THE 1G AMERICAN NATURALIST ciel AN ILLUSTRATED MAGAZINE OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME QULA EV, Mo. Bot. Garde., I90I. BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS The Atheneum Press 1900 INDEX. PAGE — in postcava of . I85 Abando Range, Volcanoes of . 1 » Actinaria, Synopsis o ican m Afri s and secret ‘societies a ; Agriculture, Practic al. . 906 Aleurodidz . 825 Algae, Alternation of generations. 073 ——— and fungus in lichen Allen, de A. Mammals di New Yor XN rth A merican jumping mice : 199 Alternation of — - 16 in 678 Amblysto 552 Amia, fusti of oF Amoeba, Reproduction of . . 441 Sporulati es a £1 Andrews, E. A. rogeny 982 Davenport’s Zoólogy . 981 Physics of cell life 54 Protoplasm of the salmon 2 Protoplasmic streamings . : fee : ——— Sporulation in Amce 332 a actum in the mammalian e —— The ; | 322 e-frog . Animal adi plant : 780 oe Alternate _ generations in " 7b 53s 145, 3, 4335 Asis orga A&ihropdié fica Notes Ants of Texas Anura, Breeding and development Appointments Aqu. Fresh-wate CT ae Arac à (Kenenia) i in Texas . 837 Pers deep a fau 44 mari - 443 Arizona, Fanin zones. in 284 Arrowheads . 431 Ascidians of Bremer Expedition . 765 ——— Nervous and glandular tissue AMan Attaphila . 83, 244, 536, 613, 6835, 823 iii pitt Fauna 25 ishes 438 dict us, Life history of 165 Axolotl, Remarkable 551 BAKER, F. C. A new museum » 27 nopsis. of scorpions, «4 Be jafo, Marine biolo ogy a 339 Beecher, C. E. Zittell’s iade i of paleontology . 680 Bees o 487 Bilon, R. T. Study of heredity among the de 146 Biology, Advance of, in n 1897 489 Birds, Arctic . 417 —— of Californi 440 —— Dental Hawes of . 677 —— and Dinosaurs aayy of tion . 602 Blattid, N . 856 Blind Védebrutón . 524 Bones, A gemen of collecti ctions 9s Botanical Notes, 7 " 241, 449; 6c8, 680 767, 828, 907, 989 — Briefer courses in . Experimental . . : B08 — Terkbook of . . S 828 CALIFORNIA, Birds 440 Ca ES Phenols ear: observations - 445 Consi Intracellular, i in ganglion cells . 762 Cancroid crabs of North America 1 31 piem Gall of the Mon- : . 801 rey p Capitietes p sinusoids . Se rr Caprifoliaceze and insects 3 baron W. E. Studies on Tira , . 600 Cat, pea ‘glands ` 233 —— Postcaval abnormalities i in . 185 Catometopous cra : 583 Cell, Wilson's Work on n 761 —— Division. . . . . Cell, T Pg in s nen Assets AIE ET , Phys 54 Cephalopods, Foss in the Timan 830 arboniferous 831 haute Ed re 533 Ceylon, Flora 447 Chirostoma - 523 Dd in Anodon I54 Clem p p.15 Minheiot plant life. Cockerell, T. D. AS The aide did . 82 —— The cactus bees 487 — — er Seem middle Sonorian . 284 Collins, T. S. iren of gen- erations 7 Colors of erf m and pla 759 H. A flagellate ita 255 Crawley, Crayfish, phe er enirn of. . 82 Cretaceous p . 608 Cutting eR ond with . 851 Cycads, Fossil 609, 610 Cyclometopa of North America . 1 31 DAPHNIA, Variation in . 879 Davenport, C. B. PEOR of biology i pu oa pa —— Biology of crystals 97 — Vari: in Pecten 863 —— Variation of Statoblasts of Pec m Deaf, Marri Deaths arriages 146 84, ssh 532, 61 3, or 838 Didelphis Ei. (M8 Dinoce rata, Limbs ot. 8 Dinosaurs and bird | 3229 Distomum (n. eg in American frogs . r1 Distribution of animals dn Aus- BW oe ose oo: L Dog, Deme of. 2... . . 598 Duncker, G. Variation in Palæ- monetes. . . «. soya: Ut Duodenal glands in cat . 233 EAR bone ; i od Easter iad. ; Eastman, C. R. Karpinsky’ s -—-. Helicoprion . - 579 Eaton, E. si Zoölogy of the Horn Expeditio 2i 35 Echinoderms, New text-book on . 675 Eci : - 563 Ede stida: : ie ere NNI Editorial comment . km a co nia MR Egg of mammals . 320 Eigenmann, ae and Shafer, 6. H., D. Cones i = the retina of fishes 109 Elbe, Plankton of . . . = FEE oed ology, | — - 913 M. Variations in "Daphnia. inis. . 879 Enteropne ESSA E Excretion in Mods See a a re: vp petrography i v TOO ite s of Cru RU LIA of fis ^et (V GU O —— of Polyphenidse Ms e FERMENTAT 679 Fishes of pom - 438 Compensatory movements in 669 —— Deep-sea - 663, 910 — Sr 612, 876 —— of Hawaii x - 666 of Mexico PIE r, of North America (er sa SaR -—— Noteson. . 668, 897 ——— Psychology of $5. 278 ——— of Puerto Rico vU SO tide-pool . 233 = Of Woods Hol . . . ... 523 lancer COMME =- oo 33I rmaldehyde b xcd rw i TES France, korg of. uu c D E PR —— E. oe eee OUS rogs, Tibe cu FPE Pos and Wigs n yore : 245 ALLS on pin . Sot Ganglion peg Intracellular canals . 762 Gar rdening, Dictionary of - 905 oum , Ao. 2 perc s New World 231 nital organs of Zaitha . 1I9 Geological Phetoiens, Interpreta- of Graft ed Tissue, Regeneration in in . 155 Grafting Hydra A 239 eduse . 155 pupz of moths 230 Grapsoid crabs 83 S Growth and food supply i in n starfish 17 Growth, Effects of hea - 94 HAesn. Caudal heart of | 666 0! 437 Hargitt, C. W. Natural history of Pennaria i Hawaiian fishes Heart, Cundal of hagfish Heat, Accelerating a of, on growt wth Helicoprio Helotiopisia of Cypridopsis ^ Heliozoón, Flagellate . . WEN Hemiptera, — organs of . . NE Henshaw, S. recent book o insects es : A INDEX. y PAGE Henshaw, S. 2 Jersey insects . e: eredity among dea: n 146 Heterocotylea, Synopsis of . (o ocyst of j well eR eg e of . 267 P n, W. Intestine of Amia : 717 Hirudinca $ . 600 Hoffm R. n-Thompso on's trail of the sandhill stag . - 319 Lanier's “ Bob” < MEO —— Lang's our native birds E cr Aclo oi ** Oisea . ^23 002 Hopi India a S Horn pedian, Zoslogs eos Horticulture, pe hovel core s 335 767 Hrdlicka, A. angement of c lections of osten : t Woodroffe’ agement and diseases of the dog 598 Hydra gr 237 Hydroid, New 9239 INDIAN knive ES KA Infusoria, Breedin ng o ~ 328 —— Reaction of, to disk. . 259 of Switz erland x Innate ideas, Probie of . . 822 Insects and Caprifoliaceze 37 - of New m . 673 Ages = 641 Instin 817 intestina, Histology of 527 Intestine of ey 717 61 n fruiting «3 Irish, H. e sy Pared practical ag- cultur —— Phenokorionl observations in COA Lnu y us - 445 Isopoda, Synopsis of . i 207, 295 Jackson, R. z ENS later extinct flor: gi F. A. Jr. Experimental Yos —— Geology of Yellowstone Park 7 — Maryland Geological Survey 73 ~— Maryland Weather Service — eden volcanoes of the roká Range |; — o. . 1$ Jar for borko :97 Jennings, HS. Reaction of tafa- soria to chemicals Johnston, J. B. A sealing. stone jar for rope laboratories . 971 Jordan, D. S. Blatchley's ec i Bena 149 f hagfish AUTER "€ on the lateral line of toadfish . kani » Jordan, D. d Eggs of hagfish . . 437 Garman's deep-sea fishes . . 663 —— Greeley’ s tide-pool a ae —— Labroid fishes of Hawaii. . 666 —— Lungless Gannia. : 437 —— Notes on fishes, 68, 69, 70, 897 D Meg ic ét of the Philippines 436 s fis eqs of the Thet e editi : 43 —— Whitefish of Lake Chapala 083 ——- Woodward on Scapanorhyn- s from Puerto and Pes det Rico . 150 Fishes Kocuri, C. etm of middle ocellus of insects Eeunik . 837 Kofoid, C. DA, ` Abyssal Rhizo- poda — Effect of staleness of sex-cells developm —— rth in the Rhizopod s shell - -329 —— Plankisn of the Elbe 761 — ptio studies bs — s Infusoria 329 LAKE 315 Lamprey, nésting habits of . 617 Lateral line of toadfish . 235 Leech, A n 524 Leeches, Studie 600 Lepidosiren, Development of 670 Leucosoid crabs 503 TEREN Fungus and al alga in 245 Lillie, F. = Regeneration and regulati nin Planarians . . . 173 Linneus, Fishes of . 69 urg . 487 Lovell, J. H Insects and Capri foliac E api img "Double . à 200f Lycodes jaa xw r Marorp Crabs. . 503 Mammalian egg . 320 ammalian embryology 913 Mammalia, Origin of S. e Mammals of New York . 316 Prince Edward Island . 483 Man, Antiquity o of ; 145 ma UMS 521 V Varlatiogs i in crania 737 Mark, E. L. Godelewski’s multi- plication of nuclei VEM | Maryland Mes nen Survey 773 —— Weather V. 978 Masks, African - 973 vi INDEX. PAGE quas Postcaval abnormalities 18 McNiel 5 a Variation ` in ‘venation of eras. ropis Mead, i Growth and food supp in starfish . Mee E. Jo rdan and Ever- : . 76 A shes . A Melophagus ovinus . «327 sch, P. C. Life ` his tory of pte de and alternation of gen- eration in annelids I Willey o on Enter- Me ishes of à : 66; Mice, North American jumping - 199 Microbdella - $24 Micro-organisms and fermentation 679 Microthelyphonida . 837 Minnesota plant life . 238 Minot, C. S. Study of mammalian mca ryology rcd as Mollusca, Circulation in . . . . 154 —— Excretion in . -151 Mou of the Bremer Expe- ditio T Monterey pine, Gall of Mont ntgomery, X Genital organs I 119 Murbach, L. Fresh-water Aquaria 203 Muscle, Nuclei ò . 671 ‘Musi W ae Ce CR uc | Myrmicophaga . 575 Myrmicophile, New 851 Myxine, Eggs of . 437 NECTURUS, Position of sacrum in 635 Needham, J. G. Fruiting of Iris . - Nematode in panther . . i Nephelinesyenites . . . . . .4 5 i ereis, Sense organs of « dB Neurone theory 64, 4 i ew England, Local floras A à New Jersey, Insects. | E Sia New Mexico, Faunal zones in i News 8$ 24 520 613, 683, s New v uk. Mammals of . . 316 Niagara, Age of . - 145 Nickerson, W: S ‘Distomum in ican frogs d s . 811 —— Double Loxosome . . . Norman, W. W. n Marcos sal- amander, Typhlomolge . poc orth Dakota, Axolotl from - 551 Norton, J. B. S. Classification of odor. . . —— Nuclear phenomena in Ustila- gum... 1 Nuclei, Multiplication of, in muscle 671 —— of Ustilaginee . . . . . 448 OCCIPITAL condyles 943 Ocelli of hexapods Row. T Odors, Classification of SH nee GET Oócapt («833 Opilionidæ, Distribution ob: 3 597 Ortm . E. c deepsea fau : c marine animals - 443 - see toe tion of Opilionidae 7 we of the P 594 Osborn, H. limbs of quadrupeds in i adapta- tion to weight ——— Evidence for a common dino- saur-avian stem in the Per- mian . 977 —— Glacial pot hole. near ` Cats- kill, N. Y. E ea —— Origin of the mammalia - 943 —— Vertebrz of reptile Osborn, H. L. Rem arkable axolotl from North Dak 51 Ossicula auditus. . . . $26 Otocyst of heteropods . 526 Ovogenesis in tunicates . 441 PACIFIC, Zoógeography of . 594 Paleontology, Text-book of . . 681 alpi b. . 837 Parker, G. \ mitotic followed by mitotic division . . . -— pull Tunicata 3 — A new hydroi vine ag —-— Animal and plan t colors . . 789 pug oe Lecce of r rhyth- cm contractions . 150 — Barker’ s nerv Sous system 61 —— Capillaries and sinusoids . . 527 ——— Compensatory movements in fishes —— Development of Lepidosiren ipe nas nes —— Elementary physiology ^ i —— Formaldehyde 763 Grafting and regeneration in — romedusz : sis Beart of Abdo. (C M — Lake . 31 —— Locomotion of Solenomya - 525 Mating instinct in moths . . 674 t - 526 tocyst of h . —— Pupa grafting in moths 2 — na peel n grafted tissue 155 — eration in Reissner’s |^. 328 INDEX. PAGE oye G. H. Sense orpine of —— “Skalen of Vulpes macrotis . ae ——— ese of es black bass — Syno rth American Ac owt 747 —— The neurone the eory i the recent aaiae. 457 light of —— Vertebrate anatom Villi of intestine . . . j dam —— “ Wilson's Cell " 761 —— Woods Holl Lectures for 1898 56 —— Woods Holl Lectures for s 759 Peabody, C. n masks secret societies 3 Pea rl, R. Recent work on 1 electra taxis : 97 Peckham, G. W. and E. G. " Instinct . 81 Fitis , Variatio . 863 Pectinella, Visio of statoblasts Pe cipok Synopsis of. . 421 Peirce, G. J. Relations of f fungus cars --— in lichens . 2 Pelomyxa Qo. Woe C. B38 Peneus . . : 387 Penhallow, D. P. Bel zung 's botan- i atomy and physiolo, . 828 —— Co Loa "s 8o Cretaceous plants 608 sil cycad: . 609 —— Fossil rod from Franz Jo- se d ——— Matonia ; I Medullosa xv ŝi cim Natural history ol ue 387 trogra drip NOS . ... 401, 455 Petrography of Essex Co., Mass. . 453 ental . Petromyzon, dM habits of . D 617 hili es of . . 436 ppines, Vertebra Pig, Development deu eu |. 513 Pine, Galls o < . B0 Planarians, Regenbenibt d bic. Plankton of the Elbe . . . . . 761 Porich Lateral line of 235 Pot hole near Cats ill, N. Y. 33 ratt, H. S. Synopsis of monoge- netic trem atodes . 645 Prince Edward Island, Mammals of. zu . 248 Proboscidia, limbe . 4... 89 Projapyx ; x . B0 Protoplasmic streamings . - 434 ta eames Structure of. . .. 32 Protéscan studi . 9. se Psychology 2 ae... 27 o Rico, Fishes of . . . . 150 Dan Bod s : . 9435 | RABBIT, cage in . 039 Races of m 521 Rathbun, M. Fi Cancroid crabs of North Am 131 ——— Synopsis of of catometopous or grapsoid crabs - 583 —— Synopsis of oxystomatous and oxyr vs supa crabs . 503 Reason or instinc . 817 Regeneration in grafted ti tissue . . 185 in use . » 166 in RM s (y n cn Linnean genera Myrmicophaga and PE e Reissner’s fibre . . 316 Re het Vaubheu. v t ys i dogfish d xai. MES Rev pedem s Fauna de France 602, 902 pens s Darwin and Dar- : 979 fees s, E. Á. Breeding Info- t soria 28 Atherton’s sense organs of Atkinson's lessons in botany » 905 een s oe of horticul- * i5 Balfour on the musical bow . 429 Ballowi ytomous nerve fibres Bancroft on tunicates . . . 7 Barker's nervous ^ stem,. . 61 Barnes, Outlines of plant life. 905 Bauer’s experimental —— br dens botanical peter eg i and physiology. . . . . 828 on intestinal villi 527 Bethe’s intracellular of n cells > + 962 Biologic ulletin . 826 Bachiey qur from. na- ture Bütschli on inicrostructure of | Carlgren on _electrotanis : : . 979 Clapp's lateral lines of m- toadfi A Clem ents aad Cutler's ae ool botany . . 989 of the Teca rwegian Polar Expe- diti + 417 Cowribulicnk from th the U. S. National He ox ia Cooke on Easter Island | oj Rd Vill Reviews: INDEX. PAGE Cossmann’s KEINE A tele- olo 2 Coulter’s plant stu ; 905 Cox's elementary ir 763 Kien s our imd friends and 326 Crampton s pupa grafti ing . «236 not’s — in oo 151 Ciclope of America A PRI E e : Dana's wild pi dus E BO Davenport’ s zodlogy . . 981 — s vibe physiology of the crayfish . 821 Delage on merogeny. . . . 982 Deniker’s races of man. . . 521 Drew, Locomotion of Soleno- Bm |. a4 so o nca E Eigenmann on blind verte- rates 24 Evermann and Marsh on | fishes of Pu * I Fay’s marriages of the deaf . 146 Fischer's tree toad s 320 Were on the mammalian . 320 Fraser s life of Cop . 819 Frobenius on African masks and secret ties Fur-seal investigations . ike DE Garman’s deep-se 663 Garrey's effects of ions on fla- g e Infusoria 9 25 Geology of the Vellowatotie National Park . : 270 Godelewski on multiplication of nuclei in muscle UI Gogorza's vertebrates of the Philippine: 2x AJO Graf's gaged studies . . 600 Greeley on tide-pool fishes . 233 Orens on caudal heart of me fishes —— Lateral line of toadfish . 235 seam s mitosis following rends s qoibns volcanoes of the Absaroka Range . 156 Hargitt's Specie studies on Hydromedusæ . 155 Harper’s cell-division in | Hpo- gia and Asci artme’ the Bremer Hedley's zoógeograph scheme for the Mid- Pacific 594 Reviews : PAGE He saab MN protoplasmic stream Hill’s management ‘and dis- eases e TT His's protoplasm studies . . V Hoche's neurone theo ve | : MÀ we of man in 14 Holzapfel’ s AT us of the Tim 8 Ilyin on n ofocysts of heteropods 526 James's practical agriculture . 906 Jenkins' s labroid fishes of Ha- 0 waii. jones E s eggs of ha fish gus - 437 Jor vermann’s fishes 764 at re ‘Shyder on fishes of ic Jorgensen’s micro-organisms and fermentation 9 procu e on Edestidz and - 579 kde e Knive trees 123/988 Kennedy's beasts 314 pes Development of Lepido- 670 King's s irrigation and | drainage 446 26 rtebrate koaia e une BO Kofoid on Platydorina . . . 331 Kólliker's reminiscences . . 232 Korschelt and Heider's Sum ogy 324 Langdon’ s sense organs of . 328 Lange s Jour native birds : ae Lankester's treatise on zóol- 6 Lanier’ s“ : Bob,” ” our mocking- L'Année Biologique for 1897 489 Loeb's artificial rhythmic muscle contractions 150 Loman's distribution of Opili- onidæ ppi on Catifornia water- bir poate k on | solpugids . .67 3 — magen salaman- der ka on compensatory. move- ents in MacDougall’ s pati and work of plants . 60 Mackay’ s phenological investi- gations — s "Minnesota plant > 4 Un Maryland geological survey : n3 weather service 4209 Reviews: INDEX. PAGE Mason on Indian kniv >. + 431 Mayer’s genis instinct in moths .... . McIntosh's resources of the sea Meunier's hen eter geol- Metcalf on nervous and gland- ular tissue in ascidians . 7266 Miller's (W. S.) c contributions from the anatomical labor € o e University of Millers. (o S) mammals of "3 Miltz, "yeso "n Polyphem mida . : Minot o — and sin soids à Moore on “Microbdella . Morgan's ds acidi can in ut ratted tissue 258 Morris’s man and his ancestor 593 Murbach’s Der from Woods H oll I Nadiallac's unity of human species 313 Nathorst's pud plants from Franz Jos Land . 610 Neuville on "formaldehyde 763 Newbegin’s color in nature . 759 Newberry’ s pd extinct floras of North Am 79 Nicholson’s dictionary ME gardening . 905 Parker's practical zoólogy . 436 Payne's orld . 231 pena zede in rhizopod e 29 Penard's Rhizopoda of Lake (C. 001 8 s 20 Pittard on — crania from the i 76 e Valley . Prantl’s Fokk ; Pratt's anatomy of sheep tick 327 Prow azek's protozoan studies 824 . dst. yg e rt U. S. Natonal Museum 1597 crinis Physics of cell life e Rotham experiments Ro we rhea Infusori ind Sargent on Reissner's fibre 316 Sauvageau on Cutleriacea and alternation of generations . 678 CR on Arctic fau Review Schove, Plankton of the Scott’s PAUTAS anglica ire Sewa Ada coal measure plants . atonia Shula skeleton of the black bas — osteology of. Vulpes Smith's Siew pines insects Smithsonian report for 1897 . Smitt on Lycodes — on measurements of human ske Stöhr o on n duodenal glands . Thompson’s non trail of the sandhill Towle, "Heliotropiem of Cypri- apsis Trimen’s fora of Ceylon ex cells on development "pet problem of innate Waite's fishes of “the Thetis Expedition... i... « « Ward’s cretaceous phus > fossil Marine E . Garman's ; deep- Ward, H. B sea fishes Washington’ s rocks ‘of Essex Co., Mass Wieland’s f fossil c cyc cads. . Wille - » circulation in Ano- don Willey’s s Enteropneusta. , Wilson on prehistoric arrow- points, spear heads, and eed » s Cell Woods Holl lectures for 1898 Woods Holl — and = W rd on Scapanorhyn- Mitsukurin ra 60 81 80 81 - 673 31I - 439 2 . . 233 . 826 4 . 608 IO * 453 . 609 . 761 56 759 chus and 34 Zittel’s text-book a "paleon: tology . . 681 Rhi lige, New —— shell, pues ot. Rhizopoda, A — as ek fran us p en H Synopsis of N. A. 207, Iso Ritter, wW. E. California water birds . 440 295 Ritter, W. E. Monascidians of the Bremer Expedition pou dos us ae glandular tissue -— Dvorem i in tunica Roberts, H. Cell pran AA in Sporangia and Asci Robinson, B. L. Con ributions um of-Essex-C o., M Russell, man a NE atural history of the easel Report of the U. S. National Mus Report of ‘commissioner of educ ; 4 —— ae ry E wes variation ; SALAMANDER, San Marcos . RCM Lungles . . N U Sampso nusual modes of breeding, and ubica among A . 68 Sandalodus 5 — F. fs ‘King’ s irrigation d dra ng m xn and Trembly's S €x- botany dd F. - Deniker’s races of INDEX. PAGE imental . 605 Scorpions, Synopsis of . 421 Sea, a of . 601 Sella tu 434 Sense cells ‘of annelids 71 ense organs of Nereis £328 Sheep tick. . . 327 Shufeldt, R. W. On ithological results of Nansen's — ear? sup ae of fis 75 Simonds, ‘prs ‘ um nterpretaion of unusu geological records rianda [5 recent ex- - 495 Tue ar and capillaries . 527 Si . - 552 Slonaker, J Ae Abnormality in circulation of rabbi (b Smith, vid Position of sacrum in Nectu Smith, T T Holzapfel fossil cephalopo . 830 Tzwetaew "s fossil cephalopods 831 Solenomya, locomotio x ie ido ee a iv of 673 —— Syn of d sca TT Sonoran zones . 284 Species bspecies : 523 ec gravity of animals =» 9% Sporo. : . 899 Feia R in Amæba 232 aue sex cells and development Starfish, Growth and food d supply Statoblasts, variation in Syen - 453 Synopses of North American inver- tebra VIL Cancroid CTADS. s 131 VIII. Isopoda 2 o7, 295 IX. Scorpions,- solpugids, and Pedipalpi «aoe X. Oxyrhynchous and oxysto- ra XI. Catometopous or grapsoid XII. Monogenetie trematodes s. 645 XIII. Actinaria : 747 TABLET for museums . nars Teleology, Empirical : . 822 P nitas ogical | eue ‘ £8 9I Tertiary volcanoes of the Absaroka I Range 56 Texan ants . 503 Tex as, Singular angi in. 837 Tide pool fishes 233 Tilefish, Reappearance of 68 To poe) Lateral line of . c 235 Tree « 322 Trelease, W. Büefer courses in bot - 9o — Clements 'and Cut al 989 ia of Sana arg z 5 707 de owers : — — Keeler’s T": native trees —— Nicholson’s dictionary of garden - 905 —— Trimen’s ba of Ceylon : 447 Trematodes in frogs poH ——— Synopsis of vc iar MEE Trimerotropis, Variatio Tee = H. kinson's * a any ” . 607 ae yak Lehrbuch . 606 'Tunicates, Ovogen . 441 Vascular ampll a 71 Typhlomolge ; 179 Unity of human species ; 473 Ustilaginez, Nuclear phenomenai in 448 VAMPYRELLA 256 Variation in Da hnia 879 in circulation of rabbit . 639 —— in human cra 737 —— in Necturus . 635 ——— palaemonetes . 621 —— in Pecten . 863 —— in trimerotropis 471 — in pipe bets of Pectinella 959 INDEX. xi PAGE Venation in Her vii eee yh! Vertebrze of reptiles cU T T ey — aco. 58 ind . A 0 DIE of P Phili ippines . 436 villi of intestine . 527 Volcanoes, Tertiary of the Absa- roka Range 156 WALTON, L.B. Basal mem of iR g 267 ah on B. Excretion in Mol- » il . 910 fo Garman’ s ; deep-sea fishes . — ote on cestode nomen ncla- |o 333 D—— jose tion of Am ceba . . 441 —— Theirreich Sporoz P o 899 MER Habits of ree te SIT Whee ses A singular arachnid is Tet $024. 1997 myrmicophile P. OU E. Tera ecitons . - 563 Williams, S. R. Specific gravity PAGE of fresh-water animals in relation to weird and Pags Foreiqur 95 Wilso species of Pelo- myxa t : < 995 — Marine biology at Beaufort . 339 Wolcott, R. H. Sheep tick 327 YELLOWSTONE Park, Geology of . 116 — R Cossman’s tele- log Y. 22 — Dearborn’ s psychology of the ayfish . 821 c Helent ropism of cypridopsis . 603 Wagner’s innate ideas . 822 Young, R.T. Mammals of Prince Edward Island . . . . 483 Youn T. and Cole g [Ly Nesting habits of brook lamprey 617 ZAITHA, Genital organs of . . . IIQ s Ue NUR ada Q0 6 MM Zoólogical notes, 72, 156, 238, 322, 443, 527, 604, 676, 766, 827, 903, 986 Zoology of the Horn Expedition . 25 $ VOL. XXXIV, No. 397” JANUARY, 1900 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS MT I. EE Ii and Hypapophyses in the Cervical Region of Mosa- , Lizards, and Sphenodon . HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN a wae t and Preservation of tijo Collections of Human Bones for Purposes of Investigation : ALES HRDLICKA III. ‘On the Correlation between Growth and Food ftii in Starfish A. H © D. MEAD The Zoólogy of the Horn Expedition . : i 75. D. H EATON A Glacial Pot-Hole in the Hudson River Shales near Catskill, N.Y. —— HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN The Visitors of the abe cea : Lae ee eive H. uices Bd 44 | idis g gs ny: The Last C Bailey’s dni A. Notes — Paleo ntology: Th us Floras of North America, Coal Maa P Bret Medullosa anglica | ; BOSTON, U.S.A. Der ee EE GINN & comraon PUBLISHERS — F The American Naturalist ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York. E. A. ANDREWS, Pu.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, Pu.D., Colby University, diii: CHARLES E. BEECHER, Pu.D., Yale University, New Hav DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland e. Junior Cntr is, Cal. J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, Ithac WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard DIOS. Canbrdgr. ALÉS HRDLICKA, M.D., New York C D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Leland Stanford und or University, California. CHARLES A. KOFOID, Pu.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, 4H. J. G. NEEDHAM, Pu.D., Zake Forest University. ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, Pu.D., Princeton University. D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McG University, Montreal. H. M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, New York W. E. RITTER, PH.D., University of California, Berkeley. FRANK RUSSELL, PH.D., Harvard University, Cambridge. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, LL.D, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D., U. S. Department of — sic eter LEONHARD STEJN EGER, Smithsonian Institut a ington W. TRELEASE, edes Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Ta HENRY B. WARD, PH.D., University of Nebraska, iaai S. WATASE, PH.D, aa of Chicago. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine of Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading facts and discoveries in Anthropology, General Biology, Zoology, ees edi pars = scientific eens biographical notices of distinguished naturalists, or critical summaries of progress in some line; and in addition to these there will be briefer articles on various - points of interest, editorial comments on scientific questions of the day, critical reviews of recent — and a final department for SEC news and personal n naturalists who have venue interesting to say are invited to send i in their contributions, but the editors will endeavor to select for publication only that which is of truly scientific value and at the same time written so as to be intelligibl e, instructive, and interesting to the general scientific rea reader. All manuscripts, book s for review, exchanges, ete, should be- sent to THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, Cambridge, Ma All b hould — t direct to the publie: Du = ree fee Manat subseription, 94:00, not, in ad 1 advance vem copi 85 cente. "Foreign mi 0 - — GINN & : COMPANY, Lo THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXXIV. January, 1900. No. 397. INTERCENTRA AND HYPAPOPHYSES IN THE CERVICAL REGION OF MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. In the course of a recent study of the skeleton of Mosasaurs! I was much struck by the uncertainty which prevails in the interpretation of the elements entering into the vertebrz of the neck. The leading American authorities, Cope, Baur, and Williston, differ widely in their descriptions of these parts in different papers. The late Professor Baur himself had a per- fectly correct notion of the components of the neck, as I learned from him in conversation ; but a clear statement of his views is not to be found in his published writings. Two of the leading German comparative anatomists, Gegenbaur and Wiedersheim, fail entirely to recognize clearly the very interesting structure of the cervical vertebrae. I was thus led to the comparison of the neck vertebra in different members of the Squamata and Rhyncocephalia, with most interesting results. It appears that zmfercemtra are present in the neck of all 1 A Complete Mosasaur Skeleton, Osseous and Cartilaginous, Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i, pt. iv. October, 1899. T 2 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Mosasaurs, lizards, and Sphenodon, either in a primitive position or secondarily modified to subserve a variety of functions. The best known modification is in the atlas, where the inter- centrum forms the base of the ring. The modifications which have not been so generally recognized are in the axis and the other cervicals, where the intercentra secondarily function as hypapophyses, while still remaining more or less distinct from the centra proper. The primitive relations of the intercentra and pleurocentra (or centra proper) in the axis and atlas are beautifully shown in Fic. 1. — Platecarpus corypheus Cope, Coll. American Museum Natural History. Atlas, 1 axis, 2; third cervical, 3. ight neural arch, z.a., in place; left neural arch rémoved, exposing odontoid aol A Sg of atlas), od. loosely articulated with axis. Intercentrum of atlas, 7.7; intercentrum of axis, 7.2; intercentrum of third cervical, 2.3; intercentrum of fourth peas 1.4. pet 3 and 4 are secondarily shifted forward upon the hypapophyses of the centra in fro the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), taken from the neck of a specimen of Platecarpus — one of the Kansas Mosasaurs. But before describing this it will be well to recapitulate. The prevailing interpretations of the neck components in different types of reptiles are as follows: 1. Proatlas. The pair of small dorso-lateral elements in Rhyncocephalia (see Fig. 4, D), certain Lacertilia, Crocodilia, No. 397-] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 3 Dinosauria, Pterosauria, Chelonia, are regarded by some authors as vestiges of a “proatlas’’ or degenerate vertebra between the atlas and the skull. As remarked by Baur, these pieces correspond in position with the * neurapophyses ” of a typical vertebra. 2. Atlas. The lateral pieces of the atlas proper are by all authors regarded as neural arches or ** neurapophyses ” (z.a. in our figures). 3. Atlas. In his early papers Cope — in fact, when he first defined the *intercentrum " — regarded the ventral pieces of atlas and axis as “ intercentra " (7.7 and z.2 in our figures). The IM © * | LL P Pi, Fic. 2.— Chelydosaurus vranii Fritsch. A rachitomous amphibian vertebra from the Permian of Bohemia, viewed from the righ? side, after Fritsch. Neurapophyses, neural arch 2 pieces; pleurocentra, on sides of notochord, 2 pieces; hypocentrum pleurale, below notochord, 1 piece; intercentrum arcale, below notochord, 1 piece. anterior ventral piece (7.7), or lower element of the atlas ring, is, however, described as a “centrum” (z.¢., * pleurocentrum ") by Baur in his latest paper; by Gegenbaur as possibly an “ hypa- pophysis" (Vergleichende Anatomie, 1898, p. 249). In an unpublished lecture chart Baur rightly interprets ventral pieces of both atlas and axis as “intercentra.”’ 4. Axis. The odontoid process is regarded as the pleuro- centrum or centrum proper of the atlas, which has become secondarily attached to the axis (oZ. in our figures). 5. Axis. The posterior ventral piece (7.2 in our figures) is. described as an * intercentrum " by Baur, as the “atlantar hypa- pophysis " by Williston, in the Mosasaurs. 4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 6. Cervicals 3-9. The ventral intermediate pieces (7.3 to 2. in our figures) are spoken of as *intercentra," also as **hypapophyses." I. RaAcHITOMOUS PROTOTYPES. For the origin of these structures we must' naturally turn back to extinct forms, and we find two rachitomous prototypes — one composed of six pieces, one of five. Among the primitive Amphibia (Stegocephalia) we find types in which every vertebra is composed of six pieces, as figured by —--ntercentrum. |o Cond A it : DX. Ww t ç. Fic. 3. — Discosaur Permian of S ed from the Zz/? side, after Credner. Ne urap — xe arch, 2 pieces; site centra, lateral, 2 pieces; intercentra, median ventral, 1 pie Fritsch, Fig. 2 (Chelydosaurus vranit). It is possible, therefore, that the “proatlas” may represent, not a separate vertebra, but part of the atlas of a persistent rachitomous type.! This is improbable. 1 According to this hypothesis, for which at present little can be said, the homologies would be as follows: Atlas Components. Secondary. Primitive neurapophysis = proatlas. Primitive pleurocentrum = neural arch. Primitive intercentrum = base of atlas ring. Primitive hypocentrum pleurale = odontoid process. The demonstration of a vestigial, anterior, cervical nerve belonging to the — “ proatlas” vertebra would be fatal to the above hypothesis. No. 397.] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 5 A likelier rachitomous prototype is that afforded by Disco- saurus Credner, another Stegocephalian, in which it is seen (Fig. 3) that the intercentrum is in front of its corresponding pleurocentrum or centrum. Such a vertebra consists of five pieces. If from such an atlas prototype the pleurocentrum (#/.) were to be transformed into the odontoid process, the first result Fic. 4. — Typical cervical vertebrz of Mosasaurs, lizards, and Sphenodon. A. Platecarpus, a Mosasaur, with left neural arch of atlas removed. B. Varanus, a monitor lizard, with in- —* Lagoa assed rein to P of ne: E _Cyclurus a lizard, with — pting z with 1 hypapophysis « ads axis. ^P. "Sphenodon, a Riyocoepain w with all intercentra in axis, as in Cyclurus would be to bring the atlas and axis intercentra together with- out change of form. This is exactly what we find in Platecarpus, one of the Kansas Mosasaurs (Fig. 1). The photograph repre- sents a condition in which the intercentra 1 and 2 are alike in their wedge-shaped form, and are still entirely free from the other elements of the atlas and axis (see also Fig. 4). 6 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. 2. CONDITIONS IN THE MosASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. The modifications of the primitive type, in which each centrum has an intercentrum below and in front of it, are well illustrated in the accompanying diagrams (Fig. 4). The condition of the Platecarpus axis and atlas is even more primitive than that of Sphenodon ; but Sphenodon is more primi- tive than Platecarpus in the vertebrae behind the axis. A. In Platecarpus both atlas and axis intercentra free and wedge-shaped. Intercentra 3-7 shifted forward secondarily upon the short hypapophyses of centra 2-6. D. In Sphenodon a *proatlas" ; intercentrum I of atlas loosely connected with neurapophysis of atlas ; intercentrum 2 of axis completely coalesced with axis ; intercentra 3—7 in their - primitive position. ee In Varanus intercentrum 1 broadly connected with atlas neurapophysis ; intercentrum 2, forming an anterior hypapophysis upon axis, loosely connected in young, suturally united in adults ; intercentra 3+ forming tips of the long hypapophyses of centra 2+. (This hypapophysial connection of the intercentra is an advance upon that initiated in Platecarpus.) C. In Cyclurus intercentrum I broadly united with atlas ring ; intercentrum 2 completely coalesced with axis ; intercentra 3 and 4 in primitive position, but expanding to function as hypapophyses ; intercentra 5 and 6 small, in primitive position. The secondary modifications have, therefore, been of four kinds : : 1. Conversion of the atlas intercentrum 1 into the basal piece of the atlas ring by loss of its wedge-shape and broadening of its contact with the neurapophyses (e.g., Varanus, Cyclurus). 2. Lateral or complete union of the axis intercentrum 2 with the anterior portion of the axis centrum (e.g., Cyclurus, Sphenodon). 3. Secondary conversion of the intercentra 2+ into hypa- pophyses (e.g, axis of B, C, D; axis and third cervical of Cyclurus). j 4. Shifting of the intercentra 3-7 forward upon the hypa- pophyses of the preceding vertebree (e.g., Varanus, Platecarpus). No. 397.] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 7 This history of the atlas and axis complex in the Mosasaurs, lizards, and Sphenodon may, in conclusion, briefly be summarized as follows : 1. The intercentrum of the atlas fuses with the neural arches of the atlas to form the basal portion of the ring. 2. The intercentrum of the axis fuses with the centrum of the axis to form a kind of hypapophysis. 3. The intercentra of the remaining cervicals 3-7 either remain primitive in position, or are shifted forward upon the hypapophyses of the next vertebra in front. AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, December 7, 1899. ARRANGEMENT AND PRESERVATION OF LARGE COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES FOR PURPOSES OF INVESTIGATION. ALES HRDLICKA. SINCE my mention, nearly a year ago,! of a definite method in the care of bones which are to be utilized for investigation, I have received several inquiries as to the details of such a method. As the subject is not without importance, I think it will be useful to bring the particulars to the general attention of the anatomists. My practical experience with bones was gained principally in the anatomical department of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, and in the American Museum of Naturak History, the same city; besides this, I had a chance to make observations on a number of large anatomical, anthropological, and zoological bone collections both here and abroad. The remarks which follow apply only to collections of human bones, in fact, principally to large (established or prospective) collections of the bones of whites. They apply further only to a general method of the care of bones, which will easily allow any especially desirable exceptions by individual inves- tigators, such as the treatment of the whole spinal column (Dwight), pelvis, etc. For small collections, for anthropological and zoólogical col- lections of bones, probably the best general rule is to keep, in appropriate series, all the bones of each skeleton together, minus the skull. Each bone should bear the number of the Skeleton. The skulls of the same tribe of people or species of animals are kept together, heading the series. Each dis- tinct group of skulls and skeletons in a collection is divided and arranged in at least three groups: the children or young, ! Before the Association of American Anatomists, New York, December, 1898, Paper on Tibia. ` 9 IO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. and grown individuals, separated into males and females. In large series the embryos, adolescents, and very old may be advantageously separated from the others. The best way to preserve these collections is in tiers of sliding shelves or drawers. The anthropological collection as a whole is arranged on the basis of race and type, and further subdivided according to the geographical distribution. A zoólogical collection is natu- rally best arranged on the basis of the grade of evolution of the animals. This rule may be followed from the most com- prehensive zoólogical subdivision to individuals. The method of arrangement in large collections of human bones of a comparatively homogeneous character, such as the bones of whites, when the object of these collections is to be a possibility of a thorough investigation on the bones, must differ from the above. Anatomy is past the stage of study of single normal bones, just as it is past the stage of study of any single normal organ in the body. The present and future anatomical investigations can only deal with large numbers of specimens. The points which are to be settled by the investigations concern, in the first place, the regular changes or life history of each indi- vidual bone. We are further to learn the prevalent types of each bone and their meaning; to complete our knowledge of the more primitive, recurrent, and anomalous, and define the prospective characters of each bone; and to establish the influences on the various bones of recent as well as hereditary, normal, and abnormal characters. In order that such studies may be possible, all the bones in our collections must, in the first place, be identified; in the second place, they must be supplemented with certain data on the subjects from which they proceed ; and in the third place, the bones must be so stored as to present the utmost facility for any study desired. So far no osteological collection of hick I i any knowl- edge comes fully up to the stated requirements ; the collection that comes nearest to the desired standard is in all probability that of Prof. Geo. S. Huntington, in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City. However, as the value and * No. 397] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. II promises of advanced investigation on bones will receive, which they cannot fail to do, a more thorough appreciation by the teachers and students in anatomy, old bone collections will increase and new collections will be established, and both these effects should take place only on the basis of the most approved principles. Such were the considerations which led me in formulating, during the last four years, the system of care of bones, which follows. Every point advocated I had the occasion to test or observe in practice, and only that is included which is simple, practical, and essential for investigation. Some of the details which at first may seem superfluous will be appreciated later by the student of the collection. The method once tested under different circumstances in practice will undoubtedly be found capable of advantageous modifications, but I think it will, in general, prove sufficient for the beginning of a collection. . . . The care of bones, when their full scientific utilization is in view, should begin at the reception of the body in the anatomi- cal department. It is very advisable, on receiving the body, to ascertain the following points, namely: color, sex, age, nationality (if Ameri- can, the nationality of parents in addition), and last disease; also the principal (not necessarily the last) occupation of the individual in his life. In all accidental or sudden deaths the weight of the body, with a note as to loss of blood, should be taken. - A few selected, simple measures of the body! and neag are very desirable. All the data, if carefully obtained, will serve as valuable bases for future studies and comparisons on the skeleton. It is best that one of the permanent associates in the anatomical department of a college should be given the care of all these preli ies (1 Length of the body: middle of the soles to vertex; maximum length and width of the head, with its height from biauricular line; antero-posterior and lateral diameters of the chest, at the level of the sternal articulation of the third ribs and at that of ensiform cartilage. Vertex-coccyx length is also a desirable measure. 12 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. All records should be preserved in a special book. Each case receives its number; it is best to carry the numbers on consecutively, for that will, among other advantages, facilitate references. The number a body has been given and the year when received, are stamped indelibly on a card, and this is so attached to the body as not to be lost. When the body comes on the dissecting table, various means may be used to keep the sub- ject identified. In all cases it is well to preserve the original card secured in some way at the table. While the body is being dissected, care must be exercised that the different parts are not displaced. As soon as any long bone, or the scapula, or innominatum, sacrum, lower jaw or skull, is finished with, it should be the duty of some one in the dissecting room to attach by wire a little metal tag to it, with stamped-in number of the subject (zinc, or zinc-lead alloy wire and metal are to be used; steel wire will not last, while copper wire will color the bone). All the short bones of each group (hand, foot, sternum and ribs, vertebral column) are placed into a small-mesh zinc wire cage, or into a small net (which latter, however, should be strong enough to resist boiling or maceration), and to each cage or net a similar metal tag is appended as to each larger bone.! The tags are to stay on all the bones to which they were attached individually. On the short bones, when prepared and dried (which latter should be done with the bones still in their sacks or cages), the number of the subject is placed in indelible ink. Chemicals should be avoided in the preparation of bones for study, as they affect the bone weight and specific gravity, both valuable points for investigation. Too long boiling is also injurious, particularly to the bones of the young or old. The problem of storing prepared and marked bones is of considerable importance. It presents several distinct points to which attention must be directed, namely: (1) the bones should be stored so as to be protected against dust, sunlight, and 1 Syst fully used at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. L4 No. 397.] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. 13 great changes of temperature or moisture, and occasionally also against insects or rodents ; and (2) the bones should be stored in such a way as to be readily and easily accessible and offer the utmost facilities for study or exhibition, as well as an ease of proper replacement. These desiderata can be accom- plished as follows: 1. A fairly well lighted, dry room is lined with shelve frames, or drawer frames. Other similar frames can be placed across parts of the room when necessary. The frames are so arranged that the drawers or boxes which are to be placed in them can slide in and out (this can be arranged quite simply and inexpensively). The size of the frames is determined by the size of the boxes or drawers, which must be of two or three dimensions. A very good preventive against insects, or even rodents, is a little of paris green mixed with some sugar and flour. 2. For the small bones it is best to provide light boxes just a little larger than necessary to contain their groups (speaking of adults). Low partitions (potter’s clay) in these boxes would enable us to subdivide each group of small bones and much facilitate their study. A definite number of coverless boxes fit into a drawer, on which are plainly and indelibly marked the character and number (x—) of the contents. It is best to have the drawers just large enough to accommodate the boxes with all the small bones of each individual skeleton, and to keep these bones permanently together. The long bones may be stored in two ways, each of which has certain advantages. All the long and other bones of the skeleton, remaining after the disposal of short bones as outlined above, minus the skull and lower jaw, can be placed together in a special drawer, which can then be placed, properly marked, next the drawer with the short bones of the same skeleton. Thus, all the bones of each skeleton, minus the skull, which can easily be found, are kept close together. When very large series of bones are to be studied, the fol- lowing method of storage is preferable: More spacious drawers are provided; or there may be simply shelves with closed I4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. compartments, each of which has a door that ought to open downward. The bones are stored into these compartments according. to the kind and side, and in series of consecutive numbers. Each large bone in the body has its own section of the shelves. The size of each section may be calculated on the basis of the space necessary to accommodate five hundred, one thousand, or a larger series of specimens. The kind and numbers (x—x) of bones are marked in this case (because changes will take place in the number or quality of the exact contents, v. below) preferably on cards, which are nailed or otherwise attached to the drawers. The skulls, including lower jaws, it is best to store separately, in drawers accommodating a certain number each, and carrying in a prominent place a record of their contents. So far for simple preliminary storing. The next step in arranging a large bone collection is the separation of each series of bones into three subseries, containing the normal, pathological, and anomalous bones. The normal bones should be further subdivided accord- ing to sex (which is also applicable. to the other subseries, if large). A still further advantageous subdivision of the series of bones, but only in the largest collections, is that based on racial (nationality) character of the bones. The bones of children, and those of negroes (unless plentiful) and rare subjects, are best kept separately, a large box being provided for each skeleton. When an anomalous or pathological bone or bones are re- moved from a series, a card should be kept with the series of the location of the specimens. To complete the value of a bone collection, a card catalogue is a necessity. This may be conducted with various degrees of thoroughness. The simplest catalogue is that where each skeleton receives one card, on which are stated the history of the body (copy of the record made before dissection) and the main pathological or anomalous conditions observed on the skeleton. The ideal and most complete catalogue would be that where each bone would receive a card, which would bear its special characters and its dimensions. No. 397.] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. I5 The arrangement of specimens for exhibition differs much from that for storage. It should be based on at least two principles, namely: The normal bones should be arranged in series showing all their variations, the pathological and anoma- lous bones in series showing as many grades or steps as pos- sible in the evolution of their specific characters. The series are arranged according to the order in which the bones of the human body are generally treated in anatomical works or lec- tures. . Wherever possible, the series should be supplemented by casts or pictures and by specimens from lower mammals, fit for comparison. Explanatory labels with references, and, if possible, with a special card catalogue for the museum, com- plete the value of the exhibitions. NEW York, 1c6 East Seventy-first St. ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN GROWTH AND FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. A. D. MEAD. In the higher vertebrates there is a pretty constant relation between the age of an individual and its size, at least up to the time when the full stature is reached. This relation is expressed in carefully constructed curves of growth, and it may be inferred from common observation. The healthy individual must be able, during its early life, not only to hold its own in respect to size, but also to grow ; the time between meals must be comparatively short, and the nourishment assimilated must be more than sufficient merely to replenish waste tissue. Minot has shown for guinea pigs that even “any irregularity in the growth of an individual tends to be followed by an oppo- site compensating irregularity.” “If an individual grows for a period exceedingly fast, there immediately follows a period of slower growth; and, vice versa, those that remain behind for a time, if they remain in good health, make up the loss (at least in great part if not always completely) soon after." ‘Each individual appears to be striving to reach a particular size ” — a particular size, we might add, not only for the adult age but for any particular previous age. The normal rate of growth of marine invertebrates seems not to have received much attention, and were one to inquire among longshoremen or seaside naturalists how old an eight- inch lobster is, or how long it takes a starfish to grow to a cer- tain size or to become sexually mature, he would meet with an interesting variety of opinions and receive little satisfactory ‘ information. Several years ago Alexander Agassiz made an estimate of the rate of growth in starfishes, which was based upon the supposi- tion that a close relation does obtain between size and age in these animals as well as in vertebrates. The method which he 17 18 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. employed was previously used by the elder Agassiz for ascer- taining the age of many marine animals (Proc. Essex Inst., 1863), and is explained in the following quotation from the monograph on North American starfishes : “The young starfishes figured on this plate (Pl. VIII) were all found attached to roots of Laminaria thrown up on the beaches in the neighborhood after a storm; and from their different stages of growth, as compared with the oldest starfish raised from a brachiolarian (Pl. VI, Fig. 11), specimens of which were also found upon these roots, it is probable that the sizes here figured are one (Fig. 1), two (Fig. 8), and three (Fig. 10) years old. A considerable number of specimens were picked up in this way, and they could all be arranged into very dis- tinct groups, representing the starfishes of the present and two previous seasons. There seemed to be no gradation from one group to another, such as we have among the young sea urchins, which, in consequence of their manner of breeding during the whole year, form series the relations of which it is impossible to determine. In this connection I would say that, by arrang- ing the starfishes found upon our rocks into series according to their size, we are able to obtain a rough estimate of the number of years required by them to attain their full develop- ment ; this I presume to be somewhere about fourteen years. They begin to spawn before that time, as specimens have been successfully fecundated which evidently were not more than six or seven years old." During the summer of 1898 the writer had an excellent oppor- tunity to study the rate of growth of the starfish (Asterias forbesii) at a floating laboratory moored in one of the estuaries of Narragansett Bay. The Dreeding season was short and definite, and the larvae began to “set” the last of June. On June 29, innumerable young starfish, about as large as the head of a pin, were discovered clinging to the eel- grass and to the rockweed and other alga, where a few days, before none could be found. A handful of the fluffy seaweed, Heteromorpha, bespangled with minute stars, was placed in a floating car, whose sides were encrusted with a young growth of barnacles, fresh fronds of green algz, and delicate branch- No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. I9 ing stalks of hydroids. That the little starfish found here a natural and congenial environment was evident from their healthy appearance, their quick response, and their rapid growth. TL LT we: 55 I j 50 ] 45 449 40 ZV / E] FE ts EJ rj / J fs 35 PELTI y 7 / y; / = E / (3 Jo IT] / BUSES / L———4 / IURE vA Pd 25 E / P d ELI 11 / / EI / / Lm rA A 20 Z L ‘a TRO PES SNO Fi Liat p A TT- A-L. 2) & EX u-X-77 7 "A rrr ; / = A / E. E ZlK / j IO TIL A V A4 / y y BE 7 5 ——— T EN = "d ^ E. 7 y LH-E-Exr 2 zu PES SER Ze CELL GRR TEE Bee he ORR eee eee . They were kept under observation until November and fed on barnacles, small clams, and mussels. As they were examined from time to time, two features of their growth were espe- cially noteworthy, vzz., its rapidity and the difference in rate in 20 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. different individuals. On June 29 none of the stars meas- ured more than 1 mm.;! on July 18 one of the larger speci- mens measured 5 mm.; July 26, 9 mm.; August 18, 18 mm. ; September 26, 35 mm. ; October 25, 54 mm. (over 2 inches). Curve 1, Fig. 1, is a graphic representation of the growth of these stars and is constructed from measurements of the largest specimens which could be found in the car at each observation. At any time after the first few weeks some of the specimens were three times as large as others, and between these all intermediate stages could be found. On August 18, for instance, eight specimens, arranged according to their sizes, measured 7%, 8%, 10%, 12, I3, 14%, 16, and 18 mm. A similar series — or a more perfect one — might at any time be arranged from specimens taken along the shores. From the fact that in starfish of the same age such great differences in size cxist, with all gradations between the ex- tremes, it is evident that there is danger in applying to them Agassiz's method of ascertaining age. Indeed, the specimens which were calculated by him to be three years old were not one-fifth as large — linear measurement — as those known by actual observation to be only three months old. Coming now to the consideration of the conditions which determine the difference in the rate of growth in these animals, we may exclude certain factors at once ; for example, the influ- ence of light, temperature and density of the water, and size of containing vessel, inasmuch as these conditions are practi- cally the same for all the individuals under observation. It appears from some other experiments, however, that dif- ference in the amount of food is the principal, if not the only, factor. The starfish differs from the higher animals in this important respect; it can eat and assimilate many times as much food as is necessary merely to maintain a healthy condi- tion. When food is accessible, the starfish eats voraciously and grows with great rapidity ; but, on the other hand, it will live for months almost without food and apparently remain healthy, though it does not grow. As one watches a large 1 All the measurements given below as “length” are from the mouth to tip of arm. No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. 21 number of stars of the same age and size, transferred to a new car, he will not fail to notice that some of them happen upon a favorable food supply before the others, and in consequence grow at first much faster than the rest. Then, not only do these larger specimens have the better chance of getting food, but, if the animals usually preyed upon become scarce, the larger starfish do not hesitate to devour the smaller ones. It was noticed repeatedly that the variation in the rate of growth was much greater among the starfish whose food supply was limited than among those abundantly provided for. The immediate effect upon the rate of growth of the supplying and the withholding of food is demonstrated in the following experiments. One of the starfishes in the car which had grown most rap- idly up to August 18, when it measured 18 mm. (see curve r), was kept until September 26 with very little to eat. Dur- ing these five weeks there was no growth in this specimen (curve 2), but rather a slight decrease, although the largest specimen left in the car had doubled its length. Another small starfish (curve 3), which was caught in the tow net as a brachiolarian and “set” in the aquarium on June 28, was kept on a very small allowance of food until July 23, when it measured 2 mm. It was then fed occasion- ally on small barnacles, and on September 6 measured 5 mm. After this it was given an abundance of food, with the fol- lowing result: September 26, 12 mm. ; October 12, 21 mm.; November 5, 30 mm. Several other starfish which were caught in the tow and set in an aquarium at the same time with the last were kept on a small allowance until September 6, and were then apparently in good health, although they had grown but little. Fig. 2 4 represents one of these at the age of about five weeks, and Fig. 2 B represents a well-nourished specimen of the same age, taken from the car. Two specimens (curves 4, 5) of medium size, 7 mm. and 10% mm., respectively, were transferred, on August 3, from the original car, where they had been reared on barnacles, to an adjacent car. They were supplied with a bunch of 23 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. small mussels, which, however, the starfish could not or would not open, and on August 16, after a period of thirteen days, they had not grown at all. From this time they were pro- vided with an abundance of their usual food — barnacles — and grew with great rapidity, as is indicated in the curves. On November 12 they measured, respectively, 36 and 41 mm. Incidentally curve 4 shows another interesting point, namely, that the loss of an arm does not cause a diminution in the rate of growth. On September 5 an arm was accidentally torn off, yet the rate of growth of the rest of the body was as rapid as Fic. 2 A. Fie. 2 B. These figures represent two starfishes of the same age (514 weeks). before, and as rapid as that of the other starfish (curve 5). The rate of growth in the regenerating member is indicated in curve 4 a. | The age at which the starfish becomes sexually mature also depends upon the rate of growth; in other words, a starfish must attain a certain size before it may become sexually mature. During May, the month preceding the breeding season, nearly all the starfishes measuring over 50 mm. (2 inches) are full of ripe sex products, and occasionally ripe specimens are taken which measure only 32 mm. Larva have been obtained by artificial fertilization from parents measuring 38 mm. Now many of the starfishes raised in the car were considerably more than 38 mm. in length on October 25, three months after No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. 23 setting, and their sex glands were quite as well developed as they were in the average stars of any size at that season of the year. Allowing the very moderate estimate of 15 mm. for the growth of such individuals during the next six months, in May they would be more than 50 mm. in length, and such speci- mens are, with rare exceptions, sexually mature. We are warranted in inferring, therefore, that well-nourished star- fishes arrive at sexual maturity and breed before they are a year old. On the other hand, it is evident that many starfishes do not reach sexual maturity in one year, since small, immature speci- mens, between 10 and 20 mm. in length, are not uncommon just before the breeding season begins. Desultory observations on other marine invertebrates, e.g., the clam, oyster, and lobster, indicate that the conditions of their growth are essentially similar to those of the starfish, and to this extent substantiate the conclusion that between the higher and lower animals there are fundamental differences in the phenomena of growth. BROWN UNIVERSITY, November 9, 1899. THE ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. E. H. EATON. A WORK of considerable importance, which has received too little attention in this country, is Professor Baldwin Spencer's Report of the Horn Expedition to Central Australia, published in September, 1896. The author’s conclusions regarding the affinities of the Australian fauna are of vital importance, espe- cially concerning the Antarctica theory, and a brief reference to the expedition, with a statement of its main results, may be of interest to readers of the Naturalist. The object of the expedition was to explore the country about the McDonnell Ranges, which lie just south of the tropic between - 129° and 135° east longitude. Leaving Adelaide in the begin- ning of May, 1894, the party proceeded by rail to Oodnatta, where the journey of 2000 miles by caravan was begun. There were five specialists in charge of the different departments, besides two collectors, a cook, and men to care for the camels. Mr. Horn, who equipped the expedition, accompanied it for a part of the journey in a carriage drawn by a team of camels. The course lay for the most part through the dry country in the great Finke Basin, or Larapinta Land. Sandy deserts, * gibber ” plains, dry river channels, with occasional water holes, scanty brush, and dried porcupine grass offered a monotonous scenery and poor prospects for collecting. By day the unclouded sun drove all but the hardiest creatures from the blistering sands; at night the temperature often fell many degrees below the freezing point. A yard away from the water holes the earth was parched and unfit for the habitation of animals or plants. In this region, however, during the rainy season, there is a wonderful change of scenery. "Vegetation grows with amazing rapidity. Frogs, lizards, and mollusks creep from their hiding places, and their swarming descendants soon cover the country. Fishes and crustaceans are scattered by the swollen rivers from 25 : 26 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the water holes where they have survived the dry season. Insects increase with the vegetation on which they feed, and the region is invaded by numerous birds which find their favorite food. Even rodents and marsupials immigrate sometimes in vast numbers from the surrounding regions. But soon this brief season is past, and only the hardiest and those with special equipment to endure the ensuing drought and extremes of temperature survive the long dry season. There was little opportunity for collecting specimens, except for an hour or two each day, when halting for food and water. If a rare lizard were seen hurrying away as the march was pro- ceeding, before the unwilling camel could be compelled to fall back from its companion and kneel for dismounting, the agile lizard had made good its escape. Thus, only the twenty days of “spelling” in camp out of 125 days in the field were really available for taking specimens. Besides several orders of invertebrates which had not been worked over when the report was published, there were 603 species of animals collected by the expedition, of which 171 species were new to science. The following is Professor Spencer's table of species collected : Mui No. oF O. OF No. oF NEW GENERA. SPECIES, SPECIES. CAFmUVOLIR eea S 7 SS I I [e] Chopra a o re 2 2 o ol. RAM aE aon RSEN 3 i II 3 Mamupaha 8) a . —- 16 24 6 Monotremata - . oo a I I o C aa i 83 100 5 Reptilia 33 44 12 Amphibia 4 6 I : 5 8 5 Mollusca . 20 38 2I Arthropoda - 229 357 117 Vermes . . I I I 398 593 HE Several interesting observations on the fauna and flora of the center may be noted. The characteristic plants have their sur- No. 397.] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 27 face adapted to prevent the evaporation of moisture, and their seeds can survive a long exposure, but germinate very rapidly as soon as the moist season arrives. The animals are such as can travel long distances with ease, like the dingo and the kangaroo, or can subsist on the dews of early morning. Some, like the burrowing frogs and mollusks, hide away from the withering sun, and others produce eggs which will not develop : until after the mud in which they have been deposited dries up. Professor Spencer thinks there is little attempt at protective coloration, in the struggle for existence, except in a general way. Nature seems to devote all her energies to the production of eggs which will develop precociously. The young, especially of insects, seem impelled to feed ravenously, and reach maturity before the favorable season is past. As a result of the variable seasons, many species show a con- siderable discrepancy in size, individuals reared in successive good seasons being unusually large, while those growing in a succession of poor seasons are small. In one species, Phasco- . logale cristicauda, the length of the head and body of the small- est adult male was 136 mm.; of the largest, 220 mm. The relationship of the fauna of the center to that of the surround- ing regions is one of the strongest points in determining the probable source of Australian marsupials. The author divides the twenty-four species of the center into three main groups : 1. Those of continental distribution: Trichosurus vulpecula, Sminthopsis murina, S. crassicaudata, Perameles obesula. 2. A larger number, characteristic of the inland portion of eastern Australia, and of the south and west: Macropus robu- stus, M. rufus, Petrogale lateralis, Onychogale lunata, Lagorche- stes conspicilatus, var. leichardtit, Bettongia lesueuri, Cheropus castanotis, Phascologale calura, P. cristicauda, Dasyurus geof- froyii, Antechonomys laniger, Myrmecobius fasciatus. 3. Those which as far as now known are peculiar to the central region : Peragale minor, P. leucura (probably), Perameles eremiana, Sminthopsis psammophilus, S. larapinta, Phascologale macdonnallensis; Dasyuroides byrnei, Notoryctes typhlops. Professor Spencer calls attention to the fact that there is no indication of primitive monotremes of marsupials characteristic 28 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of western Australia, and that the monotremes and polyproto- donts diminish in importance as we pass northward and north- westward from southeastern Australia. The birds collected range over the southern portion of the continent from east to west, with a slight preponderance of western forms. The reptiles show a marked affinity with the west and north. The Amphibia, with the exception of Hyla ru- bella, are allied to those of the southeastern portion. The fishes are related to those of the coastal districts, and not to those of the Murray River system ; they probably were derived from the north. The mollusks are related to the west, and, in a slight degree, to the eastern interior. The other invertebrates in the center are too imperfectly known to furnish reliable generalizations. As a result of his investigations, Professor Spencer draws some highly interesting conclusions in respect to the faunal affinities of the island continent and the geologic changes that have combined to establish this remarkable life here. These views, while they differ in some marked particulars from those of Darwin, Wallace, and Lydekker, are, we believe, in line with the very latest scientific developments. They may be stated briefly as follows : 1. Probably a very ancient connection with southeastern Asia, existing partly in the western and partly in the eastern portions of the island, when these were separate land masses, furnished the original inhabitants, which are represented to-day, perhaps, by such forms as Xanthomelon, Peripatus, Ceratodus, Amphibolurus, Moloch, and the families Pygopodide, Melipha- gide, and Trichoglossida. 2. A great marine area, in which the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Rolling Downs were deposited, completely separated the western and eastern portions and isolated the higher Steppes from the ancient region further west. 3. Across the Torres Straits a connection in late Cretaceous times with a Papuan area, and with Polynesia and the New . Zealand region, accounts for the distribution of Microphyura, Acanthodrilus, and the struthious birds of Australia and New Zealand ; also for the introduction of the Paradiseide, Megapo- No. 397-] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 29 dide, Rana, Heteronota, Physignathus, Pericheta, and from the Austro-Malayan area, and later, for the passage northward of monotremes and marsupials. The union with New Zealand was severed, and only that with New Guinea probably remained at the time when the Prototheria and Metatheria had become established on the Australian continent. 4. Perhaps in later Cretaceous times, and certainly not later than the Miocene, a union with South America by way of Tas- mania and Antarctica resulted in the introduction of such forms as Gundlachia, Geotria, Galaxias, Haplochiton, Aphritis, and the Cystignathidee, Marsupialia, and possibly the Monotremata. 5. The union of eastern and western Australia, and the for- mation during the Tertiary period of a great lacustrian area and of pluvial conditions in the interior, favored the development of the gigantic diprotodont and struthious forms of the Pliocene period. ; 6. The elevation of the coastal range barrier, which was much higher in Tertiary times than at present, prevented the free inter- mingling of the coastal forms with those of the inland regions. 7. The isolation of the Australian continent, by the oblitera- tion of the land connections referred to, has preserved to a great extent its unique animal life. The union with Tasmania was doubtless severed prior to the Pliocene times, when the dingo and large diprotodonts existed in Australia. 