantibond, that the Calambac and Agila-wood were produced by totally different trees, it is more than probable that the Aloerylum of Loureiro produces one, perhaps the most valuable, kind of Agallochum. But it is remarkable, that in both trees, the fragrance.is asserted\to ‘be the.effect of disease; but as Mr. Finlayson says, ‘‘ the opinion may well be called in question,” especially, as in examining the structure of sound agila-wood under the microscope, the cells may be observed filled with the fragrant resinous secretion. Lxcecaria Agallochum, of the natural order of Euphorbiace@, is another tree, which, on the authority of Rumphius, is said to pro- duce a kind of aloes-wood. M. Fée, who has seen a genuine specimen of the wood of this tree, states that its fragrance cannot be compared with that of the Agallo- chum of Loureiro, which, moreover, does not present on its transverse section, the mouths of the ducts which are so conspicuous in the wood of Exceécaria. A third kind of Agallochum or aloes-wood, and that which is the best known has long been imported by Europeans from Malacca and the kingdom of Siam. Of this, no doubt, the Malay name agila, has given origin to the terms aquila and eagle-wood, particularly as the Portuguese, the first direct. importers, -called. it pao-dagila. The Sanscrit name agura is very similar to the Malayan, and has been converted in India into aggur, ugoor, and uggur. The Arabic names are said to vary from agalugen and ayaloogi to ulfakh and unjugion. In Persian works on Materia Medica, three kinds are described under the names of, 1, Aod-i-sumooduree. 2. Aod-i-hindee. 3. Aod-i-chinee, In the bazars, in making a collection of the articles of the Indian Materia Medica, I obtained three kinds. 1. Aod-i-hindee. 2. A kind obtained by commerce from Surat, which, however, does not appear to differ essentially from the third kind, Aod-i-kimaree. This is probably the A/-cemericum (this word differing only in having the Arabic article as a prefix) mentioned by Aboo-Hanifa, as quoted by Serapion in Mathiolus (Comment. in Diosc.) and which has probably been derived from the name of some place, as we z 2 learn -_ 172 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Aquilarinee: learn from Malte Brun, that ‘“ on the frontier of Pegu, there is said to be a considerable town, called Cambouri (in other works, probably, the same place is called Kamar) the seat of a great commerce in eagle-wood, ivory, and rhinoceros’ horns, and_ from this comes the finest varnish.” (Zod. Trav., Birmah and Siam, p-300.) In Persian works, it is stated, that the Greek name, more particularly applied to aod-i-kimaree, of this incense-wood, aod-i-bukhoor is agallokhé, which is no doubt intended for the aryorAony ov of Diosc. 1. c. 21. 3 Having ascertained the native names, and the article now in use, to which the trans- lators into Arabic applied the Greek name, it remains to identify the tree which produces the Malayan and Indian Agallochum. M. Sonnerat, in his second voyage to India, obtained specimens of a tree which was supposed to afford the true Bois dAigl. Of this he presented a branch to Lamarck without fructification, but accompanied by a small drawing of the flower and fruit, which are those probably figured at T. 376 of the Illustrations, and from which most probably the generic character was drawn up. This, M. Lamarck, under the description of Bois d’ Aloes, Agallochum officinarum. Bauh. Pin. 393, says has great resemblance to the Agallochum secundarium of*Rumphius, Hort. Amb. 2, t. 10, as well as to the Sinkoo of Kempfer, 903, and has called it Garo de Malacca, Aquilaria Malaccensis. A. ovata Cav. diss. 7, p. 877, t. 224. Dr. Roxburgh, in describing his Aguilaria Agallocha, states, that it is an immense tree, a native of the mountainous parts east and south of Silhet, in about the latitude of 24 “to 25° N., which flowers in April, and ripens its seed in August, and that it affords the real Calambac or Agallochum of the ancients ; adding, there seems more reason to conclude that it was carried to China from our eastern frontier, than to suppose it was carried from Cochin-china, where it was always in great demand. Small quantities are sometimes imported into Calcutta by Siam from the eastward ; but such is always deemed inferior to that of Silhet. From Aboo-Hanifa, it is also stated, /. c. “ Agallochum verum India mittit preestantissimum.” Thriving plants, Dr. Roxburgh further states, ‘of the Garo de Malacca, received from that place, are now in the Botanic Garden, and so exactly like plants of the same age and size of our species, that they cannot be distinguished ;” but as the Malacca plant had not then flowered, Dr. Roxburgh was unable to determine whether they corresponded in every respect; until then, he says, we may be allowed to consider the above A. ovata as another species of the genus. Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, in his investigation of the eastern frontier of Bengal, also “met with this plant near Goalpara, v. Wall. Cat. 7,250. c., which he considered to be the Agallochum officinarum, as this name is affixed both to his specimens and drawing. Dr.Wallich also obtained specimens of the same tree from Silhet, by means of his plant collectors, y. Cat. 7,250. a.; and I am informed by Dr. Lindley, that he also’ was deci- dedly of opinion, that it produces the eagle or aloe-wood of commerce, an opinion of the more value, as Dr.Wallich had opportunities of visiting the countries eastward of Bengal. The specimens of this plant having been distributed to different botanists by . Aquilarinee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 173, by the liberality of the East-India Company, Dr. Lindley had an opportunity of exa- mining the fructification, of which he has given the most correct description in his valuable Introd. to the Natural System, p. 77, and has with his usual liberality favoured me with the dissections which accompany the figure from Dr. Hamilton’s drawings. It is much to be regretted, that Mr. Finlayson, in his visit to Siam, was unable to obtain specimens of the tree producing the agila-wood, as he would not probably have referred even in his unrevised journal, to both Roxburgh and Loureiro for the botanical descriptions of the plant, as there is no doubt, from microscopical examination of the wood, that the several kinds of Agallochum must be the produce of different genera. _ But it is remarkable how nearly the plant which affords the Calambac of Cochin- china approaches in its locality to that from which the agila-wood of Chantibond is * obtained, as the latter is nearly in the latitude, and (taking the Mei-kong as the great river alluded to) also in the longitude assigned by Loureiro to the Calambac (v. Supra ;) and “« the agila-wood of Chantibond is reckoned among the best, and only equalled by that of Cochin-china.” (Fink. p.258.) It is there called nuga-mai and mai-hoam, also kisna, Macul. Dict. of Commerce, where it is stated that it is produced in the greatest quantity and perfection in the countries and islands on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam. : Mr. Finlayson informs us, that the consumption of this highly-odoriferous substance is very considerable, even in Siam, but the greatest part is exported to China. The consumption in the latter is extensive, though used chiefly in a very economical mode : the wood being reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with a gummy substance, is laid over a small slip of soft wood, about the size of a bull-rush, so as to form a pretty thick coating. These are lighted in their temples, and give out a feeble but grateful perfume. We are informed by M.M. Merat and Delens, that the aloe or eagle-wood was burned as incense by Napoleon in the imperial palace. In conclusion, it may be stated that I agree with Mr. Finlayson in considering that there does not appear sufficient foundation for the » hearsay opinion of the odoriferous principle of agila-wood being the effect *of disease. Pieces of apparently the most sound wood display the cells gorged with the fragrant resin, which is most probably deposited in the largest quantities in the internal central wood, the amount of which may therefore depend upon age and a favourable soil ; but this can only be ascertained by observation on living trees. Should this explanation be correct, the result would be to prove the practicability of cultivating this tree more extensively on our eastern frontier with an assurance of a favourable result, and prove the utility of minute observations of a scientific nature, even by the practical deductions to which they lead. Aquilaria Agallocha ; Roxb, FI. Ind. 2. p. 422. Wall. Cat. 7250. v. Tab. 36. f. 1.—(a.) A branch in flower. (b.) Ditto with unripe fruit from Dr, Hamilton’s drawings. (c,) An expanded flower, shewing the downy surface of the calyx, and its five reflexed segments ; together with the ten woolly scales which arise from its orifice, and the stamens which alternate with them. (d.) The same, cut open, the pistil being abstracted. From this it is seen that the inside of the calyx is lined with the ten scaly woolly processes, which are free at their upper extremity, as shewn at fig. c. but which adhere to the 174 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Terebinthacece. the calyx throughout the remainder of their length ; alternating with them, and forming an inner series, are the ten stamens;. the filaments of which adhere to the sides of the calyx, and separate the bases of the scales by elevated naked lines ; the anthers originate nearly from the sinus of the faucial scales, a very short portion only of the filaments being free. (e.) A section of the pistil. The stigma is an orbicular fungous body, slightly depressed in the middle, and very like that of some Thymelee ; it communicates, by means of a very short style; with the ovary, which is woolly and one-celled, (two- celled in Roxb.) ; its ventral suture projects into its cavity in the form of a thin plate, from each side of which hangs a suspended ovule. (f.) Represents one of these ovules, which has a plano-convex figure, and is extended into a thin membrane along the whole of the convex side which is next the placenta ; it is produced downwards into a taper horn, at the point of which it is to be presumed i is the foramen ; upwards it is gradually rounded off.—I am indebted to.my friend, Dr. Lindley, for this cine as well as for the drawings of his dissections. 60. TEREBINTHACE. The Terebinthacea of Jussieu have been, divided by modern botanists into several orders, such as Anacardiee, Sumachine, Spondiacee, Bur seracee, Amyridee, and Connaracec. The last appearing to be closely allied to Ovalidee, has been already mentioned, and the remainder being so closely related to one another, and’ participating i in many of the same properties, and having much the same geographical distribution, it is most conve- nient to treat of them as one whole, whether this be considered ‘as an order containing several tribes, or as a class where these will be elevated to the rank of separate families. The genera of Terebinthacea, peculiar. to India, are ‘Semecarpus, Buchanania; Bos- wellia, Odina, Sabia, Pygeum, Syndesmis, Holigarna, and Melanorrhea. Of these the four last are confined to southern parts, as the forests of Silhet and the Malayan Penin- sula, while all the others are found in the most northern parts of India, at the foot of, and at moderate elevations on the Himalayas; Sadia alone is found at a consi- derable height, with species of Rhus, which we know extends northwards to the south of Europe, and southwards to the Cape of Good Hope; iti is also found in China, and in North as well as in South America. Being thus a genus of considerable distribution, it is not confined to the Himalayas, but occurs also in the Peninsula of India, of © which one of the species, R. pgmrensts, extends up to the neighbourhood of Delhi. Mangifera and Garuga are likewise genera found in northern parts, whence they extend southwards, the former to the island of Mauritius, and the latter to that of Madagascar. Protium and Canarium, confined to the southern parts of India, extend into the Indian Archipelago, and the Jatter into China. Balsamodendron is common to Arabia, Abyssinia, and India; while Anacardium, Spondias, Icica, and Amyris? are common to South America, and to both the West and East Indies. The last ‘is mentioned with doubt, as most of Dr. Roxburgh’s species have been removed to other genera. . . The Species of these péhhera; which show themselves in the most northern parts, as in the Deyra and Kyarda valleys and lower hills, are Semecarpus cuneifolium, very closel y allied to S. Anacardium, Buchanania latifolia,. Odina Wodier, Spondias. mangifera, Bos- wellia glabra, and Garuga pinnata. The mangoe attains its full size, and ripens excel- lent fruit in the latitude of Saharunpore and at Kirana. The tree thrives as high as 4,000 Terebinthacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 175 4,000 feet at Nahn, but does not ripen its fruit. . I know not how much further north it extends, but have heard: that the fruit does not ripen at Lahore. The species which _ have been mentioned, are those which are found in most parts of India, in’ the jungly tract along the foot.of the Himalayas, in the forests of the central range of mountains, as well as in those of the Peninsulas. In the forests of Silhet and Chittagong, other species are prevalent, as-Zoligarna’ racemosa and longifolia, Melanorrhea usitata, species of Canarium, Bursera serrata, Wall., (Schinus niara and Benghalensis, of Hb. Ham.) referred by W. and A. to Icica, Balsamodendron commiphora, and. Pygeum acuminatum. Species of Syndesmis have as yet only been found in Tavoy and Penang; Anacardium occidentale occurs only in the islands, but is cultivated in the healt where species of Protium are alone found. | | Sabia, Colebr., is one:of the néw genera which is found inf Sillict-and Nepal, ex- tending northwards to the vicinity of the Ruenka lake, and also to the valleys on the sides of Urukta. This would be the only plant of the order.at any considerable ele- vation in these mountains, if it was not for the prevalence of the genus Rhus, of which several species are found here, and are very common. » R, parviflora, Roxb., is that which is found at the lowest elevations. R. velutina, Wall., ,i8 so nearly allied ‘to R. cotinus, that some of its smooth-leaved varieties might be referred to it; of which Caucasus is at present the most southern-known distribution. R. kakrasingee, nob., (R. acuminata, D. C.?) which, by Dr: Wallich, has been united, with .R. swccedanea; and of which the horn-like excrescences, formed probably in consequence of the deposition of the ova of some insect, have long formed a famed article of Hindoo medicine, is found in the Deyra Doon, and every where in the hills, at moderate elevations, The other species are closely allied to those found in Japan. Thus, R. vernicifera, D.C. includes both the Japan plant, sitz of Kempfer, and Dr.Wallich’s R. juglandi- folia, found in'Nepal, Kemaon, and every where in Gurhwal. . Buckiamela, Roxb., is so closely allied to the Java and Japan R. semi-alata, as to have been united with it by D.C., though it has been again separated by Dr. Wallich. The different groups or families into which the Terebinthacee have been divided, Sidi a considerable resemblance in the nature of their products. These have been shortly summed up in: ‘the “excellent work of M. Fée, as consisting, 1st, ‘of fixed oil in the almonds of the seeds; 2d, essential oil, which is combined with resin in the turpentine _ of the pistacias: 3d, resin, which flows natutally; or from artificial openings made in the trunks of the greater number of species; 4th, gum, which is seldom found pure,* but frequently combined with the resin, as in myrrh, &c. The Burseracee include the plants yielding the most valuable products, which have long been articles of great commercial importance. Thus, the Balsamodendron (Amyris) Gileadense, or balsam of Gilead-tree, known in the East by the name of Balessan, has long been accounted one of the riches of Arabia, whence, or from Abyssinia, its native country, according to Bruce, it was at an early period taken into Syria. It has also been introduced into the Botanic Garden at Calcutta, as well as into the Peninsula of India, 176 ; ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Terebinthacee. India. B. Opobalsamum, to which M. Kunth more particularly refers the Balessan of Bruce, and the figure of Prosper Alpinus, is perhaps on ly a variety of the former, affording a similar product. B. (Amyris, Forsk.) Kataf and Kafal, are also nearly allied, if not identical species; both are natives of Arabia, and both give out a most fragrant balsamic odour. The wood of B. kafal is an article of considerable commerce, according to Forskal, and‘ is that probably which is given in Indian bazars as the aod-i-balessan. Forskal also mentions that he had heard of two other trees, which are like these; one the shujrut-ul-murr, or myrrh-tree, and the other called khudush. — The myrrh-tree, which for so many ages has remained unknown, appears at last to have been identified by Messrs. Ehrenberg and Hemprich, naturalists of Berlin, who collected some myrrh off the plant itself in Arabia, near Gison. This shrub belongs also to the genus Balsdmodendron, and has been called B. myrrha. It is figured by Nees Von Esenbeck, officinaler pflanzen 17 leifer, and is said to have been found growing with Acacias, Euphorbias, and Moringas. In Persian works, myrrh is said to be the produce of Africa and the island of Socotra, as well as of Arabia. By Mr. Bruce the myrrh-tree is described as growing behind Azab, along the coast towards the straits of Babelmandel. Though it would be desirable to have the information confirmed respecting the tree yielding myrrh, yet it is not in consequence of its not explaining the production of East-India myrrh, as hinted by Messrs.Merat and De Lens, for ‘‘ the Abyssinian myrrh,” as stated by my friend, Dr. Thomson, “ comes to us through the East-Indies, “while that produced in Arabia is brought by the way of Turkey.” But it is very difficult to ascertain the exports or imports of any of the eastern ports; for in the lists of the former, printed for the use of European merchants, we frequently see articles which we know have been previously imported in Arab ships from a variety of places. Though there does not appear any reason for supposing that myrrh is produced in any part of India, yet there is a substance having the closest resemblance to it, which is imported into and known in Europe as Indian myrrh. This is also said very closely to resemble, if indeed it at all differs from Bdellium: it is probable, therefore, that it is what in India is known by the name of googul (moogl of the Arabians), as it forms the Baellium of commerce, and resembles an inferior kind of myrrh, as indeed Bdellium is frequently described to be, That it is also the Bdelliun of the ancients would appear from the Persian authors giving budleyoon and madikoon as the Greek names of moogl, Hindee googul, evidently the 63:Aawy and pxd:husy of Dioscorides. The tree which yields the googul has not yet been ascertained, but in the Saharunpore Botanic Garden ' there is a small tree called by this name, which I was informed was said to pro- duce the drug of that name. As this had never flowered, I regret having deferred inquiring into its history, but believe it had been introduced from Nujeebabad. This, however, is unimportant, as I am well satisfied from the general character of the plant, and especially its bark separating in strips, like the birch, that this must be the Amyris Commiphora of Dr. Roxburgh. (Fl. Ind. 2. p. 244.) A. agallocha (Cal. Cat. p. 28) of which he gives googula as the native name. The characters of this species agree in _ every * Terebinthacee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 177 every respect with those of the new. genus, Balsamodendron, to which it has been referred by Messrs.Wight and Arnott; it serves to show the analogy between the flora of India, Arabia, and Abyssinia, as well as the similarity in the products of plants of the same genus in these different countries. This Indian species is described by Dr. Rox- burgh as being found in Silhet, Assam, and the districts E. and N.E. of Bengal ; flowering in the Calcutta Botanic Garden in February and March, but seldom ripening its seed, The whole plant, especially when any part is bruised, diffuses a grateful fragrance, like that of the finest myrrh; so that Dr. R. was induced to think it might be the plant yielding that drug, but seems to have abandoned the idea, in consequence of the evaporation of the exuded juice, and his being able to obtain only a small quantity of a gummy matter, which he observes, certainly resembled myrrh, both in smell and appearance. But this, considering that the trees were young, as they did not ripen their seed, must be considered rather as favourable, than conclusive against their pro- ducing any kind of gum-resin. The googul which I obtained in the bazars was said to come from the hills, at the foot of which this tree is found; the subject might therefore be traced out by those favourably situated for the purpose. The name googil is also applied, according to Dr. Ainslie, by the Tellingoos of the Coromandel coast, to the resin which exudes from Boswellia glabra. There is, however, a substance, famed in ancient and used in modern times, produced also by this group, and known as Okbanum or Thus, looban and koondur of the natives of India. Under the latter name, it is described by Avicenna, evidently referring to the A;Gexe¢ of Dioscorides, who mentions both an Arabian and an Indian kind. The latter Mr. Colebrooke has proved to be the produce of Boswellia serrata, Roxb., (B. thurifera, Colebr.), salai or saleh of the Hindoos, common in Central India and Bun- dlecund, where I have seen it, especially about the Bisramgunge ghaut. It is probably also produced by B. glabra, which has the same native name, and though extending to a more northern latitude, is distributed over many of the same localities. It is common in the low hills above Mohun Chowkee, where I have myself collected off the trunk of the trees some very clear, pure, and fragrant resin, which burns rapidly away with a bright light, diffusing a pleasant odour. To this kind, according to Dr. Ainslie, the term googul is applied by the Tellingoos. The resin of both species is employed as incense in India, and both might be much more extensively collected than they at present are, as there is reason to believe that Central India alone furnishes the greatest portion of the Indian Olibanum of commerce; as it is chiefly exported from Bombay. From the affinity in vegetation between parts of Arabia, Persia, and India, it is not improbable but the genus Boswellia may extend into those countries, and afford that which is known as Arabian Olibanum. Canarium Benghalense is another plant of this tribe, which, according to Dr. Roxburgh, exudes an excellent clear amber-coloured resin, not. unlike copal. In America, as in India, several valuable resins, as Elemi, Carana, Chibou, and two or three kinds of Zacamahaca, are afforded by plants of this tribe. In the group of Amacardiee we have the well-known Pistacia vera, Terebinthus, and 2A Lentiscus, 178 ~~ ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Terebinthacee. Lentiscus, yielding respectively Pistachio nuts, Chio turpentine, and Mastic, products which are all well known in India; the last, called koondur roomee, may be translated Turkish Olibanum. P. Terebinthus seems to extend into Arabia, where it is called butum, as well as into Persia, as it is there called sukkur. Mr. Elphinstone informs us, that some of the hills in Caubul produce mastic, and that the pistachio grows wild in Hindoo-koosh. From Caubul, or, as I was informed, from Bokhara, the almond, as well as its pericarp, is imported into India, together