Transactions of the ACADEMY of SCIENCE of S#@int Lewes VOLUME XXXI, No. 1 FRONTIER AGRICULTURE in NORTHERN MINNESOTA George F. Brightman University of Minnesota Issued May 31, 1942 MISSOURI! BOTANICAL GARDEN LIBRARY Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota ILLUSTRATIONS page Fig. 1— Index Map Showing Brainerd Community........................... 6 Fig. 2—Acreage of Land “In Farms” sale eadsas. Fig. $—— Maturely-Develomed Fearericn anne cce see eseseeeeeees 11 Fig. 4—-Stump Pasture 13 Fig. 5—Farmatead of a “Jack-Piner”........---.ccccccccscececscseeesccce-.- 15 Fig. 6— Abandoned Farm eeiccdceasguiecasa ee Fig. 7—Open Farm Landscape... ceukees ie Fig. 8— Settlement Pattern in Long Lake Township. 19 Fig. 9— Settlement Pattern in Emily Lake Township... 20 Fig. 10— Parts of Two Maturely-Developed Farms... so Fig -11— Map Showing Glacial Deposits in Brainerd Community...24 } i yy ~ ACAD Oe of Sores NCE af Sh boys hee j ? i 3 j = ed % * aes iY ¥ S gas desis of Stishee of St) Lona was ousded tt Rape TAS Teil Veen oe te has continuously provided. a congenial meeting pal iS ROS ee ) *-) ground for men and’ women representing various. fieldsOf 60) VS 8 yea ‘scientific interest. A’ vahiable library has been iu & br Rae eee (through exchange: of: publications. with other Riedie o ia BN OS py ASA Gea tens) p foreign societies: The Pranections EPG Sir aD \ "and the Bulletin, the latter a monthly publication, are supplied “to each member as issued. vac njoseriog a adopted the establishment of a permanent h ‘sn and a Wannccie as‘? eae » one Dr, Hansid Ax Baler fo : Librarion ... (Mg, August P. Balmann ee se Slo ay tek ais Cinclor-atarge bigs Mr. tr. George W, Freiberg... eG ot tS : Bact ae » Mr. Reed B., Harkness. oe ene x apt eine = ny. ener ve ae ue: i A a1 ck vi es es Ane, & “i Vall : ee > ‘ oe Os a e f Ge’ +. oy “BOARD oF TRUSTEES pane Va ae = " Seatford Lee Morton, Chairman. : > Prof. W. D. >. Shipton, ‘Secretary a habe Motten W. D, St in J. O'Fallon Be. Petetion David F Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 5 FRONTIER AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN MINNESOTA* In spite of the oft-repeated laments of historians and economists for America’s “vanished frontier,” the United States still has many areas of pioneer settlement, as Bowman has pointed out.1 One of these present-day frontiers extends across northern Minnesota. It is a broad zone of experimental settle- ment, lying near the edge of the cut-over coniferous forest. To the west and south are the well-populated farm lands of the Ked River valley and southern Minnesota; to the northeast set- tlement frays out into the almost unpopulated wilderness which stretches northward from Lake Superior to Hudson Bay. Athwart this frontier zone, in north central Minnesota, lies the Brainerd Community, the section with which this paper will deal (Fig. 1). This nearly rectangular area, of some 2,500 Square miles, is not a “natural” or cultural region; instead its boundaries follow economic divides, the shopping area tributary to Brainerd, a city of 12,000 population, from which the area takes its name. So. far as agriculture is concerned, these bound- aries are arbitrary, but the area is a convenient unit for the examination of farming in the cut-over lands, since it includes both fairly well peopled districts, and sections of unpopulated wilderness, as well as the gradations between these two extremes. Agricultural settlement in this part of Minnesota is, by Middle Western standards, recent. As early as 1850 lumbermen had begun to invade the forests, and in 1870, when the Northern * This paper is based, in part, upon work done while the writer held a Field Fellowship of the Social Science Research Council, in 1939-1940, 1 Isaiah Bowman, “Jordan Country,” Geog. Rev., vol. 21, pp. 22-55, 1931. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis 95° 92° INDEX MAP ee ee * * ANNESOTA 7 Q& a G) {o) be BRAINERD w+eeeeeeees BOUNDARY OF N. CONIFEROUS FOREST MINNEAPOLIS © 44 SCALE OF MILES EE 2 0 50 100 ope | FIGURE 1 Index map showing the location of the Brainerd Community (shaded) within Minnesota, and its situation relative to the boundary of the S ‘ (Report on the y ee of North America, Tenth Census of U. 1880, vol. 9). Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 7 Pacific Railroad, reaching out westward from the head of the Lakes at Duluth, was built across the area, a number of flourish- ing lumber and railroad towns sprang up along its route. The westward sweep of the frontier across Minnesota and out onto ‘he plains failed to bring farmers into the coniferous forests, however, and it was not until about 1890, when the sub-humid lands of the west offered the only alternative, that land-seekers began to trickle into the cut-over country, Settlement was most active in the decades 1890-1900 and 1910-1920, but increased sharply again between 1930 and 1940, as a result of the economic depression. Between 1900 and 1920 it was encouraged by land and colonization companies, formed to dispose of vast blocks of cut-over land acquired from lumbermen, who actively publicized the Brainerd Community, and northern Minnesota generally, in glowing terms as the “last frontier,” the last area where cheap land could be had virtually for the asking, and a man could make himself a farm by his unaided labor. The environmental conditions which had been responsible for the long avoidance of this country by landseekers still re- mained, however, and they continue today to limit the possibility of agricultural selttlement. Much of the land is nearly worthless for farming purposes. This is an area where the landforms and soil-materials are a heritage of the last continental glaciation, with all that this im- plies. There are terminal moraines with oversteep slopes and stony soils; there are flat, droughty, sandy outwash plains, and there are many swamps. It is not easy to transform the wild land into a farm. The best soils are those which have supported white and Norway pine forests. These forests have been almost entirely cut over, but the great stumps, extremely slow to decay, remain, usually surrounded by dense stands of second-growth aspen and jack pine. Lumbering did not deforest the region, although it radical- ly altered the character and value of the forests. After the stumps have been pulled and the field brushed, stones must usually be 8 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts removed, and the settler soon discovers that each year a new “crop” of stones will come to the surface. Moreover, even after the settler has laboriously transformed his tract of wild land into a farm, he is still not free of handi- caps. The soils are forest types, acid, deeply leached, and low in humus. The climate also has its limitations. Winters are long and cold, and the average length of the frost-free season is only 124 days, which means that, in many years, corn cannot be matured. Small grains may be grown, but yields are less than in more southerly locations. The soils and climate are least unfavor- able for the raising of potatoes and hay crops, but potatoes are the only crop which shows higher yields in the cut-over country than in other parts of Minnesota.” In spite of these scarcely attractive conditions, there are today some 3,272 farms in the community; the total acreage “in farms” is 475,129, an average of 145 acres per farm.> In the whole area, land in farms occupies a trifle more than one-fourth of the land surface. But these averages mean very little. A better notion of the extent of agricultural settlement may be ob- tained from the dot map (Fig. 2) on which the dots are drawn true to scale so that the area they actually cover is the acreage they represent. The map shows a few areas of nearly solid black, wi..ve much of the surface is in farms, and a rather large area where thers is almost no settlement, as well as some sections of intermediate density. The meaning of this pattern cannot be grasped without a more concrete notion of the character of farming in the area than can be gained from a dot map of acreage in farms. The 2S. A. Pa a and Ces, A sip hapa Production and Types of Farming in ee ne Univ. >f Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 347, Statistical Supplement, 1949, 3 These figures are averages of ‘2 dve years une through nes prepared by the sta from Mahuse: pL. ae the Minn State Farm Censu tion census is fe maieally, ona ewdkip ip basi a by local sist Be under Fe deral al esi Sn Unless other- wise identified, agricultral statistics in this paper are 1936-1940 averages, from this sourc Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 9 THE BRAINERD COMMUNITY LAND IN FARMS AVERAGE OF 1936-1940 R. 26W Mille Loc Lene EACH DOT (*) REPRESENTS 50 ACRES THE AREA sat By EACH DOT 1S ALSO 50 ACRES FIGURE 2 Acreage of land “in farms” (average of 1936-1940) 10 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts farms of the community fall, in general, into two major cate- gories. The first of these comprises what might be called “ma- turely-developed” farms. A normal farm of this sort occupies about 160 acres, but of this only a relatively small amount, about 50 acres, is in crops. Some 80 acres is used for pasture — either woodland or partially cleared land, on which stumps, rocks, and brush still remain. Almost none of the pasture is on land which has ever been cultivated. There is likely to be some marshy land on which wild hay is cut — perhaps 10 or 20 acres, although this varies greatly from farm to farm. The remainder of the acreage is wild land, usually covered with scrub forest, from which some firewood is obtained. The leading crop on these farms is hay, usually a mixture of timothy, red clover, and alsike, which are well adapted to the climate and the acid soils. Alfalfa is less common. Hay crops occupy something over a third of the crop land. The remaining plowland is normally divided nearly equally between corn and various small grains. Corn cannot be depended on to mature in this climate, and most of it is cut green, and made into silage. Of the small grains, oats are grown in greatest amount, with barley a poor second. There may be a few acres of wheat, buckwheat, or flax, and on some farms, where the soil is very sandy, rye is the chief small grain. There is likely to be an acre or two of potatoes, but rarely more than that on any one farm. The normal system of crop rotation is to plant a field in small grain the year after it has been used for corn. Hay is sown with the grain, which serves as a nurse crop, and during the following year, sometimes two years, the field remains in hay, after which it is plowed and planted in corn. Only rarely does use of the field for pasture enter into the rotation; there is too much land suitable only for pasture, and too little cropland to permit this. It will be observed that the typical maturely-developed farm which is being described is organized for the production of for- age and fodder for livestock, doubtless because these are the Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota FIGURE 3 Farmstead of a typical maturely-developed farm in sec. 36, T. 138 N., R. 28 W. Note the disparity in quality between the house (extreme right) and the barn. The pasture lot in the foreground is not unusually stony. 12 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis crops least unsuited to the climate and soils. The livestock which consume these products are dairy cattle; every normal farm has its herd of ten or so cows. There may be a few hogs, and ex- ceptionally, some sheep. The concentration on dairying, and the neglect of other types of livestock farming, reflects the type of feed crops which can be grown. Fattening beef cattle (and hogs) requires a rather high percentage of concentrates — corn and small grains —in the feed, but dairy cattle can use a greater amount of roughage, i.e., hay, corn silage, and corn fodder. Since the community does not produce an adequate amount of concentrates even for its dairy herds, and must import corn and other grains for feed, fattening beef cattle is out of the question. Dairy cattle also require a good deal more labor than most livestock; this profitable employment for the farmer is advan- tageous on these farms, with their small acreage of cropland, Since there is only a small market for fresh milk, and since no cheese is made, the chief source of income on the normal farm is from the sale of cream, which is manufactured into butter at one of the several creameries scattered throughout the commun- ity. The butter is sold, for the most part, in eastern markets. Many of the maturely-developed farms are attractive and even prosperous-looking. The farmstead is always dominated by a great barn, often well built and well painted, with a tower-like silo at the end. The farmhouse itself is likely to be small and even dilapidated, however — perhaps only of one story, and covered with tar paper (Fig. 3). The second major type of farm in the community is less easily generalized about than the maturely-developed type just discussed. “Primitive” is the best one-word characterization of these farms, and the term “jack-piners” which is commonly ap- plied to their occupants, is an apt one, implying as it does a lo- cation on wild land, and wild land of a rather poor sort, to boot. These primitive farms are smaller than the maturely-devel- oped ones. A normal example may have 120 acres of land (al- Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 13 FIGURE 4 Stump pasture on land from which jack pine has recently been cut, in section 20, T. 139 N., R. 32 W. In the background is typical wild land. 14 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis FIGURE 5 Farmstead of a “jack-piner” in sec. 9, T. 43 N., R. 29 W. The farmhouse can hardly be distin- guished from the barns. Note the haystacks; this is a dairy farm. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 15 though 80 or even only 40 acres is not unusual). Of this 120 acres only about 20 is cleared cropland — proportionately less than half as much as on a farm of the first type. Some 60 acres is used for pasture; this is largely land still wooded or still cov- ered with brush and stumps (Fig. 4). Wild hay is relatively more important here than on the more mature farm, and the amount of unused wild land is rather greater. Surprisingly enough, these small and primitive farms are dairy farms, but the herd is very small — four to six cows on the average farm, but an even smaller number on many. The sale of cream, to be made into butter, is the chief source of income, which is likely to be small. On at least half of the farms of this type, the annual cash income is probably less than $200. The buildings on the farms of the “jack-piners” are usually few and primitive. The house and barns are likely to be nearly indistinguishable from each other — small shacks, either dilapi- dated or rawly new, butlt of rough lumber and perhaps covered with building paper (Fig. 5). The whole enterprise usually wears an appearance of impermanence, and indeed abandoned farms of this sort are fairly common in the area (Fig. 6). The “jack-piners” are continually moving from farm to farm, and there is some migration both into and out of the general region. Wild land “suitable” for this type of settlement is plentiful in the community, but, paradoxically enough, the basic reason for the poverty of the primitive type of farm is that these farms are too small. It is, of course, the acreage of cropland which is inadequate, especially for the rather extensive type of agriculture which is best suited to this area. Cut-over land may be purchased for a few dollars an acre, but clearing is both laborious and ex- pensive. Estimates indicate that clearing an acre of land is likely to cost the farmer $35 to $60, figuring his labor at only 15 cents an hour.t Even if the settler is able to do the work at slack 4G. A. Pond and C. W. Crickman, Planning Farm Organizations for the Northeast Cut-over Section Lue Aesuared Univ. of Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 295, pp. 30-31, 16 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Lows FIGURE 6 Abandoned farms like this one are not rare in the community. In sec. 12, T.138 N., R.28 W. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 7 FIGURE 7 Open farm landscape in a densely settled sec- tion of maturely-developed farms, on gently roll- ing Keewatin ground moraine. In sec. 32, T. 134 N., R. 31 W. 18 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis times, the cost of clearing adds a great deal to the cost of the land. Clearing is likely to progress very slowly on a new farm, and it may take ten years or more to establish a “good” cut-over farm, with around 23 acres of cropland, which will support a half dozen cows, and furnish the settler a precarious living. To tide the pioneer farmer over the period before the farm is pro- ductive a considerable amount of capital is required —on the average about $8,000.° Pioneer regions do not customarily attract farmers with much capital, and this particular area, publicized by land com- panies and the state as a “last frontier” drew many settlers with resources hardly adequate to buy land, much less to develop it. Consequently, most of the “jack-piners” find it necessary to eke out their income by obtaining some work outside the farm. Many of them cut pulpwood, or work on the county roads, or serve as guides at summer resorts, or in the fall find a few weeks’ work harvesting wild rice from the lakes. In recent years the W. P. A. has been another source of cash income. Too much outside em- ployment of this sort defeats its own purpose, however, by pre- venting the farmer from clearing more land, and developing his farm to the point where it will support him. Some of the poorest among the primitive farms are the homes of settlers forced by these circumstances (or by inclination) into becoming forest workers or casual laborers who are only very secondarily farmers. Farms of these two rather different types — primitive and maturely-developed — are intermixed to form the intricate set- tlement pattern shown on the map of land in farms (Fig. 2). As the map indicates, there are a few areas, lying, almost without exception, within the southern and western halves of the community, where a very large proportion of the land is in agricultural use. In these areas most, although not all, of the farms are of the maturely-developed type, and there is enough 5 W. A. Hartman and J. Black, Economic Aspects of Lan Settlement in the Cut- ae "Region of the Great Lake ‘ee U.S.D.A. Cire. 160, p. 62, 1931. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 19 SETTLEMENT PATTERN IN LONG LAKE TOWNSHIP T 44 A N.,R.30W, GROW WING COUNTY, MINNESOTI al i é a ay CB LY, SY, : Includes crop land, Includes forest Miles &Z4 (some used as ["") ¢LEARED LAND Rey LAMY pasture) and idle and y marsh land. for wild hay. = Farmstead or rural dwelling ears Public Road Summer cottages, stores, schools, and urban dwellings are not shown, M iled i f i ken for A.A.A. in 1939. ae err en tote aa eee eee FIGURE 8 Settlement pattern in a township representative of the areas of fairly dense, dispersed agricultural population. Note the rather large amount of wild land still remaining. The landscape resembles that in Fig. 7. 20 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Lous ' SETTLEMENT PATTERN IN EMILY TOWNSHIP T B8N, R 26W, CROW WING COUNTY, MINNESOTA Z de iy ZO Ups Includes forest = |) = ~~ ¢tneludes crop tand, (some used as cleared pasture, wo} ra and idte -— CLEARED Lolo marsh used marsh |. F for wild hay. A.A.A, in FIGURE 9 Compare with Fig. 8. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 21 cleared land to make a fairly open landscape; forested wild land is still present, but lies in disconnected patches, and does not domi- nate the scene (Fig. 7). The pattern of rural settlement in one area of this sort is shown on the map of wild land and cleared land in Long Lake Township (Fig. 8). In ghar contrast are the areas which are almost without farms; this is the case in almost the whole northeast quarter of the community, and in smaller but extensive areas elsewhere (Fig. 2). In these sections the dots representing agricultural land are arranged in curious linear patterns. One might suspect that farms were concentrated along the roads, and a detailed map of Emily Township, typical of areas of this sort, indicates that this is indeed the case (Fig. 9). The farms are of the primitive type; cleared areas are small, forming only a narrow fringe along the roads, and wild land everywhere dominates the landscape. The division between the areas of fairly dense, dispersed settlement, and sparse, road-oriented settlement is usually quite sharp (Fig. 10), and transitional areas of intermediate density are almost wanting. In part, differences in the fundament — in landforms, soils, and drainage conditions — seem to account for these differences in density and type of settlement. A comparison of the maps of land in farms (Fig. 2) and glacial geology (Fig. 11) indicates that this is particularly true in the southern and western halves of the community. Areas of fairly dense settlement and maturely- developed farms lie on the gently rolling till plain (ground mior- aine) and on some of the outwash plains. The ground moraine along the west edge of the community, identified on the map as Keewatin, seems especially favored; this drift, deposited by an ice invasion from the northwest, has a much higher lime content than the Patrician material, laid down by an earlier tongue of ice which moved from the northeast and brought mostly igneous and metamorphic rocks. As a result the soils derived from the 22 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis FIGURE 10 Parts of two maturely-developed farms (in sec. 11, T. 136 N., FR. 29 W.) with haying in progress. The picture was taken from a forest look-out tower. These farms are on the edge of a well- settled section, but to the southeast the almost unpeopled, forested outwash plain stretches for miles. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 23 Keewatin drift are usually less acid, hence more desirable, than those which have developed ‘on Patrician material. On the other hand, areas of sparse settlement and primitive farms are correlated with areas of rough, stony, poor-soiled ter- minal moraine, and in the lake-dotted central portion of the community, with the extremely porous and hence droughty sand plains. Many of the smaller sparsely-settled or unused areas re- flect the presence of swamps, for there are many poorly drained areas in both outwash plains and ground moraines. These correlations do not apply to the northeastern quarter of the community, however. Here settlement is more recent than in the remainder of the community. This section, remote from Brainerd, and the railroads and main wagon roads which early focused on that city, was nearly unpopulated as recently as thirty years ago. Almost without exception its farms are primitive to- day, and its road-oriented settlement pattern shows, as yet, little adjustment to the varying adaptability of the land for agriculture. Viewed broadly, the present state of agricultural settlement in the Brainerd Community, as sketched in the preceding pages, may be summarized in a paragraph. In the portions of the com- munity which lie nearest the southern and western boundaries of the coniferous forest, there has developed, on the best lands, a fairly dense, dispersed agricultural population. The type of farming which supports this population is similar to that found immediately beyond the borders of the cut-over lands, although within the community, yields are lower, and returns less. On the poorer lands within this belt, and in the portions of the com- munity most remote from the borders of the coniferous forest (and from transportation routes) there is a scant population, living on small, primitive farms, pioneer settlers on the agricul- tural frontier. As has already been indicated, much of the experimental settlement in the pioneer areas has been a failure; this is attested 24 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts THE BRAINERD COMMUNITY GLACIAL GEOLOGY wah eee © + Perea eee eel risem Ewe ee © =)" eo or, fain ara Ure “Peters” alr, tele TERMINAL MORAINE GROUND MORAINE LAKE DEPOSITS E=] outwash ] Pow Patrician EFA Reworked Orit Dune Sands Keewatin Keewatin 7} Sands SES altuvium =*. Swamps +7 ".. Quter limit of Keewatin Drift ver ~Eskers ( After USGS Prof Paper 16!) FIGURE 11 . Map showing glacial deposits, from which the general characteristics of both soils and landforms may be deduced. Compare with Fig. 2 to see how the settlement pattern, in most of the community, represents an adjustment to these conditions. Frontier Agriculture in Northern Minnesota 25 by the many abandoned farms, and by the extremely low standard of living in these areas. Frontiers, it is true, have always seen failure as well as success, but today the fate of the pioneer set- tler is of concern to others beside himself. The modern pioneer, in this area lying close to well-peopled districts and busy towns, demands and gets, as is his right, a variety of public services — notably roads and schools — which must be supported almost wholly by taxes raised in the better-settled sections of his county and state. Unsuccessful settlers receive loans, assistance, or out- right relief from local government and state and Federal agen- cies. Thus the pioneer settlers make their experiments, partly at least, at public expense, and for this reason their use of the land is a public problem. Increasingly, of recent years, there has been a feeling that it may be in the public interest to stabilize the ag- ricultural frontier in northern Minnesota and Wisconsin, and prevent settlement from reaching out into areas where, although the settler may manage to exist, with the help of indirect sub- sidies, he cannot hope to maintain a decent standard of living. If regulation of this sort is attempted, it will involve some sort of rural zoning program over a belt of considerable width, for as has been seen in the Brainerd Community, areas of present-day pioneering (most of which are of marginal value for settlement ) and well-settled areas are closely intermixed. P “Issues of the Transactions of the Aiatealy. ‘of Science ‘of St. Louis ‘may be obtained by. purchase from the librarian, Dr. H. A, Bulger, Washington University School GE Medicine, ~ i Volumes I to V consisted of four numbers each, containing numerous articles by Shumard, Wizlizenus, Swallow, Prout, Engelmann, Riley and others, Many of these are still, available - ., at $2,00 per number or $400 per double number. Beginning with Volume V1 each number -was issued separately and, - easy usually contained only a.single article, The following list. includes selected issues. Most other issues om aré available. a : MEMOIRS. ia No: 1. Contribution to the archaeology Of Missonrin it te 2, The. total eclipse ofthe sun, Tamnaey, 1, 1889... Faas cr So oeeaee fs serie we a a | Vélltine x ARC TORE at bsg No. 2. Robertson, Diaries Shek Illinois, Been Wee oe a 4. . Hitchcock, A. S—Studies of Subterranean. Organs... = ; IT: eo cntaanites§ Ferber, Plants of Manhattan, Kansas Voluiine xI No.1, siren Frank Collins Revision of Limnaieas of. Northern Lfingis is BE a ENS Ea ~AcabdEmy of Sciznce of St. Lours: 9)” ry “The Acsida® of Bcesice of St, Louis” ip founded in 1856 Ba isp and chartered by the Nineteenth Genera 1 Assembly of the nat LSS State of Missouri. by an act dated January 17, 1857. The >» ~ -” objects for which the “Academy. of Science was founded. are -) -"“<\set forth in ‘the Charter, They are threefold: first, the-ad- \’ ‘ mM vaticement of science ; second, the establishment:in the City of tHe na Louis of a museum for the illustration and study of the, ai ree a: \, Various branches ‘of science; third, the creation of a scientific ie}, x SEaee. library. nee in the Academy is not limited to those. ~ | ARAN gana actively engaged - as~ scientific workers; ‘those interésted “in. 9 fey oho i} er Pavel “we renee, we Ke ach BAY Hy Bisa mej Ss : fs 4 ; { a3 Hy! . A $i Ty as = ch } | a i: ‘ $ : dle LS ESS a Wee ek “cOUNCHE, bom OO gat ie | aes We FA Shivam 7 ye ee Prenat Dak Charles, iH Nicholson., io a aig Shoe: Vice-President bs ef Dr. Edgar Anderson. ate se ‘ eB LSecbad. Vice-President, " Pop ie Charles H. Philpott sarah a Sa SSE a..Seeretary ~ vig rte s ay Harold. G Bulger Scale iP il ; Librarian oe er 4 Bs Mr. August P. Beilmann.. ; ; ee : Cc auncilor-ot-large Ea immetman.... eo Mal bd Past hoses ae “Rev. 5. He » Macelwane, S. Hie a gk e ost mi eats Pet. ICOM, j “4 ee ; A es = ‘BOARD OF “TRUSTEES: eu ge i “Stratford Een Morton, ‘Chatman’ ee 7s fy - Prof Ww. D. Shipton, heagiany: i Ce i Koes aan tales Nie & ston DuBois. Hes Bi Fox 264 Fo 3 / aN fe pA. Pp, Greens: sfelder -* Stra s€¢ 7 tte + Gaines R: Throop rials we Holloraa, a Gur Hwee o2. David Py ‘Wohl sue H. Phil ~ Charles. We Rice ” Hgh B. Rose’ * Transactions of the ACADEMY of SCIENCE of Saint Louis Volume XXXI, No. 2 REPORT ON MOSQUITOES COLLECTED IN ST. LOUIS COUNTY DURING 1942 By M. F. DAY Department of Zoology Washington University St. Louis, Missouri ————— Issued September 1, 1943 Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 29 Introduction During the summer of 1942, a survey of the mosquitoes of St. Louis was carried on under the direction of the St. Louis County Health Department. The objects of the survey were to determine what mosquitoes were present in the County and where they were breeding with a view to developing the most efficient means of control of pest, and especially of disease- bearing species. At the outset of the survey the lack of any quantitative data on the relative numbers of various species of mosquitoes which had been recorded from the area rendered it difficult to recom- mend control measures, and impossible to judge the efficiency of any program which was instituted. This report is an attempt to fill this need and should serve as a basis of comparison for future work, That others have noted the paucity of data from Missouri is shown, for example, by the remark of King and Bradley (1941, p. 72) who state in regard to distribution of Anopheles that “an unexpectedly small number of records is to be found ... for such states as ... Missouri, lowa, Kansas and Oklahoma.” The mosquitoes of Missouri have received mention from time to time in general works, Adams (1934) published an anno- tated list of 19 species which he had examined, and a more com- prehensive list including 41 species was given by Gordon (1940). References to the distribution of Anophelines were given by King and Bradley (1941). Organization of the Survey An attempt was made in the survey to utilize the volunteer assistance of Boy Scouts and the Health and Welfare Division of the Office of Civilian Defense. In addition, the following 30 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis records include collections made in Jefferson Barracks and by workers appointed by the U. S. Public Health Service “Malaria in War Areas” project who worked in an area approximately one mile from the limits of the Barracks. Without the assist- ance of these and many others the work would have been less complete. It is a pleasure to thank especially Dr. E. G. Mc- Gavran, St. Louis County Health Commissioner, for advice, and Mr. Kenneth J. Wulfert, Assistant Public Health Engineer of the County Health Department for a considerable part in the work. For identification of larval and adult mosquitoes of Mis- souri the most useful keys and descriptions are those of Car- penter (1941), though King, Bradley and McNeel (1942), Matheson (1929), and Tulloch (1939). have also been found useful. Doubtful identifications have been checked by Dr. J. A. Rowe and Mr. J. Fluno of the U. S. Public Health Service, whose kindnesses are gratefully acknowledged. Results 1) Species CoLLectep. A total of 981 collections have been examined. Of these 339 or 34.5 per cent were of larvae. In some cases larvae were bred through and the identifications checked with the adults. These collections comprised 15,160 specimens distributed among 30 species and eight genera. The relative numerical importance of the species recorded is presented in Table 1. Of the species listed by Carpenter (1941) as common in Arkansas the following were not recorded during the present survey: Aedes atropalpus, Aedes canadensis, Aedes thibaulti, Aedes taeniorhynchus, Orthopodomyia signifera. However, the following species are new records for St. Louis County: Aedes dorsalis, Anopheles crucians, Orthopodomyia alba, Psorophora cyanescens, Psorophora discolor, Psorophora howardti and Ura- notaenia sapphirina. From Table 1 it will be seen that Aedes vexans and Culex pipiens together make up 53.5 per cent of the total specimens examined. Third most abundant is Anopheles quadrimaculatus the most important vector of malaria in the United States. Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 31 Table 1 Relative Numerical Importance of Mosquitoes of St. Louis County — 1942 Species Adults Culex pipiens L 1,950 Aedes vexans (Meig.) ......-...------------------ 2,783 Anopheles quadrimaculatus Say..........-- 1,846 Anopheles punctipennis ‘(Say) -...-.----- 857 Culex restuans. Theob, 2.....01....4.. 435 Gulex erraticus DD; &K..32 462 Culex salinarius, Coq, --......-...-......-. 280 Culex apicalia; Adams 0.0. 36 Aedes sticticus (Meig.)............---.---------- 126 Uranotaenia sapphirina (0O.-S.)_....-.--- 72 Aedes triseriatus (Say)...........-......------ 55 Culex quinquefasciatus Say...........-.---- 29 Psorophora horrida (D. & K..)........------ 53 Peorophora. ciliata. .(F.). 36640. 29 Aedes nigromaculis (Lud.)...-.....------- 36 Aedes. trivittatus. (Coq-): 24.2. 23 Psorophora ferox (Humb.)..........-------- 1 Psorophora confinnis (L.-A.)-..------------- 10 Anopheles crucians Wied.............-------- 13 Aedes dorsalis (Meig.) ..-.---------------------- 8 Gulex: tarsali¢ Coq... 7 Orthopodomyia alba Baker ..........-------- 2 Anopheles barberi Cog...........---------------- 4 Theobaldia inornata (Will.)-....--------------- 2 Aedes aegyptl (lL) 3) se ee 2 Psorophora cyanescens (Coq.)--------- 1 Aedes dupreel (Coq.)—...<--3-——:«-—-—— 1 Megarhinus septentrionalis D. & K..- 1 Psorophora howardii (Coq.) ----------- 1 Psorophora discolor (Coq.) ----------—-~ 1 9,126 5,976 15,102 99.7 Larvae 2,643 Per cent 30.2 23.3 SSR Sisco 8 remaining 11 species 0.2 —__ Table 2 Seasonal Occurrence of Mosquitoes in St. Louis County — 1942 Adults X Larvae — Species March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Aedes aegypti Xx dorsalis x dupreei X nigromaculis + aa” x x sticticus ie xX ae triseriatus < x x x x trivittatus Xx >, 4 —= vexans Siod wee Gee x x Anopheles barberi Xx x crucians x > 4 punctipennis x x x x > 4 quadrimaculatus x x x x x Culex apicalis Re eee ee erraticus x x x ae pipiens ee See ee eee ee quinquefasciatus ae ees | x restuans eee a rae ee salinarius Sui dige ize cae oe tarsalis > 4 x Megarhinus septentrionalis : Orthopodomyia alba x x x Psorophora ciliata ee Wake confinnis Xx * cyanescens x x discolor Xx ferox reat xX horrida ie eee ees eS howardii x Theobaldia inornata i Uranotaenia sapphirina sss x x Larvae Ber te, 4a aN 8 Totals for month Adults $848 we Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 33 2) GerocRAPHICAL DistRIBUTION. St. Louis County, com- prising an area of approximately 500 square miles, is situated at the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers and is bor- dered on the south in part by the Meramec River. There are therefore many natural breeding places for mosquitoes and, while some species are local in distribution, all the more abun- dant species have been found wherever widespread collections have been made. Admittedly, however, collections have been much less extensive in the western and less populated parts of the County. 3) SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION AND PREVALENCE. The species found were distributed through the summer as shown in Table 2. Further work will undoubtedly extend these records considerably. The data from this survey are probably inadequate for a general discussion of seasonal prevalence because of the very unusual weather conditions obtaining during the summer of 1942 as is indicated in Graph 1. Total collections per month are more an indication of the activity of collectors than of actual abundance, but a more reli- able indication of seasonal abundance is provided by the stand- ardized collections from a light trap. Six of these (New Jersey Agriculture Experiment Station Model 50) were eventually set up during the season, but only for one, that on Washington Uni- versity campus, are the data sufficiently complete for critical analysis. These data are plotted on Graph 2 together with rain- fall as registered at the Washington University weather station. It has been found that, of the total mosquitoes caught in light traps, 43.4 per cent belonged to the genus Aedes (414 per cent, Aedes vexans); 38.7 per cent to the Culex, and 15.3 per cent to Anopheles. The number of trap nights on which 24 or more females were taken was 14 per cent. As in the report of Rowe (1942) for Iowa, periods of increased mosquito abun- dance follow within 10 to 20 days after heavy rain. The maxi- mum occurred in all St. Louis County light traps within a week of the middle of July, following the unusually heavy rain of RAINFALL IN INCHES oF MONTHLY PRECIPITATION ST. LOUIS, MQ 8 3 7 andi | (949 << Normal 6 4s 5} - 3} ee ee oe ee eee ee 2 5 rT APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. MONTHS 35 Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 Inches of Rain a Mosquito Abundance Light Trap 2 ee: he es : Bt Washington University Campus 1942 260 } 240 f 220+ 10+ 200 . | 9+ 180} | v | 2 | 8 hE 160} a “ie saal o z oe 5 7, 6} 1204 8 / E ! 5 |Z 100} / ig 4r ne J 2 60} tae wo 2+ 40} Pd — =Total Mosquitoes - ; —-- =Rainfall | at 20b / -—- = Culex pipiens Z ee a a a LN 2 ' { : Pil 6 = — July 4 Aug. | Sept.5 Oct 3 Weeks 36 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis June and July. It is realized that light trap collections may not give an exact indication of the relative numerical abundance of each species caught, for species differ in their attraction to light. However, hand catches are a no more reliable indication of actual abundance, for species differ greatly in their attraction to man. The following table (Table 3) gives the results of hand catches and light trap catches. Further interesting information was found when the light trap catches were divided into periods during the night. The campus trap ran almost every night during June, July, August and September from 7:00 P. M. until 8:00 A. M. During a con- siderable part of this time the collecting jar was changed at 11:00 P.M., so that the collection was divided into two periods, the first covering four hours and the second, nine hours (Table 4). From these data it has been shown that per four hour period there was a significantly greater number of mosquitoes caught during the second period of the night than during the early part. It has also been shown that the sex ratio during the early part of the evening does not deviate significantly from equality, but that there is a significantly greater number of females during the second period. 4) Hasits oF Mosgurtors. In instituting control measures it is essential to have knowledge of the biting and other habits of the various species. Much information of this kind already ex- Table 4 Light Trap Records — Mosquitoes of St. Louis County — 1942 7 P.M.—11 P.M. 11 P.M.—8 A.M. Catch Males Females Totals Males Females Totals Tota JUNE LS 17 19 36 49 125 174 210 Silvia ck 72 75 147 202 544 746 893 Tdi = 89 94 183 251 669 920. 1103 Table 3 Comparison Between Light Trap Catches and Biting Records St. Louis County — 1942 Light Trap Collections Total 351 Biting Collections No. of No. of No. of No. of Species Collections Individuals Collections Individuals . Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Aedes dorsalis 2 0.2 2 0.0 4 4.9 & 1.5 nigr li 35 3.0 42 0.7 3 3.7 5 1.0 sticticus 26 2.2 55 0.9 10 42.2 117 23. triseriatus 12 1.0 23 0.4. 