8. The desiccation of the interior in Post-Pliocene times partly replaced and partly intensified the mountainous barrier near the coast, and combined with this to separate the desert fauna from that of the well-watered districts. After careful study of the animals collected.by the Horn Expedition, and comparison with specimens from the remainder of the continent, Professor Spencer concludes that western Australia has no claim to the title ** Autochthonian," as far as the higher forms at least are concerned. He discards this term, which was introduced by Professor Tate with reference to the flora. The Euronotian region of the same author he finds made up of two well-defined areas, each of which is marked by charac- teristic animal forms, and prefers to divide the Australian region as follows : 30 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. 1. The Torresian subregion. This is the Papuan subregion of Professor Hedley, but Professor Spencer prefers the name Torresian, as less liable to lead to confusion, and as indicating © the former land connection. It includes Papua and north and northeastern Australia as far south as the Clarence River. 2. The Bassian subregion, which comprises the eastern and southeastern coast region, and Tasmania. The name indicated . the route by which “the South American contingent must have passed." 3. The Eyrian urbcs including all the interior, south- ern, and western part of the continent. It is separated by the coastal ranges from the Torresian region on the northeast, and from the Bassian region on the southeast. The theory of a former connection between Australia and South America by means of a great southern continental area now seems thoroughly established. Mr. Wallace thought the relationship between the marsupials of the two countries, and between several families of birds and reptiles, too general to be accepted as direct evidence. He admitted, however, that cystig- nathous frogs, several genera of fresh-water fishes, and one genus of snail were undoubtedly transported from one region to the other, but thinks this transportation was by means of float- ing ice. Mr. Lydekker, in his Geographical History of Mammals (1896), still maintained that the evidence was too scanty to show in what latitude the connection occurred. He admits that the discovery of dasyuroid marsupials in the Tertiary of Patagonia indicates a former communication, and he points out the impor- tance of the determination of the rocks recently brought back by the Axtarctic as indicating a continental area; but he thinks the presence of Australian types of rats in the Philippines “is of the utmost importance in respect to Australia receiving its mammalian fauna from southeastern Asia"; and he believes that this fauna entered the island by way of New Guinea. Professor Spencer calls attention to the fact that polyproto- dont forms decrease in importance toward the north and north- east in Australia (which is the opposite of what should be the case if Professor Lydekker's theory is the true one), and point- edly remarks that Australian rats in the Philippines do not prove No. 397-] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 31 that the marsupials came from the north, any more than it proves that the fish Galaxias is an immigrant from Asia. At the same time Mr. Lydekker admits that the rats are comparatively recent immigrants, and that because of their small size they may have been introduced without direct land connection. After reading Professor Spencer's summary of evidence, and examining an atlas of the southern circumpolar regions, one is forced to admit the extreme probability of this ancient connec- tion of southern lands, including South America, Australia, and New Zealand. We may also add Africa, in the light of Mr. Spencer Moore’s paper on the origin of the Australian flora, published in Natural Science, September and October, 1899. Mr. Moore speaks of this land connection practically as an axiom of science. Dr. Moreno’s publication in Mature, Aug. 4, 1899, of the discovery of Miolania in the Tertiary of Pata- gonia, also of diprotodon and other marsupials in the same deposits, adds evidence on the subject which is well-nigh conclusive. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. e R ET ges uh A GLACIAL POT-HOLE IN THE HUDSON RIVER SHALES NEAR CAISKILL, N.: Y. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. SOME years ago I was invited to examine a pot-hole of unusual interest, which had recently been uncovered on the east bank of the Hudson, directly opposite the town of Catskill, upon the estate of Frederick E. Church, the well-known land- scape artist. At the time a number of drawings and photo- graphs were taken, together with a few notes which may be of interest to the readers of the Naturalist. This pot-hole lies at the base of a cliff of shale about seventy- five feet high, and was discovered in course of excavation of Fic. 1. — Side view of shale cliff and pot-hole. the shale for purposes of road-building. It was first indicated by a section of its diameter upon the side nearest to the base of the sharp cliff. It was then excavated with great care to a depth of twenty-five feet, when it suddenly narrowed from an average diameter of eight feet to a diameter of five feet, and finally it was found to terminate in a bowl about the size of a wash-basin. 33 34 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The whole section for a distance of twenty feet in the com- paratively soft shale exhibits the sides worn very smooth, almost to a polish. At the point of contraction the pot-hole dips into a stratum of black slate which is quite highly polished. The shale belongs to the Hudson River Series, and the slate to the Utica Slate. The upper portion of the pot-hole was filled with shale débris which had evidently fallen from the cliff. This was followed by .. +. Shale from Cliff . Drift Gravel Hudson River Shales .... Slate Pebbles and Bowlders vus Gravel . Black Slaty Paste Utica Slates . . . Polished Slate Pebbles a stratum of five feet of gravel, similar to ordinary drift gravel, containing pebbles and well-rounded bowlders, varying from one inch to two feet in diameter. This was followed by a thick stratum of slate pebbles, while the lower portion of the bowl was filled with the black paste left from the wearing of the slate and containing a few perfectly rounded pebbles. There were no crevices to account for the carrying off of the stream of water which must have produced this pot-hole, and its depth indicates that it was formed in the bed of a powerful stream. At the top of the pot-hole the face of the cliff ascends sharply, No. 397.] A GLACIAL POT-HOLE. 35 and the surrounding sides have been uncovered so recently that we have every reason to believe the pot-hole was originally of very much greater depth than at present; and this, together with its peculiar position, renders it rather difficult to explain its origin and history. Its location is about half a mile back from the river, and the face of the cliff has a north and south direction. In the twenty-first annual report of the Regents of the Uni- versity of the State of New York on the condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, published in Albany in 1871, is Fic. 3. — Pot-hole viewed from above, showing top of Utica slate layer where the erosion began to diminish, found an account of the discovery of the Cohoes Mastodon by Professor James Hall. He here gives an interesting description of the glacial pot-holes in the vicinity of the present gorge of the Mohawk near Cohoes. These holes are now mostly covered by swamps and were evidently bored out from thé general level. They reached a depth of from seventy to eighty feet, and their cross-sections varied from eight to thirty-five feet. From these facts it appears probable that the Catskill pot-hole here described originally extended to the level of the top of the cliff, Its formation was in this case similar to that which has been observed as now in process beneath some of the glaciers of Switzerland, Norway, and Sweden. In Norway they exist in 36 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. great numbers and are popularly known as “ Giants’ Kettles.” In Oswald Heer's Urwelt der Schweiz we find a full description of some of the Swiss pot-holes. On the mode of formation of these holes Geikie speaks as follows: ** Among the Alps, during the day in summer, much ice is melted and the water courses from the glaciers accumulate in brooks which, as they reach the crevasses, tumble down in rushing waterfalls, and are lost in the depths of the ice. Directed, however, by the form of the ice passage against the rocky floor of the valley, the water descends at a particular spot, carrying with it the sand, mud, and stones which it may have swept away from the surface of the glacier. By means of these materials it erodes deep pot-holes in the solid rock, in which the rounded detritus is left as the crevasse closes up or moves down the valley." THE VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE&., JOHN H. LOVELL. Tue Caprifoliacez, or honeysuckle family, are remarkable for the variation in length of the corolla tube and the consequent adaptation of the flowers to a great variety of visitors. The wheel-shaped flowers of Sambucus contain no honey and are sparingly visited by flies and pollen-collecting bees; Viburnum, which has also a rotate corolla but secretes nectar, attracts a wide circle of bees, flies, beetles, and Lepidoptera; the corolla of Symphoricarpos is bell-shaped and visited chiefly by wasps ; the funnel-formed flower of Linnzea is adapted to slender flies ; Lonicera alpigena is a wasp flower ; a part of the species of Lonicera are visited by bees in general, while others are polli- nated only by bumblebees; L. caprifolium and L. periclymenum are nocturnal flowers fertilized by hawk moths; and L. semper- virens is pollinated by humming birds. There are about 260 species widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere and blooming in spring and midsum- mer. A few occur in South America and Australia. Their northern distribution, as well as the occurrence of fossil forms, indicates their origin in the north temperate zone. Viburnum is found in the Dakota group, which, according to Saporta and Marion, belonged to a woody and mountainous region, popu- lated by such genera as Salix, Fagus, Populus, and Platanus, and from which southern types, especially the palms, are absent. Sambucus L. The flowers attract very few visitors, as they contain no nectar. Sambucus pubens Michx. Red-berried Elder. The flower buds are at first green, changing to purplish, and finally, on expanding, to white. Cymes thyrsoid, longer than road. 37 38 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Visitors : Hymenoptera — Apidæ : (1) idt mellifica L., 9; Andrenidæ: (2) Andrena vicina Sm., 9. Diptera — Syrphidæ : (3) Syrphus ribesii L. Coleoptera — Cerambycide: (4) Pachyta monticola Rand; Mordellidæ : (5) Anaspis rufa Say. Waldoboro, May 19 to June. Sambucus canadensis L. American Elder. The broad, flat cymes are very numerous and conspicuous. The flowers attract very few visitors, as they contain no honey and bloom at midsummer, when they come in competition with many nectariferous blossoms. Only four species of flies have been collected, and repeatedly the blossoms were examined without observing a single visitor, and yet upon the jewel-weed (Impatiens) and the red-osier cornel, a few yards away, scores were at work. The perfume is agreeable and increases in the evening, but fails to attract crepuscular insects. The stamens are slender, surpassing the nearly sessile stigmas. Visitors: Diptera — Syrphidæ: (1) Mesogramma marginata Say; Sarcophagide: (2) Helocobia helicis Town.; Muscide: (3) Lucilia cornicina Fab. ; Anthomyide : (4) Phorbia fusciceps Zett. Waldoboro, July. Sambucus nigra L. Black Elder. A variety of this species, S. zzgra laciniata (Mill.) DC., has escaped from cultivation at Cape May, N. J. According to Knuth, the flowers of S. zzgra are yellowish-white, honeyless, and conspicuousness is gained by their aggregation in a dense corymb. There are few visitors, partly because the strong scent is probably repellent to bees, and partly because of the absence of nectar. In the Island of Föhr, Knuth collected two flies feeding upon the pollen, and in Helgoland a single fly, Lucilia cesar. In middle and southern Germany, Müller observed six flies, two beetles, and one sawfly. VIBURNUM L. There are fourteen species in the Northern States. The flowers are in compound cymes, which bloom in early spring or midsummer, and are white, fragrant, and nectariferous. No. 397.) VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE.E. 39 Viburnum alnifolium Marsh. Hobble Bush. The inflorescence is in broad, flat corymbs of flowers of two different sizes. The center florets are small, 5 mm. broad, white tinged with red, and in autumn produce bright-red ber- ries; while the marginal ones, a single row of which surrounds the corymb, are large, 20 mm. broad, white, and sterile. Their size has been increased at the expense of their fruitfulness, and as their use is to attract the attention of insects, they open a day or two in advance of the inner and smaller florets. “The older flowers are actually occupied," Kerner remarks, “in the allurement of insects for the advantage of the younger ones." Since their conspicuousness is useless to themselves but of benefit to the community, they may be said unconsciously to play the part of benefactors. The stamens stand nearly erect, and spontaneous self-fertilization can easily occur by the pollen falling upon the sessile stigmas. Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apidz : (1) Apis mellifica L., 3 ; (2) Bombus bifarius Cr, 9; (3) Nomada maculata Cr., 9 ; Andrenide : (4) Andrena sp.; (5) A. sp. Diptera — Syrphide : (6) Syrphus ribesit L.; (7) Brachy- palpus marginatus Hunter; Muscide: (8) Myiospila medita- bunda F.; Cordyluride : (9) Scatophaga stercoraria L. Coleoptera — Elateride: (10) Flater rubricus Say; (11) Megapenthes rogersii Hornt; Cerambycidae: (12) Cyrtophorus verrucosus Oliv.; (13) Microclytus gazellula Hald.; CEderme- ride: (14) Asclera ruficollis Say; Mordellide : (15) Anaspis rufa Say ; also Pachyta monticola Rand. Hemiptera — two species. Waldoboro, May 9-19. Viburnum lentago L. Sweet Viburnum. The flowers are homogamous. The stamens are much longer than the stigmas and divergent; self-fertilization is not, how- !In his list of Coleoptera from the southern shore of Lake Superior, 1896, Prof. H. F. Wickham remarks: “ Of the Elateride it is a pleasure to record the capture of a fine specimen of Megapenthes rogersii, a rare insect recorded hitherto only from Canada.” The specimen taken by the writer was determined by Pro- fessor Wickham. 40 THE AMERICAN NA TURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ever, impossible, as the inflorescence often stands in such a position that the stigma is directly in line with the falling pollen. The large size of the cymes and their great abundance render the bush very conspicuous. The odor is faint but agree- able. Honey is secreted in a thin adherent layer by the ovary, but may be observed more readily in the angle formed with the corolla, where it is sought by insects. Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apidæ : (1) Apis mellifica L., 9, common; Andrenidæ: (2) Halictus disparalis Cr., 9; (3) Andrena vicina Sm., 9, common; (4) A. rugosa Rob., 9 ; (5) A. designata Ashm., 9 ; (6) A. viole Rob., 9; (7) A. clay- tonig Rob., 9. Diptera — Syrphidze: (8) Eristalis transversus Wied.; (9) E. saxorum Wied. ; (10) Syrphus ribesii L.; (11) Spherophoria cylindrica Say; (12) Mellota postica Fab.; (13) Helophilus latifrons Loew; (14) Syritta pipiens L.; Empidida: (15) Rhamphomyia luteiventris Loew; Muscidae: (16) Morellia micans Macq.; also minute Diptera. Coleoptera—Nitidulide: (17) Carpophilus brachypterus Say ; (18) Colastus truncatus Rand; Cerambycide: (19) Leptura lineola Say; Scarabæidæ : (20) Hoplia trifasciata Say ; Mor- dellidae: (21) Anaspis rufa Say. Waldoboro, June 16, 17, 18, and 21. Viburnum dentatum L. Arrowwood. Honey is secreted by the lower part of the ovary, and there is a faint, rather peculiar fragrance. The stamens are 5 mm. in length and much surpass the stigmas. The flowers are not so frequently visited by insects as V. /entago. In addition to the list given below, two butterflies were seen at a distance upon the inflorescence. Visitors: Hymenoptera — Andrenidz: (1) Halictus sp.; (2) Andrena rugosa Rob., 9. Diptera — Syrphidze : (3) Syrphus ribesii L.; (4) Chilosia sp. Coleoptera — Elateridz: (5) Elater rubricus Say; (6) Seri- cosomus incongruus Lec.; Cerambycida: (7) Leptura chryso- coma Kirby; (8) L. vittata Germ.; (9) L. lineola Say; Scara- No. 397.1 VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE. 41 bæidæ : (10) Hoplia trifasciata Say; (11) Macrodactylus sub- spinosus Fab. Hemiptera — one species. Waldoboro, July 6-10. Viburnum cassinoides L. Withe Rod. The structure of the flowers is very similar to that of the preceding species. The perfume is distinct, and the flowers contain honey. Visitors: Hymenoptera — Andrenide: (1) Andrena vicina Sm., 9; (2) Halictus palustris Rob., 9. Lepidoptera — Rhopalocera : (3) Lycena pseudargiolus Boisd. & Lec, Diptera — Syrphide: (4) Spherophoria cylindrica Say; (5) Syrphus ribesii L.; Empidide: (6) Empis pubescens Loew; (7) Rhamphomyia luteiventris Loew ; Sapromyzidz : (8) Sapro- myza longipennis Fab. Coleoptera — Elateride: (9) Agriotes stabilis Lec.; (10) A. fucosus Lec.; Lampyridze : (11) Telephorus fraxini Say ; Ceram- bycide: (12) Leptura mutabilis Newm. ; (13) Pachyta monti- cola Rand; (14) Molorchus bimaculatus Say ; Cistellidae : (15) lsomira quadristriata Coup. Waldoboro, June 26-28. In V. pubescens Pursh and V. prunifolium L. the flowers are homogamous, and spontaneous self-fertilization and geitonog- amy may occur. (Robertson, Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXV, No. 4.) | < * clo als 3 ei) J B/E €] Glee) 218 lee/3)8)2| ai EIRIER SIE IES) 21815 <| On AlE joalolal]e V. prunifolium, Illinois, Rob. . | 9 | 26; 2 |17 13 7 |76| April 24-29 V. pubescens, Illinois, Rob. ...| 6 | 21 7113| 7/18] 2 |73, May 4-9 F. opulus, Germany, Müller. . . I 6l t] Ll-7 6 V. ainifolium, Maine... ..... 3| 2 2| 6 15 | May 9-19 F. lentago, Maine .......... r6 7| 1| 1| 5| 1 |22| June 16-21 V. cassinoides, Maine ....... 2 2| 2| 1| 7| 1 |15| June 26-28 V. dentatum, Maine ....... | 2 2 7 | 11 | July 6-10 d f An examination of the table shows that the most important visitors are Andrenidæ, flies, and beetles, to which the inflo- 42 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. rescence, with its freely exposed honey, is well adapted. The long-tongued bees are comparatively rare. The smaller bees are very efficient pollinators, and the species are both numer- ous and common. The absence, as a rule, of other Hymenop- tera is noteworthy. Of Diptera the Syrphide and Empididz are the most important. The latter are most abundant in May, the time of blooming of several species of Viburnum. Many minute flies also seek the flowers. Beetles are very frequent visitors to all the species except V. prunifolium, to which none are recorded. This is certainly remarkable, and further obser-. vations are desirable. Delpino included V. opulus among the flowers adapted to beetles, but Müller regarded flies as the most efficient pollinators. The variety of Coleoptera is interest- ing, as the twenty-six visits I have enumerated were made by twenty-one species. Lepidoptera are rare, as the long proboscis of these insects is not adapted to suck the honey in rotate flowers. SYMPHORICARPOS JUSS. There are a few flowers which are adapted to wasps, and to which these insects are very frequent visitors. The most im- portant wasp flowers are Epipactis latifolia Swartz, Cotoneaster vulgaris Lindl., Scrophularia nodosa L., Symphoricarpos race- asus Michx., and Lonicera alpigena L., the last two belonging to the Caprifoliacez. The flowers agree in having abundant honey secreted in a short corolla, or pouch-like receptacle, about the size of a wasp’s head, and usually lurid colors. In England Epipactis latifolia is visited by swarms of wasps, which effectually fertilize the plants, and although Darwin saw hive bees and bumblebees of many kinds constantly flying over the plants, he never saw a bee or any dipterous insect visit the flowers. He expresses astonishment that the sweet nectar should not be attractive to any kind of bee. Miiller’s state- ment is very clear. He says: “This plant in the Alps often grows on the same rocks to which a wasp (Polistes gallica) has attached its stalked, open nests. I have found the flowers visited solely by the above-mentioned wasp, whose head just 1 Darwin, On the Fertilization of Orchids by Insects, p. 102. No. 397-]. VISITORS OF THE CA PRIFOLIACEZ. 43 fits into the flower." ! The same observer found in Westphalia five species of wasps very common visitors to Scrophularia nodosa. This flower exhibits retrogressive modification in that the upper fifth stamen, which is useless, is reduced to a sterile black scale. Symphoricarpos racemosus Michx. Snow Berry. The small reddish flowers are campanulate and pendulous. The ample supply of honey, secreted by the base of the corolla, is prevented from escaping by numerous slender hairs which line its anterior portion. The short pistil is only about half the length of the corolla, to the sides of which are attached the stamens, with the anthers converging toward the center. The flowers are homogamous. “As the wasp thrusts its head wholly into the flower, it comes at once in contact with all five anthers and then touches with one side the stigma; but on its way to the stigma little or no pollen remains attached to it, partly because the pollen is very slightly adhesive, and partly because any grains that do attach themselves are brushed = before they reach the stigma by the hairs lining the corolla.” But after the insect’s head has been moistened with honey it acquires a plentiful coating of pollen, which is carried to the next flower. In Thuringia, according to Miiller, nine-tenths of all the visitors belong to five species of wasps; while at Lippstadt, where wasps are much less abundant, the honey bee prepon- derates. At Rendsburg, Schróder observed that the flowers were visited by numerous Noctuidaz between the hours of 9 and 10 in the evening; in Belgium, Macleod collected nine species of night-flying moths belonging to this family. The more important observations are given in the table? on the following page. ! Müller, A/pendlumen, p. 214. 2 Müller, Fertilization n of Flower. ? Knuth, Handbuch der Fibbudidan Pd. ii, Nr. 1, p. 527. 44 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ANDREN-| OTHER IDA. I HvMENop.| DIPTERA.| TOTAL Wasps. | Aripa. 2 I I LT Ce - Ons WU N Southern Germany, Müller Heringsdorf, Knuth..... Brandenburg, Loew ..... BOO Ww (9 4A C N - hoe ty — Symphoricarpos symphoricarpos (L.) MacM.; S. vulgaris Michx. . Coral Berry. The greenish-white flowers tinged with rose have essentially the same structure as those of the preceding species. The stigma and anthers also mature together. In Illinois, Robertson collected, between July 8 and August 30, the following visitors : Wasps, 5; Andrenidze, 5; Sphecidæ, 1; Pompilidae, 1.1 LiwNzEA L. A monotypic genus. Linnea borealis L. Twin Flower. One of the most attractive of June flowers is the twin flower, Linnea borealis L., named after Linnzeus, with whom it was a special favorite. It extends throughout the eastern Northern States, from Newfoundland and through British America, Alaska, Siberia, and northern Europe to England. It is a trailing evergreen vine densely carpeting the ground in cold, open woodlands. The nodding pinkish blossoms are borne in pairs at the summit of elongated peduncles, and exhale a sweet, vanilla-like fragrance. The funnel-formed corolla is five-lobed, nearly regular, though the two superior lobes are slightly larger. The tube is 8 mm. in length, and for 3 mm. is very small. The inverted position of the flower excludes rain. The lobes are whitish, the tube wine-colored, with a yellow marking on the lower side which serves as a honey guide. The honey is secreted on the same side, at the base of the corolla, between 1 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. vii, No. 6, April, 1896. No. 397] VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACEZ. 45 the two shorter stamens. The stamens are four, included, didynamous, and the anthers dehisce introrsely. The total length of the flower is about 10 mm., of the pistil 11 mm., so that the green capitate stigma is exserted, an arrangement favoring cross-fertilization. A legitimate visitor, in creeping over the edge of the bell, comes in contact first with the stigma and deposits upon it pollen brought from another flower; sub- sequently, while sucking honey, the underside of its body brushes the anthers of the two longer stamens, and the head touches the anthers of the two shorter. Within the corolla are many inter-crossing hairs, which exclude small, useless flies, which I have seen vainly seeking an entrance. They also afford a foothold to the proper guests. During a part of an afternoon a large bed of Linnza in full bloom was carefully observed, and eight visitors were collected. On examination they all were found to belong to a single species of fly, Empis rufescens Loew, of the Empidide. Other observations showed that in this locality this fly is the most frequent and perhaps the only pollenizer. In the Alps, Müller observed three Diptera and one butterfly. The butterfly was probably an accidental visitor, as these insects are unusually abundant in the Alps. Loew saw in Brandenburg a long- legged fly, Neurigona quadrifasciata F., of the family Dolicho- podida. This family is closely allied to the Empidide. The flowers of Z. borealis L. are, then, in both continents, adapted to slender flies which live in woodlands, I saw a female bumble- bee fly over a bed of the flowers without paying any attention to them. Self-fertilization may occur by the pollen falling in some instances upon the stigma. ; Visitors: Diptera; Empididæ; Empis rufescens Loew, suck- ing, common. Waldoboro, June to July 6. LONICERA. Lonicera ciliata Muhl. American Fly Honeysuckle. This is the only species of Lonicera native in this locality. The pendulous, funnel-formed flowers are sheltered beneath the young leaves. The tube is ro mm. to 11 mm. long and con- 46 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. tains nectar in a spur near the base. Female species of Bom- bus, in their haste to obtain the nectar, frequently puncture the tube a short distance above the spur. The flowers are slightly proterogynous. The stigma usually stands a few millimeters in advance of the anthers, but in several instances I have seen it resting directly against them, so that self-fertilization may occur. The color is greenish-yellow. The flowers are visited by Bombus vagans Sm., 9, and several small bees. The bloom- ing season is from May 7 to I5. The genus Lonicera includes about 100 species, chiefly natives of the north temperate zone. According to the visi- tors which pollenize the flowers, they may be divided into wasp flowers, bee flowers, bumblebee flowers, hawk-moth flowers, and bird flowers. 1. Wasp Flowers. — In the Alps, L. alpigena L. is adapted to wasps. The tube is short, with a prominent pouch-like receptacle which contains abundant honey; the entrance is protected by stiff hairs. The lower lip affords a convenient landing place. An insect comes in contact first with the stigma and subsequently with the anthers. Müller states that the flowers are homogamous, but according to Kerner they are proterogynous. The color is reddish-brown. Müller observed in the Alps 2 species of wasps in great numbers ; Bombus, 3; other bees, 4; Syrphidz, 2; Lepidoptera, 2; Coleoptera, 2. 2. Melittophilous, or Bee Flowers. — L. tartarica L. and L. nigra L. are visited by both the larger and smaller bees. The stigma and anthers in both species ripen simultaneously and are in close proximity; bees push their way into the flower between them and come in contact with both. Self-fertiliza- tion may occur by the insect thrusting the anthers against the stigma. JL. ¢artarica is pink or white, with a tube 6 mm. long, and in Germany is visited by: Apida, 2; Andrenidz, 1; Syr- phidz, 1 (Müller). Upon Z. zzgra, Apis, Bombus, and numer- ous smaller bees and flies have been observed. 3. Bombus Flowers. — The length of the tube in the bumble- bee flowers varies from 3 to 15 mm., while the proboscis of the largest bees is 21 mm. long. The stamens diverge so widely that the smaller bees and flies may never touch the stigma. No. 397.] VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACEAE. 47 Self-fertilization may occur. The color is pale yellow, or yellow. LENGTH OF OTHER aes Tuse In | Bom- |Hymen- Fes T DOP- TOTAL. MILLI- BUS. OP- TERA. TERA. METERS. TERA. L. xylosteum, Westphalia, Müller 3- 4 2 I 2 5 L. caerulea, Alps, Müller . . 6- 7 6 II 3 2 22 L. pimp Illinois, Reberisón 14-18 2 I I 4 4. Sphingophilous, or Hawk-moth Flowers. — L. caprifolium L. and Z. periclymenum L. are adapted to crepuscular and noc- turnal Lepidoptera, especially to the hawk moths; while bees are only accidental visitors. The flowers are two-lipped and, when in bloom, stand nearly horizontal. The anthers turn their pollen-covered sides upward, and the whole underside of the moth is covered with pollen. The stigma protrudes so far in advance of the anthers that self-fertilization is not likely to occur. The honey is abundant and is secreted in the lowest part of the corolla tube, while in the non-twining honeysuckles the corolla possesses a honey-forming expansion above the base.! The flowers expand in the evening, when they exhale their fra- grance most strongly. L. caprifolium has a tube 30 mm. long and 1 or 2 mm. wide. The color is purplish without and white within. Müller collected upon the flowers in Westphalia: Sphingide, 6; other Lepi- doptera, 4. The proboscis of the large hawk moth, Sphinx convolvuli, is 65 to 80 mm. in length. The fragrance of the honeysuckle is perceived by this moth at a long distance. Kerner removed one of these moths to a part of the garden 300 yards away from the honeysuckle and marked it with cinnabar. “When twilight fell, the hawk moth began to wave the feelers which serve it as olfactory organs hither and thither a few times, then stretched its wings and flew like an arrow through the garden to the honeysuckle.” The same observer States that butterflies pass over the flowers without pausing, ! Kerner, The Natural History of Plants, vol. ii, pp. 177, 178. 48 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. and that the fragrance is either unperceived or is unpleasant to them. The tube of L. periclymenum is 22 to 25 mm. long, so that the honey, which may fill the tube for half its length, is also accessible to bumblebees. During the first evening the inte- rior of the flowers is white, and the matured anthers stand directly in front of the entrance, while the stigma is bent abruptly downward. On the second evening the color within has changed to yellow, the stigma has moved upward and stands in front of the flower, while the anthers are in turn bent downward. It is doubtless designed that moths should visit the flowers in the first stage before those in the second. Knuth was, however, unable to determine in the evening which kind of flowers was sought first, as the moths move with great rapidity. In this connection the color change is probably of not much significance. The hawk-moth flowers were once bumblebee flowers, with yellowish coloration. After the hawk moths had dispossessed the bees, the production of yellow pig- ment was no longer beneficial, and consequently tended to dis- appear. Its reappearance in the older flowers is due partly to reversion and partly to oxidation, for the flowers in wilting continue to darken and turn a dingy orange-brown. More- over, yellow is probably as conspicuous as white in the even- ing, and nocturnal flowers, as the evening primrose, CEzotLera biennis, may be yellow-colored. On the Island of Fóhr, Knuth collected: Sphingida, 5; Noctuidz, 1; Diptera, 4; Bombus, 1. The same observer saw in Helgoland: Sphingide, 2; Noctuidae, 2. Heinsius saw in Holland: Bombus, 1, as well as many pollen-eating flies. Macleod observed in Belgium: Bombus, 2; Sphingide, 1. 5. Ornithophilous or Bird Flowers. — L. sempervirens L. is fertilized by the ruby-throated humming bird. The narrow tube is 25 to 35 mm. long, with a regularlimb. The color is scarlet outside, yellow within, or rarely throughout. The flower is scentless. Crimson or scarlet is the characteristic color of bird flowers, as Lobelia canadensis and Tecoma radicans. Red appears to be the favorite color in bird zsthetics, and a larger number of edible fruits display this hue than any other. Of No.397.] VZSITORS OF THE CAPRIFOL/ACE XA. 49 the fourteen species of Lonicera in the Northern States, ten have red berries, one yellow, and three black, or bluish-black. The original color of Z. sempervirens was undoubtedly yellow, to which it occasionally reverts. This color change is very common and may occur in the course of the development of the individual flower. In certain South American species of Lantana the flowers are at first yellow, when they are visited by bees, and later change to red, and are then attractive to butterflies. Z. sullivantii is also visited by the humming bird. DIERVILLA MÆŒNCH. This genus is confined to North America and consists of two species; one is distributed throughout the north temperate zone, the other is found in the mountains of the Southern States, Diervilla diervilla (L.) MacM.; D. trifida Mench. Bush Honeysuckle. The northern species, D. diervilla, is a low shrub growing in rocky woodlands and thickets. The flowers are solitary or in few-flowered cymes. The corolla is funnel-formed, more or less two-lipped, with a tube 7 mm. long, light yellow, the upper lobe marked with an orange honey guide. The honey, which is abundant and may fill the tube for 3 mm. of its length, is secreted by a thick quadrangular gland at the base of the tube on the upper side. The lower portion of the filaments, style, and middle lower petal are bearded, the hairs serving to exclude small insects and the wet. The odor is very faint or absent. The older flowers turn reddish, a color change which also occurs in Rides aureum and in the genera Weigelia, Fuchsia, and Lantana. In Rides aureum, Müller states that the more intelligent insects immediately recognize those flowers which no longer contain nectar, and consequently visit more blos- soms in the same time.! Repeated observations failed to show that the color change in D. diervilla was of the same signifi- 1 Fertilization of Flowers, p. 251. 50 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. cance. The honey bee was observed to visit the red flowers both when solitary and when associated with yellow flowers. Neither was there any preference manifested for yellow flowers when flowers of both colors occurred in the same cyme. Examination showed that the reddish flowers con- tinued to secrete honey abundantly. This is an instance, not uncommon, of a flower secreting nectar longer than is neces- sary. The stems and leaves are frequently reddish, due probably to oxidation, and the reddish color of the older flowers appears to be due to a similar change in the nutritive fluids. The flowers are proterogynous. Immediately after the apices of the corolla separate, the stigma protrudes in a recep- tive condition. At this stage the anthers, which are 4 mm. long, rest directly against the style, the length of which is then 13 mm. and of the stamens 12 mm.; in the older flowers the style lengthens to 19 mm., the stamens to 15 mm. The anthers dehisce introrsely shortly after the expansion of the flower, but as they are shorter than the style, self-fertilization is not likely to occur. As the style lengthens it is bent aside, and the honey bee was observed to visit flower after flower without coming in contact with the stigma. The length of the corolla tube (7 mm.) and the fact that the anthers are divergent and not in close proximity to the stigma indicate that the flower is adapted to bumblebees. The smaller bee, Halictus disparalis Cr., 9, was seen to try vainly to reach the honey. The most frequent visitor, however, is the honey bee. The larva of the hawk moth, Hemaris difinis, feeds upon the leaves, and the moth sucks the flowers. Minute flies and a beetle were observed feeding upon the pollen. Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apida : (1) Apis mellifica L., 9, sucking, frequent; (2) Bombus bimaculatus Cr., 9, s.; (3) Psithyrus (Apathus) laboriosus Fab., 9, s.; Andrenida: (4) Halictus sp.; (8) H. disparalis Cr., 9, collecting pollen; (6) Halictulus americanus Ash., 9; (7) Augochlora aurata, Sm., 9,c.p. None common except the first. Lepidoptera — Rhopalocera: (8) Pamphila peckius Kirby, s.; Heterocera: (9) Hemaris diffinis, s., standing on a leaf or poising on the wing. June 29 to July 6. Waldoboro. No. 397-] VZSITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIJACEX. 5I WEIGELIA THUN. The eastern Asiatic species of Weigelia are often referred to Diervilla, but are regarded as distinct by Britton! An immense number of varieties have been produced in cultivation by selection and hybridization, which are remarkable for their wide range of coloration. There are white and deep-red forms with every intermediate shade; white when opening but chan- ging to rose ; deep red in bud but rose-colored in bloom ; flower pale rose at first, changing to deep red; yellow; light yellow, changing to white; pale yellow, changing to pale rose; and reddish-purple. The leaves are also frequently.highly varie- gated with yellow and white. Weigelia rosea Lindley. The trumpet-shaped flowers were observed by Müller in Germany to be visited by Osmia rufa L., 9, and also by Halictus leucopus K., 9, and H. sexnotatus K., 9. These small bees creep into the corolla tube, the mouth of which is 8 to IO mm. in diameter, to obtain the nectar. They come in contact first with the stigma, which surpasses the anthers, and then with the pollen-covered anthers. The flowers are stated to be proterogynous, but not to the exclusion of self-fertiliza- tion. Knuth saw Bombus agrorum F., 9, frequently visit the flowers in his garden. There is not, however, sufficient room for the larger bees to enter the flower conveniently.? ! Britton and Brown, ///ustrated Flora, vol. iii, p. 242. ? Knuth, Handbuch der Blütenbiologie, Bd. ii, Nr. 1, p. 525. a worst ene REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. Anthropological Notes. — In the American Anthropologist for July, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes describes the Alósaka cult of the Hopi Indians. His conclusions are, in part, as follows: * There survives in the Hopi Ritual a worship of horned beings, called Alósakas, which once existed at the now ruined pueblo of Awatobi.” “The purpose of the rites performed in this cult is to cause seeds, especially corn, to germinate and grow, and to bring rain to water the farms." “The Alósaka cult is a highly modified form of animal totemism, and the Alósaka represents the mountain sheep." Professor A. C. Haddon publishes an account of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Strait and Sarawak in Nature of August 31. It is stated that the scientific results obtained by the seven members of the party will be published in a series of memoirs which will be obtainable separately. Dr. Rivers and Messrs. Myers, McDougall, and Seligmann will write the volume on experimental psychology; Mr. Ray is said to have ample matter for a volume on linguistics. Professor Haddon will deal with the phys- ical anthropology of the natives of Torres Strait and New Guinea. Music, religion, medicine, statistics, architecture, etc., will be treated by the several members of the party. A large number of excellent photographs were taken. : An illustrated article appeared in the July number of Monumental Records, in which Mr. Geo. H. Pepper described the ceremonial deposits found in an ancient pueblo estufa at the Pueblo Bonito in the Chaco Cafion. The Hyde Expedition, of which Mr. Pepper is the director, has worked several seasons at that extensive group of ruins, and the explorations are to be continued. The discovery of ceremo- nial objects is said to be the first reported from any pueblo ruin. In the September-October number of the American Antiquarian, William P. Blake publishes a brief account of the aboriginal turquoise mines of Arizona and New Mexico. He mentions a few of the local- ities from which turquoise has been obtained, but refers the reader 53 54 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. to the treatise, by Geo. F. Kunz, on * Gems and Precious Stones of North America," for further information. The author maintains that the Nahuatl term * chalchuitl” referred to turquoise and not to jade and emerald, as stated by E. G. Squier. We note that Brinton, in his “ Prehistoric Archaology," applies the term “ chalchuitl”’ to jade alone. In the same journal A. F. Berlin describes a valuable collection of terra-cotta antiquities from the land of the Incas, and incidentally mentions the fact that these rare specimens had been safely trans- ported long distances by the careful and friendly natives, but were broken and otherwise injured by the New York custom inspectors. The first number of Vol. I of the Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History is devoted to Hawaiian Feather Work. The director of the museum, W. T. Brigham, refers to the early voyagers who found the art of feather working in a flourishing state in Hawaii during the latter part of the last century; he then describes and furnishes illustra- tions of the birds from which the feathers are obtained; the hel- mets, cloaks, and other articles of feathers are described in more or less detail, and lists are given of the specimens now known to exist in the various museums of the world. The monograph is very fully illustrated, two of the plates being in colors. GENERAL BIOLOGY. Physics of Cell Life. — Realizing the prematureness of any pres- ent attempt at a chemical understanding of cell phenomena, and believing that there is a large field for interpretation upon a purely physical basis, Dr. L. Rhumbler has devoted himself to a most prom- ising line of investigation — the study of the physics of the cell as explanation of its phenomena; an attempt to analyze cell life, as far as may be, into physical components, leaving the ultimate chemical prob- lems for the future. His previous papers deal with the shell-making of the rhizopods and with cell division; the present,’ with some of the phenomena of distribution of pigment in eggs and early larve. Assuming that protoplasm is a foam, much as claimed by Bütschli, and that the nucleus and the centrosomes at certain times absorb 1 Physikalische Analyse von Lebenserscheinungen der Zellen II, III, Archiv J- Entwick. d. Organismen, Bd. ix, Sept. 5, 1899, pp. 32-100, Pl. IV. No. 397-| REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 55 liquids from the foam, he has argued the necessary occurrence of many of the phenomena of cell division. On the same basis he now attempts to account for the distribution of pigment in many cases. With the aid of pressure experiments upon the yolk of the hen’s egg, the use of his system of elastic bands, and of the interesting gelatine models devised by Biitschli, the author endeavors to support an application of his views to the phenomena described by Fischel in 1899. Fischel placed live eggs of echinoderms in very weak solutions of neutral red, and found that minute granules became stained all through the egg. When the egg divided, these granules were concentrated about the nucleus and in the spindle stage formed a dumbbell-shaped mass; later they were again more uniformly dis- tributed. Rhumbler endeavors to show that this apparent motion of the granules was not due to actual migration, and then explains it as a result of the drying effect postulated in his theory. If the nucleus absorbs water from the neighboring foam, the lamellz of that foam will become denser and the contents of the alveoli smaller, and large bodies, such as yolk spherules, be squeezed away from such a region of increased pressure. Small bodies may, however, remain, provided they have sufficient adhesion to the alveolar lamellae. This he assumes to be the case with the minute stained granules. In the region about the nucleus, where water is absorbed and from which large granules are forced away, there will be a condensation that must bring the granules nearer together if they stick to the shrinking lamella. The crowding of granules about the nucleus is thus due to a diminution in mass of material and not to a migration of gran- ules from afar. The author next takes up the arrangement of normal pigment in the eggs of Amphibia. The well-known dark streak that marks the path passed over by the sperm moving within the frog’s egg is due, he maintains, not to any attraction on the part of the sperm, nor to any manufacture of new pigment, nor to any other chemical process, but simply to the physical stress produced by the passage of a body through a foam. The sperm adheres to the foam framework and tends to pull it along; the resulting tension behind the sperm leads to outflow of the more liquid contents of the alveoli, and a shrinkage of the framework that draws the adherent pigment granules nearer together. The pigment is thus concentrated behind the sperm much as the colored granules were concentrated about the nucleus in Fischel’s experiments. The granules remain in the region of tension and 56 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. diminished volume and so are nearer together; they do not travel to such regions. Though the reader may not be convinced of the necessity of this explanation, it is certainly most interesting to learn that bubbles of air squeezed through mashed egg masses, and even through artificial mixtures of soot and emulsions, do leave pigmented tracks behind, similar to the sperm track. Some physical explanation of the pig- mented sperm track seems forced upon us. The author then takes up the concentration of pigment upon part of the surface of the frog’s egg; the aggregation of pigment about the nucleus in cleavage stages of the frog’s egg; the remarkable rearrangements of pigment in isolated cells of frog’s eggs when “cytotropic’? movements bring them together again; the arrange- ments of pigment in blastulz of triton after injury by pressure; and the normal arrangement of pigment in certain cells of the triton in the stages of gastrulation and of formation of neural ridges. In all cases he applies the same formula: pigment collects in areas of increased pressure and of condensation. When cells are in active chemical interchange there will be greater adhesion of their applied surfaces and less cohesion of the part of each turned towards its neighbor. The parts of the cells most removed from such interchange will be those of relatively high ten- sion, and in these the pigment, if present at all, may be concentrated by adhering to the shrinking lamella. Pigment will be on the denser and chemically inactive sides of cells. In early stages of development pigment does not indicate active chemical changes where it is found, nor is it of any direct use; it remains inert and is concentrated in areas of condensation or may even be expelled from active areas. Secondarily, natural selection may have emphasized its occurrence in some places where it happened to be of use. Aside from the main issue, the author's evidence that invagination and evagination are due to actions of individual cells seems specially interesting. E A A. Biological Lectures. — The substantial character of the work done at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl is evinced by the recently published volume of Biological Lectures for 1898.' The sixteen lectures thus brought together are by well-known authorities, and touch on one side or another almost all the important biological 1 Biological Lectures, from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass., 1898. 343 pp. Ginn & Company, Boston, 1899. No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 57 problems of the day. The opening lecture is on the structure of protoplasm, by E. B. Wilson, whose study of the living echinoderm egg has led him to revise his former opinion and declare himself now in favor of the alveolar structure of protoplasm. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance which the author ascribes to the study of living protoplasm as a check upon what we assume to be a satisfactory preservation of it by histological means. Five lectures deal with problems of celllineage: the homologies of cells and cell groups are discussed by E. B. Wilson; the interpretation of the vari-_ ous kinds of egg cleavage as adaptations of the egg is taken up by F. R. Lillie; the importance of protoplasmic movement in the distri- bution of materials from the nucleus is emphasized by E. G. Conklin; equal and unequal cleavage in annelids is treated by A. L. Treadwell, who points out that those organs which appear early in ontogeny are usually represented by large-bodied cells, irrespective of the distribu- tion of yolk; the origin of the prototroch is considered by A. D. Mead. Closely related to these subjects are C. M. Clapp's lecture on the rela- tion of the axis of the embryo to the first cleavage plane, which is dealt with from the modern experimental standpoint, and T. H. Mont- gomery's account of the nucleolus. The possible relations of con- tractility and phosphorescence are pointed out by S. Watasé, who argues for the view that phosphorescence may be a general property of living protoplasm. T. H. Morgan, in considering some of the problems of regeneration, points out the apparent inefficiency of purely mechanical explanations, and suggests to students the impor- tance of keeping the vitalistic standpoint in view. Problems in evo- lution are represented by H. C. Bumpus's interesting examination of a large number of English sparrows killed in a severe winter storm ; the birds eliminated were in one respect or another far removed from the typical form. The question of heredity is dealt with by J. Loeb, as illustrated in the markings of fish embryos, and the present neces- sity of an analytic treatment is enforced. Paleontology is represented by W. B. Scott’s account of North American ruminant-like mammals. An appreciative historical review of Wolff's Zheoria generationis is given by W. M. Wheeler. Animal psycho-physiology is represented by W. W. Norman's very interesting paper on the question whether the reactions of lower animals due to injury indicate sensations of pain, and C. O. Whitman’s elaborate account of the habits oí leeches, salamanders, and pigeons. The volume is concluded with brief memorial notices of J. I. Peck, J. E. Humphrey, and W. W. Tom. G. H. P. 59 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. ZOOLOGY. Kingsley’s Vertebrate Zoölogy. — That the study of vertebrate anatomy in America has passed the period of pure comparison and entered that of a more scientific morphology has become evident by the appearance of a recent work by Dr. John Sterling Kingsley,* who thus gains the honor of producing the first American text-book on the subject. By this we do not mean that there has been any lack of special investigation in the field of vertebrate anatomy, but, as stated in the preface of the work under consideration, “observation and uncor- related facts do not make a science," and a comprehensive text-book which collects in a system the results of this series of investigations has hitherto been lacking in our literature. The place of such a work has been supplied up to the present time by European text- books, among which may be first mentioned the Grundriss of Wie- dersheim (latest edition 1898) and the new edition of Gegenbaur, of which the first part has just appeared; but in these the disadvantage of a foreign language, the lapse of time which must necessarily ensue before they can appear in translation, and the exotic character given by the frequent references to animals exclusively European emphasize the need of an American manual illustrated by American material. In this respect it becomes a matter of satisfaction to glance through the pages of Kingsley’s work and find Acanthias, Necturus, Amblystoma, and Sceloporus in place of Scyllium, Proteus, Salamandra, and Lacerta. The object of the book, as stated by the author, is “to supple- ment both lectures and laboratory work and to place in concise form the more important facts and generalizations concerning the verte- brates,” and its employment as collateral reading for the student will emancipate the lecturer from the necessity of continually reiterating the elementary principles of the subject. Its use in the laboratory, also, where it will assist the student in finding out what he wishes to know, will be a pleasing change from the usual laboratory manual, with its too carefully tabulated series of observations, a style of liter- ature which it is as easy for an author to write as it is difficult for another to follow. In arrangement Dr. Kingsley’s text-book is divided into two parts, 1 Kingsley, J. S. Zext-Boo£ of Vertebrate Zoology. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1899. E No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 59 the first being morphological, and the second systematic. In the first part the work is based entirely on embryology, and an introduction which sketches the main features of development is succeeded by the morphology of the organs arrayed in accordance with the germ layers. Although logically there is much to be said in favor of such an arrangement, it would seem hardly an improvement on the usual method, which begins with the skeleton and muscles, and thus presents a framework that may serve as a series of relations by ‘means of which the other systems may be more easily described. Although permissible for an elementary text-book of general mor- phology where there is little or no descriptive anatomy, it would not seem possible to employ such an arrangement in a work upon the anatomy of a single animal, for historically the nomenclature of the bones was the first established, and organs and parts of organs have been named with reference to these, or to other parts which, in the usual order, precede them. : r 1.0136 .0012 Cypridopsis vidua Müller : : : : 40 1.046 -— Culex (larva) . : : s : . II 1.0185 .0002 Agrion larve . i 3 : i : 8 1.046 — Aquatic fly larvae (sf. 2) : j : : . | Many 1.0185 p Physa (shell hi. ‘ i à ; : 4 1.037 — Nephelis (s5.?) . : * : : ; I 1.037 ~— Asellus . : äi ; i à : | 3 1.037 m When there, the surface film holds up the breathing tube with its spreading hairs. Whenever that support is lost the animal sinks. A Cyclops, when moving slowly, can be seen to move upwards with a jerking motion, then to sink slightly, then to jerk again, and so on. To remain motionless it must have its antennz on the surface film. A sinking animal, like a lifeless body, always falls with the heavy end downward. Many animals do not give special evi- dence in this direction. Cyclops usually sinks head downward, the tail being at an angle of 45? with the horizon. Hydra, unless unusually dense near the mouth (for instance, with food in the gastrovascular cavity), sinks foot downward. One with a bud sank bud downward. In the tadpole the center of gravity changes position in the course of development. Up toa length of about 6 mm,, it is in the head region, for that always sinks first. In later stages the center of gravity moves backward nearly to the root of the 102 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. tail, and tadpoles hang in the water with the tail at least 20° lower than the head. Many of the older ones seem no heavier than water. As soon as tadpoles begin to depend on food taken into the alimentary canal from without, the canal may become filled with air or gas, so that the animal floats belly up. This condition is not permanent, for I have isolated such floating tadpoles and they regained the bottom in the course of a day. I have seen a tadpole force from its mouth as many as twelve bubbles of gas. After attaining the length of 10-11 mm., the specific gravity of the tadpole depends much on the condition of the animal and on the development of the lungs. The refuse of the food in the alimentary canal, which consists of partially digested green water plants and many diatoms, may aid the animal in sinking. It certainly helps move back the center of gravity of the animal from the head region toward the tail. H. ' I have found the specific gravity of four series of tadpoles — two in the spring of 1898 and two in the spring of 1899. In each instance one series was the young of Rana silvatica, the other those of Bufo lentiginosus. TABLE IV. — Speciric GRAVITY OF FROG AND Toap TADPOLES. Rounp LENGTH ID oe — - E om a EN IN MM Eca. 23 4-5 6-7 8-9 | ro-11 | 12-13 | 14-15 |16-16+ Rana silvatica, 1898 — | — |r022|1.013| — |I.013| 1.008 | 1.005 1.0055 Rana silvatica, 1899 — |I-111/1.11—|1.050| 1.042| 1.028| — | 1.010|1.0052 Bufo lentiginosus, 1898 | 1.038 |1.037| 1.037, — |1.022|1.013|1.013|1.010| — Bufo lentiginosus, 1899 | 1.037 | 1.037 | 1.030) 1.022| 1.017| — |1.016|1.016| — This table calls for a few remarks. I have been able to get no good determinations oe the specific gravity of the eggs of the frog, for unless the egg envelope is removed, the specific gravity is too high; and if the envelope is removed from the youngest eggs, they break badly in the solu- tion. The toads for the two years correspond fairly well with No. 398.] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 103 each other, but the drop in specific gravity began a little earlier in their growth in 1899 than in 1898. There is a great differ- ence in the two series of frog tadpoles, however, that of 1898 being much lighter. Even allowing for possible individual variation, the discrepancy is still too great to be accounted for by the faults of the method. In looking back at the history of the two cases I find an explanation, which is based upon the work of Galloway ('98), who found experimentally that tadpoles of Rana, Amblystoma, and Bufo, kept in a warm place, imbibed proportionately more water in reaching a certain stage than did those kept in the cold. My first series of observations (Table IV) was made on eggs of Raza silvatica, which were obtained in cleavage stages March 26, 1898. These were kept at room temperature and hatched out March 28-31 (two to five days), some reaching the length of 7 mm. by the latter date. The second series was collected April 11, 1899, and kept out of doors in a shallow basin on the ledge of a north window.. On April 22 they had reached a length of 7 mm. (after a period of eleven days), although still in the egg, and on that day I brought them into the room to hasten their hatching. Since the specific gravity of the embryos in the second series was throughout so much greater than that of the first, I infer that they must have contained much less water, therefore have had smaller lymph spaces and smaller vacuolated cell regions and water spaces. That is, the . embryos reared in a higher temperature must have imbibed more water than those exposed to the lower temperature. But while the specific gravity depends on the amount of water absorbed by the tissues of the embryo, it also depends on the amount of animal matter. The proportional amount of this animal matter present has been ascertained by weighing, desiccating, weighing again, and computing what per cent of the first weight the dry weight is. Since the animals from one mass of eggs vary individually, I selected them on the basis of length, not age, each observation being based on five or ten individuals of a given length. . In the series of tadpoles of frog and toad I have found the Specific gravity, the average fresh weight, the average dry 104 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. weight, and the percentage dry weight. partial vacuum over sulphuric acid. They were dried in a TABLE V.— RANA SILVATICA. NuMBER OF| LENGTH Arce. An SPECIFIC - Dame TADPOLES ( ) sicui put in GRAVITY : : Weicut. | WeicHT | WEIGHT. ; April 13 5 21 .00328 001 36 41.4 LEII + April 13 5 4 .00 00132 38.37 LII — April 21 5 6 .00402 00142 34.8 1.055 April 1 es IO 7 .00448 00126 28.1 1.055-1.037 April 1 S IO 8-9 00540 00105 19.4 1.037-1.022 April 21 5 9 00592 OO1IO 18.58 — April 21 IO IO-II 00794 OOIIO 13.9 | r.022-1.018 April 22 5 13-14 02730 00144 B28 I.OIO April 26 5 16-17 04100 00208 5 — : April 28 5 16 05 2 4.5 1.009-1.0065 May 1 5 20 .067 50 00356 &2. | 2007 TABLE VI. — BUFO LENTIGINOSUS. NuMBEROF| LENGTH. ce en Tm SPECIFIC DATE FRESH Dry Dry TADPOLES. ( GRAVITY. EIGHT. | WEIGHT. | WEIGHT. May 1 IO 3-4 OOIIS .0005 44-3 1.037 May 1 IO 4-5 00217 .0007 32.2 1.037 May 2 IO 6 00339 -00065 19.1 1.025 May 3 10 7 00354 00062 17.5 22 May 1o 10 8-10 .00867 .00077 8.8 1.018-1.016 May Io IO IO 01477 .00122 8.2 1.016 May 10 IO 12. 02496 00196 7.8 1.018—1.016 May 11 10 3-15 | .04455 | .00327 73 These tables show : 1. That the animals, while continually increasing in total weight, really decrease in dry weight up to the age (about IO mm. long in the frogs) where they take in food from without. No. 398.] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 105 2. That the specific gravity decreases with the increase in volume, as one would expect if the increased volume is due to imbibition of water. 3. That the percentage of dry weight continues to decrease even after the absolute dry weight, owing to the acquisition of food from without, begins to increase. A similar set of results expressed in the form of a curve is given by Davenport (97-99, p. 285). In the case of the toad series growth was so slow that for the greater lengths (8 mm. and upwards) I took toads from out of doors. All had reached the feeding stage, the intestines of all being full, and since the conditions were the same and the lengths not greatly, different, their specific 'gravities were essentially the same. The preceding table was based on developing forms of Amphibians. I give also for comparison the relation which exists between dry weight and total weight in a few individuals of essentially adult fish. TABLE VII. NuMBER OF | LENGT Live Dry Per CENT INDIVIDUALS.| (mm.) WEIGHT. | WEIGHT. Dry WEIGHT. Fundulus ., 2 32 2090 :0454 21.7 Fundulus I 35 .2780 0622 22.6 Fundulus 2 44 6336 -1490 23.6 Gasterosteus I - 3o -1449 0358 23-4 Gasterosteus I 60 1.4041 3179 28.6 These fish were dried ten days. The larger the fish is, the greater the per cent of dry weight. As one would expect, the armored stickleback has a greater per cent dry weight than Fundulus. III. The last section of the paper has reference to the location of the imbibed water in the tissues of the tadpole. I give three 100 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. cross-sections from tadpoles of Rana silvatica at different ages. They are in black and white, all solid cell tissue being printed black. They are all outlined with the camera to a magnifica- tion of 30 diameters. As nearly as possible they are from corresponding regions of the body— the region just back of the thickened auditory epi- thelium. No.1 is taken from a specimen 2% mm. long. Plainly there are here very few spaces which may contain water or lymph. The cells also are very crowded and show no vacuolation. No. 2 is from a 10 mm. tadpole. The change is remarkable, especially in the de- velopment of the highly vacuolated mesen- chyme. The neural canal is larger, while n the cross-section of nervous tissue is not magnified 30 diam.; tis- greatly increased. al meio MN The cavities of the cesophagus, intestine, and liver are large, and the pronephric tubules also increase the interior space. As the best example of the change in individual cells, I call attention to those of the chorda, which are very strongly vacuo- lated. The cross-section (Fig. 3) from a 20 mm. tadpole shows that, except for the cluster of cells on the right which forms the limb bud, the area of solid tissue has decreased greatly. The epidermis is very thin com- Fıs. 2. — Cross-section R. silvatica, 10 mm. pared to either of the other v ——ÀPHÀ examples, and the cesophagus and intestinal wall are not more than half as thick as in the preceding stage. Table V shows that the actual tissue (dry weight) in speci- men No. 2 must have been less than in No. r. That the actual No. 398. ] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 107 Fic. 3. — Cross-section R. silvatica, 20 mm. long, magnified 3o diam. tissue is greater in the 20 mm. tadpole is due to the fact that the tadpole has been taking in solid food for ten days. RESULTS. The specific gravity of certain fresh-water animals was deter- mined and found to vary from 1.0095 (Hydra viridis) to a maximum of 1.0460 (Cypridopsis). The movements of an animal are closely related to its density, and there is also a correlation between density and food habits. Of the animals tested, Stentor may represent a typical case of specific gravity in little modified protoplasm. The heavier animals certainly have some specialized tissues which are 108 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. denser, while in the case of Hydra, the lightest, the extreme vacuolation of the inner layer may well indicate a less repre- sentative character of the protoplasm. In the case of the developing animal the chief tissue to absorb water, and, therefore, the tissue of most rapid increase in bulk, is the mesenchyme. All of the walls of the internal organs, however, grow thinner and less dense as the animal increases in size. This work has been carried on under Dr. Charles B. Daven- port, whose suggestions are the basis of anything of value it may contain. PAPERS CITED. DAVENPORT, C. B. '97-99. Experimental Morphology. xvii + 508 pp., 140 cuts. New York, The Macmillan Company. GALLOWAY, T. W. '98. Effect of Temperature on Growth of Tadpoles. Science. Vol. viii, N.S., No. 189, p. 178. [Abstract.] LANDOLT, H., UND BORNSTEIN, R. '94. Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen. Zweite Auflage, xi + 563 pp- Berlin, J. Springer. PLATT, JULIA B. '99. On the Specific Gravity of Spirostomum, Parameecium, and the Tadpole in Relation to the Problem of Geotaxis. American Naturalist. Vol. xxxiii, No. 385, pp. 31-38. THE MOSAIC OF SINGLE AND TWIN CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES! CARL H. EIGENMANN anD GEORGE DANIEL SHAFER. THE eyes of fishes have served as the basis of numerous papers. A list of these dealing with the eye in its macroscopic aspect has been furnished by Ziegenhagen (995) while those dealing with its minute structure have been enumerated by Krause (86) and Cajal (94). During recent years the efforts have been largely in the direction of the application of the methods of Golgi and Ehr- lich, chiefly to work out the vertical relationships of the various layers of the retina. The present paper will be devoted to the horizontal relationships of two elements in the retina of fishes, t.e., the single and the twin cones. . Both elements are well known, and their relative positions have also received mention, as will be seen from the following summary of the literature. The twin cones arise from two cells placed close together; their nuclei are usually just within the outer limiting membrane. The cone bodies are pressed together so that the faces in con- tact are flat. The outer segments are separate. The line joining the centers of the two elements of the twin cone may be termed the axis of a twin. The single cones vary greatly in their relative thickness when compared with the components of a twin. Quite frequently they are much thinner than the latter, and in some other instances their structure is strikingly different. In the eye of Zygonectes, for instance (Eigenmann (99), the basal portion of the single cones contains refractive granules, increasing in size outward where the series ends ina lenticular vacuolated body separating the granular from the distal portion. The twins do not possess these granules. In ! Contributions from the Zoülogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 26. L 109 IIO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Coregonus the outer segments of the single cones have a cen- tral deeper staining core. In this respect they agree with the rods. One of us was in doubt concerning these single cones, inclining to the opinion that they were rods (Eigenmann ('99), p. 548). The rods are not taken into consideration in this paper. It may be said, however, that generally the number of rods is inversely proportional to the number of single cones. The eyes examined were taken, for the most part, from museum specimens preserved in alcohol, and originally not intended for anatomical or histological purposes. The eyes were sectioned in paraffine, and the sections stained with hemalum and eosine, or the Biondi-Ehrlich three-color mix- ture, or Weigert’s haematoxylin; the latter gave good results even with the alcoholic material. No attempt has been made in this paper to describe the extent of variation in the patterns noted in different parts of the same retina. The earliest notice that may have a possible bearing on the present subject is that of Guennelon (1686). According to Ziegenhagen, he noted that the retina of Gadus eglifinus is striped. We are not at all sure that this observation related to the arrangement of the twin and single cones. The first undoubted notice that the twin and single cones may form a definite pattern was that of Hannover (43), who figured the pattern of the *'Ródspetten" and of the pike. Both patterns figured are those of our diagram D. We find the pattern of the pickerel to be that of diagram Æ. Much later, Müller (72, p. 59) says that in Perca ffuvia- tilis the twins are in excess, with such an arrangement that each single cone is separated from its neighbor by the twins, not counting the rods. He also stated that in many fishes only single cones exist. | Nunneley (58) and Krause ('68) described cones in the eel, and here, according to Krause, only single cones are found. Friis (79) examined a large series of fishes and found that in Accipenser and Anguilla only single cones exist. He found twin cones only in a large number of species, but states that in all of these, single cones are always to be found about the ora No. 398:] CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES. III serrata. Among the species that he enumerates as possessing twin cones only, there are certainly some in which single cones are regularly distributed. He found twin cones only in the retina of Scomber, Thynnus, Mugil, Gadus, Platessa, Hippo- glossus, Rhombus, Salmo trutta, Coregonus, Clupea harengus, and Clupea sprattus. He found both twin and single cones in Belone rostrata, Tinca, Ammodytes, Carassius, Abramis, Leuciscus. In the selachians examined, only rods are to be found. Ryder (95) discovered a regularity of arrangement of rods and cones in the larva of Salmo salar. The rods referred to are the single cones of authors. He believed this definite grouping of rods and cones to have some homology with the compound eye of the invertebrate. The arrangement he found is that of our pattern D. Beer (98) in a footnote calls attention to the fact that the. cone mosaic is surprisingly plain and regular in Scorpzena and Blennius, and can be seen with the ophthalmoscope. He fig- ures pattern F. Eigenmann (99) calls attention to the regularity of arrange- ment in Zygonectes. The pattern noted is Æ, a slight modifi- cation of that noted by Ryder in Salmo. He also found that in Chologaster the twins predominate over the single cones, and that in this genus the arrangement of the twins is a modifica- tion of pattern C. Finally Eigenmann and Hansell (99) in a short abstract state that the twin and single cones are arranged in a regular pattern, and that this pattern is either that described by Han- nover and by Tot for fishes, or a slight modification of this pattern, The first notice of a regular alternation of twin and single cones isthat by Hannover, and of the arrangement of twin and single cones, with a definite arrangement of the axes of the twin cones, is that by Ryder. The work begun by Mr. G. Hansell under my direction has been continued by Mr. Shafer and myself, and a number of "Species have been examined to date. Mr. Hansell’ s work is incorporated in the present paper, credit being given under the 112 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. head of the species he examined. We have found that the arrangement of the twin and single cones is remarkably con- stant for any given species,! and that the arrangement dif- fers considerably in different groups of fishes, but that the patterns in all of the species examined can be derived seri- atim from one or the other of the patterns. Pattern A, the pattern from which all others can most readily be derived, has not been found in any species as yet, but slight modifications of it have. In this simple pattern there are twin cones only, and the axes of alternate rows of twins are parallel, while those of neighboring rows are at right angles to each other. A series of squares are formed in this way whose sides are the extended axes of four twin B cones. Pattern B is produced by a slight twisting of the axes of the twins so that if extended they would form a rhomb. This pattern was found in Scorpena porcus. The angles of the rhomb measure 53° and es e CX -) 127?. Theactual conditions | found in the eye are shown in Fig. i. Pattern C is produced from B by a still further ae twisting of the axes of the twins till they are parallel 1 The variation of the pattern in different parts of the same eye will be dealt with in a later paper. No.398. CONES JN THE RETINA OF FISHES. II3 to each other. This pattern was found in Sedastodes elongatus (Fig. 2). A similar but less regular arrangement was found by Eigenmann (99) in Chologaster cornutus (Figs. 3, 4?). In the latter case there are also some single cones irregularly disposed among the twins. Pattern D is formed from 4 by the addition of a sin- gle cone in the center of the square. This pattern has been known longer than any other, and is evidently the one described by Müller for Perca, in which he says “ each single cone is separated from its neighbor by twins." It is D found in the American and the European species of Perca (Fig. 5), in which the single cones are of nearly the same size as the components of the twins, and in Micropterus (Fig. 9). It was also found in Etheostoma caeruleum (Fig. 6), Apomotis cyanellus (Fig. 7), and Pimephales notatus (Fig. 8). The three last eyes were pre- pared and the figures drawn by Mr. Hansell. The closeness of the ele- ments in the pattern and the size of the elements are seen to differ in the various species examined. Pattern Æ is but a slight modification of pattern D, in which some of the twins have pg migrated along the faces of the squares so that while their axes, if extended, still form squares, the lines separating the twins, if extended, form parallel lines instead of a continuous line. This condition was found by Eigenmann (99) in Zygo- nectes (Figs. 10, 11). Pattern F is formed by adding a single cone at each angle I14 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of the square of pattern A. This gives us rows which answer to the description of Müller quoted above, but this pattern evi- dently was not the one ob- served by him. This pattern was first figured by Beer (98) in Blennius, in which the large hollow square formed is filled by a great number of rods. The actual pattern found in the eye of Blennius was of interest (Fig. 12), inasmuch as double series of twin cones, one with axes horizontal and one with axes vertical, were, in several places, interpolated without disturbing the pattern already present. Pattern G is formed by adding a single cone in the center of the hollow square of pattern 7. This pattern was described by Ryder (95) in Salmo. A pattern but a little less regular was found in some larval Coregonus (Figs. 13-17).} asmuch as these specimens of Coregonus were of interest in several respects, a brief note may be added to the above. The material examined consisted of recently hatched larvae preserved in 70 per cent alcohol. The material came from the hatching station of the U. S. Fish Cóimniséloti. The heads were imbedded in paraffine, sectioned and stained in haemalum-eosine or in Biondi- Ehrlich's ‘ren ls mixture. Both methods gave excellent results. The twins scopo with the single cones in such a way that each is surrounded by four ividing plane points toward the space occupied by the single cone. The DESS is not mathematically accurate in the eye. Many of the twin cones are twisted, as it were, on their axes, and occasionally an extra single cone is to be found besides the single one in the unoccupied space between four twin cones, i.e. at the angles of the square. Each component of a twin cone consists of a slender outer segment, a much thicker body, and a more or less vacuolated base No. 398.] CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES, HIS Pattern 77 is the most complicated found so far. The square of pattern F is converted into a rhomb with angles of 60° and 120°, and a twin cone is added whose axis forms a diagonal between the nearer angles of the rhomb. This makes two equilateral triangles whose sides are formed by twin cones, and whose angles are occupied each by a single cone. This pat- tern has been found in Lucius (Figs. 18, 19). No suggestion is offered as to the significance of these various patterns or the causes that have led to the various modifications. In several species we have not so far been able to make out any regularity or, in fact, the nature of the cones. These are the catfishes and Catostomus, one of the suckers. resting on the outer limiting membrane (Fig. 1). Below this membrane and exactly opposite each cone is a conical nucleus with a diameter less than that of the cone. With Biondi-Ehrlich the nuclei are stained a blue purple and the rest of the structures pink, so that there is no difficulty in separating parts. The single cones differ from the twins in possessing a central deeper staining core in the outer segment (Fig. 13). Besides these nuclei there are a few others, more spherical and slightly larger, just within the inner ends of this layer of cells — the rod nuclei. This inner layer of cells seems most abundant about midway between the optic nerve and the ora serrata. There are about two and one-half times as many of the outer nuclei as of these inner. 116 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. (Eigenmann, Figs. 1-5 pas 10-19; Hansell, Figs. 6-9.) All the — were made fro the aid of the camera lucida. All but one of the figures were made under a NUR either of the Zeiss apochromatic 2 mm., or the Bausch and Lomb, — (1) P th ; (2) rods and cones; (3) outer nuclear layer; (4) outer reticular layer; PN bodisonial cells a inner nuclear layer; (7) i QUT Veil? a inner reticular layer ; (9) gan; SE le: (10) optic fibre layer; cz., cone Fic. r. porcus, 2mm Fic. x cbe an me of Sebastodes gem Fic. 3. — Vertical section €— the retina sot Vigite Ion sepals iferus, depigmented with chromic acid and stained wi ondi- Ehrlich's Fic. 4 2,5, c. — A series a ait T sections pisi do retina, 2 mm. (2) Passes from the outer margin of the retina the base of the cone bodies. (2) fuse through the basal — of > cones, (o gis through the cone nuclei. Perca, fz. Fic. 8.— The same in Pimephal. t Fic. 9. — same in Mier opterus — ve Fic. 10.— Vertical se g 7 tatus, 2 mm Fic. 11. — Tangential inet f th i t the depth of the cone bodies, showing th gement of the Des 2 mm. ~~ 6mm, mee in PL Fic. 12. 7 Zi Fics. 13-16. — Successive tangential sections through ede retina of a newly hatched ig The sections represent the posterior face of successive sections through the same part of th ina, 2 mm. Fic. 13. — Passes through the outer part of the inner segments of the cones and the inner ends of the € e Fic. 14. — Passes through the bodies of the cones and shows to best advantage the arrangement of the cones. Fic. I5. QGercti ro ing the i a ya A 4h. 3. Esh 3.2.9 ging to them. Fic. 16. TOR midde of met bim — ly hatched FOI sf. (?), 2 mm. Fic. 1 Fic. 18. E t of th Fic. 19. - Anse ent of the cones and cone cells in Luci icudatus, th the right, the cone cells on the left, of the figure, 2 mm. H No. 398.]} CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES. II7 C75 Sesjesg vun SCORES E YYY (o Q9 ELE E: 2980 96 o5 Oo PM fe 7 PSH ri : 39-7 $2906 $a o Ose o i oot; O99 o © 9 9 9 es o 3 ma Lo ee AA Boge e°s S e» € JQ "t qu. 2 e o O A ^ pS; i ana E E ad L) 4 LJ * bj f T "a . * LP MuR HEU : MC *9.s8« is No ae -. a 118 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. PAPERS MENTIONED. Those which we have not been able to examine directly are marked *. BEER, THEODOR. '98. Die Accommodation des Auges in der Thierreihe. Wiener. klin. Wochenschrift, Nr. 52. CAJAL, Ramon Y. '94. Die Retina der Wirbelthiere. Wiesbaden, 1894. CAJAL, RAMON Y. '96. Nouvelles contributions à l'étude histologique de la rétine. Journ. de l’ Anat. et de la Phys. Vol. xxxii, p. 481. EIGENMANN, C. H. '99. The Eyes of the Amblyopside. Arch. f. Ent- wickelungsmechantk. Bd. viii, p. 545. EIGENMANN, C. H., and HANSELL, G. '99. Preliminary Note upon the Arrangement of Rods and Cones in the Retina of Fishes. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. p. 167. E. Friis, G. '79. Fiskegiet. Kjgben GUENNELON. *1686. Nouvelles » A Republique des Lettres. Mars. Article VIII. HANNOVER, ADOLPH. '43. Mikroskopiske Undersögelser af Nervesystemet. Vid. Sel. Naturvid. og. Mathem. Afh. el. KRAUSE, W. *’68. Die membrana fenestrata der Retina. Krause, W. ‘86. Die Retina der Fische. Juternat. Monatsschr. f. nat. u. Hist. Bd. iii, pp. 8, 42 MULLER, H. '72. Gesammelte und hinterlassene Schriften zur Anatomie und Physiologie des Auges. Leipzig. NUNNELEY. *'58. Journ. Micr. Sci. Vol. vi, Pl. XI. RYDER, JOHN A. '95. An Arrangement of the Retinal Cells in the Eyes of Fishes partially Simulating Compound Eyes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila. p. 161. ZIEGENHAGEN, PAUL. '95. Beiträge zur Anatomie der Fischaugen. Berlin. NOTE ON THE GENITAL ORGANS OF ZAITHA. THOMAS H. MONTGOMERY, Jr. THE hemipterous genus Zaitha has a remarkable structure of the inner genital organs, particularly in the male, which deserves to be made known. Leidy (History and Anatomy of the Hemipterous Genus Belostoma) assumes, as I believe most, if not all, entomologists have subsequently done, that Belos- toma and Zaitha are closely related genera of the same family. He states (/oc. cit., p. 59): ** The principal marks of distinction between Belostoma and Perthostoma (Zaitha) are in the form of the promuscis; the form of the antennae; the form, com- parative size, and situation of the patch of pubescence on the hemielytra; the form of the posterior tibiz ; and the size and form of the caudal setze." Leidy gives a figure (Fig. 6) of the male genitalia of Belos- toma haldemanum, and describes the testes as “irregularly rounded masses, about two lines in diameter, . . . composed (each) of a single long convoluted tube. From the testicle passes off the vas deferens ; at first narrow, it gradually enlarges aS it passes backwards, is a little contorted, and finally joins the one of the opposite side to form the ductus ejaculatorius." Very probably Leidy assumed that these organs were similarly constructed in Zaitha, for he makes no reference to the latter in this regard. An examination of the male genital organs of Zaitha has Shown me that they are very different from those of Belostoma, as described by Leidy (I have not been able to procure Belos- toma for personal study). Some fifty malés of Zaitha were dissected by me recently (November and December), and the genitalia in all showed the following structure (Fig. B). Each testis (the testes are distinct from one another) is a large organ Composed of five capsules or follicles (2 and 3). Each capsule 1s thickened in its anterior portion, but the posterior three-fifths 119 120 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of its course is represented by a narrow tube. These five cap- sules are loosely connected together by tracheze, but there is no tunic investing them; and their proximal ends are con- nected by terminal fibres (1). Distally they connect (at 4) and so join the vas deferens (5); and the vas deferens of the right side joining with that of the left, these internal organs termi- nate in the ductus ejaculatorius (6). The vasa are thin- walled, transparent tubes, considerably more delicate than the testes. In the drawing (Fig. B) I have represented the follicles more separated than they usu- ally lie. In this description I calla follicle of the testis the two portions numbered 2 and 3 in the figure. . In the testes 2 Studied in December both these parts are filled with spermatozoa, and I can find on sections no evidences of earlier spermatogenetic stages; consequently, the testes must be considered physiologically mature. But is the portion marked 3 really a portion of a tes- TN ticular follicle, or is it not rather to be considered a vas deferens? If the latter alternative be correct, we should regard the five follicles (2) composing each testis to possess each a separate vas deferens (3), these five vasa deferentia joining posteriorly (at 4) to form a single vas (5). This point can be determined only by an examination of the organs in young individuals, with regard to whether in early stages spermatogonia and spermatocytes occur in the parts marked 3. The ovaries differ in appearance according to the season of the year, Ze. the state of growth of the ova. In June the ovarioles (follicles) are beaded in appearance. The small ova- "n No. 398.] THE GENITAL ORGANS OF ZAITHA. 121 ries in December (Fig. A) have much the appearance of testes. Each ovariole is proximally attenuated (3), then enlarges (4), and distally is continued as a narrow tube (5). Perhaps, as in the testicle, the portion marked 5 should be regarded as an ovi- duct rather than a portion of an ovariole (follicle) ; in this case the portion marked 6 would be the undivided portion of the oviduct. Terminally is the vagina (7). (Fig. A represents all five ovarioles of the left ovary, but for the sake of clearness, only three ovarioles of the right ovary are shown; 8, the rectum ; 9, the terminal ventral plate of the abdomen; 10, the outline of the posterior edge of the abdomen.) Proximally, the two ovaries are connected together by a fibrous thread (2, thread of Müller); and this thread is connected by another thread (1) to the pericardial wall The dimensions in Fig. B Should be doubled to be in the same scale of drawing as Fig. A. ; From this description it will be seen that the female genital organs of Zaitha and Belostoma are quite similar, but that the male organs are very different. In Belostoma each testis con- sists of a single convoluted follicle; in Zaitha, of five distinct and well-separated, nearly straight follicles. Léon Dufour (Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les Hémiptores) has not only given a most admirable description of the genitalia of Hemiptera, but also has insisted on their high value in taxonomy. Their worth seems to me also to be of great importance for classification. Consequently, when Belostoma and Zaitha differ so markedly in the structure of their male reproductive organs, we must conclude that these genera are by no means so closely related as they have been assumed to be; that in fact it might be proper to separate them into different families. Zaitha shows more relationship to Nepa in these structural characters than to Belostoma. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA. WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. MAYNARD M. METCALF. Dr. ARTHUR WILLEy has made such valuable contributions to our knowledge of the morphology of the lower Chordata that it is with high expectations one opens his recent memoir upon the Enteropneusta. He describes in considerable detail many points in the anatomy of three species of Ptychodera (two of them new), of two species of Spengelia (one new), and of a Tornaria, all from the South Pacific, and also describes as new and distinct species belonging to the genus Ptychodera two West Indian forms, from Bimini (in the Bahamas) and from Jamaica. This anatomical part of the memoir is full of details of considerable interest to the student of the Enteropneusta, but hardly of such a nature as to permit description in this review. The author's observations, however, serve him as a foundation upon which to rest some very far-reaching theo- retical conclusions, and to these it may be profitable to direct attention, referring to so much of the anatomy as may be necessary for a correct understanding of the basis for these conclusions. Willey’s first proposition is that “the gonads and gill slits were primarily unlimited in number and coextensive in distri- bution, the gonads having a zonary disposition and the gill slits Occupying the interzonal depressions. The primary function of the gill slits was the oxygenation of the gonads, their sec- ondary function being the respiration of the individual.” In Support of this contention that in the lower Chordata the series of gonads once extended much further forward, while the series of gill slits extended much further backward, the gill slits lying between the gonads and serving chiefly for their oxygenation, : * Willey, A. Zovlogical Results. Pt.iii, Enteropneusta from the South Pacific, with Notes on the West Indian Species. Cambridge, University Press, May, 1899. 123 I24 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. the author urges (1) that in the Enteropneusta and Cephalo- chordata the number of gill slits is indefinite, new ones being added posteriorly throughout life; (2) that the number of gill slits has become reduced not only among the Vertebrata, but even within the group of the Enteropneusta, since one species, Ptychodera auriantiaca, has as many as seven hundred pairs, while another species, P. mzmeta, never has more than forty pairs, these representing the two extremes so far as known; (3) that in the intestinal pores and ciliated grooves of certain Enteropneusta we have vestiges of the former posterior gill slits of the now abbreviated series. The intestinal pores occur in six species belonging to four genera. These pores may lie either close behind the branchial region or at the posterior end of the hepatic region. Schimkewitsch and Spengel have sug- gested that these pores may in some way be related to gill slits. In the Ptychoderidz the pores are absent, but instead of them we have a pair of ciliated grooves extending from the anterior end of the hepatic region nearly to the posterior end of the body. In two species “these are not simple longitudinal fur- rows, but undergo metameric or interannular sacculations," the saccules * strongly resembling gill pouches” not yet open to the exterior Willey believes that the restriction of the gill slits to the anterior part of the body and of the gonads to the middle portion of the trunk took place after the development of a blood vascular system, which rendered the gonads no longer directly dependent upon the gill slits for oxygenation. Certain species'of Enteropneusta have two proboscis canals connecting anteriorly with the proboscis coelom and opening posteriorly by two pores on the dorsal side of the stalk of the proboscis, near where it joins the collar. The distal extremity of each of these canals may be swollen to form a considerable vesicle, or “end sac." Secondarily, in some species one (or both ?) of the proboscis canals may be interrupted, so that the end sac, while opening to the exterior, has no longer any com- munication with the proboscis coelom. In certain adults, though not in the young, of one species, Ptychodera carnosa, Willey found that one of the two proboscis pores ** may open ” not onto the No.398. WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 125 posterior part of the dorsal surface of the proboscis stalk, as in other species, but ** into the base of the medullary tube, some- what behind the anterior neuropore.”’ * By a legitimate mental abstraction" Dr. Willey derives from this fact a “theory, as to the broad truth of which” he is himself “quite convinced," and which he states in these words: * The proboscis pore of the Enteropneusta is repre- sented by and is homologous with the inner or cerebral open- ing of the neuro-hypophysial apparatus of the ascidian larva ; the end sac of the Enteropneusta typically communicates inter- nally with the ccelom, but within the limits of the group we find signs of its emancipation from the ccelom ; the hypophysial canal of the ascidian larva has no relations with the body cavity, but it opens at one end into the medullary tube (cerebral vesi- cle) and at the other into the branchial sac at the base of the buccal cavity. Thus a special significance is given to the peculiar mode of origin of the ascidian subneural apparatus (gland and duct), and an explanation is forthcoming as to the apparent absence of anything like a proboscis pore in the ascid- ian larva.” This adds another and startling hypothesis to the several that have been advanced as to the homologies of the ascidian neural gland. Allow me to refer for a moment to these. Masterman's recent attempt to homologize the so-called noto- chordal pouch of the Hemichordata with the ascidian neural gland seems to imply a failure to understand the real nature of the latter organ. The notochordal pouch, so far as we can judge, is endodermal, a derivative of the pharynx. The neural gland of ascidians! is derived from the central nervous sys- tem, its duct is the anterior end of the central neural tube, and its aperture is usually regarded as the neuropore. The neural gland has no known relation to the endoderm, except that it opens into a portion of the pharynx which may be of endoder- mal origin, but which there is some reason to believe may be derived from the stomodzeum. 1 I say the neural gland of ascidians rather than of Tunicata, because the neu- tal gland of certain tunicates, the Salpide, is of such a peculiar nature that it is difficult to compare it with that of the ascidians. * 126 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Willey's attempt to homologize a portion of one or both of the proboscis canals! and their pores with the ascidian neural gland seems even a greater exercise of the imaginative faculty, for these structures in Ptychodera are not only mesodermal, but are a definite portion of the coelom. If they be homolo- gous with one or both of the collar pores and collar canals, as seems not improbable, then they must be regarded as nephridial in their relationships, for Masterman has clearly demonstrated the nephridial nature of the collar canals in Cephalodiscus. Willey, however, does not claim that the proboscis canals and collar canals of Ptychodera have been derived from the ascid- ian neural gland, but rather that the gland in the ascidians has been modified from a more primitive condition similar to that in certain adult specimens of Ptychodera carnosa. How such a proposition can be reconciled with the facts of the develop- ment of the gland in the ascidians, where it is formed wholly at the expense of the larval neural canal, it is very difficult to see. Willey's statement that the * hypophysial canal" of the ascidian larva “opens into the medullary tube” is hardly accu- rate. It is morphologically a part of the medullary tube. Dr. Willey must have had these facts clearly in mind, for he has himself published one of the most valuable descriptions of the ontogenetic development of the ascidian neural gland.” The whole question of the homologies of the neural gland of tunicates is an exceedingly complicated and difficult one. It is by no means certain even that this gland is represented in the verte- brates by either of the two portions of that compound structure which is called the hypophysis cerebri, yet this homology pro- posed by Julin is comparatively simple, since the ascidian gland and one part of the vertebrate hypophysis are of neural origin. Willey's theory is much more startling, for it claims a genetic relationship between a portion of the central nervous system in ascidians (the neural gland) and a portion of the coelom (the proboscis canals) in Enteropneusta. Yet the only foundation for the theory which I am able to find in his paper 1 Willey regards the condition with two proboscis pores as more primitive than that with one. 2 Several further objections to the proposed homology might be urged, but it seems hardly wise to treat the theory too seriously. No. 398] WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 127 is the fact that in certain adult individuals of one species of Ptychodera he finds sometimes one, sometimes the other, of the two proboscis pores opening “into the base of the medullary tube somewhat behind the anterior neuropore." In younger specimens he finds the single median proboscis pore opening somewhat in front of the “anterior neuropore.” The occasional peculiarity he has observed in Ptychodera carnosa seems a rather narrow apex on which to found so broad a pyramid of theory. Willey's third proposition as to regional pores and neph- ric tubules is best presented by copying his own table, which is self-interpreting, with the one explanation that the organs men- tioned in the right-hand column are not intended to be repre- sented as serially homologous with those in the preceding columns. Group A S EssENTIAL ORGANS * RCHIMERIC SYSTEM. or EXCRETION Ideal Pos : Mesomeric Opisthomeric | Regional pore . + » |E IOLVOIIICIIC pores pores pores canals Entero- Truncal pores i 1 1 pneusta Eosigecn e (Spengelia) — Cephalo- Przoral pit Hatschek's Lankester’s | Boveri’s nephric chorda jand Olfactory pit) nephridium | brown funnels tubules Renal vesicles: Urochorda Neuro-hypophy- | Organ of Bo- sis (in part)! janus(Molgu- lidze) A Pronephros Vertebrata dh Mesonephros Un en Metanephros In some of the Ptychoderidae Willey found that the collar nerve tube does not completely separate from the dorsal epider- mis from which it arose, but that there are partially hollow con- necting strands running from the nerve tube to the mid-dorsal line of the collar, The more or less interrupted lumina of these 1 In part because coelomic element is wanting. 128 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vor. XXXIV. hollow strands may in certain cases connect with the lumen of the central nerve tube. These hollow strands or ** roots of the Ptychoderide,”’ Willey says, “are genetically related to the epi- physial complex of Craniota; in the crucial nuchal region of the Enteropneusta are, therefore, to be found not the actual but the nearest possible approximation to the actual primordia of the . . . epiphysis cerebri of Craniota.” Of course this may be true, yet it seems questionable if it be “ profitable for doctrine." Willey's fifth proposition he states as follows: “Just as the medullary tube of the collar is admittedly an invaginated por- tion of the dorsal nerve trunk,! so the medullary folds which arise and fuse to form the medullary tube are to be regarded as specializations of the anterior portion of the pleural folds which are retained in the Ptychoderidz as the genital pleura.” * The genital folds of Enteropneusta, the atrial folds of Amphioxus, and the medullary folds of Vertebrata belong to the system of pleural folds of the body wall, and are differentiated from a common primordium." In this connection it may be well to remember that Amphioxus has both medullary folds and atrial folds, and that there is no apparent relation between them. Willey's sixth proposition refers to a recession of the “ pos- terior neuropore " until it reaches and becomes associated with the blastopore (** primitive anus ”) to form the neurenteric canal. I do not, however, clearly understand the terms he uses. Dr. Willey next discusses briefly the different regions of pseudo-chondroid tissue, z.e., ‘stomochord, pygochord, and pleurochords." Willey points out that the tongue bars of the gill region of the Enteropneusta “are not (ontogenetically) secondary, as they are in Amphioxus," and that * by their development, size, and 1 Cf. Morgan (Journal of Morphology, vol. ix, 1894, p. 74). “ We seein Balano- glossus that the ixvaginated dorsal nerve cord can correspond only to the anterior end of the nerve cord of Amphioxus, and that the superficial dorsal nerve path, stretching through the gill region, thence to the end of the body, must be the homologue of the remainder of the nerve cord of Amphioxus." No. 398. ] WILLE Y ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 129 vascularity, they obviously constitute collectively the essential organs of respiration. In Amphioxus the functional impor- tance of the tongue bars is greatly diminished ; they are smaller in size and lower in vascularity than the primary bars, and their development is secondary." In certain of the Enteropneusta the ventral edges of the gill slits are swollen on the pharyngeal surface, and these thickened areas of the walls of the successive gill slits are continuous, form- ing a pair of lateral ciliated pharyngeal ridges. These “arch round in front to unite in the epibranchial band," and represent the endostyle of Amphioxus and the Tunicata. In one part of his memoir Dr. Willey describes certain phe- nomena of regeneration in Ptychodera flava, summarizing them as follows: (1) * When regeneration occurs in the region of the genital pleurz the collar is regenerated from the pleurze. (2) “ The collar nerve tube is formed by the fusion of true medullary folds which are differentiated from the pleural folds. (3) * The zones of the collar are differentiated from the annu- lations of the body wall. (4) “ In regenerating individuals the right and left proboscis pores are approximately equal. (5) “In regenerating individuals the lumen of the stomo- chord! is at first entire." I trust the absence of comment in this review upon some of the proposed theories will not be interpreted as indicating my acceptance of these theories. The paper is noteworthy for the boldness and confidence with which it sets forth startling propositions. THE Woman’s CoLLEGE OF BALTIMORE, January 9, 1900. 1 Notochord of Bateson: SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. VII. THE CYCLOMETOPOUS or CANCROID CRABS OF NORTH AMERICA. MARY J. RATHBUN. In the Cyclometopa the carapace is usually broader than long, regularly arched in front, and not rostrate; the epistome is short and transverse; the outer maxillipeds have the fifth joint articulated at the inner front angle of the fourth; there are nine pairs of branchiz, their efferent channels opening at the sides of the endostome or palate; and the genital organs of the male are inserted at the bases of the last pair of trunk legs. This tribe contains many well-known crabs, including all the large edible species of the United States — the common “blue crab," or Callinectes, of our eastern coast, the stone crab (Menippe) of the Southern States, and the large Cancer magister, or common crab, of the Pacific coast. The Cyclometopa, as represented in North America, may conveniently be subdivided into three families: first the Can- cride, containing the genus Cancer with eleven species, some of which attain a large size and which frequent rocky and sandy bottoms, and the genera Telmessus and Erimacrus, hairy crabs inhabiting Bering Sea and the North Pacific and furnish- ing food for fur seals. The remainder of the crabs of cancroid shape, that is, trans- versely oval or hexagonal and without projecting spines or natatory feet, are included in the family Pilumnidz, many of Which are small species inhabiting muddy qmd or living under Stones or in crevices of rocks or sponges. The family Portunidze, or the swimming aie have, with one €xception, the last pair of legs developed into a swimming 131 132 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. paddle. They include the widespread pelagic Portunus sayi, the “lady crab," or “calico crab” (Ovalipes ocellatus), and the edible Callinectes. In the key which follows, the same terms are employed to indicate geographical distribution as in Professor Kingsley's keys to the Macrura, with two additions. Although the species of the southern half of Florida are excluded from the key as belonging properly to the West Indian fauna, those of the remainder of the Gulf coast are included. It has also seemed advisable to indicate by the letters CH those species whose northern limit is Cape Hatteras. The characters used are as follows : 4 Alaska south. P Puget Sound to San Francisco. D Monterey to San Diego. W Atlantic coast south to Cape Cod. M Cape Cod to North Carolina. S South Carolina to Florida. G Gulf of Mexico. CH Cape Hatteras, northern limit. The bathymetrical limit is 100 fathoms. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THE TRIBE CYCLOMETOPA. A Antennulæ folded longitudinally. Outer maxillipeds long, overlapping the epistome . CANCRIDÆ Latreille, Alcock A’, Antennule folded idineversely or ‘ obliquely transversely. Outer maxil- lipeds usually not overlapping the epistome. B. Last pair of legs not modified for swimming PILUMNIDÆ Leach = XANTHID# Alcock B’. Last pair of legs usually modified for swimming, with the last two joints compressed, very broad and paddle-like. Carapace widest at the last antero-lateral marginal spine. Usually from 5 to 9 antero-lateral spines or teeth . . . PoRTUNID# Leach, Miers KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY CANCRIDA. 4. Buccal cavity completely closed by the outer maxillipeds . . Cancer A’, Buccal cavity not completely closed by the outer maxillipe B. Carapace broader than long, pentagonal. . nae Telmessus B. Carapace longer than broad, suboval . . . . . Erimacrus a No. 398.) WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 133 THE SPECIES OF CANCRIDA. Genus Cancer Linnæus. Key to Species. A. Ambulatory legs very broad and flat, especially those of the last pair C. magister Dana APD A’, Ambulatory legs of moderate width. B. Fronto-orbital width small, about one-fifth width of carapace. Front strongly advanced beyond outer orbital angles C. productus Randall APD B'. Fronto-orbital width more than one-fifth width of carapace. Front not greatly advanced beyond outer orbital angles. Fic. 1. — Cancer magister. C. Color on the fingers extending from the li not more than half the length of the fingers. D. Carpus of cheliped with two spines at inner angle, one below the other. E. Antero-lateral teeth shallow, projecting little from the carapace. Carapace very slightly areolated | C. gracilis Dana APD E’. Antero-lateral teeth strong, projecting well out from . the carapace. F. Fronto-orbital width one-third the width of the carapace. Carapace strongly areolated C. gibbosulus (de Haan) APD F’. Fronto-orbital width nearly half the width of the carapace. Carapace slightly areolated C. jordani Rathbun, sp. nov.,! D : 2e U.: S ies Mus. No. 22868, Monterey Bay, Harold Heath, collector. The ne species noticed in this paper will be described in full in the Proceedings of the Parr pn National Museum. 134 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. D’. Carpus of chelipeds with one spine at inner angle. E. Antero-lateral teeth with dentate or spinulous margins. F. Crests on hand feeble, granulate C. anthony? Rathbun D F'. Crests on hand strong, the upper ones spinulous C. borealis Stimpson NM E'. Antero-lateral teeth with margins simply granulate C. irroratus Say NMS C'. Color on the fingers extending from the tip more than half the length of the fingers. D. Fronto-orbital width one-third the width of the carapace . antennarius Stimpson APD D’. Fromto-orbital width nearly one-half the width of the carapace. Carapace strongly areolated. E -G Fie. 2. — Tel het 5 E. Front truncate. Movable finger almost entirely k-colored . . C. oregonensis (Miers) APD E'. Front not truncate. Movable finger not more than two-thirds dark-colored . C. amphietus Rathbun D Genus Telmessus White - + + « « WZ, chetragonus (Tilesius) AP Genus Erimacrus Benedict’ o + + « « + + HE. tsenbeckit (Brandt) A KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PILUMNID.;E. A. The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels, if present, are low, and are confined to the posterior part of the endostome, never reaching to the anterior boundary of the buccal cavern. B. Fronto-orbital border less than half the greatest width of the carapace. No. 398.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 135 C. Antero-lateral margin continued to the angle of the buccal cavity. Carapace eroded . os. yptoxanthus Cc’. Antero-lateral margin ending at he orbit. D. A deep notch in the anterior border of the merus of the external maxillipeds. Carapace nodose . . Daira D’. No deep notch in the anterior border of the merus of the external maxillipeds. Carapace not nodose cloxanthops B. Fronto-orbital border half or more than half the greatest width of the carapace. C. Chelipeds with a circular cavity on the anterior margin between the carpus and manus . . . . Carpoporus C. Chelipeds without a circular TECUM on the anterior margin. D. Carpal joints of ambulatory M armed above with a horned or lunate crest . , ."'Hetmcues D’. Carpal joints of ambulatory igsi not pee with a horned crest. E. Carapace tresevecir oval. F. Ambulatory legs spiny or ud on the upper border Xanthias FK Abols beri not eee nor iioii on the upper border. G. Four or more well-marked antero-lateral teeth, excluding the orbi Leptodius G’. Four antero-lateral teeth (besides the or- : bital), the first of which is low and more or less fused with the orbital urypanopeus E'. Carapace more or less hexagonal or subquadrate. F. Carpal and propodal joints of ambulatory legs more or less cristate. . . Lophopanopeus F*. Carpal and propodal joints of ambulatory legs not cristate. G. Ambulatory legs spinulous. pip erat G’. Ambulatory legs not spinulous. H. Three antero-lateral teeth besides the orbital, the second normal tooth, or that next the orbital, being obsolete Glyptoplax LP. Four antero-lateral teeth besides the orbital, the second normal tooth, or that next the orbital, being some- times partially united with the or- bital, but never obsolete. 136 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. J. Terminal segment of abdomen of male oblong. Carapace sub- quadrate, narrow (length about three-fourths width), approach- ing the Catometopa. Prominent transverse dorsal ridges Rhithropanopeus J'. Terminal segment of abdomen of male subtriangular. Carapace when subquadrate, wider than the preceding. K. Front arcuate. Carapace hexagonal | Neopanope K'. Front with truncate or sinu- ous lobes L. Front very narrow and advanced. Postero- lateral margins strongly converging. Carapace hexagonal exapanopeus L'. Frontof moderate width. Postero-ateral mar- gins not strongly con- verging. Carapace subquadrate Eupanopeus A’, The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels extend to the anterior boundary of the buccal cavern and are often very strong. B. Fronto-orbital border just about half or less than half the greatest breadth of the carapace, which is broad and transversely oval. C. Antero-lateral margin much shorter than the postero-lateral. Front with two simple lobes . . Eurytium C. Antero-lateral and Pee hargin Fhia Front with two lobulate lobes . . Menippe B’. Fronto-orbital border much more tale half na: greatest breadth of the carapace. C. Carapace nodose . . . Lobopilumnus C. Carapace not nodose, but often n granulate or spinous, and usually hairy . . . . . > Pilumnus No. 398. ] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 137 THE SPECIES OF PILUMNID&. Genus Glyptoxanthus A. Milne Edwards . . . G. erosus (Stimpson) G Genus Daira de Haan ou 4 ee s. o3 D. americana Stimpson? D Genus Cycloxanthops Rathbun . . C. novemdentatus (Lockington)? D Genus Carpoporus Stimpson. . . Genus Heteractaea Lockington Æ. /unata (Milne Edwards and Lucas) D Genus Xanthias Rathbun . . . . . . . 4. taylori (Stimpson) D Genus Leptodius A. Milne Edwards Z. agassizii A. Milne Edwar M(CH)G Genus Eurypanopeus A. Milne Edwards. . Æ. depressus (Smith) MSG Genus Lophopanopeus Rathbun. Key to Species. A. Upper margin of meral joints of ambulatory legs not spinulous. B. Hands smooth, without lobe or tooth on upper margin L. bellus (Stimpson) APD B’. Hands with one or more lobes or teeth on upper margin. C. Carpus of cheliped smooth or nearly so. D. Color of pollex running far back on hand i L. frontalis Rathbun D D’. Color of pollex not running back on han e L. heathii Rathbun, sp. nov.,? D C. Carpus of cheliped very rough. D. Carpal joints of ambulatory legs strongly bilobed. E. Carpus of cheliped covered with reticulating ridges enclosing pits of irregular shape L. leucomanus (Lockington) D E’. Carpus of chelipeds covered with tubercles L. diegensis Rathbun, sp. nov,* D D’. Carpal joints of ambulatory legs slightly bilobed L. lockingtoni Rathbun, sp. nov., D K California, on the authority of A. Milne Edwards. i Mr. S. J. Holmes has compared specimens (not types) determined by Lock- ington as Xantho novemdentatus, with C. californiensis, and pronounces them the same. If the species are identical, Lockington’s measurements of his type must be erroneous. . Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 22870, Monterey Bay, Harold Heath, collector. Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 4281, San Diego, 10 fathoms, H. Hemphill, collector. s Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 19973, San Diego Bay, Steamer Albatross, collector. Xanthodes latimanus Lockington is probably a Lophopanopeus, but is not deter- minable with certainty. I 38 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. A’. Upper margin of meral joints of ambulatory legs spinulous L. distinctus Rathbun G Genus Micropanope Stimpson. Key to Species. A. Second normal tooth of the antero-lateral margin absent M. sculptipes Stimpson SG A’. Second normal tooth of the antero-lateral margin present M. xanthiformis (A. Milne Edwards) 27(CZ7) Genus Glyptoplax Smith. Key to Species. A, Last tooth of lateral margin small but well marked. Median lobe of the upper orbital margin strongly arcuate G. smithii A. Milne Edwards M(CH)G A’, Last tooth of lateral margin rudimentary. Median lobe of the upper orbital margin subtruncate. . G. pusilla (A. Milne Edwards) G : Genus Rhithropanopeus Rathbun. . . . R. harrisii (Gould) WMSG Genus Neopanope A. Milne Edwards. | Key to Species. A. Dactylus of larger hand with a large basal tooth N. Pere (Kingsley) G A’, Dactylus of larger hand without a large basal too B. Fingers white or light horn-color. KERESE teeth sharp and much produced . N. texana (Stimpson) SG B’. Fingers black or divi colend, in we males. Antero-lateral teeth blunter and less produced . . W. texana sayi (Smith) MS Genus Hexapanopeus Rathbun H. angustifrons (Benedict and Rathbun) MSG Genus Eupanopeus Rathbun. Key to Species. A, Carpus of cheliped with a groove parallel with its distal margin. Color of immovable finger not eee. beyond the line of color on the movable finger. . . E. occidentalis (Saussure) S A’, Carpus of cheliped without VEO: Color of immovable finger extend- ing beyond the line of color on the movable finger E. herbstii (Milne Edwards) MSG Genus Eurytium Stimpson. . . . . . . . E: limosum (Say) MS Genus Menippe de Haan. Key to Species. A. Surface of carapace almost smooth. Antero-lateral teeth or lobes shallow or little projecting . . M. mercenaria (Say) M(CH)SG No. 398.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 139 A’. Surface of carapace anteriorly nodose. Antero-lateral teeth strong, projecting well out from the carapace . M. nodifrons Stimpson S Genus Lobopilumnus A. Milne Edwards . . . Z. agassizii Stimpson G Genus Pilumnus Leach. Key to Species. 4. Carapace concealed by a short, thick pubescence, which, when removed, discloses tubercles on the gastric and hepatic regions pannosus Rathbun G A’. Carapace, when covered by a short, thick pubescence, not having the gastric region tuberculate. B. Superior orbital border with one or few long spines. C. Superhepatic region unarmed P. spinohirsutus (Lockington) D C. Superhepatic region armed with spines or spinules P. sayi Rathbun M(CH)SG D, Superior orbital border either entire or armed with denticles or spinules. C. Outer surface of smaller hand only partially covered with tubercles or spines . P. lacteus Stimpson G C’, Outer surface of smaller bind entirely covered with tubercles orspnes . . . . . . + £&. floridanus Stimpson G KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PORTUNIDE. A. Last pair of legs broad, modified into swimming paddles, B. Carapace decidedly transverse; antero-lateral margins cut into nine teeth. . C. Movable portion of the antenna excluded from the orbital cavity by a prolongation of the basal joint of the antenna Charybdella C. Movable portion of the antenna not excluded from the orbit. D. No longitudinal ridge on the palate . . . . Arenæus D’. A longitudinal ridge on the palate. E. Abdomen of male L-shaped . . . . Callinectes E'. Abdomen of male triangular. . . . . Portunus B'. Carapace not very broad ; antero-lateral margins cut into five teeth. . C. Last tooth of antero-lateral margin developed into a spine, longer than the other teeth or spines . . - Bathynectes C'. All antero-lateral teeth similar . . 2. > Ovalipes A". Last pair of legs narrow, with dactylus Lisceobin . + + Carcinides THE SPECIES OF PORTUNID#. Genus Charybdella Rathbun . . . . . . C. rubra (Lamarck) S Genus Arenzus Dana TRES Uer A. cribrarius (Lamarck) MSG 140 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Genus Callinectes Stimpson. . Key to Species. A. Front with four intraorbital teeth. B. Median pair of frontal teeth without an accessory tooth . sapidus Rathbun NMSG B'. Median pair of frontal teeth, each with an accessory tooth on its inner margin . . ., C. sapidus acutidens Rathbun SG A’. Front with six intraorbital ene B. Intramedial region broad, its anterior width about three times its length. Posterior TEN of antero-lateral teeth longer than the anterlot . . . C.ornatus Ordway SG B'. Intramedial region narrow, its anterior c idth about twice its length. econd to sixth antero-lateral teeth equilateral C. dane Smith SG Genus Portunus Fabricius. Key to Spectes. A. Carapace wide; antero-lateral margin the arc of a circle with long radius, whose center is near the posterior margin of the carapace Subgenus Portunus = Neptunus de Haan Fic. 3. — Callinectes sapidus. B. First eight lateral spines or teeth subequal. C. Front with six intraorbital teeth P. sayi (Gibbes) WMSG c Front with eight intraorbital pun P. gibbesii (Stimpson) MSG B’. Second, fourth, and sixth lateral teeth or spines smaller than the others P. xantusii (Stimpson) PD A’. Carapace narrow ; beo E, narii the arc of a circle with short radius, whose center is near the center of the cardiac region Subgenus Achelous de Haan (including Helena and Amphitrite de Haan). No. 398.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. I4I B. Carapace with rounding posterior corners. C. Posterior of the lateral spines of the carapace exceeding the other spines or teeth but little if at all. D. Three spines on manus P. anceps (Saussure) M(CHY} D’. Two spines on manus. E. Superior outer surface of manus smooth, iridescent P. ordwayi (Stimpson) G E'. Superior outer surface of manus with a longitudinal, tuberculated ridge. Fic. 5.—Carcinides manas. F. Front with eight intraorbital teeth P. spinimanus (Latreille) MSG F’.. Front with six intraorbital teeth P. depressifrons (Stimpson) S 142 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. C’. Posterior of the lateral spines of the carapace much longer . than the other lateral spines or teeth P. seb@ (Milne Edwards) MC ) B’, Carapace with sharp posterior angles P. spinicarpus (Stimpson) M(CH)G Genus Bathynectes Stimpson . . . . B. superba (Costa) M Genus Ovalipes Rathbun. . . . . . : serat NE NMSG Genus Carcinides Rathbun . . . . . . . . C.enas (Linnzus) M BIBLIOGRAPHY. Say, THOMAS. ‘17. An Account of the Crustacea of the United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. irr Vol. i, pt. i, pp. 57-63, 65- 8o, 97-101, Pl. IV. Say, THOMAS. '18. Appendix to the Account of the Crustacea of the United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Vol. i, pt. ii, 445-458. MILNE Epwarps, H. '34 Histoire naturelle des crustacés. Vol. E chap. iv, pp. 363-468, and atlas. GOULD, A. A. '4l A Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts. . Crustacea. Pp. 321—341 GIBBES, LEWIS R. '50. On the Carcinological Collections of the United States. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Vol. iii, pp. 167-201. DANA, JAMES D. '52. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi- tion. Vol. i, pp. 142-306, and atlas. STIMPSON, WILLIAM. '57. Crustacea and Echinodermata of the Pacific Shores of North America. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vi, PP. 444-532. STIMPSON, WILLIAM, '59. Notes on North American cpr No. I. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York. Vol. vii, pp. 49-93, P d WiLLIAM. '60. Notes on North American rait No. Il. Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York. Vol. vii, pp. 176-246, Pls. I, v. ORDWAY, ALBERT. '63. Monograph of the Genus Callinectes. /our7. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vii, pp. 567-583. MILNE EDWARDS, A. '65. Études zoologiques sur les crustacés récents de la famille des cancériens. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris. Tome i, pp. 177-308, Pls. XI-XIX SmitH, S. I. '69. Notes on New or Litt: Knows Species of American Cancroid Crustacea. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. xii, pp- 274-289. No. 398.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 143 MILNE Epwarps, A. '73-80. Les crustacés de la région Mexicaine. VERRILL, A. E., and SMITH, S. I. '74. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound. Rept. U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1871 and 1872. LocKiNGTON, W. N. '77. Remarks on the Crustacea of the West Coast of North America, with a Catalogue of the Species in the Museum of the California Academy of Sciences. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Vol. vii, pp. 94—108, Sept. 4, 1876. KINGSLEY, J.S. '78-79. List of Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic Coast, whose Range embraces Fort Macon. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia for 1878. Pp. 316-328 (1878), 329-330 (1879). SMITH, S. I. '79. The Stalk-Eyed Crustaceans of the Atlantic Coast of North America North of Cape Cod. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci. Vol.v, pp. 27-136, Pls. VIII-XII. KINGSLEY, J. S. ’80. On a Collection of Crustacea from Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for 1879. Vol. xxxi, pp. 383-427. RATHBUN, RICHARD. '84. The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States. Crustaceans. Pt. v, pp. 763-830. Pls. CCL CCLXXYV, in separate volume. SMITH, S. I. '86. Report on the Decapod Crustacea of the Albatross Dredgings off the East Coast of the United States during the Sum- mer and Autumn of 1884. Rept. U: S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1885. Pp. 605—705. BENEDICT, JAMEs E., and RATHBUN, Mary J. '91. The Genus Panopeus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xiv, No. 858, pp. 355-385, Pls. XIX- BENEDICT, JAMES E. '92. Corystoid Crabs of the Genera Telmessus and Erimacrus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xv, No. 900, pp. 223-230, Pls. XXV-XXVII. NEwcownE, C. F. '93. List of Crustacea (Brachyura and part of Ano- mura) in the Provincial Museum of British Columbia, with notes on their distribution. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. British Columbia, 1893. Pp. 19-30, Pls. II-V. RATHBUN, Mary J. '96. The Genus Callinectes. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xviii, No. 1070, pp. 349-375, Pls. XII-XXVIII. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. Anthropological Notes. — The rate of erosion of the gorge of Niagara has been variously estimated, and the length of time that has elapsed since the river began its cutting has been shortened or lengthened to correspond. Owing to the problems connected with the relations of early man in America to the glacial epoch, the dis- cussion of the value of Niagara as a chronometer, in No. 4, Vol. XXXI, of the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, will be of interest to anthropologists. Professor Tarr summarizes the results of the many investigations in the following words: **Gilbert says that the problem of the age of Niagara cannot * be solved by a few figures on a slate nor yet by the writing of many essays. To this every one who has given attention to the problem must assent. The longer the study, the more complex the problem appears, and we are bound to conclude that Niagara is not a good chronometer. Until more evidence has been obtained concerning the length of the overflow at Nipissing Pass, which some believe to have been long, others short, we are bound to remain in doubt whether the age is from 5000 to 10,000 years or from 30,000 to 50,000 years." In the American Anthropologist for October, 1899, appears a sec- ond paper by Mr. W. H. Holmes upon * Preliminary Revision of the Evidence relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California." Mr. Holmes devotes his attention chiefly to the Calaveras skull, the most important of the human remains reported from the auriferous gravels. He regards this supposed Tertiary relic as quite modern, probably the skull of a Digger Indian. Notwithstanding his masterly summing up of the evidence for the negative, the case cannot be considered Closed until the facts presented by Becker, Wright, and King have been explained. Mr. Holmes is unjust in his intimation that the possessors of the skull have been neglectful of their obligation in not taking further steps to prove its authenticity during the thirty-three years that it has been in Cambridge. Professor Whitney adequately described the skull in his volume on Zhe Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of Cali ifornia. It was always accessible to any one 145 : 146 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. wishing to examine it. Further evidence was obtainable only in the locality whence it came. No opportunity to seek such evidence has yet occurred during the short period in which the skull has been in the possession of the Peabody Museum, The sixth summer meeting of “ The American Association to Pro- mote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf" was held at the Clarke School for the Deaf, Northampton, Mass., in June, 1899. In his presidential address Dr. Alexander Graham Bell reviewed the his- tory of the association from the time of its foundation in 1890, A condensed account was also given of the present condition of instruc- tion in speech-teaching in the United States. Only a few years ago silent methods of instruction of deaf-mutes were everywhere in vogue ; now speech is used as a means of instruction with the majority of such pupils (53.1 per cent), and the total number taught speech and speech-reading amounts to 6460, or 61.4 per cent of the whole. There is a steady increase in the percentage of speech-teaching, and Dr. Bell believes that the time is not far distant when speech will be taught to every deaf child in America. In a reprint from Zhe Association Review, Dr. Bell adds a number of tables of statistics compiled from the American Annals of the Deaf. These show the number of schools, pupils, teachers, and give lists of the schools, with their location, official names, directors, etc. ti GENERAL BIOLOGY. A Study of Heredity among the Deaf.!— We are indebted to Professor Edward Allen Fay for an important contribution to the data of heredity. The collection of the large mass of material and publication of the expensive tables were made possible by a liberal use of the funds of the Volta Bureau, an institution endowed by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell “ for the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge relating to the deaf.” The inquiry was begun in 1889. Circulars containing questions to be answered were distributed widely among heads of schools for the deaf, the deaf themselves, and their relatives and friends. Facts were gathered also from journals for the deaf, school reports, and Fay, E. A. Marriages of the soc in America. Washington, The Volta Verdes: 1898 (1899). vii, 527 pp. No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 147 returns of census enumerators. The result was that more or less complete returns were received of 4471 marriages in which one or both of the partners were deaf. After deducting marriages of less than a year’s standing, the total number of marriages of which the results in regard to offspring are reported is 3078, and number of children is 6782. These numbers are large enough to promise fairly trustworthy results. The first third of the book is taken up with a discussion of the results, and the rest is devoted to a tabular statement giving the details in regard to each marriage. This is followed by an index. Within the space of a review one cannot do more than refer to some of the conclusions which are of especial interest. Passing over the statistics in regard to the relative fertility of the deaf and the hearing, the proportion of deaf children in the total marriages of the deaf, etc., we come to a comparison between the proportion of deaf children born when both parents are deaf and the number when one parent only is in this condition, and we find the surprising result that in the first case there are only 8.458 per cent of deaf children, while in the second there is a considerably larger percentage, namely, 9.856. This would seem to upset all one's ideas of heredity. But the anomaly is explained to a great extent when we take into con- sideration the nature of the deafness, whether congenital or acquired, the ancestry of the parents, and their relationship to one another. The author calls attention to the fact that deafness may be due to a number of causes, such as various infectious diseases, malformation of various auditory organs, and the like. It is not deafness as such that is inherited, but some tendency to disease, or some abnormal habit of growth. This makes it difficult to distinguish deafness which is congenital and that which is adventitious, even when the patient can be examined; and it is still more difficult to make the distinction from the reports of cases such as were used in this inquiry. Therefore it is not a matter of surprise that the author fails to give a good definition of the two kinds of deafness. Notwithstanding this uncertainty of definition, the results as to the relative frequency of deafness in children of congenitally deaf parents and parents adventitiously deaf are decidedly interesting. Thus it is , found that where both parents are congenitally deaf the percentage of deaf children is 2 5.931; where one parent is congenitally deaf and the other adventitiously deaf it is 6.538 ; while where both parents are adventitiously deaf it is but 2.326. But where one parent 1s con- genitally deaf and the other hearing 11.932 per cent of the children 148 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. are deaf; and when one parent is adventitiously deaf and the other hearing the percentage is 2.244. Here appears again the surpris- ingly large number of deaf children of hearing parents. But it is very evident that adventitious deafness is transmitted much less readily than congenital deafness. Indeed, it cannot be proven by these statistics that the former is ever inherited, because of the unknown error in the classification of the two varieties of deafness. The statistics show that the presence of deafness among the relatives of the parents increases very largely the chances that deaf children will be produced, and this is, of course, what would be expected. Taking the cases where both parents have deaf relatives (not including descendants), the percentage of deaf children where both parents are congenitally deaf is raised to 30.303; where both parents are deaf but only one congenitally deaf the percentage is 10.903; where one parent was congenitally deaf and the other hearing there is again a large percentage, 24.286; and where both partners are adventitiously deaf there are 9.649 per cent of deaf children. Now, taking the cases where only one parent had deaf relatives, the percentages are 20.0, 5.536, 11.864, and 2.801, respectively. Finally, where neither partner had deaf relatives the figures are 4.167, 1.515, 15.789, and 0.364. In this last series the first and third percentages represent one child and three children, respectively, and the third one would be much reduced if one doubt: ful case were discarded. Over 45 per cent of the hearing parents whose family history is recorded had deaf relatives, while this is true of only about 32 per cent of the adventitiously deaf. This fact, taken in connection with the evidence as to the effect of history of deafness in the family of the parents in increasing the chances of deafness in the children, seems to explain to a great extent the large proportion of deaf children of | hearing parents compared with those of the adventitiously deaf which appears in the general statistics. But even when the factor of family history is taken into account, as in the tables summarized in the pre- ceding paragraph, there is still to be found a remarkably large pro- portion of deaf children of hearing parents. The author attempts to explain this on the ground of consanguinity. When both part- ners are deaf the largest percentage of deaf children is obtained from consanguineous marriages, 32.258 per cent; and in consan- guineous marriages where one partner is deaf and the other hear- ing the percentage is nearly as large, 29.851. In cases of deafness, then, the peculiarity of the parents seems to be more strongly No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 149 inherited when they have a common ancestry. Now it is found that of the 3242 marriages where both partners were deaf only 12, or 0.370 per cent, were consanguineous; while of the 894 marriages where one partner was deaf and the other hearing 18, or 2.013 per cent, belonged to this class. The 20 deaf children born from the latter class of consanguineous marriages constitute 13.2 per cent of the total 151 deaf children born from marriages in which one of the partners was a hearing person; while the 1o deaf children from the former class of marriages constitute only 2.3 per cent of the total 429 deaf children having both parents deaf. It is difficult to see why consanguinity should so intensify hereditary characteristics ; but if it does do so, then this large proportion of consanguineous mar- riages between the hearing and the deaf accounts to some extent for the large proportion of deaf children. How far this goes to explain the facts can only be determined mathematically ; and this the author does not attempt. i It is to be regretted that the author did not inquire more particu- larly in regard to the condition of the parents of the deaf married persons. The parents were simply included in the general inquiry concerning “ other relatives,” with the result that on examining the Tabular Statement of Marriages one is disappointed to find that it is often impossible to tell whether the parents were hearing or unreported.. If this point had been attended to, these statistics might have been expected to furnish an important confirmation, or the reverse, of Galton’s law of filial regression. R. P. B. Blatchley’s ‘‘ Gleanings from Nature.” — Mr. Willis S. Blatch- ley, State Geologist of Indiana, has published in book form, under the head of Ganings from Nature, a number of fragments of popu- lar science contributed by him to the press of Indiana and to Apple- ton’s Popular Science Monthly. The essays are truthful rather than literary, and they give vivid touches of nature, the results of close and sympathetic observation. The first essay discusses charmingly the harbingers of spring in Indiana — the maples, skunk cabbage, trillium, yellow-hammer, fox Sparrow, and the birds and flowers that mark the end of winter. Other topics discussed are “ Two Fops among the Fishes,” “ Snakes," “The Gnat Catcher," * The Old Canal,” ** The Iron Weed," * The Indiana Caves and their Inhabitants,” “The Tamarack Swamp," “The Katydids,” “The Winter Birds,” and * How Animals and Plants spend the Winter." I50 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The volume is well printed by the Nature Publishing Company, and very well illustrated, in part with original photographs. This book can be highly commended for its honesty and directness of purpose. Its author stands on his own feet and neither poses nor gushes, and his work is worthy of its purpose. DS ZOOLOGY. Artificial Production of Rhythmic Muscle Contractions. — Professor Loeb’ has pointed out that certain solutions containing ions of sodium, chlorine, lithium, bromine, iodine, etc., may cause rhythmical contractions in muscle, and that solutions containing certain other ions, calcium, potassium, magnesium, barium, strontium, etc. check such contractions. It is supposed that the rhythmic contractions are the result of the combination of the particular ions with the muscle. The rhythmic action of the heart may be a natural example of this kind of action. G. H. P. Evermann and Marsh on Fishes of Puerto Rico. —In the Report of the United States Fish Commission for 1899, Dr. Barton W. Evermann and Willard C. Marsh give an account of new species discovered by them in the late cruise of the Zisk Hawk about the island of Puerto Rico under Dr. Evermann’s direction. An elabo- rate account of these important investigations is in preparation. The present paper gives a preliminary account of three new genera of Blenniidz — Gillias, allied to Tripterygion ; Auchenistius, a Blenny, allied to Auchenopterus; and Coralliozetus, allied to Ophioblennius — and of twenty new species belonging to different families. These are: Lycodontis jordani, Stolephorus gilberti, Stolephorus garmani, Prionodes baldwini, Calamus kendalli, Doratonotus decoris, Sicydium caguite, Gobius bayamonensis, Bollmannia boqueronensis, Microgobius meeki, Gillias jordani, Malacoctenus culebre, Malacoctenus moorei, Mal- acottenus puertoricensis, Auchenistius stahli, Auchenopterus albicaudus, Auchenopterus rubescens, Auchenopterus cingulatus, Auchenopterus fajardo, and Coralliozetus cardone. Most of these are small fishes of ! Loeb, J. Ueber Ionen welche rhythmische Zuckungen der Skelettmuskeln hervorrufen, Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstage des Herrn Geheimrath Prof. Dr. A. fick, pp. 101-119. No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 151 the coral reefs and rock pools, localities in which the greater number of the yet unknown fishes of the tropics are likely to be found. Evermann and Marsh are to be congratulated on the use of the correct name of the island of Puerto Rico, instead of the lazy cor- ruption of Porto Rico. This is, we believe, the first government document of the United States in which the name is correctly spelled. The spelling Puerto Rico is, however, now officially adopted by the Government Board of Geographical Names. i = Tunicates of Pribilof Islands. — Part III of “The Fur Seals and Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean," published by the Government, contains an account by W. E. Ritter of the Tunicates of Pribilof. Eleven species are reported upon, ten of which are new to science. Physiology of the Cephalopods. — An excellent résumé of our knowledge of the physiology of the cephalopods has been given by Victor Willem in the Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique, Tome xxxi, pp. 31-54. The article is accompanied by an extensive bibliography. Excretion in Mollusca. — Cuénot' has studied the function of excretion in mollusks by means of physiological injections, and attains results which modify some generally accepted views derived from anatomical and histological data. From the review of the lit- erature on Mollusca one sees that the excretory function has been ascribed primarily to the nephridia (organs of Bojanus), then also to the pericardial glands of lamellibranchs, and finally without sufficient proof to the modified pericardial epithelium and to certain scattered liver cells, The interior of any animal maintains a relatively constant composi- tion, due to the presence of excretory cells which remove any excess of normal material or any abnormal, że., excretory, substance which would poison the organism. The cell exercises, however, the choice among such substances, thus demonstrating the varied nature of the excretory cells. Introduced substances may (1) enter into the cycle of metabolic changes; (2) be attracted and precipitated in skeletal or yolk material ; (3) undecomposed and unfixed, be collected by ex- cretory cells, and thus impart color to the excretory organs. Certain 1 Cuénot, L. L'excrétion chez les Mollusques, Arch. de Biol., vol. xvi (1899), PP. 49-96, Pls. V, VI. 152 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. cells absorb some substances with avidity, but are totally indiffer- ent to others, Among the variable types of excretory cells two appear to be con- stant; the first absorbs indigo-carmine and refuses ammonium-car- minate, while the second precisely reverses this action. Rarely excretory cells do both, but even then the one more freely than the other. These two types are associated with voluminous organs. The indigo kidneys produce urea, uric acid, and urates, while in car- minate kidneys, thus far known, none of these substances are formed, though some non-indigo excretory cells contain urates. A tabular view of such organs for various groups of animals is reproduced on the opposite page, together with the products of each organ so far as known. After discussion of the special technique employed, the author lists the various names by which the connective-tissue cells of mol- lusks are designated by different investigators, and distinguishes at least two types of such cells: (a) Reserve cells enclosing glycogen, and (7) excretory cells. In the terrestrial pulmonate gastropods the two functions are associated in a single cell, as in the liver cells of vertebrates. In two groups of mollusks the nephridia, instead of being lined throughout their entire extent by a single type of excretory cell, pre- sent noteworthy differences: in Amphineura the reno-pericardial ducts of acid reaction eliminate actively carminate and litmus, while the rest of the nephridium, formed of different cells, and with alkaline reaction, eliminates indigo, In prosobranch gastropods the nephridia present a series of anatomical and physiological differentiations : Patella has two nephridia, very different in size but both eliminating equally indigo; in Trochus and Haliotus the larger right nephridium absorbs indigo alone; the left nephridium, very different in structure from the other, becomes faintly colored by carminate; finally, in monotocardic prosobranchs the single nephridium possesses two sorts of cells. The most numerous, non-ciliate, eliminate indigo; the others, ciliated, eliminate only carminate — the single nephridium being thus a physiological equivalent of the two nephridia in the Diotocardia (Trochus, etc.). In the Amphineura, Solenoconcha, and Gastropoda there are, in the connective tissue, numbers of cells acid in reaction, of which the vacu- oles actively absorb carminate and litmus. These scattered cells cor- respond physiologically to the pericardial glands of lamellibranchs and to the branchial heart of cephalopods which have the same power. No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. I53 MIXED KIDNEY (INDIGO AND CARMINATE). Vertebrates (Mammals, | 0, etc.) Convoluted tubules of kidney (alkaline) Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, etc. InpDIGO KIDNEYS. Tunicata (Phallusia, | Closed kidney or blind | Uric acid olgula) vesicles Sipunculida (Phascolion | Nephridium (acid) Urate strombi) Pulmonate gastropods | Nephridium (acid) Uric acid (Oscanius) Lamellibranchs Nephridia (acid) Urea, etc. Uric acid in Lutraria Cephalopods Nephridia Uric acid in Sepia and Octopus macropus, Gua- nine or Xanthine in O. vulgaris Crustacea decapoda Labyrinth of antennal kidney and often vesi- cle (alkaline) Leucomaine ? Chilopoda (Lithobius, Scolopendra, Geophi- lus) Malpighian tubes Urates and uric acid - Diplopoda (Iulus) Malpighian tubes Sodic urate and calcic ox- alate Insecta Malpighian tubes (alka- line) s Very often urates and uric acid Busan RE CARMINATE KIDNEYS. Lamellibranchs (Pecten, Cardium) . Pericardial gland (acid) Hippuric acid and sodic hippurate Hirudinea Convoluted portion of nephridia Leucomaine ? MO E uds Et s Crustacea decapoda Vesicle of antennal kid- ney and branchial kid- neys (acid Carcinuric acid Scorpions Liver 154 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. The pericardial glands of lamellibranchs manifest three different types: intra-auricular masses in Pecten and Ostrea, external epithe- lium of the auricles (Mytilus), tubular glands opening virtually into the pericardium (Naiades). Pecten maximus affords a clear transi- tion from the type of the lamellibranchs to that of the gastropods in that the connective tissue encloses, as in the latter, many isolated cells, which are massed in the wall of the auricles. The products in the cells of the pericardial glands of either type are engulfed by phagocytes, which transport them into lacunæ of the circulatory sys- tem. Some of these phagocytes reach the exterior through the bran- chial membrane; the others become fixed for life in the connective tissue. In the cephalopods the excretory connective-tissue cells are accu- mulated exclusively in the wall of the branchial heart and of the appendix to that organ. In both organs, however, cells of a differ- ent character are present. In various gastropods (Pulmonata, Opis- thobranchiata, and some Prosobranchiata, as Cyclostoma) the liver contains numbers of excretory cells which discharge their products into the intestine. The collaboration of closed excretory cells and phagocytes to eliminate waste products, or at least to localize them in indifferent regions, is found in many groups : Oligocheta, Polychzta, Hirudinea, Sipunculida, Echinoderma. This method of excretion, which encum- bers the tissue with masses of solid granules increasing with age, is evidently an imperfect function, and not improbably contributes to determine the death of the individual. Hinh Wisb The Heart of Anodonta. — The action of the heart of Anodonta has been fully studied by V. Willem.! Under ordinary circumstances the heart beats four to six times per minute. Contraction can be induced in an empty, quiet heart by injecting fluid into it, but an overfilling of the heart will retard the rate of contraction. The contraction of the ventricle drives the blood out under a pressure of one to three and a half centimeters of water. When the ventricle contracts, the auricles expand, and together these organs always fill the whole pericardial space. The contraction of the ventricle acts as a suction pump on the blood in the gills, drawing it into the auricles, . and as a force pump on the blood in the arteries. G. HP. 1 Willem, V. Recherches expérimentales sur la circulation sanguine chez l'Anadonte, Mem. couron. Acad. Roy. des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Artes de Belgique, tome lvii, 28 pp., 2 pls., 1899 No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 155 Grafting and Regeneration in Hydromeduse.