with a kind of gall, called gool-i-pista, stated, (as in P. Terebinthus,) to be formed on, and a resin called aluk-ool- unbat, produced by, the pistachio-tree. This may be substituted for that of P. Tere- binthus, and is probably what is alluded to by Kempfer, Am. Ex. p- 414. P. Atlantica, called tum by the Africans, is said by Desfontaines to afford a resin like mastic, which — is used for the same purposes. This, therefore, might probably be introduced into the North of India, if the climate should be found too hot for the other species. Several, however, of this group afford useful products in India. Thus, Buchanania latifolia affords edible nuts. The mangoe is known for its delicious fruit; inferior kinds are, however, disagreeable to many, on account of the terebinthinate taste and smell of the _ skin. Besides its well-known uses as a condiment, the unripe fruit is cut into slices and dried—to be used as an acid when the fresh fruit is not procurable. A gum-resin exudes from the bark, as well as from that of Odina wodier. The latter is so abundant as to form an article of commerce. It is called, in Northern India, jhingun ke gond and kenni ke gond. The latter name, or nearly the same, kinneh ke gond, is given by Dr. Ainslie as the Hindoostanee of Galbanum. A gall is also produced on. the leaf and fruit of Odina wodier, formed by the deposition of the ova of a species of Aphis. Some of the Anacardie@ are, however, more remarkable for the acrid nature of their juices, which, on drying, become black, and are used as varnishes; as that of the Ana- cardium occidentale, or cashew-nut ; so also of Semecarpus anacardium, or marking-nut. The variety of this, or species, S. cuneifolium, found in Northern India, is also used for marking cotton, and in native medicine. This resinous balsam is insoluble in water, and only miscible with alcohol when this has been previously alcalized, Rorb: Dr. B. Hamilton informs us, that the juice procured from Holigarna longifolia, is used in Malabar for varnishing shields. Melanorrhea usitata of Dr.Wallich, Pl. As. Rar. t. 11 and 12, is the ¢heet-see, or varnishing-tree of the Burmese, found at Prome, Martaban, Moulmein, and Tavoy. Dr. W. identified this with the Kheu, or varnish-tree of Mun- nipore, on the N.E. of Silhet, where it grows with saul and teak, Shorea robusta and Tectona grandis, as well as the wood oil-tree (Dipterocarpus) in the valley of Kubbur, elevated 500 feet above the plains of Bengal in about 25° N. lat. This tree abounds im a thick and viscid, greyish-brown fluid, which turns black soon after coming into contact with the air. Though the natives of the country seem to touch it with im- punity, its contact is frequently followed by painful and deleterious effects. It is used for paying boats, and for varnishing vessels intended to hold liquids, also for gilding, and as a kind of ink (v, Wall. l.c. p. 11 and 12.) Dr.Wallich also mentions the Terebinthacea. } THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 179 the Augia of Loureiro producing a varnish used in China and Siam; and also the Stagmaria verniciflua of the Malayan Islands, Arbor vernicis of Rumphius, according to whom, as Mr. Jack observes, it is the tree which yields the so much-celebrated Japan lacquer or varnish, as well as that of Siam and Tonquin, which becomes black and hard, and being acrid causes excoriations and blisters. Loureiro represents the varnish of the two last countries as being the produce of a different tree. The former has unaccountably been referred to Zerminalia by Lamarck, and called 7. verniv: its properties might thus be adduced as an exception in the family where it is placed, though strictly in accordance with those of the family to which it naturally belongs. The Swmachine@ exude resin; the bark, as well as the leaves and fruit of several species is astringent, on which account they are employed in the preparation of leather. The genus Rhus includes some true poisons, as R. venenata, perniciosa, radicans, and Toxicodendron; and though most are inodorous, others, as R. suaveolens and aromatica, exhale a pleasant odour; while some of the species have acid berries, as R. coriaria, Bucki-amela, and Schinus molle. Thus, Rhus Cotinus, or Red sumach, has wood, called young fustick, which is astringent, as well as the berries; and R. Coriaria, known in India by the same name as in Europe, is a powerful astringent, chiefly employed in tanning leather, but also in Indian medicine. The seed of R. parviflora, tuntereek, is frequently substituted in India for that of the sumach. R. glabra is considered a febrifuge. Rhus vernix, a Japanese tree, exudes a whitish resinous juice, which soon becomes black in the air. R. succedanea and vernicifera, both common to the Himalayas and Japan, are said in the latter to yield a similar product. Species of other genera, as of Schinus, contain a resinous matter. The Spondiacee contain but few plants, and these have sapid and eatable fruit, which, in the West-Indies, are called hog-plums ; so, in India, Spondias mangifera, called amra, produces a fruit, which is eaten when ripe, and pickled before ripening. The tree is said to exude a mild insipid gum. 3 From the preceding observations, it is evident that the Terebinthacee are one of the most important families for the number and value of their products. India contains so many of them, that it is perhaps immaterial to acclimate those of other countries, though from the nature of the climates in which these chiefly grow, there is no doubt of the success which would attend the attempt. It is more important, perhaps, to diffuse those which already exist over as wide an extent as practicable; and ascertain the properties of others. The species of Rhus being alone found at any elevation, might no doubt be introduced into English shrubberies. The mangoe even, which, as is well known,- has been ripened by Lord Powis, might be more extensively cultivated than, from its usual arboreous nature, is supposed possible : for by grafting and transplanting, the ordinary growth is much impeded, and shrubs of less than four feet in height have borne in the Saharunpore Garden above a dozen mangoes. It would be necessary only to imitate the climate, by giving a green-house cold in winter ; rapidly raising the heat in February and March, *and continuing it till May or June, or about the time of the 2a 2 accession 180 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. accession of the rains, when the addition of moisture to the heat is indicated; as the mangoes only perfectly ripen, after the atmosphere has become moist in the rains. Odina Wodier ; Roxb. F1. Ind. 11. p. 293. v. Tab. 31. fig. 2. Flowering branch of a male plant. (a. b.) Male flowers. (c.d,) A fertile flower. (e.) The fruit. (/.) Leaves expanding after the flowers, As a full description has been given by Dr. Roxburgh of this plant, it is necessary only to mention that it is common every where in the hilly parts of India, and produces a useful resin, as mentioned in the text. 61. MORINGEZ. This order, consisting of only a single genus, and but few species, has been separated from Leguminose by Mr. Brown, on account of its compound unilocular ovarium, with 3 parietal placente, and simple unilocular antheree. Moringa pterygosperma, of which M. polygona is supposed to be a variety, is common in the Peninsula, and most parts of India. I have seen it in a wild state in the jungle which skirts the Himalaya, even in the most northern parts. /: aptera appears to be confined to Arabia and Egypt, and though mentioned as belonging to India, I have not been able to trace it to any part of that country. This species is supposed to be the true Ban of the Arabians, and its seeds to have formed the Ben-nuts, of old writers, from which the Ben-oil was expressed, formerly more famed than it is at present. In India, the Arabian synonyme Ban, is applied both to the bukayun, Melia bukayun, and to the Sohunjna, or Moringa pterygosperma ; from the seeds of which, both in the northern and southern parts of India, an oil is procured, which is described as not becoming rancid. Being inodorous, it is now chiefly employed for retaining the aroma of delicate flowers, and though aperient, is seldom used as medicine. The flowers, leaves, and tender seed- vessels, are eaten by the natives of India in their curries; and the roots are universally known to European residents in India, as a substitute for the horse-radish. They are remarkable for their pungent and stimulant nature, and are employed for the latter property by the natives in medicine, 62. LEGUMINOS&. The Leguminose form one of the most important orders of the vegetable kingdom, whether we consider their numbers, their diversity of form, or their important uses, as food, medicine, or in the arts. In consequence of the irritability of the leaves of many of the species and their collapsion during sleep, they have been considered by some authors as the most highly organized, and therefore placed at the head of the vegetable kingdom. They may be almost universally recognised (Detarium is the only exception) by the form of fruit from which they are named. They form in almost every country a considerable portion of the flora. In the present collection they amount to 300 species, ~ which is about +!5 of the whole. The hill specimens being to those found in the plains in the proportion nearly of 92 to 208. 3 “ge Mine Brown has divided the Leguminose into the three orders of Mimosee, Cesalpinee, and Papilionacee; which he considers belong to one class, and which he is still of opinion it is expedient to preserve. They certainly form very-natural groups, the two first Leguminosae] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. isl first agreeing in a great measure in their geographical distribution. M. De Candolle considers them only as portions of the extensive order of Leguminos@, which he divides into two great divisions, one containing all the plants in which the radicle of the embryo is straight ; this includes the M/imosee and Cesalpinee ; and the second, those in which the radicle is bent back upon the cotyledons. These consist almost entirely of the Papilionacee, which have been further subdivided into two sections; the first called Phyllolobea, which in germination push their cotyledons above ground, and contain the tribes of Sophoree, Lotee, and Hedysaree ; the second, M. De Candolle calls Sarcolobee, which retain their cotyledons under ground, and consist of the tribes of Viciee, Pha- seolee, and Dalbergiee ; of these the Viciee and Phaseolee contain almost all the pulses which are cultivated as food for man or animals; while the Phyllolobee include but few of which the seed is fitted for food, though the subtribe of Zrifoliee contains the clovers and other plants cultivated as green fodder. - The Mimosea, instead-of the irregularity which distinguishes the greater portion of the Leguminose, have their parts of fructification disposed with the utmost symmetry, their sepals and petals, except in Parkia, are valvate in estivation, and their stamens hypogynous. The plants belonging to this order are chiefly confined to the warm parts of the world, but spread southwards to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland, and northwards to Japan and the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea. The genera common in every part of India, are nearly the same as those of which species are found in America; as Entada, Mimosa, Inga, Desmanthus, Acacia, Ade- nanthera, and Prosopis, and with the exception of the two last, also in Africa. As a species of Mimosa ascends the sides of the Andes, so an Acacia, A. mollis, Wall. t. 177, of which there are two highly ornamental varieties, is found as high as 6,000 feet on the Himalayas, in 30° of N. latitude. There is also a species in Nepal, which, according to M. De Candolle, is closely allied, if it be at all different from A. Nemu of Japan. Of these genera the species are most prevalent in the Malayan and Indian Peninsulas, in the forests of Silhet, and in those of the Rajmahl hills ; and to such places the genera _Entada, seaman hist, and Adenanthera, are principally confined, though the first has — own species, E. Pursetha, extending even to Nepal. But species of these, as well as of several American genera, succeed in the most northern parts of India. The genus Mimosa, of which J. pudica is perfectly naturalized in India, has a species, M. rubicaulis, extending as far north as the Deyra Doon and lower range of hills, where are also found Acacia Catechu, farnesiana, stipulata (which appears to be the same as Smithiana), and. speciosa (Serissa, Roxb.) The last is so like the Egyptian A. Lebbek, that on seeing the latter at St. Helena, I took it at first for the Seriss, a tree I had been daily in the habit of seeing for a number of years. The most remarkable instance of a southern plant spreading to these northern latitudes along the tract of forest, is Acacia elata, which was found by Dr.Wallich at the mouth of the Irrawady, and which, on examining, in company with Dr. Graham, was found to be identical with specimens collected by myself in the Deyra Doon, where it forms a lofty tree. In the more open 182 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF (Leguminosae. open country near Saharunpore, A. arabica, with farnesiana, are common, as every where in India, with A. alliacea, in the hedges. In the dry Bangur land, between Saha- runpore and Delhi, Acacia modesta and Prosopis spicigera, are found; and near the latter city, Desmanthus cinerea, belonging to the section Dicrostachys of D. C., formed into a genus by Messrs. Wight and Arnott, and of which the other species are found in Abyssinia and Senegal. To the neighbourhood of Delhi also extend A. /eucophea and catechuoides ; and Jnga dulcis flourishes in gardens within that city. From Central India I received a hew species, A. ervosa, through the kindness of Captain Jenkins, from the neigh- bourhood of Nagpore. The resemblance to the flora of Africa, which has been indi- cated, is confirmed by the occurrence in India of two species of Mr. Brown’s genus, Parkia, as to this belong Dr. Roxburgh’s Acacia biglobosa and pedunculata. A. ara- bica, bubool, and Prosopis spicigera jhand, extend north into the country between the Beas and Ravee (Burnes’ Travels.) With the exception of the fruit, in which some anomalies are presented here as in other families, the Mimosee offer great uniformity in the properties of the different species. Several afford gum as an exudation, secrete an astringent bark, and form excellent timber. Thus, on the western coast of Africa, Acacia verek yields gum- Senegal; in Nubia, A. nilotica and Seyal, gum-arabic; and in New Holland, A.decurrens _ affords a substitute for these, as A. arabica, farnesiana, and speciosa do in India. The bark of A. arabica or bubool of the Hindoos, is considered in India a valuable tonic and astringent, and, abounding in tannin, is extensively ysed in tanning leather. A. nilotica is so used in Nubia, and A. Adansonii, yielding a reddish gum, in Senegambia ; Acacia bark is exported from New South Wales, and might be so from many parts of India. Owing to the transference of this astringent matter into the woody tissue, the old high- coloured wood of some species is used for making the astringent extract, known under the name of catechu. It is probable that other plants may be used for obtaining an extract similar to this, as we learn from Dr. Ainslie that the kinds called cuttacumboo and cashcuttic, are manufactured in the Peninsula from the Areca catechu; but the _ greater portion of that which is used in or exported from India, is manufactured from the Khuer or Acacia catechu, as Mr. Kerr and Dr. B. Hamilton have described its manufacture from this plant in Canara and Behar. In Northern India the Kutt manufac-— turers move to different parts of the country in different seasons, erect temporary huts in the jungles, and selecting trees fit for their purpose, cut the inner wood into small chips. These they put into small earthen pots, which are arranged ‘in a double row along a fire-place built of mud (choola); water is then poured in until the whole are covered ; after a considerable portion has boiled away, the clear liquor is strained into one of the neighbouring pots, and a fresh supply of material is put into the first, and the operation repeated until the extract in the general receiver is of sufficient consistence to be poured into clay moulds, which, in the Kheree Pass and Doon, where I have seen the process, are generally of a quadrangular form. This catechw is usually of a pale red colour, and is considered there of the best quality, By the manufacturers it is conveyed to Saharun- pore Leguminosa@.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, 183 pore and Moradabad, whence it follows the course of commerce down the Ganges, and meets that from Nepal, so that both may be exported from Calcutta. Another astringent product of a plant of this tribe is procurable in the bazars of India, and this, is remarkable, as only known by the old name akakia ; it is described by Persian authors, as it was by Dioscorides and Avicenna, as being the expressed juice of the fruit of the tree which yields gum-arabic, Sumugh arabee. The denseness and tenacity of the timber afforded by some of the species is consider- able, that of A. arabica and farnesiana being used for making wheels and tent-pegs ; that of other species attains a large size, as of A. kalkora and A. speciosa; the latter is dark- coloured and close-enough grained for making furniture. A. elata, xylocarpa, Sundra, odo- ratissima, stipulacea, and cinerea, all yield it of good quality. Some of the species of this tribe are remarkable for the seeds being covered with edible fleshy pulp, as Acacia Keringa and Inga dulcis, in India; also, I. faeculifera and Mimosa fagifolia in America; while the saponaceous legumes of Acacia concinna form a considerable article of commerce, and the seeds of Entada Pursatha, called gela, are used by the natives for washing the hair. The bark of some species, as of A. ferru- ~ ginea and leucophea, added to jaggery water, is distilled as an intoxicating liquor. The seeds of Parkia Africana (Inga biglobosa, Palis. de Beauv.) well known as produced by the doura-tree, are roasted in Africa as coffee ; so, in India, Dr. Roxburgh’s Mimosa pedunculata, which he approximated to his I. biglobosa, thinking the latter identical with the African species, is eaten by the Malays, who are fond of the seeds, as well as of the mealy matter which surrounds them; the former tasting like garlic. | The Czsaprnex, or LomenTACEA, distinguished by Mr. Brown as comprehending “all the genera having perigynous stamina, a corplla whose estivation is not valvular, and which, though generally irregular, is never papilionaceous. To these characters may be.added the straight embryo, in which they agree with J/Zimosee, but differ from all the Papilionacea, except Arachis and Cercis.” The Cesalpinee, like the Mimosee, chiefly inhabit the warm parts, both of the new and of the old world, with a like extension to both the north and the south, but with an addition in the former direction of one or two species in the south of Europe. Several genera are peculiar to either the old or the new world, and a few are common to both. Of the former, those which exist in or are confined to India, are Humboldtia, Hard- wickia, Jonesia, Cynometra, and Meszoneurum ; but none of these extend beyond the southern parts. Amherstia nobilis, the most splendid of the many magnificent objects of the vegetable kingdom, was found by Mr. Crawford and Dr.Wallich growing close to a kind of monastery, near Martaban, about 17° of N. latitude. Some splendid dried spe- cimens have since been sent to Dr. Lindley by Mr. Griffith from the woods near Pogoon. The genera Guilandina, Cesalpinia, Poinciana, Tamarindus, Cassia, Bauhinia, and Outea, are common to India and America, and all, with the exception of the last, which is only found in the Calcutta Garden (Lin. Trans. vy. 12), occur in every part of India. Of these, such species as Tamarindus indica, Cassia fistula, Poinciana pulcherrima, Guilandina 184 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. Guilandina Bonduc, Cesalpinia sepiaria, and Bauhinia variegata, found every where in the plains, are those which have been so completely naturalized, as to appear indigenous to America; in the same way that Parkinsonia aculeata has from thence been intro- duced into India, and is now found growing in some places where there are no other shrubs or trees. In the forest tract at the foot of the mountains, Cassia Jistula may, in the month of March, be seen in luxuriant flower, and more ornamental even than the laburnum, which in general appearance it a good deal resembles; and in the Kheree Pass, Bauhinia purpurea and parviflora, with B. racemosa. The last hang in elegant festoons from the tops of lofty trees, which one is at a loss to conceive, how, from the distance of its root from the stem, it could ever have ascended ; but occasionally a half- killed tree displays the mode of its progress, and indicates the destruction it must have created in the forest. Another species of the same genus, B. emarginata, may be seen on the sides of the Himalayas, above Rajpore; and in the neighbourhood of Nahn, a species of Cassia, C. suffruticosa, does not refuse to thrive. At still greater eleva- tions, as at Mussooree, we have only herbaceous species of this genus, of the section Chamecrista, as C. Wallichiana and ameéna ; but this is only during the rainy season, at which time the latter makes its appearance also in the neighbourhood of Saharunpore, showing that water, the great equalizer of temperature, causes an approximation even in such dissimilar climates as that of Saharunpore and the hills. In the open plains, Cassia tora is common, as well as kusounda of the natives, which comes very near C. purpurea, Roxb., as well as C. sophora, with which it has been united in the East- Indian Herbarium, No. 5,317, but is a distinct species, though closely allied to it, and not at all different from C. occidentalis, common in the West-Indies. C. tomentosa, another American species, found at Santa Fé de Bagota, is said by Messrs.Wight and Arnott also to be found on the Neelgherries. | The affinity with the African Flora has been indicated under the Mimosee : it is further proved by the occurrence in India of the African genus Pterolobium'; indeed the same species, P. /acerans, the famous Kantuffa of Abyssinia, described by Mr. Bruce, appears to be equally common in the Peninsula of India. Other species also, as Cassia tora, occidentalis, and absus, are mentioned in the “‘ Flora Senegambie.” It is remarkable, that C. absus, which is extremely common in the Deyra Doon, as well as in the plains of India, is mentioned by M. Delile in the Centurie de Plantes d Afrique, p- 25, as the ‘‘ chychm des droguistes d’Egypte,” brought by the caravans from Darfour; the powdered seeds being used as an application in cases of chronic ophthalmia; they are employed for the same purpose in India, and are known by nearly the same name: Chaksoo being the Hindoostanee ; chushmak and chushmeezuk are. given in works on Materia Medica, as the Persian; kushmeezuk, tushmeezuk (perhaps the tasmarach of Avicenna), and hub-o0-souda or Soudan-seed, as the Arabic names; and chushm, as the Syrian. To these is, moreover added, akakalis, as a Greek name. This is no doubt intended for the exe«x«ais of Dioscorides 1. c.119, who describes it as a plant of Egypt. I was induced, on procuring the plant from seed bought in the bazar, and sown Leguminosae] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. - 185 sown in the Botanic Garden of Saharunpore, to call it Cassia acacalis, in a catalogue which however was never prepared for publication. (Journ. Asiat. Soc., 1. p- 452.) The family or group of Cesalpinee contains a number of trees and plants, which are highly valued. for their products, though there is not among