8 9.2 24 4.7 trivittatus 1 0.1 1 0.0 3 3.7 21 4.2 vexans 262 22.3 2506 41.4 24 29.2 256 50.7 Anopheles barberi 1 0.1 1 0.0 — _— 2a ss crucians 7 0.6 7 0.1 —- od _ — punetipenniss 2 95 8.1 202 3.3 2 2.4 2 0.4 quadrimaculatus 153 13.1 717 11.9 5 6.1 8 1.6 Culex ‘ ApPROe Bs ee Se 11 0.9 14 0.2 — oa _ ed erraticus 77 6.6 263 4.4 2 2.4 “4 0.4 pipiens 220 18.9 1439 23.8 4 4.9 11 2.2 quingquefasciatus...... 9 0.7 16 0.2 —_ —_ — — restuans 107 9.0 411 6.8 — —_ — ae salinarius ree 6.1 193 KB -—- _ = an tarsalis 6 0.5 6 0.1 pan coat — any Orthopodomyia alba 2 0.2 2 0.0 — — _ _ Psorophora ciliata 7 0.6 9 0.1 3 3.7 3 0.6 confinnis 26 2D 46 0.2 1 4.2 1 0.2 discolor 1 0.1 2 0.0 1 1.2 1 0.2 horrida 1 0.1 1 0.0 42 14.6 46 9.1 Theobaldia inornata 2 0.2 2 0.0 — — — ae: Uranotaenia sapphirina...................... 38 3.2 88 1.5 — = SER Total 1172 100.0 6048 99.8 82 100.0 505 100.0 38 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts ists for North American species, and the following data in the main confirm previously determined facts ; but they are of impor- tance in indicating the situation as it was found in St. Louis County. Table 5 shows the number of specimens of the various species which entered houses and barns, information of consider- able epidemiological importance. While Culex apicalis has never been found biting man, the knowledge that its larvae are frequently associated with those of Anopheles quadrimaculatus shows that if adequate control of this primary malaria carrier is obtained the breeding places of C. apicalis will probably be largely controlled also. Larvae asso- ciations are shown in Table 6. When considered in relation to the type of breeding place preferred by each species (Table 7 ) it is readily understood why Aedes vexans and Culex pipiens would become extremely abun- dant under such weather conditions as prevailed during 1933, the year of the greatest outbreak of St. Louis encephalitis. All reports of that epidemic (see e.g. Public Health Bulletin No. 214, 1935) stress the abundance of mosquitoes, and recent work, especially that of Reeves, Hammon and Izumi (1942), indicates that mosquitoes may be important as vectors of the disease. From the table it will be seen that the most usual places in Which mosquitoes were found breeding were ponds. Anopheles quadrimaculatus were largely confined to such areas. Though comprise only 12.6 per cent of larval collections. The situation would be even more marked were it not for the omnipresent A. vexans. “A comparable situation was found in the 1938 Massa- chusetts mosquito Survey where Aedes formed 34.6 per cent of the adults but only 3.9 per cent of the larvae. The reason is prob- Ses pean nee ee ste areas Sey ee C ace ee ep pee ag em ee es Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 39 Table 5 Mosquitoes Caught in Houses and Barns — St. Louis County, 1942 In Barns Individuals Per cent In Houses Species Individuals Per cent Anopheles quadrimaculatus........... 90 20.8 Culex pipiens 198 45.9 Aedes vexans 68 15.7 Culex restuans 28 6.5 Anopheles punctipennis.................... 8 1.8 Culex. ealinarlag 7 66s 16 3.7 Culex erraticus 8 1.8 Aedes triseriatus 3 0.7 Pecrophora cillatec.8 3 0.7 Orthopodomyia alba 4 0.5 Anopheles barberi 1 0.2 Culex aplealig2 28 ee | 0.2 Aedes stiotious. 1 0.2 Psorophora horrida 1 0.2 Psorophora cyanescens..................... 1 0.2 Culex quinquefasciatus..................... 1 0.2 Megarhinus septentrionalis............. 1 0.2 Psorophora ferox — — Uranotaenia sapphirina_................. Mae | 0.2 Culex tarsalis 1 0.2 Aedes aegypti — Total 433 99.9 228 79.4 29 10.0 6 2.1 6 2.1 9 8.1 6 2.1 1 0.3 1 0.3 1 0.3 1 0.3 288 100.0 Table 6 LARVAL ASSOCIATION Numbers indicate the times each species was found together. | ; a Cc} 2 | 3 2| 3 i : ‘ Che s Reece i) a : Baek CeReede owes Ee Mee. Se ee ey < < < < S) | S S) ) 3 S) ra) ne bs fi r= A. trivittatus.............. rita cubation A. vexans 1 A. punctipannitc:....4.3....... r A. preter apne: pleat oduct 22 Cc 23 11 Cc 160 41 3 6 Cc ee 7 6 Cc Cc 7 10 2 4 2 2 Cc 11 3 5 13 1 10 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 P 4 2 1 1 1 ;) Gap PHININE occa 1 4 1 1 Number of species ccauaintes 1 5 11 8 8 5 9 1 8 7 4 2 3 5 4 Number of times associated... 1 32 124 92 54 63 95 1 65 44 4 3 3 9 i 597 Per cent "99 B64 907 68 00 1058 160. 02 09 74 O07. 08 O8 16° 12 100.0 Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Lows County During 1942 41 ably to be found in the fact that Aedes prefer small, temporary and inconspicuous collections of water, and occur in tree holes. The figures may give a slightly erroneous impression of the abundance of Anopheles quadrimaculatus, because, at least in the Jefferson Barracks area, malaria carrying mosquitoes were particularly studied. Anopheles punctipennis is found in probably a greater vari- ety of breeding places than any other species. In addition (see Table 6) it has been found in association with 11 other species, more than any other. A. quadrimaculatus on the other hand is more restricted in its breeding habits than any species which has been found so frequently. Nearly 80 per cent of A. quadrima- culatus larvae are found in ponds. After ponds, ditches and streams produce more mosquitoes than any other of the 16 listed breeding places. Actually as far as numbers of mosquitoes are concerned catch basins must be of great importance, for larvae of C. pipiens and C. restuans may be found there in enormous numbers. In rural parts of the county open sewage ditches probably produce more actual nuisances by the mosquitoes they breed than any other source. We have found such collections of water to be literally black with larvae. If the suggestion of Casey and Broun (1938) that there is a correlation between small streams and open sewers and cases of St. Louis encephalitis in the 1933 epi- demic, and if C. pipiens is shown to be a vector in nature as well as in the laboratory, then such places become a real health hazard in addition to being a public nuisance. The only method of deal- ing with such a breeding place is the installation of a proper method for sewage disposal. In fact, it will be seen that the vast majority of the mosquito breeding places in the county are man made, or maintained by man. The remainder, such as Swamps, streams and lakes could be drained, or treated without undue difficulty. Table 7 Breeding Places of Mosquitoes of St. Louis County, 1942 Number indicates time species was found in each type of breeding place SPECIES ] S 3 3 si oe Type of 8 <8 2a | eS Breeding n 2 z ‘g 5 8 8 & ve a a s n & w | fc ne Places = = a 3 . n 3B 2 § eo = Sen Raet=| om Be n om o n = b= he Bn ion =| i P=] sy a 2 = ro He § Cet & $ Be $ & eat 20 re ee ee ee a ee eens te a Ge es ee g< | Bs d 424-263 66: 16-9 a 2 ae ae ot oe ee Lakes : 1 1 1 1 4 4 Ponds.. 12°: 2237-11 8 4 -38 = 78 2 2 G6: 220° 411 Temporary pools 1 2 1 6 3 9 1 1 24 8 Artificial (Bees ci = be 2 2 1 2 1 8 5 Large artificial containers....... 3 2 1 1 7 4 Main barrel@ica 3. 1 3 3 1 2 10 S Flower containers.................... 2 1 3 2 AI ORRB a5 ce 2 1 1 1 1 6 5 SWAMPS sc eee. 1 4 3 7 2 4 8 8 38 8 MEPORING ci ee ae 5 2.18 5 3: 38 7 74 7 Sinkholéwc. 3 ee 1 = A We es DitChes. 2.8262 Ge rd 2 29 13 6.45 1 1 75 9 Open stWerecin 6 2 1 9 3 Catch basins and inlets......... 1 16 15 2 1 35 5 Cisterns 2 1 3 2 Excavatlong@s.. oe ee 2 4 1 2 : 1 1 z 11 6 Number of breeding places for species ee | 1 7 8 4 16 1 14 6 12 8 2 my 2 1 3 1 Number of times species was recorded Report on Mosquitoes Collected in St. Louis County During 1942 43 Relation to Disease Anopheles comprise 26.0 per cent of the total mosquitoes. The situation is somewhat comparable to that recorded by Feemster and Getting (1941) for Massachusetts where this genus made up 11.9 per cent of a total of over a quarter of a million specimens identified in the 1939 mosquito survey of that state. Yet there were only eleven cases of malaria probably contracted in Massa- chusetts in the ten year period 1930-1939 (Getting et al., 1940). In St. Louis County the disease is more prevalent than this, though exact figures are difficult to obtain. Malaria is endemic in the southeast corner of Missouri and many of the cases re- corded in St. Louis are doubtless contracted during visits away from the city and county. Since about sixty breeding places of Anopheles quadrimaculatus were found and adults were collected in abundance over the whole county the scarcity of the vector hardly seems the cause of the comparative scarcity of the disease. Anopheles quadrimaculatus probably occurs in sufficient numbers to account for the small amount of malaria contracted in the county. The actual abundance necessary for the continued occur- rence of the disease will vary with a number of factors but the statement of Johnson (1941) that “A. quadrimaculatus reduction to the point where only occasional adults are found in suitable diurnal shelter, is effective” in reducing malaria, is significant in this case. The greatest number of this species taken in one day’s collecting in barns, culverts and such favorable locations was 410 (August 4). Though A. punctipennis is as abundant and bites with great frequency and will transmit the various species of Plasmodium in the laboratory, it is not considered important as a vector in nature (Darling, 1926). In regard to the bearing of the present findings on the at sible vector of St. Louis encephalitis, if the disease is moequite” borne, it seems likely that the vector is probably Culex pipiens OF possibly other species of this genus. The experimental work indi- cates a species of Culex rather than Aedes, but equine ence” phomyelitis is most probably transmitted principally by Aedes (Feemster and Getting, 1941). Of the six species of this genus H4 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis incriminated as vectors of the eastern strain of the equine dis- ease in Massachusetts, two have been found in St. Louis County., These are A. vexans and A. triseriatus. As shown above, A. vexans is one of the most abundant mosquitoes in St. Louis County, but A. triseriatus is less common in populated areas. The western strain of equine encephalomyelitis has been trans- mitted by four species of Aedes found in St. Louis County (see Davis, 1940). A special search was made for Aedes aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, which was recently recorded from Jefferson City, Missouri (Adams, 1942), but the species is not common in St. | Louis County. A single female was taken on September 17th in the southeastern part of the county, and subsequently several more specimens of both sexes. Summary A total of 15,100 mosquitoes from 981 collections made in St. Louis County in 1942 were examined. Of these specimens 34.5 per cent were larvae. Thirty species, belonging to eight genera, were recorded, seven of them being new records for the county. Culex pipiens, possibly a vector of St. Louis ence- phalitis, is the most abundant mosquito in the county and made up 30.2 per cent of the collections. Aedes vexans, a vector of equine encephalomyelitis, accounted for 23.3 per cent, and Ano- pheles quadrimaculatus for 15.3 per cent. The latter species is probably sufficiently abundant to account for the malaria con- tracted in this area. The unusual weather conditions prevailing during the sum- mer, of 1942 suggest that the picture of the mosquito population obtained during this survey may not be typical, but it will be the work of future surveys to substantiate this suggestion. BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, C. F., 1934. A preliminary report on the Culicidae (Mosquitoes). of Missouri. Proc. Missouri Acad. Sci. 1: 77-80 1942. Aedes pital bows the yellow fever mosquito in Central Missouri. Sci. Carpenter, S. J., 1941. “The Mosquitoes of ee , pp. 1-87, Arkansas State Boted of Health, Little Rock, Arkansa Casty, A. Es; O. Brown, 1938. Epidemiology of St. Louis en- cephalian: ct eo 450-451. ee = T., 1926. Discussion on relative pertalty mice in transmitting ria of Anopheles quadrimaculatus, punctipen nis and crucians neta re of diGctentiating between these species in applying con- measures. South. Med. Jour. 78: -457. Davis, Disk Ai, 1940, A study of birds and mosquitoes as hosts for the us of eastern equine encephalomyelitis. Atnee: Jour. Hyg. 32: 45-59, Feemster, R. F. and V. A. Getting, 1941. Distribution of the vectors of equine cuceohulitie in Massachusetts. Amer. Jour. Publ. Health 37: 791-802. Gordon, W. 940. “Mosquito Control Report” unpubl. report. at: M71 Louis County Health Departmen Getting, V. A. et al., 1940. “Survey of Mosquitoes of Massachusetts.” Mimeographed Final Report, 1940. f King, W. V., and G. H. Bradley, 1941, Dia of Nearctic species 0 Antpleten pp. 71-78 in “Human Malaria.” Publ. No. 15, A.A.A.S. E. McNeel, 1942. “The Mosquitoes of the and T. Southeastern States.” U. S. Dept. Agric. Misc. Publ. 336: Revised Edit. 1-90. miei. tc 1929. “A Handbook of the Mose of North America,” -268. Chas. C. Thomas, Springfield, Il. Public os Bulletin No. 214, 1935. Report on the St. Soo f Encephalitis. U. S. Treasury Dept. Washington D. tal Reeves, W. C., W. McD. Hammon and E. M. Izum 1942. Experimen transmission ot St. Louis a virus = Culex pipiens Lin- Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 50:125-1 128. Rowe, J. A., 1942. —, Light Trap ein from Ten Iowa Cities, 1940. Iowa State Coll. J. Sci. 16: 487-518 Tulloch, G. S., 1939. A key to the mosquitoes of Massachusetts. Psyche 46:113-136, léstes of the’T ransactions of £ the prigncns of Science of St. Louis taay be obtained: by. purchase’ from’ the: librarian,’ ” Dr, He A. Bulger, Washington University School of Medicine, ; Volumes ] to N consisted’ of, four numbers each, deer “humerous: articl es by Shumard, Wizlizenus, Swallo ut, Imarin, Ril, and bape Many of these are stil: available r $4.00 per double’ number, a ing tel ed sually contai hed “only } A includes selected issues. Most apes issues also are available,” SH te ‘ EX cae: Sy ae Le < A ee wep) 2.) Ne No, 4. aan to he: archaeology of: Missouri... ba Patt a 4 4 Dy ete ‘The ‘total rane of the sun, » January. 1, 1889.2 ceceetepence : ty i 4 MS , ’ * ane | Ni “Votiime X : a Or ‘gans..: aed —Studies of ‘Subt > . T. Dieadonout, Herbaceous Posty of ar Kansas Bhosle No. 1. eee Frank Gale Revision éF Limnacas of f Norther Mines Wolkinte, XI i3 No. 2./ \Nipher, Enel. E 26 ‘pidieteseaDiticc of Speed of Trotting Say ula nee ca Francis E—Law nf Contraco: oF Gener? a rae “Volume XVIII» Lome Ne Prony Re B.—Fasna of Residuary Auburn » Chest of Lincoln oan | Mi Te EES iy 1 ™ ‘ Wn Io : fe 2S Yk 5 RO ae es Hig Por ie see : : a Volume: - Now ey "Hida, ceo a- Annual Rainfall Hand Temperate of pie 7 ees Es % Vali XXIV — 2 AGN a “No. or Frerichs,.. PF. We. Development cot the “Chemical Indosey | in ‘the hast a / Hundred’ Y¥. ns 1a seem : * + ith at 7 “¥ < Nae 6 gtr ip , and Palmer, é 4 Supplement ‘to. the Catalogue of Arkansas Plants + Seis us een Phil—The Ecology ofa Stered Clay Banke Ses in Inseet | as £ Noy Z. Roberta, c harla_Seme Thinols Bee en 45 as : A ¥ 1 ae * M4 ¢ B “45 het > iy i edad ; as vay Sear ee s, 1.5 (Publications Continued) ; oy ; "Volume xxv ieee | Se eee aa eae A ‘No. We Burt, Ghacles ‘E. The. Lizards: of Resse “ rk 2. Raw, Phil. and Nellie L—The: at Attraction and Rhythmic Periodicity i Giant Sets’ “Moths. os Vata xy ; th) “ ~ No peal Bathe Praise Hored fae es a — ee EG : KE . Res =i pas ee ES and Burt, M. BOA Prelimitiary Check’ List of tHe. ads 4 3 £S outh - Ametica OByme, x ‘L—An Aurora Observed i in Missouri and Tits Connestion, 5 Aativity ; = ee (6. Réu, Hes eon he Roe if Corsi Soliacy BS Social 3e ae eae A f aaet, a0 ‘on sagt ife Beige? of the ee U pacer oa ses —Out reine = aes of Funct ological: A Beier briat See Sea i of ve Transactions: of the ACADEMY of SCIENCE of Saint Louwis Volume XXXI, No. 3 SYMPOSIUM _ : pes “SCIENCE IN CONSERVATION DURING WAR TIMES” (nent ean 4 Stienv in Conservation During ‘War Times ‘LT, BODE | pecan Scientific Approach tothe | : ~ Conservation of Fisheries Resources '. ADEN C. BAUMAN | te ae AG BOTap Ww. I “Lumen | i Me y r, Keer * ; So% ee oe 9 060808 " ae x e081 ued f AcapeEMy of Science of St. Lours. yi ii The Wane of Science of St. Louis was founded! in 1856 ‘" and«chartered’ by the Nineteenth General Assembly of the “State/of Missouri by an act dated January 17, 1857, -The objects; for which the Academy of, Science was founded are »set forth in the Charter, ‘They are’ thréefold: first, the ad- . Vancement of science} second, the establishment in the City of WH ~) St. Louis of a museum for the illustration and study of the ~ ‘various ‘branches of science; third, the creation of a scientific library. Membership in the Academy is not limited to those ‘actively engaged as ee woe those interested In science are. pad welcom Boh ees . « councit, 98 Prof, W. D. ‘Shipton.. aris ae Preside Mr. Charles H. Nichelso ; i First Vice-President Dr. Edgar Anderson:. } KR wat Second Vice-President Prof, Charles H. Philpott EA ao Secretary Mr, Carl J. Miller 2020 x y> at Treasurer Dr. Harold A, Bulger...... Se pe te Librarian Mr. August: P. Beilmann.. PAN Saat ia eee pas gtlee Mr. Reed. B. Harkness... _.Councilor-at-large e ae Mr. Ellsworth S. -Obourn noe HEP Councilor-at-large. i eh se ~Mr. Leigh Wyman et PRS Ee Sea CG ouncilor-at-large < we Mr. A. H. Timmerman... Andrew: Jonson: Joseph Desloge P. Kaufmann | is | Carl J. Miller. Charles B. Fox. . _ George T; Moore .: ze A. P. Greensfelder . Stratford Lee’ Mortoi. PS eats Parke Holoran, SJ, Charles H. Nicholson”, . oe 5 ‘O'Fallon | “" Cos ey Transactions of the ACADEMY of SCIENCE of Saint Lowis Volume XXXI, No. 3 SYMPOSIUM on “SCIENCE IN CONSERVATION DURING WAR TIMES” Science in Conservation During War Times I. T. BODE Scientific Approach to the Conservation of Fisheries Resources ADEN C. BAUMAN Conservation of Game A. S. LEOPOLD Timber in Wartime W. J. BURTON Issued September 1, 1943 Science in Conservation During War Times 49 ~ SCIENCE IN CONSERVATION DURING WAR TIMES By I. T. Bove, Director Missouri Conservation Commission Science in Conservation during war time varies little from Science in Conservation at any other time, unless it be that dur- ing war time emphasis on the necessity for adhering to fact and scientific fundamentals is all the more important. The viewpoints presented here are the writer’s own view- points. He is fully aware that both the scientist and other admin- istrators may differ with him radically. He believes that closer correlation between scientific and administrative work can come only through a frank recognition of the problems and even short- comings of both. He presents these comments without prejudice and for whatever they may be worth toward strengthening the conservation program of the State and toward accomplishing enduring abundance of wildlife resources. The problem of determining proper integration of scientific endeavor is probably as new in the wildlife conservation field as in any field. Much research has been conducted and volumes of scientific facts have been accumulated relating to wildlife. There exist, however, important problems concerning the utilization of all this material. First, there is so much of it that has been left in such abstract form that administrative units are not able to apply it; they are not capable of accurately interpreting it for practical use. Second, until recently, there has been definite re- sistance between the scientist and the administrator. There is no reason why these situations should continue. It is. only fair to state that during recent years the problem of application of scien- tific findings and that of resistance are disappearing rapidly. A frank facing of the situation on the part of scientist and administrator alike will speed intelligent integration of the two endeavors. There is involved a two-way consideration. The first relates to the attitudes, problems, and requirements from the adminis- trative standpoint. The second involves attitudes, standards of and qualifications for scientific work, and the evaluation of ap- plication of scientific work on the part of the scientist. Following are some of the elements entering the picture. FRoM THE STANDPOINT OF THE ADMINISTRATOR