— An interesting series of experiments on grafting and regeneration of Hydromedusz has been carried out by C. W. Hargitt! Small pieces of vigorous hydroid stems were held together in different positions by slivers of lead and were thus readily grafted. The bells of Gonionemus were emarginated so as to check their spontaneous movements and were then held together in pairs in various positions by being strung on bristles. As a result of these experiments, it was found that pieces of hydroid stems united with one another with great freedom either orally or aborally, and thus gave evidence of no polarity. The success of the experiments was quite independent of the sexes of the individuals from which the parts came. While pieces from closely allied species could be intergrafted, material representing different genera did not respond successfully. The experiments on the medusz showed that though these animals regenerated and grafted freely, aboral grafts were never successful, the animal thereby show- ing a marked polarity. CH, P: Regeneration in Grafted Tissue. — As is well known, the tail of one species of tadpole may be grafted on the body of another, and the two parts in time form an effective union. If the two species used have characteristically different kinds of pigment, the fate of the tissues thus brought together can be easily followed. The grafted ectoderm eventually covers. only the tip of the developing tail, whereas the grafted mesoderm forms a considerable part of that organ, z.e., at the beginning of grafting, the grafted tissues are sepa- rated kan the stock tissues by a single transverse plane; later the plane of separation between grafted ectoderm and stock ectoderm is much posterior to that between the two kinds of mesoderm. Grafted i tails when cut off regenerate, and the results of this process have been studied by T. H. Morgan? If cut transversely, the cut surface from which regeneration will take place may exhibit a face of ecto- derm from the stock and of mesoderm from the graft. The grafted tail may be cut obliquely, so that the cut surface will exhibit stock and graft ectoderm and graft mesoderm. In all these cases the regenerated tails are composed of cells easily referable to their Sources, and it may be concluded that in regeneration from a region :2.7 2 ? e POG h 2" 1 Hargitt, cw. E i tal Studies upon Hyd d vol. i, No. I, pp. 37-51. October, 1899. ? Morgan, T. H. Regeneration of Tissue Composed of Parts of Two Species, Biological Bulletin, vol. i, No. 1, pp. 7-14. October, 1899. 156 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. where the cells have been derived from two different species, the specific characters of the cells remain distinct. G.H.P Note. — No. 3 of Vol. XV of*the Journal of Morphology contains : « Studies on the Maturation, Fertilization, and Cleavage of Thalas- sema and Zirphza," by B. B. Griffin; “On the Blood-Plates of the Human Blood, with Notes on the Erythrocytes of Amphiuma and Necturus," by G. Eisen ; * The Phosphorescent Organs in the Toad- fish, Porichthys notatus Girard," by C. W. Green; ‘On the Species Clinostomum heterostomum," by W. G. MacCallum ; and “ Mitosis in Noctiluca miliaris and its Bearing on the Nuclear Relations of the Protozoa and Metazoa," by G. N. Calkins. GEOLOGY. The Absaroka Range of the Rocky Mountains. — In a presiden- tial address before the Geological Society of Washington,’ and in the Absaroka Folio of the United States Geological Survey,? Mr. Arnold Hague has presented the results of many years’ field work in a region that contains for vulcanologists problems of extraordinary interest. The Absaroka Range forms the mountain barrier to the east of the Yellowstone plateau, and is composed chiefly of horizontally stratified volcanic flows and breccias thrown out from vents, the location of which is not marked by conical volcanoes or even by any positive trace which would show that such volcanoes existed. Thicknesses from two thousand to five thousand feet of these lavas are deeply trenched by streams draining the eastern face of a range which marks in a sense the eastern escarpment of the great plateau that forms the Yellowstone Park. Early breccia and basalt sheets over- laid by late breccias and basalts make up the mass of these lavas. The only interruptions to their horizontal continuity are massive bodies of intrusive rock that invaded the lavas at two distinct periods. i Evidence of the age of the lavas is derived from the contained plant remains and from the old topographies which underlie them. The accumulation of volcanic material rests unconformably on rocks 1 Hague, Arnold. Early Tertiary Volcanoes of the Absaroka Range. 2 Folio No. 52, Geologic Atlas of the United States, Crandail and Ishawooa Quadrangles. Washington, 1899. No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 157 ranging from archzan to cretaceous, and is confined within ancient orogenic barriers on the north and south. Evidence of erosion during the piling up of the eruptive material is shown by canyon cross-sections, which give evidence of old depressions filled with silts and gravels; this indicates that considerable erosion took place at different times, with long interruptions in the local volcanic activity. Over one hundred and fifty species of plants have been identified from the tuffs and breccias, indicating a range in age from eocene to upper miocene. They are thus geologically older than the neocene rhyolites that form the greater portion of the Yellow- stone Park. The intrusive bodies occur as stocks and dikes ; an earlier group, the * Sunlight ” intrusives, is characterized by orthoclase and augite, and cuts the earlier breccias and basalts. The “Ishawooa” intru- sives have broken into the later basalts as well as the earlier and are more siliceous rocks, ranging from diorite and diorite porphyry to true granitic types. Dikes are associated with all the larger bodies, sometimes being offshoots from them, in other cases cutting them or cut by them, and presenting a marvelous variety of struc- tural and lithological types that afford material for the study of extensive gradation between coarse crystalline and glassy volcanic rocks. Many of the dikes of the Sunlight group are orthoclase basalts, collectively called by the name “absarokite,” and are related to coarser monzonite stocks, which range in composition from quartzose augite syenites to coarse gabbros and diorites. These older intrusive bodies occur in three principal masses that form the points of a triangle, and about two of them the dikes show remarkable radiation. The Ishawooa intrusives extend for a dis- tance of fifty miles into the Yellowstone Park, occurring as stocks, sheets, and dikes; they are usually conspicuous about the head waters of the eastern flowing streams, but do not form culminating summits, these being usually composed of the breccias or late basalts Which overlie the intrusive rock. Dikes here, too, are abundant, but radiation is not especially marked, the greater masses hav- ing rather an axial trend in a northwesterly direction, as though injected through a common fissure, rather than as forming inde- pendent intrusions. The breccias in contact with the greater intru- Sive bodies are indurated to a distance sometimes of more than one- half mile. Coarse granites and diorites occur in both the intrusive Series — a remarkable fact when we consider that the lavas invaded by them are of Tertiary age. I 58 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Mr. Hague concludes that variation in coarseness of crystallization ‘is not dependent upon pressure, but is far more affected by the rate of cooling. He agrees with Professor Iddings in the belief that, for the same stock and its complex of dikes, variations in composition and structure are due to varying conditions of crystallization from a single molten magma. Hague, however, differs from Iddings in his conception of the significance of the apparent radiation of dikes about the diorite and monzonite stocks of the Crandall quadrangle ; Iddings believes this radiation to indicate that the central mass rep- resented the root of a great conical volcano now eroded away, which he reconstructed to a height of ten thousand feet above the pla- teau at its present level. Mr. Hague fails to find any evidence of the building up of great volcanic piles, but compares the region to Iceland, where there are many centers of eruption and fissures through which the lava breaks forth, old sources of eruption in time becoming obliterated by fresh flows from newer vents. The geologic maps of the Absaroka Folio show in very striking fashion the horizontal character of the flows and breccias where the digitate drainage intersects adjacent formations. The most con- spicuous features shown by the map are the regular trend of the main divide on the southwest, parallel to the Ishawooa intrusive bodies, and the wonderful abruptness of the eastern gorges in con- trast with the gentle slope of the streams which flow down to the high basin of Yellowstone Lake on the west. A conspicuous feature of the physiography is the remarkable curve from west to east of the head of North Fork Stinkingwater River, its head-water trend con- forming exactly to the trend of Sunlight Creek, across the high divide formed by intrusive bodies in the Sunlight mining region. The Absaroka folio is illustrated by reproductions from photographs showing the deep canyon of Clark Fork cut in archzan granite, Index Peak composed of breccias overlying palzozoic limestone above archzean rocks, other pictures of dikes and breccias, and a view of Sunlight Glacier, one of the small remnants of the great glaciers that formerly played an important part in the erosion of the plateau. The geological history of the region is briefly as follows. Palæ- ozoic and mesozoic sediments were deposited throughout a long period to a thickness of many thousand feet, and at the close of Laramie time, mountain-building took place, producing uplift and deformation that was contemporaneous in all the ranges of the northern Rocky Mountains. This post-Laramie movement produced No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 159 mountain ranges and plateaus which were considerably eroded before the first volcanic eruptions. These eruptions throughout Tertiary time are conceived to have had their manifestation by a variety of processes, in part building up volcanic cones, in part ejecting fluid lavas through fissures, and in part hurling out from vents which have left but few traces enormous masses of brecciated volcanic rock in a fashion that is without parallel in any region of active volcanoes. This great accumulation of surface lavas was later invaded by igneous magn:as believed to be the elevated portions of a great complex of deep-seated crystalline rock; “where the underlying molten magma was subject to the severest pressure, the material was squeezed up- ward to higher levels following lines of least resistance, and consoli- dated at greater or less depths beneath the surface. . . . The line of Ishawooa intrusives marks the trend of one such upward move- ment of molten magma, which for the most part congealed without finding egress to the surface.” The two most remarkable features of Mr. Hague’s observations in the Absaroka volcanic district are the enormous mass of breccias and the Tertiary granites and diorites. The explanation of the origin of the former as from divers vents along fissures and the demonstration of the coarsely crystalline character of the intrusive stocks add new evidence to dispel the time-honored but erroneous notion that great cones like Ætna or Vesuvius are essential features of great volcanic activity, and that granite is necessarily a very ancient rock. The Tarawera eruption of New Zealand and the fissure eruptions of Iceland show that the cone is an incidental product of eruption, not an essential. Geikie has brought forward, in his Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, much evidence to show that similar fissure eruptions were the prevailing type that produced the Tertiary basalt plateaus, and he too describes coarse granitic rocks of Tertiary age. The chief point of difference in the Absaroka Range is in the JSrecciated character of the horizontal lavas; the brecciated fragments are of all shapes and sizes and of great varia- tion in kind, but nearly always volcanic. How did these breccias first crystallize as andesites or basalts in what were presumably con- tinuous bodies of some sort, and later become broken up? This is a problem that has long puzzled the Yellowstone geologists, and for its complete solution an extended study and comparison of similar tuffs and breccias throughout the Cordilleran district will probably be required. T. A. Jaccar, JR. 160 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. PETROGRAPHY. Experimental Petrography. — With the increasing number of experiments being made in the attempt to discover the laws govern- ing the formation of crystalline rocks from their magmas some important truths should soon be disclosed. The latest contribution to the subject has recently been made by Bauer,! who worked along conventional lines. He fused powdered rocks, mixtures of powdered minerals, and mixtures of chemical compounds, with and without the addition of *mineralizers," held them at temperatures of 1000°—1400° for ten or more hours, and then allowed them to cool. Unfortu- nately he was unable to prolong the cooling stage to any great extent, and consequently the products obtained were largely glassy. The wolframates, boric acid, and borax served well as “crystal- lizers." Under the influence of the first, quartz was produced, and with the aid of the other two, hornblende. The addition of the chlorides and fluorides to the mixture appeared to serve simply to lower the fusing point. The quartz was obtained as irregular grains in a mass composed of a groundmass of glass, enclosing small laths of feldspar and larger crystals of orthoclase, albite, olivine, and nepheline. This was pro- duced by fusing a mixture of orthoclase, albite, mica, hornblende, sodium chloride, potassium tungstate, boric acid, and sodium phos- phate. The quartz is thought to have originated in the breaking up The hornblende was obtained in three experiments. The most interesting consisted in the fusion of a mixture of powdered phono- lite and nepheline-basalt, neither of which contained any trace of the mineral. The hornblende was a bright-green variety. In one of the other two experiments powdered diorite was fused with boric acid, sodium phosphate, and calcium fluoride at a temperature of 1000°. The resulting hornblende was brown, while that in the origi- nal diorite was green. The third experiment yielded also brown hornblende. In this powdered hornblende was fused with sodium and calcium fluorides and magnesium chloride. Another interesting result reached was the discovery that the same mixture under different conditions of temperature and rates of cool- ing may yield entirely different products. For instance, the powder 1 Bauer, K. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., Bd. xii, p. 535. No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 161 of a nepheline-basalt gave in one case a nepheline-basalt and in two other cases limburgites. In order that the best results may be reached the author declares that specially prepared apparatus is necessary, but with a proper equipment he believes that much might be learned concerning the method of origin of the different types of igneous rocks by simple fusion experiments. Notes. — The dikes cutting the mica-gneisses in the vicinity of Johns Bay, Maine, are similar in all essential respects to those near Portland in the same state. Miss Bascom? reports that two are olivine diabases, and a third is nonolivinitic. Gratacap issues a plea? for a more interesting display of rocks in museums than that one usually sees. He also suggests along what lines such a display might be constructed to be at the same time of interest and of value. Judd? describes under the name of rockallite the peculiar rock of Rockall Island in the Atlantic, 240 miles west of Ireland. The rock consists of zgirite, quartz, and albite in the proportions 39 : 38 : 23. The albite is sometimes porphyritic. An analysis gives : SiO; AlOs Fe90; MnO NiO MgO CaO KO PO; Total neos 4 1310. o 6 üt 37 696 = 99.83 The structure is granitic. Its systematic place is in the granite group, although its feldspar is solely albite. The rocks gathered by the International Boundary Commission along the newly surveyed boundary line between the United States and Mexico are granites, gabbro-diorites, diabases, diorite, porphy- ries, rhyolites, andesites, and basalts One of the rhyolites is Spherulitic. The collection of rocks made by Alexander Agassiz in the Fiji Islands contains specimens of granite, andesites, and basalts. Eakle* describes augite-andesite as the predominant rock of the islands. It varies from a very feldspathic type to a very basic type that appears to grade into basalt. In addition to this andesite there are also present hypersthenic and hornblendic varieties. ! Amer. Geol. (1899), vol. xxiii, p. 275. 2 Ibid., p. 281. * Trans. pus Trish Acad., vol. xxxi, Pt. iii, p. 39. * Lord, E. C. E. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxi, 1899, p. 773. 5 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. xxxiv (1899), p. 581. ` 162 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Cole! suggests an approximately quantitative method for deter- mining potassium in the constituents of igneous rocks. It is a blow- pipe method differing from Szabo’s in that the assay is fused in a bead of sodium carbonate. The advantages of fusing with sodium carbonate in place of the gypsum used in the Szabo method are : (1) The certainty of differentiating the potassium from the sodium flame ; (2) complete decomposition of the assay ; (3) security against loss of the assay ; (4) convenience. 1 Geol. Mag., March, 1898, p. 103. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (The regular exchanges of the American Naturalist t included.) CORY, CHARLES B. The Birds of Eastern North America known to occur east of the ninetieth meridian. Part II, Land Birds. Chicago, 1899. DILLER, J. S. The Coos Bay Coal Field, Oregon. Washington, 1899. ELLIOT, D. S. List of Mammals obtained by Thaddeus Surber, Collector for the Mies chiefly in Oklahoma and Indian Territories. Field Columbian Museum, Publication go, 1899. RY, EDWARD, and Fry, AGNES. The Mycetozoa and some questions which they suggest. London, * petis ” Office, 1899. 8 Not Goto, SEITARO. Note some exotic species of Ectoparasitic Trematodes. Journ. Sci. Coll. Imper. Univ. Tie Vol. xii, Part IV, 1 Kine, F. H. Irrigation and Drainage, Principles and Practice of their Cul- Irri tural Phases. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1899. 21, 502 pp., 162 figs. $1.50. MEEK, S. E. Notes on a Collection of Fishes and Amphibians from Muskoka and Gull Lakes. Field Columbian Museum, Publication 41, 1899. Australian Museum. Records. Vol. iii, No. 6, 1899. — — Geographical Journal. Vol. xv, No. 1, January, 1900. coepti Geological Survey. Vol. iii. Balti- more, 1899, 461, 80 pp., 35 pls. — Maryland Weather Service. Vol.i. Baltimore, 1899. a DD, 54 pls. — Natural Science Association of Staten Island. Proceed- ings. . vii, No. 12. Dec. 9, 1899. — Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. Ano si i IO, 11, 1899. — Science Gossip. January, 1900. — United States Com- missioner of Education. Report for the year 1897-1898. Vol. ii, Washington, 1899. 1281-2640 pp.— United States Fish Commission. Bulletin. Vol. xviii. Washington, eg 576 pp., 43 pls. — Wyoming Experiment Station. Bulletin 41. Index Bulletin B. (Number 397 was mailed February 6.) A New Work for the Student of Fungi and for the Mycological Clubs. Underwood’s Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms By Professor LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD, of Columbia. A Guide to the Systematic Study of Fungi and the Mycetozoa and their Literature. Ilustrated with ten Heliotype plates, one colored, 236 pages. The contents includes chapters on : The Relations of Fungi d pe Plants. Mot aix cm ns, Con memes and H = Class Chus d — HYCOM As x MYCETES. he Fungi Imperfecti. The medi aoe YCETES. Fun — the MYXOMYCETES, The Study of Proa! in pee and its Study in America in The pene Dietibeler d American Methods oi of Collection and Preservati — Hints for further Study. 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Some Notes on RE E di Regulation i in Pada FRANK R. LILLIE III. rci on the San Marcos —— ae rathbuni Ww. A On +h P A CONTENTS sheha D. MENSCH ESE Vein and its Tributaries in the Domestic Cat (Felis domestica) CF. V. The North-American Jumping Mice VI. Fresh-Water Aquaria . VII. uem of North-American Terral eiai. VIII. The Isopoda, art I " HARRIET W. McCLURE RICHARDSON VII. eium of Send, Lüexbue: Aoii pir Payne’s New World — — Zoólogy, Koelliker’s Reminiscences, Degeneration of Duodenal Glands in the Cat, Greeley on Tide-Pool Fishes of California, Development of Brain Structures in Amia, Scapanorhynchus and Mitsukurina, The Lateral Line of the Toadfish, Greene on the Lateral Line of the Cali- fornia Toadfish, Absence of Retinal Pigment in the Dogfish, Pupa- Grafting in Moths, € Followed by Mitotic Cell Division, A New Grafts, Notes — suras Minnesota Plant Unattached Hydroid, Life, The Local Floras ee se England, Botanical Not ews BOSTON, U.S.A. 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Annual subscription, $4.00, net, in advance. mp Foreign subscription, $4.60. E GINN & COMPANY, PubtiSHsRS- THE AMERICAN: NATURALIST Vor. XXXIV. March, 1900. No. 399. ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS COR NUTUS AND ALTERNATE GENERATION "IN ANNELIDS. P. CALVIN MENSCH. Tne claim for the presence of an alternation of generation . in annelids owes its origin chiefly to the results obtained in study of the family of syllidians by the earlier authors, Milne- Edwards, Savigny, De Quatrefages, Krohn, and more recently by A. Agassiz. What subsequent proofs of the presence of this condition in annelids have been presented still find their Strongest support in the phenomena observed in a division of this family, that of Autolytus. In forms of Autolytus, like Autolytus cornutus, described by Agassiz, after the young and so-called asexual animal has attained a certain length,a new head is developed on the four- teenth setigerous segment, and in this way the individual becomes divided into what is known as the parent stock, including the original head with its segments, and the bud or stolon, including the new head with the remaining segments. The stolon contains the maturing sexual products, and after these reach a certain stage of maturity it separates from the 165 166 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. parent stock and becomes free-swimming. The parent stock, as soon as the stolon is separated, regenerates the lost segments and in like manner develops a second and possibly a third or fourth bud. (In some forms of Autolytus (4. varians) the regeneration of new segments takes place before the shedding of the mature stolon, and thus a chain consisting of, at times, as many as eight stolons in different stages of development, becomes attached to the parent stock. In Autolytus cornutus, however, as in Procerza, the stolon matures and becomes sep- arated before an addition of new segments takes place, so that the parent stock of this form never bears more than a single stolon at a time.) During the process of separation the stolon undergoes such changes as are of service to it in the change of its life from among hydroids to that of surface swimming, the most conspicuous of which are the modification of the para- podia and the development of the swimming setze. The sexual differences, as will be seen in comparing the free stolons, are also very conspicuous and appear quite early in the develop- ment of the stolon. The free-swimming male stolon of an Autolytus was first described by Oersted, in 1843, as a new species of annelid to which he gave the name Polybostricus, while the free female stolon of another species (Autolytus prolifera) was similarly described by J. Müller, in 1853, under the name of Sacconereis. It was not until 1862, however, that Agassiz, in observing the separation of the stolon in Autolytus cornutus, demonstrated for certain the relation of the parent stock and stolons. Alternate generation for annelids was first suggested by De Quatrefages in 1843, after observing a part of the budding process in a syllid (Sy//is monilaire) previously described by Savigny ; later again by Krohn, in 1852, for Syllis prolifera, but the first complete description of the process was given by Agassiz, in 1862, in a paper entitled * On Alternate Generation of Annelids and the Embryology of Autolytus Cornutus." The development of the stolons of this syllid and their subsequent separation he followed stage by stage, and established the identity of the separately described Polybostricus and Saccone- reis without a doubt. The stolons he described as sexual indi- No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS. 167 viduals which have been separated from the parent stock by a process similar to that of fission. The parent stock he regarded as distinctly asexual and as reproducing only by the separation and budding out of sexual stolons. A diagram of Agassiz's description of the cycle of generation would therefore be as follows : Stolon = X < Eggs Egg = Parent Stock Stolon = X < Eggs In this wise he attributed to Autolytus cornutus a distinct alternation of generation — in reality the only accurate alter- nate generation ever described for any annelid, and his original diagram of Autolytus cornutus still stands in some of our recent zoólogical text-books as a classical figure for the verification of alternation of generation in annelids. The asexual condition of the parent stock is, however, not as constant as was supposed by Agassiz. In many of the specimens examined, particularly in individuals from which a first stolon has been separated, sexual products appear in the twelfth and thirteenth and even at times in the eleventh seg- ment of the parent stock. At the time when the first stolon, i.e., the stolon which originally formed a part of the body of the parent stock, becomes filled with sexual products none of the seg- ments of the parent stock give any indication of the presence of reproductive products. In older individuals, however; in which apparently after a second or possibly a third stolon has been separated, I have found reproductive products in some stage of development in a large number of the specimens examined. Of such parent stocks found with reproductive products, by far the greater number were females, and of these I have been able to obtain individuals in which the ova had attained a size almost equal to that of mature ova. The different stages in the development of the sexual products I have been able to follow more successfully in a near relative of Autolytus, Procerea ornata, the budding of which is in all respects similar to that of Autolytus cornutus. Of this species I have been able to find female specimens of parent stocks with ova in all stages of development up to the time when the ova are discharged from 168 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the body. The egg-sac, which it may be assumed also appears in these specimens, I have not been able to observe. The external appearances of a parent stock with reproduc- tive products in the stages of development in which I have been able to observe them differ very little from a parent stock in which no such products are as yet present. Occasionally I have found that the anterior eyes appear somewhat larger, but no modifications of the parapodia, such as would indicate the epitokal condition so common in other syllidians, were observed. In all sexually mature parent stocks of Procerza I have found a third pair of eyes near the inner insertion of the palps. These are present as mere pigment spots in very young individuals of both Procerzea and Autolytus cornutus, but as a rule disappear or remain very inconspicuous in the adult. In several of the specimens in which the ova were nearest mature, conspicu- ous ventrally directed lenses were present. -A similar development of this third pair of eyes I have observed in the epitokal syllid Odontosyllis, taken at a time when the eggs have reached com- plete maturity; so that the appearance of this pair of eyes in the parent stock of Autolytus at this time might, I think, be looked upon as partaking of the epitokal condition in other syllidians. The percentage of parent stocks found with sexual products is by all odds too great to be looked upon as merely accidental. In a number of individuals examined, from all of which the stolons had recently been separated, and in which regeneration of segments was taking place (in this way eliminating as far as possible such individuals as are developing a first stolon), reproductive products were found to be present in as many as five out of twenty specimens examined for Autolytus Cornutus, and in as many as six and sometimes seven out of twenty speci- mens of Procerza examined. The stages of development of the reproductive products varied from early stages in which the presence of sexual cells could only be determined by the exami- nation of sections to the more mature ova already referred to. By eliminating the apparently less mature individuals and selecting only such as would indicate by their size and general appearance that at least a second stolon had been separated, as many as ten to twelve out of twenty specimens were found to contain sexual No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS. 169 products. Such conditions would strongly indicate that the pres- ence of reproductive products toward the close of the phenome- non of budding is a constant stage in the life history of these syllids. The life history of Autolytus cornutus would, therefore, con- sist in: (1) The development, from the egg, of the parent stock; (2) the development of sexual products in segments posterior to the thirteenth setigerous segment, the development of a head on the fourteenth, and the separation of these seg- ments for the formation of the free-swimming stolons, Polybos-. tricus (å) and Sacconereis (9); (3) regeneration of the lost segments and the formation in this way of a second and possi- bly a third or fourth stolon; (4) finally, the development in the parent stock of sexual products and the conversion of it into a sexual individual (Fig. 5). While the sexual products are forming, the regeneration of lost segments is still taking place, but in none of the specimens found had this new growth gone farther than the formation of a small bud, consisting of no more than eight or ten distinct segments. As compared with a diagram of the cycle of. generation as described by Agassiz, we would then have : Stolon — x « Eggs Eggs — Parent Stock — x « Eggs Stolon = x < Eggs This would therefore be, not a sexual generation alternat- ing with an asexual, but at most no more than a sexual dimor- phism — a sexual individual budding off sexual stolons, and as its own sexual products mature, partaking more or less of the epitokal form of other syllids and itself becoming sexual. Alternate generation has also been claimed for chain-form- ing syllidians, as Myrianide ; but the presence of reproductive products in the posterior segments of the parent stock is of so common occurrence that the existence of such a generation has already prior to this been disputed by St. Joseph and Malaquin. Korschelt and Heider in their text-book of Comparative Em- bryology, in accordance with the papers of Krohn and Agassiz, describe this process as a true alternation of generation, and hold it as distinctly different from the fission in Ctenodrillus, 170 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Protula, and Nais, in which all divided individuals are sexual and alike in all respects, and which, they assert, cannot be regarded as a true alternation of generation. They summarize the budding of Autolytus as **a process that is to be placed alongside that of strobilization in the Scyphomedusz.”’ The presence of reproductive products in the parent stock of Auto- lytus throws doubt upon this comparison, and it appears to me more plausible to place these forms alongside the processes described by Brooks for the Hydromedusz (Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. III, No. 12). Particularly striking in this respect is the similarity in the life history of Autolytus cornutus to the life history of Cunina octonaria, which he gives in a diagram as follows : Hydra — Medusa x « Eggs Egg — Planula — Actinula — Medusa x « Eggs Hydra = Medusa X < Eggs Here, according to Brooks, there is asexual multiplication with- out alternation of generation. . Since in Autolytus cornutus and Procerzea the parent stock also becomes sexual, just as does the actinula, we would have, in the life history of these syllids, nothing more than the parent stock undergoing asexual multi- plication, and forming stolons just as in the asexual multipli- cation of the actinula to form hydra. Taking the meaning of alternation of generation, as defined by Brooks in his work on the Hydromedusz, as the commonly accepted one, — a defini- tion which is also in accord with the descriptions given by Korschelt and Heider, — we would have in the syllids, for which a true alternation of generation has been claimed, no alternate generation at all, but simply a dimorphism resulting from an asexual multiplication of the parent stock. Without taking into consideration the morphological value of the stolon it would appear more plausible, therefore, to regard stolonization in Autolytus as a process akin to that of fission in other annelids — unlike the fission in Dero, AZlosoma, and other forms where the divided individuals are identical in all respects, in that it has direct reference to the distribution of the sexual products, yet similar to these in that all the resulting divisions are in reality sexual individuals. No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS I71 Another aspect of this question is, however, presented by the morphological characters of the stolon itself. In the proc- ess of its development the stolon has been provided with a head very similar in structure to that of the parent stock, and with eyes even larger and more advantageously placed than those of the parent stock. The alimentary canal, moreover, is in a state of degeneration; the crowding of the reproductive products, particularly in the female stolon, has greatly reduced its calibre, and to all appearances it has ceased to function. Organs for the prehension of food are absent, a mouth-opening being formed simply by a union of the broken intestinal wall with the hypodermis, and it is quite evident, by the changes that have taken place in the alimentary canal of the mature stolon, and also by the continuous absence of food particles within it, that the stolon in its free-swimming stages does not feed. The stolon would then in reality reduce itself to a series of segments, some of which, in the male, or a large number of which, in the female, are gorged with reproductive products and provided with organs fitted for the proper distribution of the reproductive products—a condition similar to, but, by virtue of a head formation, more advanced than that which has been described for the sexual fragmentation in the Palolo worm. While the stolon must, for want of a better expression, be regarded as a distinct individual, in connection with the problem of alternation of generation the morphological value of such a Structure might well be questioned. The existence of a true alternation of generation in annelids so long as it is supported alone by the phenomena presented by Autolytus seems to me far from being established, and it is doubtful if a more extended study of any of the syllidians would add more to this proof. The presence of reproductive Products in even a smaller percentage of parent stocks than were found in Autolytus cornutus or Procerzéa could still hardly be looked upon as of purely accidental occurrence. Instead of regarding the presence of such sexual products in the parent Stock of Autolytus as accidental, it seems to me more plausible to regard it as the continuance of a more primitive condition in which the animal zz ¢o¢o assumed, at the ripening of the sexual 172 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST. products, an epitokal form like that in Eusyllis, Odontosyllis, and Exogone, and stolonization as a secondary condition ac- quired for the purpose of a more perfect distribution of the sexual products. The complete epitokal changes in Autoly- tus have already been observed by Malaquin in Autolytus lorge- feriens, and described by him under the name of “ epigamie,” and it is very probable that a further study of the different species of Autolytus found along our coast would yield similar results. From our present knowledge it would appear that, as in Autolytus cornutus, the epitokal changes have been lost, or at least in greater or lesser part suppressed, in the parent stock of some syllids, and that in this way closely related forms of syllidians may exhibit sexual changes as various or more so than are shown in different species of Nereis ; but it is very doubtful whether in any of our species the loss of sexual products has been so equally shared with these other changes as to leave a distinctly asexual parent stock. The high development of the head of the stolon would form the strongest argument in favor of the distinct individuality of the stolon. Malaquin (Recherches sur les Syllidiens) has, how- ever, already shown that the head of the stolon in different species of syllidians presents very different grades of develop- ment. In making this comparison he says: ** L'individualisa- tion du stolon diminue de plus en plus, au fur et à mesure qu'on suit la marche graduelle de ce phénoméne. autrement dit la téte qui marque pour ainsi dire le degré de perfectionne- ment de son individualité, se simplifie de plus en plus et arrive méme à ne plus se former du tout." His figures, in which he compares the head of the stolon of Haplosyllis hamata, in the formation of which no development of a head takes place, with that of Trypanosyllis, in which a small head supplied with eyes is present, and, by different intermediate forms, with the com- plicated head structures of Autolytus, very clearly indicates, as had already been suggested by Huxley, that the stolon among syllids is not as distinctly individualized as would appear in observations on Autolytus by itself. URSINUS COLLEGE, COLLEGEVILLE, PA., 900 SOME NOTES ON REGENERATION AND REGU- LATION IN PLANARIANS. FRANK R. LILLIE. I. THE Source or MATERIAL or New PARTS AND LIMITS OF SIZE. Many observers have noted the tendency of planarians kept without food to diminish in size. My attention was specially directed to this phenomenon by some experiments undertaken to test the effect of external conditions on the regeneration of Planaria maculata. I had already studied the effect of tem- perature on the regeneration of this form in conjunction with Mr. Knowlton.! I next undertook to test how far the chemical constitution of the medium affected the rate and form of regen- eration. As an introduction to the systematic study of this subject, I made some experiments to determine whether any of the substances dissolved in the water of the habitat is necessary for regeneration. For this purpose I redistilled some of the ordinary distilled water of the laboratory, using flasks of Jena glass to get rid of the minute traces of copper found in water from copper stills. Permanganate of potash was dissolved in the water in the Jena flask to destroy traces of organic matter, and the distillate was again distilled in the same manner to insure the greatest possible degree of purity. The redistilled water thus obtained was carefully oxygenated by running a stream of air through it. The pieces of planarians used for the experiments were washed in this water and then transferred to more of the same; the vessels (cleaned in strong acid) and water were changed frequently to get rid of any traces of bacterial growth. I soon found that under these circumstances regeneration went on as 1 Lillie and Knowlton. The Effects of Temperature on the Development of Animals, Zoj;. Bull., vol. i. 173 174 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. rapidly and as well as in tap water or the water of the habitat ; thus demonstrating that the substances contained in these waters were not necessary for regeneration. However, the decrease in size already mentioned was so rapid and marked as to appear to deserve special study. So I isolated a number of active planarians in the redistilled water, measured them, and kept them in a thermostat at temperatures that ranged from 20° to 27° C. The dishes and water were changed regularly and frequently, measurements of each individual being made at the same times. The table on the opposite page shows the history of these specimens; less than half of the actual measurements in this series are given. It will be noted that the rate of decrease was not the same in all; in 2, for instance, it was much more rapid than in the others. This is probably due in part to greater activity of 2. Nor is the rate perfectly uniform in any given specimen, probably owing to variations in the temperature and in activity at different times. The smallest specimen obtained (No. 5, after 43 days) was certainly less than one-hundredth the bulk of the original animal. Its length was one-fifteenth the original length, its width one-third the initial width, and if we suppose that its dorso-ventral diameter was reduced by only one-half, the bulk would be one-ninefieth of the original bulk. But there can be little doubt that its dorso-ventral diameter was reduced more than one-half. Increase by fission was entirely stopped, but, on the other hand, the power of regeneration remained. Thus, when No. 5 had been reduced to less than one-half its original length, it was cut in two parts, and both regenerated completely, although with constant diminution in bulk. The same experiment suc- ceeded in No. 3, after it had been starved to less than one- fourth its original length. It is thus demonstrated that from a given individual one of less than one-hundredth the original bulk may be produced by appropriate means. This constitutes a criticism on those experiments that have been made to determine the limits of regeneration in planarians by direct operation. The possible No. 399.] NOTES ON PLANARIANS. 175 Days. I. | 2. 3. 4. 5. I 235. EE IO X I 6 x .5 9 X 75 5 y. 5.5 X <5 2X1 Ox 4 8x 3$ 12 6.5 6 4 Xx 533 6 x .66 Dead. yx: 17 6X .5 4 X .33 $ X4 4X.3 i35 us 23 4X-.5 25x55 43 X -5 esi E E ID. **]-Cut in two. edad s aene 1.25 X .3 (tail) L26 x 3 1.75 X .3 (head) (head) 1.25 X .3 (tail 2 f 37.4 Partial regen- T5 Partial regenera- eration. Died. tion. I.4 X .3 (head) .9 X .3 (tail) Complete re- two days later. 40 2:3 X..4 2.7 X4 Bik ad 2.28 X «4 6 x .25 Cut in two. Lost by accident. Tail end, 1.1 : 1.9 X .4 X .45 ge 43 Cut in two. erated in four Parts died in days (partly). two days. Head end, .9| little new tis- sue. Table giving history of five planarians in distilled water. The vertical columns should be read separately. There is a slight discrepancy in the measurements of ? and 3 for 17 and 23 days, no doubt due to an error in observation. The column to the left gives the number of days from the beginning of the experiment. The measurements, made after 17 days with the ocular micrometer, have all been reduced to millimeters. 176 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vor. XXXIV. limits of regeneration have been found by such experiments to be not much less than one-sixteenth of the bulk of the original animal. That a much lower limit has not been found is due partly to the extensive exposure of internal tissues along the cut surfaces, and partly (perhaps) to limitation of variety of tissue, but certainly not, it would appear, to deficient size. Do all organs suffer equally in the reduction? It might be expected that the organs of reproduction would suffer first, as they do not contribute to the life of the individual; but the specimens used in the experiments were not sexually mature, so this point was not settled. The other systems of organs were reduced in apparently similar proportions. Thus the intestinal diverticula in 5 were reduced to five on each side, and the branches of the longitudinal nerves were apparently equally reduced. Does the reduction affect chiefly the size or the number of the cells? A careful histological study would be necessary to answer this question in detail. Not having made this, all that I can say is that the branched pigment cells lying near the surface, that are readily visible under a low magnification, are reduced to very few, but their size is not noticeably affected. Do the processes of reduction retrace the steps of normal growth and development? I think that this question must be answered in the affirmative. Certain it is that specimens reduced by starvation to a smaller size than just hatched specimens of the same species resemble these in their general proportions, the relatively greater breadth in proportion to length as compared with mature specimens, the smallness of the cephalic lobes, and in the small number of the intestinal diverticula and branches of the longitudinal nerves. It would be interesting to determine whether or not these artificial embryos, as they might be termed, could under favorable cir- cumstances repeat the steps to the mature and fully grown condition from which they were reduced. I see no reason to doubt that this is possible. In regeneration, under the circumstances of these experi- ments, two processes are taking place side by side; not only is new tissue being formed at the cut end, but the old tissues are No. 399.] - NOTES ON PLANARIANS. 177 undergoing a translocation and partial redifferentiation to accommodate themselves to the new proportion that must be assumed. The new tissue at the cut end must be formed entirely from the old tissue, and the final result involves, there- - fore, an extensive working over of the old material. The original tissues, with constant losses, owing to destructive metabolism, are moulded into the form of a new individual. In trying to form a mental image of the forces at work in this complex rearrangement, one can think only of an “internal mould" (an expression of Buffon to which Professor Whitman has called my attention) No less remarkable is the mainte- nance of form in individuals that gradually waste away to one- hundredth part or less of their original bulk. Such individuals in all stages of reduction appear normal in all respects, physi- ologically as well as morphologically. They are active and exhibit perfectly normal reactions, showing no indications of sickness. VASSAR COLLEGE, Jan. 4, 1900. REMARKS ON THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER, TYPHLOMOLGE RATHBUNI STEJNEGER. W. W. NORMAN. Tnroucu the kindness of Mr. Leary, Superintendent of the U. S. Fish Hatchery at ‘San Marcos, Texas, the Biological Laboratory of the University of Texas became the possessor of a small number of living salamanders that came up from subterranean waters 181 feet below the surface. It has been the aim of the writer to study the habits of these strange animals, but through ill-luck only a single speci- men is at the present writing alive, and the new arrivals at the well are becoming scarce. For a systematic description of the animals the reader is referred to Stejneger's paper in the Proc. of the U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XVIII, No. 1088. A good idea of the animal may be had from the pictures accompanying this description. The animals were kept in a large shallow basin of water con- taining water plants and some small organisms, such as water fleas. Unless disturbed, the salamanders appear at all times either resting, or very slowly walking along. They move a few steps at a time, wait awhile, and go again. They have no particular pose when quiet except that they always rest on their four feet, holding themselves up from the bottom of the vessel, and fre- quently retain the position of the legs as if in the act of walk- ing. Indeed, this position represents them as if suddenly ! A few years ago the late Professor Norman secured a number of specimens of the Texas cave salamander for me, to enable me to study the structure of their eyes. He himself intended to study the habits of the species. In September of 1899, Mrs. Norman placed his notes and photographs in my hands, and these are repro- duced in this paper. The notes are just as he wrote them. I have added as foot notes a few observations on living specimens kindly furnished me by Super- intendent J. L, Leary, of San Marcos. — C. H. EIGENMANN. 179 180 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. stopped. This is beautifully shown in the photograph (Fig. 1) where the large animal has the left legs near each other, and the right far apart. If the vessel contains, for example, water- cress, they crawl in among the branches, stop as when walking on firm bottom, with the legs in such a position as fits easiest for gliding in among the twigs. They are never seen to move faster than a slow, easy walk, except when disturbed by external stimuli! Then one of three methods of locomotion may follow. I. The walking speed may pass into a grotesque run by long strides and corresponding winds of the body ; or, 2. This passes into a combined movement of legs and tail, the last act- Fic. 1. — Photograph of a living salamander from the side. ing asfin. 3. Atits greatest speed the legs are laid lengthwise against the body, and the tail only used for locomotion. The legs are exceedingly slender and weak. If the animal is placed on a table out of water, the body falls to the floor, and at best the animal may wriggle a few inches. 1 The motion in water is, for the most part, slow and cautious, the movement of the long legs being apparently calculated to produce the least commotion in the water. The motion suggests that of a cat creeping upon its prey, or the elephan- tine progression of the snapping turtle. The feet are lifted high in walking, and the body is kept from the bottom by the full length of the fore arm and leg. I ordinary progression the body slopes from the nose to the tail, which drags (Fig. 1). d of moving the limbs is as follows : Left hand and, when this is nearly ready to place, or usually when placed, the right foot. When the right foot is placed, then the right hand and then the left foot. As the hand of one side is not raised till the foot of the same side is placed, the enormous strides of the long- legged creature causes it to step on its hand or even beyond. Its natural gait is a deliberate progression by means of its feet with three feet usually on the ground. Any attempt at great rapidity by this means of locomotion results in a most undig- nified and futile wriggle. When going slowly the head is held sloping upward. When walking rapidly it is held sloping down, so that the snout is near the ground. No. 399. ] THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER 181 In water, however, the weight of the salamander is so little that the legs are amply strong for its locomotion. Professor Stejneger lost sight of this point when he guessed that the animal used its tail for locomotion and its legs as feelers, for he says: ‘Viewed in connection with the well-developed, finned swimming-tail, it can be safely assumed that these extraordinarily slender and elongated legs are not used for locomotion, and the conviction is irresistible that in the inky darkness of the subterranean waters they serve the animal as feelers.”’ No definite information has been obtained as to their habits in nature, They show no reaction against light, either as a response by motion to the direction of the rays or to the quantity of light. Fic. 2.— The same as Fig. 1, but from above. If kept in a vessel, one-half of which is dark and the other half light, the animal is found about as much in one as the other, and on emerging into light from the dark half indicates in no way an awareness of the difference. If in a tangle of plants, as watercress, they are found there about the same as in any other part of the vessel. If they are headed against a current, the flowing water acts as stimulus urging them on. If the current strikes them from behind, they move more rapidly in the direction of flow. The sense of touch is highly developed. There is, however, no experimental evidence that this is confined to any particular region. If the surface of the body is touched anywhere except at the blunt truncated snout, the animal responds at once by moving away. If the stimulus causes it to swim away, it may 182 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. go (say 12 or 16 inches) till it strikes the side of the vessel, after which it soon comes to a standstill. If, however, it is struck say with the flat side of a scalpel handle sufficiently hard to move the entire animal even an inch backwards, it may not react, and this may often be repeated FiGs. 3 and 4. Fic. 3. — Dorsal surface of a salamander Pastors in formalin. Fic. 4. — Ventral surface of the same specimen. before it reacts by moving away. A possible explanation of this is that in normal life it is every day striking itself against obstacles, especially the sides of the vessel (when in confinement). The animal was kept in water about an inch deep, so that its head was near the surface. The waves of the water set going by a gentle puff of the breath act as a sure stimulus. It is exceedingly sensitive to any motion of the water. No. 399. ] THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER. 183 But little evidence thus far shows in favor of a sense of smell. All attempts at feeding (except one) have been in vain. No attention was given to meat or other articles placed near it. Examination of a dead specimen showed chitinous remains of such Crustacea as Cyclops. To-day (April 18) I offered a sala- mander a small piece of the abdominal muscle of a crayfish. - The bait was held by means of forceps about 5 mm. in front of the snout. The animal moved slightly forward, and the bait was kept at about the same distance. Suddenly it was snapped off and swallowed. The animal snapped off a second piece, but a third was refused.! 1 If a glass rod or other object is held a little to one side and in front of the animal, it will cautiously turn its head in the direction of the rod. If the latter is then made to describe an arc about the side of the salamander, the head will fol- low it with a continuous motion, expressive of the greatest caution, as far as it can be followed without moving any of the limbs: A sudden jar, produced by tapping the rod on the bottom of the aquarium at such a time, causes the salamander to jerk its head back and rear back on its limbs as far as it can. The same effect is produced if the rod is introduced too rapidly. If a piece of crayfish tail is held by pincers in the fingers a short distance in front or to the side of the head of the salamander, there is the same cautious motion forward till the snout comes in contact with it. There is then a momentary hesi- tation, followed by a sudden snap and seizure. The salamander may be pulled from side to side by the meat, after it has once secured a hold, without causing it to let go. All of its caution is apparently directed in approaching the food without disturbance. After it has secured a hold it will struggle to maintain it. ON THE FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE POSTCAVAL VEIN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES IN THE DO- MESTIC CAT (FELIS DOMESTICA). Ci F, We McCLUKE. VARIATIONS of the postcaval vein and its tributaries are not of unusual occurrence, as is attested by the considerable litera- ture on-this subject. It is also generally conceded that these variations from the normal condition, to whatever cause they may be due, occur with greater frequency among domesticated animals than among those living in the wild state. The object of the present paper is to emphasize especially the frequency with which such venous abnormalities may occur in a given number of individuals of the domestic cat (Felis domestica). During the last five years the writer has observed that varia- tions of the venous system, of some sort or another, occur with great frequency in the domestic cat; and in 1898—99 twenty- five cats dissected by students in the Princeton Laboratory were more carefully examined for such variations, with the following results : a In only ten of the twenty-five examined was the venous sys- tem apparently normal, while in 60 per cent, or in fifteen of the cats, thirty-three distinct abnormalities were met with in Connection with the postcava and its tributaries. These, for descriptive purposes, have been grouped in the following table under five types.! ! The cats in which these abnormalities were found were chosen at random from those brought into the Laboratory and ! The figures represent the actual size of the preparations. The veins are in black and the arteries shaded. The numbering is the same for all of the figures. Many of the smaller arteries and veins have been omitted from the drawings. 185 186 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. were not, after dissection, selected on account of the abnormal- ities which they presented. NUMBER oF CASES TYPES. OBSERVED — . PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS (Vv. Cardinales fost.). (a) Left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis sinistra) absent. 3 (4) Left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis sinistra) present. 2 2. THE COMMON ILIAC VEINS (V. iliaca communis sinistra and dextra) UNITE TO FoRM THE POSTCAVAL VEIN OPPOSITE THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTH LUMBAR VERTEBRA, WHICH Is CONSIDERABLY CEPHALAD OF THE NORMAL POINT OF JUNCTION (opposite the posterior half of the seventh). The ilio-lumbar veins also, in each case, open into the right and left common iliacs and not into the common postcava, as is usually the case in the cat. . 3 3. THE MIDDLE SACRAL VEIN (V. PS media] AND ITS Re LATION TO THE VEINS OF THE PELVIC REGION. (4) Opens into the right common iliac vein Su iliaca LATTE dextra ‘ 4 (4) Opens into angle of union at two veins p bit join veins üt right and left aas — à è à i 4. PERFORATION OF A VEIN (a) An artery j 6 (4) A nerve 3. 5. DOUBLE VEINS WHERE Di IS Ness PxsstKT 7 33 Description of the Venous Abnormalities. I. PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS (Vv. Cardinales post.). — Our knowledge of the development of the postcaval vein and our interpretation of the significance of the persist- ent double postcaval veins are largely due to Hochstetter,! who has shown that these veins are the homologues of the posterior cardinal veins of the embryo: and of lower vertebrates. Wilder and Gage? state that double postcaval veins occur in the domestic cat once in about ten cases. This percentage is somewhat less than that found by the writer (20 per cent), but perhaps represents more accurately the conditions commonly met with. In either case the percentage is extremely large when we consider how rarely this abnormality is met with in man. 1 Hochstetter. Anat. Anz., Bd. ii, Morph. Jahrb, Bd. xiii, and Anat. Anz. Bd. iii. 2 Anatomical Technology, § 962. No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 187 Five cases of persistent posterior cardinal veins were met with by the writer in twenty-five cats examined. In three of these cases the left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis si- "istra) was absent, and in two it was present. (a) PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS. LeEFr Com- 7 MON ILiAc VEIN (V. iliaca com- munis simistra) ABSENT. The three examples of this type were essentially the same in character and are well repre- sented by Fig. 1. In each instance the union of Dextra Sinistra the two posterior cardinals (17) with the common postcaval vein (1) took place in the neighbor- hood of the kidneys. In two instances this union was opposite the third lumbar vertebra, and in one, opposite the fourth. In the former the right renal veins, single in one case and double in the ether, opened into the right Fte. :.— Princeton. Morphological Museum, . i . No. 6or. Ventral aspect. V. cardinalis posterior cardinal; in the latter 4,44 and sinistra persistent. V. iliaca (Fig. 1) the right renal vein (7) «wis sinistra lum D nas opened into the common post- zia interna. s. V. sacralis media. 6. cava. (1). (earum CARA. suite libre a Sach instance, as in Fig. f Geen A. iL me "ir thesingleleftrenalvein(7)opened sacralis media. 17. V. cardinalis post. intotheleft posteriorcardinal(17). . The middle sacral vein (V. sacralis media), Fig. 2 (5), in each of these three cases, was connected with the posterior cardinal veins (17) in a characteristic manner. It opened into the angle of union of two veins which joined, respectively, the right and left posterior cardinal veins (17) at varying dis- tances from the point of union of the external and internal iliac veins, 188 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. (b) PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS. Lrrr Cov- MON ILIAc VEIN (V. iliaca communis sinistra) PRESENT. Abnormalities of this type have been described as occurring in man, by Cruveilhier, von Gruber, Kollmann,! Lobstein, Nic- olai, Quain, Wilde, and others. Kollmann, with whom the writer is fully in accord, states as follows regarding the significance of this type of abnormality : * The significance of this condition can, according to my inter- pretation, only be as follows: Persistence of both cardinal veins, together with the connecting branch (Verbindungsast)." By the * Connecting branch" is meant the vessel which is subsequently developed between the veins of the left hind extremity and the right posterior cardi- nal vein, in correlation with the appear- ance of the functional kidneys and the . atrophy of the distal portion of the left posterior cardinal vein. -This vessel becomes the left common iliac vein (7. iliaca communis sinistra). No instance was met with by the writer in which the * Connecting branch" ran in the reverse direction, that is, between the veins of the right Tute. Worreferencetongm. Mnd extremity and the left posterior "— "€ cardinal vein. Abnormalities of this type, however, have been described by Timmermann, Walter? Walsham, and others, as occurring in man. Two cases were met with by the writer in which the poste- rior cardinal veins were persistent, together with the ** Connect- ing branch." In one (Fig. 3) the union of the two posterior cardinals (17) with the common postcava (1) was opposite the third lumbar vertebra; in the other (Fig. 4) this union was opposite the mid- dle of the sixth lumbar vertebra. In the first-mentioned case, represented by Fig. 3, where the 1 Kollmann gives a a complete bibliography relating to this type of abnor- mality in Bd. viii of the Azat. Anz., p. 113. 