these that general resem- blance which we have so frequently seen characterising the products obtained from plants of the same natural order. Among these, however, are some of the most orna- mental of the vegetable kingdom, as the splendid Amherstia nobilis, Cassia fistula, Jonesia Asoca, Poinciana pulcherrima, and several Bauhinias, many of which are remarkable for their size as climbers, as well as for the singular arrangement of their woody fibre. ’ Several of this tribe are valued for their red-coloured wood, as Haematoxylum campechi- anum, affording log-wood ; Cesalpinia echinata, and C. crista, Brazil-wood: In India a similar product, bukkum or sapan-wood, is yielded by C. sappan, growing only in the southern parts, but indicating where the South American species might be most success- fully cultivated. Adenanthera pavonina, common in the forests of Southern India, also yields a wood of a deep red colour, used as a dye, and for various economical purposes ; this is called rukta-chundun, or red sandal-wood, a name which is also applied to the wood of Pterocarpus santalinus, another of the Leguminose. The red colour is generally an indication of astringent and tonic properties in the products of plants; the latter, unaccompanied however by the red colour, is found in a remarkable degree in a plant closely allied to the Cesalpinias. This is Guilandina bonduc, Kutkurenja of the natives, Akutmookt, or SS of Avicenna; and, there is some reason for supposing, one of the kinds of eagle-stone of the ancients. The seeds I have found a powerfully effective. and cheap remedy in the cure of the intermittents, with which the natives of India are so frequently attacked. The bark of a kind of Bawhinia, called kobdar, is described as being astringent; that of B. variegata, and also of Cassia auriculata, are, according to Dr. Roxburgh, used by the natives in tanning and dyeing leather, as well as in medi- cine. Some of the tribe yield good timber, others, as Bauhinia racemosa and parviflora, have bark employed in making rope. An oil is expressed from the seeds of some, as Cesalpinia oleosperma; others exude a mild gum, like Mimosee, and some other plants, which have at the same time an astringent bark. A brownish-coloured gum is said by Dr. Roxburgh to be afforded by his Bauhinia retusa. It is also collected from B. emar- ginata, in the Deyra Doon, and called sem-ke-gond.. Some of the American plants of this tribe yield products with more decided proper- ties; such as Copaifera officinalis, yielding balsam copaiva. Dr. Roxburgh inquires, whether the nearly-allied Hardwickia binata may not , Produce a similar product ? Hymenea Courbaril affords the resin called anime. The Mexican tree which. yields. the true copal is not so well known, but supposed to be allied to the last. The copal of the East-Indian market is the produce of Vateria Indica, p. 107. A fragrant resinous. principle is secreted by Aloexylum agallochum. Some of the species yield acid edible fruit, as the tamarind-tree, of which both the red and common kinds are known in India. The kernel of the seeds, like those of the mangoe, are eaten in 2B times a 186 ‘ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. times of scarcity. The Ceratonia siliqua, or carob-tree, khurnooh shamee, as yielding an ~ edible fruit, and the seeds affording food for cattle, has been recommended (p. 163) to be introduced into the North of India. Both the tamarind and carob are slightly aperient, as is the sweetish secretion which surrounds the seeds in the long legume of Cassia jistula, much used in Indian medicine. The Cassias are better known for the purgative properties of the officinal species than for any others; a property participated in by the leaves of other species of the genus, as C.marilandica, occidentalis and tora. Some of the species, with strong and disagreeable odour, as C.sophora, occidentalis, and obtusa, are employed in curing various cutaneous affections. C. alata is called in India dad- murdun, which may be translated herpes-killer. The seeds of the same species were ° sent to Dr.:Roxburgh from the West-Indies under the name of Cassia herpetica. The most valuable and extensively-used of the products of the plants of this tribe are the different kinds of senna, produced by two species of Cassia, according to some, but by four or five species, according to other botanists, of the section Senna, or genus of some authors. The sennas of commerce are imported into Europe chiefly from Alex- andria and the East-Indies. Though it is difficult to assign the different commercial varieties to the species which produce them, yet the present state of our knowledge appears to justify the following statement. Cassia obovata, or the blunt-leaved senna, is found in Lower and Upper Egypt and Nubia ; in Central Africa, in the Wady Gherurbi, according to Dr. Oudney ; and on the western and northern coasts of that continent. From these it must have been intro- duced into Syria and Italy, whence it has obtained the names of Aleppo and Italian Senna. From Egypt and the eastern coast of Africa, it is probably introduced into the Peninsula of India, as it is said by Dr. Ainslie to be alone used there by the Indian practitioners ; but a nearly allied species, C. obtusa, Roxb., is common “ on the high, dry, uncultivated lands of Mysore, where the leaves are used as a substitute for senna.” Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2. p. 344. : The Alexandrian Senna is produced by the Cassia acutifolia of Delile, Fl. Hg. t. 27. f. 1, which differs little in botanical characters from, and indeed has been united with, C. lanceclata, of Forskal, by M. De Candolle; and this name is given to it by Nectoux, (Voy. dans la Haute Egypte, 19. pl.11.) This species, first met with about Phile and Syene in Upper Egypt, is also found in Nubia and Sennaar, and brought by the Arabs to Esneh, whence it is conveyed down the Nile to Boulac, where five parts are mixed with three parts of the leaves of C. obovata, and two parts of Cynanchum Argel, Delile, to form the senna of commerce. To this species is nearly allied the Cassia evata of Messrs. Merat and Delens, called Séné de Tripoli, from the place of its growth. - Cassia lanceolata of Forskal, described by him as found at Surdud, and also at Mor in the northern parts of Arabia, also about Mocha, and the district of Abuarish, is that which from its place of exportation is called swna mukkee, Senna of Mecca. Some portion is conveyed into Egypt, according to both Forskal and Delile, but the greater portion is exported to India, and finds its way into the interior by means of the ports of | Surat Leguminose@.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 187 Surat and Bombay, those of the Peninsula, as well as by Calcutta. A considerable portion is, however, re-exported to Europe, together with some probably cultivated in the country. Dr. Ainslie informs us (Mat. Ind. 1. p.391. 1826) “ that Mr. G. Hughes, of Palam- cottah, a few years ago succeeded perfectly in cultivating the true senna of Arabia, in the southern part of the Indian Peninsula.” This has now become a regular Indian export, and is well known in the London market, where it brings a high price, under the name of Hughes’ Tinnevelly senna. Dr. Thomson, in his Elem. of Mat. Med. 2. p. 307, States, that ‘‘ though not adopted into general use in Great Britain, it is milder in its operation than the Alexandrian drug; is as certain a purgative, and operates without griping.” Dr. Christison, however, informs me, that the principal chemist in Edinburgh purchases this in much larger quantities than any other kind of senna. It is no doubt the produce of C. lanceolata, though the leaves, from the more tropical climate, may become larger and more elongated, and have therefore given rise to the species, C. elongata, of Lemaire Lisancour (v. Fée) formed of the Séné de I’ Inde. Having had my attention turned to the Materia Medica of India at the request of the Medical Board of Bengal, I procured some senna from the Saharunpore Bazar, there called suna mukkee, which I fourid consisted entirely of lance-shaped leaves. The seeds picked out of this senna were sown in the garden, and a very exact representation of one of the plants procured, is given in plate 37. This agrees, as might be expected, with Forskal’s description of his Cassia lanceolata; as it is probable that the suna | mukkee originally found its way into Northern India by means of the extensive commerce which takes place between Surat and Delhi. But from its cheapness I was led to believe that it must be cultivated in the country, and on inquiry was informed that it was so, somewhere in the Agra and Muttra district; but I was never able to prove the fact. This senna corresponds in every essential particular with that cultivated at Tinne- velly, but the leaves, as might be expected from the more northern latitude of Saharun- pore, are smaller; in this respect they agree with some plants procured from seed sent to the Saharunpore Garden by the Hon. Sir Charles Metcalfe ; but with the place of growth of which I am unacquainted, though probably Arabia or the Indian Peninsula. The ripened seeds of the first crop were sown in the following year, and a large quantity of leaves being obtained, were dried and prescribed in the Saharunpore Hos- pital with very satisfactory results. A sample having been sent to the Medical Board, were submitted to experiment by Mr, Twining in the General Hospital at Calcutta. After prescribing it in forty-five cases, both in powder and infusion, Mr. T. says, ‘* From these trials, I am disposed to consider the senna now under trial, equal to the best I have ever seen,” (v. Trans. Med. and Physic. Soc. v. p. 483); and the Medical Board, in communicating the result, desired to assure me that it was as gratifying to them as it must be to me. These facts are adduced to show that the vain as the southern, and therefore all the vast intermediate space of India, is equally fitted for the growth of the best — ee at 188 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. That it repays the cost is evident from Mr. Hughes continuing to grow it; that it would do so in every part of India, I feel confident from its success at Saharunpore. It was sown there in March; again at the commencement, and also at the conclusion of the rains; those first sown were cut down two and three times, and always threw out a profusion of new branches, so that several crops were obtained from the same plant during one season. Ina more southern climate this might also have been done with those last sown, as the vegetatior seemed stopped only by the accession of the cold weather. A recent author says, ‘‘ Celui de I’Inde n’est qu’un séné en quelque facon — de passage, dont ou n’aura peut-étre plus dans quelques années.” But it is to be hoped that many intelligent cultivators will rival Mr. Hughes, and setting the natives an example, enable India to contribute a larger proportion than she at present does, of the four millions of pounds which are imported into Europe. The Paritionace#, named from the peculiar irregularity of the corolla, are distin- guished, as well as the small tribe of Swartziee, by the radicle being bent back upon the cotyledons. They have a calyx with distinct lobes, and stamens with perigynous insertion. The plants of the tribe Sophoree are few in number in India, and scattered over a wide extent of territory. Virgilia, a genus of which one species is found in N. America, three at the Cape of Good Hope, and one in: Abyssinia, has one, V..aurea, in the Peninsula of India, found near Courtallum: Messrs.Wight and Arnott mention that they do not perceive any difference between the Indian plant and that from European gardens, which was introduced from Abyssinia. _ Sophora tomentosa is common to the Caribbee Islands and to the Peninsula of India, the islands of Ceylon, Penang, and Mauritius; S. g/auca is found on the Neelgherrie Mountains. Ormosia, a genus found in South America and the Caribbee Islands, has also two species in the forests of Silhet; and another, S. glauca, in Nepal, figured by Dr.Wallich att. 125 of his splendid work. In Silhet, also, is found Dr. Roxburgh’s Podalyria bracteata, which, as suggested by Mr. Brown, does not belong to this genus (Congo, p.430),and has by Dr. Graham been formed into a new one called Dalhousiea, in honour of the Countess of Dalhousie, who, in addition to extensive collections of plants from different parts of the world, has brought home one of the most beautifully dried col- lections that I have seen from the Himalayas, made during a residence of many months at Simla. But none of the above genera extend to the northern parts of India, though these are not without some of the Sophoree. In the Deyra Doon and the néighbour- hood of Suhunsudhara is found a species of Edwardsia, of which the only other Species inhabit the islands of New Zealand, Sandwich, and Bourbon. The Indian species Edwardsia (Sophora, Wall. 5335) mollis,is figured at tab. 33. fig. 2. from drawings made from flourishing plants introduced into the Saharunpore Botanic Garden. To this species must also be referred the specimens marked B of S. Houghiana, Wall. 5336, sent by Dr.Govan from Sirmore, which is no doubt the same plant in a more advanced state, as the leaves vary much at different ages. At elevations of 8,000 and 10,000 . feet, Leguminosae. ] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 189 feet, another of this tribe is found, which is well known from having become perfectly naturalized in English gardens. This is Anagyris nepalensis, which has also. been referred to Baptisia and Thermopsis, as well as to Virgilia and Podalyria; so that it would not appear very closely allied to any, and render eligible the adoption of the genus Piptanthus, made for it by Mr. Salisbury. The success attending the introduction of this into English gardens, would seem to insure that of many others from the same altitude, and especially of the still more ornamental plant of the same tribe Thermopsis (Anagyris? Wall. 5341) barbata, “ superb sort of lupine” of Mr. Fraser, (Himal., Mount. p. 159), figured at t. 33. fig. 1, where may be Seen only one of the numerous annual flower- stalks which arise from one root. This being sunk in the ground, is protected from the great vicissitudes of temperature, and would therefore be independent of the numerous changes of an English spring. I met with it on Urrukta and Kedarkanta, and have received it from Doda on the road to Cashmere, as well from, Shalkur in Hungarung. It was gathered by Mr. Inglis on the Broang Pass. The plants of this tribe, though in general highly ornamental, are not remarkable for any useful properties, with the exception of Myrospermum peruiferum, pubescens, and Toluifera, the balsams of Peru and Tolu trees, which, however, are anomalous in their characters as in their properties, and therefore Dr. Lindley proposes to remove them from this order, and place them in or near Amyridee, to which they are allied. For the cultivation of these, suitable localities might probably be found in Travancore ; perhaps also in Silhet. — The remainder of the family of Papilionacee are very generally diffused over every part of India, both in the mountains and the plains, though the same tribes do not affect these two very different localities. For in the latter, with the genera Heylandia, Crotalaria, and Rothia, of the tribe Geniste, we have of Clitoriee, Psoralea, Indigofera, Clitoria, Pueraria, and Glycine ; of Galegea, Tephrosia, Agati, and Sesbania ; of Hedy- saree, Zornia, Aschynomone, Smithia, Uraria, Desmodium, Dicerma, Flemingia, Alhagi, and Alysicarpus ; of Phaseolee, Abrus, Rhynchosia, Phaseolus, Dolichos, Lablab, Psopho- carpus, Canavalia, Mucuna, Cantharospermum, Cajanus, Erythrina, and Butea; and of Dalbergiee, Pongamia, Dalbergia, and Pterocarpus. Some genera are entirely confined to the Peninsula, as Pycnospora,. Stylosanthes, Lourea, Eleiotis, Nomismia, Soja, and Cylista, with some new genera, which have been formed by Messrs. Wight and Arnott. Of some of the above genera, a few species extend into the mountains as high as 6,000 or 7,000 feet of elevation, as we have seen to be the case with species of other tropical genera; the annuals, or those with annual stems, are, however, found chiefly in the rainy season. Of these may be enumerated species of Indigofera, Smithia, Uraria, Des- modium, Flemingia, Pyrrhotrichia, Cyrtotropis, Phaseolus, Parochetus, and Cajanus. In the mountains, including this general term, both the northern and southern face of the Himalayas, we have of Genistee, species of the genera Cytisus, and Ononis ;—of Trifolice: Medicago, Trifolium, Trigonella, Melilotus, Lotus, and Podolotus ;—of Galegee : Caragana, and Colutea ;—of Astragalee: Astragalus, Orytropis, and Guldenstadtia ;—ot Hedysaree : 190 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguininose. Hedysareae : Oxyramphis, and Lespedeza ;—and of Viciee: Cicer, Vicia, Ervum, Pisum, Lathyrus, and Orobus. As we have seen species of the genera which are most prevalent in the plains of India, extending into the Himalayas, so do some of those which find a congenial cli- mate in the latter, spread into the former, and flourish at a season when the obliquity of the sun’s rays allows the plains to be cooled down to a temperature, which approximates to that of the summer of the mountains, and of European latitudes. Most of these are found only in a cultivated state, forming a portion of the cold-weather crops, mentioned at p. 10: others exist in fields, and in the neighbourhood of cultivation. The 7rifolice belong to the genera Medicago, Trigonella, and Melilotus, and the Viciee to Cicer, Kaba, Vicia, Ervum, Pisum, and Lathyrus. Of some of these, the species Medicago lupulina, Melilotus parviflora, Vicia cracca, the variety angustifolia, of V. sativa, Ervum hirsutum and Lathyrus aphaca have been so perfectly naturalized, as to be as common as any other plants during the cold weather for three or four hundred miles of Northern India. But as these, if introduced, must have been so with the Cerealia, and cultivated Legu- minosé, and as the native country of the former is still undetermined, they have an equal right to be included with them in the Flora of any country where they mutually oceur. eS fae The occurrence of such plants, however, indicates the nature of the climate, as well as the possibility of cultivating their valuable congeners ; and, in fact, the cold-weather cultivation of Northern India, consists, in addition to the Cerealia, of Leguminose belonging to the tribes Zrifolice and Viciee. Of the former, Medicago sativa, lucern, Trigonella fenum grecum, methee, are cultivated as fodder, and the latter for its use as a vegetable ; while Zrigonella incisa, nob. cheenee, Melilotus leucantha, and Ervum hir- | sutum, gegla, growing spontaneously, are given as fodder to cattle ; as pulse, both the red and white varieties of Cicer arietinum, chuna and kaboolee chuna, the gram of Euro- peans, are cultivated; also Faba vulgaris, bakla, Ervum lens, mussooree; Vicia sativa, khandee, Lathyrus sativus and Pisum arvense, both called muttur; anda variety of the latter, with serrate leaves, named urra-muttur. To complete a view of the Leguminous cultivation of the plains, it is necessary to notice the plants cultivated during the rainy season. These belong almost entirely to the tribe Phaseolee, of which we have in the fields Phaseolus radiatus, Roxb., called mash and oorud ; P. mungo, Roxb., huree moong ; P. aureus, Hb. Ham., moong ; P.aco- nitifolius, moth ; P.cuneatus, nob., bangur ke moth ; with varieties of Dolichos catjang, two called /obia and one sontha ; also Cajanus fiavus, called urhur ; and of the Trifoliee, Cyamopsis psoraloides. P. Max, kalee moong, is also mentioned by Dr. Roxburgh, and P. calcaratus is cultivated in the Peninsula. In the gardens are cultivated in the same season, Dolichos sinensis, Lablab vulgaris and cultratus, Canavalia gladiata, Mucuna capi- tata, with other species, and many varieties of all. Phaseolus lunatus is commonly called country French beans. P. vulgaris is said also to be common, but the only plants I ever found which corresponded with the European plants were from Cashmere, and these differed Leguminose.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 19] differed so much in their nature from the Indian Phaseolee, as to be cultivable only in the cold weather; and were the only ones of the tribe which succeeded well in the Mussooree Experimental Garden. That many of the same species and varieties of the Phaseolee, are cultivated in the southern as in the northern parts of India, and that there is considerable uniformity in their characters, is evident from my specimens of cultivated Phaseolee, named from Dr. Roxburgh’s MS. descriptions, corresponding in every respect with those contained in his Herbarium, as I ascertained in company with Dr. Graham. Arachis hypogea, from China or Africa, is also cultivated in India. Hence we may also expect, as in other families, to find many of the plants of Bengal, and Southern India, extending to Northern India: accordingly in the Deyra Doon and Kheree jungle we have such plants as Crotalaria tetragona, retusa and sericea, Psoralea corylifolia, Pueraria tuberosa, Dumasia villosa, Smithia sensitiva, Mucuna pruriens and monosperma, Desmodium gyrans, Dicerma pulchella, and Uraria lagopus ; with shrubs and trees like Tephrosia candida, Butea superba, Erythrina spathacea?, Pongamia glabra, Dalbergia ougeinensis and Sissoo. Pterocarpus, a genus which occurs chiefly in the southern parts of India, is mentioned by Dr. Govan as occurring about Nahn, but I was never fortunate enough to meet with it. At Saharunpore and in the open plains there are such plants as Heylandia latebrosa, Indigofera enneaphylla, Sesbania Angyptiaca and aculeata, Agati grandiflora, Butea frondosa, A’schynomene aspera and aculeata, Uraria picta, with several species of Alysicarpus. _ The neighbourhood of Delhi, and the arid banks of the Jumna, as we have frequently seen, enjoy a peculiarity of vegetation, which approximates their flora to that of the drier parts of the peninsula, as among the plants found may be enumerated Indigofera _ cordifolia and trita, Rhynchosia medicaginea and microphylla, Tephrosia diffusa and pur- purea. The existence also of A/hagi maurorum, with Indigofera paucifolia, and a species of Crotalaria, C. Burhia, Hb. Ham., (C. arida, nob.) nearly allied to C. Thebaica, shews the relation which has frequently been pointed out in the flora of this part of India to. that of Egypt. __ The greater proportion, however, of the species of the genera which have been enu- merated, as well as those of Galactia, Ormocarpum, Stylosanthes, Lourea, and Eleiotis, are found, as might be expected, in the southern parts of India; for the great majority, as Crotalaria, Psoralea, Indigofera, Clitoria, Galactia, Glycine, Tephrosia, Sesbania, Zornia, Stylosanthes, A’schynomone, Uraria? Desmodium, Rhynchosia, Phaseolus, Dolichos, Erythrina, and Pterocarpus, are common to India, with the equinoctial parts, both of Africa and America ; in each a few species of some of the genera extend northwards, as we have seen them do in India, whenever local circumstances produce a climate favourable for the growth of tropical plants. A progress which may be restrained either by the intervention of an ocean or a mountain range, and in both cases by reducing the temperature, or in the latter by preventing the progress of the tropical rains; so that tropical vegetation may be indicated on the map by a series of undulating or zig-zag lines, in the same way as has been done by the illustrious Humboldt for the lines of equal _ 192 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. equal temperature. Though the genera are numerous, which are common to the equi- noctial parts of Asia, Africa, and America, yet a few have only been found in the two first, as Cyamopsis, Ormocarpum, Alhagi, Alysicarpus, Cylista, and Dalbergia, while others exist only