Until recently appointment and background, training and experience of the average administrator have rested largely on 50 Transactions of the Academy: of Science of St. Louis the fact that he was a good political worker, or that he had fished or hunted all of his life. There was a minimum of consideration of his ability to appreciate, analyze, and view wildlife manage- ment on the basis of fundamental values and requirements. Until the present generation there has been an abundance of | natural resources. This has generated in the public mind an indif- ference toward any necessity for management, control of use or looking ahead to determine future and sustained production. A third element from the administrative standpoint is the fact that, in accordance with human nature, conclusions are reached and management practices established on the basis of untrained observation and deduction. The most common answer arrived at has been that, if the supply of wildlife is going down, the remedy lies in putting more of it into the field. This in turn has given rise to the conception of the game farm and the fish hatchery as the solution to restoration and greater abundance. Another element in the problem of integrating scientific rs fort with administration in the wildlife field lies in the source of support for wildlife conservation departments. Nearly all fish and game wildlife conservation departments derive their support almost entirely from the sale of hunting, fishing and other wild- life use permits.. Very few are supported to any degree from general taxation. This has naturally resulted in a great deal of intolerance on the part of the man who buys the hunting and fishing permit toward long-time, fact-finding effort. This, £0 gether with the fact that so much research and scientific effort up to the present has resulted in abstract data and has stopped short of the final mark, has generated lack of appreciation, doubt, and, in many cases, even ridicule of expenditures for any such effort. It has, therefore, been difficult for an administrator to justify expenditures of money for scientific and research work. Again, the problem confronting the administrator is often acute and immediately imperative. The time element is impor- tant. It frequently is not possible, for example, to await the development and conclusion of a complete life history study of a species to determine whether or not the administration is justi- fied in expending large sums of money each year in trying t° establish or maintain that species. An example of this in our own State is the chukar partridge. A considerable sum of money was being spent each year in putting into the field additional stocks of this bird. The Commission was faced with a determr nation of the justification for continuing this expenditure on the basis of survival and results. The Commission and the admin- Science m Conservation During War Times 51 istrative staff needed assistance in approaching an answer to this problem. Research workers were called upon. Had these workers taken the viewpoint that an answer as to whether or not artificial restocking was successful could be obtained only after a com- plete, long-time life-history study of the birds had been made, we still would be expending several thousands of dollars each year to no avail. The research staff, through whom the Commis- sion approached this problem, realized that they could produce for the Commission an answer to this particular phase of wild- life management, even though it left unanswered many questions with regard to chukar partridge. The result was that, after out- lining the proper approach, which only the scientist could do, it did not take long to conclude that the chukar partridge could not maintain itself in our environment and that there was slight justification for the expenditure of the funds necessary to keep the species in existence in this State. Many of the problems the administrator faces are of this nature, and it is the writer’s firm belief that there need be no relaxation in standards of scientific work in order to lift out of the mass of possibilities and ramifications for investigative en- deavor these specialized problems for more immediate solution. As still another element from the administrative standpoint there is the fact that the administrator faces a problem of edu- cating public steeped in long-accepted ideas and of bringing that public to accept new ideas and new truths that result from re- search work. The administrator, therefore, has a job not only of determining the answer, but of selling that answer to the public which has to use it. The administrator cannot make this sort of a sale unless he can display the product; he cannot dis- play the product of research unless the research worker himself delivers that product in such form that its merits can be under- stood and appreciated by the uninitiated. I realize that to many highly trained scientists this may sound unprofessional or even vulgar, but nevertheless, it is a fact that must be faced if the scientist wishes so-called practical activity and practical admin- istrative programs to be based on scientific fundamentals. These conditions have arisen naturally because of lack of training in fundamentals on the part of the public and the admin- istrator; the lack of ability to analyze and evaluate scientific in- vestigation and observation. The problem has been to employ administrators who have this sort of background, and to get results of scientific work translated into usable action programs. 52 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts FroM THE STANDPOINT OF THE SCIENTIST It is possible that some of the problems just mentioned might not be so acute if our conception and measurement of standards of good scientific work had been interpreted in a dicerent way; and it is possible that the scientist has been as intolerant of the person who did have the scientific viewpoint as that person has been of the scientist. There has been some tendency during recent years to dis- cuss rather glibly various types of scientific work ; as for example, “pure research ;” “investigation;” and “applied research.” The writer is not sufficiently scientific-minded himself to even suggest that any such division is or is not possible or justifiable. He only knows that this situation exists, that this has given rise to a tendency among scientific workers to distinguish between and evaluate the work of certain groups of investigators on the basis of such a classification, and that there has arisen evidence of depreciation of the professional standing of the so-called “ap- plied” scientist and an attempt to place a premium upon the s0- called ‘“‘pure’’ scientist. Among certain workers there is a fixed belief that no work is scientific or to be evaluated as bona fide research unless the worker himself is left to wander at will, to follow any leads or ramifications that may suggest themselves, to follow through for the sole purpose of producing information, whatever it may be, and regardless of whether it can ever have Practical application or not. There are some workers who, it Sometimes appears, even believe that the less application scien- tific material can have, the more “pure” it is. An administrator feels sometimes that the end product is developed with the idea that the more it can confuse and the farther it can remain above the comprehension of the uninitiated the higher is the standard of the work. This is somewhat of an exaggeration, of course, but it illustrates the point. Many scientists have had a tendency t0 look askance at investigators of pure administrative problems. On the other hand, there has, no doubt, been much justifica- tion for the reserved attitude on the part of the scientist, because, all too frequently, from the administrative standpoint, there has been too much of a tendency to require an investigator to prove a point which is vital to the administrative field, but which proof may not be altogether honest, If that investigator has not been able to conscientiously produce data and information which will substantiate a pre-conceived viewpoint, he is out of countenance with the administration. This should not be so; and, again, , Science in Conservation During War Times 53 is gratifying to note that within recent years this attitude is rapidly breaking down. Neither is it intended to imply through these comments that all scientific endeavor should have as its objective only practical application. The very foundations would be torn from under science and progress if workers in this field, who choose to do so, were not free to investigate and follow through at will wherever their interests lead them and upon whatever ramifica- tions present themselves. It is an insult to Science itself when the “practical” or administrative field requires any investigator to set forth data, presumably factual, when those data are any- thing else but the truth. There may be times when the use and presentation of such data would be so far in advance of the public mind that their application must be postponed until such time as the public is ready to accept them, but there should be no justification for an administration to propound an untruth in the guise of scientific fact. Science is entirely justified in holding to such standards. SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVOR FINDING Its PLACE IN THE ADMINISTRATIVE FIELD The writer remembers the time when there were practically no technical or research men on any of the administrative staffs. Then came a time when here and there a few began to filter in. They were viewed with reserve on the part of administrators, and were viewed somewhat as outcasts by scientific groups. Then followed the time when a few with research training, or at least with a full appreciation of scientific and research work, took up administrative positions. At the present time there is ample evi- dence that a premium is being placed by administrative agencies upon thoroughly technical men, especially if these men have had experience with practical field problems. It is gratifying to note that, where formerly an administrator had to be diplomatic, adroit, and skillful if he presented to the layman any results dealing with wildlife management that were contrary to popular belief or commonly accepted tenets, he may now do so more and more without impugning his own reputation or that of his entire department. Again, it is gratifying to note that more and more administrators feel free to adhere to funda- mentals resulting from scientific investigation regardless of for- mer popular opinion, and that there is a growing realization of the necessity of adhering to such fundamentals, no matter by what group or agency they are developed and established. There 54 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis is also a growing appreciation on the part of administrators that there must be a constant search for the truth, and that sooner or later any practice or policy will be a failure unless based upon such truth and such standards as are backed by scientific and research endeavor. There is a growing realization that the lowering of standards of scientific or research work is not at all necessary in order for such work to be of value to an administrative department. There is also a growing realization that scientific work can best be con- ducted by agencies and at institutions which are equipped to handle it, and that much duplication can be avoided and a much higher standard of work accomplished where administrative de- partments do not attempt to establish highly developed research agencies. In Missouri the Conservation Commission has been follow- ing this policy. Since its first year the Commission has been co- operating in a research program with the University of Missouri and the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. There are only eleven such units in the country. The work is conducted at the univer- sity where personnal, library, laboratory, consultant and other facilities are available. Any problems the Commission faces in- volving technical phases or requiring research study are referred to this unit. The money expended for this work has been a good investment. Answers are being developed to such questions, as: What causes quail populations to fluctuate and how can we determine quail populations from year to year so as to permit as liberal a use as possible of surplus and yet pre- serve breeding stock? _ Is the cry raised in certain quarters that shipment of live rabbits is depleting our rabbit crop justified? What hope is there for restoring the wild turkey suf- ficiently to permit hunting? What are requirements for deer ranges and extension of the range? Under what form of management can raccoon and other furbearers be restored and their value increased? We are convinced that wildlife restoration is intimately associated with the land and land use, but how and to what extent? Is it soil and plant food? Is it land use practice only? These, and a number of other problems, are being given consideration by the research unit. At first glance this might Science in Conservation During War Times 55 lead to the conclusion that there are largely administrative, but such is not the case. The farther the work proceeds the more certain it becomes that the answer to any one of the questions involves careful research which an agency such as the Conservation Commission is not prepared to carry on. The Commission is concerned in research work from another angle. This work is being conducted through what is known as the Federal Aid to Wildlife Program. Funds for this work are made available through the excise tax on arms and ammunition; seventy-five per cent of the funds are made available by the fed- eral government and the state agency contributes twenty-five per cent. This program provides for a limited amount of research work. The nature of the research work conducted under this projcet is somewhat different from the cooperative research work just mentioned. It takes on more of the nature of field investi- gation. The Federal Aid to Wildlife Program is not limited to investigative or research work, but because of the newness of the wildlife program in Missouri and the need for establishing foundation facts, Missouri has chosen to devote the major part of its allotment of Federal Aid to Wildlife funds to field investi- gative work which will ultimately lead to the development of our action program. The underlying objective of Missouri’s effort during the past five years has been the investigation of the incen- tives needed to encourage adoption of practices favorable to restoration and increase of wildlife resources. Even in this pro- gram there have been many phases of work that have required coordination with the research unit at the University. The result has been that there has been no duplication of effort, but both the cooperative research program and the Federal Aid to Wildlife Program have dove-tailed into a research or investigative project which has fully carried out the principles outlined in this. dis- cussion. As a simple example of the results of this type of ap- proach as a foundation to wildlife management, mention can be made of the farm pond program. Research investigation, in co- operation with the Federal Aid to Wildlife Program, had shown that one of the outstanding needs of wildlife restoration in Mis- souri was an adequate distribution of watering areas. The inves- tigations carried on subsequently by the Federal Aid to Wildlife Project pointed the way to cooperation with landowners in estab- lishing these watering areas by means which also furnished the farmer better live stock ponds. A second objective of the Federal Aid to Wildlife Program was the development of foundation plans for wildlife manage- ment for the various species in the State. Founded upon ‘the 56 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis work of the research unit during the past five years, the Federal Aid to Wildlife project effort has developed to the point where the management plans for various species of wildlife are nearly completed. This will form a foundation for a constructive pro- gram of wildlife restoration for the State. It is not possible to give a very complete picture of the full implication and scope of the Commission’s investigative and re- search program in the space of this paper, but the foregoing brief outline will give some idea of the importance that the Con- servation Commission attaches to fundamental research and to the necessity for developing the application of the information developed by such research. WHAT Is THE PICTURE FOR THE FUTURE, AND ESPECIALLY Durinc War TIME? There is much comfort in the fact that, in spite of the pres- sure of war emergency most agencies are conducting wildlife conservation affairs on the basis of sound principles of produc- tion and management: 1. Sustained harvest, even for war purposes can be main- tained only by maintaining breeding stocks. 2. Harvest can be increased only by utilization of surpluses where such exist or by increasing breeding stocks. 3. Not even war demands can be met if in a single year the foundation stocks are eliminated. Administrative work more and more, and especially in war time, must be based on fundamental research. The pressure of war emergency will require the fullest, most intense, and most cooperative type of endeavor possible on the Part of science, if the wildlife resource is to be preserved. Both during the war period and in the future, more and more trained research and scientific men will find their way into administrative positions. The scientific field could well encourage iss workers who exhibit administrative ability along with ae scientific ability, with the idea that scientists can be good a mie ators and that good administrators can arrive by the Way of scientific training, The administrator needs men who not only are thoroughly cup with biological principles, but who can analyze a prob- hy and who ‘can learn to steer a path through a mass of €X- remely interesting and valuable ramifications and keep his fingers on the key problem. He must be able to go at that problem, Science in Conservation During War Times 57 concentrate upon it, and be willing to place in the hands of the administrator all of the assistance he can as soon as he can, even though later on it is entirely possible to work back to some of the causes and reasons and ultimately produce a much more complete piece of work. The administrator is in need of scientific men who are will- ing to do a certain amount of service work, and who can trans- late their technical knowledge and skill into information and practice that the layman can comprehend and use. These results can be accomplished only if we realize what each other’s problems are. They can come only if the scientific field finds the means for developing a full appreciation of admin- istrative problems and finds itself willing to adjust its evaluations and scope of activity in such a way that scientific results can be made use of and the worker associated with the more practical phases will find full acceptance of his status and effort as bona fide scientific accomplishment. They can come only when the administrator appreciates the full significance and need for ex- pecting only scientific truth and complete integrity in presentation of investigative output from his research workers. SUMMARY Summing up briefly, the scientific need in the wildlife con- servation field is to know not only what to do, but how to get it done. An attitude on the part of the scientific worker that it is not his function to go beyond the production of facts may be entirely justified for much scientific work, but this should not work to the exclusion from scientific classification of those efforts which involve the field of application. . The scientific worker who has the ability not only to develop facts, but also to assist the administrator in working out the ap- plication of them and their adoption, is head and shoulders above the one who has no ability to go beyond the point where many valuable data are produced but left dangling in the air because the administrator and field staffs do not have a thorough enough grasp of interpretation of facts to pull them down without get- ting them all twisted up and misconstrued when given application. The administrator who expects a research worker to distort his data and color his integrity for the sake of expediency is not using science to build sound wildlife management. Science and scientifically trained workers are more and more finding their place in the wildlife administrative field. 