2 See Kollmann’s primi No. 399.] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 189 two posterior cardinals unite with the common postcava oppo- site the third lumbar vertebra, the middle sacral vein (V. sacra- lis media) opens into the angle of union of two veins which, as in that case previously mentioned (Fig. 2), join, respectively, Dextra o. deg; ntral aspect are inalis sinistra SREE: ex sp T. iliaca communis sinistra present. 2. V. iliaca communis. For remaining numbers, see Fig. 1. veins of the right and left IG Venn aspoet V. cardinali deca asinine ge padina P dn communis gei. va In addition to the above >. V. iaca communis. 13. A. mesenterica post. mode of union, which g TET seems to be characteris- tic for the middle sacral vein, whenever both posterior cardinals unite in the neighborhood of the kidneys, the middle sacral vein again opens into the right post-cardinal by an additional vessel. This third vessel, Figs. 3, 5 (2, sinistra), extends between that portion of the middle sacral vein which Opens into the left posterior cardinal and the right posterior cardinal vein. It opens into the latter, opposite the point where For 190 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the right external iliac artery (9), Fig. 3, arises from the aorta. Although the connection of this third vessel with the middle sacral vein is abnormal, its relative position, and especially its connection with the right posterior cardinal at the above-men- tioned point, lead the writer to the conclusion that it is the * Connecting branch " (Verbindungsast) which normally grows between the veins of the left hind extremity and the right pos- terior cardinal vein, in correlation with the appearance of the permanent kidneys and the atrophy of the distal portion of the left posterior cardinal vein. This so-called ** Connecting branch," un- der normal conditions, becomes the left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis sinistra) and returns the blood from the left hind extremity . to the postcaval vein. In this par- ticular instance, however, the vein does not connect with the veins of the left hind extremity, but arises from the middle sacral vein by means of two radicles that soon be- come confluent, Fig. 5 (2, sinistra). The significance of this unusual connection will be spoken of in con- i d E nection with the following topic. post. 18. N. obturatorius. For re- The second case met with by the maining numbers, see Fig. r. : 5 s i writer, in which the posterior car- dinal veins persist, together with the “ Connecting branch ds (V. iliaca communis sinistra), is represented by Fig. 4. In this instance the persistent left posterior cardinal vein (17) unites with the corresponding vein of the right side, oppo- site the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra, and not, as in the preceding case, in the region of the kidneys. The left poste- rior cardinal is also here of less importance physiologically, as is indicated by its relative size, than either the right posterior cardinal or the left common iliac vein (2). It is evident, there- fore, that the bulk of the blood from the left hind extremity was carried to the common postcava, chiefly by the left common Sinistra. 2 No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. IgI iliac vein (* Connecting branch"), which is normal in every respect and has, as is usually the case in the cat, the middle sacral vein (5) opening intoit. The ilio-lumbar veins (6), which, usually in the cat, open into the common postcava (1), in this instance (Fig. 4), open into separate vessels on the right and left side, respectively. That the vessel (17) on the left side, into which the ilio-lumbar vein (6) opens, is the left posterior cardinal vein and not the so-called * Connecting branch" is evidenced by the fact that the vein in question persists in com- mon with the left common iliac (* Connecting branch"). In addition to this, the left posterior cardinal (17), in Fig. 4, lies ventrad of the aorta at the point where it unites with the cor- responding vein of the opposite side, a circumstance character- istic of the left posterior cardinal vein.! The “Connecting branch" is not usually present when the left posterior cardinal persists. Its absence, under these condi- tions, is undoubtedly due to the circumstance that the left pos- terior cardinal vein, during all stages of development, continues to collect the blood from the left hind extremity, which makes uncalled for the development of a vessel to share in its function. When for some reason the ** Connecting branch " does persist, together with the left posterior cardinal, so far as the writer's experience extends, one vessel is usually developed at the expense of the other. This idea is well borne out by a com- parison of Figs. 1, 3, and 4. In the type of abnormality represented by Fig. 1, the “ Con- necting branch ” is absent, and the left posterior cardinal per- sists as far forward as the kidneys. In Fig. 3 the left posterior cardinal is likewise persistent as far forward as the kidneys, but the ‘Connecting branch," though present, collects little, if any, of the blood from the left hind extremity. In Fig. 4 both vessels persist, but the left posterior cardinal is insignificant, while the “ Connecting branch " is normal in every respect, and undoubtedly, on account of its large relative size, is the chief collector of the blood from the left hind extremity. 1 In the preparation represented by Fig. 4 the common internal iliac artery (10) is unusually long. Compare with corresponding arteries in Figs. 1, 3, 6. 102 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. The middle sacral vein and the * Connecting branch” (V. 2/- aca communis sinistra) must be developed in close relation with each other, since the former normally opens into the latter. It is not. strange, therefore, in one instance (Fig. 3) where the ‘“« Connecting branch ” is abnor- mal, that it should arise from the middle sacral vein. 2. ON THE PRESENCE OF UN- USUALLY Lonc Common ILIAC Dextra Sinistra - = = = p Fic. 6. Fic. 7. Fic. 6. Pru NOTE Miseum, Ao bo. Unusually long Vv. iliacæ communes vhich unit vertebra. Ventra l aspect. iliaca communis. . mesenterica post. For remaining numbers, se e Fi 1g. I. Fic, 7. peri Morphological can No. 6o Same as Fig. 6. Ventral aspect. M teries omitted in the drawing. WR A Misi X. Opposi igin of Aa. iliace externe from aorta. For remaining indien. see Fig Veins (Vv. iliace communes). — The point at which the single postcava joins the right and left common iliac veins is normally, with slight variations, opposite the middle of the seventh lum- bar vertebra. In three cats, not including those which pos- sessed well-defined double postcaval veins, the point of union of the two common iliacs with the common postcava was found to be opposite the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra, * No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 193 which is considerably cephalad of the normal point, and to result in relatively long common iliac veins (2), Figs. 6, 7. The writer was at first inclined to regard these three cases as instances in which the posterior division of the left posterior cardinal vein, instead of the “Connecting branch," persists as the functional left common iliac vein, and for the following reasons : : 1. Because in one instance (Fig. 7) the middle sacral vein (5) opens into the angle of union of two veins, as in those cases in which both posterior cardinal veins persist (Fig. 1). 2. Because the left ilio-lumbar vein (6), in all three cases, opens into the left common iliac (2) and not into the common postcava (1), as is normally the case in the cat. (See Figs. 6, 7.) 3. Because the functional left common iliac vein (2), in all three cases, unites with the corresponding vein of the opposite side in front of the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra and, in this respect, resembles the left posterior cardinal vein (17) in Fig. 4, which persists there, in addition to a left common iliac vein (* Connecting branch "). *In other words, if the left common iliac vein (2) were absent in Fig. 4, the latter would resemble, so far as the veins are concerned, the conditions met with in Fig. 6. One marked difference exists, however, between the relative position of the left common iliac (2) in the three cases cited above and that of the left posterior cardinal vein (17) in Fig. 4. In the latter the vein lies ventrad of the aorta, the position it should normally assume were the vessel a persistent cardinal vein. In the three other cases, of which Fig. 6 is an example, the aorta (8) lies ventrad of the vein, which should not be its position unless a transposition of the vessel has taken place, a circumstance incapable of proof. "Whatever the significance of this abnormality may be, it is certainly worthy of mention, for it further emphasizes the fact that variations of the postcaval Vein and its tributaries are of unusual frequency in the cat. 3. THe MippLE SacraL VEIN (V. sacralis media) AND ITS RELATIONS TO THE VEINS OF THE PELvic ReGion. — Much has already been said concerning this vein, but its variations are so Pronounced, that it seems best to specify them more in detail. 194 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. The middle sacral vein usually opens into the left common iliac, and this was found to be the case by the writer in 60 per cent of the cats examined. In some instances this vein (5) was found to open into the left common iliac (2), near the point of union of the external and internal iliac veins (3 and 4), Fig. 6. In other instances its connection with the left common iliac was somewhat cephalad of this point. In four cats, or 16 per cent of those examined, the middle sacral vein (5) opened into the right com- mon iliac (2), Fig. 8. This was the case with one of those prepara- tions in which the common iliac veins were unusually long and joined the single postcava opposite the sixth lumbar vertebra. In five cats, or 20 per cent of those examined, the middle sacral vein (5) opened into the angle of union of two veins which joined a vein of the right and left side, re- spectively (Figs. 1, 3, 7). 4. ON THE PRESENCE OF Fo- RAMINA IN VEINS THROUGH WHICH ARTERIES AND NERVES Pass. — (a) Six cases were met by the writer in which a vein presented a completely formed foramen through which an artery passed. In four Fic. 8. — Princeton Morphological -- TT seum, No. 606. Perforation of V. a of these cases the internal iliac communis dextra by A. iliaca aig dextra, Ventral aspect. a. V. iliaca artery passed through a foramen communis. 13. mesenterica post. 3 H TP " GM M remaining qum. iN the common iliac vein. In the I. A D bers, sec Fi EET ge hue Ris two remaining instances a lumbar artery passed dorsad through a foramen in the postcaval vein. Two cases were met with in which the right internal iliac artery (11) passed through a foramen in the right common iliac vein (2), as represented by Fig. 8. No. 399.] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 195 The foramen, which, in both cases, was situated near the juncture of the external and internal iliac veins, was complete, so that the artery could be dissected away from the vein with- out injuring the latter. After passing through the foramen the artery naturally lies dorsad ‘of the vein, but in its subse- quent course assumes its usual position at the side of the vein. Two cases were met with, in which the left internal iliac artery passed through a foramen in the left common iliac vein. Since there is no essential difference between any of these four cases, so far as the character and relative position of the foram- ina are concerned, Fig. 8 will serve as a description for all. Treadwell! has described an abnormality as occurring in the cat somewhat similar to these four cases described above, but on account of the poor condition of his preparation, he was unable to locate accurately the exact position of the foramen. An examination of his figure leads the writer to the conclu- sion that his preparation is similar, in every respect, to that represented above by my Fig. 8. The two cases in which a lumbar ártery passed through a foramen in the postcaval vein resemble those mentioned above, so far as the completeness of the foramina is concerned, and, therefore, need no further mention. It is interesting to note, however, that in each instance the vein was penetrated by the same lumbar artery, the artery situated just cephalad of the ilio-lumbar artery. (6) Foramina, when present, were not exclusively connected with the transference of arteries. In three cats both obturator nerves (18), Fig. 5, were found to pass through foramina situ- ated at the point where the external and internal iliac veins unite, The foramina in each instance were complete, and, as in the Case of the arteries, the nerves were easily dissected away without injuring the veins.? ! Anat. Anz., Bd. xi, p. 717 * Ogle (Journ. of Anat. and Phys., vol. xxix) describes a case as occurring in man, in which the left hypoglossal nerve pierced the wall of the left vertebral 196 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV. It is well known that the perforation of a vein by an artery or nerve is not, by itself, of unusual occurrence, but that it should occur with such frequency in the domestic cat, and in connection with so many other abnormalities, is deemed by the writer as worthy of mention, as it further emphasizes the unstable condition of the veins in the lumbar and pelvic regions. Whatever the cause may be which has produced this type of abnormality, it is probably the same for both nerve and artery, and, Treadwell says, ‘‘may be referred back to the origin of the vessels in the embryo, where an interference between the formative cells of the artery and those of the vein has resulted in a penetration of one by the other." It seems worthy of emphasis to note, in this connection, that in each instance it is the vein which is perforated and never the artery. 5. DOUBLE VEINS WHERE ONE IS NORMALLY PRESENT. — This type of abnormality is, likewise, of fairly common occur- rence, and is only mentioned to further emphasize the frequency of venous abnormalities in the regions in question. In seven instances veins which are usually single were paired, and with one exception, Fig. 1 (left double ilio-lumbar veins, 6), this duplicity occurred in connection with the veins of the right side. Four of the above-mentioned cases refer to the renal veins and three to the ilio-lumbar. In one case, Fig. 8 (6), the right ilio-lumbar vein (V. z/ze- lumbalis dextra) opened into the postcava (1) by two veins, but laterad of the postcava the two veins were fused together, and through the cleft thus formed the right ilio-lumbar artery (15) passed. The question might be asked, —Is the manner in which this cleft is formed, in any sense, comparable with that of the foramina mentioned above in connection with the postcava and common iliac veins? It seems probable to the writer, since the foramina in the common iliac veins are located near the point of union of two veins, that these foramina may have been formed as the result No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 197 of a secondary union of the veins behind the artery or nerve which passes between them. As previously stated, the lumbar artery, which, in two cases, was found to penetrate the postcava, was the one situated just anterior to the ilio-lumbar veins. In the case represented by Fig. 7, this artery (19) lies between the common iliac veins, near their point of union. If in this instance the veins should fuse behind the artery, a foramen would be formed which resembles in every respect the two met with in the postcava. So far as could be ascertained by the writer, the number of abnormalities of the arterial system, in general, was small. This was also the case with the veins of the neck and fore-limb regions, which in no way approximated those found in connection with the postcava and its tributaries. . The arterial abnormalities were chiefly confined to the ilio-lumbar and iliac arter- ies, an example of the latter being figured below (Fig. 9). Oné conclusion which may be drawn from a perusal of the preceding pages is that, in the cat, the veins of the lumbar and pelvic regions appear to be more liable to variation than those of any other region of the body. Whether this variation may be the result, as some might maintain in virtue of the Shifting character of the lumbar vertebra, of a general instability of this region is an open question. The greater frequency, however, with which abnormalities of the postcava and its tributaries occur, whatever the causes may be which produce them, may possibly be explained on the following grounds: The veins of the lumbar and pelvic regions possess a marked primitive arrangement in the embryo, which differs from that of the adult. In the transition from the em- bryonic to the adult condition, the veins, on account of the changes which they have to undergo, thus readily lend them- Selves to variations when, for any cause, their normal develop- ment is interrupted. F numbers, see Fig. r. 198 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. It is without the purpose of this paper to discuss the causes which are responsible for the production of venous abnormal- ities. It seems fair to assume, however, that any cause which may disturb the character of the normal stimuli that control the development of an organism may correspondingly influence the veins, by either arresting, accelerating, or even annulling their development. Such causes, the effects of which undoubtedly influence these normal stimuli, must be numerous, and among others the following might be mentioned: Domestication, inbreeding, disease, drugs, and shock. It seems, therefore, reasonable to assume that breeding experiments, carried out on these lines, might give us some clue as to the direct causes, as well as the relation of cause and effect, which are responsible for the production of abnor- malities of the vascular system. PRINCETON, N. J., January, 1900. THE NORTH-AMERICAN JUMPING MICE. J. A. ALLEN. THE jumping mice of North America form a peculiar group, restricted, with one exception, so far as now known, to the middle and northern parts of North America, ranging from North Carolina, Missouri, New Mexico, and central California, northward to Labrador, Great Slave Lake, and the Yukon River. They are a little larger than the common house mouse, with very long hind legs and a very long tail. They are yellowish brown above and white below, the color of the dorsal and ven- tral areas being sharply separated by a broad lateral line of bright yellowish orange. They generally prefer moist meadows, marshy thickets, and the edge of woodland, but some species frequent deep forests, near streams. They are thus necessarily local in distribution, and not generally abundant, and being apparently nocturnal in habits are not often met with. They also pass the severer parts of the winter in hibernation. Opinion seems to be divided in reference to whether they constitute a distinct family type, or merely form a well-marked subfamily of the Old World Dipodidz, or Jerboas, with which they were formerly associated generically by early writers, and of which they may be consid- ered the American representatives. They were first generically separated from the Old World Jerboas by Coues in 1875, under the name Zapus, which he considered to represent also a dis- tinct family, Zapodide. The members of this genus greatly resemble each other in size and color; so much so that, with the scanty and imperfect material then available for study, Baird, in 1857, and Coues, in 1877, recognized only a single species. A second was made known by Miller in 1891, and a third by Allen in 1893, while during the following six years some twenty additional species and subspecies were added. Mr. Edward A. Preble, assistant in the United States Biological Survey, has recently made a 199 200 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. revision of the group,! recognizing three subgenera, twelve spe- cies, and nine additional subspecies, of which two subgenera, three species, and five subspecies are characterized as new. One of the species, and the only non-American species known, is the Zapus setchuanus, from Szechuen, China, the type and sole representative of Preble’s new subgenus. Eozapus. The molar pattern, as figured by Preble, is, however, so different in this type from that of the American forms of Zapus that it seems well entitled to full generic rank. The twenty Ameri- can forms are separated into two subgenera, Zapus proper and Napaeozapus, the latter differing from the former mainly in the absence of the minute upper premolar always found in Zapus. Napzeozapus comprises the single species, Z. insignis, described by Miller in 1891, with its subspecies abietorum and roanensis. The Z. insignis group, characterized among other features by a white-tipped tail, in contrast with the species of Zapus, is an Eastern type, described originally from New Brunswick, and since found to range southward, in the Canadian fauna, to the moun- tains of North Carolina, where it forms Mr. Preble’s subspecies roanensis, and westward to the north shore of Lake Superior, where it constitutes the same author’s subspecies abietorum. These subtractions leave seventeen forms —ten species and seven subspecies — in the restricted subgenus Zapus, which collectively cover the whole of the North American range of the genus Zapus, the subgenus Zapus being found throughout the range of Napzeozapus as well as elsewhere. As already said, only one species, Zapus hudsonius, was rec- ognized prior to the description of Z. insignis Miller in 1891, but of course many other forms were confounded under this name; but even now in its restricted sense, or as defined by Preble, it has, including its four well-marked subspecies, by far the most extensive range of any member of the genus, being found from the southern shore of Hudson Bay southward to New Jersey and in the mountains to North Carolina, and west- ward to Iowa and Alaska. 1 Preble, Edward A., assistant in Biological Survey. Revision of the Jumping Mice of the Genus Zapus, North American Fauna, No. 15, Aug. 8, 1899, pp. 1-41) 1 plate and 3 text-figures. No. 399.] NORTH-AMERICAN JUMPING MICE. 201 Mr. Preble, in this revision of the group, has done a good piece of work in seemingly a very acceptable manner, he having had at his command practically all of the material available in our museums and private collections, including the types of all of the recently described forms, the specimens examined by him numbering nearly one thousand. Of the thirty specific and subspecific names applied to mem- bers of this group, seven of the nine synonyms are referred to the long known Zapus hudsonius. A list of the species and subspecies recognized by Mr. Preble here follows, with a brief statement of their ranges, so far as known, based on Mr. Preble’s excellent paper. Much still remains to be learned about the group, especially in respect to the geographical distribution of most of the forms, but a good foundation has been laid on which to build the final superstructure. SUBGENUS ZAPUS. 1. Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann). Type locality, Hudson Bay. From Hudson Bay south to New Jersey and in the mountains to North Carolina ; west to Iowa and Great Slave Lake. (Includes Z. 4. canadensis Batchel- der and Z. h. hardyi Batchelder.) 1a. Zapus hudsonius ladas Bangs. Eastern Quebec, north to Hamil- ton Inlet, Labrador. Là. Zapus hudsonius americanus (Barton). Vicinity of Raleigh, N. C., north along the coastal plain to southern Connecticut and the lower Hudson ley. 1c. Zapus hudsonius campestris Preble. Great Plains, from Mani- toba to Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado, west over eastern Wyoming. 1d. Zapus hudsonius alascensis Merriam. Yakutat Bay, north to Yukon River. 5 Pant tenellus Merriam. Known only from vicinity of Kamloops, B. C. Zapus A Allen. Rocky Mountain region, from New Mexico to forthece Albert 3a. Zapus Rap minor Preble. Plains of Saskatchewan. 36. Zapus princeps oregonus Preble. Blue Mountains of Oregon. 4. Zapus major Preble. Known only from the type, from Warner oe Oregon 5. Zapus isa did Preble. Known only from the type, taken in the Ruby Mountains, Nevada. 6. Zapus trinotatus Rhoads. Coast region, from Frazer River, B. C., to northern California. (Includes Z. imperator Elliot.) 202 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. 6a. Zapus trinotatus alleni Elliot. Mount Shasta and Sierra Nevada of California. 7. Zapus montanus Merriam. Cascade Range, Oregon. 8. Zapus orarius Preble. Coast of California from Point Reyes to Mendocino County. 9. Zapus pacificus Merriam. Rogue River Valley, Oregon, and south- ward into California. : Io. Zapus saltator Allen. Northern British Columbia. SUBGENUS NAPAOZAPUS. 11. Zapus insignis Miller. New Brunswick, northern New England, Adirondacks and Catskills of New York, and southward in the Alleghanies to Maryland. II a. Zapus insignis roanensis Preble. Roan Mountains, N. C. 11 5, Zapus insignis abietorum Preble. Quebec and western Ontario. FRESH-WATER AQUARIA. L. MURBACH. Tue lover of nature, taking his early spring walks, often feels the desire to cultivate a nearer acquaintance with the living things that he sees in ponds and pools along his way. He may dip up samples here and there, taking some water weed and a string of the jelly beads containing toads' eggs, place them in glass jars or aquaria at home, and gain further pleasure, for a few days at most, and then the whole mass becomes foul and is thrown away. His ill-success is due to the improper balance between animals and to the popular mi tion that an aquarium with animal life should be uncovered so that the animals can get air to breathe; and the remedy lies in keeping the aquarium, once properly balanced from one spring to another, so well covered that scarcely any evaporation of water can take place. To this then may be added new organisms from time tó time. None of the numerous notices on the keeping of aquaria that I have seen describe permanent aquaria without changing the water; yet this is one of the most desirable features — to keep the aquarium, year in year out, for observing the interest- ing succession of forms, often including representatives of ani- mal groups from Protozoa to Crustacea, with an almost equal diversity of aquatic plants. Some of the pond scum (alge), drawn by light and ad- hering to the side of the glass, may be made to decorate the side of the aquarium with almost any pattern in green — let- ters, or your monogram if you choose. Some of my experience may be useful to the reader, and I gladly give it for what it mày be worth. Seeing the algæ in my largest aquarium accumulate on the side most strongly lighted, it occurred to me that they might be made to form a definite design by regulating the light. 203 204 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. First a stencil of paper or pasteboard was used, but as this was not permanent enough, one of my students, living next door to a tinsmith, cut out the monogram of our school and attached it to the outside of the aquarium, having previously cleaned the inside with a scraper. In a few weeks the letters « D. H. S." were sharply marked by the sun's ray-pencils and the microscopic green plants within. (See figure in /ourn. Applied Micros., July, 1899, Vol. II, No. 7.) The stencil may be removed at any time for inspection, but should be kept in position the half of each day, while the strongest light falls on the aquarium to keep the letters from being obliterated. This experiment serves to illustrate the movement of green plants towards the source of light, and has interested many of our visitors. Such balanced aquaria also have a practical value in the schoolroom or laboratory; each one will have its own fauna, and may serve as a source of animalculee — Amcebz and other Protozoa so highly prized by the young teacher — and larger animals and plants for demonstration, experiment or research, in more nearly their natural environment, than those kept in water changed daily. This last spring we had a nice illustra- tion of this fact ; some fairy shrimps (Branchipus) were placed in a glass jar with water and plants of their habitat, and a few were placed in one of the balanced aquaria of the same size and receiving the same lighting. Those in the first jar died in a few days (the common experience of every one who has tried to keep them in the laboratory for demonstration), while those in the aquarium lived three times longer. In one small aquarium jar, set up over a year ago, containing mostly diatoms, Oscillaria, some water fleas and Rotatoria, there has been a good supply of Amcebz for class use. Another larger one, képt over two and one half years, in which a large ` snail, some water weed, and smaller animals constitute the balance, furnishes sun animalcules for demonstration. The largest one, with glass plate sides, slate bottom and ends, has been kept nearly two years without change or addition of water. It is stocked with aquatic plants, Cladophora, Myriophyllum, Lemna, Wolffia, Anacharis, and many single-celled algae. The No. 399.] FRESH-WATER AQUARIA. 205 largest animal representative is a so-called “ bull-head ” (one of the species of Uranidze), about four inches long, kept princi- pally for the balance, and because he needs no further attention than a few earthworms every few days. In this aquarium fresh- water polyps, Polyzoa, and other interesting forms appear in their season. In speaking of the time these aquaria have been kept, it is to be understood without changing the water but covered in such a way as to require very little or no additions of water to supply evaporation. The aération of the water for the breathing of animals will be readily seen to come from the oxygen given out by the plants while they feed (during photo-syntax) on the carbonic acid gas given out by the animals. The only thing needing attention is the feeding of such animals as cannot find their source of food in the aquaria themselves, and this should be done so carefully that no food is left to decay. For aquaria almost any kind of glass vessel that can be securely covered against dust and bacteria may be used — jam jars, battery jars, culture dishes and globes for the smaller win- dow aquaria; window glass, properly cemented into wooden frames that are kept coated with paraffin or asphalt varnish, for a medium size; and slate bottom and ends, with plate-glass sides, for the larger though more expensive ones. In setting up the aquaria it is better to begin with water from some clean pond containing considerable plant and animal life. Fill up to within a few inches of the top with water, and then add about j. its bulk of plants and animals; or hydrant water may be used, adding some plants, and later the animals desired. Where there is no choice, snails and Crustacez are the most convenient for use, unless they are hostile to the organisms desired for experiment. The snails feed on the plants, giving these carbonic acid in turn for food, while the Crustacez feed mostly on the débris from other organisms. If the animals keep near the surface, too many are prob- ably present, and some must be removed or more plants added. When the plants become yellow they are too abundant or have not had light enough. In some cases the water becomes foul 206 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. on first setting up the aquarium, and as this is one way of obtaining certain desirable results, keep it covered until the foul odor disappears, and if new plants do not appear in time, add plants and animals to suit, and it may prove to be the best aquarium you have. Marine Protozoa have been kept this way in jars brought from the seashore several years ago. CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. VIII. THe ISOPODA — Part I. CHELIFERA, FLABELLIFERA, VALVIFERA. HARRIET RICHARDSON. Tue Isopoda represent an order of Crustacea widely dis- tributed and varying greatly in their mode of life and in their habitat. They abound not only in the sea, where they are taken in shallow water and from the greatest depths, but large numbers of them are also found in ponds and streams and other bodies of fresh water. The terrestrial Isopoda form a large and important group, and are commonly known as “ pill-bugs." Many of the Isopoda live a free existence, while others are parasitic. These latter are found in the mouths and gills of fishes, in the branchial cavities of Decapoda, on Copepoda, and on other Isopoda. In the following key the marine forms have not been limited bathymetrically. Where it has been possible, the depth from which the specimens were taken has been given. The fresh- water and terrestrial forms are included. The lettering for the distribution of species has been adopted in accordance with what has been used in former papers of this series of synopses on marine invertebrates: A for Alaska south ; P for Puget Sound to San Francisco; D for Monterey to San Diego; JW, Atlantic coast south to Cape Cod; M, Cape Cod to North Carolina ; S, South Carolina to Florida ; G, Gulf of Mexico. The literature on the Isopoda has been limited in the following list to those papers which treat especially of North American forms. The most important of these are: 1817. Sav, THOMAs. An Account of the Crustacea of the United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. i, pt. i, pp. 393-401, 423-433, 482-485. 207 208 1852. 1853. 1854. 1857. 1866. 1874. 1875. 1877. 1877. 1880. 18835. 1887. 1897. 1898. 1898. 1898. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV. DANA, JAMES D. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expe- dition. Vol. i, pp. 696—805. STIMPSON, WM. Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand Manan, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. vi. DANA, JAMES D. Catalogue and Descriptions of Crustacea col- lected in California by Dr. John Le Conte. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philadelphia. Vol. vii, pp. 175-1 STIMPSON, WM. Crustacea and E chinodénilata of the Pacific Shores of North America. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vi. BATE, SPENCE. In Lord's * Naturalist in British Columbia." Pp. 281—284. VERRILL, A. E., and SMITH, S. I. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound. Rept. U..S. Fish Comm. for 1871- 1672. STUXBERG, A. Om Nord-Amerikas Oniscider. Ofversigt af Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., No. 2. HARFORD. Description of a New Genus and Three New Species of cadi e-Eyed Crustacea, pp. 54, 55, and Descriptions of Three New Species of Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, with Remarks on Ligia occidentalis, pp. 116, 117. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 1876. Vol. vii. LoOcKINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific Coast, with Descriptions of Some New Species, p. 36, and Descrip- tions of Seventeen New Species of Crustacea, pp. 44-46. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 1876. Vol. vii. | HARGER, Oscan. Report on the Marine Isopoda of New England and Adjacent Waters. Rept. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1878. HARGER, Oscar. Reports on the Results of Dredging, under the Supervision of Alexander Agassiz, on the East Coast of the United States, during the Summer of 1880, by the U. S. Coast Survey Steamer B/ake, Commander J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N., commanding. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoil., Harvard College. Vol. xi, No. 4, pt. xxiii. HANSEN, H. J. Oversigt over det vestlige Grønlands Fauna af Malakostrake Havkrebsdyr. Vidensk. Meddel. fra den Naturh. Foren. t. Kjobh. Pp. 177-198. BENEDICT, JAMES E. A Revision of the Genus Synidotea. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Pp. 389-404. BENEDICT, JAMES E. The Arcturidz in the U. S. Nat. Museum. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. Vol. xii, pp. 41—51. BENEDICT, JAMES E. Two New Isopods of the Genus Idotea from the Coast of California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. Vol. xii, PP. 53-55. WALKER, ALFRED O. Crustacea peerage by W.'A. Herdman in Puget Sound, Pacific Coast of North America. Trans. Liver- pool Biol. Soc. Vol. xii, pp. 279-281. No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 209 1898. CALMAN, W. T. On a Collection of Crustacea from Puget Sound. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. Vol. xi, No. 13, pp. 274-282. 1899. RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Key to the Isopods of the Pacific Coast of North America, with Descriptions of Twenty-two New Species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxi, pp. 815-8 1900. RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Key to the Isopoda of the Atlantic Coast of North America, with Descriptions of New Species. (In manu- script, to be published later.) In addition to those mentioned, the works of G. O. Sars, H. J. Hansen, Schicedte and Meinert, Stebbing and Budde- Lund, have been of much assistance in the compilation of this key. SYNOPSIS OF THE ISOPODA. a. Legs of the first pair cheliform. Uropoda terminal. Pleopoda, when distinctly developed, exclusively natatory. . . . . I. CHELIFERA 4'. Legs of the first pair not cheliform. 4, Uropoda lateral. c. Uropoda forming together with the terminal segment of the Decr a caudal fan. Pleopoda for the most part natatory. . II. FLABELLIFERA e whats valvedikc, deflated: Michi over the pleopoda, which, to a great extent, are branchial. III. VALVIFERA &. Uropoda terminal. c. Free forms. d. Pleopoda exclusively branchial, generally covered by a thin opercular plate (the modified first pair). IV. ASELLOTA dŒ. Pleopoda fitted for air-breathing. . V. ONISCOIDEA c. Parasitic forms. Pleopoda, when present, exclusively bran- chial in the adult form, and not covered by any operculum. VI. EPICARIDEA I. CHELIFERA. a. Body scarcely attenuated behind. Mandibles without palp. Anterior maxillae with only a single masticatory lobe and a one-jointed palp ; posterior ones quite rudimentary. Epignath of maxillipeds narrow Second pair of legs ambulatory in character. . Family I. Tanaide a’. Body narrow, produced, depressed. Mandibles with a three-jointed palp. Anterior maxilla with two masticatory lobes and a two-jointed palp ; posterior ones well developed and setose. Epignath of max- illipeds large, laminar, branchial in character. Superior antenna with two multi-articulate flagella. Second pair of legs with a large, broad, flat hand, for burrowing purposes. . Family II. Apséudide 210 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. FAMILY I. TANAID&. a. Pleopoda only three pairs. Uropoda simple, short, single-branched. Tanais Audouin and Edwards a’, Pleopoda five pairs. Uropoda double-branched. 6. Eyes wanting. c. Inner branch of uropoda two to three-jointed. Pleopoda in female very small or rudimentary. d. Incubatory pouch formed only by two lamelle issuing from bases of fourth pair of legs. Pleopoda in female rudimentary. Gnathopods alike in both-sexes. Mandibles well oie with cutting edge coarsely dentated. . . . Cryptocope G. O. Sars d'. Incubatory pouch bona: Pleopoda in female small, sometimes wanting. Gnathopods in female of nor- mal appearance, hand dilated, fingers strong, thumb serrulated, in male slender, fingers simple. Man- dibles very small and feeble in structure, with cutting edge narrow eptognathia G. O. Sars c. Inner branch of seine: eight to nine-jointed. Pleopoda well developed. . . Aloatanais Norman and Stebbing &. Eyes present. c. Gnathopods in male imperfectly chelate, without any finger, or with finger very short and immovable Heterotanais G. O. Sars c. Gnathopods in male with chelz fully developed. d. Gnathopods in male sometimes very much elongated, with carpus attenuated, hand very large, oblong, finger elongate and curved, immovable, strongly tuberculate within. Thoracic appendages not spe- cialized into an anterior and a posterior series. Marsupium of female formed of eight large lamella from the four first free segments. Leptochelia Dana @. Gnathopods in male with chelz very stout, the distal section of the penultimate joint extremely broad, with a toothed margin. "Thoracic appendages specialized into an anterior and a posterior series. Marsupium - of the female of the normal structure. Neotanais Beddard Genus Tanais Audouin and Edwards. a. Periopoda having the first three joints short and broad, dilated and affixed to the sides of the thorax like plates of mail. Tanais loricatus Spence Bate, A, 10 fms. a’, Periopoda, with joints not dilated, slender. No. 399] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 211 Fic. 1. — Tanais alascensis. Fic. 2.! — Gnathia cerina. Fic. 3.! — Cyath arinata à. Abdomen composed of six segments. Body robust and tapering. Tanais robustus Moore, M &. Abdomen composed of five distinct segments. Body slender, elongated. | c. With transverse setiferous bands crossing first and second abdominal segments. Terminal segment with a blunt median projection. Uropoda three-jointed. Tanais cavolinii Milne Edwards, V c. Without transverse setiferous bands crossing first and second abdominal segments. Terminal segment with slight me- dian notch. Uropoda seven-jointed. Tanais alascensis Richardson, A, 6-8 fms. Genus Cryptocope G. O. Sars. . Cryptocope arctica Hansen, JV, 170 fms. Genus Leptognathia G. O. Sars 4. In female inner branch of uropoda twice as long as outer. The second or first free segment of thorax is about two-thirds as long as the third, which in turn is about equal to the fourth and fifth. Sixth and seventh segments are progressively somewhat shorter. Propodus of first pair of legs less robust than carpus. Leptognathia ceca (Harger), JV, surface to 48 fms. a’. In female inner branch of uropoda more than three times as long as outer. The second, or first free segment of thorax about same size as the last one, both being shorter pol = others. Propodus of first pair of legs scarcely smaller than c Leptognathia longiremus tienes AV, 35-40 fms. 1 Figures taken from O. Harger. 212 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Genus Aloatanais Norman and Stebbing. Aloatanais hastiger Norman and Stebbing, JV, 1750 fms. Genus Heterotanais G. O. Sars. Heterotanais limnicola Harger, JV, 48 fms. Genus Leptochelia Dana. a. Gnathopods in male greatly elongated, with tuberculate immobile finger. Upper antenne three-jointed, with rudimentary flagellum in female, much more elongated, and with a multi-articulate flagellum in male. b. Inner branch of uropoda five-jointed. Antennulz, with basal segment nearly one-half length of the whole organ, are more than one-third as long as the body. Leptochelia rapax Harger, JV, one-half fm. ’. Inner branch of uropoda six-jointed. Antennule, with basal segment about one-third length of the whole organ, are about two-thirds as long as body. Leptochelia savignyi (Krøyer), N, surface a’. Gnathopods in male not greatly elongated. Upper antennæ three- jointed, not elongated in male. b. Inner branch of the uropoda five-jointed. Terminal abdominal segment rounded behind. Leptochelia (?) filum (Stimpson), JV, 8 fms. FK. Inner branch of the uropoda six-jointed. Terminal abdominal segment pointed posteriorly. Leptochelia dubia (Krøyer), JV, surface to one-half fm. Genus Neotanais Beddard. JVeotamazs americanus Beddard, M, 1240 fms. FAMILY II. APSEUDID. a. Lower antennz with a scale articulated to the end of the second joint. First free segment of the thorax with epimera conspicuous, spine- formed, porrected. First five pair of pleopoda with both branches usually one-jointed. Exopods on both pairs of gnathopods. Apseudes Leach a. Lower antennz without a scale. Carapace composed of head and two following segments coalesced. . Sphyrapus Norman and Stebbing Genus Apseudes Leach. Apseudes gracilis Norman and Stebbing, W, 1750 fms, Genus Sphyrapus Norman and Stebbing. . Sphyrapus malleolus Norman and Stebbing, N, 1450 fms. II. FLABELLIFERA. a. Legs in the adult in six, apparently only in five pairs. Family III. Gnathiidæ a’. Legs in the adult in seven pairs. No. 399.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 213 4. Uropoda lateral and superior, outer branch arching over base of telson. Body cylindrical, narrow, elongated. amily IV. Anthuride &. Uropoda lateral. c. Abdomen consisting of six segments. d. Uropoda with both branches developed; mostly lamel- liform. e. Maxillipeds with the palp free, the margins of the ast two joints more or less setose, never fur- nished with hooks. f. Mandibles with the distal half stout, very con- spicuous, uncovered, or with only the anterior margin concealed ; from the base towards the middle directed forwards and a little outwards. g. Mandibles with the rather broad, more or less tridentate, cutting edges meeting squarely behind the large upper lip ; the secondary plate and peculiar equiv- alent for the molar well developed. First maxillae having the plate of the first joint armed with three spines, that of the third with many. Second max- ille of moderate size, the three free plates very setose. Maxillipeds with the palp rather broad, very setose. amily V. Cirolanide g’. Mandibles with the distal part produced ope a long SE process, the pair ; the secondary plate and molar haatea. First maxillz having the plate of the first joint un- armed, of the third, carrying one very long spine. Second maxillae small and feeble, the free plates almost rudimen- tary, with few setze. Maxillipeds with the palp narrowed, not very setose. amily VI. Corallanide f. Mandibles with the distal half narrow, most or all of it concealed by the upper and lower lips ; from the base towards the apex directed gradually inwards. Family VII. Alcironide €. Maxillipeds with the palp embracing the cone formed by the distal parts of the mouth organs, 214 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. the inner upper margin and apex never setose, the apex and sometimes the inner upper margin, at least in the males and females without eggs, being furnished with outward curved hooks f. Mandibles with the secondary plate very often visible ; palp with no inflated joint. Maxil- lipeds commonly seven-jointed, sometimes four-jointed, the last joint in the latter case rather short, obtuse. Antenna long, un- Rond with well-defined peduncle and fla- ge . Family VIII. Ægidæ F: seandtbiee with no is wna plate ; the palp in adults with first joint or both first and second joints inflated. Maxillipeds always four-jointed, last joint rather long and narrow, subacute. Antenna much reduced without clear distinction between peduncle and flagellum. Family IX. Cymothoide ad’. Uropoda with one of the branches almost obsolete or rudimentary — not lamelliform. Family X. Limnoriide €. Abdomen consisting of less than six segments. d. n with two segments. Uropoda with one branch fixed, immovable. Family XI. Sphæromidæ d'. Abdomen with four segments. Uropoda with both branches movable. . . . Family XII. Serolide FAMiLY III. GNATHIID4E. Genus Gnathia Leach. z a. Mandibles in male with the basal part ornamented on the superior margin with an elevated crest, which is irregularly dentate. Legs furnished with many spiny processes. Gnathia cristata (Hansen), JV, 116 fms. a’. Mandibles in male without elevated crest on the superior margin. Legs without spiny processe: à. Mandibles in ok with slight notch outside, inner edge obtusely produced in the middle, tip acute, slightly incurved. Front of head not vite in the middle beyond the antero-lateral angles. . Gnathia elongata (Krøyer), W &. Mandibles in ‘mals carinate on outer side near the middle, the carina ending in a tooth-like process, irregularly and bluntly toothed near the base within, turned upward at apex. Front of head produced in the middle much beyond the antero-lateral angles. Gnathia cerina (Stimpson), W, 10-220 fms. (See Fig. 2, p. 211-) No. 399.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 215 FAMILY IV. ANTHURID&. a. Labium terminating in two rounded lobes. Mandibles with cutting edge of two or three blunt teeth, and a semicircular saw in place of molar and spine row ; palp three-jointed. First maxillae simple, with apical teeth. Maxillipeds with three to six broad, flattened joints. 6. First five segments of the abdomen coalesced into a single seg- ment in the female. c. Maxillipeds three-jointed. Flagella of both pairs of anten- nz few jointed in female ; of first multi-articulate in male. Anthura Leach c. Maxillipeds four-jointed. Flagella of both pairs of antennz rudimentary, ot the first pair not greatly developed in the male. . . . Cyathura Norman and Stebbing &. Segments of bibi distinct. Maxillipeds six-jointed. Anthelura Norman and Stebbing @. Labium terminating in two points, acuminate. Mandibles without teeth, lancet-like, lobes at base forming channel. First maxille spear-like, distally channeled and serrate. Maxillipeds elongate, with four to five joints, the second of which is elongate. Abdomen with six segments and caudal segment distinct. Antenna in both sexes with many jointed flagella. ^ Calathura Norman and Stebbing Genus Anthura Leach. Anthura tenuis (Harger), JV, surface to 19 fms. Genus Cyathura Norman and Stebbing Cyathura carinata (Krøyer), VM, surface to 1914 fms. (See Fig. 3, p.211.) Genus Anthelura Norman and Stebbing. Anthelura abyssorum Norman and Stebbing, JV, 1750 fms. Genus Calathura Norman and Stebbing. Calathura branchiata (Stimpson), W, 20-200 fms. FAMILY V. CIROLANID#. a. Peduncle of the second antennz five-jointed. Plate of the second joint of the maxillipeds furnished with hooks. 6. Eyes present. Uropoda with the inner angle of the peduncle produced. c. First and second pairs of pleopoda equal in length, with at least the inner branch submembranaceous. Cirolana boh c. First pair of pleopoda with both branches hard, and form- ing a large operculum. Second pair of pleopoda sub- membranaceous . . Conilera Leach /. Eyes wanting. Uropoda with the inser angle of the peduncle not produced. . . . . Cirolanides Benedict 216 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. a’. Peduncle of second antenne four-jointed. Plate of second joint of maxillipeds without hooks. Uropoda with inner angle of peduncle the antenna. . . Genus Cirolana Leach. a. Fifth abdominal segment with lateral angles free, not covered by the fourth segment. . . Cirolana linguifrons Richardson, D, surface at F3 P p 3 a à € Fic. 5.1— a, Mandible of Cirolana borealis ; p, palpus of the second pair; 7, first joint; 2, second joint; 72, lobe of the second first pair; 7, first joint; /1, lobe of the first joint; 2, second joint ; 3, third joint. 4, Maxilliped ; z, first joint; e2., epignath ; 2, second T joint ; 7?, lobe of the second joint; a, 4, c, d, e; palpus. Fic. 4.! — Cirolana concharum. b. Frontal lamina posteriorly or clypeus anteriorly produced horn- like, especially so when seen from the side. Cirolana virginiana Richardson, M, 81 fms. FK. Frontal lamina and clypeus unarmed, not produced horn-like ; anterior margin of the clypeus connected with the frontal lamina. c. Frontal lamina narrow, elongate, four to six times longer than broad. d. Extremity of exterior margin of inner branch of the uropoda emarginate. e. Terminal segment emarginate at its extremity. Cirolana concharum (Stimpson), NM, surface to 18 fms. Terminal segment not emarginate at its extremity. Cirolana impressa Harger, M, 115-321 fms. d'. Extremity of exterior margin of inner branch of the uropoda not emarginate. e. Second pair of antenne long, extending beyond the posterior margin of the third thoracic seg- ment. Cirolana borealis Lilljeborg, S, 233 fms. 1 Figures taken from Hansen, No. 399.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 217 é. Second pair of antenne short, reaching to the middle of the first thoracic segment. Cirolana folita Harger, JV, 17—190 fms. c. Frontal lamina broad, short, scarcely twice as long as wide. d. Terminal segment with the posterier margin armed with many (twenty-six) robust spines. Branches of uropoda with apex rounded. Cirolana harfordi (Lockington), APD, surface to 40 fms. d'. Terminal segment with the posterior margin armed with a few slender spines. Branches of uropoda with apex acute. Cirolana parva Hansen, G, 25-27 fms. Genus Conilera Leach. Conilera cylindracea (Montague), SG, 111—159 fms. Genus Cirolanides Benedict. Cirolanides texensis Benedict, Texas, fresh-water Genus Eurydice Leach. a. Second pair of antennz in male extend to the posterior margin of fourth abdominal segment; flagellum consists of twenty-five joints. Termi- nal segment truncate between the post-lateral teeth. Eurydice caudata Richardson, D a’. Second pair of antenne in male extend the entire length of the body ; flagellum consists of eighteen joints. Terminal segment rounded between the post-lateral teeth. . Eurydice convexa Richardson, G FAMILY VI. CORALLANID#. Genus Corallana Dana. . . . . . Corallana truncata Richardson, D FAMiLY VII. ALCIRONID4E. Genus Alcirona Hansen. . . . Alcirona krebsit Hansen, G, 25-28 fms. FAMILY VIII. ÆGIDÆ. a. Body rather compact. Superior antenna short, with first two pedun- cular joints more or less expanded. Epistome large, linguiform, pro- jecting between the bases of inferior antennz. axilli with palp composed of five joints. Front separating the whole or a great part of the first article of the first pair of antenna. Flagellum of the first pair of antenne composed of many joints. Abdomen com- peek. ee ee er Aga Leach a’. Body depressed. Superior antennz short, with basal joints not ex panded. Epistome very small and narrow. Maxillipeds with palp composed of only two joints. Front covering more or less the 218 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. peduncle of the first pair of antenna. Flagellum of first pair of antennze composed of four to six joints. Abdomen relaxed. . Eyes present. Anterior pairs of legs with propodus more or less expanded, dactylus forming a very large and evenly curved hook. Mandibles with the cutting edge expanded inside to a linguiform lamella ; palp well developed, with basal joint much elongated. Abdomen not much narrower than thorax. Rocinela Leach 8. Eyes wanting. Anterior pairs of legs with propodus not expanded, dactylus abruptly curved in the middle, and terminating in a very sharp point. Mandibles with the cutting edge simple, acuminate; palp of moderate length. Abdomen narrowing abruptly to a much smaller width than the thorax ; terminal segment very large. . . . « + + + + Syscenus Harger Genus Æga Leach. a. Peduncle of the first pair of antennz plane or concave, joints fitting into each other. Frontal lamina plane or concave. b. Terminal segment of body pointed at extremity. Eyes distant. : 4: ga psora (Linn), N, 30-218 fms. 2’. Terminal segment of body not pointed at extremity. c. Terminal segment posteriorly bisinuate. Surface of segment smooth, without carina. Æga ecarinata Richardson, G, 88 fms. c. Terminal segment emarginate or truncate. d. Terminal segment emarginate. Eyes distant. Aga webbii Güerin, S, 333 fms. d'. Terminal segment truncate. e. Eyes contiguous. Propodus of the posterior pre- hensile legs with a cultriform lamina. Æga crenulata Lütken, N e. Eyes not contiguous. Propodus of posterior pre- hensile legs without cultriform lamina. Æga lecontii (Dana), D a’. Peduncle of the first pair of antennæ well rounded and with joints com- pressed. Frontal lamina convex or compressly elevated. b. Eyes contiguous. Terminal segment incised. ga incisa Schiœdte and Meinert, S, 263-440 fms. V. Eyes not contiguous. c. Terminal segment linguate, incised posteriorly. Æga arctica Lütken, JV. c. Terminal segment triangular, entire. d. Terminal segment, with apex rounded. ga microphthalma Dana, D d'. Terminal segment, with apex produced. Ega ventrosa Sars, N, 120 fms. No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 219 Genus Rocinela Leach. a. Eyes contiguous. Head produced into process in front. Rocinela oculata Harger, S, 252 fms. a’. Eyes not contiguous. Flagellum of second pair of antennz with four- teen to sixteen joints. b. Propodus of prehensile legs with two to four spines. c. First thoracic. segment with antero-lateral angles produced horn-like at sides of head. Frontal margin of head pro- duced. Rocinela cornuta Richardson, A, 625 fms. c. First thoracic segment normal. Frontal margin of head not produced. d. Spots present on both sides of the fourth thoracic seg- ment. Rocinela maculata Schicedte and Meinert, N d'. Spots wanting on fourth thoracic segment. e. Spots present on fourth and fifth abdominal seg- ment and base of terminal segment. Rocinela belliceps (Stimpson), A PD, surface to 1 38 fms. (See Fig. 6, p. 221.) g. Spots wanting on fourth and fifth abdominal seg- ments and base of terminal segment. Rocinela americana Schicedte and Meinert, NM, 85-157 fms. 2’. Propodus of prehensile legs with five to six spines. Rocinela laticauda Hansen, APD, 82-660 fms. Genus Syscenus Harger. . . Syscenus infelix Harger, M, 231-435 fms. FAMILY IX. CYMOTHOID#. a. Head not at all immersed or set in the first thoracic segment. 6. Uropoda inal tciliated. Eyes large, conspicuous. ZEgathoa Dana &. Uropoda and terminal segment not ciliated. Eyes small. c. Posterior angles of first thoracic segment prominent or pro- duced, very often acute ; posterior angles of the following segments increasing gradually in length, the first of these very often scarcely prominent, the posterior ones very often produced, abruptly longer than the first. Epimera of the first segments extending beyond the posterior angles of the segment ; posterior ones produced, acute. Nerocila Leach č. Posterior angles of first six thoracic segments scarcely or not at all prominent; those of the seventh segment pro- duced. Epimera of first segments very often almost or quite reaching, or not reaching by a short distance the posterior angle of the segment. d. Body compact. Head not constricted. Uropoda very often more or less longer than terminal segment. Legs gradually increasing in length. Anilocra Leach Oo 220 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. a’, Body relaxed, Head constricted at the base. Uropoda much shorter than terminal segment. Legs gradually much longer successively ; seventh pair abruptly verymuchso. . . . . . . . Olencira Leach a’. Head more or less immersed or set in the first thoracic segment. à. First pair of antennz contiguous at the base. c. Epimera of the first pair with a carina produced in the form ofa spoon. Ungulz very long, unequal in length; those of the third pair longest, abruptly longer than second pair. Terminal segment transverse. . . . Ceratothoa Dana c’. Epimera of the first pair not produced. Ungule mostly very short, very rarely long, equal in length. Terminal segment subtriangular, semicircular, often bilobed. Meinertia Stebbing 2’. First pair of antennze manifestly distant at the base. c. Abdomen maniféstly separated from the thorax, abruptly narrower than thorax. . . . . Cymothoa Fabricius c. Abdomen contiguous with thorax, not narrower than thorax. Livoneca Leach Genus /Egathoa Dana. a. Surface of head smooth, evenly convex. Second pair of antenna ten- jointed. First thoracic segment longer than any of the succeeding segments, which are of equal length. A-gathoa loliginea Harger, M a’. Surface of head with central portion sharply raised above the lateral portion, which is deeply excavate just in front of the eyes. Second pair of antennz eight-jointed. First three thoracic segments sub- equal ; last four subequal, and somewhat shorter than first three. "Egathoa medialis Richardson, M, 3-25 fms. Genus Nerocila Leach. a. Terminal segment regularly rounded. Head subtruncate in front. Eyes distinct, black. . . . . . . Nerocila munda Harger, N a’, Terminal segment cordate, acuminate. Head rounded in front. Eyes _ indistinct, obscurely defined. - à. Uropoda scarcely longer than the apex of the terminal segment. Nerocila acuminata Schicedte and Meinert, GSM 2’. Uropoda much longer than the apex of the terminal segment. Nerocila californica Schicedte and Meinert, D Genus Anilocra Leach. a. Terminal abdominal segment regularly rounded. All the epimera extend fully t i angies of their p li g segments. Branches of uropoda longer than terminal segment. Anilocra occidentalis Richardson, D, 19 fms. (See Fig. 7, P- 221-) a’. Terminal abdominal segment subcordate. Two first epimera reach the posterior angles of the segments ; last four do not reach the angles tU FP No. 399-.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 221 y Q7 FINE 7, — 1 Fic. 6.— Rocinela belliceps. — F1G. 7. — Anilocra occidentalis. Fic. 8. 7; of the segments. Branches of the uropoda much shorter than termi- nal segment. . . . . Anilocra laticauda Milne Edwards, M.S Genus Olencira Leach. . . . . Olencira pregustator (Latrobe), MSG Genus Ceratothoa Dana. . . > . - . Ceratothoa linearis Dana, M Genus Meinertia Stebbing. Meinertia transversa Richardson, G, 347 fms. Genus Cymothoa Fabricius. a. Terminal segment lanceolate. . . - Cymothoa lanceolata Say, M a’. Terminal segment transverse ; posterior margin widely sinuated or bilobed. à. Anterior angles of the first thoracic segment short, acute ; sides of the segment a little constricted. Inner branch of the uropoda much shorter than outer branch. Cymothoa excisa Perty, MSG 3’. Anterior angles of the first thoracic segment very large, equaling or surpassing the front of the head, rounded. Sides of the segment flexuous. Inner branch of the uropoda manifestly longer than outer branch. . . Cymothoa astrum (Linn), M Genus Livoneca Leach. ; i a. Abdomen immersed in thorax, the sides of the first segment being almost entirely covered by the seventh thoracic segment. ` b. Head narrowly rounded in front. Livoneca californica Schicedte and Meinert, PD 8’. Head broad, roundly truncate in front. Livoneca vulgaris Stimpson, D a’. Abdomen not immersed in thorax, the sides of the first segment free. à. Uropoda much longer than caudal segment ; inner branch narrow, obtuse, much shorter than outer branch. Epimera - of last two thoracic segments not longer than segments. Livoneca redmanni Leach, SG 222 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. &. Uropoda hardly surpassing the caudal segment; both branches equal in length. Epimera of last two segments of thorax surpassing the segments. Head narrowly rounded in front. . . Lévoneca ovalis (Say), NM.SG FAMILY X. LIMNORIIDA. Genus Limnoria Leach. . . . Limuoria lignorum (Rathke), AVMS FAMILY XI. SPHAROMIDZ. 8 Outer branch of the uropoda small, almost rudimentary. Cassidena Milne Edwards . Outer branch of the uropoda not rudimentary. 6. Both external and internal branches of the uropoda projecting and exposed; outer branch capable of folding under inner. c. Terminal segment of the abdomen entire. d. Margins of the head not produced. Antenne conspic- uous. Legs normal. Mandibles with a. five-jointed palp. Spharoma Latreille d’, Anteater, d beni PEU M the head produced, con- crating. the antenna »Fropodts. of first and second pairs of tylus. Mandibles th a three-jointed palp. . Tecticeps Richardson c. Terminal segment of the abdomen excavated at its extremity. Dynamene Leach 2. Only the external branch of the uropoda pitis and exposed ; outer branch incapable of folding under inn c. All the thoracic segments of equal wei Penultimate abdominal segment in male generally produced in spine. "Terminal segment excavated with or without median lobe. Cilicea Leach c. Sixth segment of the thorax much enlarged, and produced at the center far backwards, covering the shorter seventh segment for the most part. Terminal segment excavate. Nasa Leach Genus Cassidena Milne Edwards. . Cassidena lunifrons Richardson, M Genus Sphzroma Latreille. a. Body widening gradually from head backwards. Thorax transversely ridged and provided with three longitudinal rows of small tubercles. Branches of the uropoda very large, expanded. Spheroma amplicauda Stimpson, APD, surface a’. Body not increasing in width. Surface of thorax smooth. Branches of the PRS not Henn. 6. Extremity inal duced in a rhomboid einai gy gk pp Rig Spharoma rhomburum Richardson, D & No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 223 V. Extremity of terminal abdominal segment not produced. c. Surface of abdomen tubercular. d. Uropoda not reaching apex of terminal segment ; outer branch the shorter and not denticulate. Terminal segment with eight tubercles. Spheroma octoncum Richardson, D d'. Uropoda surpassing the apex of the terminal segment ; outer branch the longer and provided with four teeth on external margin. Terminal segment with four tubercles. Spheroma destructor Richardson, Florida fresh-water c. Surface of abdomen smooth. ; d. Outer branch of the uropoda denticulate on its external margin. Spheroma quadridentatum Say, MS, surface to % fm. 4. Outer branch of the uropoda not denticulate. e. Outer branch of the uropoda half as long as the inner branch, and half as wide. Spheroma thermophilum Richardson, New Mexico, fresh-water c. Outer branch of the uropoda not much shorter than inner branch, and of equal width. Spheroma oregonensis Dana, APD, surface to 12 fms. Genus Tecticeps Richardson. a. Terminal segment of abdomen pointed. Outer branch of uropoda much longer than inner branch. First pair of antenna reach the posterior angle of the first thoracic segment. Second pair reach the middle of the second thoracic segment. Sixth and seventh pair of legs show a marked disproportion in the length of the propodus. Tecticeps alascensis Richardson, A, 9-106 fms. (See Fig. 8, p. 221.) a’. Terminal segment of abdomen widely rounded. Outer branch of uro- poda not longer than inner branch. First pair of antenne reach the posterior angle of the third thoracic segment. Second pair of antenne reach the middle of the fourth thoracic segment. Sixth and seventh pairs of legs show only a gradual increase in length. Tecticeps convexus Richardson, D, 5 fms. Genus Dynamene Leach. a. Frontal margin of head produced in a quadrangular process ; first two joints of the first pair of antennz dilated. Dynamene dilalata Richardson, D, surface a’. Frontal margin of head not produced ; joints of first pair of antenna not dilated. b. Abdomen tuberculated. Neither branch of the uropoda reaching the extremity of the abdomen. Dynamene tuberculosa Richardson, A D, surface 224 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. 2’. Abdomen not tuberculated. Inner branch of the uropoda reach- ing the extremity of the abdomen c. Ultimate segment of the abdenit ridged. Branches of uropoda of equallength. Sinus at extremity of abdomen funnel-shaped. Dynamene benedicti Richardson, D, surface c. Ultimate segment of abdomen smooth. Outer branch of uropoda but little more than half as long as inner branch. Sinus at extremity of abdomen small. Dynamene glabra Richardson, D, surface Genus Ciliczea Leach. a. Terminal segment with three sinuses, one above another in a longitu- dinal series, the two upper openings heart-shaped. Outer branch of the uropoda armed with four spines. Cilicea cordata Richardson, A, surface a’. Terminal segment with one sinus. Outer branch of the uropoda un- armed. b. Sinus without teeth. Cilicæa carinata Richardson, S, 440 fms. &. Sinus with teeth. c. Sinus with four teeth. Median tubercle at base of terminal segment single. . . Cilicea caudata (Say), M, surface c’. Sinus with six teeth. Median tubercle at base of termin segment double. Cilicea caudata gilliana Richardson, D "Genus Nesa Leach. . . . . . . JVesa (?) depressa Say, M, surface Nesa (?) ovalis Say, S, surface FAMILY XII. SEROLIDA. Genus Serolis Leach. Serolis carinata Lockington, D, 3 fms. (See Fig. 9, p. 225-) III. VALVIFERA. a. Body more or less broad, depressed. Legs usually nearly alike, but ^ first three pairs sometimes with propodus dilated and dactylus reflexed. Family XIII. Idoteide a’. Body narrow, scarcely depressed. Four anterior pairs of legs unlike ree posterior pairs, and not ambulatory, nor strictly prehensile, directed forward, slender, ciliated, with terminal joint minute ; last three pairs stouter, ambulatory, with terminal joint bifid. Family XIV. Arcturide FAMILY XIII. IDOTEIDA. a. Sides of head emarginate or cleft and laterally produced beyond the eyes, which are situated upon its dorsal surface. Three anterior No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 225 Fic. 9. — Serolis carinata. Fic. ro. airs of legs, with penultimate joint or propodus dilated, and forming, with reflexible dactylus, a prehensile hand. All the epimera distinct. Chiridotea Harger a’. Sides of head entire and not laterally produced. Eyes lateral. Legs all ambulatory ; three anterior pairs with penultimate joint not or not much dilated. à. Flagellum of second pair of antennz well developed and multi- articulate. c. Palpus of maxillipeds four-jointed. Epimera of all the seg- ments well developed and evident in a dorsal view. Abdo- men (including the terminal segment) consisting of three segments with lateral sutures, indicative of another partly coalescent segment. . . +--+ =: - Idotea Fabricius ¢. Palpus of maxillipeds not four-jointed. Abdomen consisting of one segment, uniarticulate. d. Palpus of maxillipeds th ee-jointed. All the epimera coalesced and perfectly united with the segments. Synidotea Harger d. Palpus of maxillipeds two-jointed. Epimera of second, third, and fourth segments coalesced and perfectly united with the segments ; those of the fifth, sixth, and seventh segments distinct and well developed. Colidotea Richardson 2’. Flagellum of second pair of antenna not multi-articulate. c. Flagellum of second pair of antennae rudimentary. Second pair of antenna a little longer than first pair. Edotea Guérin- Ménéville g. Flagellum of second pair of antennz usually obsolete. Sec- ond pair of antenna much longer than first pair. 226 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. d. Legs subequal. Antenne geniculate. Palp of max- illipeds four-jointed. Body angulate. Erichsonella Benedict a’, Third and fourth pairs of legs usually markedly shorter. Fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs gradually increasing in length. Antenne not geniculate. Palp of max- illipeds two-jointed. Body slender, linear, smooth. Cleantis Dana Genus Chiridotea Harger. a. Species large, elongate-ovate. Outer branch of uropoda (or opercular valves) minute. ó. Joints of the peduncle of the antennz not dilated; flagellum eight to fourteen-jointed. Antero-lateral cervical lobes promi- nent. . Chiridotea entomon (Linn.), AP, surface to 15 fms. 8’. Joints of the peduncle of the antennz greatly dilated ; flagellum seven to eight-jointed. Antero-cervical lobes prominent. Chiridotea sabinii (Krøyer), AN, surface to 15 fms. a’. Species small, orbiculate-ovate. Outer branch of uropoda at least half as long as inner. 