in Asia and America, as Mucuna, Collea, and Canavalia. | The genera which have been enumerated as occurring in the Himalayas, are, on the contrary, in. general common to these mountains, as well as to Siberia and Europe, the Oriental and Mediterranean regions. Caragana, Oxytropis, and Guldenstadtia, exist in Siberia and the Himalayas, Colutea in the latter and Europe; while Cicer, found in the Oriental region, Arabia, and Egypt, occurs also on the northern face of the Hima- layas; but Trifolium, Phaca, Lespedeza, Vicia, Lathyrus, and Orobus, occur in most of the above regions, as well as in the Himalayas, and the cool ports of America. Some of the species, moreover, are. not to be distinguished from those occurring in Europe and the Oriental region, which has been elsewhere shown to send many of its plants thus far southwards. Thus we have Ononis procurrens, Trifolium pratense and repens, Medicago sativa, and Lathyrus pratensis, in Cashmere; the two last are also found in Kunawur, with Medicago lupulina and falcata, Vicia sylvatica, and Cicer soon- goricum, and a nearly allied species, C. microphyllum, nob.. In the Himalayas we have Ervum tetraspermum, Orobus luteus, and Cytisus flaccidus, closely allied to C. argenteus. The numerous species of Astragalus and O.xytropis approximate the flora of the Hima- layas and of Kunawur, to that of Siberia and of the Altai Mountains ; and though few of the species can be identified with those of Pallas or Ledebour, which I have examined in the collections of Mr. Lambert and Professor Lindley, yet there is a great resemblance between many of them. A representative even of the North American flora is not wanting, forspecimens of Desmodium nudiflorum, collected by myself in the Himalayas, are pronounced by Dr. Boott not to differ from those collected by himself in the United States of America, while several species of _Lespedeza bear a close resemblance to those: from the same country. LL. juncea, or, at least a species referred to and scarcely to be distinguished from it, is found in these mountains, as well as in China and Japan. The existence of a few genera of a tropical nature has been already indicated at | moderate elevations, and in the rainy season. Thus, Crotalaria anthylloides is found at Mussooree and Nepal, in the Peninsula and Ceylon, Java, and Canton; also C. alata, of the section Alate ; to which also belongs a species found on the Andes. Smithia ciliata, Parochetus ovalifolia, Cantharospermum paucifolium, and Rhynchosia suaveolens, may be enumerated as occurring in these mountains in the rainy season, together with Phaseolus angustifolius and scaber, belonging to a genus, of which some species travel further north than any other of the tribe Phaseolee. It is probable that both the red and white varieties of P. vulearis were introduced into Europe from Caubul, Cashmere, or the neighbouring’ countries, as the seeds of both were brought me from the latter, and they can only be successfully cultivated in a lower temperature than other species of the genus. In addition to these, there are a few shrubby species of Indigofera and Desmodium, which extend as high as 6,000 feet. Among these, D. tiliefolium, Leguminosae.) THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 193 D. tilivfolium, ‘nutans, and multiflorum, with I. heterantha and violacea, may be men- tioned as the most ornamental. At lower elevations, a species, which I have called I. Arghawan, from its native name, is highly ornamental, from the luxuriance with which it flowers before the leaves make their appearance. I know not whether it is to this plant, that the same name is applied by Mr. Elphinstone, and described as being highly ornamental in the neighbourhood of Caubul. In the hills, as in the plains, the cultivated Leguminose belong to different tribes in the different seasons of the year; thus the field-pea, called kullae in Sirmore, is culti- vated in the summer months, and Dolichos uniflorus, koolut and koolthee, horse gram of Europeans in the Peninsula, in the rainy season; Phaseolus torosus, seeta mas, in Nepal; and in the Deyra Doon and lower hills, Cajanus bicolor, whether a variety or distinct species, is called éor by the natives, and distinguished from the urhur. In Cashmere, besides the French bean, other Phaseolee are cultivated, as well as Fenugrec : cattle are fed on lucern and clo¥er, which are, however, only found, as far as I have. been able to learn, in a wild state. Lieut. Burnes mentions clover at Peshawur and Gundamuk ; also that artificial grasses are cultivated at Caubul, and trefoil at Bokhara. Among the Mimosee and Cesalpinee we have seen that, with some anomalies, there is considerable uniformity in the properties of the plants of these tribes or orders ; but in the Papilionacee, which form so considerable a proportion of the Leguminose, indeed of the vegetable kitigdom, we find that with some striking conformities to the law of uniformity of properties with structure, there are yet considerable exceptions ; but those which agree in habit, as the herbaceous species of a tribe, generally also correspond in properties, even when miacrepencrs present themselves among the arborescent or shrubby species. Thus, if we examine the European Papilionacee, to which the Himalayan, as well as those which flourish in the cold weather in the plains of India, correspond in form ;* we shall find that the Viciee are cultivated in many countries; their seeds being useful as pulse, their stalks as fodder. The 77ifoliee afford bland and nourishing food, much relished by cattle, and are therefore much cultivated in different countries. The true Hedy- sareé and Astragalee, though not cultivated, are greedily cropped by cattle in Europe; and as has been mentioned at p. 41, Astragalus Webbianus, with other species, forms the principal nourishment of the numerous herds of cattle which are driven in the summer months by the Tartar shepherds to the bleak, elevated, and apparently barren districts of Kunawur and Hungarung. As much the same climate, as well as similar species of Astragali, extend to the Altais and Siberia, we may conclude, that there a4 they afford food to numerous cattle. The shrubby species, as A. verus, seme. creticus, and aristatus, and perhaps others of the section Tragacantha, yield the peculiar gum of. that name, which may perhaps also be secreted by some, though it has not yet been traced to any, of the Himalayan species; but with these, the officinal species would no doubt thrive, if it was expedient to introduce them. It would appear, however, a more important matter to teach the natives of the mountains to grow the easier cultivated p Trifoliee, 194 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminosee. Trifolieg, which would be useful for their cattle as winter fodder, now Supplied by the leaves of trees stacked for that purpose. But as these are not indigenous in the plains, and only suited for the cold weather cultivation-of Northern India, it is desirable to ascertain whether there may not be other plants suited as fodder for cattle, and profitable for cultivation. For though it is not the custom of the natives of India, with the exception of barley, to cultivate any green food for cattle, which, in addition to the precarious pasturage of Indian plains, generally get only bhoosa or chopped straw, and the cut stems, called kurbee, of the Jooar, or Sorghum vulgare; yet in an extended and improved system of farming, it would no doubt be desirable to have crops yielding green food suited to the climate. For this purpose the Graminee and Leguminose appear the most likely to be useful: of the latter, some of the Genistee, Hedysarea, and Phaseolee, being best suited to the climate, are most eligible for experiments. Of the first, I was informed that cattle were occa- sionally fed on the green parts of Crotalaria juncea ; bit as this plant, extensively culti- vated, is valuable on account of its fibrous bark, some other species might, perhaps, equally well answer the purpose. Of the Hedysaree, Alhagi Maurorum affords, in the most desert places, food grateful to the camel. Dr. Roxburgh states, that his Hedysarum quinqueangulatum ‘and auriculatum, both included in Desmodium diffusum by Messrs. Wight and Arnott, are greedily eaten by cattle, and might be advantageously culti- vated. I tried the Cichorium Intybus, which is much liked, both by horses and cows; it succeeded well in the Saharunpore Garden. Indigofera enneaphylla is also eaten by cattle, and might be useful in a sandy country, with Desmodium triflorum, in binding the soil. The Phaseolea, extensively cultivated both in gardens and fields, are frequently objectionable as fodder, in consequence of the numerous hairs with which they are covered ; but on this account, the pods of Mucuna pruriens are useful in medicine: Phaseolus radiatus is, however, eaten by cattle, and other useful exceptions might be found by attention being turned to the subject. Of this tribe it may be mentioned that lupins (Z. albus), much cultivated in Arabia and Egypt, are not so in Northern India, though corresponding in general in the nature of its cultivation, but they may be procured in the bazars under the name toormus, corrupted from S—Legumina nondum matura sesquipollicaria. Flores dimidio minores quam in preece- dente.—Wall. le. n. 5929. A. Hab. Ad ripas Rapti. Hamilton. + 11, A. podocarpus (Graham) erectus glaber; stipulis lanceolatis membranaceis liberis, foliolis 10-13-jugis oblongo-ellipticis, pedunculis folium gquantibus, floribus racemosis, leguminibus stipitatis oblongis turgidis utrinque acuminatis.—Legumina 1-} pollicaria. Wall. l.c. n. 5930. Hab. Kemaon versus Emodum. Wallich. 12. 4. coneretus (Benth.) caule erecto glabro, stipulis THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 199 lanceolatis membranaceis concretis, foliolis &-12-jugis oblongo-ellipticis pubescentibus, pedunculis folium #quan- tibus, floribus racemosis, leguminibus stipitatis oblongis turgidis utrinque acuminatis.—Precedenti simillimas. Legumina dimidio fere minora, An hue ob legumina stipitata; an ad Synochreatos ob stipula concreta referendus ? —A. vicioides, Graham. Wall, l.c. n. 5931. non Ledeb. Hab. Emodo ad Gossainthan, Wallich. 13, A. chlorostachys. Lindl. Trans. Soc. Hort, Lond. 7. 249.—A. Govanianus, Graham, Wall. l.c, n, 5925. Hab. Sirmore. Govan.—Urrukta and Nagkanda; Deolee in Cashmere. Royle. ; 14. A, sesbanoides (Royle) erectus glaber vel leviter strigoso-pubescens ; foliolis 15-20-jugis parvis ovatis, pedun- culis folio longioribus, floribus racemosis, leguminibus pendu- lis ovatis molliter villosis.—Species elegantissima habitu affi- nis 4, vicioidi Ledeb, et A, melilotoidi ? Legumina vix 4-5 lin. longa, dentes calycini brevissimi glanduloso-villosi. Hab, Mussooree, ; 15. A. trichocarpus (Graham) erectus strigoso-pubescens ; foliolis 12-15-jugis oblongis basi cuneatis, pedunculis folio vix longioribus racemosis, leguminibus pendulis villosis. —Precedenti valde affinis sed foliolorum forma distinctus videtur.—W all. Le, n, 5926, Hab, Sirmore. Govan. Sect. 7. Tragacanthe, DC. Prod. 2. 295, 16. .A. strobiliferus (Royle) floribus axillaribus sessilibus aggregatis, calycibus 5-partitis, laciniis subulatis lanatis corolla brevioribus, stipulis glabris foliolis 5-6-jugis ob- longo-linearibus villosis, caule leguminibusque .lanatis.— Affinis J. eretico et A. siculo. ois Hab, Kanum in Kunawur, 17. A. polyacanthus (Royle) glaber; pedunculis brevissimis subbifloris, calycibus cylindraceis 5-dentatis, foliolis 10-12- jugis parvis obovatis glabris, leguminibus oblongis acumi- natisturgidis calyce subduplo longioribus.—A fiinis 4. poterio. Variat leguminibus glabris villosisve. Hab. Soongnum in Kunawur, 18, 4. Grahamianus (Royle) pedunculis 2-3-floris folio brevioribus, calycibus cylindraceis 5-dentatis pubescentibus, foliolis 5-6-jugis oblongis glabris vel pubescentibus, legu- minibus ovatis turgidis pubescentibus calyces eequantibus,— y. Tab. 36, f, 2.—a. calyx. f.° stigma. /, pollen. Hab. Hills surrounding Cashmere. es. 19. 4. multiceps (Wall.) caule villoso, pedunculis bre- vibus 1-7-floris, calycibus subinflato-cylindraceis 5-dentatis pubescentibus, foliolis 5-6-jugis obovatis oblongisve sub- sericeo-villosis, leguminibus ovatis turgidis villosis calyces vix equantibus, Wall. l.c, n. 5237. ; Hab. Sirmore, Wallich—Shalkur in Hungarung. Roy/e. Sect. 8, Caprini. DC. Prod. 2, 301. 20, A. Webbianus (Grah.) subcaulescens glaber vel vix pilosiusculus, foliolis 25-31 parvis obovatis distantibus sub- carnosis, dentibus calycinis longis lanceolato-subulatis brac- teisque subpilosis, corollis glabris.—Affinis 4. Schanginiano, differt glabritie, foliolis parvis et petiolis subinc uratis. Wall. Le. n. 5936. es Hab. Inter rupes Sutlej. Waliich.—Much eaten by goats, called Auner by the Bhoteas. ¥ebb.—Nako in Hungarung. Royle. i 21, A. Candolleanus (Royle) subcaulescens, hirsutus ; foliolis 200 foliolis 21-31 obovatis obtusis emarginatisve, pedunculis bre- vissimis paucifloris, calycis dentibus tubo dimidio breviori- bus. Ab 4, Buchtormiensi vix differt nisi caulibus elon- gatis et petiolis subpersistentibus. Foliola minora. Hab. Rogee in Kunawur. 22. A rhizanthus (Royle) acaulis, subsericeo-pilosus ; foliolis 21-31 late-ovatis subrotundis sepius obliquis, floribus dense aggregatis subsessilibus, calycis elongati hirsuti dentibus tubo brevioribus, leguminibus oblongis acuminatis hirsutissimis—Hee etiam A, Buchtormiensi affinis, at floribus numerosis majoribus et foliolorum forma diversa. Hab. Lippa, Chango and Leeo in Kunawur. XIII, Gutupensrapria, Fisch. DC. Prod. 2. 307. 1. G. cuneata (Benth.) subacaulis vel diffusa incana; foliolis 16-17 cuneiformibus retusis pedunculis unifloris. Hab. Shalkur in Hungarung. Royle. ‘Trisus Il.—Vicizz, DC, Prod. 2. 353. . XIV. Cicer, Linn.—DC, Prod. 2. 354. 1. C. arietinum, Linn. DC. 1.c.—Variat flore purpuras- cente vel albo, caule foliisque pubescentibus vel glabris. Hab. Both varieties are cultivated in Northern India; the red is called Jal chuna, the white kaboolee chuna. 2. C. songaricum, Steph. DC. l.c. Hab. The only specimen is in the Herbarium presented to Mr. Brown by Mr. Inglis, found by him at Chinee in Kunawur. 3. C. microphyllum (Royle) foliis omnibus vel superioribus abrupte pinnatis apice cirrhiferis, cirrhis subsimplicibus, foliolis parvis cuneato-rotundatis obcordatisve serratis superioribus minoribus, stipulis parvis ovatis dentatis, calycis basi gibbosi laciniis alis brevioribus.—Valde affinis C, son- garico sed ramosior, humilior, gracilior; foliola numerosa stipul subequalibus, Folia 2-4 pollicaria, foliola alterna. Pedunculus brevis bracteatus uniflorus. Flores minores videntur quam in C. songarico, calyce minus gibboso, Hab. Shalkur in Hungarung. XV. Viora, Linn.—Genus adhue lege minime naturali divisum et cireumscriptum. ' * Floribus subsessilibus. — 1, V. Faba, Linn.—Faba vulgaris Mench.-—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. 354, Species a Y, Narbonensi generice non sepa- randa. Hab. Cultivated in the cold weather in N, India—bakla of the natives. 2. V. sativa, Linn, var, angustifolia, Ser, in DC. Prod. 2. 361. Hab. Cultivated in N. India—grain eaten by the natives, ealled khandee, * * Pedunculis elongatis multifloris. 3. VP. dumetorum, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod, 2. 355. Hab. Taranda in Kunawur. 4. VP. sylvatica, Linn.—Ser. in 1.c. —Foliola parum angus- tiora quam in varietate vulgari sed eadem species videtur. Hab. Kanum and Pungee i in Kunawur; also in Cashmere. 5. VP. tenera, Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind, n. 5928—a 7. syl- vatica differt pedunculis folio brevioribus, at omnino eadem ac P, Diese verosimiliter cum illa 7. sylvaticn mera yarietas, ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Leguminose. Hab. Silhet, Kemaon and Sirmore. Wall.—Suen, Mus- sooree, and Kedarkanta. Royle. 6. V. rigidula (Royle) villoso-pubescens; caule tetraquetro, cirrhis simplicibus 2-3-fidisve foliolis (8-12) ellipticis sub- mucronatis costatis viridibus, stipulis semisagittatis integris dentatisve, pedunculis folium superantibus multifloris, alis vexillum subzquantibus carinam parum superantibus, stylo versus apicem subtus puberulo, leguminibus glabris pendulis. —VF, amene affinis et forsan cum illa Orobisque nonnullis, Lathyris plurijugis congener. Hab. Rogeein Kunawur. Royle—Kunawur. R. Inglis, Esq. 7. F. eracca, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. Hab. Common in fields in N, India during the cold wea- ther, called ankara. XVI, Ervum, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. 366. 1, £. Lens, Linn.—Ser. in l.c.—Variat caule foliisque glabris vel villosis, Hab. Cultivated in the cold weather in N. India— mussooree of the natives—adus of the Arabs. 2. £. hirsutum, Linn —Ser, in |.c. Hab, Extremely common in wheat-fields in N. India, where it is called gegla. 3. EF, tetraspermum, Linn.—Ser. in n he. Hab. Himalayas. XVII. Pisum, Linn.—Ser, in DC. Prod. 2. 368. 1. P. sativum, Linn.—Ser, in l,c. Hab. Cultivated in Northern ade but sas intro- duced by Europeans. 2. P. arvense, Linn.—Ser. in l.c. Hab. Cultivated in the Himalayas, also in the plains of N. India, and wild in the Khadir of the Jumna near Delhi; urra muttur of the natives, called kullae in the hills, XVIII. Laruyrvus, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. 369, 1. L. ovatus (Royle) pubescens; caule tetragono non alato, cirrhis subtrifidis, foliolis 2-3-jugis ovatis (magnis), stipulis semisagittatis foliolo minoribus, pedunculis plurifloris folio longioribus, vexillo amplo patente.-—Valde affinis L. altaico sed pubescens, foliola paueijuga nple majora. Flores duplo majores. Hab. Boodurwar valley on road to Cashmere. 2. L. pratensis, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. 370—cum varietate elatiore pubescente floribus majoribus. Hab. In Boodurwar and Cashmere ; the larger variety at Rogee, in Kunawur. 3. L. Aphaca, Linn. eter. in DC, Prod. 2. 372,—Wall. Le. n. 5952. Hab, Hb, Ham. e Puraniya. Wai/.—Common near banks of rivulets in Northern India, Royle. 4. L. angulatus, Linn.—Ser. in l.c, Hab. Found among grass both in the hills and plains. 5. L. sativus, Linn.—Ser, in DC. Enel: 2..373.. Wall. Le. n, 5953. Hab, Hb, Madras e Courtallum, Wall. Cultivated in N, India—muttur of the natives, — XIX. Orosus, Linn.—Ser. in DC. Prod. 2. ‘376. 1. O.duteus, Linn.—Ser. in DC, Prod. 2. 378.—0, Emodi. | Wall, lc. n, 5948. Hab, Sirmore and Kemaon. Wail.—Urukta, Choor, Nag- kanda, Boodurwar, and Shalimar, in Cashmere. Royle. Parochetus Rosacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 201 - Parochetus owvalidifolia ; foliolis obovatis retusis integerrimis.—P. major. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 5525.—P. communis. 1. c. n. 5972.—T ab. 35. f. 1,—(a.) standard ;—(6.) alz ;—(c.) carina of corolla ;— (e.) quadrifid calyx, upper lip bidentate, and pistil with single stamen ;—(d.) nine united stamens ;— (f.) half of legume, with seven seeds, This genus has been. referred by Mr. Don to the Phaseolee, but Mr. Bentham is of opinion that it has greater affinity to the T'rifoliee, with which it certainly agrees in habit, while the parts of fructi- fication present no discrepancies. The species was at first referred to P. communis, as on referring to the E. I. Herbarium, no difference could be perceived between it and P. major. n. 5525, which appeared to be only a variety of P. communis. n. 5972. The latter name, as the more general and applicable, was therefore adopted ; but Mr. Don has since shown me the original specimens, of which the leaflets are clearly dentato-serrate, of his P. communis; and as P. major is described with crenate leaves, this species, the most nearly allied to it and which I have never seen except with the most completely entire leaves, must be considered distinct, unless specimens, showing the regular gradations, can be found. Smithia ciliata; caule erecto, calycis labiis reticulato-venosis dentato-ciliatis.—Tab. 35. f. 2.— (a.) calyx and bractez, with young legume ;—(b.) ripe fruit. This plant brought me from near Kedarkanta, is easily distinguished from §. sensitiva, found in the Deyra Doon, by its habit, the form of the leaves, and its calyx. I am indebted to my friend, W. Saun- ders, Esq. for the drawing. Uraria lagopus ; DC. Prod. 2. p. 324. Wall. Ic. ined. 577—U. lagopodioides. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 5676.—An Doodia alopecuroides? Roxb. FI. Ind. 3. p.368.—Uraria lagopoides. 'T. 33. f. 1. Though this species varies a good deal in the form of its leaves, there is no doubt of its being the same plant as n. 5676 of Dr.Wallich’s Catalogue, there named: U. lagopodioides, and in consequence so named by me in the figure T. 33. f.1. though in my own Catalogue it had been referred to U. lagopus, DC. ; so in the E. I. Herbarium, the specimens are marked U. lagopus, as in Dr.W.’s drawing referred to. This cannot be Doodia lagopodioides, Roxb., as that is described as being “ prostrate and rooting at the joints ;° but may very probably be D. alopecwroides, from which it differs little in character, and is found in the same parts of the country, that having been sent by General Hardwicke from the northern parts of India, and this found by myself in the Kheree Pass, Deyra Doon, and Suen Range. Cassia lanceolata.—Forskal Catal. Arab. p. cxi. n. 270. Descrip. Plant. p. 85. In conformity with the opinion of many botanists, this species has been considered as distinct from C. acutifolia of Delile, though the two are united by M. De Candolle, and are certainly very nearly allied to one another. The latter, called C. lanceolata, Lam., by Nectoux, is considered by M. Delile to be the same as his C.acutifolia, and may be distinguished by its suffruticose habit, shorter, ovate- lanceolate acute leaves, long-linear stipules, and by the shorter, less membranous legumes. ‘The Cassia lanceolata, Forsk., or that grown from the seed of Swna-mukee, though an annual, may with care be made to live throughout the year, and thus assume a suffruticose habit. The leaves are truly lanceolate, but differ in length in the lower and upper parts of the stem, but the sessile glands on which so much stress has been Jaid, do not appear to be a constant character, as I have very seldom seen them. The figure will give a correct idea of the form of the thin and membranous legume. Tab. 37.—(a.) A flower; —(b.) the same, with the calyx and corolla removed ;—(d. ¢.) sepals and petals separated ;—(f.g.) fertile stamens ;—(e.) abortive ditto ;—(A.) pistil;—(é. &.) legume ;—(/. m. n.) seed and embryo. 