58 ’ Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts The writer suggests the following slogan for any research worker who really wants to be of assistance in obtaining the goals in wildlife conservation work: “What can we do with what we know ?” The writer would recommend that somewhere in the train- ing of every scientific worker he be required to have several years’ experience in the administrative field. SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO THE CONSERVATION OF FISHERIES RESOURCES By Aven C. BAUMAN, Aquatic Biologist Missouri Conservation Commission The Conservation Commission is charged by the 1936 con- stitutional amendment with the responsibility for the conserva- tion of wildlife and forest resources in the State of Missouri. That the fisheries are an important part of the wildlife resources of the State is made evident by the fact that the varied condi- tions which occur in the 18,000 miles of intermittent and flowing streams in Missouri afford habitats for over 225 species and forms ranging from the smallest to the largest of American freshwater fishes. In dealing with the conservation of fishes the Commission recognizes two points of view and likewise two possible ap- proaches to the treatment of the subject. The first is the pop- ular concept which follows the conventional lines of conservation, being more or less a regulatory proposition looking mostly to the protection of existing stock and regulation of harvest. In this type of conservation, according to the thoughts of the average persons, water alone is enough for fish production, and in the lives of fishes they reflect their own likes and dislikes, assuming that the habits of fishes conform to human temperaments and vagaries. In the scientific concept, fishes are recognized as coldblooded animals with basic physiological requirements not unlike those of humans, the service of which, however, differs to a great degree. This concept recognizes the fact that the conservation of fish is based on environmental requirements which may be influenced by factors remote and difficult to recognize. The fish is consid- ered the end product of aquatic influences, both chemical and physical, some phases of which are not known. In practice, the Conservation Commission necessarily and wisely avoids. abandoning too abruptly the practices that conform Science in Conservation During War Times 59 to popular notions, some of which may not be wholly sound. While continuing these practices, it is launching fact-finding in- vestigations using methods which are recognized as conforming to the requirements of scientific procedures. The application of such scientific methods is being introduced as rapidly as the “traffic will bear,” but it is significant that the practices and pro- cedures adopted are being determined by and based on reliable scientific facts. It is to this end that a brief insight into the analysis of an aquatic environment is now presented, An aquatic environment is the end result of all conditions and factors existing within the entire watershed which furnishes water to supply a medium in which life exists. Sometimes the watershed is so far removed from the water medium that its source cannot be determined, as in the case of streams fed by springs whose sources may be in far away solution basins. Never- theless, the habitat is directly dependent on and affected by it, and the chemical composition of aquatic solutions can be only of those chemicals with which the water has contact. No life can exist for any length of time in pure water. Chemical substances must be supplied to the water if it is to support life. These chemicals, either organic or inorganic, are the foundation for the ladder of aquatic life extending from microscopic plankton through the invertebrates up to the large vertebrate animals. Since the bodies of plants and animals are composed of complex chemical compounds, there must be a chem- ical reservoir from which the building-materials of these com- pounds can be obtained. The watershed, including soils, plant and animal debris, and atmospheric suspensions, is the reservoir from which life-building elements are drawn. The water, falling as rain and later running off, serves as the transporting solvent, moving the dissolved or suspended chemical substances into the stream, which in this case is taken as the biotic medium. Microscopic or semi-microscopic organisms living within this medium take these chemicals directly into their cells by ingestion of colloids or diffusion of solutes for use in their chemical or Physical make-up. These small living aquatic forms, generally known as plankton, furnish the chemical foundations on which the higher aquatic life is built. Larger organisms, usually visible, depend on the plankton for substance and in turn are consumed by higher forms of life, such as small fish, insect larvae, worms, shrimps, amphipods and other similar animals. This might be compared to the middle rungs in the ladder of aquatic life, while the upper rungs are represented by the larger aquatic vertebrates 60 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis — fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals which feed on the smaller forms. When the importance of interrelation of aquatic forms as forage for other animals is realized, one can look briefly into another relation in the aquatic association. Among the larger forms there is much competition for food, the smaller members of a species serving as food for the larger ones. There is no regulated provision as to what each shall eat, but certain natural laws apply so that there is a survival of the fittest and a retained balance of nature. Water alone is not enough to produce fish; it is only the medium in which fish exist. It also serves as the vehicle, as con- sidered before, for transporting necessary chemicals, oxygen, and food to the fish, but these are not produced by the water — they are supplied to the water through a chemical linkage with the watershed or atmosphere. Besides these primary relations of water to fish, there are other important habitat necessities for the well-being and growth of fishes. A fish, like other animals, must have living room; that is, a certain necessary volume of water is required for each fish in which it can have freedom of movement without too close con- tact with other fishes. Some fish prefer close association with other individuals, but in that case the school requires living room comparable to that required by a larger fish. The volume of water for each fish must have certain dimensions within limits, for depth is important in that some species require much greater depth than others, It is not the nature view, though at times floating quietly leisurely of fishes to expose themselves to plain garfish and black bass spend certain times at the surface. When not feeding or swimming rely about, fishes demand a place of retreat in which they can lie unobserved, unmolested and in proximity to physical shel- ter. This shelter May serve as the individual residence of a fish, to which it can retreat when alarmed or from which it can dart but if dense eno physical contact and security. Science in Conservation During War Times 61 The most important requirement for continuation of a spe- cies is a surrounding in which it can reproduce. For the many species of fish this requirement varies so widely that no general description of suitable spawning grounds can be given; however, most of the species will spawn on riffles, in vegetation, in cav- ities, or on cleaned gravel areas. If a continuation of the species is desired, suitable nest locations must be available and the breed- ing adults must be protected at the time of nest building, spawn- ing, and nest guarding. Eggs will smother if silt is allowed to settle on them, and this often happens when silt-laden waters cover spawning areas following a sudden downpour i in an eroded watershed. After the eggs have hatched and fry have emerged from the nest they are attractive morsels for slightly larger fishes and other animals. If, then, these fry are to survive, shelter is a “must,” and the cover which serves the requirements of adult fishes can- not serve also the fry. Finer-texture cover is needed for small fish — weeds in shallow water providing optimum conditions, for here in shallow water the small fish are in their feeding area, the large fish avoid it, and the plants attract food. Such cover is necessary for young fish until they mature enough to compete with the larger fish in the main stream. The cardinal necessities for fish production may or may not be present in proper proportions to constitute a suitable habitat for fish. In a state the size of Missouri, with many thousands of miles of water, the only way in which a full set of scientific facts can be accumulated is to study each stream in a standard way and the gathering of scientific data on a stream or body of water by trained personnel using standard methods and unbiased judg- ment constitutes an aquatic survey. This is necessary if facts relative to all waters are desired, for though each stream is well known to some individual, there is no one familiar with all waters. Furthermore, observations made by several individuals may vary widely and may be biased, with the result that not facts, but opinions suiting the fancy of the individual are obtained. Actual measurement of pool depth in relation to’ its length and volume, along with the pool-riffle ratio, gives a fair index of the living room afforded fishes in a stream. Chemical analyses of the waters show the compounds present as well as their con- centration. Qualitative and quantitative studies made on the bot- tom fauna available for fish food, added to the free swimming forage forms such as minnows, crustacea and insect larvae, give 62 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis the total of available forage. These forage forms are, of course, dependent on the plankton, ooze, and other microscopic sub- stances. A field examination of spawning facilities involves simply observing whether pools or riffles provide the desired depths and bottom composition, but post-season observations cannot detect a possible loss of 100 per cent of the eggs in a flood during the spawning season. The survival of the yearly hatch can be roughly learned by methodical collecting of fry or fingerlings in the summer from marginal weed beds in which most of these fish take refuge. After the fry emerge from the nest, the necessary physical cover and shelter must be supplied if these fish are to reach maturity. For larger fishes, debris, rocks, windfalls, and undercut banks supply suitable cover. The degree of sufficiency of cover can be mostly learned by observing its presence or absence and compar- ing this with a count of netted fishes removed from the available cover. The aforementioned types of cover still do not constitute serviceable cover if it is not in water of great enough depth. The Missouri Conservation Commission has been conducting such aquatic surveys by watersheds, mostly during the summer months beginning in 1939. These essential facts for fish produc- tion ascertained and consolidated into an understandable whole will give the Missouri Conservation Commission an index to stream productivity and a guide by which it can initiate a plan- ned watershed and stream-improvement project to correct any rine an which are limiting fish production in the waters of e otate. Survey data and their interpretation indicate that watershed, stream slope, and stream-bank erosion can be designated as the most important factors limiting production in the streams, for this condition in turn has limited several production factors within the streams themselves. The flushing of sediment and gravel into streams fills pools and channels with a result com- parable to shrinking the stream-length and restricting the extent of the aquatic medium; fish foods are buried or crushed by mov- ing gravel; spawn is buried or smothered by sediments ; aquatic vegetation is destroyed; and cover or shelter for larger fishes is obliterated. I : ; : missi : a this problem the Missouri Conservation Com- ieee is looking for the cause in the watershed as well as the S in the stream, and a coordinated program including im- provements of both is under way Science in Conservation During War Times 63 “CONSERVATION. OF GAME” By A. S, Leoporp, Game Technician, Missouri Conservation Commission Like many another applied science, the field of wildlife man- agement has grown steadily in breadth and complexity. From the direct and obvious approaches to wildlife restoration, such as legal protection, refuges and restocking, we have progressed into the more difficult, but in the long run more basic, enterprise of attempting to correlate the principles and practices of good wildlife conservation with all other land uses, to the end that maximum game yields may be produced on all lands, compliant with other interests. Game crops need not be solely the products of “submarginal” or waste lands. Small game, like quail, rab- bits, squirrels and some furbearers can be produced on the best dairy farms without interfering with the flow of milk. Deer and wild turkeys may be an important by-product of well managed forests. Wildlife products, such as foods and fur, in addition to the important recreational values, are potential supplementary crops of all the farms and woodlands of Missouri. A wildlife program, based on this thesis, adheres to the principle of multiple use of the land, and in war time or in . Fy W. —Development ‘of the Chemical ieee | in . the Last 5 25 h: : Hundred Yea ears - See ee TRS Anti wane, XXV ele yy, SNES, pale J. ‘ ‘and Palmer, E. - Te Sopplement to the Catalogve of ce ae _ Arkansas Plant LO I ge escent CF tote | SG g ieee Phil The’ Beology of: a ‘Sheltered ‘Clay ee) A sage in rant gf ES a ee 8 Roberson: fe Se Florida ‘Flowers find Insects ape 9. Raw, Phil Field Studies i in the aie of, the! Now Soi a i Ps # |. (Publications Continued on Back Cover) 5 1. (Publications Continued) ey eViahine. Pye ~SNo2 1. Burt, hanes B—The picdids of Kansas Tuas 22, Rat, Phil and Nellie Ln os Sex Attraction and Dhyne Beriodiety IS ahi i Giant Sataiand ppt A Volume XxxvIT 3 ae Gaye No.1.) Pickwell, tw, B—The Prairie Horned Lark. . ane A Volume XXVIII “No. tb Bart, C ES and Burt M. E: <, Preliminary Check ‘List of the Lizards of South America 2. O Byrne; S. 5 Ries ‘Aurora ‘Observed in Missouri and Its "Connection : ~with Solar Activi Bae Fn ice . Greger, D. K biog Index ‘of North American Species. of the? gees * Sablastoidea Naa ke Def Jefferson ‘Comity, Misso ee 3 Rau, Pit Nekes on the Behavior of Certain Ants of St. tosis: Cope » Mis issouri_ = ‘ Chicken. “Spok" nena Euphydryas P ies ie et | 8. eet oe ieee on the Sto Cao) Fe Volanse: XXIX No. 1. Pitch. H. ‘S—_Naturat # se 6f Eo hai 4s Lizards - 2. Greger, D. K. ~Atrypae of the Central Missouri Devonian ————-—" 3. Bilinsky, S—Outline of a Theory of Functions of an Abstract Vaciable 4. Allen, Ve : T.—Geological Aspects of Evolution - ensnovernceneee a Graves, H, ‘B—The Pre-Cambrian Structure ‘of Miss OaPhn, sentence ‘Pleistocene Tim ime Volume XXX: yon ie ee Ne. 1. Bilcker, E.- ph ee tislaale {Colton of the St. Lewis Pes ve Cozzens, A. B—Analyzing and Mapping Natural ‘Landsea pe Factors of. “the Ozark Province. eats eee as, Kirgis, H. D—The 2 9a Structure of the: Hypothalamic ; in Relation to their Functional Connee gener 5! ee Branom, M, E.—The Agricultural SN of the Aisevipaes Bottoms --" Adams, R, MeC.—Archaeological Investigations of the Academy Of at Sie Louis ee the Wee Eee Admitastratiog, Seite bast: 1939" Ad we a Owes 1 Esa ees ¥. —Frontier Agrical ture in No rthern Minn 2 Ee ALF. sReport on a, Maneraitoct: Collected 4 in St Louis six iNet, hi Sa Transactions of the ‘ADEMY of SCIENCE ‘of Saint Louis. Robert McCormick Adams AcabEMY of SCIENCE of St. Louts 4 The Academy of Science of St. Louis was founded im 1856 and chartered by the Nineteenth General Assembly of the State of Missouri by an act dated January 17, 1857. The objects for which the Academy of Science was founded are set forth in the Charter. They are threefold: first, the advancement of science ; second, the establishment in the City of St. Lows of _. @ museum for the illustration and study of the various branches of science; third, the creation. of a scientific library. Membership in the Academy 1s not limited ere to those actively engaged as scientific workers; those | interested in science are equally welcome. as ‘gepeegieg COUNCIL, 1946 : Mr: Stratford Lee Morton....... LcsaecnerteePresident Mr. Charles Philpott : First Vice-President 7 “e. Mr. Joseph Desi t—) New Allicoes ii ae Academy of Science of St. Louis — kee : Most Recent Past President : ey W. D. Shipton..........._.Second Most-Recent Past President _ 4642 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis 8, Mo. a ‘ip air. John J. O'Fallon Second Vice-President :) Mr, Reed B. Harkness. 3 yo Ne Secretary Dr. Harold Bulger a | Lp prerion Dr, Edgar Anderson: Councilor-at large Dr. Hampton Carson abloroe Mr. Max Schwar. Transactions of the ACADEMY of SCIENCE of Saint Louis Volume XX X1 — Number 4 EXCAVATIONS IN THE MATTHEWS SITE NEW MADRID COUNTY, MISSOURI Winslow M. Walker and Robert McCormick Adams Issued June 30, 1946 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I Introduction. 75 I] Location and Present Topography of the Site. 77 Wl Summary of Previous Work, 78 IV Methods and Techniques. ; 80 Vv Results of Excavations, 81 vi Descriptions of Specimens. 87 Vil Trait Analysis of the Matthews Site. ; 93 Vil Chronological Sequence. 98 IX Summary and Conclusions, 100 x References. 101 8 LIST OF TABLES Number Page I Provenience of Burials. 88 il Trait List for the New Madrid Focus. 94 TT Comparative Trait List. 96 IV Middle Mississippi Traits Found on the East Side of 98 the Mississippi Valley and not on the West Side, @ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Plate Page ! Location of Matthews Site in Relation to Other Middle 102 Mississippi Sites. " Reproduction of Potter’s 1878 Map of the Matthews Site. 103 Wi Details of the Matthews Site Mapped in ee sic3¢ raphy and Locations of Excavations and Mounds. Plate List of Illustrations — Continued Plan of the Gulley Area Giving Locations of Important Features. Cross-Section Through House Pit. Ground Plan of House Site T9, F1. Burial Plot F10. Circular Appearance of House Site Below Plow Line. Rectangular Floor Plan with Construction Features. South Half Transverse Trench Showing Internal Struct- ure of Ceremonial Mound Ground Plan and Composite Section of Ceremonial Mound. Exposed Palisade with Sticks Indicating Postmolds. Three Overlapping House Impressions in NM°11. Ground Plan, Section, and Theoretical Restoration of Wall and Ditch. Burials Near House Sites F8 and F12. Burial Plot F10 with Funeral Pottery. Burials Near House 116, F1. Occipital Deformation of Skulls. Small Artifacts of Bone, Flint, and Shell. Large Artifacts of Chipped and Ground Stone. Pottery Shapes. Incised Decorations on Jars. Animal Effigies and Trailed Designs on Plates. Effigy Ware Features. Restored Burial Pottery. Restored Village Pottery. Miscellaneous Pottery Objects. Page Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 75 I. INTRODUCTION This report is the result of field investigations in New Mad- rid County, Missouri, carried on from April to July 1941 and from November 1941 to March 1942, a Work Projects Adminis- tration project, under the joint sponsorship of the Academy of Science of St. Louis and the Missouri Resources Museum. The Work Projects Administration of Missouri furnished all of the labor under the direct supervision of Winslow M. Walker and the general direction of Robert McCormick Adams. The Work Projects Administration officials in both St. Louis and Jefferson City, Missouri were responsible for obtaining government funds without which the project could not have been carried out. Mr. A. C. Burrill, Curator of the Missouri Resources Museum, gave the official support of his institution to the project. Thanks are particularly due to Mr. Joseph Matthews of Sikeston, Missouri for general permission to excavate on the property of the Matthews estate; to Mr. C. A. Critchlow of Matthews, Missouri, for allowing the excavation of a portion of his pasture; and to Mr. Howard Steel of Matthews who granted permission to work on the portion of the site extending onto his land. Mr. K. K. Baker of Sikeston furnished valuable aid in the locating of sites throughout New Madrid and neigh- boring counties. Credit is due the people who conducted the technical aspects of the work. In this connection we must mention Mr. Edmund Winkler and Mr. John Arnold who took charge of the business arrangements of the projects; Mr. Frank for drawing the maps and features in the laboratory; Mr. Jay Sirolis and Mr. Ray Whisler for their photographic work; Mr. Harley Pritchett and Mr. Lloyd Willis for their efficient work as foremen; and Mr. Ben Ward for clerical work. Betty Bachrach Adams was largely responsible for trans- cription of the manuscript. Ross R. Heinrich edited the final copy. Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 77 II. LOCATION AND PRESENT TOPOGRAPHY OF THE SITE The site chosen for these investigations was located during a preliminary survey of portions of several counties in south- eastern Missouri,! conducted the last week in March and the first week in April 1941, by Winslow M. Walker with the assist- ance of K, K. Baker of Sikeston. : ) The town of Matthews is situated about 13 miles north of the present course of the Mississippi River. The Matthews site lies north of the town in the northwest quarter of Section 31, Township 25 North, Range 14 East, half a mile west of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad tracks, and within sight of the Matthews High School (Plate I). The northern part of the land is now owned by Howard Steel and the southern part by the C. D. Matthews estate. The site occupies a position on the west side of Sikeston Ridge, overlooking a bottomland for- merly known as West Lake, which is now drained by the Little River Ditch. On the first high land east of the lakebed at a height of © aboute 22 feet there are indications of a large prehistoric settle- ment extending for about one-third of a mile along the bluff and about the same distance back from the bluff. The remains of this large village site consist of numerous house circles; at least seven mounds varying from a few feet to 11 feet high; a low wall and ditch surrounding the principal mounds; and burial grounds. In accordance with the procedure adopted for other Mis- souri archaeological sites?’ this one is designated as New Mad- rid County Location III, and this village site will be referred to in this report as NMV3. This site includes mounds numbered NM010-16. The details of the topography of NMY3 are given on Plate III. As can be seen from this map, NMV3 extends for some 650 feet north into the Howard Steel farm and some 850 feet south into the C. D. Matthews estate. A portion of the C. D. Matthews estate is a sloping pasture on the west side of the field farmed by C. A. Critchlow. In the Critchlow pasture is the remnant of a large sassafras stump more than four feet in diameter, which appears to be 150 to 200 years old (Plate IV). The soil around it has been left as a little hummock after the erosion of the rest of the slope by several gullies. The largest and newest of these gullies extends southeasterly up the pasture slope and about 200 feet into the cultivated wheat field. This “deep gulley was formed, we have been told, in 1911-12, and along the margins there are evidences of burials with accom- 78 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis panying pottery and artifacts which have washed out and down the slope from time to time. About fifty feet north of here is another shallower gulley where more pottery has been found, and 150 feet farther north is the outline of an older gully. There are also two small narrow gullies which drain the southwest part of the pasture near the old stump. North of the Steel-Matthews fence, erosion gullies are not so well developed, although at some 675 feet north of the fence line there is an incipient small gulley. This small gulley marks the end of the ditch outside the old village embankment. III. SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS WORK This site was first described in 1880 by W. B. Potter in a memoir published by the Academy of Science of St. Louis. In his description he refers to this site as “Settlement A.”* Plate C of Potter’s memoir (reproduced herein as Plate II) shows a plan of a portion of the settlement lying within the enclosing low embankment. This portion of the settlement measures some 1500 by 800 feet. Potter’s description of the site is reprinted below, together with the corresponding designations used in the present publication. Settlement A—The northern settlement (Plate C), on the West Lake, is about thirteen miles above the town of New Madrid on the edge of the swamp. The bluff rises about 22’ above the present water level in the swamp, and is quite steep. A wall and ditch surround the settlement, — the former of which is 3’ to 3’6” high and the latter 18” te 2’ deep. The most prominent mount (A) (present designation NM010) is that marked (33) (Plate C), placed on the edge of the bluff. It is elliptical in plan, 110’ by WO -in diameter at the base and 11’ high. The long axis of the mound is parallel with the swamp. Excavations have been made on this mound, but nothing of importance was dis- covered. The mound (B) (present designation NM012) marked (29) is one of the burial mounds of the group. Itisa low flat mound of circular outline, 90’ in diameter and 7’ 6 high. From this mound a number of skeletons and a large quantity of pottery have been obtained from the north and east sides, the south and west sides seeming to be almost barren of remains. Col. Croswell, who devoted some time in excavating this mound, states that “There appeared to have been observance of order in depositing the dead in this mound... . The skeletons were often with the feet Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 79 as the head to the centre, and were lying on the back, on the face, on the right side and on the left, and in two in- stances appeared drawn up as if in sitting posture (flexed?). As the first skeletons were uncovered on the outer margin, they were found lying side by side with a covering of about 14” of earth. The next layer immediately above was ad- vanced a little nearer the centre. Then followed others in the same order, until finally they were were found lying six deep, the bones much decayed, separated and broken, and mingled together in a mass interspersed with sand which had covered them.” The other burial mound (C) (present designation NM0?14) marked (31), at the corner of the cultivated field of Mr.:I. S. Brey, is a low flat circular mound, 120’ in diameter and 9 high. A number of skeletons and much pottery have been taken from this mound also. Col. Cros- well states that “a skeleton was found extended at full length on the back, with the skull resting upon a stone weighing sixteen pounds. The stone is a smooth drift boulder of quartzite, having at one side, which lay upper- most, nearly a flat surface with an artificial depression in the centre. It resembled the old fashioned lapstone used by shoemakers. (Anvil?) Another singular form of burial discovered in this mound, was that of skeleton extended on the back, with the skull resting in a shallow dish, the side next the shoulders having been removed to accom- modate the head and neck, and keep the whole on a level. During the examination of the mound a hearth was ex- posed, covering a space of about 12’ square, in the immedi- ate vicinity of which, three vessels were discovered which had contained yellow and red paint.” The second mound (D) (present designation NMo13) marked (29) is circular in plan, 60’ in diameter and 7’ high. This was probably also a burial mound, but very little work has been done in excavating it. There are two small mounds (E, F) (present designa- tions NM016 and NMol1) marked (25 and 27) 3’ and 4 high respectively, and each 16’ in diameter. No excava- tions have been made in them.* The circular depressions are well marked at this settle- ment. They occur all over the settlement, with the excep- tion of an oval space near the large mound, as far as the cultivated field on the south side, in which all traces of the settlement are lost. A few depressions may be seen south of the corner of the field along the edge of the bluff, and 80 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis probably the southern limit of the settlement is not far from this place. The field extends south a quarter of a mile and beyond it, in the woods, some imperfectly defined depressions occur; but there is no trace of a wall ora ditch near, and it is not probable that these are connected with the settlement on the north side. The depressions have an average depth of 27” in the centre and a diameter of 30. There is no definite arrangement in the placing of these depressions, as may be seen in the plan. The square of baked clay occurs generally in the centre, but is often found on one side and at a depth of about 15”. The square is 32” by 27”, about 3” thick, and the upper surface is much more baked than the lower. It is stated by the farmers residing near, that in the ridges between the depressions “digging nearly always discloses human and animal bones, but no pottery.” A sink occurs on the east, side in the line of the wall and ditch, which may mark the place from which the earth was taken to build up the mounds. A growth of large timber covers the settlement at present (1878), and in- cludes such trees as sycamore, elm, maple and a few oaks. Some of these trees are 2’ to 3’6” in diameter and are to be found growing on the mounds or in the depressions. _ Potters’ plan (Plate II) and his description served as the point of departure for the present operations. First of all an attempt was made to identify all the features recorded in the early plan by evaluating the results of the intervening sixty years of erosion, pitting, and plowing of the site. In this connection a gulley shown on Potter’s map (Plate II) was used as one clue in the relocation of the site, although only an outline of this old gulley remains today (Plate III). IV. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES In order to facilitate the locations of excavations, grid syS- tems were established. In the south half of the village a giant east-west north-south grid system was set up. A 00 point (stake) was located at the intersection of an east-west line and a north-south line running midway between the wheat field and the western boundary fence. All test trenches were given individual grids but the zero point (stake) of each (located at the southeast comer) was tied in to the larger grid. Since the north half of the site was not excavated until several months later, a new grid was determined for this area. In this case the’ fence Separating the Steel and Matthews properties was Meer eS ee Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 81 used as the east-west cross line with the north-south base line extending north from the fence over the center of the mound NMol0. A nail head on the south root of a 24 inch elm in the fence row between the Matthews and Steel estates was used as a bench mark for relative elevation. Three different methods were employed in excavating the Matthews site: vertical slicing, horizontal stripping, and test ' trenching. The vertical slicing technique was particularly useful in ob- taining a cross section profile of the village in the gulley area and in excavating the burial mound. Horizontal stripping was resorted to in all areas where house sites were encountered. House sites were excavated by stripping down from the surface in six inch layers in order to disclose complete floor patterns. Moreover, the six inch level system was used for recording all miscellaneous material. Test trenching was used in excavating the large ceremonial mound and in ‘other areas where it was necessary to determine sterile depth or internal structure. Throughout the site, that technique was employed which might best reveal the exact posi- tion, location, and depth of all archaeological features and ob- jects. en V. RESULTS OF EXCAVATIONS Test Trenches A series of seven test squares (numbered T1 to T7 on Plates III and IV) were first dug along the north-south base line at the foot of the slope at the south end of the village. These trenches revealed quantities of miscellaneous flints, animal bones, burnt clay, and potsherds, all apparently in secondary position. A total of 116 vessels was indicated by the rim sherds alone. A second line of test pits (numbered T8 to T13) was dug near the margin of the wheat field. Results of these tests in the undisturbed portions of the village were as follows: flints were most abundant at the surface, diminishing to level 3. Bones were most abundant at level 3, diminishing to level 6. Burnt clay was most abundant at level 4, diminishing to level 6. Plain shell tempered ware was most abundant at the surface, diminish- ing to level 6. Decorated grit tempered ware was abundant at level 2 and 4, decreasing to level 6. Materials from T14 and T15, located on the slopes of the deep gulley, were listed. with the surface remains as of unknown origin. ; Test pits T16 to T35 were scattered about at various points in the northern section of the village. While these test trenches 82 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St, Louis were mainly for purposes of exploration, T16 was expanded to about thirty times its original size when indications of two house Sites were found. In this section sterile soib was reached at level 5. Shell tempered potsherds outnumbered grit tempered four to one, but both were found at the same depths. House Sites Evidences of 9 houses were uncovered in the south end of the village, and 10 in the north end, but portions of their floor Plans had been destroyed by gulley erosion. Complete plans, however, were obtained from excavations at T9 and T16 (House Sites F1) and excellent cross sections were found at T14 (House Sites F2, F3, and F4). The surface indications of the house sites, as recorded by Potter in 1878, were the circular depressions averaging about thirty feet in diameter and two feet in depth. By 1942 these de- pressions had been largely plowed over, but dark stains of ash and charcoal could still be seen on the plowed surface. Just below the plow line at a depth of about six inches the outline becomes more distinct and begins to assume a more nearly rectangular shape as the layers are stripped. Ata depth of about two feet the floor plan of the structure becomes apparent (sce Plates V-A, V-B, VI-A, and VI-B). A double row of small Ppostmolds form the wall outline. There is an interior circle of larger posts and a central fireplace. The only doorway faced seuth or west toward the old lakebed. Large refuse pits were found outside the structure but smaller Ones were inside. The walls were probably of wattle and daub, averaging about one foot thick, plastered between the two lines of small wall posts. The posts in each line were set about 5 or 6 inches apart. Cross beams were attached to the main uprights spaced about every foot vertically. Sometimes the wall posts were not set in trenches but Were evidently set up in a not too Straight line. Positive evidences of roof material were scarce, but it was likely thatched with a large smoke hole in the center. The excavation of T9, Fl was particularly fruitful. This house plan measured 22 by 18 feet with its long axis parallel to the ridge. Within this house there was a line of small posts, 2 : , Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. & place, indicating complete combustion of a considerable amount of material. Artifacts and pottery were abundant in T9, Fl; smal arrom points of both flint and bone, knives, spear points, drills, chisels, ‘There were bone awls, needles, flakers, and ornaments. In addition to the ordinary jars, bowls, bottles, plates, and pots, 2 j press” was found in place in the southeast corner. Other ob- jects of pottery including trowels, spindle whorls, dis we plugs, effigy vessels, and a pipe came from different places 35 the house site. Other house sites contained similar materials but their fireplaces were less elaborate. Y House sites in the north end of the village were similar structures, but at deeper levels they showed wall posts set into trenches which left definite dark stains in the yellowish clay. Numerous postmolds, both inside and outside the dwelling- prob- ably indicated interior furnishings, drying racks, etc. pol- ished greenstone spud was discovered near two large postmolds outside the southwest corner of T16, Fl. This might hav© been used in the dressing of hides and skins. In the low mounds NM°11 and NM°l6 evidences of BOUS® structures were found at several levels extending from only 4 few inches to as much as 5 feet below the surfaces (Plate 1X-B). Although the structure nearest the surface in NM°11 was partly disturbed by the plow, there was evidence that it —— destroyed by fire. The bones of a human skeleton, probably those of the occupant, were found just underneath the charred timbers at the northeast corner of the structure. At a depth of two feet there was a stratum of water-laid sand, and below this a series of overlapping house patterns, indicating a PC*' of village occupation prior to the building of the mound. inal ever, the pottery and artifacts did not suggest any component difference. A glance at Plate IV will show the concentration teas sites in the excavated area. Assuming that this was the des™©© of concentration over the entire village, and that all houses WOT" occupied at the same time, a rough estimate of the aborigin@ population can be determined. There were at least 10 houses visible in Plate IV in an area which is about 1/36 of the tot! area inside the village fortification, excluding the sink and pas monial areas; so there must have been at least 300 to 350 houses in the occupied area. If the number of persons occupying — dwelling averaged 5 and all the structures were inhabited simul- taneously, the total population of the village would have over 1500. 