6. Antennz little longer than antennule ; flagellum seven-jointed. Eyes inconspicuous. Antennule longer than the peduncle of the antenne. . . . Chiridotea cecas (Say), NMS, surface 8’, Antennz twice as long as antennule ; flagellum twelve-jointed. Eyes usually distinct. Antennulæ do not surpass the peduncle of the antenne. Chiridotea tuftsii (Stimpson), VM, surface to 25 fms. Genus Idotea Fabricius. 4. Terminal segment emarginate at its extremity. Idotea resecata Stimpson, AD, surface a’. Terminal segment not emarginate at its extremity. Body slender, linear, filiform. c. Terminal segment truncate at apex. Idotea gracillima Dana, D c. Terminal segment not truncate at its extremi d. Post-lateral angles of terminal segment prominent and separated by a tooth from subtriangular middle por- tion, which bears a small tooth at the middle. Idotea urotoma Stimpson, P d'. Postlateral angles not separated by a tooth from middle portion. Jdotea rectilineata Lockington, D, 30-40 fms. &. Body oblong-ovate. c. Terminal segment truncate at its extremity. dotea metallica Bosc, NM, surface 91 fms. č. Terminal segment not truncate. No.399] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 227 d. Terminal segment regularly and broadly rounded at its extremity, with small median tooth. Idotea wosnesenskii Brandt, APD, surface to 9 fms. d'. Terminal segment acute or distinctly toothed at its extremity. e. With prominent post-lateral angles or teeth on either side of median tooth. f. With acute lateral teeth. Idotea marina (Linn.), VM, surface to 119 fms. f. With rounded lateral lobes. g. Epimera of second, third, and fourth segments short, not reaching the post- lateral angles of their respective seg- ments. Idotea ochotensis Brandt, A, surface to 18 fms. (See Fig. 10, p. 225.) g. Epimera of all the segments reaching the , postlateral angles of their respective segments. À. Sides of thorax arcuate Jdotea stenops Benedict, D h’. Sides of thorax more nearly parallel. Idotea whitei Stimpson, PD e’. With sidesssloping regularly to produced extremity. Idotea phosphorea Harger, N, surface to 18 fms. Genus Synidotea Harger. a. Terminal abdominal segment emarginate or notched at its extremity. b. Two spines or tubercles overhanging the frontal notch. c. Spines united near the base Synidotea pallida Benedict, A, 695 fms. c. Spines free at base. Synidotea erosa Benedict, A, 483 fms. P. No spines or tubercles overhanging the frontal notch. c. With a low ridge arising between the eyes and interrupted on the median line. d. Outlines of abdomen subparallel. Synidotea nebulosa vH A, 9-32 fms. d'. Outlines of abdomen strongly arcuat Synidotea angulata esit AP, 31-38 fms. c. Without a ridge between the eyes. d. Outline of abdomen subtriangülar. e. Front not excavated. Synidotea consolidata (Stimpson), P g. Front excavated. f. Outlines of thorax subparallel. Synidotea marmorata (Packard), JV, 36-129 fms. 228 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. . Outlines of thorax strongly arcuate. Synidotea bicuspida (Owen), AN, 5-1314 fms. d'. Outlines of abdomen rounded. Synidotea laticauda Benedict, A, surface to 56 fms. a’. Terminal abdominal segment pointed at its extremity. 6. Undulations of body not tubercular or spiny. c. Tubercle in front of eyes not margined. Synidotea nodulosa (Krøyer), AW, 16-119 fms. č. Tubercle on the frontal margin and forming a part of it. Synidotea levis Benedict, A, 29-36 fms. /. Undulations of the body tubercular and spiny. c. Four spines on the front of the head; body spinous. Synidotea muricata (Harford), A, 25 fms. c’. A wedge-shaped tubercle behind the frontal notch ; body tubercular. . . . Synidotea picta Benedict, A, 9 fms. Genus Colidotea Richardson . . . . Colidotea rostrata (Benedict), P Genus Edotea Guérin-Ménéville. a. Anterior angles of head produced into horn-like projections. Lateral angles of thoracic segments produced into horn-like projections. Four tubercles situated on dorsal surface of head. dotea acuta Richardson, JV, 105 fms. a’. Anterior angles of head not produced into horn-like projections. Lateral angles of thoracic segments not produced into horn-like projections. Two tubercles situated on dorsal surface of head. é. Lateral margins of thorax nearly even. Anterior angles of head not salient. Lateral margins of terminal segment scarcely indented. Edotea triloba (Say), NM, surface to % fm. 2’. Lateral margins of thorax angulated and salient. Anterior angles of head salient. Lateral margins of terminal seg- ment indented ; terminal segment rather elongated. dotea montosa (Stimpson), NM, 2-40 fms. Genus Erichsonella Benedict. a. Surface of body smooth throughout. Outline of body regular. Anten- nule short. Terminal segment of body with but slight traces of a lateral tooth near its base on either side. Erichsonella attenuata (Harger), M a’. Surface of body tuberculated. Outline of body serrate. Antennule long. Terminal segment with a prominent lateral tooth near its base on either side. Large bifid tubercle on center of head. Median longitudinal row of tubercles on each thoracic segment. Erichsonella filiformis (Say), M, 4M to 7 fms. Genus Cleantis Dana. a. Flagellum consolidated and forming a single piece. Abdomen com- our segments. Terminal abdominal segment with rounded No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 229 extremity ; terminal portion of segment obliquely truncated, the oblique portion being surrounded by a raised margin. Cleantis planicauda Benedict, G ^ Flagellum composed of three joints. Abdomen composed of three seg- ments. Terminal abdominal segment with acute post-lateral teeth on either side of rounded posterior portion. Surface of segment smooth throughout. eec ap Cleantis heathii Richardson, FAMILY XIV. ARCTURID/E. Fourth segment of thorax not greatly longer than others. Marsupium of female composed of four pairs of plates. Arcturus Latreille Fourth segment of thorax much longer than any of the others. Marsu- pium of female consisting of two plates affixed to this segment. Astacilla Fleming A A ET Fic. 11. — Arcturus intermedius. Cenus Arcturus Latreille a. End of terminal abdominal segment notched, as seen from above. b. Body smooth and free from spines. Arcturus beringanus Benedict, A, 29-36 fms. V. Body spiny. c. Head and six segments of thorax, each with a pair of spines on the dorsum. Second and third articles of the antenna without spines. Arcturus longispinis Benedict, A, 55 fms. 230 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. č. Head and segments of thorax with not less than two pairs of spines to the segment. d. Head with one large median spine on the anterior part of the head in front of the eyes. Arcturus intermedius Richardson, A, 10 fms. (See Fig. 11, p. 229.) a’. with three spines on anterior part of head in front at eyes. Arcturus murdochi Benedict, A, 13% fms. a’. End of terminal abdominal segment without notch. . Thorax without spines above the epimera. Arcturus glaber Benedict, A, 55 fms. &. Thorax with spines above the epimera. c. Terminal segment of abdomen armed with a long median terminal spine, projecting beyond the end of the segment. Arcturus floridanus Richardson, S c. Terminal segment of abdomen not armed with long median terminal spine. . Four anterior segments of thorax with spines or tuber- cles. Middle surface of abdomen with prominent spiny projections. With conical lateral projections. Epimera pointed. Arcturus baffini (Sabine), AV, 110-150 fms. d’. Four anterior segments of thorax without spines or. tubercles. Middle surface of abdomen without any indication of prominent spiny projections. Without conical lateral projections. Epimera less pointed. Arcturus feildeni Miers, JV, 30 fms. Genus Astacilla Fleming. a. With eyes. Head excavate in front without rostriform point. Fourth thoracic segment subcylindrical. Terminal abdominal segment with a prominent, subacute tooth on each side, above the middle, directed outward and backward ; extremity obtuse. Astacilla granulata (G. O. Sars), JV, 7-250 fms. a’. Without eyes. Head with a rostriform point in front between the antennule. Fourth thoracic segment wider at the anterior end, and tapering to the posterior end. Terminal terim segment with a pair of teeth on each side ; extremity acu Astacilla ceca Benedict, JV, 1825 fms. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. Payne’s New World. — The second volume of this work, com- posed by an Oxfordian scholar, was published last year, and for its great intrinsic value deserves an extended notice ; indeed there are but few historic works treating about this western continent that are written in a more careful and painstaking spirit. The full title is: Edward John Payne, History of the. New World, called America, Vol. II. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1899 ; octavo, pp. 27, 548. The volume begins with a sociological discussion on the pre-Columbian condition of the American tribes, their warrior and peasant classes, and the origin of the industrial class. Woman was the primitive laborer; she became enslaved by capture or by purchase, and the marriage question in the earliest epochs was nothing but a part of the problem of the food quest. The organization of the laboring class and the distribution of slaves and of land form another socio- logical chapter well worth studying. Then follows the discussion on the origin of the tribe, the horde, the family, the clan, the great house, together with the tribal migrations and the motives impelling peoples to migrate. The headings of subsequent sections of the work are as follows: Antiquity of Man in America; Ethnological Unity of the Aborigines; Origin and Process of Language; Material Aspect of Speech; Adaptation of Elementary Movements to Articulation; Mechanics of Language — Repetition; Original Aspects of Person- ality; Dynamics of the Holophrase ; Differentiation of the Noun and Verb; Dispersonalization; Distinction of Number in Objects; Prim- itive Applications of Arithmetic; Calendars or Time-reckoning ; Mexican Calendar; Spread of Man over the New World ; History of the Nahuatlacá (Mexicans); First Nahuatlacan Immigrants ; Aculhuan Pueblos of the Plateau; The Valley of Mexico; The Aztecs; Peruvian Advancement. To give our readers an idea how interestingly the material is handled by Payne, we transcribe what he says about agricultural communities, exclusively composed of women (pp. 10, 11), as have been discovered in many parts of the inhabited earth. ‘Such com- munities were formed, it would seem, by the same process of spon- 231 232 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. taneous emigration, derived their continuity from periodical visits, usually once a year and lasting for a month in the spring, by males from other tribes. Columbus, while coasting Haiti (1493), heard of such a community from an Indian who visited him on boar the Niña. The account was precise; the women of ‘Matinino’ admitted annually, as temporary members of their tribe, a certain number of male visitors, who carried back with them, on departing, the male children born in each interval, the women retaining the girls to replenish their own society (Las Casas, Historia, Vol. I, p. 434). Later accounts afford a body of evidence strongly tending to prove the existence of such societies in the valley of the mighty stream on which these communities have indelibly stamped the name of River of Amazona. He who summarily rejects these accounts knows little of the realities of the transition from savagery to barbarism. Women, as the Spaniards.often found to their cost, can use the bow and arrow not less effectively than men. In possession of this deadly weapon, as well as of the materials of subsistence, they might easily form independent communities, and maintain them by the means adopted by the South American Amazons for an indefinite period. When women, says Southey, have been accustomed to accompany their husbands to battle, there is nothing that can be thought improbable in their establishing themselves as an independent race and thus securing that freedom for their daughters which they had obtained for themselves.” It is important to notice that one-half at least of the volume treats of linguistics. The languages of the American natives are ana- lyzed and, as to their mental capacities, compared with those of the Old World. Some are possessed of highly polysynthetic features, whereas others have scarcely attained the lower degrees of agglutination. A few of their number may be called analytic, like those of the Maya family, but the majority are synthetic. A. S. GATSCHET. ZOOLOGY. Koelliker’s Reminiscences. — The reminiscences of a long life of interesting and worthy activity form the latest volume from Professor Koelliker.! The book contains a little over four hundred pages, of 1 Koelliker, A. Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben. Leipzig, W. Engelmann. 1899. vi-+ 399 pp. 8 plates, and 1o text-figures. No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 233 which the first fifty are devoted to an autobiography, followed by something over a hundred on the author’s scientific and other trav- els, and concluded by a résumé of his scientific work. There are numerous illustrations, including several portraits of the author. Degeneration of Duodenal Glands in the Cat.— Stöhr! has recently shown that in fully grown cats single duodenal glands, or even parts of such glands, may completely degenerate; the degen- eration begins with a thickening of the connective tissue surround- ing the glands, followed by the death of the gland cells and their absorption by leucocytes. P. Greeley on Tide-Pool Fishes of California. — In the Buletin of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1899 is a report by Arthur White Greeley, teacher of biology in the State Normal School of San Diego, on the fishes collected by him at the tide pools of California. The small marine sculpins originally forming Girard's genus Oli- gocottus are here divided into seven genera: Blennicottus Gill, Oxycottus Jordan, Rusciculus Greeley, Dialarchus Greeley, Oligo- cottus, Clinocottus Gill and Eximia Greeley; and four new species, Blennicottus recalvus, Rusciculus rimensis, Dialarchus snyderi, and Eximia rubellio, are described and well figured. Greeley shows that the original types of Blennicottus globiceps and Oligocottus maculosus belonged to the northern forms, the species called Béennicottus bryosus and O/igocottus borealis, by Jordan and Evermann. This fact necessi- tates the new names of JB/ennicottus recalvus and Dialarchus snyderi for the species common to the southward of Monterey. The figure of D. snyderi is apparently taken from a female and fails to show the separation of the enlarged first anal ray on which the genus is based. Mr. Greeley concludes from his study of intergrading forms that no real difference exists between the northern species of Gibbonsia (evides) and the southern Gidbdbonsia elegans. The pools of the rocky coasts of California, a region with high tides and a profuse growth of alga, are especially rich in fish life. Those from Pescadero to Monterey have been very fully studied by Mr. Greeley, more carefully than by any one else. On the coast of Mexico the poisonous milky juice of the tree called Hava (contain- 1 Stöhr, P. Ueber Rückbildung von Duodenaldrüsen, Festschrift der phys.- med. Gesellschaft su Würzburg, pp. 209-214, 1 Taf., 1899. 234 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. ing strychnine) has been found very useful in killing the fishes of these pools, often not to be captured in any other way. Mr. Greeley found a good substitute for this poison in the commercial chloride of lime. D. S. J. . Development of Brain Structures in Amia. — A. C. Eyclesheimer and B. M. Davis give in the Journal of Comparative Neurology a valuable study of “The Early Development of the Epiphysis and Paraphysis in Amia.” The paper indicates that much is still to be known as to the origin of epiphysial outgrowths from brain structures. b. sd Scapanorhynchus and Mitsukurina. — In the Annals and Maga- zine of Natural History, Mr. A. S. Woodward, of the British Museum, has a note on Mitsukurina owstoni Jordan, an extraordinary lamnoid shark with a long flat blade on its snout, lately described from the deep waters of Japan. Mr. Woodward shows that Mitsukurina is very closely related to the Cretaceous genus Scapanorhynchus, of which species are known from Mount Lebanon and from the chalk of England. Mitsukurina and Scapanorhynchus agree in the elongate, blade- like snout, which is, however, longest in Scapanorhynchus. The skeleton, dentition, and gill openings seem to be similar in the two genera, and there appear to be no great differences in the fins. The dense shagreen is also similar in the twó ; the structure of the basal cartilages of the fins in Scapanorhynchus is unknown ; nor is anything known of the claspers. Mr. Woodward concludes that Mitsukurina is probably identical with his genus, Scapanorhynchus, this name being of prior date. On the other hand, it may be urged that this identity is not proved, and that the specific differences are considerable. There are great disadvantages in the identification of recent fishes with fossil genera which are more or less imperfectly known. More complete knowledge of the extinct forms often shows that the recent species have undergone such differentiation as should constitute generic difference. I think it, therefore, better to retain for the recent shark the name Mitsukurina, although recognizing its ` close relationship to its Cretaceous homologue. The family Mitsukurinidz is supposed to differ from Carchariidze (Odontaspididz) in the presence of a Polyodon-like snout, and per- haps in the structure of its fins and claspers. The writer knows too No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 235 little of the fossil forms of this type to form a final opinion as to whether, in view of the relations of the fossil forms, the family Mit- sukurinide can be maintained. D. S. The Lateral Line of the Toadfish. — Miss Cornelia M. Clapp, professor of zoólogy in Mount Holyoke College, presents as a doctor's thesis in the University of Chicago a careful study of “The Lateral Line System of Batrachus tau." Dr. Clapp concludes that the lateral line represents an organ of special sense. ‘The ear seems like a connecting link between the sys- tem of lateral line organs from which it has probably originated and the most highly sensory structure in Vertebrata — the eye. Ayers has shown that the auditory organ is in reality a series of canal organs innervated by two distinct cranial nerves." It seems certain that a more thorough knowledge of the changes in these cutaneous sense organs found in fishes and in the embryonic stages of higher types is essential to the understanding of the nervous system itself as developed in higher forms. It may be noticed that the proper name of our toadfish is Opsanus tau, not Batrachus tau. The name Batrachus was applied by Bloch and Schneider in 1801 to the scaly toadfishes of the tropics, which had still earlier received from Lacépède the name Batrachoides. The name is not, therefore, available for any other genus, and the second name in date, the first ever given to the type in question, must be chosen. This is Rafinesque’s Opsanus. ngi. Greene on the Lateral Line of the California Toadfish. — In the Journal of Morphology, Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, of Stanford University, has an elaborate study of the complex lateral line* of another species of toadfish, Porichthys notatus, of the California coast. This species has several lateral lines, each of the most complex char- acter, far more specialized than in the common toadfish. The pores in the genus Porichthys are accompanied by round shining bodies resembling the luminous spots in certain deep-sea forms, as Ster- noptyx and Myctophum. In Porichthys the shining bodies are not known to be self-luminous, and their origin is plainly in the lateral line.. The other genera are not related to Porichthys, and in them the luminous spots are not outgrowths from the lateral canal system. Dr. Greene makes no attempt to discuss the homology or signifi- . cance of the lateral line. Too few forms have yet been studied to make such discussion conclusive. He gives a full account of the 236 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. anatomy of the shining bodies in Porichthys. He concludes that these are true phosphorescent organs. Thus far no specimens have been found to be luminous in the aquarium, and light has not been developed through electric stimu- lation, or by excitement through ammonia. Bom Absence of Retinal Pigment in the Dogfish. the retina of the common dogfish (Mustelus vulgaris) Schaper! has made the noteworthy observation that the retinal pigment cells, which in most vertebrates are loaded with dark pigment granules, are in this animal absolutely devoid of such particles. P. Pupa-Grafting in Moths. — The method of grafting young ani- mals, as devised by Born for tadpoles, has been applied by Cramp- ton? to the pupz of moths. An injured pupa at best regenerates sufficient integument to cover the wound. Parts of two longitudi- nally split pupa joined in natural proportions failed to unite, but anterior and posterior portions cut at any level united. Compounds slightly smaller than normal or enlarged by the insertion of a ring failed to coalesce. Fragments grafted on whole pupz formed exactly those portions they would have formed had they remained on the original pupa. Pupz are easily united sidewise or endwise, but in these, as in all other cases, the union is that of the integument and superficial parts only. The results of these experiments on the colors of different species are especially interesting. When individuals of two species having different colors were united so that their hamo- lymphs mingled, the outcome was almost always a double animal whose colors were normal. The same result was obtained from united males and females in species with differently colored sexes. The colors are probably produced, as a rule, through the action on the hemolymph of a localized internal factor such as the “ ferment " cytoplasm assumed by Mayer. P. Amitotic Followed by Mitotic Cell Division. — The observa- tions of Gerassimoff, that cooling would convert the mitotic division of Spirogyra cells into amitotic, and of Pfeffer and Nathanson, that a lSchaper, A. Die nervósen Elemente der Selachier-Retina in Methylenblau- praparaten, Festschrift zum siebenziegsten Geburtstag von Carl von Kupffer, 10 pp» 2 Crampton, H. E. An Experimental Study upon px mit de Archiv für Entw.-mech., Bd. ix, pp. ple? Pls. XI-XIII, 1899. No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 237 temporary use of ether would call forth in the same plant a tempo- rary amitotic division, led Häcker * to subject developing eggs to the action of ether to ascertain whether their mitotic division could be converted into a temporary amitotic one. The results of these experi- ments are that when the eggs of Cyclops are subjected to the action of five per cent ether for from two to three hours, they begin to divide by a process many steps of which have all the appearances of amitotic division, and that after being returned to fresh water they reassume normal mitotic division. Cells, then, after dividing by what to all appearances is amitosis, may return to mitosis. Till further study proves absolute identity the author prefers to call this induced ami- tosis pseudoamitosis. P. A New Unattached Hydroid.— In a paper on Woods Holl Hy- droids, L. Murbach? redescribes Corynitis Agassizii and its medusa Gemmaria, and gives an account of a very remarkable unattached hydroid. It is represented by a single unbranched polyp of the Tubularian type with two circles of tentacles. A primitive perisarc envelops the hydrocaulus, at the end of which polyp buds are given off. Sexual reproduction takes place, the gonophores being between the two circles of tentacles. The polyp moves slowly from place to place and may be caught floating in quiet water. The author names it Hypolytus peregrinus and forestalls the systematic reviser by the statement: “Should the name here proposed for this new genus be preoccupied, I propose instead Gonohypolytus." P. Hydra Grafts. — The grafting of hydras has been studied by H. W. Rand? Lateral grafts do not persist as permanent abnor- malities, but either constrict and separate from the stock or are resorbed by it. If the graft is large or has tentacles, it, as a rule, eventually separates from the stock; if it is small and without dif- ferentiated parts it may be resorbed. All the pieces that were resorbed were much larger than the minimum piece capable of regen- erating if not employed as a graft. Lateral grafts differ from buds in that they do not separate from the stock as readily as buds do 1 Hicker, V. Mitosen im Gefolge amitosen-ahnlicher Vorgänge, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xvii, pp. 9-20, 1900. | 2 Murbach, L. Hydroids from Woods Holl, Mass., Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xlii, pp. 341-360, Pl. 34, 1899. 3 Rand, H. W, The Regulation of Graft Abnormalities in Hydra, Archiv fiir Entw.-mech., Bd. ix, pp. 161-214, Taf. V-VII, 1899. 238 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. from parents. The regulation of abnormalities in Hydra appears to be independent of external conditions, and seems to be rather an effect of certain qualities inherited by the organism. P Notes. — The third edition of Van Gehuchten's! well-known text- book on the nervous system of man has just been published. The work has been increased in bulk and now appears in two volumes of about six hundred pages each. The first volume contains a full account of the gross anatomy of the nervous system, the neurone, and the finer anatomy of the spinal cord ; the second volume deals with the finer anatomy of the brain. No. VII of Vol. III of the American Journal of Physiology contains the two following articles: ‘The Poisonous Character of a Pure NaCl Solution," by Jacques Loeb, and * Observations on the Degen- eration and Regeneration of Motor and Sensory Nerve Endings in Voluntary Muscle," by G. C. Huber. BOTANY. Minnesota Plant Life.” — The broad scope of the botanical work that is being done in Minnesota by Professor MacMillan is evidenced by the present volume. Minnesota Plant Life is the third volume of the botanical series of the reports of the natural history survey of the state. Notwithstanding, the book is not only not at all technical in the accepted sense, but, in accordance with the avowed purpose of the author, it is presented in as untechnical and popular a form as possible. Every botanist is quite too familiar with the result of the usual popular presentation of any portion of the sub- ject. Popular treatises on biological science, especially, have come to stand for everything that is loose in thought, inexact in treatment, and antique in doctrine. Matters have practically reached a point where no master in scientific thought will write a popular treatise, and where no mere dilettante is able to write a scientific one. Pro- fessor MacMillan's book is proof that it is possible to write popularly, 1 Van Gehuchten, A. Anatomie du système nerveux de l'homme, tomes i, ii. Louvain, I Y ? MacMillan, Conway, Professor of Botany in the University of Minnesota. St. Paul, Zhe Pioneer Press, 1899. 8vo, xxv, 568 pp. Four plates and 240 illustrations. No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 239 îe., untechnically, and at the same time in a genuinely scientific vein. While one may not agree at every point with the detail of the text, he is struck by the fact that there is here no loose statement and anti- quated theory, while rare inexactitudes are to be explained by the difficulty of presenting in popular form, which is always quasi-didac- tic, matters upon which botanists themselves are not harmonious. The tenor of the volume is indicated by the author's purpose to present the plant world as an assemblage of living things. This is accomplished by presenting the different taxonomic groups morpho- logically, by treating generally of structures and functions from an adaptational standpoint, and by pointing out the main biological facts in plant association. The first two chapters, which are in many respects the best, the most suggestive ones in the book, deal briefly but in a clear, elementary manner with distribution, zonation and migration. Considering its brevity, the question of zonation is especially well handled. An objection that might be brought against the treatment in certain places (pp. 5, 9, and elsewhere) is that it is quite too teleological. The allegorical method of statement is certainly the readiest, and, among scientists, it is perhaps as good as any. Taken in connection with the appalling literalness of begin- ners, it is unsafe, and invariably leads to confusion, if not to error, in the consideration of purpose and design. Chapters III-XL, constituting much the larger part of the book, are concerned with a survey of the groups of plants from the slime moulds to the composites. The part dealing with the crypto- gams is especially good, noticeably superior to the portion given over to the flowering plants. The latter is fluent and readable, but the structural standpoint is predominant to the exclusion of many matters of interest. The latter fact is probably to be explained by the need of keeping the size of the volume within reasonable limits. The author is certainly right in placing the consideration of structure before that of function and adaptation. Had it been possible, how- ever, a modicum of the two would have increased the interest and the suggestiveness of this portion. The chapter upon the bacteria is a model of its kind. The freshness of the matter, taken with its concise thoroughness, will make it the most interesting and instruc- tive part of the book, not only to those to whom the work is addressed, but to many botanists as wel. In Chapter XX the author has not been so fortunate in his treatment of seeds and their production. No exception can be taken to the statement, but the exposition will doubt- less produce confusion in the subject for those who come to it for the 240 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Line first time. The same criticism holds elsewhere in the treatment of alternation of generations. Though both are confessedly stumbling- blocks for beginners, it seems certain that a development of these matters phylogenetically would have been more logical and more successful. The consideration of adaptation to environment is comprehensive and replete with suggestions. Occasional inaccuracies creep in, and ' in a few instances doubtful or debatable explanations are presented as certain. The ecological factors considered are gravity, mechan- ical forces, heat, light, moisture, soil composition, and biological environment. Following this a chapter is given to the treatment of hydrophytes and one to xerophytes. Halophytes and mesophytes are also considered briefly. The treatment is good in the main, but in certain places it lacks coórdination. This is doubtless due to lack of space, since the detail itself has apparently required pruning. The last two chapters deal with the intimate processes in the life of the individual and of the species. Protoplasm is treated of in a peculiarly striking and clear manner. Nutrition, growth, movement, protection likewise receive elementary treatment in simple logical fashion. The maintenance of the species, involving the phenomena and problems of propagation and reproduction, is clearly stated and is most suggestive. . Books, like people, are well dressed when the dress is not noticed. Until they attain this standard, however, it is a distinct pleasure to have to do with a book in so many ways faultless as the present one in the art of printer and engraver. When it is borne in mind that it belongs to the dubious class of “ state-printed " books, it is at once seen how painstaking the author must have been to have produced a book of such uniform excellence of press-work and illustration. It is novel and encouraging that a book of this sort should be published by the Board of Regents of a large university for the instruction of the people of the state. It is a distinct misfortune that the book is not on the market, as it should be found as a ref- erence or reading book in all schools in which botany is taught. FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS. Britton pub- lished a list of state and local floras ot the United States and Brit- ish America, which has been of very great use to botanists working on the classification and distribution of our native plants. One hundred and six titles appear for the New England States. Miss * No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 24I Mary A. Day, of the ‘Gray Herbarium, has just distributed a pam- phlet,! reprinted from Vol. I of &hodora, in which 258 titles of books and papers referring to the flora of New England are cited, bringing the record down to the end of 1899. Miss Day’s pains- taking care, and the exceptional facilities afforded by the great libra- ries clustered about Boston and the interest in her work of the members of the New England Botanical Club, have resulted in the compilation of a bibliographic aid which should be in every botanical library in the country. T. Botanical Notes. — The Zenth Annual Report of the President of Columbia University states that the herbarium and the principal part of the botanical library.of that institution have been transferred to the New York Botanical Garden, while for the future the advanced work in botany of the University will be carried on in the laborato- ries of the Garden. By this combination of the resources of the University with those of the Garden, the latter gains, it is stated, at the beginning of its career, a scientific equipment and a scientific importance which otherwise it could hope to achieve only slowly, while the University receives at once the advantage of the added facilities of the Garden, which, now considerable, will become of the greatest importance as the years go on. The Garden has inaugu- rated a new publication, under the title of Journal, which is intended to give popular information on the development and work of the establishment, and is to be edited by Dr. MacDougal. The “Talcott Arboretum” of Mount Holyoke College, as appears from a recent number of American Gardening, is a glazed structure covering 6430 square feet and with a maximum height of 27 feet 9 inches. The question of the classification of odors and their use in dis- tinguishing things is again raised by W. C. Alpers in a paper on * Odor Standards,” in the Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association, Vol. XLVII, p. 221. He suggests a classification for . the use of pharmacists, based on the chemical compounds which produce the odor sensations by reacting on the olfactory serum. Odor classifications, like that of Linnzus, and that of flower odors by Delpino, have their value at present, but rest on a more indefinite foundation than that proposed by Mr. Alpers. Kerner has given 1 Day, M. A. The Local Floras of New England. 8vo, 28 pp. Cambridge, 1899. 35 cents. 242 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. such a preliminary classification of flower odors in his Z/anzeneben ; but, as Mr. Alpers intimates, “a new field of research is spread before us for unlimited work" on the composition of volatile substances before a classification approaching perfection can be made. J. B. S. Norton. Erythea, a wide-awake journal devoted largely to Western Ameri- can botany, which has existed for seven years, is to be closed with the final part for 1899. It will be missed in many libraries, and yet the problem of the bibliographer will be simplified by a reduc- tion in the number of journals that he must keep track of. Part XXI of /ittonia for July to December, 1899, contains the following papers by Professor Greene: “ A Decade of New Gutier- rezias," “ Some Western Species of Xanthium,” * Four New Violets,” * New or Noteworthy Species," XXV-XXVI, “ Segregates of Caltha leptosepala,” *New Species of Arenaria," and “West American Asperifolie," IV. Part III, second series, of Minnesota Botanical Studies contains two articles on alga, two on lichens, and synonymic conspectuses of the native and garden Aconitums and Aquilegias of North America. Cratzgus, a genus in which species-splitting has heretofore been restricted to a rather remarkable degree, is proving to comprise a very large number of apparently separable forms as represented in North America, and Mr. C. D. Beadle, of the Biltmore estate, pub- lishes in the Botanical Gazette for January a first instalment of studies in this genus, in which seven species are described as new. In fact, it appears as if almost anywhere in the middle South and West a half dozen nondescript red haws can be picked up in a day’s botanizing, in their fruiting season, in autumn. Mitella, of the trifida section, is passed in review by Piper in Erythea e December, with es result that four new species are described. The Umbelliferz: of Mexico and Central America are treated in an excellent paper by Coulter and Rose, issued in January as a brochure comprising pp. 111—159 of the first volume of the Proceed- ings of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Rhodora for January contains an editorial note and a series of short articles on the dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium pusillum, in New England. No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 243 A systematic revision of the genus Najas, by A. B. Rendle, con- stitutes Vol. V, Part XII, of the current series of botanical Zrans- actions of the Linnean Society of London, issued in December. A morphological and anatomical study of Pogonia ophioglossoides is published by Holm in the American Journal of Science for January. Several new grasses from Pringle's Mexican collection of 1899 are described by Scribner in Circular No. rọ of the Division of Agro- stology of the United States Department of Agriculture. Professor von Wettstein contributes a paper on the pistillate flower of Ginkgo to the December number of the Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, in which he regards the flower as an axillary bud with two transverse carpels. Professor Thaxter, whose thorough work in the Laboulbeniacez has given him a most enviable reputation, publishes in a recent num- ber of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences diagnoses of a large number of new species of the typical genus Laboulbenia, preliminary to a supplement to his monograph of the order. The subject of plants injurious to stock, on which considerable work has been done by American botanists, is further discussed by Mr. Carruthers, the consulting botanist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in No. 40 of the Journal of that society. A note by Dr. Labesse, in Vol. XVIII of the Bulletin of the Société d'études scientifiques d'Angers, shows that in France the tubers of Œnanthe crocata are a source of considerable danger to stock. Der Tropenpflanzer for January contains an interesting illustrated article by H. J. Boeken on the ien and preparation of fiber from Agave sisalana, in Yucatan. The Botanical Magazine of Tokyo for December contains a portrait of the late Professor R. Yatabe. Professor Yatabe was trained at Cornell University, and was well known to many American students a quarter of a century ago, before returning to his native country, where he exerted an important influence in the development of the botanical work of the great Tokyo University. A biographical sketch of H. G. Bloomer, with portrait, is published by Jepson in Zrythea for December. 244 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. NEWS. Dr. ERNST EBROMAYER, professor of forestry in the University of Munich, has resigned. The Supreme Court of Missouri has allowed the Shaw Botanical Gardens to sell a portion of their unproductive real estate. With the proceeds about twenty acres will be added to the gardens. The Society of American Bacteriologists was organized at New Haven during Christmas week with a membership of over thirty. Professor W. T. Sedgwick was elected president, and Professor H. W. Conn, of Middletown, Conn., secretary for the coming year. We hear from Science that the manuscript of a new edition of Coues’s Key to North American Birds was left by the late Dr. Coues in a finished condition. Appointments: Dr. Hugo Berger, professor of physiography in the University of Leipzig. — Dr. J. W. Gregory, of London, professor of geology in the University of Melbourne, Australia. — Dr. Hunn- berg, privat docent for anatomy in the university at Giessen. — Dr. L. Hiltner, head of the bacteriological laboratory of the health office in Berlin. — Dr. E. Jacky, assistant in botany in Proskau. — W. L. Jepson, associate professor of botany in the University of California. — Dr. Itefan Jentys, professor of botany in the University of Agram. — Dr. J. C. Klinge, head botanist of the botanical gardens at St. Petersburg. — Mr. Frank Leney, of the British Museum, assistant curator of the museum at Norwich, England. — Dr. D. W. Merill, assistant in biology in the University of Rochester. — Dr. Benjamin Lincoln Robinson, Gray professor of botany in Havard University. — Dr. George Howard Parker, assistant professor of zoólogy in Har- : vard University. — Dr. G. Tanfiljen, head botanist in the botanical institute at St. Petersburg. — J. L. Luckett, demonstrator of physiol- ogy in the University of: Cambridge. — Dr. Karl Wenle, docent for ethnology in the University of St. Petersburg. Deaths: Count Wladimir Dzieduszycki, curator of the Lemburg Natural History Museum, in Galicia, September 19, aged 71. — Dr. Thomas Egleston, emeritus professor of mineralogy in Columbia University, in New York, January 15. —Dr. Henry Hicks, English geologist, November 18, aged 62.— Dr. Paul Knuth, professor of botany in the University of Kiel, October 3o, aged 45.— William Pamplin, an English botanist, August 9, aged 92. (No. 398 was mailed February 28.) GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY Kiener’s Species —— et Iconographie des Coquilles Vivantes. Continué par le ISHER, Aide-Naturaliste au Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. Complete | in AE parts orming 12 volumes with 902 plates, superbly colored after the tural. stereo Edition on vellum paper. T o. Published at 1800 fasi. offered at $250. e above well-known work on shells and one of the finest ever produced —the prices being accurately and semen koe by competent artists — is especially worthy the attention of natur librarians on meia of the low price at which it is offered, being less tin half the cost of import C. J. PRICE, IMPORTER OF FOREIGN BOOKS, 1004 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. dip ien MICROSCOPES of every size, style and price, suited for all kinds of work. A new series of lenses for dissecting work have recently been perfected by us which have unusually long working distance and € — large flat field. 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Foreign sul bseription, $4.60. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXXIV. April, 1900. No. 400. THE RELATION OF FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. GEORGE JAMES PEIRCE. IF one did not constantly read, even in the newest text-books for older! as well as for younger students,? that the associa- tion between fungus and alga in lichens is uninjurious to the latter, I should not feel impelled to add to the already volumi- 1 See Textbook of Botany, by Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper, translated by Porter (Macmillan Company, 1898), p. 375: The fungus derives its nourishment Saprophytically from the organic matter produced by the assimilating alga, with- out at the same time behaving as a parasite and injuriously interfering with its vegetative activity. In the fourth German edition (received by me, Jan. 19; 1900, as a separate) Schenck says, p. 336: Was das Verhültniss von Pilz zu Alge anbelangt, so um- spinnt der Pilz mit seinem Mycel die Algenzellen, schliesst sie in ein Hyphen- gewebe ein und ernährt sich von den durch die assimilirenden grünen Algenzellen erzeugten organischen Stoffen ; er kann aber Haustorien in die Algenzellen hinein entsenden und sogar deren Inhalt aufzehren. ? See Coulter’s Plant Structures (D. uae & Co., 1899), p. 80: In the case of lichens the symbionts are thought by some to be mutually helpful, the alga manufacturing food for the fungus, n sponse providing protection and water containing food materials for the alga. Others do not recognize any spe- cial benefit to the alga, and see in a lichen simply a parasitic fungus living on the products of an alga. In any event the algz are not destroyed, but seem to thrive. Li 245 246 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. nous discussion of symbiosis in lichens. In spite of all the evi- dence, old and new, and in spite of common sense, the lichens are only too often described as furnishing the most perfect examples of the mutually beneficial association of two utterly different kinds of organisms, — one of these able to lead a normal and perfect existence when by itself, the other absolutely de- pendent for food upon other organisms, living or dead. Let me, therefore, once more direct the attention of biologists to a scrutiny of these peculiar forms. Every one now admits that lichens consist of two distinct and separable parts, of colorless fungus-like hyphze, which form the greater part of the mass of the lichen, and of chlorophyll-con- taining alga-like cells, known as gonidia. Repeatedly it has been shown that the gonidia of lichens are not merely alga-like, but are alge, often found free in nature, growing not only on ‘the same surfaces as furnish the seat of attachment of lichens, but on many others also, growing and multiplying as healthy individuals whenever external conditions make active life pos- sible, passing over other periods in one or another of the rest- ing conditions known to biologists. No one now questions that lichen gonidia are alge, and that with due care gonidia can be identified with already known species of alga found outside of lichen associations. Identification on mere inspec- tion of the gonidia in the lichen is not always possible, nor would it always be correct. For example, Hedlund? says that the alga which forms the gonidia in species of Micaria usually looks like Glceocapsa and frequently occurs on rotten wood, but that, when cultivated on this wood under abundant illumi- nation and free from fungus enemies or algal competitors, the alga multiplies rapidly, becomes deep green, the daughter-cells separate, and none has the thick gelatinized wall which is one of the characters of Gloeocapsa. Conditions wholly external to the algal cells, especially such influences as affect their free- dom, cause these cells to depart from their Protococcus type and to develop qualities and habits characteristic of a wholly 1 Hedlund, T. Kritische Bemerkungen über einige Arten der Flechtengat- tungen Lecanora, Lecidea, und Micarea. Bikang till K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar, Bd. xviii. Stockholm, 1892. 2 No. 400.] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 247 different genus. Assuming that Hedlund’s experiments weré conducted with sufficient cleanliness to prevent Protococcus from replacing Gloeocapsa, this return from Gloeocapsa-like characters to the original Protococcus characters is interesting evidence of the influence of living competitors (other algae) and enemies (fungi), as well as of lifeless forces (light, food, etc.), upon the appearance of living organisms. Since small alga are so modified, both inside and outside of the lichen body, by external influences, their identification and the identification of gonidia become in some instances matters of difficulty, in which experiment must play an important part. As to the fungus-like component of lichens, all are now agreed that the hyphze are fungus, but the identity of any fungus com- ponent of lichens with species of fungi living otherwise is diffi- cult to prove and is absolutely denied by many. According to Reinke,! the fungus components of the lichens of to-day came: from fungi no longer existing as distinct species. That this is necessarily true it is impossible to see; that it is true is hard to believe, for, as has been shown above for the gonidia, the other organisms with which it is associated, as well as the life- less forces to which it is subjected, may so influence an organism that its appearance and behavior will be profoundly modified. Although Moller’s? now classical experiments in cultivating the fungus components of certain simple lichens on artificial media were successful as far as they went, they did not go so far as to show that the fungus could reproduce itself by ascospores formed in normal apothecia, and, after all, only lichens of simple thallus form were cultivated at all. It is only natural, but also greatly to be regretted, that the extremely slow growth of li- chens and of their fungus components has deterred most bota- nists from experimenting on these interesting plants. Reinke’s view can be proved or disproved only by successful culture of 1 Reinke, J. Abhandlungen über Flechten, III. /ahré. f. Wiss. Bot., Bd. xxviii (1895), p. 64: Kein Flechtenpilz ist bisher im freilebenden Zustande beobachtet worden — abgesehen von den Basidiolichenen — und es hat demnach den An- Schein, dass alle Pilze, aus denen sich Flechten entwickelt haben, als Pilze zu Grunde gegangen sind. ? Móller, A. Ueber die Cultur flechtenbildender Ascomyceter ohne Algen. Jnaug. Diss. Münster, 1887. 248 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. the fungus from spore to spore, and whether or not we believe with him that the fungus components of lichens no longer exist by themselves in nature, we certainly must call them fungi. What isa fungus? However a systematist might answer this question, a physiologist would say that a fungus is a low de- pendent plant, demanding at least non-nitrogenous food in a state of comparatively high elaboration (sugar, fat, oil, or simi- lar carbon compounds), since it is unable to manufacture such food for itself. It follows, therefore, that a fungus must be either parasitic or saprophytic, or, to follow the newer terminol- ogy,! metatrophic or paratrophic. When a fungus enters into association with an alga to form a lichen, the fungus allies itself with an independent plant, one able to manufacture all of its own food. The lichen is then composed of a dependent plant which must receive elaborated food, and of an independ- ent plant which needs only food materials and light in order to take care of itself. What then is the nature of the association between these two? Reinke? and his sympathizers believe (a) that the association is consortism; (4) that the two members of the consortium are dependent upon and beneficial to each other; and (c) that the consortium is autonomous. On the other hand, many botanists, probably in the minority at the present moment, see in this association not a mutually advan- tageous association, but the parasitism of one plant upon another. Reinke, de Bary,* and many others assert that the association of fungus with alga in lichens cannot be simple par- asitism because, if this were the case, the fungus would con- sume the alga, and that would be the end of the association. Such a conclusion is not required by the evidence. It must first be shown that the influence of the fungus is so violent and so exhausting that the alga is not able, by producing slightly more food, by refraining from less economical ways of repro- 1 Fischer, A. Vorlesungen über ras pp- 47, 48. Jena, r897. 2 Reinke, J. Abhandlungen iiber Flechten. II. Die Stellung der Flechten im sherman prim i f. Wiss. Bot., Bd. xxvi, pp. 524-542, 1894. Reinke, J cit., Bd. xxvi, p. 530, etc. * de Bary, A. Die Erscheinung der Symbiose. Strassburg, 1879. No. 400.] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 249 duction (e.g., zoóspore formation), by dividing in certain planes instead of in others, etc., to meet the extra demand made upon it by the fungus and to form some cells which are affected only indirectly, if at all, by the fungus.! On these points a few remarks may be made. In the first place, those algae which form the gonidia of lichens will grow and multiply faster under almost any conditions than the fun- gus, and they grow and multiply in lichens less rapidly than under favorable conditions outside. In the lichen itself they grow and multiply very rapidly at times, much more rapidly than the fungus. For example, the gonidia in a fragment of Ramalina reticulata, the California lace-lichen, may be made to grow and to divide very rapidly by placing the piece in water in the comparative warmth of the laboratory in winter. The whole lichen does not grow; only the gonidia multiply and grow; the fungus grows but little, if at all. Out of doors such conditions frequently occur in all lichens. During warm rains or fogs, or dews, the gonidia have the advantage; they multiply and grow much more rapidly than the fungus; many gonidial cells recover what they had lost by too intimate association with the fungus. In this way new generations of gonidial cells are produced which continue the race in the lichen body and thereby prevent the fungus from devouring all at once. In other words, though the fungus may be parasitic upon the alga, the more vigorous alga is not wholly and at once consumed by its parasite, whatever may be the ultimate fate of the gonid- ial cells one by one. Having seen that the association of fungus and alga in lichens is not destructive to all the algal cells at once, it must be shown whether the fungus is destructive or injurious to any. In all lichens the hyphz and gonidia are in most intimate con- tact, the hyphz either closely clasping the gonidial cells or filaments, or actually sending one or more haustoria into the separate gonidial cells. As a result of such intimate contact, Osmotic movement of food and other substances must take 1 Hedlund, T. Loc. cit. Peirce, G. J. The Nature of the Association of Alga and Fungus in Lichens. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Third Series, Botany, vol. i, No. 7, 1899. | 250 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. place between the hyphz and the invested gonidia. That such’ a movement does not take place it is impossible to believe unless one assume that the nature of the limiting membranes of algal and fungal cells is such that osmosis is a physical impossibility. This assumption would be self-destructive, however, for if these membranes were impervious to the dissolved substances in the algal and fungal cells, all osmosis would be impossible, and the cells would all die from lack of food and water. There must then be osmotic movement between fungus and alga. In obedience to the ordinary laws of osmosis there would be move- ment of dissolved substances from regions of more to regions containing fewer molecules of. these substances. The alga under the influence of light manufactures complex nutritious non-nitrogenous carbon compounds, which are at times, if not always, in soluble forms. These substances would tend to migrate from the algal to the fungal cells. This physical phenomenon is of the utmost physiological importance to the fungus, for it thereby gains the food it needs. Such a transfer is inevitable so long as the conditions of intimate contact, of permeable membranes, of supply of food and demand for it con- tinue the same. If the demand for food by the fungus or any part of it exceed the ability of the alga, or of any algal cell, to manufacture enough for its own needs and those of the fungus, the fungus will consume the alga itself. The numbers of empty gonidial cells in the lichen body are sufficient evidence of this, but this evidence cannot always be found, for only at times does the fungus demand so much of the alga that the body substance of the alga must be given to feed the fungus. The slow-growing fungus component of the lichen draws food from the more rapidly growing algal cells in which the food is manufactured. Such taking of food is evidently para- sitism. It can be nothing else. The intimacy of contact of hyphz and gonidia precludes any other supposition than that the hyphz osmotically draw food from the necessary and help- less alge. If the alge grew and multiplied less rapidly, or if the fungus grew more rapidly, or if the alga made less and the fungus demanded more food, or even if fungus and alga always 1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit., p. 225, etc. No. 400, ] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 251 grew at a constant rate instead of the alga sometimes growing much faster than the fungus, the parasitism of fungus on alga would result much sooner in the destruction of each algal cell. As it is, the fungus destroys the algze, but only by degrees, and so slowly that a new generation is mature before the first is consumed. If there is osmotic transfer of non-nitrogenous food from alga to fungus, there may also be osmotic transfer of something else from fungus to alga. Presumably there is. De Bary, Reinke, and others say that the fungus supplies the alga with water and mineral salts. Undoubtedly this is true, but I doubt this being other than by the capillary movement of columns or films of water, holding mineral salts in solution, between and along the hyphz which, running more or less parallel with one another, form continuous capillary tubes from the substra- tum throughout the body of the lichen. By this means the fungus certainly does supply the alga, but so would cotton fibres or glass tubes similarly placed. It cannot be questioned that, in its position in the lichen, the alga needs to have water and mineral salts conducted to it, but its position is not of its own seeking, natural, or necessary, or at all evidently advantageous. In its natural habitat the alga (Protococcus, Gloeocapsa, Nostoc, etc.) could supply itself with aqueous solutions of needed food materials without the intervention of a dearly paid servant. It is alleged by some that what the fungus obtains from the alga is merely the excess of organic matter elaborated by the latter, and that the alga is manured by the waste substances produced by the fungus. Such conceptions of the physiology of living organisms are anything but definite. According to this, plant cells and plant bodies are leaky affairs from which nutritious substances ooze in appreciable quantities. Every one knows that this is not true. The ooze theory of the nutrition of the associates in the lichen must, therefore, be abandoned. It is said that, if the fungus were simply parasitic upon the alga, the algal cells would not so rapidly multiply, would not look so healthy as they often do in the lichen thallus. Besides the reason already given for this, it seems to me cer- tain, from my study of Ramalina reticulata, and of some others 252 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of our California lichens,! that the algal cells invested or pene- trated by fungus filaments try by frequent division to produce cells which shall be quite free from contact with hypha. The contact of the hypha exerts an irritation which induces more frequent division, and at a smaller size than normally takes place in gonidia not in contact with hypha.. Gonidia may fre- quently be found in the lichen thallus, large and wholly free from contact with hypha.. These gonidia divide less frequently than the others and are by all means nearest the typical algal cells of the same species in size, color, form, thickness, and composition of wall,etc. These free gonidia are fed with water and mineral salts, are protected against drought and certain other dangers, and may really benefit by being enclosed in a mass of fungus hypha. Gonidia which are not merely loosely enclosed in the lichen body but are tightly invested if not pene- trated by hyphz, although they may be supplied with food materials and may be protected, are also robbed of part of the food they elaborate and are actually irritated by their associate. That they are ultimately sucked dry by the fungus I have recently shown in the paper already referred to. In an increasing number of lichens it is being found that the hypha not merely closely invest the gonidia, thereby making possible the osmotic movement of elaborated food from alga to fungus, but that the hyphz actually penetrate the gonidia by haustoria. These haustoria either apparently merely penetrate the cell-wall, pushing back the protoplasm, or they actually penetrate the protoplasm also. Where it is possible to demon- strate in any species of lichen that haustoria actually occur in the gonidia, there can be no doubt that the association is of unmixed injury to the alga, and of unmixed benefit to the - fungus. The movement of aqueous solutions through the haus- toria from the gonidia to the hyphze is different, however, only slightly in degree and not at all in kind from that which takes place between gonidia and closely clasping hyphal branches. The absorption of food is easier, the parasitism more perfect and more evident, when haustoria connect hyphz and gonidia 1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit. No. 400. ] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 253 than when the hypha merely enclose the gonidia, but the hyphz are parasitic in both cases. The foregoing argument, based on observations reported in detail elsewhere,! shows, I believe, that there are no physiologi- cal or structural reasons for supposing that the association of fungus and alga in lichens is other than the actual parasitism of the former upon the latter. If the lichens are merely fungi and algz associated together as parasite and host, these associa- tions are no less remarkable and interesting, though less moral, than if they were ideal alliances for mutual aid. Experiment has still to show whether the characters of the lichen thallus are formed by the fungus mainly, or by the fungus under the influ- ence of its host, how far substratum, illumination, nutrition, etc., affect the character of the association. Experimentation on lichens demands endless patience and considerable skill, for lichens grow with prodigious slowness, and the chances of a culture becoming infested with mould or bacteria before it has accomplished the purpose designed are only too great. Some of the problems puzzling systematic lichenologists can be solved. only when illuminated by experimental culture of the fungus component of the lichen thallus under definitely known conditions. STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA, January, 1900. 1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit. A FLAGELLATED HELIOZOAN. HOWARD CRAWLEY. Ix sore water taken from the pond in the Botanical Gardens at the University of Pennsylvania, in August, 1899, the two Heliozoa here figured were found. : Of these, that shown in Fig. 1 possessed a typical heliozoan body of foamy protoplasm. There was a clear, colorless outer layer, while the central portion consisted of an aggregation of small spherical bodies, greenish, reddish, and yellowish in color. The nucleus was invisible, and a contractile vacuole was not observed. The most striking feature of the animal was the pseudopodia. These were of two kinds. The longer closely resembled those of Actinophrys. They projected in a more or less radial direc- tion and showed considerable freedom of movement, frequently sweeping through large arcs. They always, however, preserved their straightness. At different times they varied greatly in length, and were often wholly withdrawn. i The shorter pseudopodia were extremely delicate strands of protoplasm that projected radially from the surface of the animal. The outer end of each of these was modified in such a way as to render it more conspicuous, but I was not able to determine the exact nature of this modification. In the speci- mens that were observed, the entire system moved in concert, the movement consisting in an alternate lengthening and shortening of the pseudopodia. Fig. 1 shows them at the greatest length that I observed. | In such cases the spherical body of the animal appeared as if inclosed by a definite ring. At other times these pseudopodia were wholly withdrawn. The animal was highly polymorphic, and occasionally, when all the pseudopodia of both kinds were drawn in, its shape departed so far from the spherical that it might have been taken for a sluggish Amoeba. 255 256 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. On account of the clear cortical layer, the color of the central mass, the two kinds of pseudopodia and the nature of their movements, and the invisibility of the nucleus, the animal bears a close resemblance to Vampyrella lateritia, as described by Leidy (* The Fresh-Water Rhizopods of North America," U. S. Geol. Sur., Vol. XII, Washington, 1879). There is a discrepancy in the nature of the terminal modi- fications of the shorter pseudopodia. Leidy states that these resemble the head of a pin, which was not the case in the Fic. 1. animal that I found. Nevertheless, the appearances tally so closely in all other respects that it may be referred to that genus. The second heliozoan, shown in Fig. 2, was exactly like the first in all respects but one. The size, 80 & in diameter, was the same. The long pseudopodia were identical in both animals, and the bodies, with their clear cortices and colored central masses, wholly alike. The difference consisted in the fact that the short pseudopodia of the form shown in Fig. I were repre- sented in the other by a mantle of flagella. This whole system moved in unison, but the movement of each individual proto- LI No. 400.] A FLAGELLATED HELIOZOAN. 257 plasmic process was the lashing of a flagellum, and not the beating of a cilium. While the spores of Heliozoa are in several cases flagellula, the possession of a series of flagella by the adult forms has been noted in but one other case. Eugène Penard (* Sur un heliozoaire nageur, Myriophrys paradoxa, gen. nov., sp. nov.” Arch, Sci. Phys. et Nat., Tome IV, No. 9, pp. 285—289, Pl. III, I5 Septembre, 1897) describes a single individual which he Fic. 2. found in fresh water, also in August. This animal was about 40 in diameter. It was furnished with pseudopodia of the Acanthocystis type, and possessed an external skeletal layer beset with minute scales (écailles). There was a large con- tractile vacuole and an evident nucleus. It therefore will be seen that in several essential characters it differed wholly from the form here described. Concerning the flagella, Penard says : * On pourrait plutót comparer ces cils à de petits flagellums, qui, par leur abondance, formeraient une véritable chevelure." Penard considered the flagellated condition to be permanent, e 258 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. and created for the organism a new genus and a new species. He saw, however, but one individual. I was more fortunate in that I found many individuals of the two kinds that I have figured. It is known that a pseudopodium may turn into a flagellum, and, conversely, that a flagellum may turn into a pseudopodium. This, together with the fact that these two animals were identical in all respects but one, and that they occurred side by side in the same drop of water, renders it very probable that they are only different conditions of one and the same animal. There seems, then, no good reason for creating a new name, and I accordingly suggest retaining that used by Leidy, Vampyrella lateritia, even though the definition of this species must be somewhat enlarged. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Feb. 5, 1900. REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS: A CRITICISM. H. S. JENNINGS. In the January number of the American Journal of Physiology, Garrey ! gives the results of extended experiments on the effects of chemicals in causing motor reactions in the flagellate Chilo- monas. From the chemical side the paper is a valuable one, as being the most thorough study yet made of the specific effects of chemicals in causing reactions in unicellular organisms, and in treating the subject from the standpoint of modern physical chemistry. On the other hand, that portion of the paper which treats of the part played in the reactions by the organisms seems to me much less successful, and it is my purpose to point out certain criticisms on this part of the work. Garrey found that the motor reactions of Chilomonas are set strongly in operation by certain chemicals, ** very swift shooting movements being induced," so that the organisms, as a result of these movements, soon leave the sphere of influence of the substance in question. This effect is termed by Garrey “ chem- okinesis’’; it is analogous to that which I have called “negative Chemotaxis" in Paramecium. The chief portion of the paper is devoted to determining the relative strength of various chem- icals in causing this reaction, and the exact factors in the solu- tions that produce the effect; interesting and valuable results are here brought out. In certain organic acids (acetic, butyric, lactic) and their salts Garrey found the flagellates to form aggregations, as Par- amecium does in solutions of CO2 and acids of all sorts ;? ! Garrey, Walter E. The Effects of Ions upon the Aggregation of Flagellated Infusoria. Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. iii, pp. 291-31 5. ? Owing to the failure of his attempts to repeat my experiments with solutions of CO, and inorganic acids, Garrey denies my results with Paramecia. His fail- ure was unquestionably due to neglect to fulfill the necessary experimental condi- tions. I have never known the experiments to fail when properly carried out. 239 260 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. these aggregations, he says, are due to “true chemotropism." In that portion of the work which deals with the way in which these aggregations are formed and with the part played by the organism, it seems to me that Garrey neglects certain facts that are absolutely fatal to the view of these matters which he puts forth. He did not determine the mechanism of the reac- tions of Chilomonas, — the exact way in which the organism moves when stimulated, — and this seems to me the first requi- site for an understanding of how the reactions are brought about. Garrey’s point of departure is his definition of tropism (which he says is the same as zaxis). Taking heliotropism as a type, he says: “ In heliotropism the organism is so oriented that its axis or plane of symmetry coin- cides with the direction of the rays, and symmetrical points on the surface of the body are struck by the light rays at the same angle." He then quotes with approval, for the case of chemo- tropism, Professor Loeb's generalization: * The essence of chemotropic orientation would then consist in the animals plac- ing themselves in such a position that symmetrical points on the surface of the body are cut by the diffusion lines at the same angle." The movement of Chilomonas into drops of organic acid, Garrey says, is “true chemotropism," and he states that the organisms move toward the center of diffusion “as if orienting themselves to radially disposed lines ; lines which may represent the paths of diffusing molecules or ions." From this one might infer that Chilomonas actually does so orient itself *that symmetrical points on the surface of the body are cut by the diffusion lines at the same angle," and then swims forward in this position, as required by the general- ization; Garrey says nothing to the contrary. Yet the animal does nothing of the sort. The very elementary fact seems to have escaped Garrey that Chilomonas, as is well known, is unsymmetrical, so that it is impossible for it to orient itself in this manner ; there ave no such symmetrical points to be thus cut. (In Chilomonas the so-called “upper” or larger lip lies at the dorso-dextral angle of the anterior end, as will be seen by consulting Fig. 9 ? of Pl. XLV of Bütschli's Protozoa, so that the animal is unsymmetrical both dorso-ventrally and dextro- = No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 261 sinistrally.) Furthermore, observation of its movements shows that it makes no attempt to do the impossible; instead of retaining any such position as the generalization calls for, it swims in spirals, a certain side of the animal being always toward the inside of the spiral; as Bütschli says, they “de- scribe rather narrow circles” (Bütschli, Flage//ata, p. 853). These facts, of the lack of symmetry of the organism, and its swimming in spirals, might be thought to be facts of capital importance for a decision as to whether it falls under Professor Loeb’s generalization or not; they are nowhere mentioned by Garrey. It is well known that the Infusoria are prevailingly unsymmetrical, so that it is quite impossible for most of them to fall within this generalization. An attempt to apply it to one of the Hypotricha, for example (see figure on p. 262), where not only the form of the body but the structure and distribution of the locomotor organs are strikingly unsymmetrical, would bring out the absurdity of the attempt, and observation of the actual movements of the organisms, as detailed in the Fifth of my Studies,! only accentuates the impossibility. It may be re- garded as axiomatic that a principle which requires the sym- metry of organisms cannot be applied to organisms that are - unsymmetrical. On this account I have not previously consid- ered it worth while, in my Studies on Reactions, etc., to show the relation of Professor Loeb’s well-known generalization to the movements of the prevailingly unsymmetrical Infusoria. The generalization was evidently made from a study of bilater- ally symmetrical animals, and may be of the greatest value for an interpretation of their activities; it is obviously inapplicable to unsymmetrical organisms. I have described the mechanism of the motor reactions of Chilomonas, on pp. 231—234 of the same number of the Amer- ican Journal of Physiology, as that in which Garrey’s paper appeared. Later study of their reactions in the production of the aggregations described by Garrey has convinced me that these aggregations are produced through the mechanism of the described motor reaction, in a manner exactly analogous to the production of the similar aggregations of Paramecium in weak 1 Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. iii, p. 249. 262 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. acids, described on pp. 314, 315, of the Second of my Studies.} This possibility is not discussed by Garrey, apparently because of a preconceived view that chemotropism must take place ac- cording to Professor Loeb's generalization above quoted. He says: *Jennings's motor reaction cannot account for orienta- and, therefore, that it has nothing to do with tropisms. This unsupported sweeping denial seems a peculiar way of meeting such a detailed account of the production of orientation through the motor reaction as I have given for the thermotaxis of Paramecium on pp. 334-336 of the Second of my Studies. The general proposition that a motor reaction cannot cause orientation seems still more remarkable. Consider an organ- ism, as in the figure, lying obliquely to the line of action of the incoming stimulus, which is indicated by the four straight arrows. Its position is at first a-a. After the stimulus has acted for a.time, the organism is found to be oriented as shown at 6-8, with its longitudinal axis in the direction of the lines of force. Now, how can this orientation possibly take place except through a motor reaction? The animal has certainly moved under the influence of the stimulus from the position a-a to the position 4-4, and such a movement under the influence of a stimulus is what is commonly known as a motor reaction.? 1 Amer. Journ. v Pio. vol. ii, pp. 311 -341. 2 Garrey's attempt to attribute to me the absurd idea that the principle of. a motor reaction is new (/oc. ¿ity p. 313, note), is perhaps‘ unworthy of mention. The comparison of the motor reaction of. Paramecium with that of a muscle, No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 263 The essential feature of the characteristic motor reaction of these organisms, as I have described it, is that they turn, when they do turn, toward a structurally defined. side, whatever the line of action of the stimulus. For example, the organism in the figure (one of the Hypotricha) turns to the right, in the direction indicated by the curve c-Z. But evidently the organ- ism may come into the position 4— as easily by turning to the right as by turning to the left; in the former case it must simply keep turning somewhat longer. As a matter of fact, orientation to most stimuli occurs in the Hypotricha in exactly the manner illustrated — by turning to the right. This is true for chemical, osmotic, mechanical, and thermal stimuli ; whether for electric stimuli and light has not been shown. The precision of the orientation, and whether a large number of organisms will be oriented in the same way, depends upon the question as to what influences produce the motor reaction. Suppose that in the figure the stimulating agent is something that acts steadily in lines coming in the direction of the straight arrows. Now, I have shown in the Fifth of my Studies that many of these organisms are much more sensi- tive at the anterior end than elsewhere, so that a stimulus at the anterior end produces a different effect from a stimulus elsewhere on the body. When, therefore, the organism is so oriented that the lines of force impinge directly on the anterior end (position 4—0), it will, of course, be differently affected as compared with a position in which the sensitive anterior end is wholly or partly protected by the remainder of the body. Thus different reactions may be caused in the two cases; in one position the motor reflex may be caused, in the other not. If, for example, the motor reflex is caused when the lines of force impinge on even a small part of the anterior end, then the organism will not cease giving the reaction until it is oriented with anterior end directed away from the side of incoming which Garrey makes for my information, I had already developed at length to show their.identity in character, in two papers (Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. ii, p. 339; Amer. Journ. of Psychol., vol. x, p. 513). I had counted it a chief result of my work that it had reduced the supposed attractions and repulsions of these organisms to a motor reflex “ of the same order as the motor reflexes of higher animals," as I have expressed it elsewhere. 264 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. force. If a large number of such organisms are in the field of the force, they will soon all show a common orientation, and when they move they will all move in the same direction. Ad that is necessary for orientation to take place in this way ts that the organism shall be differently affected when tt is in one post- tion from the way it ts affected in another position. It is diffi- cult to imagine any agency that can cause orientation in which this condition is not fulfilled. When the organism is once oriented with reference to a con- stant stimulus, of course no further reaction is necessary; it simply keeps up the normal forward motion until this motion brings it into new relations with the stimulus, when the motor reaction is again caused, resulting in a readjustment of orien- tation. In the hypothetical case above supposed, if the organ- ism swims in a curve instead of a straight line, it will soon come into a position such that the lines of incoming force impinge on the sensitive anterior end ; the motor reaction is thereby induced until the animal has come again into the position where the anterior end is not thus affected. Garrey says: “ All these motor reactions have nothing to do with ¢vopisms, for these motor reactions are only the expression of a very sudden change in the stimuli, while the characteristic of the tropism is the stationary condition of the stimuli.” He fails to consider the fact that, stationary as the stimuli may be, the organisms with which he is dealing are zo stationary ; by their own. movements the organisms come into new relations with the stimuli, and these new relations may result in the production of the motor reaction, causing a readjustment of orientation. To summarize, the chief points which I would make in criti- cism of Garrey's conclusions are as follows : 1. In all work upon the reactions of organisms to physical and chemical agents, it is necessary to consider the structure and normal activities of the organisms, as well as the nature of the agents acting as stimuli. 2. Orientation such that * symmetrical points on the surface of the body are cut by diffusion lines at the same angle" (or by any other lines at the same angle) is impossible in unsym- No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 265 metrical organisms, such as are a large proportion of the Infusoria. 3. Observation of the movements of the Infusoria, both the unsymmetrical and the symmetrical, shows that they do not orient themselves even approximately in the manner above ex- pressed, but that they swim as a rule in spirals, and orientation usually takes place through a motor reflex, characterized by the fact that the organism, when it turns, turns toward a structurally defined side. 4. A sudden change in the stimulus is not necessary to pro- duce a motor reaction, as Garrey has stated, for the organism itself, by moving, comes into new relations with a constant stimulus, and by these new relations the motor reflex may be caused, resulting in a readjustment of orientation. 5. The gatherings of Chilomonas in drops of organic acid, described by Garrey, take place, according to my observations,! through the mechanism of the motor reaction of Chilomonas, described in the Fifth of my Studies. Whether this is “true chemotropism” or not depends on the definition of chemo- tropism. 6. The orientation of Chilomonas takes place through this motor reaction, and in general it is impossible for an unoriented organism to become oriented except through a motor reaction of some sort (except where passively moved, like a dead body). ANN ARBOR, MICH., Feb. 6, 1900. 1 The observations on which this statement is based are detailed in a paper by the author in the April number of the American Journal of Physiology. - THE BASAL SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. L. B. WALTON. AT the base of each leg in the Hexapoda are a series of seg- ments and sclerites which enter into the composition and serve as a support of the appendage. These are the trochanter, coxa genuina, meron! trochantin, and antecoxal piece. The difficul- ties in the way of accounting for the origin of these segments and homologizing them in the various orders have caused mor- phologists more or less trouble. By reason of the fusion which has.taken place between the trochanter and femur in the Myriopoda and Hexapoda, many writers on insect anatomy hold that the trochanter is merely a portion of the femur which has in some manner become con- stricted so as to form an apparent but not an actual segment. The fusion, however, between the two parts is a specialization acquired during the later embryonic stages of development.? A similar case of ankylosis is often noticeable between certain segments of the appendages in Crustacea. Bordage? has advanced the theory, from observations based on certain Phas- mida, that the two segments have become coalesced in the Arthropoda as a result of ecdysis. Since the same fusion, however, is very pronounced in the Myriopoda, particularly among the Diplopoda, where Verhoeff * believes the trochanter 1 In order to distinguish between these two parts, which havé been confused under the name “coxa,” I have called the piece articulating with the trochanter coxa genuina, and the posterior lateral part articulating with the epimeron, meron (from wig = thigh), since its lateral margin is always found in articulation with the epimero *The * recited trochanter " of Hymenoptera [Terebrantia] appears to be a secondary modification, the lower part [‘‘afophysis,” Ratzeburg] being derived from the femur. This is the view held by Sharp, Camé. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 520. ? On the Probable Mode of Formation of the Fusion between the Femur and Trochanter in Arthropoda. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, tome v, No. 28, pp. 839-842, 1898. Also Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, pp. 159-162, 1899. * Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Glomeriden.. 1895. _- 267 268 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. is in many cases entirely absent, it is evident that it is a characteristic of a primitive stem form, and has not arisen, as Bordage suggests, from an “ancestral form belonging to the existing Phasmids in which there was a distinct articulation between the two consecutive segments."! In addition to ecdysis, insisted upon by Bordage,? we must take into consid- eration various other selective factors, chief among which appear to have been mutilations by enemies. The severing of the segments, which resulted from either factor, would prob- Fic. 1. Metathorax ; c, coxa genuina; m, n; eps, —: epm, epimeron ; a, antecoxal piece; s, sternum; £ (?), Micuidbi 7 wienn J, femur ably occur near the base of the appendage, and the favored forms would be those in which the two segments were approaching the fused condition, the invagination of the chitinous wall preventing undue hemorrhage. Autotomy, "which Bordage so fully explains, would undoubtedly play an important part here. It also appears advantageous to poly- 1] have adopted the translation as given by Austen. 2 The position of Bordage in regard to the manner in which the fusion has come about is clearly on the side of Neo-Lamarckianism, since he attributes it to * a mechanical strain," and says that it is an “example of a character acquired by use...and then transmitted by heredity.” This conclusion, however, as I have BENEAT to show, seems unwarranted, No. 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 269 podial forms that a series of the appendages move more or less in unison, and it is obvious that such rhythmic motion is better maintained with the articulation of a coxa and trochanter alone than with an additional articulation between the trochanter and femur. This may be a factor in accounting for the more pronounced fusion of the two segments in the Diplopoda. In 1893 Hansen! endeavored to homologize the trochanter of the Hexapoda with the ischiopodite in Crustacea. This homology was based on the supposition that the part assumed by him to be the trochantin? in the Cicadaria (Cicadidzx, Ful- X12 Fic. 2. — Hydrophilus triangularis. Mesothoracic coxa. goridæ, Cixidæ, etc.) was the homologue of the coxopodite in Crustacea. In referring to Machilis, he has considered the trochantin of the prothoracic coxa as a primary segment, homol- ogous with the coxopodite. From comparisons, however, with both Chilopoda and Diplopoda, we would regard the trochantin rather as a specialized character of the Hexapoda, which is absent in the Crustacea. Homologies based upon the form of the segment and manner of articulation certainly appear ques- l Zur Morphologie der Gliedmassen und Mundtheile bei Crustaceen und Insecten. Zool. Anz., pp. 193-198, ppr 1893. 2 It seems probable that Hansen has here applied the name * trochantin " to the antecoxal piece and trochantin ses oce 270 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. tionable, since pronounced variations often occur within the limits of a single group. Until a closer relationship can be dion in the lines of de- scent of the two groups, Hexapoda and Crustacea, it would seem that an attempt to homologize the segments of the appendages. would scarcely be justified. For the time being, we must assume that the segmentation of an ap- pendage is a result brought about by certain indefinite factors, and that in these groups it does not neces- ' sarily imply a phylogenetic relationship. That the trochanter of the Myriopoda and Hexapoda X6 represents a distinct seg- Wie. jiis raris Moewhewi ment doeme obvious, and coxa; x, area formed by development of coxal that its fusion with the groove [Fig. 4 ig and corresponding to lateral portion of c, Fig femur took place in some ancestral A tbe form appears probable. Three sclerites, as a rule, enter into the composition of the segment to which the name coxa is given, vís., coxa genuina, meron, and trochantin. Audouin? applied the name “ trochan- tin"? to the lateral margin of the posterior coxa (meron) in Dytiscus circumflexus, erroneously believing it homologous with the trochantin on the anterior and mesal coxa of Buprestis 1 Compare Arachnida, or, in Coleoptera, the metathoracic coxa of Dytiscus and Hydrophilus s Recherches anatomiques sur le thorax des animaux sien et celui des insectes hexapodes en particulier. Ann. Sci. Wat., tome i, p. 12 24. 3 This word had been previously used by Chaussier [Littré, Dio. de Médecine, p. 1632] during the latter part of the eighteenth century to designate a small process on the upper part of the femur in the human skeleton. From the note Audouin appends, he evidently felt some constraint in conforming to the custom of transferring such terms to invertebrate anatomy when no homologies could be demonstrated. * In the metathorax of the Coleoptera the trochantin has been lost through specialization, although traces of it are noticeable among many forms (H philus, certain Cerambycidz, etc.). No. 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 271 gigas, which he subsequently mentions.!_ Later, in his contri- bution to Cuvier’s “Le Regne Animal," he figures the pro- thoracic trochantin of Oryctes nasicornis. The present confused terminology of these segments is due to the preceding error of Audouin. Newport? made a somewhat similar error by describing the anterior margin of the coxa (coxa genuina) in Hydrous piceus, as the metathoracic trochantin. Among the recent writers on insect anatomy, Packard? confuses the tro- chantin with the meron; Miall and Denny ® hold that the occurrence of the joint applied to the coxa (trochantin) “is so partial" that it need scarcely be taken into consideration ; Sharp* believes with Packard that the posterior part of the coxa (meron) in Panorpa represents the trochantin ; while Com- stock, in a description of the metathorax in Euchromia gigantea, Fis. 4.—Periplaneta orientali nego PC c', coxal . agrees essentially with groove formed for reception of fem the preceding, although he correctly figures the trochantin of the prothorax and mesothorax. Lowne’ regards the piece 1 Etude de la poitrine ou des pattes inférieures et latérales du mesothorax. Ann. Sci. Nat., tome i, p. 426, 1824. This is merely a continuation of Recherches anatomiques 2 Todd’s elpeti of Anatomy and Physiology, p. 916, 1835-59- 8 Systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to the Orders of Insects. Third Report U.S. Ent. Com., 1880-82. A Text-Book of Entomology, p. 95, 1898. * The Structure and Life History of the Cockroach, p. 61, 1886. 5 Camb. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 104, 1895 ? Manual for the Study of Insects, p. 504, 1895. It was due to Professor Com- stock’s suggestion of a possible error in considering the lateral margin of the meta- thoracic coxa of Euchromia as the actual eg aud of the mesothoracic trochantin, that the study leading to this paper was commenced. T The Anatomy, Physiology, egt ca and vimm of the Blow-Fly, vol. i, p. 179, 1890-92. 272 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. termed by him “ epitrochlea”’! as “certainly the trochantin of Audouin," ignoring his previous suggestion that one should adhere to the rule of priority. Several other writers, notably Latzel (Chilopoda), Comstock and Kellogg (Lepidoptera), and Kolbe (Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, and Panorpa), have mentioned the existence of an apparent suture in the coxa of certain groups under consideration, but without attempting to discuss ` its meaning. Immediately in front of the metathoracic coxa, particularly among the Coleoptera, a small sclerite is discernible, which bears the name of ante- coxal piece. .This is also well shown in Cicada, some species of which (Cicada dorsata) possess a piece homologous with that found in the Cole- optera ; while in others (Cicada tibicen)? instead of being chitinized, the part is often membrana- d^ ceous in structure, and serves to retain the coxa X12 more firmly in the coxal Fic. 5.— Scutigera sp. Coxa An fusion of coxa Cavities, thus indicating petto ei iaa its origin ; and the pres- ence of a homologous piece in the mesothorax of many Coleoptera (Passalus, etc.), occurring at the same time with the trochantin, proves that it is distinct from the latter. The origin of the three pieces, coxa genuina, meron, and trochantin, the relative positions of which are shown in the accompanying figures, is more difficult of explanation. A Striking characteristic of the Hexapoda and Chilopoda is the more or less complete fusion of the first two (coxa genuina and 1 The homology of this with the trochantin appears doubtful. 2 Although a good series was examined in which the other sclerites were well chitinized, the absence of chitinization in the antecoxal piece may be the result of immaturity. This, however, would not alter the conclusion. No 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 273 meron) into the so-called coxa. Theoretically the episternum 1 and epimeron may be regarded as corresponding basal seg- ments of these fused pieces, and taking into consideration the apparent absence of a piece homologous with the meron in the Diplopoda, we are led to the interesting inference that this group represents a class in which each primitive metamere bears a pair of appendages, while the Chilopoda and Hexapoda represent a widely divergent class, in which two primitive metameres have attained a more com- plete fusion, the rudimentary append- age belonging to each posterior segment fusing with the base of the functional appendage belonging to the anterior metamere? The posterior appendage would then be represented by the meron and epimeron.* In this case we can refer the origin of coxa genu- tna and episternum, as well as the meron and epimeron, to the same causes which produce segmentation in the appendage. The trochantin appears to be nothing more than a part of the antecoxal piece, a lateral prolongation of which became con- stricted off in a primitive form. Again we are confronted with the question as to the origin of the ap- pendages in the Arthropoda, whether they are ventral or dorsal parapodia, or a fusion of the two, as in Nereis, or whether the ing with meron and epimeron, 1 Frequently tl to be cut off from the coxa by the sternum or by the trochantin, buth in esis cases the coxa is usually prolonged internally, so that it west the epistern nt there dry to be better evidence for believing that these pieces Ph a fusion of the segments than to hold that an exopodite and entopodite are represented. 8 A study of the position and homologies of certain of the pleural and dorsal sclerites in Hexapoda and Chilopoda appears to confirm this inference. * While thus far the Petty of embryological evidence appears to be against this view, it seems possible that secondary modifications have caused a misinter- pretation of the lines of cidem 274 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. origin was entirely independent of the parapodia. A study of Peripatus appears to throw no light on the subject under dis- cussion, beyond indicating that in using the term “ primitive metamere °” we must not exclude the idea that such a metamere may in turn represent a fusion of an indefinite number of annuli. Evidence is thus added to a segment-fusion theory rather than to the biramose theory. While it appears possible that the exopodite and entopodite in Crustacea may have developed from dorsal and ventral para- podia, in direct contrast to the manner indicated above for the Chilopoda and Hexapoda, further study may show a common origin of the two processes. SUMMARY. In Hexapoda and Chilopoda the “coxa” is composed of two more or less fused segments, coxa genuina and meron. The antecoxal piece results from the chitinization of the membrane connecting the coxa with the sternum. The trochantin probably originated from a lateral portion of the same membrane. Audouin erroneously homologized the lateral margin of the posterior coxa in Dytiscus circumflexus with the trochantin of the prothorax and mesothorax. s The trochanter represents a distinct segment of the legs. The meron and cora genuina, together with their corre- sponding basal segments epimeron and episternum, give evi- dence of a fusion between two primary metameres in the Hexapoda and Chilopoda. In Hexapoda and Chilopoda the anterior metamere bears the functional, and the posterior, the rudimentary leg. Of the primitive Hexapoda, Neuroptera [Planipennia] exhibit the most generalized condition in the development of the coxa, while in Thysanura and ers sel a high pris of speciali- zation is shown. ANATOMICAL LABORATORY, BROWN UNIVERSITY. October 27, 1899. — NOTES ON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES. R. W. SHUFELDT. Last year Dr. C. O. Whitman of the University of Chicago delivered a very able lecture on * Animal Behavior," it being one of the biological lectures from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.! In the leading paragraph Dr. Whitman very truly points out the fact that ‘animal behav- ior, long an attractive theme with students of natural history, has in recent times become the center of interest to investiga- tors in the field of psychogenesis. The study of habits, in- stincts, and intelligence in the lower animals was not for a long time considered to have any fundamental relation to the study of man's mental development. Biologists were left to cultivate the field alone, and psychologists only recently discovered how vast and essential were the interests to which their science could lay claim " (p. 286). This is as true a statement as has been made in the premises in question in any connection, and the person who has paid any attention to psychological literature during the last ten years is well aware of the fact that in the discussions that have been going on there on the subject of instinct and intelligence, the psychologist has been compelled over and over again to draw upon the observations made by the biologist upon the habits and physiology of animals in order to lay down the very base for his theories in regard to the afore- said faculties. Professor Whitman's recent researches have lent a powerful impulse to the interest taken in this subject, the more so from the fact that being a trained biologist himself, and possessed of a keen appreciation of the modern advances in psychology, he has been enabled to attack the question in the double capacity of naturalist and psychologist. So far as the writer’s present information carries him, the researches of this observer have been chiefly devoted to the studying of the 1 Boston, Ginn & Company, 1899. 275 276 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. habits and behavior of leeches (Clepsine), the large fresh-water amphibian Necturus, and to the various species of wild and domestic pigeons. From these he draws very broad conclusions, so without entering upon a discussion of the theories touched upon in this meritorious memoir, for I have already done that elsewhere,! the present paper will take into consideration only such facts as concern the behavior of fishes. Moreover, what is here said will refer in particular but to the true bony fishes, or Teleostei, although, for aught that is known to the contrary, it is probably true of the entire group. Aside from some few well-known exceptions (Amblyopsis and congeners), that fishes possess excellent visual powers, even to the extent of keen discrimina- tion between objects, there can scarcely be any manner of doubt. Therefore their appreciation of light and their sensi- tiveness to it follow as a natural consequence. Further, there is every reason to believe that fishes are so organized that they are extremely sensitive as to any disturbance of the element in which they live, when such disturbance is made within the range of the power of their nervous organization to appreciate it. Whether any fish is as sensitive in this respect as a leech (Clepsine) I think is an open question, for, as Whitman has shown, we have but to touch with extreme care with a point of a fine needle the surface of the water over a leech, when the latter is in a dish containing it, to see the animal suspend the act of respiration, s/ightly expand its body, and hug closer to the glass or china dish wherein it has been placed. This exper- iment must be performed with great caution, for any undue dis- turbance will effectually defeat the looked-for result. The very extreme sensitiveness of the creature is absolutely remarkable. Coming now to the sensitiveness of fishes, I take occasion to quote in full a note that Professor Eigenmann furnished Dr. Whitman with for use in his paper on “ Animal Behavior.” ; it runs as follows: ** Chologaster papilliiferus, a relative of the blindfishes living in springs, detects its prey by its tactile organs, not by its eyes. A crustacean may be crawling in 1 R. W. Shufeldt, M.D. Animal Behavior. Popular Science, vol. xxxiv, No. 3, PP- 45, 46. New York, N.Y., March, 1900. No. 400. ] IE PSFYCHOLOUPF OF- FISHES. 277 plain view without exciting any interest, unless it comes in close proximity to the head of the fish, when it is located with precision and secured. The action is a very strong contrast to that of a sunfish, which depends on its eyes to locate its prey. A Gammarus seen swimming rapidly through the water and approaching a Chologaster from behind and below was captured by an instantaneous movement of the Chologaster, when it came in contact with its head. The motion brought the head of the Chologaster in contact with the stem of a leaf, and Fic. 1.— The Snowy Grouper (Epinephelus niveatus), juv. Photographed from life by R ldt. instantly it tried to capture this also. Since the aquarium was well lighted, the leaf in plain sight, it must have been seen and avoided if the sense of sight, and not that of touch, were depended upon. “In Amblyopsis, the largest of the blindfishes of the Ameri- can caves, the batteries of tactile organs form ridges projecting beyond the general surface of the skin. Its prey, since it lives in the dark and its eyes are mere vestiges, is located entirely by its tactile organs. This is done with as great accuracy as could be done with the best of eyes in the light, but only when the prey is in close proximity to the head. Coarser vibrations in 278 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the water are not perceived or are ignored, and apparently stationary objects are not perceived when the fish approaches them. Ifa rod is held in the hand, the fish always perceives it when within about half an inch of it, and backs water with its pectorals. If the head of a fish is approached with a rod, the direction from whence it comes is always perceived and the correct motion made to avoid it. This reaction is much more intense in the more active young than in the adult. One young about 10 mm. long determined with as great precision the direction from which a needle was coming as any fish with perfect eyes could possibly have done. It reacted properly to avoid the needle, and this without getting excited about it.” That fishes with perfect eyes depend entirely upon them in the detection and capture of their prey is easily proved by the difference in their behavior when feeding in perfectly clear or in muddy water. This experiment can be made ina large aquarium containing a number of hungry black bass, and turn- ing a few small yellow perch loose among them. If the water be clear, short work is made of the victims, but their capture is made less and less certain the muddier the water happens to be. It is more than likely that some of the semi-blind deep- sea fishes, as, for example, Mancalias shufeldtit, are quite as sensitive to disturbances of a very delicate nature of the water in their immediate neighborhood as is Amblyopsis of the Mam- moth Cave of Kentucky. Onthe other hand, the eyes of some of these fishes have come to be of enormous size in proportion to the size of their owners, and this to gain all the available light possible. Consequently, there is probably a compensat- ing distinction in this regard among such fish as I have here noticed; in other words, the more perfect the sight the less need of a highly organized sensitive apparatus and vice versa. But now comes another question in the behavior and psy- chology of fishes that will require a far greater knowledge on our part of the habits and history of these vertebrates, before biologists will arrive at anything like a unanimity of opinion regarding the matter, or the observations in the premises, and the observed facts are sufficiently numerous to insure the solu- tion of the entire problem. It involves the whole question of No. 400.] THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES. 279 instinct and intelligence and some of the knottiest points in the entire range of biology. It has been observed in fishes that many of them have the habit of “pausing before the bait" prior to making a seizure with the jaws. This, accord- ing to Whitman, has its origin in fear, and he studied quite closely the corresponding, though somewhat different series of acts in Necturus. It is an instinctive timidity rather than a strategic approach of the fish not to alarm its prey and thus defeat capture. The long and careful series of experiments made by Professor Whitman in the case of numerous speci- mens of Necturus, both young and old, seem to prove very con- clusively that their intensely shy behavior, when approaching their prey or food, is due to an innate timidity or really fear. Young sunfishes (Lepomis) I have studied for many years at different times and places in aquaria, and I have observed the habit in the young of that species of “ pausing before the bait,” or really their food, prior to taking it. The same behavior obtains in the adult sunfishes, but in them it can be overcome by education to a large extent, for I have seen them immedi- ately attack in numbers one’s finger when placed in the water of the aquarium containing them; whereas, when the experi- ment was first tried, they evidently all stood in great fear of the object, however gently it was placed in the water. A study of the young and old of Chztodon in this connection and the method of some of the species of that genus of taking their prey would be interesting. In speaking of the marked timidity of Necturus in the tak- ing of its food or seizing its prey, Professor Whitman says: * If this series of acts represents an organic sequence, and if the behavior as a whole takes the form determined by the organization, as seems to me beyond reasonable doubt, we have an instinct the history of which may be coextensive with the evolution of the animal. We stand at the end of an intermi- nable vista. The specific peculiarities of organization in Nectu- rus form but an infinitesimal element of the problem. Scarcely a feature of the instinct belongs exclusively to Necturus. It is at least widely diffused among vertebrates, especially among fishes. The differences in the manner of execution among dif- 280 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ferent forms, so far as I have observed, are of quite a super- ficial nature. The instinct evidently has its root in the general instinct of preying, which is doubtless coeval with animal organization " (p. 307). In the adults of some species of fish it is very evident, in the matter of seizing their prey, that the elements of both Zesz/a- tion and fear are entirely absent, as witness the bold rush of the pike to capture a minnow, or the manner in which a trout or a salmon instantly takes the artificial fly. Hundreds of sim- ilar cases could easily be cited. This autumn the writer has been making photographs of liv- ing rare fishes at the building of the U. S. Fish Commission at Washington, D. C., and among them were some beautiful spec- imens of the young of the Snowy Grouper (Epinephelus nivea- tus) (see figure 1) and the Big-eye (Pseudopriacanthus altus). Both of these species exhibit a most remarkable behavior under certain conditions. The Snowy Grouper, for instance, when over- teased in any way, or sometimes without even that provocation, or when its food is presented to it, whether the act be voluntary or involuntary, passes through a peculiar fit or spasm, simulating all the symptoms of a dying fish. Not only this, but the speci- men so behaving changes in color from the normal brownish- black to a pale leaden hue, and as the spasmodic stage of the attack subsides, the fish comes to lie perfectly motionless upon its side, or else floats on the bottom, belly upwards. It will remain in this condition for nearly half an hour, when signs of animation again make their appearance, and the individual grad- ually assumes its former normal condition and color. The Big- eye is another species exhibiting somewhat similar attacks under nearly like conditions, but this species, I am told, sometimes dies in one of its more violent spasms. It is a well-known fact that some species of large fishes that prey upon smaller species will not devour them unless captured when making an exciting attempt to escape and in full vigor of health. They will not touch a dead specimen, or even one in the act of dying. I have noticed this especially in the case of pickerel. Now this pecul- iar fit that seizes the young of the Snowy Grouper may be due to the result of an acute reaction caused by fear; but, on the No. 400.] THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES. 281 other hand, it may be something of the nature of “feigning death," and thus be useful to the form in nature. . Possibly there may be some large form in the seas that preys upon young Snowy Groupers, and prefers to take them only in the excitement of actual chase, and ignores a dead or dying one. If this chance to be true, these peculiar **fits" of Epinephelus and. Pseudopriacanthus are in favor of the preservation of the species. Indeed, we are hardly yet upon the threshold of our knowledge of the habits and dehavior of fishes in nature, much less are we enabled to solve the problem in an untold number of cases, how in any special instance any special act in a fish's behavior first arose, and whether that act is wholly or only in part prompted by instinct. Whitman’s “Animal Behavior” and similar memoirs will in the future have a beneficial result in stimulating investigation and research in such directions. A NEW MUSEUM TABLET. FRANK C. BAKER. For the past five years the writer has been experimenting upon a durable and convenient museum tablet, which would remain perfectly flat when the label and specimens were attached, and which would give the largest amount of exhibi- tion room with a minimum of label area. Such a tablet has been worked out by the writer and a short description of it may be of interest to those having the same problem to meet. I might say, however, that the idea was first conceived while examining the tablets in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, upon which are mounted Hall’s types of fossils. The foundation is No. 20 binder’s board, which has been found quite heavy enough for all practical purposes. About the edge of this is bound black gummed paper, similar to that used for binding lantern slides. The center for the specimens and label is next prepared, and for this the writer has selected a grade of manilla cardboard identical with that used for herba- rium genus covers ; this is of a rich cream color and does not fade when exposed to the light, and presents a surface admi- ‘rably setting off the black, full-faced type used. At a first glance a finished tablet appears as though made of ivory. This board is cut just enough smaller than the tablet to allow a black border of an eighth of an inch. For very light speci- mens a black center is used, cut just small enough to allow an eighth of an inch of light margin between it and the black border of the tablet, and also to leave room for the label which is generally 3 x 1 inch. In securing a good black the writer was compelled to resort to a thin black paper used by paper-box manufacturers, as no printer seemed able to print a uniform black, the first ones printed being gummy, and the last shading into a gray. The 283 284 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. black center is first pasted upon a manilla board with good library paste, and then the board is attached to the tablet by simply gumming the edges with a thin solution of Le Page's glue poisoned with corrosive sublimate to keep insects away. At this point the tablet must be placed under a press to dry, in order to avoid warping. The writer has used thin sheets of lead for this purpose, which have been very successful. After drying for three or four hours the tablet is ready for the labels and specimens ; the former being printed upon the same stock as the tablet cover, and attached by putting a few drops of glue upon the ends and in the middle, and placed under a press for an hour or so. For order, class, family, etc., a tablet 3 x 1 inch has been adopted and the printed label glued to it. For genera a tablet 3 x % inch has been found desirable. The tablets have been graded in the following sizes, the unit width being three inches : 3 X 2, 3X 4, 3X6, 3X9, 6x6, 9X9. These sizes will accommodate any speci- mens save those which should be placed in special upright cases. The larger tablets, 6 x 6 and 9 x 9, will need to have a piece of heavy paper pasted on the reverse side, to keep them from warping. The specimens are attached to the tablets with Le Page's glue. The expense of these tablets will not exceed one and a half cents each, and several hundred can be manufactured in a day. A case installed in this manner presents a handsome appear- ance and greatly increases the facility for examination. It has been urged by some that the tray is better adapted to museum purposes than the tablet, on account of the danger of mixing species. In answer to this the writer would say that the collections of the Chicago Academy of Sciences have been mounted upon tablets for the past six years, and up to the present time no mixing has taken place. Of course care must be used, with the tray equally as with the tablets, to guard against accidents. The new tablet spoken of above has been in use in the institution mentioned for the past five months. THE LOWER AND MIDDLE SONORAN ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. T. D. A. COCKERELL. FoR some years it has been a matter of controversy whether the Mesilla Valley (3800 ft. altitude) in New Mexico should be regarded as Lower Sonoran. The present writer classed it as Upper Sonoran, and later placed it in an intermediate zone, which he proposed to call Middle Sonoran. Dr.C. H. Merriam, on the other hand, regarded it as true Lower Sonoran, and so mapped it. The writer, unfortunately, had never been able to study the true Lower Sonoran until his visit to Phoenix last year. This visit, while undertaken for other purposes, enabled him to reach some new conclusions, which are here set forth. While the discussion is largely technical, it is hoped that it will arouse some general interest, as the conclusions reached are of practi- cal as well as theoretical interest. We have in New Mexico and Arizona a number of fertile valleys, of which the Salt River and Mesilla Valleys are per- haps the most important. The Salt River Valley, in particular, is said to export more fruit than all the rest of Arizona com- bined. Now these valleys, between them, have to supply cer- tain markets, and it is of the highest importance to each one that it should produce that which grows to a reasonable degree of perfection and finds a ready sale. If the valleys all belong in the same zone, they may be expected, speaking broadly, to produce the same crops, and it may be that in so doing they will overstock the market. But if there is in reality a great diversity in the agricultural conditions of the several valleys, so that they not only differ in detail but belong to different life zones, — this is a fact of the utmost practical importance, since it indicates that there may be such diversity in products as almost to avoid injurious competition. More- 285 286 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. over, if this diversity exists, it is of great value to the ranch- man or orchardist to be made aware of it, since he will not then waste time and money by setting out plants which cannot be expected to succeed. As a matter of fact, such problems as these have already been largely solved in the cultivated areas, by the experience —often tedious and expensive — of the residents. But they have not been solved for the areas which may yet be brought under cultivation, nor are the facts sufficiently accessible to residents in other states who expect to locate in the arid west. Yet again, even those residents who are satisfied with what their own locality will produce, are usually not acquainted with the possibilities of other districts, possibilities which affect them in so far as they affect the markets. Last spring the writer had the pleasure of meeting Dr. Merriam at Washington, and at his suggestion made for him alist of the commoner trees and shrubs of the Mesilla Valley. Dr. Merriam, glancing over this, at once said : ** With possibly one or two exceptions, these are a// Lower Sonoran types." My investigations in the Salt River Valley have convinced me of the justice of this statement, and it may be said at once that, so far as the native flora is concerned, the Mesilla and Salt River Valleys may very well be placed in the same zone. The illustrative data given further on suggest more precisely the actual condition of affairs. Many of the plants which are abundant and conspicuous in the landscape are entirely the same, while others are so similar that they may be held to indicate rather the fact that we are three hundred and odd miles to the west of the New Mexico Valley than in a different life zone. In the list of insects common to the two valleys, also, we find many of the characteristic Mesilla Valley types, described as new from thence in recent years. The absolute differences, discussed under headings 3 to 5, are important in their way, and doubtless will be emphasized by further research; but it is at least questionable whether they indicate a different life zone, or, rather, whether they would fice one if no other facts supported the division. Turning now to the cultivated products, the conditions are No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 287 entirely different. The contrast, instead of being weak, is of the strongest possible kind; and if the valleys compared are not in different zones, then life zones have no meaning for the horticulturist. We thus arrive at this conclusion : In the arid west the influences of temperature upon the cultivated, irrigated plants, derived from moister regions, are very much greater than upon the native plants or animals, which have become so adapted that they endure without harm enormous variations of heat and cold. Hence it results that from the horticulturist’s standpoint, the Middle Sonoran zone is a very real division, and belongs rather with the Upper than the Lower Sonoran. We may almost define the Middle Sonoran as a zone having the culti- vated products of the Upper Sonoran and the native products of the Lower. It will of course be understood that the data here given are only illustrative, and the time is not ripe for statistical tables. It will be a matter for future research to determine the exact details of the differences between the two zones. It is reason- ably to be expected, however, that we may by patient study find native species of plants and insects which afford reasonably close indications of the horticultural zones, and thus enable us to decide the zonal position in advance of cultivation. Such decisions will be greatly assisted when we are in possession of more precise meteorological data, but unfortunately we know too little at present about the daily variations of temperature in the several localities where weather observations have been made,and the differences between the temperatures of adjacent localities. Although Tucson is considerably higher than Phoenix, it is undoubtedly Lower, as distinguished from Middle, Sonoran. Oleanders, olives, Washingtonia and date palms, pepper trees, and a cultivated Parkinsonia were seen there; and Professor Toumey tells me there is a “hot pocket" some fourteen miles to the east, where orange trees are growing. - One circumstance which artificially emphasizes the horti- cultural distinction between the Mesilla and Salt River Valleys is, that in the latter it is possible to irrigate the higher levels at the side of the valley, while in the former only the bottom 288 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. CULTIVATED PLANTS OF SALT RIVER VALLEY AND THE MESILLA VALLEY. SALT River VALLEY. MzsiLLA VALLEY. PLANT. (Minimum winter temperature, | (Minimum winter temperature, gaa FY) 9° F.) Date palm. Does well. Cannot stand the winter cold. Washingtonia palm. ditto. ditto. Olive. itto. ditto Orange. Does well at the sides of the ditto valley. Almond. Will bear a good crop if| Cannot escape the frost in protected by smudges. spring. Peach. Does well. -| Does well. Pear. ditto. itto Apple. Climate too hot and dry in| ditt summer. Fig. Tree grows well without pro- | Killed to the ground in ex- tection, but not successful| posed places; grows well | asacropon account of the| and fruits abundantly when dryness. protected by four walls. Pomegranate. Does well; much used for Small plants growing in pro- edges. tected situations Grape. Wine grapes do well. Oleander. Pepper tree(Schinus). Sorghum. Alfalfa. Sugar beet. Irish potato. Raisin and wine grapes do well. Does well. ` ditto. ditto. Does well, but summers rather too hot and a Can be grown in the cool part of the year, Feb.-May. Can be grown fairly well from Feb.-May. Winter too cold. Not tried; winter doubtless Grows to perfection. Summers probably too: hot for best results; Feb.-May too cold. Summers too hot; Feb.-May too co lands are under ditch. In the cold weather the cold air settles in the lower lands, leaving the sides of the valley relatively warm, and hence it is that oranges can be cultivated with great success in the region about Ingleside, while they do not suc- _1 From the observations made by Mr. W. G. Burns of the Weather Bureau at Phoenix it appears that the lowest temperature at that paz in n January, 1900, was 34° F., but on Feb. 7, 1899, the mercury fell as low as 24° No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 289 ceed commercially at Phoenix. The Larrea in the Mesilla Valley occupies only the higher levels, its lower limit, a little distance from the valley bottom, being as clean-cut as if it had been planted. But in the Salt River Valley the Larrea covers the whole area, and grows to a great size in the bottom lands, which are never so cold as to injureit. It is the desert land, once occupied by the Larrea, which has under irrigation been converted into the most flourishing orchards ; and could the Larrea land of the Mesilla Valley be irrigated the results would doubtless be most gratifying. These examples show us the value, on the one hand, of an exact knowledge of temperature conditions; and the fallacy, on the other, of mapping the temperature for the entire country from the observations made in a few widely scattered localities. Thus the temperature tables for Phoenix would not apply to Ingleside, nor those for Mesilla Park to the bench a couple of miles away. The writer has discussed the subject from his own standpoint, that of the fauna and flora ; but he would not be understood to undervalue in any degree the knowledge of temperature in mapping life zones; all he would urge is, that for the proper mapping of zones on the temperature basis, we need a mass of information we do not possess, and are not likely to possess in the near future. REPRESENTATIVE Facts REGARDING THE NATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA. (1) Species Common to the Mesilla Valley and Salt River Valley. PLANTS. Perezia nana Gray. Larrea tridentata DC. Pluchea (Tessaria) borealis Gray. _ Cladothrix lanuginosa Nutt. Pectis papposa Harv, and Gray. Hoffmanseggia stricta Benth. Aster spinosus Benth. Populus Jremonti inm Helianthus annuus L. Salix fluviatilis Baccharis glutinosa Pers. Atriplex canescens rn Tun) James. Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Gray. Datura meteloides No attempt was made to catalogue the flora. The plants above cited are merely some of those which are so abundant and conspicuous as to give a character to the landscape. 290 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Besides the identical species of Baccharis and Atriplex, the Salt River Valley has another Baccharis and two other species of shrubby Atriplex not found in the Mesilla Valley. It seemed to me that the cottonwoods (Populus fremonti) of the Salt. River Valley were not perfectly identical with those of the Mesilla Valley, but the species is presumed to be the same. INSECTS. Colias eurytheme Boisd. Pyrameis cardui (L.). Lycena exilis Boisd. Libythea bachmani carinenta (Cram.). Synchloë lacinia Geyer (larvæ on Xanthium and sunflower). Heliothis armiger Hubn. (Buckeye). Asphondylia neomexicana (Ckll.). A, atriplicis (Towns).* Diplosis atriplicicola Ckll.* Chilocorus cacti (L.). Drosophila ampelophila Loew. pyramicus Rog. Hesperotettix viridis (Thos.). Spherophthalma dona-ang | Ckll.. and Fox.* S. foxi Ckll. Coleophora suedicola Ckll. (Tempe).* Eromene (Euchromius) ocellea Haw.) Zell. (Buckeye). Megilla maculata (De Geer). Aphalara suede, Schwarz. MS. (Tempe). Allorhina mutabilis Gory. Microcentrum retinervis Burm. Dicraneura cockerelli Gill.* Stictocephala festina Say. Eriococcus tinsleyt Ckll. (leaf-form).* Phenacoccus helianthi Ckll.* Calliopsis coloradensis coloratipes Perdita asteris Ckll.* P. salicis Ckll. Exomalopsis solani Ckll. (Tempe).* Agapostemon melliventris Cress. (Tempe). Halictus pseudotegularis Ckll. H. meliloti Ckll.* Prosapis mesille Ckll. * Mellisodes agilis Cress. Cockerellia albipennis helianthi * Aspidiotus juglans-regie albus Ckll.* Hormilia elegans Scudder.* The species and varieties marked with an asterisk were originally described from Mesilla Valley specimens. I have included some species found at Buckeye, as, although this is not actually in the Salt River Valley, it is virtually part of the same region. No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 29I (2) Representative Species similar to, but not identical with, those of the Mesilla Valley. PLANTS. Spheralcea variabilis n. sp. — The common perennial Spheralcea of the alt River Valley, which at first sight might be taken for S. /oóata Wooton, pines common in the Mesilla Valley. The leaves vary from IX to over 3 inches long, and resemble in shape those of lobata, being quite long, with obtuse lateral lobes ; but they average broader, are some- what more regularly and finely crenulate, or the margins almost entire, and the living leaves have the surface, and especially the margins, much more wrinkled. The difference between the plants, as seen living, is sufficient to strike the eye, but it is a difference in average rather than absolute characters. There is, however, one character of greater value ; the carpels of lobata are conspicuously cuspidate, whereas in variabilis they are rounded at the top, and bear no cusps. It may therefore be said that variabilis resembles lobata in its leaves, but angustifolia rather in its fruit. The basal portion of the carpels is very strongly reticulated, as in lobata. The flowers are as in lobata. This plant is here called ecies, being about as distinct as the other members of its series — angustifolia, lobata, and fendleri; but it would be possible to regard variabilis as a race of lobata, or both as races of fendleri SS. variabilis was found freely blooming about phali in October. It is not so tall a plant, on the average, as S. dodata. Jsocoma acradenia (Greene) Greene. — This is the common Bigelovia of the vicinity of Phoenix, exactly occupying the place taken in the Mesilla Valley by Z. heterophylla wrightii. I had confused the Phoenix plant with Z. hartweg?, but I found the real hartwegi (certified as such by Dr. Greene) abundant at Tucson, taking the place of acradenia. Z. acra- denia has the flowers of hartwegi, with the foliage (only smaller) of _ heterophylla wrightii. Cucurbita palmata Watson.— Common in the Salt River Valley, taking the place of the Mesilla Valley C. fetidissima. Prosopis velutina Wooton. — The mesquite of Arizona, found at Phoenix, Mesa, Buckeye, Tucson, etc., is distinct from P. glandulosa Torrey, the mesquite of the Mesilla Valley. Acacia greggii Gray. — Abundant in the Salt River Valley ; much larger than the species of the Mesilla Valley. Echinocactus lecontei (Engelm.) Toumey. — This barrel cactus takes the place of the Mesilla Valley Æ. wislizeni Engelm.; the latter, however, occurs at Tucson. Æ. /econtei is usually considered a variety of E. wislizeni, but when I saw it, it seemed to me distinct, and Professor Toumey tells me that it is a valid species. 292 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Kallstremia grandiflora 'Torrey. — Very abundant in Phoenix; a very beautiful flower, which ought to be in cultivation. It is allied to the much less conspicuous X. drachystylis Vail. of the Mesilla Valley. K. grandiflora arizonica Ckll, with much smaller flowers and much shorter flower stalks, is also common at Phoenix. K. californica (Wats.) Vail. det. Wooton, was found near Buckeye. It has never been seen in the Mesilla Valley. Croton sp. — The common Croton of the Mesilla Valley is C. neomexicanus. At Phoenix I found in its stead a tall species closely allied to C. texensis, but less leafy at the top, and with very much denser pubescence on the leaves. No description has been found to fit it, and it may be undescribed. Lycium gracilibes Gray. — Abundant in the Salt River Valley, taking the place of the Mesilla Valley Z. Zorreyz. INSECTS. Spherophthaima gloriosa (Sauss.) takes the place in the Salt River Valley of S. pseudopappus in the Mesilla Valley. This is a so-called “ velvet- ant,” covered with long white hairs. (3) Species entirely different from those of the Mesilla Valley. PLANTS. Cereus giganteus Engelm. — The giant cactus. Holacantha emoryi Gray. — The crown of thorns. Parkinsonia torreyana Wats. and P. microphylla 'Torrey. — The two species of palo verde. Hetherotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) B. and R.—A yellow flowered composite, very abundant throughout the Salt River Valley. Itis doubtless native, as I found two new bees (Perdita mellina Ckll. and P. heterothece Ckll.) specially attached to it. The above are conspicuous in the landscape ; no attempt was made to catalogue the less conspicuous forms. SCALE INSECTS. It is an interesting fact that allied or identical plants in the two regions under consideration are in certain cases infested by entirely different scale-insects. Thus: ‘The Larrea in the Salt River Valley is infested by Dactylopius irishi Ckll. and Yachardia larree Comst., while the same plant in the Mesilla Valley produces Dactylopius steelii Ckl. and Towns., Zcerya rileyi Ckll. and Eriococcus larree Parrott and Ckll. — The mesquite (Prosopis velutina) in the Salt River Valley is infested by KXerophilaspis prosopidis Ckll. and Thiaspi arizonicus Ckll; No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 293 Tucson it produces Aspidiotus candidulus Ckll, Toumeyella mirab- is CklL, Eriococcus quercus toumeyi Ckl. and the Xerophilaspsis. The mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) of the Mesilla Valley produces Icerya rileyi Ckll and Dactylopius prosopidis Ckl. The mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) of Jamaica produces Zcerya rose R. and H. and Dactylopius virgatus Ckll. * (4) Species of the Mesilla Valley absent from the Salt River Valley. A curious case is that of the mistletoe of the cottonwood, Phoradendron macrophyllum (Phoradendron flavescens var. macrophyllum Engelm., Bot. Wheeler Surv., p. 252) which is abundant and destructive on the Populus fremonti of the Mesilla Valley, but does not go up the valley of the Rio Grande as far as its host, or down into the Salt River Valley, where the same cottonwood abounds. Itis not that it is absent from the Gila basin, for it was first described from the Gila and Bonita Rivers. Its absence from the —— mee — is oe sé aopa McClatchie; and, indeed, The bag-worm (Oz£eticus NONAS of the Mesilla Valley, piee com- mon.at Tucson, was not observed in Salt River Valley. (5) Ants of Buckeye and the Mesilla Valley. A series of ants collected at Buckeye was kindly determined for me by Mr. Ernest André, and it appears that the ant-fauna of this region has little in common with that of the Mesilla Valley, as witness the accompanying lists : MESILLA VALLEY. Camponotus maculatus maccooki Pogonomyrmex barbatus Sm. (race Forel . fuscatus). C. marginatus decipiens Emery. P. badius Latr. Formica subsericea subpolita Mayr. P. californicus Buckl. Forelius maccooki Forel. Monomorium minutum Mayr. Lasius umbratus bicornis F oerst. M. pharaonis Dorymyrmex pyramicus Rog. Pheidole morrisi Forel. Aphenogaster albisetosa Mayr. Solenopsis geminata Fabr. A. cockerelli André. Cremastogaster leviuscula clara Tapinoma anale André. ayr. T. sessile Say. . Labidus harrisii (Hald.). Atta (Trachymyrmex) n. sp.? BUCKEYE. Atta versicolor Perg. Dorymyrmex pyramicus Rog. Cremastogaster atra Mayr. Prenolepis vividula guatemalensis _Aphenogaster pergandei Mayr. Forel. SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. VIII. THE Isopopa. — PART II. ASELLOTA, ONISCOIDEA, EPICARIDEA. HARRIET RICHARDSON. In addition to the references to the literature already given in Part I of the Synopsis of the Isopoda is the following list of papers pertaining especially to the fresh-water forms. 1871. 1874. 1876. 1876. 1881. 1890. 1899. PACKARD, A. S. The Mammoth Cave and its Inhabitants. Amer. Nat. Vol. v, p. 751. SMITH, S. I. The Crustacea of the Fresh Waters of the United States. Rept. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1872-1873. Pp. 657-661. FORBES, S. A. List of Illinois Crustacea, with Descriptions of New Species. Budi. I. State Lab. N. H., No. 1, pp. 8-13. HARGER, Oscar. Description of Mancasellus brachyurus, a New Fresh-Water Isopod. Amer. Journ. Sci. (3). Vol. xi, pp. 304, 305. PACKARD, A. S., and Core, E. D. The Fauna of Nickajack Cave. Amer. Nat. Vol. xv, pp. 879-880. GARMAN, H. A New Fresh-Water Crustacean. Bull. Essex Institute. Vol. xxii, pp. 28-30. Hav, W.P. Description of a New Species of Subterranean Isopod. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.’ Vol. xxi, pp. 871, 872. SYNOPSIS OF THE ISOPODA (continued). IV. ASELLOTA. a. Eyes generally present. First pair of legs prehensile or subcheliform. à. ast three pairs of legs ambulatory, not natatory. Three posterior segments of thorax not sharply marked off from the four anterior ones, and not smaller. Caudal segment large, shield- like. Eyes, when present, lateral or subdorsal, not placed on peduncle-like projections of the head. Superior antennz issuing close together. Legs subequal in length. 295 296 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. A & c. Lateral parts of head scarcely expanded. Eyes, when present, small, lateral. Peduncle of inferior antenne without small accessory appendage outside of third joint. Legs ambulatory, except first pair, which are distinctly subcheliform ; legs with dactylus generally uniunguiculate. First pair of pleopoda in female very small, not operculiform. Outer lamella of second pair very large and incrusted, so as to form, together with the corresponding lamelle of the other side, a sort of oper- culum, covering the two succeeding pairs. Family XV. Asellidz c. Lateral parts of head lamellarly expanded. Eyes, when present, usually subdorsal. Peduncle of inferior antenne generally with small accessory appendage outside of third joint. Legs ambulatory, except first pair, which are sometimes prehensile ; legs with dactylus generally bi- or tri-unguiculate. First pair of pleopoda in female transformed into a single, large oper- culum. Outer lamellz of two aca pairs narrow and confluent with basal part . . Family XVI. Janiride &. Three posterior segments of it, ‘as a rule, sharply marked off from four anterior ones, and much smaller. Caudal segment more or less vaulted above, subpyriform. Eyes, when present, placed on the tips of lateral peduncle-like projections of the head. Superior antennæ placed widely apart. First pair of legs much shorter than others. Succeeding pairs more or less rapidly increasing in length . . Family XVII. Munnidæ Eyes wanting. First pair of S bdbicbbesstté: Last three pairs of legs natatory, with some joints flattened and ciliated. First pair of legs shorter than three following pairs. Second, third, and fourth pairs very elongate . . . . . . Family XVIII. Munnopside FAMILY XV. ASELLIDH (FRESH-WATER ISOPODA). Mandibles without a palp. Last six pairs of = with dactylus biun- guiculate Mancasellus Harger Mandibles wits a dives: jobohed potis Lari six t pue of ad uniunguicu- ate. 5. Eyes present. Body oblong, depressed. Head seca narrower and shorter than first thoracic rar Caudal segment not longer than broad . . . Asellus Geoffroy F. Eyes wanting. Body dong, ul narrow. Head large, not narrower than first thoracic segment, and longer. Caudal segment much longer than broad . . . . o . Ceeidotea Packard Genus Mancasellus Harger. a. Lateral margins of head entire. : Mancasellus brachyurus Harger, Virginia No. 400.1] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 297 a’. Lateral margins of head not entire. à. Lateral margins of the head with a deep cleft on either side. Mancasellus macrourus Garman, Ky., Tenn. 2’, Lateral margins of the head with a large rounded sinus on each side in the middle. c. External antennz as long or longer than the body. Mancasellus lineatus (Say), South Carolina c. External antenna half as long as the body. Mancasellus tenax Harger, Lake Superior Genus Asellus Geoffroy. a. Caudal stylets, or uropoda longer than terminal abdominal segment. Post-lateral margins of head without spines. 