63. ROSACEZ. The Rosacea, like the Leguminosae, have been divided by some botanists into several orders, which are by others considered only tribes of that under consideration. As the multiplication of families renders advisable the retaining together as many as possible in one group, whether this be called a class or order, I have preferred following M. De Candolle, in considering them together, instead of separating the Chrysobalanea, Amyg- dalee, and Pomacee, from the Sanguisorbee, Spireacee, Dryadee, and Rosee ; particu- larly as they correspond in many points of structure, geographical distribution, and, 2D with 202 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Rosacee. with the exception of the secretion of prussic acid by the Amygdale@, also in pro- perties. The Chrysobalanee, most entitled to rank as an order from differences in structure, differ also from the true Rosacee in geographical distribution (Br. Congo, p. 434), as they are chiefly found in the tropical parts of Africa and America ; and though the order was not supposed to exist in Asia, Dr. Wallich has discovered species of Parinarium at Singapore, and an arborescent plant of this tribe, Cat. n. 7507,in Silhet. But a Chryso- balaneous plant is found much further north, as we have seen to be the case with plants of other tropical families. This is Prinsepia utilis of the present work, which is com- mon on the driest and most barren-looking schistose rocks, as in the neighbourhood of Muttiana, in N. lat. 314°, and at elevations of 5,000 and 6,000 feet, where its seeds yield by expression a useful oil. The Rosacee are, however, chiefly confined to the cool parts of the northern hemi- sphere, being found in the plains of high latitudes, and in the mountains of more southern regions. Though roses, peaches, and some of the apple-tribe, are found in the gardens, we do not meet with any of the Rosacee in the plains of India, with the exception of Rubus, found however only in hilly places in the southern parts of India, and a single Potentilla. This is P. denticulosa, DC. which does not differ from P. supina, Linn.; it is common in the plains of N. India in the cold weather, and at elevations of 4,000 and 5,000 feet in the Himalayas. Messrs.Wight and Arnott mention, that it is found on the Neelgherries. I have also had it from Cheeni and from Lower Kunawur, whence it extends to the Caspian Steppes, and into Europe and also North America. | Two other species of Potentilla are found on the Neelgherries, with a Cotoneaster, Fragaria, and species of Rubus and Photinia. Of this last genus, species are also found in the mountains above Silhet and Pundua, and extending further north, with a species of Eviobotrya, in Nepal; making these genera common to the Himalayas and to China. A Raphiolepis is also mentioned in India, but it does not appear to extend. beyond China or Cochin-china. A species of Eriobotrya is said to be found in Persia. In addition to these, in the northern as in the southern parts of the Himalayas, there are numerous species of Rosacee belonging to such genera as are found in Europe, Siberia, the Altai Mountains, China, Japan, and North America; and from Caucasus to the Hindoo Khoosh, on the ramifications of which and in the valleys they include, some, as the Pomacee and Amygdalee appear to have their favourite resort. The genera, of which species are found in the Himalayas, are Amygdalus, Persica, Armeniaca, Prunus, Cerasus, Spirea, Neillia, Geum, Sieversia, Rubus, Dalibarda, Fragaria, Poten- tilla, Sibbaldia, Agrimonia, Sanguisorba, Rosa, Crategus, Cotoneaster, Cydonia, and of Pyrus, species of the sections Pyrophorum, Malus, and Sorbus. Of these, Neillia is alone peculiar to these mountains. Sieversia is interesting, as found on the Alps, in Kamtschatka, in Melville Island, and in the Himalayas, on such lofty mountains as -Choor, Kedarkanta, and Gossainthan; and Dailibarda, in these mountains in North America, and the Straits of Magalhaens. Though the Rosacee are chiefly confined to the Rosacea. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 203 the northern hemisphere, yet the southern is not without them, as a Gewm is found in the last-mentioned straits; a Fragaria and Rubus in the Andes and Peru; a Crategus and Potentilla in Chili; and though not to the south of the line, a Geum, Rubus, and Amygdalus, in Mexico; and a Cerasus in the West-Indies, appearing to indicate that where any similarity of climate exists, representatives of genera and families may be found, of which the greater numbers exist in very distant regions. With respect to species which, independent of those yielding the well-known fruits, are common to these mountains, and other parts of the world, Pyrus baccata may be mentioned, which, common in Siberia, was procured by Dr. Wallich from Kemaon, and found by myself on Kedarkanta. Of the Spireas, one is near, if not identical with, S. callosa, of Thunb.; S. chamedrifolia, Linn. and S. Kamtschatika, Pall., allied to S. Ulmaria, found in Siberia, are also so in these mountains. S. triternata approaches S. Aruncus, and S. Lindleyana is like 8. sorbifolia. Agrimonia Nepalensis resembles A. Eupatorium. The Potentillas are thirty-one in number: of these twenty-one are in Dr.Wallich’s, and twenty-three in the author’s collection; of the latter six are new, (P. insignis and Candolleana, nob., with those figured Tab. 40 and 41) and three are Siberian species. Many are highly ornamental, as may be seen by those already intro- duced, as well as by those figured in the present work, which would succeed equally well in England. P. cathaclines, multifida, and bifurca, are the three Siberian species found in Kunawur. Sibbaldia procumbens is common to Europe, Siberia, America, and the Himalayas. , : Nothing ‘can be more ornamental than the double white rose of Northern India and the Deyra Doon, R. Lyellii, kooza of the natives; nor than R. Brunonis, allied to R. moschata, Linn., common in the valleys, or the banks of streams within the mountains, ascending to the tops of lofty trees, especially alders, and hanging down in elegant racemes. On more lofty and drier situations, as the passes of Kunawur, R. Web- biana, allied to the Scotch rose, is common ; R. macrophylla is the most common species on the southern face of the mountains; but on Choor, Urrukta, and such situations, R. sericea, Lindl. (R. tetrapetala, nob., p. 23), is remarkable in always having four (as P. Tormentilla among the Potentillas) instead of five, the usual number of petals. In the plains, though so extensively cultivated, no species of rose appears to be indigenous. R. Damascena, goolab and sud-burg of the natives, wurd of the Arabs, is that most highly esteemed, and cultivated in Northern India for making rose-water, and the atter of roses. The latter is, however, only extensively distilled at Ghazipore, probably from this species, as it is in Persia; though it is difficult to ascertain whether the same species be cultivated for these purposes in Cashmere. Some of the species of Rubus, as in Europe, ripen their fruit early in the season, and éthers towards autumn. R. fruticosus is foundin Cashmere. AR. rotundifolius, zurd-anchoo of the Hill-people, affords a grateful fruit in April and May, but R. lasiocarpus, kul-anchoo, not until the rains. AR. —_ comes the nearest to the raspberry, and is not found except on lofty mountains, as Dhunoultee, Choor, and Kedarkanta. In addition to these, a species of strawberry, 2p2 Fragaria 204 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Rosacea. Fragaria nubicola,Wall., very closely allied to F’. collina, affords a grateful fruit in May, on such places as Phagoo, Mhasoo, Bhoke, &c. With exception of the Amygdalee, which secrete hydrocyanic acid, none of the Rosaceé are possessed of deleterious properties, but many are remarkable for producing the most delicious fruits, both in Europe and Asia. Of most of these, the native coun- try is not well ascertained ; but in Europe, we point to the S.E., and in India to the N.W.., as their native country. Thus, in India—Caubul, and Cashmere; and in Europe, —Pontus and Armenia, are considered as the native countries of the same fruits, which the ancients generally named from the places whence they were procured. Thus we have Cerasus and Persica, Armeniaca and Cydonia mala. In India, however, the languages being more analogous, they adopt the names of the countries more to the northward. But as none of these fruits have been found wild in the plains of these Asiatic countries, we must look to the mountains which run along their whole extent, as their probable native sites, especially as we shall there find most of the fruits alluded to, if not wild, yet in a high state of perfection, with new species of the genera to which they belong. Thus, the almond, peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, and cherry, with the apple, pear, and quince, are all found either in a wild or cultivated state on the ramifications of Taurus and Caucasus, Hindookhoosh and the Himalayas, or on the valleys included within them. Most of them are enumerated by Forster and Moorcroft, as being abun- dant in Cashmere, whence I introduced them into the Mussooree N ursery. Mr. Elphin- stone and Lieut. Burnes inform us, they abound in Peshawur and Caubul; and by the latter, the peach, apricot, cherry, plum, pear, apple, and quince, are represented as abundant at Bokhara, and other places on the north of the Hindookhoosh : in Kunawur, on the north of the Himalaya, we have the apricot, peach, plum, and apple. The Almond, which, though flowering, does not ripen its fruit in N. India, and of which both the sweet and bitter kinds are known and imported into the northern parts from Ghoorbund, and into the southern parts of India by the Persian Gulf, is so exten- sively cultivated in the south of Europe, in Syria, and Barbary, that it is probable its native country may be further north than others of the tribe, and therefore the north of Africa, as generally supposed; though it may also be found in the mountains of Asia. The Peach, introduced into Europe from Persia, a country in which the fruit is very fine, and where both the free and cling-stone varieties are known, and called kudloo and kardee, the general name for peach, being Persian aroo; and Arabic khookh. They . ripen well, and are of a fine flavour in Peshawur; also, in the north of India, with the well-flavoured flat peach from China. With care, it succeeds also in the elevated land of Mysore; it is found wild in different parts of the Himalayas, as about Mussooree, at elevations of 5,000 and 6,000 feet. In the district of Bissehur there is a distinct kind, called bhemee by the natives, Persica saligna, nob., which though small, is juicy and very sweet. The Nectarine is found.in gardens in Northern India, where it is called shuft-aloo, and moondla (smooth) arco, though it does not perfectly ripen its fruit, nor is it known from whence it was introduced, though probably from Caubul. The Rosacee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. . 205 men Apricot is very abundant round almost every village in the Himalayas, ren- dering it difficult to ascertain whether it be ever found wild, as the trees remain the only rceiages of deserted villages. It has been supposed to be a native of the Oases of Egypt, in consequence of its name burkook being probably the original of the old term apricoke and Precocia ; but as that is its name in the Arabic language which prevails, like the apricot, over a great extent of the Oriental region, the same name is likely to be every where applied to it. At Caubul it is said to be preserved in fourteen different ways, with and without the stones, or the kernel left, or an almond substituted (Burnes). It is generally brought in this state into N. India, under the name khoobanee; the Arabic name is mishmish ; in Bokhara, where they are particularly fine, they are called bakur- khanee. In the Himalayas the fruit is called zurd-aloo, chooloo, and chinaroo: in Kunawur the fruit is dried on the tops of their houses, and when pounded, mixed with their meal. It is chiefly cultivated on account of the beautiful oil which is expressed from the kernels. These may also be found in the bazars, under the name of badam- kohee, or hill-almonds. The oil has a slight smell of hydrocyanic acid, and must resemble that from almonds, especially the bitter kind, or that obtained from Prunus brigantiaca. Specimens of the Cherry or aloo-baloo, which I obtained from Cashmere, appear to Dr. Lindley not to differ from the common species, which therefore is probably that met with at Caubul, perhaps also at Bokhara. The fruit of Cerasus Puddum, common in the Himalayas, is not edible, but is employed for making a well-flavoured cherry-brandy, though not distilled like the hirschenwasser ; the bark pudmak is used in medicine, as is that of species of cherry in the United States and Mexico. Cerasus undulata and capricida, the last so called from the leaves being poisonous to goats; and C. cornuta, remarkable for its pod-like monstrosity, are handsome and showy trees growing on lofty moun- tains, and worthy of introduction into England. The Plum is known in India in a dried state, under the name of aloo-bokhara, though chiefly cultivated about Ghuzni. It was seen by Lieut. Burnes, both at Koondooz and Bokhara, whence it may originally have been introduced into the kingdom of Caubul. Specimens of the plants from Cashmere appear to Dr. Lindley to be a new species, Prunus Bokhariensis, nob. To this kind, kokamalis (xoxxvyndsx) is applied as the Greek name in Persian works on Materia Medica. From Irki, near Sabathoo, a small, yellow, thin-skinned and very juicy sweet plum was introduced into the Sabarunpore Garden, and which, though I considered to be a new species (P. aloocha), is very like a variety of the common plum. It is this, probably, which is called greengage by travellers. Mr. Moorcroft also mentions a plum in Ludak, Cerasus tomentosa, Wall. Cat. N. 715. Prunus triflora, Roxb.,.is a plum now common in gardens in India, which Dr. Roxburgh states was originally introduced from China. The peach, apricot, cherry, and plum, all exude gum in Northern India. Of the Pomacee, the Quince-plants, introduced from Cashmere, do not differ from those already in India, Cydonia vulgaris, Pers. The seeds bikee dana, being mucila- ginous 206 . ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Rosacee. ginous and used in medicine, are imported from Caubul and Cashmere into Northern, and by the Persian Gulf into Southern India. Of Pears, that of Samurcund is most noted ; they are plentiful at Caubul, and excel- lent at Peshawur, and are brought into India by the northern merchants from Cashmere and Boodurwar. In the gardens of India, the only kind known is one introduced from China, Pyrus sinica, or Sand-pear, which more nearly resembles the baking-pear than any other I know. P. Pashia, Ham. (P. variolosa, Wall.), or wild pear-tree of the hills, attains a great size; but the fruit is not edible, until it becomes somewhat decayed. P. lanata and crenata, are other species of this genus, which are found at higher elevations, the first affords an edible fruit, called paltoo. | Apples alone of the tribe succeed well in the southern parts of India, as they are stated to be excellent at Bangalore and in Tirhoot, and, though small, of a good quality in most parts of Northern India. As an instance of the difficulty attendant on the introduction of European plants into N. India it may be mentioned, that an apple-tree from Liverpool, in consequence of being the only one which survived, cost upwards of £70 before it was planted in the nursery at Mussooree, where, however, it was thriving along with the fruit-trees introduced from Cashmere. The apple is grown-in some of the villages of the Himalaya, as well as in Kunawur. They are remarkably fine at Peshawur and Caubul, and are brought down to India from Boodurwar and Cashmere. On the northern face of the mountains they are grown both at Balkh and Bokhara, and are remarkably fine at the former. PRINSEPIA. Calyw basi cyathiformis obtuse et insequaliter 5-fidus imbricatus. Petala 5 rotundata breve ungui- culata calycis fauci inserta. Stamina 30-40 pluri-serialia subeequalia infra petala inserta. Anthere hbiloculares, loculis discretis. Germen liberum L-loculare. Stylus terminalis. Stigma orbiculare capitatum. Bacea ovata cortice coriaceo, lateraliter ob semen unum abortivum stylo persistente appendiculatum. Semen magnum bacce conforme, cotyledonibus crassis testa fusca striata inclusum. I have had much pleasure in dedicating this Chrysobalaneous genus to my friend, Mr. James Prinsep, Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, who, though not a botanist, contributes most essentially to the progress and right understanding of an important branch of the science, the Geography of Plants, by his researches into the meteorology of India. He is moreover well entitled to the honour by the zeal with which, in a debilitating climate, he promotes the different branches of science, besides those in which he himself excels, by giving the gratuitous aid of his varied talents, in editing and publishing at his own risk, the “ Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” a publication filled with original commu- nications on all branches of science by contributors in India. ‘This I have done with the liberal consent of my friend, Dr. Lindley, who previously possessed this plant from Dr.Wallich, though it is not enu- merated in the latter’s Catalogue. P. utilis. Tab. 38. fig. 1—(a.) Flower seen from above ;—(c.) the same reversed ;—(d.) petals sepa- rated ;—(b.) branch with fruit ;—(e.) berry cut transversely ;—(f.) seed enclosed in its testa 3—(g-) embryo.—This shrub may be easily recognised in the Himalayas, where it is called bhekhul, and com- mon in the most barren places (v. supra) by the thorny nature of its abortive branches, rising like the few flowered racemes from the axille of the leaves, Early in the season it is conspicuous for the abun- dance of its inflorescence, and later for that of the purple-coloured berries with which it is loaded. The leaves are alternate, either single or 2-3-fascicled, coriaceous, petioled, lanceolate, serrate, younger ones entire. Bractes membranous, lanceolate, dentate-ciliate. ‘Che seeds by expression yield a useful oil. Cerasus Rosacee@.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS, | 207 Cerasus cornuta ; (Wall.) foliis oblongis elliptici SA OF alae een , serratis lzevibus, petiolis seepe piers, See yt: — ne longioribus, fructibus ovato-subrotundis, Wall. Cat: ee osis multifloris foliis aqualibus vel —(6,) the mem agua ciliate dimes li atic esa eee eee —(f,). the liollow: ee Oe ee sei ) ranch In fruit ;~(¢.) A:drupe cut transversely ; pod-like monstrosity which forms instead of the fruit, as sometimes on the common Epa represented by ae Candolle.-—(Mem. sur les Legumineuses, p. 139. t. 3. fig. 1.) Species is nearly alli , : on Choor, at Simla ne Pe a ee = von, sagem eal — ent nudis, foliis radicalibus interrupte lyrato-pinnatisectis lobis lateralibus sub- Oe » terminali ovato maximo subtrilobato dentato, caulinis oblongis pinnatifidis stipulisque acute dentatis, ‘caulibus erectis, floribus magnis racemoso-paniculatis, laciniis calycinis integris, accessoriis multo minoribus, petalis obcordatis calyce duplo-longioribus.—Geum elatum. Wall. Cat. n. 711. var. 6. humile, caule unifloro foliisque minoribus. . humilis. Royle. MSS.—Tab. 39. fig. 1.—(a.) hairy achenium approaching maturity, with naked persistent continuous style ;—(b.) ache- nium cut vertically, displaying the erect seed. Hab. Sirmore and Kemaon. Wallich.—Kedarkanta. var 8. Shalma. | Dalibarda calycina; DC. Prod. 2. p. 568.—Rubus calycinus. Wall. Don Prod. Fl. Nep. p. 235. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n.'737.—Tab. 39. fig. 2.—(a.) Flower with (b.) the petals separated, displaying the hairy dentate calyx tubular below, and numerous pistils ; rf ig ge - > pistils ;—(c.) two stamens ;—(d.) ripe achenia enclosed in the calyx, of which a part has been cut away ;—(e.) a single achenium ;—(g.) the same, with the style and one side cut away to shew the pendulous seed ;—(f.) embryo. This plant has been figured from the collection of drawings made under Dr. Wallich’s superintendence, and lent by the Hon. the Court of Directors, as mentioned at p. 3. It is mentioned (Fl. Nep. l.c.) as found on Gossainthan, and is interesting as belonging to a genus, of which one species is found in North America, and the other at the Straits of Magalhaens; I have preferred following M. De Candolle, in placing this in Dalibarda, rather than continuing it in Rubus, not only as sufficiently distinguished, but also as more interesting, in showing that the result of the subdivision of large into new genera or sections, is not always to restrict these to a particular part of the world, as seen both in this genus, and in Sieversia. Potentilla Cautleyana ; sericeo-pilosa; caule adscendente paucifloro, foliis radicalibus caulinisque inferioribus petiolatis, superioribus sessilibus, omnibus ternato-palmatis, lobis ovalibus serratis, stipulis parvis subintegris, laciniis calycinis acutis, petalis magnis obcordatis calyce duplo-longioribus.—v. Tab. 40. fig. 1. This species, found at Lippa, in Kunawur, I have named after my friend, Lieut. Proby Cautley, of the Bengal artillery, Superintendant of the Doab Canal, to whose zeal in the prosecution of Natural History, I have been indebted for many interesting specimens in the Tria Regna, as well as for the drawings illustrating the Fossil Remains, Tab. 2. fig. 4—15, discovered by him at the foot of the Hima- laya during his researches in his favourite subject of Geology. ) P. pteropoda ; sericeo-tomentosa ; foliis radicalibus longe petiolatis circumscriptione flabelliformibus, lobis oblongis cuneatis apice dentatis, stipulis longissimis petiolo (cui fere equalibus) adnatis, caulibus foliis aqualibus vel paulo longioribus uni-v-paucifloris, petalis magnis obcordatis, laciniis calycinis acutis dimidio brevioribus, carpellis ovatis, reeeptaculo villoso.—yv. Tab. 40. f. 2. Hab. Mountains surrounding Cashmere. P. Saundersiana; niveo-tomentosa; caule ramoso multifloro, foliis radicalibus quinatim, caulinis ternatim palmato-sectis pectinatim-dentatis omnibus petiolatis, stipulis latis submembranaceis accretis subvaginantibus, floribus longe pedunculatis, petalis obcordatis, laciniis calycinis lanceolatis acutis petalis subaequalibus, carpellis oblongis levibus.—yv. Tab. 41. fig. 1. . Hab. This species, found at Lippa, in Kunawur, I have named after my friend, Mr. Wilson Saunders, who, during only a short residence in India, made a large collection of the plants and insects of that country, and now applies himself with equal zeal to Botany and Entomology. P. Inglisii; radice crassa, caulibus cexspitosis, foliis ternato-quinato etiamque septeno-palmatim sectis, segmentis oblongis obtusis integerrimis petiolisque lanatis, stipulis longis membranaceis petiolo adnatis, 208 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Granatee. adnatis, pedunculis filiformibus unifloris apice bracteatis, petalis rotundatis, segmentis calycinis corolle zequalibus, receptaculis villosis—Tab. 41. f. 3. Hab. The specimens of this plant were brought me from Soongnum, in Kunawur, and were found by Mr. Inglis, after whom I have named it, at Shipkee, in Hungarung. | P. microphylla. Don Prod. Fl. Nep. p. 231. DC. Prod. 2. p. 583. Wall. Cat. n. 1010. Tab. 41. f. 2. Hab. Found on Kedarkanta and the Chandow Pass ; also on Gossainthan. Sibbaldia purpurea; polygama; caule procumbente stipulis petiolisque persistentibus squamato, foliis quinato-palmatim sectis, segmentis cuneatis bi-v.-tridentatis sericeo-pilosis, petalis obovatis calyce longioribus. Tab. 40. fig. 3. (a.) A male flower seen from above, with a disk in place of pistils: this is coloured too dark ;—(b.) a flower seen from below ;—(c.) corymb of fertile flowers in an advanced state ;—(d.) one detached ;— (7) opened out ;—(g.) a seed. Rosa sericea ; (Lindley) floribus tetrapetalis——Lindley, Ros. 105. DC. Prod. 2. p. 613. Wall. Cat. 695. Ic. ined. n. 973.—Rosa tetrapetala. Royle. p. 23.—Tab. 42. fig. 1. (a.) Corolla seen from below ;—(d.) ripe fruit ;—(c.) with the upper part of calyx removed ;—(d.) a seed ;—(e.) the same cut transversely ;—(f.) embryo. Rosa Webbiana; (Wall.) aculeis rectis pugioniformibus inzequalibus confertis, setis nullis, foliolis basi cuneatis simpliciter serratis, calycis tubo oblongo, sepalis pedunculisque glanduloso-scabris. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 682. tg : _ Hab. This species was found at Lippa, in Kunawur, and on the Kherung Pass,by Mr. Inglis. It was originally sent to Dr.Wallich by Captain Webb, from Kemaon. It approaches Rosa spinosissima, but differs in the want of set, and in a tendency to convert the upper leaves into true bractes ; also in the dark colour of its stem contrasting so strongly with the white thorns. 