84 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis Ceremonial Mound The large mound NM010 on the bluff edge overlooking the lakebed proved to be the most unusual of all the sites excavated. The excavations of 1941-42 were confined largely to the south- west and northwest quarter of this mound, the remainder be- ing purposely left for later investigators. Cross trenches through the long and short diameters re- vealed the existence of an inner truncate quadrilateral mound 15 by 35 feet (Plate VII). At the top of this inner mound there was a central fireplace which was probably ceremonial in purpose (see Plate VIII). On the east and west sides of the base of this inner mound a trench or ditch had been dug and this trench had contained posts which could have formed either a palisade or the supports for some kind of structure over the mound. Swallow’ reported finding a similar structure inside the great mound of the Lilbourn group farther south along the same ridge in 1856. _ Gummy gray-blue clay was found on the west side and top of the inner mound, indicating that another building period followed the completion of the inner truncate structure. On the top of this clay, postmolds were found indicating the re- mains of a later structure. The final period in the mound’s con- struction raistd it to a height of at least 11 feet as it was found in 1878. At that time it had an elliptical contour 110 feet to the north and south by 70 feet to the east and west. Since 1878 the mound has been cut down more than 514 feet and the displaced earth has been spread down the slopes. A crevice 40 feet long was discovered extending along the west side in the gray clay. This might have been caused by: the New Madrid earthquake® of 1811 or perhaps some earlier tremor.” | Thirty-six artifacts were taken from this mound, consisting of arrow points, spear points, knives, drills, chipped celts, ham- mers, sharpeners, polishers, and one bone awl. Spear points were the most numerous class of objects. One of them re- - sembled, but was shorter than, the Scotts-Bluff; Yuma point. A large narrow chipped celt with one flat surface might have been an adz for gouging out log canoes. Both shell tempered and clay-grit tempered pottery were encountered in the fill with some 20 ceramic specimens. Most unusual of these were 7 small bi- conical objects of unknown use (see Plate XIX). Two pot- tery vessels were found intact on the northwest section of the mound near the remains of an intrusive burial which had been disturbed by the plow. One small cup or dipper in the shape of a Busycon Shell was found at the top of the inner mound } Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 85 south of the fireplace. This suggests the possibility of either a southern origin for the tribe or at least contact with the peo- ples of the Gulf Coast. On Potter’s map of 1878 the space in the center of the mounds was shown as being free from house pits. To check this, test trenches T17, T18 and T20 were dug between the mounds, While indications of village debris, sherds, flints, etc., were found to a depth of three levels, there were no signs of house outlines. It is believed, therefore, that this region con- stituted a special sacred ceremonial area or plaza, as has been commonly reported for mound groups farther down the Mis- sissippi Valley. Village Wall or Stockade The outer edge of the village was the final area investi- gated. The sink (see Plates II and III) was discernible as a feature of the topography. What appeared to be the remains of a breastwork was found below plow line in the form of a hard clay ridge averaging about 7 feet wide with a double row of postmolds on top (see Plate IX-A) indicating the former existence of a stockade. Outside the wall there had been a ditch or moat and the earth thrown up to form a ridge roughly 37% feet high. At the northeast corner the postmolds followed the gradual curve of the clay ridge (Plate X). At the edge of the sink all features of the wall stopped and then commenced again on the south side. This might have been a gap for a gate on the eastern side of the village. The evidence of a wall and palisade enclosing three sides of the village suggests the need of defense against hostile tribes. Burial Areas In the village site 4 small burial areas were found adjacent to the houses, 3 in the south end and one in the north. These appeared to be small family plots, as no more than 4 skeletons were found in any one plot. Burial NMv3-1 was between house sites F2 and F3 and consisted of the skull of a child found on the edge of the gulley bank at F14 at a depth of one foot. The rest of the skeleton had probably been washed away down the gulley. Near this skull was a small two-handled pot with lugs (P63). Another burial area (designated as F13), containing a single skeleton, was located outside of house sites F8 and F The single burial NMV3-6 was found at a depth of 1.5 feet and con- sisted of the semi-flexed skeleton of a young person, probably 86 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis female (see Plate XI-A). Lying on the skeleton were two clam shells, possibly used as spoons, and near the head was an in- verted bowl of plain, dark, polished shell tempered ware (P45). Near the head of the deep gulley there was uncovered a burial plot at F10 containing the bones of four skeletons (see Plates XI-B and V-C). These were all laid out at full length with the feet of NMV3-2 resting on the head of NMV3-5 directly beneath it. NMv3-2 was an adolescent male and NMV3-5 an adult female. At the head of the latter were a bowl (P16), a deer bone, a bottle (P17), and a pottery smoothing stone under the left ear. These burials were so close to the surface that the plow had struck and shattered the tops of the vessels. Just south of NMV3-5 lay another skeleton, NMV3-3, an adult female extended with the head to the east. At the back of the head was a water bottle (P15). Part of the left side of this skeleton had been lost, presumably by erosion. NMv3-4 was still nearer the edge of the gulley. The skull was missing and the burial was too badly destroyed to record. Another small burial plot was found outside the northwest corner of house Fl in T16. There had been two burials, one a male, the other a female. The male skeleton, which was badly disturbed, lay at a depth of 1.5 feet and had no associated ob- jects. The female was half a foot deeper and was accempanied by a bottle on one side of the head and a bowl, small cup, and notched shell spoon on the other side (see Plate XII-A). All the vessels were plain, shell tempered ware. The spoon was too friable to save. Burials were also found in two of the house mounds NM010 and NMOll. In NMol0, the ceremonial mound, the burials were intrusive bundles into the upper level of the northwest quarter. One burial showed nothing but scattered bones asso- ciated with two small shell tempered pots with handles. As noted before, in NM011 human remains, which were much dis- turbed, were found covered over by the charred remnants ef 4 dwelling just below the plow line. There was no apparent grave and the bones could be those of the occupant who might have perished in the collapse of the structure. The low four foot mound had been heaped over this dwelling, thus indicating, per- haps, some social rank for the deceased. In one of the lower level house patterns of NM0l] the bones of a tiny infant or foetus were found in a small pit of the floor. This might have indicated the practice of infanticide, as nothing but refuse was found in the pit. NMO012 was a true burial mound with dozens of burials laid Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 87 in tiers throughout the pile. According to the 1878 account, as many as 6 were piled on top of one another at the center. This site had been so thoroughly dug over that our work failed to discover a single undisturbed skeleton, although a couple of un- broken vessels, a bowl, and a pot, and a handful of other speci- mens were recovered. One of the disturbed skulls had evidence of occipital flattening, perhaps as an indication of social rank (see right hand figure in Plate XII-B). This was the only site which yielded true painted pottery, some sherds of a red and white design being discovered. A ware with a red slip was rarely encountered in,the village test pits. A summary of burial data for the Matthews Site is given in Table I. VI. DESCRIPTIONS OF SPECIMENS Artifact Analysis The 288 artifacts found at the Matthews site fall into 3 main categories—stone, flint, and bone, although evidences of the use of shell, galena, and cannel coal were also found. The stone artifacts are crude, heavy, unground specimens such as hammers, anvils, metates, mullers, and grooved sand- stones used as tool sharpeners. Ground stones comprise celts, puds, polishers, and discoidals (Plate XIII-B). 4 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis TABLE I PROVENIENCE OF BURIALS Site Number Location Description NMv3 NMv3 NMv3 NMv3 NMo10 NMo1i0 1 2 3 2 T14,F14 T15,F10 ‘Sq2 T15,F10 $q2 T15,F10 Sqi T15,F10 T15,F13 T16,Sq OR7 T16,Sq ORG $q50R5 Sq5560R5 Near house sites Fl and F3; crushed oe skull, other bones washed out; 1.0’ deep, small pot P63 near head. Young male head extended west; 0.6’ deep; on top of burial 5 with feet in bowl by head of 5. Adult female head extended east; 0.55’ deep ; water bottle P15 by right shoulder ; near burials 2 and 5. Near burial 3; 0.3’ deep; mostly washed away. Beneath burial 2; 1.0’ deep; adult fe- male, head extended east; bowl P16, bottle P17 by head, small smoothing stone under left ear. Near house site F8; 1.5’ deep; young female, semiflexed, head northeast ; bow! P45 overturned near head, 2 shell spoons. Near house site T16,F1; 2.0’ deep; adult female, head extended southwest; bowl P108, bottle P109, cup P110, and shell spoon. Near house site T16,F1; 1.5’ deep; adult male, extended southwest : badly dis- turbed. Upper level Sino mound intrusive ; 1.0’ deep; scattered bones disturbed by plow; small ‘howls P9 and P10. Upper level ceremonial mound intrusive ; 1.0’ deep; bundle, pile of bones skull on top; adult female. (Continued) Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 89 TABLE I (CONTINUED) Site Number Location Description NMoi1 1 SqOR2 Adult male (?), extended, very dis- turbed ; 1.3’ deep; debris of burned house in upper level; possible victim of vio- lence; no burial mound. NMo11 2 $Sq(-5R3) House floor F7; lower level site under mound; 3.5’ deep; infant, possibly foetus, in floor pit; No associations. NMoi2 2 Sq30L1 Adult male skull, disturbed; 1.5’ deep; in burial mound, flexed (?); potsherds. NMo12 2 §$q15L1 Disturbed burial, no skull; 0.5’ deep; in burial mound, flexed (?). NMe12 3 §q20R2 Disturbed burial, no skull; 1.0’ deep; in burial mound. 7 NMo12 4 $q15R3 Disturbed burial, adult male, head east ?); 2.5% deep; bowl P4, pot P5; in burial mound. ~ NMo2 Many burials with much pottery ex- cavated in this mound in 1878. NMot3 Probably a burial mound—not dug. sl a Large burial mound excavated in 1878. Source of much pottery. Chipped flint artifacts include 77 small arrow points, both triangular and notched-stem forms with fine chipping, some of which are serrated; 3 hoes and fragments of several more; 9 chisels; 14 celts; and several rechipped scrapers (Plate XIII-A). Bone artifacts comprise 9 awls, 4 of them made from deer ulnae; 17 antler tip flakers; projectile points; 3 needles, 4 cylin- ders; one large carbonized astragalus bone used as a polisher ; and a few cut bones used as ornaments; one piece of cannel coal showing use as a polisher, and a cube of galena which may have been used as an ornament. A small gastropod sea shell may have been an ornament, and clam shell spoons were found with several burials. (Plate XIII-A) , The largest celt measures 4.75 by 2.25 inches and was found at a depth of 1.3 feet in house F9. The smallest celt, found at a depth of 1.8 feet in house T16, Fl, measures 2.5 by 1.25 inches. Several chisel celts are of flint, evidently rechipped from broken 90 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St, Louis hoe blades. One large specimen, 7 by 2.25 inches, with one flat surface, may have been an adz. Two complete hoe blades with flaring bits were found in the bottom of house F2 at a depth of 2.8 feet. They were standing together with their cutting edges up and displayed a high polish as a result of their use for digging. The third hoe, which measures 9.5 by 4.5 inches, has a pointed bit and was found in the north end of the village. Cer- tain other chipped flint forms had apparently been made from older, concave base, side-notched forms and were used as chisels or scrapers. The technique indicated by the small triangular and notched stem points is the fine chipping of flakes or thin blades characteristic of the Middle Mississippi Phase. The flints range in color from white through shades of yel- low, brown, pink, red, gray, blue to black, but no obsidian and little translucent material was found. With the exception of one polished needle with an eye near the larger end, the bone artifacts are not distinctive. Two other needles were also dis- covered made from deer ulnae or slivers of leg bones. Antler tip flakers are numerous and there are a few straight tips with hollow bases, suggesting their use as projectile points. Part of a polished animal jaw, which may have been used as an orna- ment, was unearthed. Two or three aberrant forms were found. One, a spear point of gray-brown, finely chipped flint, resembles, but is shorter than, the Scotts-Bluff Yuma point. It came from the first level of NMO0l10 near the top of the mound. Another point of gray flint with concentric ring structure has the lozenge shape with expanding base which is more typical of the atlat] dart points of the Bluff Dwellers of the Ozarks. It was found at a depth of only 1.2 feet near the edge of a gulley. One large spear point of bluish flint speckled with gray has the characteristic outline of the Illinois Black Sand point. It was found less than one foot deep in a large house site in the Matthews village. These artifacts are suggestive of the activities of a primitive hunting, fishing, and farming people. Pottery Analysis Dr. James B. Griffin of the Ceramic Repository for the Eastern United States analyzed all of the ware types from the Matthews settlement. He found seven wares that were shell tempered and one ware that was clay tempered. Plain, undec- orated, shell tempered and clay-grit tempered potsherds out- numbered the decorated sherds two to one. Decorated sherds Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 91 showed a majority of cord-marked designs with a minority of incised, trailed, and punctate designs. Middle Mississippi Plain is the most common shell tempered ware in the site. This type is found in jars, bottles, effigy, bot- tles, effigy flange bowls, bowls, cups, and figurines (Plate XIV Nos. 1, 2, 4, 7, 12). Human effigy and conch shell effigies were also found. The ware is of medium thickness (5-10 mm.). The smaller jars have 2 to 4 loop or strap handles and several have lugs with vertical perforations. The ware has a rather coarse texture and the hardness varies from 2.5 to 3. Some of the jar sherds with outward flanging rims have incised rectilinear and curvilinear designs running around the shoulder area (Plate XV). This ware is more porous and softer than the Middle Mississippi Plain ware and has been named Matthews Incised. Many sherds from plates, effigy flange bowls, scalloped bowls, plain bowls, and bottles have a dark gray polish on the surface and have a hardness of around 3 (Plate XIV 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 14). This Bell Plain ware sometimes has trailed designs on the rim upper surfaces and bowl flanges (Plate XVI Nos. 10, 13,715), A few sherds are relatively thin and are red filmed. They are classed as St. Francis Red Filmed and appear to be only from bowls in the Matthews settlement. A few polychromed red and white sherds were found at burial mound NMo12, Many complete bottles of this St. Francis Red and White ware were excavated by the 1878 Academy Ex- pedition (4). A number of thick, poorly fired sherds of coarse texture were unearthed in the village. Their only form was that of a deep, straight-sided bowl with a hole in the bottom, popularly called “juice presses” (Plate XIV No. 3). Some of these were incised with curvilinear trailed designs near the base (upper middle photo Plate XV). Two or three thick, poorly fired sherds from large shallow bowls or “salt pans” were identified as Kimmswick Fabric Im- pressed Ware. While Middle Mississippi Plain ware was the most common, clay tempered ware was abundant. The latter ware had a hard- ness of about 3 and a surface marked with cord wrapped paddle impressions. This Korando Cord Marked ware was probably largely utilitarian, as it was not found with burials and was broken into smaller sherds than the shell tempered ware. Both the shell tempered and clay tempered wares were evenly dis- 92 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis tributed horizontally and vertically in the village. Moreover, there was no apparent stratification of shell tempered and Korando Marked wares. : Human, frog, bird, and animal forms were encountered in the effigies unearthed in the Matthews settlement (Plate XVI, Nos. 1-8 and Plate XVII). Most of these were of Mississippi Plain ware (except 6-8 of Plate XVI and 2 and 9 of Plate XVII). Plate XVIII-A shows restored burial pottery. Plate XVIII-B shows restored pottery from the village. Tall necked water bottles are absent from the village, indicating that this form had only a burial function. Moreover, it was the only form found with colored decorations. Plate XIX shows ‘miscellaneous pottery objects which were shell tempered with coarse shell particles. These objects included discs, spindle whorls, small mushroom shaped “ear plugs,” elbow pipes, and large bifurcated and conical-ended pottery trowels. Faunal Remains Deer bones are abundant in the village refuse pits. All parts of the animals from the antlers to the hooves were found. Most of the long bones of the fore and hind legs were split longitudinally, presumably to extract the marrow. The bones of carnivores were also common. One large canid jaw, probably of a wolf, and several smaller canid jaws of varieties of dog or fox were found. Large carnivores, such as bears, panthers and lynx, were not found in the excavated area. In house site F16 the bones of bison were plentiful but they were. not found elsewhere. few beaver jaws and incisor teeth were excavated, as well as remains of other rodents Such as squirrels and rabbits. Bird bones were common and included turkeys, ducks, geese, and herons. Some turtle and fish remains were found, Vegetal Remains Small-grained corn, acorns and hickory nuts, showing evi- dence of roasting, were found in refuse pits. Although no direct evidence was found of beans, gourds, and squashes, the squash shape of some of the bottles may be considered as indirect indi- cations of the latter. Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 93 VII. TRAIT ANALYSIS OF THE MATTHEWS SITE Table II contains a summary of the traits for the New Madrid Focus. This list is based on Potter’s summary of the 4 New Madrid County sites and one in Scott County together with the results of the recent excavations at the Matthews Site. Table III gives a comparative trait list for the New Madrid, Kincaid,® Gordon,!®° and NE-Ark!! foci, which are located in the same general geographic region. As can be seen, there is a high correlation of the traits of the 3 other foci with those of the Matthews Site. It seems justifiable to place them all in a common aspect. Since this aspect seems to center around the junctions of the great rivers of the Central Mississippi Valley, the term “Centroval” could be used for designating this aspect. Table IV. lists the major traits of the stone grave complex found east of the Mississippi in both the Kincaid and Gordon foci, but which seemed to be lacking west of the Mississippi in the New Madrid and NE-Ark foci. While these traits may be diagnostic for the establishment of East Centroval and West Centroval aspects, it seems preferable to await more data before setting up a new aspect. Study of the data of Tables II, III, and IV has resulted in a tentative assignment of the Matthews Site to the Mississippi Pattern, Middle Phase, undetermined aspect, New Madrid Focus. With the exception of cord marked, grit tempered pottery asso- ciated with the shell tempered wares, there is almost no evidence ofthe Woodland Pattern. Virtually all other diagnostic traits are recognized as belonging to the Mississippi Pattern, Middle Phase. A possible influence from the Upper Mississippi P hase is to be noted in the characteristic form of incised pottery decora- tion by trailing, broad-line incising, and punctating designs, and possibly in the discovery of perforated flat bone needles. With regard to the aspect the problem becomes more com- plicated, the configuration of the mounds, village, and er: ciated features is common all the way down the Mississippi Valley. Moreover, there are resemblances to the Plattin Focus sites in Jefferson County, Mo., the Kincaid site on the Ohio River near Metropolis, Ill., the Gordon-Fewkes site of the Ten- nessee-Cumberland Valleys, the King Mounds at Wickliffe, Ken- tucky on the Mississippi, and numerous sites in the lowlands of Eastern Arkansas as far as the Arkansas River. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis TABLE II TRAIT LIST FOR THE NEW MADRID FOCUS A. VILLAGE TRAITS a. Mounds and house pits surrounded by earthworks and ditch ; located on banks of ancient watercourse. - Open plaza near center surrounded by mounds—prob- ably for ceremonial use. c. One or more large ceremonial mounds often truncate. o B. HOUSE TRAITS Circular house pits about 30 feet in diameter. Depressed rectangular floor plan. Some walls set in trenches. - Wattle and daub wall construction between inner and outer row of small posts. Larger interior posts. Central fireplace. One house site with puddled clay fire- m. place with raised ri Doorway generally facing watercourse. me foe ig rh C. BURIAL TRAITS Burials in low rounded mounds. Burials in small plots of shallow pits outside houses. Flesh burials in extended or semi-flexed positions. Grave goods present with burials. af oP D. CERAMIC TRAITS of tw fe) 4 an rh 3 2, to shallow, curved or sloping sides, flat or rounded bot- toms, 4 or 6 points scalloped rims, plain or incised decoration, effigy flanges. oO ee) . 5 & 5 te} a. a & & w = 2 g * aq a. e ms lished ware, deep or shallow with wide flat rims and rounded or flat bot- toms, often incised with effigy flanges, pered unpolished pots, with and without handles, lugs, and flanges. Large utilitarian grit tempered vessels, bowls, jars, platters, and possibly “salt pans”: surfaces cord or fabric impressed. ; Large “juice press” jars finely shell tempered or clay- 0: grit ware; large orifice at One end and small one at opposite end ; smoothed but unpolished, undecorated or incised surface. mr oO ie) B fA o ° ed 3 ke 3, 2 o e. & Lae | v2) a 2 poe g oR (Continued) Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 95 OBB pro po a Sere a a he ad my POR Be Ror rE mo ao TaBLe II (ContTINUED) Spindle whorls made from perforated potsherds. Discs, unperforated. Trowels with rounded or bifurcated handles. Elbow pipes, plain and effigy forms. Small mushroom-shaped earplugs. Human and animal figurines. Pottery more abundant than artifacts. Unidentified biconical objects. E. ARTIFACT TRAITS Stone hammers, anvils, manos, metates, shallow mortars, pestles, tool- -sharpeners, and polishers ; crude, heavy and little-worked. Unpolished eee discoidals. Polished celts and spuds. Chipped celts or adz. Small finely-chipped isoceles triangular points. Small side-notched arrowpoints. Hoes; chipped flint, bell-shaped and pointed bit. Chisel celts; narrow chipped. Knives and scrapers re-chipped from older implements. Drills; straight and winged base types. Flake knives with chipped edges. Deer ulnae and tibiae awls. Split bone needles. Bone cylinders with blunt ends. Antler tip flakers. Antler tip — with hallowed out bases, possibly pro- jectile poin Polished aninial jaw ornament. Galena cube. Gastropod (sea) shell. Engraved Busycon shell ornaments. Cannel coal ornaments. Columella shell beads. F. MISCELLANEOUS TRAITS Large quantities of deer bones in refuse pits. Small-grained corn. Hickory nuts. Figurines show ceremonial head dress and hair orna- ments. Jaws of small dogs common in refuse. Charred acorns. Bison bones. 96 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis TABLE III COMPARATIVE TRAIT LIST* New Madrid Gordon Focus’ Kincaid Focus Ba his Traits Mat- Focus Wick- Focu thews, Kincaid, liffe, Pecan Pt. Mo. Ill. Ky. Ark I. VILLAGE DETERMINANTS a) Group of mounds, house pits earthwork sur- a by embank- b) Open. ae. probably ceremonial xc x 7 x c) One or more large cere- ged Ne often flat d) pe ented burial mounds — s ? gana 3 TOTALS + 3-1? 3Y%4-%4? 24-4? Il. HOUSE DETERMINANTS a) Circular ao Sepia dae) iamet x oases x? b) — d rectangular floo x x 0 c) Central ar x x x ? ) Large interior posts x x x . e) Puddled clay brcolece sed ri * ? x 5 f) Wattle aad daub wall &) Plaster between inner and outer row of small s ? ? ? h) Division of house in- = terior = ose ? x ? TOTALS 8 5-32. 5-22-10 1-7? III, BURIAL DETERMINANTS b) reece outside of houses x * ees 97 c) Extended in flesh x x x x d) Grave goods accompany- ing bur ials x? x >.< TOTALS 3-1? 4 3-1? Me eee (Continued) Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 97 TaBLe III (ConTINUED) New Madrid Gordon Focus Kincaid Focus NE-ARK Traits Mat- Focus Wick- ‘ocus thews, Kincaid, liffe, Pecan Pt. Mo. Ill. Ky. Ark. IV. CERMAMIC DETERMINANTS a) Coarse shell tempered ware x x x x b) ciates shell tempered r ps4 x? x c) Plain grit tempered ware x x =? ye ) Cord impressed grit. | tempered ware * x? a ? | °) Clay ge goh ware x x ? ? | {) Water bottl x * * « g) Juice press ‘ats x Pie eC ? h) Salt pans nd x? xz ? i) saree er head, flan, a x oe x k) Scalloped rim vessels x x x x? 1) Relief decorations x “7 x x m) Four-handled vessels x ? x t | n) Figurines x ? x x? 0) Trowels x. x x x | p) Spindle whorls x x x % Dis 7 x? x 3 r) Elbow pipes x xT x? x s) hudutoncabane) ear plugs x? ? x moras a ee ARTIFACT DETERMINANTS a) Small finely cae is sceles pepiasiie points x x x x? b) Small finely c Sipper : notched stem poin x x? x? x c) a opie P ipped hoes ‘- x? > 4 %! d) Chis celts, chipped x x x x e) Straight dri ills x x? x! : f) Antler projectile points x x? % : g) Blunt bone cylinders x ? < x h) Unpolished discoidals x x? x? x | i) Split bone needles % x? x1 E j) hg shell orna- : . = ve ; k) Canis coal ornament x ci ee ; 1) Galena coal ornament x i x! i 7 t m) Astragalus artifact «sx x? TOTALS <9 11-2? 13 8-5? *X means trait present; x? means trait probably present; trait unknown; 0 means trait absent. ? means ea se ee 98 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis TABLE IV MIDDLE MISSISSIPPI TRAITS FOUND ON EAST SIDE OF MISSISSIPPI VALLEY AND NOT ON WEST SIDE Oval ceremonial house. Rectangular fire bed. Polished black floors. Small fireplaces at corner of house. Circular dwelling houses. Banquettes—undetermined. Stone work on floors. Metates overlying ceremonial fireplaces. Stone daggers. . Stone spheres. . Barbed antler points. . Hour glass-shaped beads. . Stone cist burials (found on west side, north of Cape Girar- deau). DN SH OODNAMAWNE VIII. CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE While the question of exact chronology must await future data, perhaps a few words may be said about the relative posi- tion of the time of occupation of the site. Three lines of evi- dence indicate that the site was no longer occupied by the early part of the Eighteenth Century. In the first place, investigation of the site has so far re- vealed only one cultural component, although evidences of sev- eral periods of occupancy were found. Secondly, the site is entirely pre-historic, as no traces of any articles of white man’s manufacture, such as metals or glass beads, were excavated. Thirdly, the stump of the large sassafras tree which died about 30 years ago indicates a growth of about 200 years. _The question of possible occupancy by a tribe during 4 period from DeSoto’s discovery of the Mississippi River in 1541 to Marquette’s voyage down the River in 1673, or from the latter date to 1700 is worth considering. Maps of the Mississippi Valley constructed during the period from 1703 to 1765 show a good sized stream entering the river at about the location of the New Madrid bend, On such maps this Stream bears the name of the Chepoussa (with various spellings), or Sound River. In Hodge’s Handbook of American Indians (12) we find that “Chepoussa was a name applied by LaSalle to a band of Illinois , . . . probably connected with the Michigamea.” The Chepoussa was the southern-most mem- ber of the Illinois confederacy and was found by Marquette in | Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 99 a village near a lake bearing their name, which was later identi- fied as Big Lake in Northeastern. Arkansas. The Michigamea had been driven south from: their homes along the Illinois River by the Sauk and Foxes. Other villages occupied by them on the western side of the Mississippi south of St. Louis are shown on old maps of the period. About the end of the Seventeenth Century they were driven out of Southeast Missouri by the Quapaw or the Chickasaw and returned to Illinois to unite with the Kaskaskia Tribe. The possible identification of the Chepoussa River with Little River, on which the Matthews Site is located, is based on evidence obtained from studying the maps of the region pre- vious and subsequent to the great New Madrid Earthquake of 1811. Previous to 1811 a river, thought to be either Little River or St. John’s Bayou, is shown emptying directly into the Mis- sissippi near New Madrid. In the first map published in 1812, after the earthquake, Little River is shown as a part of the St. Francis River system, a clear case of stream piracy, probably caused by the depression of the natural low divides between the two rivers (6). The Michigamea were an Algonkian-speaking people who came down from the north. Their totemic animal was the crane, but the exact identification of their material cul- ture has not yet been made by an archaeologist. However, the possibilities of their having at one time occupied the Sikeston Ridge cannot be overlooked. The possibility of an earlier occupation by the Siouan-speak- ing Quapaw rests on still less secure foundations. The Quapaw are supposed to be one of the tribes encountered by DeSoto in 1541 after he crossed the great river in the vicinity of the Arkan- sas River. In 1673 the Quapaw were identified by Marquette with the Akansea who gave their name to the river. The Akan- sea are recorded as being builders of mounds, earthworks, and fortifications. Their village houses were long with domed roofs and contained several families. “The Akansea were active tillers of the soil, and also manufacturers of pottery, many of the finest specimens taken from the mounds in E. Arkansas in all probability having been made by this tribe.”13 The resemblance of this elaboate fine ware of Northeast Arkansas to that of Southeast Missouri has already been pointed out. We learn further that the Quapaw were related to the other Siouan tribes of the Missouri Valley, and that their traditions speak of their having come from the east, splitting into two divisions at the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. The Omaha were the people who went upstream and the Quapaw were those who went downstream. It is probable that in their southern journey 100 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis they passed through New Madrid County and may have had some part in the building of the ancient settlements of that sec- tion. Here again, as with the Michigamea, our meagre knowl- edge of the archeology of the Quapaw prohibits us from saying with certainty that they were the builders of the Matthews Village and earthworks. However, the lack of any sign of white man’s influence at this site makes us think an occupation by any historic tribe was unlikely. IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summing up all the evidence gathered by the excavations at the Matthews site, we seem to have the picture of a people primarily sedentary and agricultural in nature, but with hunting and fishing interests, settled on an important water course that allowed access to the Mississippi River. That they had developed a rather complex state of primitive society, possibly with a caste system and elaborate ideas of religion, we infer from the nature. and diversity of the mounds, the methods of burial, and the en-. closing of large number of house sites within a protecting em- bankment or palisade. The lack of manufactured articles have led the writers to conclude that this village was the home of an unidentified tribe of the prehistoric or possibly protohistoric period. Culturally it belongs to the Middle Mississippi Phase. The present tendency is to subdivide the Middle Mississippi into early and late stages. The New Madrid Focus belongs to a late stage of the Middle Mississippi. The village occupation probably dates somewhere between 400 and 800 years ago. However, the question of the exact chronology must await the deter- mination of the cutting date of the house posts and - timbers found in the burned dwellings. Specimens of charred posts from different parts of the site were carefully saved and treated with a solution of paraffin in gasoline to permit trans- portation to the Dendrochronological Laboratory of the Uni- versity of Chicago. _ In view of the present data the writers incline to the theory that these people were of southern origin, possibly intruders into a hostile country. But beyond this it is difficult to determine just who these people were and what finally became of them. Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 101 X. REFERENCES 1Robert —— Adams and Winslow M. had va Laer: cal Surface Survey @ ae’ adrid Ceunty, e Missouri a bade pa Vol. 8, No. 2 errors ss 2F. C. Cole and Thorne ie “rs pha Illinois, The Univer- sity of Chicago Press, 295 pp., 1937. 3Robert McCormick Adams, “Archaeological Investigations in Jefferson County, Missouri, 1939-40, ” Academy of Science of St. Louis, Transactions, Vol. XXX, No. 5, pp. 151-221, May, 1941. B. Potter and E. Evers, “Archaeological Remains in wag igen Missouri,” awe y of Science of St. Louis, Memoir, No. 1, 30 Salem, Mass., 1880. 5G. C. Swallow, “Report of Excavations in New Madrid County,” ia Museum, 8th Annual Report, pp. 16-28, Cambridge, Mass., 6M. L. Fuller, “The New Madrid Earthquake,” U. S. Geological waits Bulletin 494, Washington, D. C., 1912. W. J. nage “A Fossil Earthquake,” Bull. Geo. Soc. Am., Vol. 4, pp. 411-412, 1 8J B. Berry, 1% E. Wrench, and C. Chapman, “The Paecaneie of | an County,” The Missouri Archaeologist, Vol. 6, N une, ®Data for Kincaid Site from notes he Naps of the Department of Anthropology, University of oS too for the Wickliffe Site from notes in the possession of R. M. 11Clarence B. Moore, “Some Aboriginal Sites on the Mississippi aye!) ” Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Vol. XIV, 447, 1911. | 12F, W. Hodge, “Handbook of the pepe Indian,” Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 30, Vol. I, p. 244. 13F, W. Hodge, “Handbook of the Americ Indian,” Bureau of porn Ethnology, Bulletin 30, Vol. I p. 335. 102 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St, Louis jet aondoee ° O€dwardsvil % CAHOKIA routiy Fs rose é\, E.StLevis a ° OCentralia oxen to iy Betlevilie 0 = a 3K! Fairfield O vet HERRELL® [= AG ieee * & 4 0 (Sullivan r S SU Be oC Eas, es > we Soto “= Ste. GenevieveO Chester Potosi % : os: 0 ° Bonne Terre S a oarmington ~, So Perryville Fredricktown < agp Shia Goicondg KY. Cape Gingrdleaug 3S KINCAID Choffee go) ( mo. NLL, vey wee Paducah 9 ee la WICKLIFFE - = chic ston laytield o. * 1¥,.OSikeston : Dexter \, Ber Teer Tare > \ New INHOOR RIDE SYLILBOURN|"2"4 ~ A KY. oh OMaiden A . Hickmon | ___- NN. - — { TENN. TE Pigaetto AY LOCATION OF te ennett eee ae SITE ae ; ary? ry jf ville Paragevidg (4 Mo. of : IMPORTANT MIDDLE J Ast 42\ | MISSISSIPPI SITES| eee f ‘4 S . \ PE NF = 2510 2 32 ) St Frencisft. x Scolecf Miles sag. ILL. Rosiciare Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo: 103 s) late CG. Setiiemant A AK : i AN i 5% & Ss OO 30 e) OO te, oO O ‘ OY O O 9,0 O OQ O O O O @: O O perm 0 OO ss oa OR OO Gat . QC. O: xx Bt ator : ‘ ea ? 3 PE SPENT) GO : a Pe) 2 x +) o O Oo SIO EO Od E FRR OCI PO ‘@) O OEP Soe © aK ee SSO EAO CO Watt ESPOOLOCS O Pf a 2 2 nb Kd ( eYe) 6 O O- U6) © O O O O @ O Hi gia WAM ih ee a a ed 3 ae — ; Ess oF ef = OT = os Leeda =a) —(|m~, f SESE Ny a | S3S= ‘Sy =o Sones NM°Cl4 The gees ineticate tha elevation of the porn =3== obove Ssz= AN @ the water fava! ef eon Br mptin feat). ’ Pr ne oe " Probable Wan la z Oa ih, Troced. FBF. 3-24-41, PLATE Il Village Site NmV3 * 104 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St, Louis OS OF of of os 0 ‘a@bsen/ hada Q3LVAVIX3 SIUNILVAs & ‘eAwN 3LIS 39VTTIA wauv ATIND 40 GN3 HiNos -H- Sah NV1d NOILWI07 gi. Oo. S sayzues) 499, ° oo’ 249W ~s* TaN PALS "ee Mm i} Op] 4807} oR ™-ps00t, Bury a La. sees Mace cine 6s. ee — HOLPPAINAD YO beng PPEPAILIND aa PLATE IV 106 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis A. Choss-secrron THROUGH House Pit WEST ee Fireplace East Seole of Faet. —_-— - CircularSta oT Pee ve Discovered | Aveve oe ‘Hea £2) and 36. . Plow Ling. é . . 8 . ae e eee . i ae he . Bench eg ae SA x‘ / - i" or Pertition fi x ' : ‘ a \ ij - @e 1 ° . ok te \ | Probable ° \ Doorway Be WL. supporting Kher : \ . Fireplace oe | \ : ‘ j . } ‘ @-~_— SuprortingPosts ° / AS 3 Wattle reo Daub \ os ( ge 78g watt. BAtween Innes Pik 1 Ps of \ . : = mall Posts nS . e e e e Ste care el eae Burned/ Clay Fragment ; K . ie ats reat Wall. GRouN Se pe ge AN _— _ House site F 1. \ ° : : oman 15 Scale ect. G . Buriat Plot F oe} La, ° 2 3 4 s ‘Seale of Fact FOF. -OrtOe PLATE V A. Cross-Section Through House Pit B. Ground Plan of House Site T9, FI C. Burial Plot F F10 Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 107 PLATE VIA Circular Appearance of House Site Below Plow Line PLATE VI B Rectangular Floor Plan with Construction Features 108 Transactions cf the Academy of Science of St. Louts PLATE VII South Half Traverse Trench Showing Internal Structure of Ceremonial Mound Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 109 er 1878 Outline Burial #2 ° + peril py \, Da ay \ Auta eka Former WATER Course SS ae (West Lane) i ; / \ / Z 3 2 ~ a pi hae . 3 Composite SECTION oF MOUND _ 2 S ff ia eae ed Vila Hummus Pj Sandy Clay cs 2 ry BS Block 3o/'/ [ANE] Gray Clay 4 5 Ed igs Brown Sand ema 53] Dark Brow Jeng COO srexnn Sand C_] Yetiow Sand ¢ -f§ 20 Ed we #0 ae Horizontal Scale of Faet 1942 Outline rer 6 - st. LATE V Ground Plan and Composite Section of Ceremonial Mound NM°10 110 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St, Louis PLATE IX A Exposed Palisade with Sticks Indicating Postmolds TE IX B PLA Three Overlapping House Impressions in NM°11 Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 111 Fireplace - House - a _ Sires A cd as, % _— ve Grounp PLAN AT NorTHEAST _ eats Corner cf EMBANKMENT i if o 5 10 5 20 so ie ace if += 3 Scale of Faer i] ia. sd 4 : ‘Be $ " re | as 1942 “le SR Inside Oufside = Zé C47 £ Ground Surbece ZA eee nan oe TYPICAL Secrion OF Wace AND fied Scale of Fee? | a a = eat UE Aa Oi tabs U8F ha Fp gu detaassinwese: 40052: ae eet THEORETICAL RESTORATION OF WALL 2o 5 10 Sco/e of Feet, eBrF G- i942 ATE X Ground Plan, Section, and Theoretical Restoration of Wall and Ditch PLATE XI A— Burial Near e — ot. a PLATE x] 5 — Burial Plot F10 with Funeral Pottery Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 113 HONS PLATE XII A Burials Near House 116, F1 PLATE XIil Occipital Deformation of Skulls 114 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts 5 h g 7 SCALE OF INCHES PLATE XIII A Small Artifacts of Bone, Flint, and Shell LATE Xill B Pp Large Artifacts of Chipped and Ground Stone Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 115 JARS Og JUIce Press : 1 PLATES SS iS aig 8 18 : 19 20 JARS 5 Scale of Inches. a FBF. T- 10-1944. PLATE XIV Pottery Shapes 116 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis PLATE XV A Incised Decorations on Jars f 2909 Y902Q0 PP CO | sa a vba a : Oo oo oO oo VA SONG bo 0° oF ae INCISED * DESIGNS re Scale of Inches. PLA VB Incised Decorations on Jars Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 117 o *& tT Scale of Inches. L Animal Effigies and Trailed Designs on Plates 118 Transactions of the Academy of Sctence of St. Louis TE XVII EFFIGY WARE FEATURES —1. Seated Figure, " Animal Head, uman Head, 4. Human Face, 5. t8i> an Head, 6. Human Head, 7. Owl Head, 8. Frog Head, 9. Bird He Excavations in the Matthews Site, New Madrid County, Mo. 119 PLATE XVIII Restored Burial Pottery PLATE XVIII B Restored Village Pottery 120 Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louts Zo Dy 6 © i : 12 Fs ESS SPINDLE WHORLS “a 0 % If 1 Ve Scale of Inches PortTERY 8. TRowELs Scale of Inches quemamecenmanmeere ver PLATE XIX Miscellaneous Pottery Objects is he ‘Academy Library ¢ he Libtay ae ‘the Academy of Science of. st. Lone. 4 | ~~ soon after the founding of the Academy in 1856. By st E