64, GRANATEZ. This order, consists of but a single genus, Punica, of which the pomegranate, the only species, has been known from the earliest period as one of the valuable products of Western Asia, whence it has extended into the south of Europe, and may now be found from thence to India, as well as in the northern parts of Africa. Lieut. Burnes describes the pomegranates as forming quite a wood in Mazenderan, whence the dried seeds are exported for medicinal use; and mentions that the famous pomegranates without seeds are grown in the rich gardens, called Balabagh, lying under the snowy hills near the Caubul river. Mr. Forster describes them as delicious about Hadgiabad, as they are indeed in most parts of Persia, Journ. p.169. Though grown in most parts of India, large quantities of a superior quality are yearly brought down by the northern merchants from Caubul, Cashmere, and Boodurwar. Punica might be retained in Myrtacee. | In the Himalayas the pomegranate may be seen growing wild and also near villages. The fruit, though small, is brought down for sale to Saharunpore ; it is called darmee ; and the rind naspal, being very astringent, is used in medicine, as well as in dyeing. The employment by the natives of India of the bark of the root for the expulsion of tape-worm being now well known, since the subject was communicated by Drs. Hamilton and Fleming, is a remarkable instance of the oblivion into which even a valuable medicine may fall, as this property was well known to Dioscorides. 1, c. 154, The natives give buloositon and reoman as the Greek names of the Pomegranate. 65. Memecytee. Combretaceae.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 209 65. MEMECYLE. This small order, allied to both the preceding and the following, is also so to Melas- tomacee and to Myrtace@, and is only found in the hot parts of India and along the Malayan Peninsula. One or two species of MJemecylon occur as far north as Silhet, and WM. grande at Monghir. JZ. edule, found in the Peninsula, Silhet, and Penang, is supposed by Dr. Roxburgh to be the M. tinctoria of Wildenow, as its leaves form an ingredient in the dyes of the Coromandel. The ripe berries, though somewhat astrin- gent, are eaten by the natives. (Roxb.) 66. COMBRETACEZ. This is another of the families found equally in all the equinoctial parts of the world, and of which a few species spread to the most northern parts of India, and the valleys of the Himalaya. The genera Terminalia, Conocarpus, Poivrea, and Combretum, of which species are found in India, are common to the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America; but Pentaptera, Getonia, and Lumnitsera, are confined to India, with Quis- qualis in the Malayan Peninsula and Java. To the few species previously known in India of some of these genera, several have been added, especially of Combretum from Silhet, the Burmese territories, and Malayan Peninsula; but those found in the forest at the foot of the mountains in the most northern parts, occur also in the southern parts of India, as Terminalia Bellerica and Chebula, the latter nearly allied to 7. citrina ; : Pentaptera tomentosa, which differs little from P. glabra, Poivrea Roxburghi, Conocarpus latifolia, and Combretum nanum. Many of these are found in the Malayan Peninsula, in Silhet, at the entrance into Nepal, and along the foot of the Himalayas in the Deyraand Kyarda Doons. etonia nutans and floribunda, Quisqualis indica, Lumnitzera racemosa, are confined to southern parts; the last in the Delta of the Ganges, and the salt marshes in the southern provinces of Malabar. Conocarpus myrtifolia,Wall., 4017, appears to be the only species peculiar to the upper provinces, and this was found by Dr. Hamilton on the banks of the Jumna, where I also met with it in coming down that river: it may have spread from Central India. The species of Conocarpus have been divided by M. De Candolle into three sections, American, African, and Indian ; the last called Anogeissus is adopted as a genus by Dr.Wallich. It cannot, however, be now considered as peculiar to India, as — an undoubted species of the same genus or section is figured at t. 65 of the Flora Sene- gambia. : The Combretacee yield several products, and some medicines, as myrobolans, which, if valued according to the time they have been in use, would rank with those of consi- derable importance. Several of the tribe, as species of Terminalia and Pentaptera, yield excellent timber (v. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 11. p. 429—444) ; but astringency is the principle most generally diffused, as the bark of Terminalia Urjan is used in medicine for this in India, as that of Bucida Buceras is in Jamaica, and of property, and in dyeing black 25 Terminalia 210 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Onagraria. Terminalia benzoin in the Isle of France. The galls found on the leaves of 7. Chebula by Dr. Roxburgh are powerfully astringent, and used in dyeing yellow and black. So the ripe fruit of 7. Bellerica is reckoned astringent, and 7. moluccana is like it. That of I. Chebula in an unripe state, and of different ages (v. Fleming, As. Res. xi. p- 182. 8vo.), has long been known under the name of black, yellow, and chebulic (kaboolee from Cabool) myrobolans, and considered gently laxative. The fruit of 7. citrina, as well as of T. angustifolia and T. gangetica, is like that of T. Chebula, and employed for the same purposes. The kernels of 7. Catappa have the same name, badam, applied to them, as to those of the common almond; they are eaten as such, and are very palatable. I have seen the tree as far north as Allahabad, in gardens. The kernels of 7’. moluccana, and those of 7’. Bellerica, are also eaten. From the latter a gum exudes, as from Combretum alternifolium in S. America. A milky juice is described as flowing from 7’ benzoin, Linn. f., which, being fragrant on drying, and resembling benzoin, is used in churches in the Mauritius as a kind of incense. 7 Conocarpus latifolia; Roxb. Fi. Ind: vol. ii. p. 442. Wight and Arnott, Prod. Fl. Ind. Penins. 1. p. $16. Anogeissus latifolia. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 4014.—Tab. 45.—(a.) Head of flowers ;— (4.) a single flower separated ;—(c.) the same, with the upper part of the calyx opened, showing the insertion of the stamens, the filiform part of the calyx contracting above the base, which embraces the ovary ;—(d.) carpels imbricated in a head ;—(e.) a single carpel with its two wings, and terminated by the indurated tube of calyx and the style. ; This species, common in the southern, is also found in the northern parts of India, as in the Kheree Pass,where it is called baklee. It clearly belongs to the same section as the African Anogeissus leio- carpa. v. Tent. Fl, Senegamb. p. 279. t. 65. 67. RHIZOPHOREZ. The mangrove tribe, so common on the equinoctial shores, both of the Old and the New World, and which are so remarkable for their seed germinating while yet attached to the branch, as well as for the adventitious roots which serve as supports to the trunk, hardly admit of notice in this work, were it not that Carallia lucida, one of the family, is mentioned by Dr. Wallich as having been procured from Kemaon, as well as from Silhet, Chittagong, and the Malayan Peninsula, and the lower regions of the Circar mountains. This is another instance of a tropical plant travelling far north along the | tract of forest. 3 . In the Delta of the Ganges, and near Chittagong, Rhizophora (Bruguiera. Lam.) gymnorrhiza, is found, as well as R. Candel, whence both extend to the shores of the Indian Peninsula; The wood of several plants of this tribe is described as being hard and durable. 3 68. ONAGRARLE. This family, as constituted by De Candolle, contains several tribes, some of which have been separated as distinct orders ; but as the tribes Jussiee and Onagree are still retained, there is a want of uniformity in its geographical distribution. Eypilodium, found in the cool parts of the world, and in mountainous situations, is like so many other genera of the same distribution, common in the Himalayas, with Circea, found also Halorage@. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. | 211 also in Europe and America; while Jussiga, of the tribe which is named after it, and found in most hot countries of the world, has species (J. repens and villosa) common every Where in the plains of India, with a species of Ludwigia (L. jussi@oides); L. diffusa is found in the Doon, the other species of this genus occur in Pegu, Java, and Mauritius. Trapa, as we have seen to be the case with other aquatic genera, extends over a great extent of latitude, being common every where in the waters of India and China, as well as of Cashmere, of Europe, and Siberia. Thirteen species of Epilobium have been found in the Himalayas. Of these, Z. spi- catum and parviflorum are also European. E. sericeum comes near E. hirsutum; E. lave, nob., near E. montanum. -E. Himalense, Herbertianum, decussatum, and larum, are the other species not previously published. Two species of Circa have been enumerated by Dr.Wallich ; of these, C. repens, found in Nepal and on Choor, comes near C, /ute- tiana, while that referred with doubt to C. intermedia, Ehr. varies much in the form of its leaves, some being almost round, and others like those of C. alpina. This is also fgund on Choor and at Mussooree. A third species is figured in this work from the neighbourhood of Kotgurh. Few of the plants of this family are possessed of any properties which render them useful, but the tribe of Hydrocaryes, formed occasionally into an order so called, are remarkable for the size of their seeds, and the quantity of fecula which they contain rendering them useful as food for man; hence Trapa bicornis is extensively cultivated in the lakes of China, and the nuts of 7. bispinosa, called Singhara, are sold in all the pazars in India; and aspecies, called by the same name, forms a considerable portion of the food of the inhabitants of Cashmere, as we learn from Mr. Forster, that it yields the government £12,000 of revenue ; and Mr. Moorcroft mentions nearly the same sum, as Runjeet Sing’s share, from 96,000 to 128,000 ass-loads of this nut yielded by the lake of Ooller. Epilobium laxwm ; caulibus laxis quadrilineatis, foliis inferioribus oppositis decussatis, superioribus alternis, omnibus breve petiolatis ovatis oblongis acuminatis basi cordatis semi-amplexicaulibus undulati serrulatis pilosis venosis, floribus axillaribus subsessilibus, petalis emarginatis, stigmate capitato.—Tab. 48, £..2. : | aia Hab. Mussooree. 45 ; ide Circea cordata; caule rigido erecto pubescente, foliis cordatis acuminatis repando-denticulatis pubescentibus, capsulis rotundis—Tab. 48. fig. 1.—(a.) A flower seen laterally, b. from above ; inser- tion of stamens alternating with that of petals ;—(c.) bilobed petals;—(d.) anther seen in front and from behind ;—(e.) pollen ;—(f)_ filiform style and emarginate stigma ;—(g.) hispid capsule ;— (h.) the same opened ;—(i.) the seed. ; . Hab. Neighbourhood of Kotgurh in the rainy season. 69. HALORAGE#. does not by its distribution indicate differences of cli- This being an aquatic family, mate, as its plants are found in streams and wet situations in various parts of the world. and has been found at Unalaschka, Thus, Hippuris is common to Europe and America, but not in India. Callitriche is common to India and Europe ; Myriophylum to both 252 these 212 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Lythraria. these and to America. Serpicula* is common to India and Africa, being found in the Mauritius, the Cape of Good Hope, and the Indian Peninsula ; Haloragis in the last, as well-as in New Holland. ° 70. CERATOPHYLLEZ. This, like the former order, being aquatic, is distributed over a wide extent, and species of the genus from which the order is named, are found both in Europe and India. C. muricatum, an Egyptian plant, is also found in India; as well as C. tuberculatum, Cham., considered with doubt to be the C. verticillatum, Roxb., which is found in the pools about Calcutta. . 71. LYTHRARIZ. The Lythraria, called also Salicarig, are divided into tribes, which differ in their geographical distribution ; the Lagerstremie being tropical, as Lagerstremia occurs in India, China, and the Islands: Fatioa appears to be only a variety of L. parviflora. The true Salicariee, like other tribes containing aquatic plants, or those delighting in moist situations, are distributed over a wide extent, and very different climates ; thus, Rotala, Pemphis, and Ameletia, are exclusively Indian, extending from the islands of the Indian Ocean up to the Peninsula and Bengal, and the last as far as Nepal. Lawsonia exists in a cultivated state in most parts of the Oriental Region. Grisiea is found in India, China, and 8S. America, and Ammania in the warm parts of both hemispheres. Lythrum, found in Europe, America, and New Holland, exists also in the Himalayas, the species figured t. 46, being indigenous in Cashmere. This is closely allied to Z. vir- . gatum and Salicaria; the latter remarkable for being found in New Holland, as well as in Europe. : . The * The authors of the Prod. Fl. Indie Penins., in their observations on this genus, have remarked “ that this genus must not be confounded with the other Serpicula in Wallich’s list, n. 5048,” although they have been considered the same by me, and referred to the same natural order. Considering that the plant alluded were it not for the opportunity of explaining Immediately on my arrival from India, and when Dr. Wallich was on the eve of departure, and much pressed for time, I offered to Index his Catalogue, Tamariscinee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 213 The species which extend furthest north are, Lagerstremia Regine and parviflora, Grislea tomentosa and Ammania rotundifolia, at the foot of the hills in the Deyra Doon. Ammania octandra and vesicatoria, are found at Saharunpore in the rainy season : and further south, .A. indica, multifida and pentandra. Astringency is the property remarked in many of the Lythraria, and is that ascribed in India to the flowers of Grislea tomentosa (Lythrum? Hunteri) called dhaee, of which the bright red flowers, somewhat resembling those of a Fuchsia, are used in dyeing ; | the leaves of Lawsonia inermis, much cultivated on the north of the Jumna, hinna of the Arabs, mhendee of the Hindoos, is used with catechu in India, as every where in the Oriental region, by the women in staining their fingers of an orange hue, The leaves of Ammania vesicatoria are so acrid, that it frequently receives from the natives the same name, soorujhal, as Ranunculus sceleratus ; it is used in rapidly raising blisters. Lythrum Cashmerianum ; foliis oppositis lanceolatis basi cordatis sessilibus apice subalternantibus marginibus venisque brevissime pilosis, floribus breve pedunculatis 3-5 in axillis bractearum fasciculatis. Tab. 44. tig. 1.—(a.) Flower ;—(0-) the same seen from below ;—(e.) opened ;—(d.) capsule ;—(¢.) cut transversely ;—(f.) vertically ;—(.) a seed, Hab. Shores of the lake of Cashmere. 72. TAMARISCINEE. This order, composed of the genus Tamarix, and a few genera which have been sepa- rated from it, is placed here by M. De Candolle, on account of being allied to Lythrarie and Onagraria, and is referred by Dr. Lindley to the neighbourhood of Frankemacee, near which its hypogynous stamens ought to place it. 9 | The plants of the genus Tamarix are distributed over a wide extent of territory in the Old World, from 10° to 50° and 55° of. N. latitude in Europe and Siberia, and from the Canaries and Senegambia on the west, to China on the east: they differ as much ‘n their localities as in their latitudes, being found on the shores of the ocean, or the banks of rivers, as the Ganges and Nile, as well inthe arid and sandy. parts of Northern India and the Punjab, as in the cold and elevated climates of Tibet and Siberia; but in these the soil is saline. The genus Myricaria, existing in Europe, Siberia and Dahuria, is found also in Kunawur, and the elevated country crossed by ~ Mr. Moorcroft in his journey to Manasarowur. | | ~ Respecting the distribution of the species of Tamarix there is yet some uncertainty. Dr. Roxburgh has described two as common in India, 7. indica and dioica ; the former, found on the banks of the Ganges, Jumna, and other rivers, as well as the coast of Coromandel, has been referred by some authors to 7. gallica, with which it is, no doubt, closely allied ; and if identical, an additional instance of the great extent over which a species may spread when growing in the vicinity of water. 7. dioica, to which the same name jhuo is applied, is most common in Northern India on the banks of rivers; and 7. Furas, Ham., in the drier parts of the Doab, and in the neighbourhood of Delhi. This species is closely allied to 7. articulata, Vahl, as I have ascertained, by comparison with specimens collected by M. Bové, in Egypt. It is the T. orientalis of Forskal, found 214 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Melastomacee. found by him in Arabia. The Arabic name, asul or atul, is applied to Furas ( ul) in India, as to T. orientalis, in Arabia and Egypt. With 7. indica and dwica, T. (Trichaurus, W. and A.) ericoides, is found in the Peninsula. Myricaria, a genus of which one species extends from Europe to the Caucasus, and others are found in Siberia and Dahuria, has also two species in the Himalayas : AM. bracteata, Tab. 44. f.2, found in the vicinity of Cashmere; and J elegans, nob., at Lippa, in Kunawur, where the climate has been shown to be Tataric, and the soil saline. | Bitterness and astringency are the properties ascribed to the Tamariscinee, and hence the occasional employment of the European species as a tonic, and as a substitute for hops in making beer in Denmark. In India, also, the twigs of 7. indica and dioica, are considered astringent; but the plants are more valued on account of the galls which are formed on these, and on 7. Furas, as on T. orientalis in Egypt, and which being highly astringent, are now, as in former times, used in medicine and dyeing. Those formed on T. Furas are called sumrut-ool-asul or chotee-mue; and of the jhuo, sumrut- ool-toorfa or buree-mue. They are chiefly imported from Mooltan, but I have found them on the Furas in Delhi. The ashes of 7” gallica and Africana, when growing near the sea, contain a large proportion of sulphate of soda, so that they may be profitably burnt to obtain this salt; its abundance explains the utility of some of these plants as diuretics. It would be interesting to ascertain the quantity contained in the ashes of plants grown in the saline country to the westward of the Jumna. A product very different from any of these is the manna produced by a species of Zamarisk. This has been ascertained by Ehrenberg to be produced by the puncture of Coccus maniparus, on a variety of T. gallica, growing on Mount Sinai. The manna has long been known by the name of Arabian, to distinguish it from Persian manna, the produce of Alhagi Mau- vorum, the toorunjbeen, (v. p. 194) of Arabian authors. This is called Guzunjbeen, from Guz or Kuz, one of the names of 7. gallica, or a species of Zamarish. Myricaria bracteata; caule angulato striato, foliis lineari-lanceolatis sessilibus subpatentibus, spicis terminalibus solitariis, bracteis deciduis latis cordatis membranaceis pedicello longioribus.—Tab. 44. f. 2. (a.) Flower seen from below, with a scale attached to the pedicel ;—(b.) the same, with the petals sepa- rated, and the monadelphous stamens opened out ;—(c.) capsule with one side removed, showing the three placentz, one inserted into the base of each valve. M. elegans ; caule rotundo striato, foliis alternis oblongis ovatis patentibus basi attenuatis, racemis paniculatis lateralibus, bracteis ovatis acuminatis pedicello subsequalibus.—M. Davurice affinis ex descriptione Ledeb. vol. iii, p- 224, 73. MELASTOMACES. This is one of the most natural families, and, with a few exceptions, a strictly tro- pical one, which is very prevalent in, but not confined to the New World, as though 650 species have been found there, no less than 150 species have been discovered in Asia, but as yet only twelve in Africa. Of the genera, eighty-three in number, only ten occur in Asia; those, of which Species are found in India, are, Osbeckia, Melastoma, Oxyspora, Sonerila, Sarcopyramis, Triplectrum, and Pternandra. Of these, the five last have Philadelphee.)] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 215 have not been found in other quarters of the world, but the two first are common to Asia, Africa, and America. Of most, the greater proportion of the species are confined to the southern parts of India; but as a few species escape to the northward of the tropics, both in America and China, so in India, from the powerful influence of a local climate, several species, with Melastoma malabathricum, are found at the foot of the Himalayas in Silhet, and in diminished numbers in Nepal. Of these may be mentioned, Melastoma Wallichii, Osbeckia ternifolia and Nepalensis, Oxyspora paniculata, Sarco- pyramis Nepalensis, and Sonerila maculata. Some species extend still further north, as Osbeckia stellata and angustifolia, in the valleys near Mussooree, and on the banks of the Giree. Sonerila tenera, discovered by Dr.Wallich in Tavoy, was found by myself in the Deyra Doon. Though so frequently mentioned, it cannot be too often repeated, that it is only during the rainy season that these tropical plants make their appearance : and the figure in Tab. 45 is an instance of their diminished size, when found in these northern situations. ) Sonerila tenera ; pilosula ubique setis longis intermixtis; caule exiguo tenero, foliis submembra- naceis oblongis ellipticis obtusis trinerviis ciliatis, racemis terminalibus lateralibusque-—Tab. 45. f. 2. (a.) Flower ;—(b.) the same, with petals and stamens separated ;—(c.) capsule ;—(d.) cut transversely ; (e-) longitudinally, showing the seeds attached to the axis, “ exactly as in Osbeckia chinensis. Gert. -Carp. 2. t. 106 ;” as Dr, Roxburgh remarks, in describing his Sonerila maculata. F1. Ind. ed. Wall. 1. p- 121. 6G 74. ALANGIES. This small order may almost be said to be confined to the East-Indies, as both its genera, Alangium and Marlea (Stylidium, Lour.) are common in the southern parts of India, whence they extend along the Malayan Peninsula to Cochin-china, and north- wards along the forest-clad base of the Himalaya. Marlea begonifolia extends beyond 30° of N. latitude, while Alangium decapetalum spreads from the Central Range up the western bank of the Ganges to Allahabad, and the banks of the Jumna. This is com- mon in the Peninsula with A. hewapetalum, said to afford good wood. and edible fruit. 75. PHILADELPHEZ. | . This order, nearly as small as the former, affects a very different locality, but serves to show the analogy in the vegetation of very distant countries. The genus Philadelphus was known only as existing in the South of Europe and North America, until Dr. Wallich discovered a new species in the Himalayas. This is formed of two varieties, which he at one time considered two distinct species, P. tomentosus, which is probably only a more advanced state of P. triflorus, having the appearance of the figure at T.46. This is common in Sirmore and Kemaon, at elevations of 6,000 and 7,000 feet, and P. tomentosus was procured by Dr.Wallich from Gossainthan. Deutzia is one of the new genera found by Thunberg in Japan, and which, on identifying in the Himalaya, first led me to perceive the affinity of its flora to that of that island; new species have been discovered by Bunge in the north of China in addition to the three enumerated by 216 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Myrtacee. by Dr.Wallich from the Himalayas, D. staminea, Brunoniana, and corymbosa, the first figured in P/. Asiat. Rar. 191, and the last in T. 46. p. 2. of the present work. . The last is found at the highest elevations, as on Acharanda and Urrukta, and the others are common about Mussooree, and every where in the mountains at similar elevations. All appear to be suited to the open air of English shrubberies. Philadelphus tomentosus; (Wall.) foliis oppositis petiolatis ovato-lanceolatis acuminatis serrato- denticulatis subquintuplinerviis tomentosis vel glabriusculis subtus nervis pilosis, ramis oppositis floriferis, floribus inferioribus axillaribus solitariis superioribus terminalibus trifloris racemosis, calycis lobis acuminatis, stylo medio quadrifido staminiies equali. Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 3653.— Tab. 46. f. 1. Deutzia corymbosa ; (Brown.) foliis ovatis acuminatis denticulato-serrulatis sublevibus, corymbis lateralibus terminalibusque longe pedunculatis multifloris, calycis laciniis minimis, stylis 3-v-5 longis medio dentatis.—D. corymbosa (Brown.) Wall. Cat. Herb. Ind. n. 652.—Tab. 46, f. 2.—(a.) Flower seen from ghee from below. 76. MYRTACEE. The Myrtacee are well known for the elegance of their appearance in tropical coun- tries, and from their representative, the common myrtle in temperate climes, but though many occur in, they are not confined within the tropics; as several genera and many species are found in Australia and New Zealand, as well as at the Cape of Good Hope; so, in India, they extend to its most northerly parts along the foot of the Himalaya. The genus MJyrtus, in addition to its extension north, spreads south as far as the Straits of Magalhaens, and as well as in the cold parts of Peru, occurs in India on the Neel- gherries. The other genera, of which species are found in India, are Psidium, Sizygium, and Eugenia, common to America and Asia; Jambosa, found in the latter and Africa; with Sonneratia and Careya peculiar to India and its islands. ; The species of Sonneratia are found only in the Peninsula and the Delta of the Ganges. Barringtonia acutangula, sumundur-phul of the natives, existing naturally at Chittagong, is found growing in a clump of trees at Saharunpore (probably introduced) near the late Mr. Grindall’s house ; but Careya arborea, found in Martaban, and Tenasserim, extends naturally as far north as the Jumna, along the foot of the Himalaya, with species of Sizygium, as S. Jambolana, a variety called j Jumawa ; S. Panialla ; and another species, allied to the first, which occurs still further north in the Suen range, S. venulosum, nob. The Myrtacee are chiefly remarkable for secreting volatile oil, which gives an aromatic fragrance to the leaves and other parts of many species, rendering these useful as condi- ments ; they also secrete tannin, hence the employment of some as astringents ; others yield edible fruit, as the guava and the different kinds of rose-apple, which are, however, seldom unaccompanied by a degree of aromatic principle, which renders them agreeable to some, but disagreeable to others. Though naturally growing more to the southward, some of this tribe succeed well in the gardens of Northern India, as Jambosa vulgaris, Psidium pyriferum and pomiferum, Stzygium Jambolana, and what is remarkable, Melaleuca Cajeputi, though a native of the Moluccas. This is probably owing to the quantity of essential oil it contains, as well Cucurbitacea.| THE’ HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 217 well as to the looseness of its bark, which Separating, like that of the birch, renders more difficult the transmission inwards of the cold during the winter season. But as this is the species stated by Mr. Jack to be more fragrant than any other, and that from which the Cajeputi (Kayapootee) oil is distilled, it is probable that it might be successfully cultivated in many parts of India, as it succeeds in the open air so far north as Saharunpore. So would also, in southern parts, Myrtus Pimenta, or allspice, now cultivated in Jamaica, but of which the trees flourish in the Calcutta garden. The Clove- tree, or Caryophyllus aromaticus, is a native of the Moluccas, but more difficult to be grown in other countries: it is however cultivated in Cayenne, as well as in the Isle of Bourbon. Ceylon, and the southern parts of the Indian, as well as’ of the Malayan Peninsula, appear the only parts of the British territories suited to the purpose, though the tree grows freely in the Calcutta garden. It is remarkable that Persian authors give kurphullon as the Greek name of cloves. Myrtle berries are still used in Indian medi- cine, and imported from the north; Myrtus tomentosa yields edible berries on the Neelgherries, as the common myrtle does in Syria. The union of astringency with aromatic principles accounts for the employment of some of this tribe in New Holland as substitutes for tea: while Eucalyptus resinifera yields a kino remarkable for its astringency ; this principle pervades even the edible fruit of Sizygium Jambolana, as well as every part of the tree, of which the leaves and bark are used in Indian medicine. Many of this tribe yield excellent wood, as species of Eugenia and Sizygium, as well as the New Holland £ucalypti, which would succeed well in Northern India, with many other of the plants of that region. 77. CUCURBITACES. This order, known in Europe from its products forming a luxury, rather than a neces- sary of life, includes, in tropical countries, an important group of plants, as they afford to the inhabitants a considerable portion of their food. They are chiefly remarkable for the power of adapting themselves to the different situations where they may be grown. Thus we hear of their affording large and juicy fruit in the midst of the Indian desert, where water is 300 feet from the surface (Elphinstone), and they are equally grown in the dry season on the sandy islands of Indian rivers ; but excess of moisture does not appear to be injurious, as the great majority are successfully cultivated in the rainy season; and Mr. Moorcroft describes an extensive cultivation of melons and cucumbers on the beds of weeds, which float on the lakes of Cashmere ; they are simi- larly cultivated in Persia and in China (v. Hort. Trans. 2d Ser. vol. 1. p. = and Staunton’s Embassy). Being chiefly annuals, which a few months suffice to =e to perfection, we find them succeeding in the summer temperature of northern climates, and thus extending from the Line to 55° or 60° of northern latitude, and southwards - the Cape of Good Hope. Their place in the natural series is uncertain; but in habit they are very unlike those near which they are at present placed. 2 F The 218 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Cucurbitacee. The Cucurbitacee are common every where in India, both ina wild and cultivated state, belonging to the genera Zanonia, Lagenaria, which hardly differs sufficiently to be separated from Cucurbita, Benincasa, Cucumis, Luffa, Bryonia, Sicyos, Momordica, Trichosanthes, and Herpetospermum ; the last, with Zanonia, and the new genus Coccinia, formed by Messrs. Wight and Arnott of Bryonia grandis, are peculiar to India. Most of the others are found in the tropical parts, both of Africa and America, though they chiefly prevail in India, and in many parts of the Oriental Region. From the similarity of temperature which prevails over all India during the warm and rainy seasons, we find nearly the same species every where; but as most are found in a cultivated state or afford edible food, they will be enumerated below with those which afford useful medicines. Some of the species may be seen in the most arid places, others in the densest jungles; planted at the foot of a tree they emulate the vine in ascending its branches, and near a hut, they soon cover its thatch with a coating of green: they form a principal portion of the culture of Indian gardens: the farmer even rears them in the neighbourhood of his wells. From the descriptions of Dr. Roxburgh, and his drawings, as well as those of the late General Hardwicke, and from finding my specimens collected in Northern India corresponding in a great degree with those contained in the East-Indian Herbarium, I have no doubt that considerable certainty has been attained respecting the Indian species, though they still require-the labours of a monographist, who would study their habits in a living state and at different ages. | As indications of the vegetation of different parts it may be mentioned, that the species of Zanonia and Sicyos are confined to the forests of Nepal and Silhet, and those of Herpetospermum to the latter. From these, Trichosanthes palmata extends along the tract of forest to the Deyra Doon, where are also found the bitter variety of Lagenaria vulgaris, called toombee, Momordica Balsamina, Bryonia cissioides and laciniosa ; the last I have also received from Cashmere. Some of the above occur also in the valleys at the foot of the hills, with Cucumis Hardwickii, nob. The only species I have found in the interior of the mountains, are Bryonia scabrella and Nepalensis, with a new species of Cucumis, C. Himalensis, nob., from Simla, and also from Lieut. Maxwell, from near the Broang Pass. In the open plains, as near Saharunpore and Delhi, we have Cucu- mis pseudo-Colocynthis very abundant, as C. Colocynthis is described to be in parts of Africa; also C. pubescens, Bryonia rostrata, Momordica humilis, Luffa tenera and Coccinia Indica, which indeed is common every where. From the great size of the fruit, and the quantity of bland nutritious matter they contain, several of this tribe are cultivated in every part of India, either in field or garden cultivation; as Lagenaria vulgaris, al-kuddoo, of which the variety toomba is used for making the stringed musical instrument, called sitar ; Cucurbita Pepo, meetha kuddoo ; C. Citrullus, turbooz; a variety of this called tentsee; Benincasa cerifera, petha ; Cucumis Melo, khurbooza ; C. Momordica, phoot ; C. sativus, kheera ; C.utilissimus, kukree ; Luffa pentandra, acutangula, clavata and racemosa; the two first called ghia and kalee tori ; Momordica Cucurbitacee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 219 Momordica Charantia, kurella ; M. muricata and dioica, Trichosanthes anguina, chuchinda; fu cg. pulwul; and f. cucumerina, junglee chuchinda. To these, the native names by which they are known in the northern provinces, have been attached; the syno- nymes may be ascertained from the works of Drs. Roxburgh and Ainslie. Of many of the above, the seeds are used medicinally, and yield oil, as of al-kuddoo, tentsee, khurbooza, and phoot, forming a few of the cooling seeds of the Indian, as some did of the ancient Materia Medica.. Those of Cucumis Momordica are described by Dr. Roxburgh as being ground into a kind of meal, and the fruit of Cucumis utilissimus as particularly valuable for long voyages, in consequence of being easily pre- served good for several months. The fruit of other species, though not cultivated, is eaten in India; as of Bryonia rostrata and umbellata, Trichosanthes cucumerina, Cucumis pubescens, which is highly valued, as it becomes aromatic on ripening. The root also of some species is edible, as of Momordica dioica and Bryonia umbeilata. The useful species of other countries might easily be introduced, if required. The vege- table marrow, a variety of Cucurbita ovifera, however, seems the only one particu- larly desirable. But the mode of cultivating cucumbers, melons, &e. on beds of floating weeds, as practised in Cashmere, and described by Mr. Moorcroft (Journ. Geog. Soc. 2. p. 258), might be taken advantage of in India, where pieces of water, covered with masses of aquatic plants floating on their surface, are abundant, and might thus be made to yield a fruitful crop. It is generally well known, that along with the bland, there exists a bitter principle in the fruit of many species of this family, as in the rind of the cucumber and the melon. In many, however, this predominates to such an extent, that they become intensely bitter, and are used as purgatives, as the colocynth, squirting cucumber, and bryony, in Europe; all which also form, or are supposed to form, articles of the Indian Materia Medica. So the African bryony has the same properties as the Euro- pean; and in India, with the true colocynth, we have a nearly allied species, which 1 have called C. pseudo-Colocynthis, substituted for, and indeed from similarity of appearance and effects, considered in Northern India to be the true colocynth. Another species, C. Hardwickii, nob., from its bitterness, is called puharee indrayun, or hill colocynth. So also the wild and bitter variety of Lagenaria vulgaris, called toombee, and used for making Fukeers’ bottles, is considered poisonous. Indeed I was informed by Nanoo, a very respectable and intelligent native doctor, attached to the jail hospital at Saha- runpore, that he had seen a case of poisoning from eating of the bitter pulp of toombce, hich the symptoms were those of cholera. Luffa amara also, according to Dr. olently emetic and cathartic; so L. tenera, nob., and L. Bindal is considered in Northern India L. graveolens has a heavy disagreeable smell. niosa, amara, incisa, and palmata, all of which in w Roxburgh, is bitter in every part, and vi kurwee tori, is used in native medicine, a powerful drastic in cases of dropsy ; To these may be added, Trichosanthes laci are used in Indian medicine. The roots of T. cordata were at one time, Dr. Roxburgh informs us, sent to England, either as a substitute for, or as the real Columbo. de Cucumis 220 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Passifloree. Cucumis pubescens. (Wild).—Prod. Flore Penins. Ind. Or. 1. p. 342. C. maderaspatanus. Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 723. Wall. Cat. 6734. partly. v. Tab. 47. fig. 1. | This plant, common about Saharunpore, is esteemed by the natives for its fruit, which becomes aromatic on ripening, hence (C. aromatica, nob.), but it is too closely allied to be separated from C. pubescens, which itself resembles C. turbinatus and C. trigonus, so nearly as only to be distin- guished, according to Dr. Roxburgh, by the fruit, “which is about the size of a partridge’s egg, downy, maculated, and without any tendency to be three-sided.” (Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3. p. 723). C. Hardwickii ; stems slender, climbing, very scabrous with white, frequently, hair-bearing glands, leaves cordate-acuminate, somewhat 5-lobed, or 5-angled, angles acute, upper surface very hairy, under less so, margins undulately crenate, minutely toothed, male flowers one or two together, female solitary, calyx of each very hairy; fruit oval, oblong, rounded at both ends, from 2-3 inches long, and about half as broad, marked with narrow white stripes ; flesh very bitter. v. Tab. 47. fig. 3. a. the fruit. Hab. Found at the foot of the mountains, and called puharee indrayun, or hill colocynth. In the figure of this plant, in the late General Hardwicke’s collection of drawings, vol. 8. Tab. 23, the same native name is written, as I myself obtained so many years afterwards. In affixing the name of the ori- ginal discoverer to this plant, I pay but a feeble testimony of my respect for the memory of one, who so meritoriously spent a long life in the advancement of every branch of the Natural History of India. C. pseudo-Colocynthis ; stems slender, prostrate and radicating, very scabrous ; leaves scabrous on both sides, with white glandlike hair-bearing tubercles, 5-lobed, lobes as well as the angles rounded, the former slightly toothed, the terminal one broader, cuneate, subdivided into three smaller lobules ; male flowers generally solitary, as are the female, long peduncled. Calyx, tube oblong hispid, segments narrow, linear, and pointed. Fruit oblong and smooth, marked with eight broad stripes; flesh very bitter. v. Tab. 47. fig. 2. b. transverse section of fruit. Hab. Plains of Northern India, where it is called Indrayun and Bisloombha, it may be distin- guished from P. Colocynthis, by its oblong, not round fruit, as well as by the obtuseness of the lobes which in that species are acute, and the leaves more divided, as I have ascertained by comparison with the Linnean specimen. This is very well represented in the Medical Botany of Messrs. Stephenson and Churchill from a plant grown in the Chelsea Garden from seed sent from the Mediterranean region. 78. PAPAYACEZ. This small order contains only the genus Carica, which is confined to the tropical parts of S. America; whence C. Papaya, the Papaw-tree, has been introduced into India, and is cultivated as a fruit in all the southern parts. The frost in the northern provinces is in some years so severe, as in a single night to destroy large trees of this loose- textured plant. Botanists have considered the genus Carica allied to both Cucurbi- taceé and Urticee. The natives of India have, in addition to the former, seen an affinity to the Luphorbiacee in its resemblance to the castor-oil plant, and have given it in the northern provinces the expressive name of Urun-khurbooza, or ricinus-like melon. The fruit of the Papaya is esteemed by many people in the East; but it is not so generally known that its unripe fruit and seeds are vermifuge, and that newly-killed meat hung up under its shade, and poultry fed on its leaves and fruit, are said to be made tender in a short time. (Hooker Bot. Mag. 2898). a4 79. PASSIFLOREZ. The different kinds of Passifora, or passion-flower, which form the type of this order, are well known for the elegance and splendour of their appearance. They were long supposed to be confined to South America and the West-Indies, but the progress of discovery has ascertained the existence of species of this genus at Singapore and Penang, Paronychiee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 221 Penang, as well as of P. Leschenaultii on the Neelgherries, and of P. Nepalensis, figured by Dr. Wallich, in Tent. Fl. Nep.t. 11. in Nepal. One species of this genus extends as far south, however, as New Zealand, though the genus Disemma prevails in New Hol- land. Tacsonia is confined to South America, though a doubtful species, 7. pubescens is mentioned as existing in India Orientali. Modecca, according to our present know- ledge, is restricted to the East-Indies, Burma, Java, and the northern coast of New Holland. The species enumerated by Dr.Wallich were found at Prome, in Silhet, and the Peninsula of India. Several of the edible species of Passiflora have been introduced into India by the Calcutta Botanic Garden, and a few as far north as Saharunpore. Many others might be successfully cultivated in every part of India, and would form useful and ornamental additions to the gardens. 80. PORTULACE®. The Portulacee form a small order allied to the Caryophyllee, but, unlike them, are found chiefly in the hot parts of the world, with a few species extending into Europe and North America, and others to the Cape of Good Hope and New Holland. A few species are found every where in the plains of India, belonging to the genera 7rianthema and Portulacca, with a species of Tulinum, T. cuneifolium? in Nepal, and 7’. indicum, which appears to be the same as Z.strictum, in the Indian and Malayan Peninsulas. The latter genus is chiefly found in the New World, with a species in Arabia: the two other genera have the distribution of the family in the Old World, and are also found in America. The same species, as Trianthema obcordata, crystallina and decandra, and a pentandrous variety of the last, if it be not a distinct species, with Portulaca oleracea and P. quadrifida, are found in the northern, as in the most southern parts of India, and the Malayan Peninsula. In the fort of Toghlukabad, near Delhi, I found a species which appears distinct from any, P. geniculata, nob., but it may be only a variety of Dr. Rox- _burgh’s P. quadrifida, a species found in Arabia and Egypt, as well as in India. The fleshy bland leaves of the common Purslane render it useful as a pot-herb in the coun- tries where it is found; in India it is even cultivated for this purpose ; P. meridiana and Trianthema obcordata are also so used; as is Claytonia perfoliata in America. 81. PARONYCHIE. The Paronychiee of M. De Candolle, called also Jilecebree, are divided into several tribes, some of which are considered Orders; as Scleranthee, Queriacee, and Minuar- tiee. They are allied to Portulacea, and like these to Caryophyllee and Amaranthacee. They are found chiefly in dry, barren, and sandy places in the south of Europe, and north of Africa, and southwards at the Cape of Good Hope and in New Holland ; a few are found in Siberia, and in both North and South America. Though a few species only are found in India, these exist nearly every where, as Polycarpaa igederes: sais Ceylon toSaharunpore and westwards to the shores of the Red Sea. P. spadicea is confined to the Peninsula; and Hapalosia Leflingia, Wall., the Leflingia Indica of authors, is common 222 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Crassulacea. common every where. Drymaria (cordata, W.and A.) extensa, belonging to a genus which is placed both in this order and in the tribe Alsinee of Caryophyllee (v. p. 78), extends from the Peninsula up to the Deyra Doon. The above were the only genera known to exist in the plains of India; but J//ecebrum, found in moist places in Europe, has a species in Kunawur, which I have called J. erectwm, though it can scarcely be dis- tinguished from J. verticillatum; and Herniaria, having the distribution of the order, has a species in Cashmere, H. Cashmeriana, nob., nearly allied to H. incana. 82. CRASSULACEZ. The Crassulace@, named also Sempervive and Succulente, are found in various parts of the world, but in the greatest numbers north and south of the tropics. From the pecu- ‘liarity of their absorbing surface, they are enabled to obtain nourishment from the driest atmosphere, and probably, to check its excess in the most moist; for we find them both within the tropics, and attached to barren rocks in the driest parts of India, as of the Cape of Good Hope. Bryophyllum, so remarkable for the rooting property of its leaves, introduced from the Moluccas and the south of India, succeeds in the gardens of N.India. Kalanchoe, found in Egypt, Arabia, and Sierra Leone, has a species, K. varians, in the Deyra Doon and lower hills; with K. laciniata, and two or three other species in the Peninsula of India. Sedum and Tillea?, found chiefly in the cold_ parts both of the Old and of the New World, and Umbilicus, confined to the former, have been discovered in the Himalayas. Of these, the species of Sedum are about twenty in number, with flowers of various colours, as red, blue, white, and yellow ; some fixed to rocks; others, as S. sinwatum and linearifolium, growing on the moss- covered bark of trees; a few are confined in their locality: others spread along the whole extent of the mountains with which we are acquainted, ‘as S. Himalayanum, from Nepal to Cashmere, and .S. multicaule, rubrum and azureum, if the same as 8. Gerardia- num, from the latter to Sirmore and Kemaon. In the arid country of Kunawur, two species have been discovered, S. Moorcroftianum, Wall., and S. capitatum, nob. Umbilicus spathulatus, nob., Ic. ined. 144. f.1. (Sedum adenotrichum, Wall.”) is common on the Mussooree and Suen Ranges, and Tillea? pentandra, Ic. ined. 142, found in the same situations, occurs also on Kedarkanta and in Cashmere. The Crassulacee, like several other of the families near which they are placed, possess little medicinal properties, though a few were included in the older systems of Materia Medica. Sedum linearifolium; caulibus suffructiculosis epiphytis, ramis floriferis rosulato-confertis, foliis alternis numerosis lineari-lanceolatis integris vel minime denticulatis, floribus terminalibus solitariis ve 23 corymbosis, petalis albis oblongis apice acuminatis.—Tab. 48. f. 1, Hab. On moss-covered trunks of trees at Mussooree in the rainy season, the flowers are generally solitary, and the leaves entire, as represented in the figure. S. asureum ; caule simplici? foliis cordato-ovatis levibus suboppositis, floribus corymbosis, petalis azureis oblongis acutis:—T ab. 48. f. 2. Hab. Peerpunjal. §. Gerardianum : if a variety of this is found at Simla and on Kedarkanta. iS’. coccineum; Cactee.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 223 S. coccineum 5 radice crassa, caulibus numerosis rosulato-confertis, foliis subimbricatis linearibus integris, corymbis terminalibus paucifloris, petalis oblongis obtusis calyceque rubris.—Tab. 48. f. 3. Hab. Boodurwar, near Cashmere. 83. FICOIDEZ. This order, allied to Crassulacee, as well as to Chenopodee and Alsine@, and composed chiefly of succulent plants, is found in hot and sandy parts of the world, from the south of Europe to the Cape of Good Hope and Van Diemen’s Land. The genus Mesem- bryanthemum, out of upwards of 300 species, has only three, in Egypt and Arabia, of which one extends to the south of Europe. Seswvium, found on the sea-coast, in the hot parts both of the Old and of the New World, has a species, S. repens, near Tran- quebar, in the Peninsula of India, and on the opposite coast near Moulmein. Glinus lotoides and dictamnoides, which hardly differ from one another, are found in every part of India, and the genus in the south of Europe, north of Africa, Arabia, and Egypt. The succulent leaves of Tetragonia erpansa, used as a pot-herb in New Zealand, have been introduced into England, and might be so into India. Mesembryanthemum ‘edule and Sesuvium Portulacastrum are used for the same purpose. Other species of Mesembryanthemum yield soda, as M. geniculiflorum and nodiflorum, ghasool of Forskal, which are probably the plants referred to under this name in Persian works on Materia Medica. It is not known what plants are burnt for the purpose of obtaining the soda, Sujjee muttee, exported from the shores of the lakes of Western India. 84. CACTEE. Of nearly 200 species of this family at present known, all appear to be natives of America, though Dr. Roxburgh has a Cactus Indicus, which he considers to be a native of India, as well as a C. Chinensis, from China; Opuntia vulgaris has become so common, as to appear a native of the south of Europe. This, growing in the most arid situations, and affording a grateful fruit in the hottest weather, has appeared to Colonel Herriott, and he is joined in this opinion by the late Mr. Haworth, from the similarity of climate and other circumstances, well suited to the north of India, where it would no doubt succeed well, and be a valuable acquisition in place of the Cactus now grown there, useful only for hedges. ae This species, Dr. Roxburgh thirty years ago described as new and common in the Peninsula of India. Dr. Ainslie states, that this * species of Opuntia is indigenous in India, and is what the wild cochineal insect, when introduced, fed on so voraciously, as ered the plant extinct on the Coromandel coast.” It is equally and has there a Sanscrit name, nagphuni, applied but Professor H. H. Wilson informs me, that he is unable to say whether rightfully or not. Messrs. Wight and Arnott consider it, from an examination of a drawing of Dr.Wight’s, to be the Opuntia Dillenii, figured in 5. The Indian plant is certainly like this, but my specimens If introduced, it must have been so, long previous to the almost to have rend common in the north of India, to it, as in the more southern parts ; the Botanical Register, t. 25 are insufficient for a comparison. 224 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Cactee. the introduction of the different kinds of Opuntia by Dr. Anderson into Madras, as it was at that time common in every part of the Peninsula of India. . The luxuriant existence over so great an extent of India of a species of Opuntia, whether indigenous or not, suggests the introduction and extended culture of Cochineal, notwithstanding that this has already been tried and failed. But it may be observed, that so little was known respecting the kind of insect introduced, the mode of treating it, or the climate best adapted for it, that the experiment can hardly be considered a fair one. Many years ago, Dr. Anderson, of the Madras medical service, introduced several of the useful species of Opuntia, which he cultivated in his garden. Captain Nelson, an officer of the Indian army, on his return from England, stopping at Rio — Janeiro, obtained some of the Opuntia with cochineal insects on it, which he brought to Calcutta, and sent to the Botanic Garden, whence they were distributed to different parts _ of the country. But so little seems to have been known, whether the grana fina or grana sylvestra insect had been introduced, that it was inferred to be the latter, as Dr. Ainslie states, ‘‘ from its preferring the Cactus Indica, and refusing to feed either on C. cochenillifer or Tuna.” Dr. Fontana, in an interesting communication, published in the Asiatic Annual Register for 1799, and reprinted in Tennant’s Indian Recreations, mentions both the Manilla and Chinese Opuntias, but states that the insects thrived best on the species indigenous to Bengal. The cultivation was extended, and the quality improved, as in 1795 only five rupees a seer, but in 1797 seven rupees a seer were given for Bengal cochineal, when Mexican was selling at about 16-20 rupees. The Bengal Sylvestris, Dr. F. states, contains only from 9-16 to 10-16 parts of the colouring matter contained in the Mexican. The cultivation, however, was subse- quently given up, probably on account of the decreased price of cochineal, and the more profitable cultivation of indigo; but latterly it seems again to have been resumed, as I have seen some good specimens of cochineal made in Bengal. It is not intended by the above notices to recommend the resumption of a cultivation, which has been tried, and appears to have failed, but only that as the experiment is inconclusive, in consequence of the grana fina insect not having been introduced, and the sylvestra only into the southern parts of India, it seems worthy of repetition under more favourable circumstances, and in situations not so well adapted for the staple articles of Indian commerce, especially as in these, the Cactus thrives particularly well.* 85. GRossULARIES. * The cochineal, Coccus Cacti, is chiefly cultivated with any care in Mexico, where the grana fina is sown on the plants about the 10th of October, on the return of the fine weather, the females having been kept under cover during the rains, The grana sylvestra is gathered from insects in a wild state; but cochineal is also imported from Georgia and South Carolina, and some of the West-India islands. It has also been tried in Peru, Hayti, and Brazil. The imports are from 220,000 to 330,000 Ibs., and have been as high as 700,000|bs., but the price at present is low, and kept down by the importation of large quantities (600,000Ibs.) of lac, the produce of another species of Coccus, C. lacciferus, peculiar to India. A demand, however, exists for it in Central Asia, as we learn from Lieut. Burnes they give at Herat thirty-two rupees a-seer, for some which they import e from Sazifragee. | THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 225 85. GROSSULARIEZ. Currants and gooseberries are so familiarly known, that every one may form a correct idea of this order, which contains only species of the genus Ribes, to which both of the above belong. The species are found in the temperate and cold parts both of the Old and New World, as well in the northern as in the southern hemisphere. We therefore find them, as we have done species of so many other genera of a similar distribution, every where along the Himalayas; though as yet only three species have been discovered. Of these, R. glaciale, found on Gossainthan, as well as on Choor and Manma, at elevations of from 8,000 to 10,000 feet, is nearly allied to R. petreum. R. acuminatum is found in similar situations, as well as eastwards in Kemaon and - Nepal. The gooseberry, or a species so nearly allied to it, as to have been referred to it by Dr. Wallich, but which I have called Ribes Himalensis, is found on Buddrinath ; near the almost inaccessible sources of the Ganges ; and in Kunawur, as mentioned at _ p. 32and35. The Himalayan species secrete acid and jelly, but less saccharine matter than their European congeners, owing partly to want of culture, and partly to the short- ness of the season between their flowering and the accession of the rains ; also, perhaps, to distinctness of speaies ; but the European kinds would succeed at elevations, where little snow falls in winter, and where, from the earlier development of vegetation, suffi- cient time would be gained for the ripening of the fruit. 86. SAXIFRAGEZ. The Savrifragee, as constituted by De Candolle, contain several tribes, which by other botanists are considered as distinct orders; such as Cunoniacee, Baueracee, Escallonee, Hydrangea, and Savxifragee. Of these, Hydrangea, though polypetalous, are sometimes, from the resemblance in habit to Viburnum, referred to Caprifoliacee. Adamia (P1. As. Rar. t. 213) is a genus peculiar to Nepal; but Hydrangea, found all along these mountains, is also so in North America, China, and Japan, as well as in the mountains of Peru. J. altissima (Tent. Fl. Nep. t. 50), climbs lofty trees, and is common, as well as H. vestita (asper, Don), which is trigynous. | Of Escalloniee, Itea is found in the Khassia mountains, and as far north as the Deyra Doon. JZ. macrophylla, found in the former situation, was first deseribed by Dr. Wallich in the Fora Indica, but is referred in his Catalogue to Kurrimia, probably from their being some plant like it in habit ; as Mr. Arnott mentions that it clearly resembles T. chinensis. (Hook and Arnott in Bot. of Beechey’s Voyage, p. 189, t. 39.) In the Deyra from Bokhara and Yarkund, probably the Kermes produced in Russia and Tatary. A kind is also produced (v. p. 85) on the roots of a plant in the marshes near Herat ; as is the scarlet grain of Poland, Coccus polonicus, on the roots of Scleranthus perennis in the north-east of Europe. The Kermes, or Coccus Ilicis, produced on the Quercus Ilex and Quercus cocciferus, growing in the south of Europe, has yielded a crimson dye from the indicates that the Asiatics were acquainted with its true earliest ages. The Persian name, kirm, a worm, ae when in Europe it was thought to be the seed of a plant. The French, with their characteristic quick- ineal into Algiers, with other tropical products. 2G nature, ness, have introduced the Coch 226 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [Sazifragee. Deyra Doon a very distinct species is found, J. nutans, nob. (Ic. ined. 146), resem- bling J. virginica in habit, and in having terminal spike-like racemes, of which the capsule separates on ripening into two distinct carpels. In J. macrophylla the spikes are axillary, and 2 to 3-fascicled. (v. Wall. Jc. ined. 156.) The other species of the genus are found in China and North America. The true Sazifrages are well known from being so common in the mountains and fields of European countries. They are found in other cold parts of the world, as both Northern Asia and America, the mountains of South America, and the Straits of Magal- haens, as well as on the Himalayan mountains. The genera found in the latter are Savifraga, Chrysosplenium, and Parnassia, common in both Europe and North America, Tiarella, found in the latter only, with Astilbe, peculiar to these mountains ; A. rivularis, Don (Spirea triternata, Wall. 706) occurs in Nepal, and also at Mussooree. Of the Sazifrages, S. ciliata and ligulata are allied to S. crassifolia ; S. odontophylia, and S.lanuginosa, nob, to S. granulata and Sibirica. S. stenophylla, t. 50, from Peer- punjal, is so like specimens of S. flagellaris, from Melville Island, as only to be distin- guished on a close inspection. S. mucronulata (spinulosa, t. 50. f. 2), with S. aciculata, nob., allied to S. Brunonis, and S. brachypoda (glandulosa, Wall.), belonging to the same group, are found on Choor and Kedarkanta, where the climate, from the short- ness of the season after the melting of the snow and the power of the sun, has been compared to that of polar regions, p. 20. S. imbricata, t. 49. f. 1, is one of the singular - forms found in Kunawur. S. parnassifolia, Don, which varies so much, as apparently to include both S. diversi- folia and Moorcroftiana, resembles, in one of its varieties, Parnassia, very closely in foliage. This genus, referred here by Mr. Brown and Dr. Lindley, has a_ species, P.nubicola, common every where in these mountains, the rest of the genus being found in Europe, Eastern Siberia, and North America. Vahlia, referred here by De Candolle, but still continued in Onagrarie by Bartling, is the only genus which displays the anomaly of growing only in hot parts of the world, as Egypt, Senegambia, and the Cape ; and in India, in Tranquebar. Saxifraga imbricata ; caulibus numerosis dense ceespitosis foliosis, foliis minimis undique arctissime imbricatis ovatis oblongis crassis apice subtriquetris puncto terminali marginibus ciliato-serratis, floribus solitariis terminalibus, sepalis glanduloso-ciliatis, petalis obovatis unguiculatis trinerviis sepalis longio- ribus. Tab. 49. fig. 1. Hab. Kunawur. ‘ Saxifraga ramulosa ; Wall. Cat. N. 446. Ser. in DC. Prod. 4. p- 21.—Tab. 49. f. 3. Though it agrees in so many respects, I have hesitated in referring this plant to S. ramulosa, described by M. Seringe from imperfect specimens; in consequence of its more diffuse habit, the branches being frequently terminated by solitary flowers, and the leaves being smaller and more obtuse; but these differences are not greater than those observed in the varieties of S. c@sia, to which this species is most closely allied. S. ciliata, Tab. 49. fig. 2. . T have had some difficulty in naming this plant, as the published descriptions, as well as the distri- buted specimens of Wall. Cat. 4492. and figures of S. ligulata, to which it is most nearly allied, do not correspond with one another ; indeed, two distinct species pass under that name. Dr.Wallich (As. Res. xiii. Umbellifere.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 227 Si 229 et eto © mtn dao i semel bisve furcatus.” iting ee if ee Feat, ua Batis sc aeesctaaee Sie leviter nutantem.” Calyx profunde ie Adis 1 ini ek a eee adad ea mone aan respect with this descri fom ex ss i ] we sind isis wo hie pts: Simla, and +e inate te nh Ege spinon nae wot ~— kg ogeageaaed > : with which the specimens in the East-India Herbarium, 4492. 2. from Buddrinath, correspond, as well as the figure in Loddiges’ Botanical Cabinet, t. 747. The plant, S. ciliata, figured in Plate 49. tig. 2. is found on the Mussooree and Suen Range, at lower elevations than JS. ligulata. 'The leaves are ovate and obtuse at both ends, extremely hairy on both, but especially the under surface, and along the nerves; the peduncle is slender, the inflorescence an erect, but lax spreading panicle; the calyx gamosepalous, and cup-shaped at the base, and conse- quently less deeply divided than in |S. ligulata, with the lacinie entire, and not ciliate, and the petals more unguiculate. S. stenophylla ; Tab. 50. f.1. This species so closely resembles S. flagellaris from Greenland and Melville Island, that it might be considered a modification of that species, and almost the same words used in describing both ; but this may be distinguished by the sepals being narrow and lanceolar, the lower leaves acute and not obovate, and by its being more sparingly covered with glandular hairs. It grows on Peerpunjal. S. mucronulata ; caule simplici paucifloro, stolonibus capillaribus rosulatis, foliis inferioribus rosulatis, caulinis alternis, omnibus trinerviis lanceolatis basi attenuatis apice spinuloso-mucronatis margine glan- duloso-ciliatis, petalis oblongis ovatis 5-nerviis, sepalis acutis trinerviis marginibus glanduloso-ciliatis, stigmatibus crassis.—S. spinulosa, Tab. 50. f.2. a. Flower with the petals c. separated, and half of the stamens d. cut off; e. pistil; b. sepal magnified. Having observed since the publication of Plate 50, that there is already a S. spinulosa, DC. Prod. p 47, I have been obliged to substitute the present for the name first imposed. Parnassia nubicola ; (Wall. Cat. N. 1246) stigmatibus tribus, nectariis trisetis staminibus brevio- ribus, foliis radicalibus ovatis 7-nerviis, caulino breve-petiolato cordato-ovato, omnibus subtus ferru- gineis ; petalis obovatis subcrenatis unguiculatis basi ciliatis. Tab. 50. fig. 3. a. Flower with the petals, and b. the stamens separated, shewing the angled scape and pentangular lower adherent half of the calyx ; d. fertile, e. abortive stamens; f, germen with the calyx and stamens attached above its middle; g. transverse section of the trilocular 3-valved capsule. 87. UMBELLIFERZ. The Umbeilifere, from their peculiarity of habit and inflorescence form one of the most natural of families, and of which almost any individual may be recognized at a glance ; but in proportion to this facility of recognition, is the difficulty of ascer- taining the. genus to which any particular plant may belong. Indeed so great a resemblance is there between these, that it has even been said that the whole order might be considered only as one huge genus. But as this, to say the least, would be inconvenient, and as the difficulty is great of forming natural genera, different parts have been selected by different botanists for generic distinctions ; the result, therefore, has frequently been to form very artificial groups, and to transfer plants from one to another, and to cause a frequent change of name. This is no doubt owing in part to many plants having been referred to genera from imperfect specimens, and also to our more perfect knowledge, in consequence of more careful dissection of all the parts of a plant. From the labours, however, of Hoffmann and Lagasca, Koch, and De Candolle, considerable precision has now been attained in the characters of the though they may perhaps justly be considered as being too much subdivided. genera, $69 The 228 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BOTANY OF [ Umbellifere. The distribution of the Umbellifere also was so imperfectly known, that they were long supposed to be chiefly confined to the northern parts of the northern hemisphere ; but more extended observation, has shewn that they affect a moderate temperature, and chiefly prevail in the temperate zone: something less than one-third of those known are found in the southern hemisphere, and about four times as many in the Old World, as in America. Considering, therefore, that the Umbellifere flourish in a moderate temperature, we cannot look for them in the plains of India; and accordingly we find that Dr. Roxburgh has only described seven wild and six cultivated species in his Flora Indica. Messrs. Wight and Arnott, in addition to the latter, have described twenty species, some found also in Bengal, but others from the mountains of the Peninsula. But a great accession is observable in the numbers, immediately we turn our attention to the Himalayas, where every kind of temperature suited to the growth of plants may be found. In Dr. Wallich’s Catalogue we have sixty-six species enumerated, among which most of Dr. Roxburgh’s are included; in the author’s collection there are not less than ninety species, of which several are new, and others the same as Dr. Wallich’s. The total of the whole is 127 species for the Indian Flora, of which eleven are found in the plains and at the foot of the hills, seven only in a cultivated state, and the remainder in the mountains, with the exception of a few in the Peninsula. The genera, to which these Indian and Himalayan Umbellifere belong, are Hydro- cotyle, Eryngium, Ginanthe, and Daucus, found in most parts of the world ; Piychotis, Athamantha, and Torilis, existing in the south of Europe and in the Oriental region. Falcaria? Carum, Bunium, Pimpinella, Bupleurum, Livisticum, Selinum, Archangelica, Palimbia, Peucedanum, Heracleum, Pastinaca, and Pileurospermum, which are chiefly found in Europe, and eastwards in the Caucasus and Siberia, with a few spreading south- wards into the Mediterranean region. To these may be added, Sanicula, Helosciadium, Stum, Seseli, Cnidium, Ligusticum, and Cherophyllum, found in these countries, as well as in North America. The genus Osmorhiza, also, which was thought to be restricted to the latter, has been found in the Himalayas, and not only the genus, but one of the same species, O. brevistylis exists in these two widely-separated localities. Hydrocotyle asiatica and Coriandrum sativum, as remarked by M. De Candolle, are also found widely distributed ; the first being found in Asia, Africa, and America; and the second, common in Europe and the Oriental region, as well as in India, has also a variety, or very nearly allied species in Mexico. Some of the above genera, as Sanicula, Helosciadium, Apium, and Ligusticum, are also found in South America; and others, as Feniculum, Seseli, Cnidium, and Peucedanum, at the Cape of Good Hope. Those, of which species are found in the plains and warm parts of India, as the bases of mountains, are the new genera Dasyloma, extending from Bengal to Northern India; and Ozodia, confined to the Peninsula; also species of Hydrocotyle ; Ptychotis sylvestris, nob., found in the Khadir lands of the Saharunpore district; Bupleurum tenue,in the Kheree Pass; @nanthe stolonifera, in Bengal ; Ammi? indicum and daucifolium (Wall. Cat. Umbell:fere.] THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS. 229 Cat. 7208 and 7209), of which I do not possess specimens; Cnidium diffusum, and Seseli Indicum, in the plains of Southern India. ~~ new genera which have been detected in the Himalayas, are Eriocycla, Tra- chydium, Cortia, Tordyliopsis, Pycnocycla, Vicatia, Hymenolena, and Hymenidium. Of these, the two last are found only on such lofty mountains as Gossainthan, Choor, and Kedarkanta, as well as on Peerpunjal, whence also I have received the specimens of Trachydium. Prangos has only been discovered in the plains of Tatary, and Ferula in the mountains of Persia and Caubul. The remaining Umbellifere, which are known in India are those found only in a cultivated state; but this from so remote a period as to have become perfectly natu- ralized, and known to the natives, as well as to have names given to them in the languages of different parts of the country; some also have not as yet been found in other parts of the world ; as Ptychotis Ajowan, known every where by the name Ajwain, slightly varied in different districts; Faniculum Panmorium, called sonf’ in Northern, and panmuhooree in Southern India ; Anethum Sowa, Arabic shubit, Hin- doostanee soya; Cuminum Cyminum, called kumoon and zeera suffed ; Apium graveolens, known only by the Arabic name hurufs ; Ptychotis (Pimpinella?) involucrata, called aneeson in Northern India, but chanoo and radhooni in Bengal : it is used by Europeans as a substitute for parsley. Daucus Carota, gajur; to which Dr. Roxburgh assigns gringana and gargara as Sanscrit, though Dr. Carey finds no authority for these names ; and Coriandrum sativum, Wall. Cat. 594, (marked by mistake Cuminum Cyminum, which is N. 7263 of the Catalogue,) cultivated probably in every part of India, as it is included among the Mysore exports by Dr. Buchanan, and has several names assigned it by Dr. Ainslie, but is omitted in the Prod. Fl. India Penins. It is known in the north of India, as in Bengal, by the name dhunya ; kushneez is assigned as the Persian; and huzeereh as the Arabic name. In addition to these, Ptychotis sylvestris, nob., called arub ajwain, is used as a carminative by the natives; and a kind of carraway, zeera seeah, Carum nigrum, nob., is imported from Kunawur. Having frequently seen that the Persian works in use in India apply what they call Yoonanee, or Greek names, to many of the plants and medicines in use there, it is interesting to ascertain, whether, in a family so numerous in species, and of which so many are mentioned in the writings of the ancients, these are applied with suffi- cient discrimination, and at the same time, correspondence with the results obtained in Europe, as to warrant reliance being placed on their determinations in other cases. The results of this investigation appear very satisfactory : as, for instance, commencing with those best known in both countries, Coriander (x0) has korioon, and Cumin has kumoon, assigned as their Greek names. Celery, known in India only by the name which it is described in Avicenna, hurufs, has salioon and osaliyoon, evident corrup- In Persian works, the Arabic name razecanwj, the Persian are applied to Feniculum Panmorium, a carcely to differ, by Messrs. Wight and under tions of vsAwov and