6. Caudal stylets broad and flattened. Propodus of first pair of legs much enlarged and subglobular, with a prominent acute tooth about, or a little above, the middle, and a lobe bearing one or two acute teeth near the base on its palmar margin. Asellus communis Say, Conn., Penn., Ind., Il., Mich., Miss. &. Caudal stylets extremely narrow and cylindrical. Prapodüs of first pair of legs narrow, elongate, without prominent acute teeth on its pen margin. Asellus attenuatus Richardson, Virginia a’. Caudal stylets shorter than terminal abdominal segment. Post-lateral margins of head produced into prominent lobes bearing spines. à. Post-lateral lobes bearing each several stout spines. Lateral margins of all the thoracic segments except the first with no emargination. Flagellum of first pair of antenne consists of eleven to thirteen joints. Caudal stylets broad and flat, half as long as terminal abdominal segment . . . Asellus brevicauda Forbes, Illinois &. Post-lateral lobes bearing each a single spine. Lateral margins of all the thoracic segments except the first distinctly emarginate. Flagellum of first pair of antennze consists of nine joints. Caudal stylets broad and flat, but narrower than in 4. brevicauda, and three-fifths as long as terminal abdominal segment Asellus intermedius Forbes, Illinois Asellus tomalensis Harford, California The description of this form is so meagre and insufficient that it is impossible to place it in the key with the other species of Asellus. Genus Czcidotea Packard. 4. Caudal stylets nearly half as long as body; basal joint or peduncle nearly twice as long as inner ramus; outer ramus from one-third to one-half as long as inner branch. First pair of antenne short, reach- ing but little beyond the second joint of the second pair of antenne. Cecidotea stygia Packard, Ind., Ill., Ky. a’. Caudal stylets no longer than terminal abdominal segment ; basal joint or peduncle shorter than innér ramus; outer ramus most as long as 298 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. inner branch. First pair of antennz long, reaching to the end of the third joint of the second pair of antennz, and being nearly twice as long as those of C. stygia. Cecidotea nickajackensis Packard, Tennessee FAMILY XVI. JANIRIDA. a. Eyes dorsal Antennz of the first pair well developed, with multi- articulate flagellum, or with flagellum rudimentary. Antennz of the second pair long, with multi-articulate flagellum; peduncular joints not dilated. Mandibles with a three-jointed palp, and with cutting part separated from molar part by a deep incision. 6. Head without any true rostrum. First pair of antennz extremely small, with flagellum rudimentary. Second pair of antenne of moderate length, without any distinctly squamiform appendage. First pair of legs not prehensile. Uropoda iud small, branches very short, nodiform . FOE each &. Head with. prominent rostral ecce Cr in us. or xe a comparatively short rostral projection. First pair of antennz well developed ; flagellum multi-articulate. Second pair of antenna very much elongated, with a well-marked, scale-like appendage outside of third joint. First pair of legs prehensile. Uropoda largely developed, with branches slightly unequal. c. Head with lateral parts produced to very prominent acute lappets. Segments of thorax with lateral parts laciniate and produced. Caudal segment aE ood on each side, at the end, a triangular expansion . Ianthe Bovallius c. Head with bue jeu not PRIUS into lappets. Segments of thorax with lateral parts not produced, not laciniate. Caudal segment rounded, not expanded laterally . . Janira Leach a’. Eyes lateral. Antenne of the first pair small, with flagellum obsolete. Antennz of the second pair short, with peduncular joints dilated, rudimentary flagellum composed of five articles, and equal in length to the width of the head. Mandibles with a three-jointed palp, and with cutting part composed of five teeth . . . Jzropsis Koehler Genus Jara Leach. a. Anterior margin of the head broadly excavated on each side over the * bases of the antenna. Extremity of terminal segment notched for the insertion of the uropoda, the median point being almost imper- ceptible . . . . Jara marina (Fabricius), JV, surface a’, Anterior margin of the nad nearly straight. Extremity of terminal segment with a double excavation, the median point reaching the extremity of the sides . . . . Jæra wakishiana Spence-Bate, A Genus Ianthe Bovallius. &. Head with prominent rostrum. No. 400.1] ANORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 299 b. Lateral margins of head produced into two angulations. Terminal segment of the body, with central posterior portion acute, triangu- lar. Epimera evident . . ZJanthe triangulata Richardson, D V. Lateral margins of the head produced in one anterior angulation. Terminal segment of the body, with central ere portion nearly straight, rounded. Epimera not eviden c. Rostrum as long as the head. Flagellum of ES pair of antennae 12-articulated, shorter than the breadth of the head. Fla- gellum of second pair of antennz 5o-articulated. First thoracic segment shorter than second. Second and third segments equal, and longest, much longer than seventh. Terminal segment smooth on dorsal side, without spine-like tubercle. Peduncles of uropoda longer than postero- lateral angulations of terminal segment. Janthe spinosa (Har- ger), W, 80-100 fms. Fic. 12. — Jeropsis Fic. 13. — Munna Fic. 14. — Eurycope lobata. fabricii. cornuta. c. Rostrum much longer than head. Flagellum of first pair of antenna 60-7o-articulated, nearly as long as the breadth of the head. Flagellum of second pair of antennz 280-articu- lated. First thoracic segment as long as second. Seventh segment longest. Terminal segment of body, with a single spine-like tubercle on its dorsal side. Peduncle of uropoda shorter than rd angulations of terminal segment of body . . Janthe speciosa Bovallius, V a’. Head without iet d, in place o à which i is small median point. Janthe erostrata Richardson, A Genus Janira Leach. a. Anterior margin of the head straight. Janira maculosa Leach, JV, 100-116 fms. a. Anterior margin of the head not straight. 300 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 6. Front of head three-lobed, the center lobe subacute, rather longer than others, but not rostrate. . Janira occidentalis Walker, P &. Front of head produced in the middle in a short, sharp rostrum, and the antero-lateral angles of head also produced. c. Antero-lateral angles of head sharp. Lateral margins of first four thoracic segments obtusely incised, each showing two broad angulations. Uropoda of female shorter than half the terminal segment; those of male as long as terminal segment of body . . . Janira tricornis (Krøyer), JV, 5-50 fms. c. Antero-lateral sates of the head shorter and less sharp. Mar- gins of the first thoracic segment rounded, not emarginate. Uropoda alike in the two sexes, and as long as the terminal segment of the body. ints alta (Stimpson), W, 35-300 fms. Genus Jaropsis Koehler . . . . . Jeropsis lobata Richardson, D FAMILY XVII. MUNNID2. Genus Munna Krøyer. a. Caudal segment, with lateral edges evenly convex, and each armed with a single slender denticle ; apical lamelle distinctly serrated. Eyes large. Superior antennae, with flagellum composed of four joints, including very small apical joint. Flagellum of inferior antenne longer than peduncle. Last pair of legs scarcely longer than body. Legs slender. Uropoda obliquely truncate at tip. unna fabricii Krøyer, W, 12-200 fms. a’. Caudal segment, with lateral edges rather bulging in front, and each armed with four strong denticles; without any serrulated lamellz. Eyes small. Superior antennz, with flagellum composed of three articulations, including very small apical joint. Flagellum of inferior antennz not attaining the length of the peduncle. Last pair of legs scarcely longer than anterior division of body. Legs shorter and stouter than usual. Uropoda produced at tip into several dentiform projections, one of which is hook-like. Munna kréyeri Goodsir, JV, 10—60 fms. FAMILY XVIII. MUNNOPSID. a. Head of moderate size, deeply emarginate on each side for the insertion of the antennz ; frontal part produced. First four thoracic segments transversely excavated dorsally. Superior antennz, with flagellum multi-articulate. Natatory legs of the same structure, carpal joint s. ő. Body, with anterior division much broader than posterior ; three posterior segments densely crowded together. Caudal segment No. 400.] JVORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 301 oblong-oval. Mandibles without any molar expansion; cutting S structure, though somewhat different in size; two succeeding pairs elongated. Dactylus wanting on natatory legs. Uropoda simple, biarticulate . . . . . Munnopsis M. Sars /. Body, with anterior division less skarpy marked off from posterior ; three posterior segments very large and broad. Caudal segment semioval. Mandibles with molar expansion ; cutting edge divided into strong teeth. First pair of legs shorter than three succeed- ing pairs, which are subequal in length, and very much elongated. Dactylus distinct on natatory legs. Uropoda biramous, branches Single-jointed . . . . Eurycope G. O. Sars a’. Head very large and bend. iaae truncated in front, lateral parts greatly expanded. First four thoracic segments slightly exca- vated transversely. Superior antennæ, with flagellum not much elongated. First two pairs of natatory legs of similar structure, carpal joint large and expanded, cordiform ; last pair much narrower than two succeeding pairs, carpal joint but slightly expanded. a segment triangular in form . . . + Ilyarachna G. O. Genus Munnopsis M. Sars . Wiede bos M. Sars, V, 20-122 ws Genus Eurycope G. O. Sars. Eurycope ioris G. O. Sars, N, 119—220 fms. Genus Ilyarachna G. O. Sars PNR hirticeps G. O. Sars, JV, 100-227 fms. V. ONISCOIDEA (Terrestrial Isopoda). a. Buccal mass not very prominent below. First maxillæ, with two plu- mose setæ on the inner plate. Mandibles with molar expansion obsolete, e vd triturating surface, it being replaced by brush- like recurved se 6. External d generally long, close together, with antennal openings large. Body, as a rule, scarcely able to be contracted into a ball. Head less sanfte immersed in first thoracic seg- ment. Lateral parts of the head separated by a vertical mar- ginal and infra-marginal line. Clypeus arched. Legs generally long. Uropoda produced, reaching beyond the terminal segment of the abdomen and the preceding segment. Terminal segment narrower than preceding ones and — produced at end. amily XIX. Oniscide 6’, External antennz generally short, with lae openings small. Body able to be contracted into a ball. Head immersed in first thoracic segment. Lateral parts of the head undifferentiated. Clypeus perpendicular. Legs generally short. Uropoda short, flattened, not reaching beyond the terminal segment of the 302 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. abdomen or the — segment. Terminal € short and broad . . Family XX. Armadillidide a’. Buccal mass Laine Fir irst Pos with three udis setz on the inner plate. Mandibles with molar expansion large and broad, exhib- - iting a finely fluted triturating surface. 6. Head without any lateral lobes, frontal part rounded. Eyes well developed or wanting. Inner antennz with last joint very small, and without distinctly developed sensory filaments. Posterior maxillae with two thick hairy bristles. Maxillipeds with terminal part distinctly.five-articulate, masticatory lobe truncate at tip, epignath short. External sexual appendages in male double. Inner branches of first pair of pleopoda of a similar structure in both sexes, that of second pair in male terminating in a long stylet. Both branches of uropoda styliform. Family XXI. Ligiide &. Head with distinct, though not very large lateral lobes, front more or less produced. Eyes small or wanting. Inner antennz with last joint well dcmlüped and tipped with a number of delicate sensory filaments. Posterior maxille without any bristles. Maxillipeds with terminal part generally imperfectly articulated, masticatory lobe terminating in a thin lash, epignath narrow, linguiform. Sexual appendage of male simple; inner branch of both first and second pairs of pleopoda transformed for copulative purposes. Uropoda with branches conically tapered. Family XXII. Trichoniscidae ' FAMILY XIX. ONISCID2. a. Flagellum of external antenna biarticulate. External opercular ramus of the first, second, and rarely of the third, or all the pairs of abdomi- nal appendages furnished with trachee. 6. Abdomen abruptly narrower than thorax. Epimera of all the ominal segments small, subappressed. Metoponorthus Budde-Lund %. Abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax. Epimera of all the abdominal segments large, prominent, well developed. c. Body very convex, capable of being rolled up into a perfect ball. Joints of the flagellum of the external antenne subequal. Last abdominal segment reaching very little beyond the epimera of the preceding segment. External branches of the uropoda equal in both sexes. External opercular branch of all the abdominal appendages furnished with trachez. Cylisticus Schnitzler c. Body more or less depressed, with lateral parts lamellarly ex- panded. Joints of the flagellum of the external antennze with No. 400.] JVORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 303 the first joint generally longer than the second, often subequal, or even alittle shorter. Last abdominal segment generally not reaching beyond the epimera of the preceding segment. Ex- ternal branches of the uropoda longer in the male than in the female. External opercular branch of the first and second pairs of abdominal appendages, and, in some of the species, of all the pairs, furnished with trachee . . . Porcellio Latreille Flagellum of external antennz triarticulate. External opercular ramus of the abdominal appendages containing no special respiratory organ. b. Front of head produced at the middle and at the sides in tubercles ; lateral tubercles hornike . Alloniscus Dana &. Front and sides of head not brodiond 4 in EN With or with- out lateral lobes. c. Abdomen abruptly narrower than the thorax. Epimera of thoracic segments small. Epimera of abdominal segments . very small, but manifest. External branches of the uropoda styliform . . Philoscia maye cœ. Abdomen not svipür- narrower r hes horas. Epimera of thoracic segments large. Epimera of abdominal d arge. External branches of the uropoda conica d. Surface of body granulated or tuberculate. pea of all the thoracic segments with the posterior angle acute. Basal article of the uropoda oblong, with the outer side obliquely carinated. . Oniscus Linnzus d'. Surface of body setigerous, acsi: Tandika. Epimera of the first three thoracic segments with the posterior angles roundly obtuse, of the fourth segment straight, d of the other segments acute. Basal article of the uropoda short and broad, with the outer side sulcate. Lyprobius Budde-Lund , a. Genus Metoponorthus Budde-Lun a. Inner-mala of the right nina with four to five, of the left mandible with six pencils of hairs. Second and third joints of the peduncle of the second pair of antenna furnished with a small apical tooth ; first joint of flagellum much longer than second joint. No middle frontal lobe. Color brown, or reddish-brown Metoponorthus pruinosus Brandt, North America a’. Inner mala of the right mandible with four, of left mandible with five pencils of hairs. Second and third joints of the peduncle of the second pair of antennae without small apical tooth; first joint of flagellum shorter than second. Middle frontal lobe small, widely rounded. Color varying from gray to black, with three longitudinal lines of white spots . Metoponorthus virgatus Budde-Lund, Florida Genus Cylisticus Schnitzler. Cylisticus convexus De Geer, North America 304 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV. Genus Porcellio Latreille. a. Surface of body smooth. à. Frontal median lobe of head rounded, a little produced. Articles of the flagellum of the external antenna equal in length. Last segment of the abdomen with its extremity widely rounded. Porcellio formosus Stuxberg, California &. Frontal median lobe of head more acute, minute. First article of the flagellum of external antenne equal in length to the other, or a little longer. Last segment of the abdomen with its extremity acute. . . . . . Porcellio levis Latreille, North America Fre. 15. — Alloniscus perconvexus. Fic. 16. — Actoni llipti a’. Surface of body roughly granulate or tuberculate. 6. Inner mala of the mandibles with four to five pencils of hairs. Body with spots. c. Third joint of the peduncle of the second pair of antenne fur- nished with a small apical tooth. Frontal lateral lobes of moderate size. Color varying from gray to black, with three longitudinal lines of white spots. Flagellum with joints sub- equal, or first shorter than second. Porcellio rathkei Brandt, North America c. Second joint of the peduncle of the second pair of antennz furnished with a large apical tooth. Frontal lateral lobes large. Color yellow; body spotted with black, spots arranged in longitudinal lines. Flagellum with first joint a little longer than second joint. Porcellio spinicornis Say, North America &. Inner mala of the right mandible with four to five pencils of hairs, of left mandible with seven to eight pencils. Body without spots. Frontal lateral lobes of head large, oblique. Porcellio scaber Latreille, North America No. 400.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 305 Genus Alloniscus Dana. a. Surface of body very densely granulated. Margins of epimera serrated. Alloniscus mirabilis Stuxberg, California a’. Surface of body punctate. 6. Lateral processes of head large, prominent. — Alloniscus cornutus RRA California V. Lateral processes of the head small, scarcely prom Alloniscus dedi Debe Or., Cal. Genus Philoscia Latreille. 4. Body smooth, without spines. 4. Body striped with two broad dorsal bands. Philoscia vittata Say, North America &. Body not striped, but dotted with numerous spots c. Frontal marginal line straight. Color varying from black to brown, with white spots. Philoscia nigricans Budde-Lund, Louisiana c’. Frontal marginal line produced in the middle, a little arcuate. , Color violet, with white spots. ‘Philoscia brevicornis Budde-Lund, Louisiana a’. Body with numerous spines above . Philoscia spinosa Say, Georgia Genus Oniscus Linnzus. a. Caudal segment a Bue shorter than inner branch of the uropoda. Oniscus asellus Linnaeus, North America 4'. Caudal segment exactly equal to the inner branch of the uropoda Oniscus affinis Say, North America Genus Lyprobius Budde-Lund. Lyprobius pusillus Budde-Lund, California FAMILY XX. ARMADILLIDID. 4. Outer branch of the uropoda small or very small, smooth. Clypeus with the superior margin entire, lobated at the sides. First thoracic segment, often the second also, with the epimera posteriorly cleft, rarely entire. Exterior opercular branch of all the pleopoda furnished trac b a’. Outer Vivi of the uiios iiti flattened, tankaliee Clypeus with the superior margin lightly sinuated, not lobated. Epist of the first thoracic segments simple, entire. Exterior opercular branch of the first and second pairs of pleopoda furnished with tracheæ. Armadillidium Brandt Genus Cubaris Brandt. . Cubaris cali d Semaine California baris affinis (Dana), California NEA Piin pisum (Bndide- Lund), Florida Genus Armadillidium Brandt. Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille). North America 306 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. FAMILY XXI. LIGIDÆ. a. Uropoda with branches equal in length, styliform, often filiform. In- terior mala of the mandibles with numerous pencils of hairs. Last segment of body broad, with distinct epimeral plates. Maxillipeds with palp 4—5-jointed ; epignath rounded. . . . Ligia Fabricius a’. Uropoda with branches unequal in length. é. Extremity of uropoda furnished with two long apical bristles. In- terior mala of the right mandible with three pencils of hairs, of the left mandible with five pencils of hairs. Last segment of body small, and without any epimeral plates. Maxillipeds with a five-jointed palp; epignath narrow, linguiform. Ligidium Brandt /. Extremity of uropoda not furnished with two long apical bristles. . Styloniscus Dana Genus Ligia Fabricius. 4. External antennz shorter than the body. 4. Uropoda about equal to half the length of the body. Ligia occidentalis Dana, D, Littoral &. Uropoda not equal to half the length of the body. c. Uropoda equal to one-fifth i length of the body. igia pallasii Brandt, AP, Littoral c. Uropoda nearly equal to Bonum the length of the body. igia oceanica (Linn.), W, Littoral a’, External antennz longer than body or equal to length of y. Uro- poda about equal to two-thirds the length of body. Ligia exotica Roux, D, Littoral Genus Ligidium Brandt. a. Inner process of the basal article of the uropoda three times shorter than the external terminal branch; internal terminal branch reaching the apex of the external branch; the two terminal hairs equal in length to the external branch. Ligidium hypnorum (Cuvier), P, Littoral a’. Inner process of the basal article of the uropoda four times shorter than the external terminal branch; internal terminal branch long, extending much beyond the apex of the external branch, being a sixth part longer; the two terminal hairs short, equal in length to half the external branch. . . Ligidium tenue Budde-Lund, A, Littoral Genus Styloniscus Dana . CM A gracilis Dana, California, Littoral Genus Euphiloscia Packard. . . Euphiloscia elrodit Packard, Indiana This genus probably belongs here. FAMILY XXII. TRICHONISCIDA. a. Abdomen abruptly narrower than thorax. Head rounded in front, with distinct, though small lateral lobes. Terminal abdominal segment truncate attip . . . . «+ . Trichoniscus Brandt No. 400.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 307 a’ Abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax. . Head rounded in front, not lobated at the sides. Abdominal epim- era but little developed — . . - Scyphacella Smith &. Head triangularly produced in front; with ices lateral lobes. Abdominal epimera lamellarly expanded. c. Body sculptured dorsally with more or less distinct longitudinal ribs. Terminal abdominal segment truncate at apex. Basal segment of the i Rie not simulating the epimera of the preceding segmen Haplophthalmus Schóbl. c&. Body not ipsc. done aiin abdominal segment rounded posteriorly. Basal segment of the uropoda simulating the epimera of the preceding segment . Actoniscus Harger Genus Trichoniscus Brandt. Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt, North America at Niagara Genus Scyphacella Smith . . . Scyphacella arenicola Smith, W, Beach Genus Haplophthalmus Schóbl. Haplophthalmus puteus Hay, fresh water, Indiana Genus Actoniscus Harger. . . Actoniscus ellipticus Harger, JV, Beach VI. EPICARIDEA. a. Body of female distinctly segmented, more or less asymmetrical, twisted either to right or left. Maxillipeds lamellar, biarticulate, and more frequently exhibiting a small terminal joint. Legs seven pairs, some- times obsolete on one side. Incubatory plates five pairs, more or less arching over the ventral surface of the thorax. Pleopoda form- ing simple or double lamellz, all of the same structure, rarely obso- lete. Male with all the segments of the thorax sharply defined. Last larval stage with the flagellum of the antennz 4-articulate ; legs of uniform structure; uropoda with inner branch shorter than outer. Parasitic on decapodous Crustacea. Family XXIII. Bopyrida a’. Body of female perfectly symmetrical, the segmentation only visible, as a rule, in the middle of the dorsal face. Maxillipeds lamellar, with- out any terminal joint. Only five pairs of legs present. Incubatory plates comparatively small, sometimes greatly reduced in number, and scarcely at all partaking of the formation of the marsupium, which constitutes two separate cavities, bounded by the lateral walls of the body itself. Pleopoda generally rudimentary or wholly absent. Male with head and first segment of thorax coalesced. Last larval stage with the flagellum of the antennz 5-articulate; legs of the first pair shorter and thicker than the others; uropoda with the branches subequal. Parasitic on Schizopoda. Family XXIV. Dajidz 308 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. FAMILY XXIII. BOPYRIDE. a. Elongated appendages attached to the sides of the thorax in the female. 6. Branchiz affixed to the sides of the abdomen in both sexés. Ab- dominal branchiz in the male slender, bcne. ; in the female branching . lone Latreille &, Branchie affixed to the va of ‘the olid in the female. dominal branchiæ wanting in male; in female these appendages are simple sacs, not branching . . Cx &Argela Dana a’. Thorax in female without elongated dida: 5. Body of female with one side greatly swollen and much longer than other. Segments of thorax only visible dorsally, coxal plates only present on shorter side. Abdomen consisting of five seg- ments. Only first leg present on larger side, others wholly obliterated. Four pairs of pleopoda presni Male with abdomi- nal segments fused. Phryxus Rathke /. Body of female with ipie: side Goode "Thorsx distinctly seg- ment Abdomen consisting of six segments. All the legs prescut on both sides. s oed in female obsolete, replaced by fleshy ridges. Uropoda wa Bopyroides Stimpson c. anie in female sini Diodi distinct d. Legs of female with an adhesive process (exopod) attached to the coxal joint of the legs. This process is papillose in the first four pairs, rudimentary in the last three. Terminal joint of legs is inflated, without claw. Abdomi- nal appendages elongated, coarsely pinnate. epon Duvernoy d'. Legs of female without exopod. Terminal joint of legs n not inflated. Abdominal appendages not pinnate. é. Pleopoda well developed, biramous. Pseudione Kossmann g. Lateral margins of abdominal segments divided by marginal furrow into superior and inferior rami; inferior rami conical, papilliform ; superior rami con- sisting of two equal elongated lamelle. Phyllodurus Stimpson Genus Ione Latreille. . . . . . . . Jone cornuta Spence Bate, 4 Genus Argeia Dana. a. Head transverse. All the thoracic appendages present. All the abdominal appendages present. . . Argeia pugettensis Dana, P a’. Head bilobate. Thoracic branchial soap di apparently absent in some of the anterior segments. Last three pairs of abdominal appen- dapes wanting =- > e oo . . Ama ondas Stimpson, P Genus Phryxus Rathke . . . . . Phryxus abdominalis (Krøyer), N No. 400.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 309 Genus Bopyroides Stimpson a. Margins of body, specially at the head, very acute and somewhat recurved. Lateral extremities of the abdominal segments sharpl uare-cut . Bopyroides acutimarginata Stimpson, P a’. Margins of the beds not pka PEERS hippolytes (Krøyer), W Genus Cepon Duvernoy . . s . Cepon distortus Leidy, M Genus Pseudione Kossman i Pseudione giardi Calman, P Genus Phyllodurus pane . ; PAylldérin abdominalis Stimpson, P FAMILY XXIV. DAJID&. Genus Dajus Krgyer . . . . . . . + . Dajus mysidis Krpyer, V REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1897. — This volume contains a number of papers upon anthropological subjects, some of which have been reviewed in this journal. * Mescal: a New Artificial Paradise" is described by Havelock Ellis from his own experience with the drug. Mescal— not to be confounded with the intoxicating drink distilled from the agave — is the blunt dried leaves of the cactus, called Anhalonium Lewinii. It is used by the Kiowa Indians and some other southwestern tribes. Though the use of mescal buttons is prohibited by the government, the practice of chewing them yet prevails among the Kiowas. ‘“ The rite usually takes place on Saturday night; the men then sit in a circle within the tent round a large camp fire, which is kept burning brightly all the time. After prayer the leader hands each man four buttons, which are slowly chewed and swallowed, and altogether about ten or twelve buttons are consumed by each man between sundown and daybreak. Throughout the night the men sit around the fire in a state of reverie, — amid continual singing and the beating of drums by attendants, — absorbed in the color visions and other manifestations of mescal intoxication, and about noon on the following day, when the effects have passed off, they get up and go about their business, without any depression or other unpleasant after effect." Mr. James Mooney called the attention of the An- thropological Society of Washington to this intoxicant in 1891. Dr. Weir Mitchell later published an account of the effects of the drug. Mr. Ellis describes the effects of mescal, especially the color visions, upon himself and also upon an artist friend. Anthropological Notes. — Accompanying No. 4, Vol. X, of the Bulletin of the Anthropological Society of Paris is a list of the papers published by Dr. L. Manouvrier between 1880 and 1899. There are twenty-six titles classified as: ‘ Scientific Philosophy” ; ** Gen- eral Psychology”; * Reports"; “Sociology”; thirty-one as * Cere- bral Anatomy and Physiology"; **Craniology"; * The Brain and 311 312 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the Intelligence”; thirteen as ** Evolution of the Human Species”’; * Relations between the Function and the Organ"; twenty as * Ethnic Evolution”; “ Ancient and Modern Races"; thirteen as * Abnormal Human "Variations" ; * Retrogression and Degenera- tion"; and twelve as * Anthropologic Technique." In the Bulletin de la Société d' Anthropologie de Paris, Tome X, pp. 328-381, appears a valuable paper by M. G. M. Soularus, entitled * Recherches sur les dimensions des os et les proportions squelet- tiques de l'homme dans les different races." In his introduction M. Soularus reviews the history of the study of the long bones of the human skeleton from the time of White — whom he persistently calls * Witte" — to the recent investigations of Manouvrier, to whom he acknowledges his indebtedness for the idea of measuring the circum- ference of the bones and deriving an index by comparison with the length. One hundred and seventy-four skeletons were measured, of which thirty-four were of the white race, sixty-five of the black, thirty- two of the American, twenty-four of the yellow, and sixteen of the Malayo-Polynesian race. The conclusions are that the femur is shortest among the Ameri- cans, and the largest among the Europeans. The average length of femur among the negroes is equal to that of the whites of North Africa. As to the yellow race, it occupies a median position between the whites and negroes. Though the femur of the Americans is the shortest, it is the largest in circumference. The European index and diameter is greater than the negro. In the males the tibia is shortest among the yellow race and the Americans ; negroes and Europeans are equal; the longest average occurs among the Polynesians. Here again the race with the short- est tibia has the bone of largest diameter. __ : The shortest humerus is found among the negroes, the longest among Europeans. The yellow race and the Americans have a humerus but little longer than that of the negroes. But the diam- eter, and hence the index, is always least in the negro group. After comparing the individual bones of the two sexes the author arrives at the following general conclusions : 1. The average length of the bones, their circumference, and their index of section vary in each race and in each sex. The relation of the circumference of a long bone with its length is also variable. In general, the shorter the bone the greater its relative circumference. Sexual differences are greatest in the yellow race and among Europeans, least among the Arabs and negroes. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 313 2. The vertebral column varies equally in each race and in each sex, both in length and in diameter, as a whole and in segments. It is longest among people with short limbs, short among the negroes with long legs. 3. For each race and each sex the relation between the length of the femur plus the length of the tibia to the height of the body is determined. The importance of the index of cross-section is shown in this connection, for the stature is found to be less in the case of long bones with low indices and greater in the case of short ones with a high index than would usually be determined by the mathe- matical method. “The Unity of the Human Species ” is the title of a twenty-page article in which the Marquis de Nadiallac endeavors to establish the thesis that man belongs to a single species uniform in anatomical structure and in the manifestations of his intelligence. He says in conclusion : “ By the side of the similarity of the anatomic structure of man in all times and of all races, I have sought to place the sim- ilarity of his genius, as proved by the identity of his conceptions. The ossuaries which contain the remains of his predecessors, the custom of coloring his bones red after they have been denuded of their flesh, the mysterious symbol to which we have given the name Swastika, and other conceptions, other almost universal creations, which it would be easy to add, all tend toward the confirmation of the knowledge given to us by the earliest arms, the first tools and implements of flint, and the most ancient pottery. We believe it impossible to misapprehend or mistake the proofs that flow from modern researches, all of which affirm with an irrefutable eloquence the unity of the human species." * Recent Research in Egypt." — Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie in a brief paper calls attention to the important discoveries made by archeologists in Egypt during the years 1895-97. During this short period the known history of the Nile Valley has been carried back a thousand years or more beyond what was previously regarded as the beginning of things. Now we look for the beginning many centu- ries before the pyramids, probably 5000 B.C., or even earlier. Miss Fletcher's paper upon * The Import of the Totem," and that by Dr. Fewkes, entitled * A Preliminary Account of Archzological Field Work in Arizona in 1897,” have been noticed in the Naturalist of January, 1898, and July, 1899. 314 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. * A New Group of Stone Implements from the Southern Shores of Lake Michigan " is the title of an attractively illustrated article by Dr. W. A. Phillips. Most of the implements are made from flakes; the trap cobblestones from which they were flaked do not readily lend themselves to the blocking out of blades from nuclei. p p. ZOÓLOGY. Beasts.— The author of Beasts belongs to that order of natural- ists who, to the dread of housewives and maids and to the delight of all healthy boys, fill their pockets, cupboards, and rooms with reptiles and rodents of every description. From the pages of Mr. Kennedy's book we gather that a young crocodile occupied one shelf of his bookcase, a python another, and a pair of white rats a third. In one corner of the room stood the kennel of an armadillo; a vivarium abounding with salamanders, frogs, and tortoises stood by the window ; and from somewhere emerged at night a potto, which became so hilarious that three several policemen roused the inmates of the house to warn them against burglars. The book is made up of short sketches of the interesting ways of all these creatures, and of many more, put together loosely, in a familiar style, the chief characteris- tics of which are sympathy for the whole range of the animal king- dom and a keen love of humor. It is when animals refuse to behave after the rules laid down for them in the books that they have the greatest interest for Mr. Ken- nedy. When a toad, instead of rolling its cast skin into a ball and swallowing it with gusto, as it ought, takes it down “slowly and disgustfully "; when a tadpole - covers itself with ridicule ” by trying to jump about before it has cast its long clumsy tail, — then it is that he thinks their actions worth chronicling. The curious awkwardness which some animals display in the capture of their food is the sub- ject of some amusing pages. Worms, in particular, prove a severe test to the intelligence and patience of many of the reptiles. The “crass stupidity ” of the lower reptiles prevents the author's interest in their habits from passing into affection. A white rat, however, 1 Kennedy, Wardlaw. Beasts. Thumb-Nail Studies in Pets. London, The Macmillan Company, 1899. Illustrated with numerous drawings and photographs. 152 pp. Price $1.50. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 315 and a mongoose evidently won a warm spot in his heart. The chap- ter on the mongoose, in particular, is a charming study of a fascinat- ing subject. The almost human inquisitiveness of the creature, his fondness for toys and love of human fellowship, are lovingly dwelt on. Frequent reference to the need of care and thought for the wants of the creatures which are imprisoned as pets, is evidence of the author’s sympathy for them and his acute observation of their habits. The final chapter of the book is on birds, which the author never deprives of their liberty ; the chapter is a strong appeal against the terrible destruction of birds for millinery purposes. A hearty, cheerful tone pervades the book, humorous turns of speech and thought abound, and if the style is now and then almost too colloquial, the fact is explained by the statement that the sketches were originally prepared for a school paper. Happy must be the boys under such a master; it would be hard for the dullest or the most thoughtless to come under his influence without acquiring a keener observation, a wider interest, and a more tender sympathy. Ri H, Lake Urmi. — The natural history of Lake Urmi in northwestern Persia has been described by R. T. Günther. The lake lies in the highlands that separate the river systems of the Atlantic, the Indian, and the Arctic Oceans and has no outlet. It has been described as * dead," but its waters, though containing about three-fifths as much saline matter as the Dead Sea, harbor a number of organisms. Masses of zodgleea of micrococci invested by diatoms, and numbers of the brine shrimp, Artemia urmiana, find life possible in this water. It was estimated that about twelve hundred Artemias per cubic meter was a fair average for the whole lake. The fresh-water streams flow- ing into the lake contain fish which, when carried into the lake, are killed by its salinity. The conditions of the fish faunas of the sev- eral rivers indicate that the lake has for a long time been an efficient barrier to intercommunication. A description of the land fauna and flora surrounding the lake and a list of the local names of many ani- mals are given. The paper also includes descriptions of the species of animals both recent and fossil collected by Giinther, but worked up by other authorities. : P. 1 Günther, R. T. Contributions to the Natural History of Lake Urmi, North- western Persia, and its Neighborhood. Journ. Linnean Soc. Zoöl., vol. xxvii, pp. 345-453, 1899. 316 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Reissner's Fibre. — This fibre has been found by Sargent! to extend from the posterior end of the spinal cord anteriorly through the central canal and the ventricles of the brain to the anterior end of the optic lobes. The fibre was identified in representatives of all the chief groups and subgroups of the vertebrates, upwards of sixty dif- ferent species having been examined. In no case where the material was perfectly preserved was the fibre absent. The uniformity of the fibre and the fact that it can be demonstrated by a great variety of methods lead the author to the conclusion that it is not an artifact, but a normal structure and probably nervous in character. The paper is accompanied by figures from photographs which demon- strate very conclusively the presence and position of the fibre. p, Preliminary List of the Mammals of New York. — In 1842 Dr. J. E. DeKay published a work on the mammals of New York, giving descriptions of all the species then known to inhabit the state, with figures of most of them, this work forming Part I of the Zo/ogy of New York, published under the authority of the state. Since that date no general survey of the mammal fauna of the state had been attempted till the appearance in 1899 of Mr. Gerrit S. Miller's * Preliminary List of the Mammals of New York."? As Mr. Miller says: **To write a preliminary paper on this subject fourteen years after the appearance of Dr. C. Hart Merriam's two volumes on the mammals of the Adirondack region, and fifty-six years after the publication of DeKay's elaborate work on the mammals of the state at large, may at first seem paradoxical” ; but he gives good reasons for calling his list a preliminary one. He justly claims that “ one of the most important results of the recent great increase in our knowl- edge of the mammalian fauna of New York is the realization that nothing more than preliminary work can be done now. The whole area of the state must receive a thorough biologic survey before final results can be expected." And what is true of New York, it may be added, is equally true of any other considerable area of North America, and probably of any other equal area of the world, so little is really known of mammalian life anywhere. Until within very recent years, the small mammals of no portion of this or any 1 Sargent, P. E. Reissner’s Fibre in the Canalis Centralis of Vertebrates. Anat. Anz., Bd. xvii, pp. 33-44, Taf. I-III, 1900. 2 Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. Bulletin of the New York State Museum, vol. vi, No. 29, October, 1899, pp. 271-390. Issu Nov. 18, 1899. : No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 317 other country were more than superficially known, as witness the large number of new and previously unsuspected forms that have come to light through careful and systematic collecting in even the longest settled parts of the United States. Not the least interesting part of Mr. Miller’s paper is his historical summary of the work thus far accomplished in making known the mammalian life of New York State, in which he traces the gradual advance of our knowledge of the subject from 1842 to the present time. During the forty years immediately following the publication of DeKay’s work only three species were added to the list of the state, while eighteen have been added during the last ten years. The total number of known New York mammals has been raised from fifty-six in 1842! to eighty-one in 1899, while doubtless others still remain to be added by further research. These additions are mentioned in chronological order, and also shown by a tabular arrangement. ‘Thirty-one species have been described and named from New York specimens, of which twenty are now regarded as synonyms of previously described species. The type localities of all are given on account of their interest from the point of view of systematic zodlogy. he eighty-one species and subspecies listed by Mr. Miller include eight cetaceans, two seals, and three introduced species of Old World rats and mice. Deducting these leaves sixty-eight species of strictly indigenous land mammals known as inhabitants of the state. In some six or seven instances increase in the total number of forms is due to the recognition of subspecies, two forms being recognized as occurring within the state instead of one, as in DeKay’s time, as in the case of the red squirrel, chipmunk, flying squirrel, red-backed mouse, cotton- tail (three forms instead of one), mink, etc. Lumping these, as was formerly done, would reduce the number of New York mammals to about seventy-three as against the fifty-six known to DeKay. In other words, the twenty-four additions to DeKay’s list include sixteen species and eight subspecies, the latter being in most cases covered by DeKay’s names. The faunal areas, or “ life zones ” of the state, are considered at. length, from the point of view of birds and plants as well as mam- mals. Following this is the list proper. Under each species are cited the authorities for the names adopted, and all the principal references to the species as New York animals. The text under each species is so arranged and subdivided as to give (1) the type 1 DeKay gave sixty-five, but nine of these have proved invalid. 318 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. locality of the species; (2) its faunal position ; (3) its habitat; (4) its distribution within the state; (5) its principal records for the state; and (6) remarks. The distribution of the various species within the state, and the citation of “ principal records,” are in gen- eral given with satisfactory detail. It hence seems strange that Dr. Holder's paper on the Atlantic right whale (Balena cisarctica) should have been overlooked, especially since the paper (Bulletin American Museum Natural History, Vol. I, No. 4 (1883), pp. 99-1538, Pls. X- XIII) was based primarily on a Long Island specimen, the skeleton of which has been on exhibition for twenty years in New York's greatest Museum of Natural History. A reference to Audubon and Bachman (Quadrupeds of North America, Vol. I, p. 148) on the former occurrence of the fox squirrel in New York would perhaps have been of interest. We regret to see that Mr. Miller adopts Mr. Bangs's proposed change of name for the common deer, from the well.established and familiar Virginianus of Boddaert for Americanus of Erxleben. It would not be regrettable if Erxleben had really used the name in a nomenclatural sense for this deer, which he clearly did not do, or even intend to do. Erxleben says : “ Differtne vere Americanus vti Pennanto videtur ? " and then gives its differences from Cervus dama, and cites the authors who have written of it. As he wrote in Latin he naturally used the word ** Americanus " in the sense of, Does the American deer truly differ? etc. The context shows that where he gave names to either species or varieties, they are given as marginal headings, as under, for example, Cervus elaphus (Regni Animalis, p. 301), where our elk or wapiti is named (p. 305) Canadensis = Cervus elaphus y Canadensis; and so on throughout the * Systema Regni Animalis.” The case of the common deer, as treated by Erxleben, is thus not at all parallel to that of the elk; in the latter case a name was formally given ; in the former, only by a violent distor- tion of the author's evident meaning and intentions can a name be extracted from Erxleben for the Virginia deer. ; Mr. Miller gives also a useful list of the fossil species thus far reported from the state, numbering five, as follows : peccary, horse, elephant, mastodon, and the big rodent Castoroides. A detailed bibliography of 103 titles concludes this interesting and important piece of work. We regret to see, however, that Mr. Miller was com- pelled to submit to a system of “editing rules in bibliography," so out of harmony with nearly all similar work in zodlogical bibliography, simply because they have been “ adopted by the Regents of the Uni- versity of the State of New York." jJ A. X. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 319 The Trail of the Sandhill Stag. — We confess to a feeling of disappointment on laying down Zhe Trail of the Sandhill Stag, by Ernest Seton-Thompson. If it had been the first book by that author which had come to our notice, the feeling would probably have been one of interest and pleasure, but the standard set in Wild Animais J Have Known was so high that the present story, measured by it, fails to answer our expectations. For such of our readers as have not yet made the acquaintance of. Mr. Seton-Thompson's style, the remedy against a similar disappointmént is simple ; let them begin with the story of the Sandhill Stag and then pass to the earlier and more fascinating work. In the story at present under consideration, as in his earlier stories, the author has attempted to tell the life story of a species by painting the portrait of an individual who possesses to an extraordinary degree the characteristics of his kind. In the present instance the subject is a black-tailed deer, a buck of marvellous size, crowned with an enormous pair of antlers. A boy, in whom the old barbarian instinct of the chase is overpowering, catches sight of the beautiful creature and pursues him on various occasions. Finally, after a long three days' chase over the snow, the stag, after seeing his mate murdered by one of the lad's more callous companions, is at last, and in spite of all stratagems, hunted to his lair, and comes face to face with his pursuer. The lad, however, is touched by the expression of nobility in the creature's gaze; his better nature asserts itself, and hunter and his intended victim part with an increase of mutual respect. The moral of the story is obvious, perhaps too obvious. The serv- ice which the author's earlier work has performed in teaching love and sympathy for animals has undoubtedly been enormous, but it was done by revealing in an unusual degree the secrets of the creatures' lives. The reader shared their pleasures and anxieties, and uncon- Sciously became their friend. In this later tale the boy's feelings rather than the stag's are portrayed. . If the story is a little less effective, the illustrations are as charm- ing as ever, and the workmanship of the book itself reflects unusual credit on the designer and the publisher. It is the hope of all who are watching Mr. Seton-Thompson's work that he may be able to reap, in the field which Mr. Hamilton Gibson tilled so faithfully, a splendid harvest. There is no more lSeton-Thompson, Ernest. The Trail of the Sandhill Stag. With sixty drawings in black and white and a frontispiece in color. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1899. 93 pp. Price $1.50. 320 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vor. XXXIV. effectual way to overcome the general indifference to the sufferings of our fellow-creatures than by spreading a knowledge of their tragic lives. EH. Structure in the Mammalian Egg. — Professor Flemming! re- examines the ovarian eggs of the rabbit and finds that thin sections show a real reticulum of stained fibres. Previously, in the fresh eggs, he could not decide whether the fibres he saw branched and anastomosed or not. In the present preparations the yolk granules seem, when smallest, to be imbedded in the fibres, and the author thinks they arise there and only later get into the spaces of the network. In the cavity of the Graafian follicle there is also a reticulum. This is regarded as the result of coagulation of the follicular liquid by the reagents used. It is not the same in normal as in abnormal follicles and is of a much finer mesh in small follicles. The net- work in the egg can be distinguished from that in the follicular ' liquid by its coarser, less regular spaces. From the illustrations given, the reader might easily infer that the differences between the egg structure and the coagulum were merely of degree and not of kind, and see in them support for Alfred Fischer's contention that the so-called structure-reticulum is itself a coagulum. However, the author believes the egg reticulum to be the same as that seen in fresh material, and Mon not the result of coagulation. EX X Bob? is a story that will appeal strongly to all lovers of animals. It will appeal also to lovers of literature. It is the story of a poet's mocking-bird told with a delicate humor, a keen and lov- ing sympathy. To Lanier, as to many lovers of birds, there was : something repugnant in the thought of caging a wild bird; Bob was, therefore, an unsought though welcome guest. The reader, however, lays down the little volume with the feeling that the bird's liberty could not have been sacrificed in a better cause. In this little volume, and in the sonnets which form the epilogue, Bob has cer- tainly found a memorial such as falls to the lot of few. The reader will naturally not look for a scientific study, a care- ful record of the number of feathers shed during the moult, or the 1 Festschrift Carl von Kupffers, Jena, 1899. ? Lanier, Sidney. Bob. The Story of Our Mocking-Bird. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1899. With sixteen illustrations in color. 64 pp. Price $1.50. No. 400.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 321 weight of food taken in a day; but he will find a charming study of the personality of the bird, and many graceful or playful reflections by the way. The illustrations are from colored photographs, reproduced with an unusually pleasing effect. They represent various young mocking- birds in the attitudes described in the text. R. H. Our Native Birds. — This is a book! which should be within the reach of every school-teacher and of every person interested in pre- serving for future generations the wild life which forms so large a part of the attraction which nature exerts. The author begins with some of the statistics, which are now only too easy to obtain, of the steady decrease of song and game birds, and explains with unusual fairness the causes of this diminution. He gives full weight to a consideration very generally overlooked, namely, the destruction of shrubbery and the draining of wet places, incidental to the growth of towns and cities. Subsequent chapters are devoted to a descrip- tion of the means by which we may prevent the destruction of birds and restock places from which they may have been driven. The better enforcement of the existing laws, or the enactment of new ones, particularly the introduction of gun license to reduce indis- criminate shooting, the spread of interest and knowledge through Audubon societies and the popular magazines and books, are urged with warmth, and at the same time with judgment. [Interesting advice as to planting shrubs, vines, and trees, furnishing water for bathing and drinking, and allowing waste places to grow up with - something that will furnish food and cover, is evidence of the prac- tical character of the author's mind. The vexed question of the English sparrow's position is also treated with fairness, though many readers will take well-grounded exception to the method recommended for its destruction, vzz,, the use of poison. The subject of hunting and of encouraging boys to hunt is hardly treated in a manner con- sistent with the tone of genuine sympathy for animals evident in the rest of the book. Throughout the book there are frequent references to authorities. There is a marked absence of literary skill, both in the style and in the arrangement of the matter; it is not a book that one would read for amusement or for pleasure, but for those in search of help 1 Lange, D. Our Native Birds. How to protect them and to attract them to our homes. With illustrations. New York, The Macmillan Company. 162 pp. 322 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. and advice in efforts to lessen the frightful destruction of wild life everywhere prevalent, the book will be an encouragement and an assistance. e e The Tree Frog. — A second interesting contribution to the natural history of European Amphibia by one who loves his subject is to be found in the Quarterly of the Natural History Society of Zurich, issued Feb. 15, 1899. H. Fischer-Sigwart, having previously described the life of Rana fusca,! now tells us of the habits of the tree frog, y/a arborea L. The spawning, larval life, feeding, hibernation, etċ., were studied both in the open and in his terrarium, where he kept many of these creatures (some for ten years), with greater satisfaction to himself than to his neighbors, who complained of the noise made by the ardent males. A tabulation of many observations upon the singing of these frogs and the state of the weather does not support the common belief in their powers as weather prophets, though show- ing that cold, stormy weather checks, as sr warm weather increases, their musical efforts. A long series of observations upon their color led to the result that they resembled the background in every case except one, slowly assuming various combinations of yellow, green, brown, gray, bronze, rust-red in harmony with the leaves, earth, cement, iron pipe, etc., they remained upon. For details we must refer to the —— pages of the origin A. A. The Protoplasm of the Salmon Egg.? — Professor His has added another study to his previous noteworthy work upon the egg of the salmon. As before, he emphasizes the study of live material, while the interesting photographs that accompany his paper show, as far as photographs can, the appearance of preserved and sectioned material. The ievtebite that collects in a heap (subsequently to divide into the cells of the blastoderm) acts, when removed from the egg, like a viscid liquid. It is made up of a clear * Hyaloplasma " and a turbid, granular * Morphoplasma." As development proceeds, these two parts undergo progressive changes in relative amount and arrangement. The changes in the distribution of these two parts 1 See review in the American Naturalist, June, 18 98. 2 Protoplasmastudien am Salmodien Keim. 4/4. Konig. Sach. Gesell. Wiss. Bd. xxv, 1 No. 400.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 323 of the protoplasm and the lack of any fixed permanent structure make one of the main theses of the author’s work. His conception of the organization of protoplasm as derived from preserved material and from fresh material is that the Morphoplasm forms a framework en- closing Hyaloplasma in its meshes. In young cells the framework is uniform and fine meshed; later various modifications arise, so that the end result is very different in different cells and organisms. This morphoplasmic framework is continuous with the nucleus, and with the cell wall which is an actual membrane or modification of the framework and connected by radiating strands with the rest of the framework. The Hyaloplasma is a translucent, viscid liquid not visibly acted upon by reagents that act on proteid matter; it is thought to be inert, not living. Where large areas of clear Proto- plasma, ectosarc, are seen to be contractile, it is really the Morpho- plasma of the limiting membrane and of the few strands that pass through the liquid that is the real agent. When granules are seen moving through the Hyaloplasma they are supposed to be really in unseen strands of Morphoplasma. The Morphoplasma is full of granules, microsomes, or plasmo- somes. These may stand at irregular intervals, and hence there must be some substance to hold them together, ż.e., the strand is not merely a row of granules but consists of granules imbedded in a connecting substance supposed to be a viscid liquid not mixing with the Hyaloplasma. Though it is difficult to distinguish microsomes from yolk granules, secretions, etc., yet the author thinks there are real plasmosomes as essential elements of the strands of Morpho- plasma. Though thus agreeing with Biitschli, that protoplasm has two non-miscible liquids as basis of its organization, the author does not accept the alveolar theory of structure as accounting for the morphoplasmic framework which is often seen as actual fibrils and not membranes. As development proceeds, the undifferentiated protoplasm becomes differentiated, the meshes enlarge, the strands thicken and become fewer, and all the various specializations of cell division appear. Of the many interesting details of the latter phenomena here recorded, we will mention only the new interpretation of the well-known ring, or vesicle-like, appearances of the chromosomes as they are coming together in the formation of daughter-nuclei. The author thinks the Morphoplasma is prearranged in meshes of different size in dif- ferent parts of the cell traversed by the chromosomes in moving from the equator of the spindle to the polar regions, and that when 324 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. they pass through the narrow meshed regions they assume a corre- sponding slender form, to expand later in the wider rings in the region of wider meshwork. The chromosomes are collections of chromatic granules which are arranged on the walls of the meshes, hence they outline a figure corresponding to the shape and size of the mesh. All this, the author concedes, would lend itself to the idea that we are dealing with an alveolar or vesicular structure. The formation of new cell walls by the thickening and fusing of strands of the framework is apparently similar to the mode of mak- ing cell walls in the cleavage of echinoderm eggs as described by G. F. Andrews. And the conception of chromatin granules moving along strands of protoplasm, as do granules in the pseudopodia of rhizopods, is also the same as the flowing or filose movements there described for the interalveolar plasma in various animal tissues and eggs. Considerable space is given to the description of remarkable amoeboid movements performed by the cells of the blastoderm ; they may send out very long finger-like pseudopodia which are at first chiefly clear Hyaloplasma but may become granular and be with- drawn. "These activities, however, are not known in the normal state, but seem to be called forth by the stimuli that come to the blasto- derm, when removed to a compressorium for observation. Among other interesting observations we will mention only the occurrence of multiple asters in eggs that had not been fertilized, a phenomenon similar to that observed by T. H. Morgan? in echinoderm eggs. The unfertilized eggs of the salmon may be kept in running water for weeks without losing life. In the rainbow trout, also, unfertilized eggs were not dead at the end of several weeks. Sections of such eggs kept seventeen days show numerous asters in which the radiating lines connect with a rather uniform mesh of the morphoplasm or else with the rays of other asters. At the center of each aster is a group of granules, representing the centrosome. E. A. A. Embryology of Invertebrates.*— The first part of the original German edition of Korschelt and Heider's Embryology of the Inverte- brates appeared in 1890, and the last part in 1893. The translation 1 The Living Substance. Journ. of a Supplement 1897. 2 The Action of Salt Solutions, etc. Roux’s Archiv, Bd. viii, 1897. 3 Korschelt, Dr E. and Heider, Dr. K. Text-book of the Embryology of Invertebrates. Vol. i translated by E. L. Mark and W. M. Woodworth; vols. ii ' and iii translated by M. Bernard and revised and edited by M. F. Wood The Macmillan Company. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 325 of this monumental work was undertaken by Mark and Woodworth, and the first part of the English edition was published in 1895. Since then the translation has been continued by Matilda Bernard, under the editorship of Martin F. Woodward; and last year two additional parts were issued. The portion of the work thus far ren- dered into English represents about two-thirds of the German text, the chapters on the mollusks, tunicates, and amphioxus having not yet appeared in translation. From these facts it might be inferred that translation was a more time-consuming process than original composition, but the true explanation is doubtless found in the liberal opportunities given to German teachers for work of this kind as com- pared with that afforded to Englishmen and to Americans. The body of the work is well translated, and although considerable freedom is sometimes taken in the adjustment of the substance of a paragraph to its new dress, we have found no place in which this change can be said to have seriously altered the sense. In com- paring the several parts, we are inclined to believe that the first is more closely translated than the remaining two. The arrangement of materials is a model of exactitude. The coarse print, fine print, and notes of the original are rendered as such, and the editor’s additions are always clearly indicated by brackets. The more recent literature is usually given in an appendix. The incorporation of new material was evidently one of the most difficult problems confronting the translators. This naturally has been greatly increased in the last two parts, for the assimilation of almost a decade of embryological work is no small task. As a rule, this has been met by the insertion of the more important new titles in the Literature Appendices, and occasionally by the addition of footnotes. Unsatisfactory as this method often is, it is difficult to see how it could have been improved upon except by a rewriting of the original text. The way in which Anlage shall be rendered into English is a question that confronts every English translator of German embryo- logical work, and, as the solutions of this question seem to be as numerous as those who attempt it, one is not surprised that the translators of the last two parts should substitute for the word “ fun- dament," used in the first part, their own choice, “rudiment.” This calls for some defense, which is given in the preface to the second part, where Darwin’s unfortunate use of “rudimentary” for * vestig- ial” is pointed out as a root of much evil. While this whole matter is one rather of convenience than of importance to the zoólogist, its 326 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. influence on future lexicographers must be at least confusing, and should even a small proportion of the terms proposed be adopted, the uninitiated might be led to believe that with a command of Anlage and Zug almost any idea could be expressed in German. In one respect the English edition is a noteworthy advance over the German original. The latter is paged continuously and is con- cluded with a subject and an author’s index. The English parts have each their own paging, a table of contents, and double indices, thus rendering them much more readily usable as reference books. It is to be regretted that this general improvement has not extended to the presswork. Unfortunately in this respect the English edi- tion is decidedly behind the German. In the first and second parts the illustrations, particularly, lack the clearness of the German cuts, and in the third the muddiness of the figures is often a really serious defect. Notwithstanding these shortcomings, the unabridged trans- lation of such a masterly work is a boon to the English-reading zoological student, and one can do no less than wish that good fortune may aid in the completion of so worthy a task. P. A Recent Book on Insects. — In Our Insect Friends and Foes, How to Collect, Preserve, and Study Them (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1899. xix, 377 pp., 225 illustrations), Miss Belle S. Cragin gives directions for collecting, raising, and preserving insects, brief notes on their structure, habits, and habitats, with more detailed notices of some of the commoner forms of hexapods and shorter accounts of related arthropods. Miss Cragin's book shows a purpose so sincere, and her project is so praiseworthy, that it is especially unfortunate not to be able to commend her effort. The directions for the collection and preserva- tion of insects, though not better than others equally available, do not seriously offend by what they contain or omit. The more detailed accounts, however, show so slight a personal knowledge with the subject that very little can be said in favor of the book as a guide to instruct young students or to quicken their interest in the study of insects. The essential characteristics for a book on insects, written for young people, are an attractive literary style, clear, concise, and accurate statements arranged in logical, scientific sequence. Judged from this standpoint, Miss Cragin's book cannot be regarded as even moderately successful. It would be hard to find a book dealing with insects in which the orders and families are arranged in so confusing and unscientific a manner. Misleading and inaccurate statements No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 327 = are frequent. The Coleoptera are said to include over eleven thou- sand species; a statement that is true, but surely an unhappy way of recording that more than eleven thousand beetles are credited to America, north of Mexico; the larvz of some snout beetles have jointed legs; the firefly, with luminous thoracic spots, is incorrectly placed in the Lampyride ; the Hercules beetle is not the largest true insect; more than one Termite is found in North America, and the northern range of the species credited to that region is far beyond Massachu- setts; all tropical Phasmidz do not have wings that look like leaves. The repetitious character of the text is especially tiresome, and the list of books for reference wholly inadequate. Finally, the illustrations are very evenly bad; it would take much search to find a more atrocious series. Figs. 89 and g2 are trans- posed. S. H. Sheep Tick. — The gross anatomy and histology of the female. genital tract of Melophagus ovinus are described in detail by Pratt (Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Vol. LXVI, pp. 16-42, Pls. II, III), complet- ing and extending the work of Leuckart (1858). Each ovary consists of two ovarioles, possessing two follicles apiece, and both ovaries and ovarioles alternate in the production of the ova. From the germarium are produced follicular, nutritive, and egg cells; while the ovarioles are similar to those of Musca, and the peritoneal cover- ing of the ovary is peculiar only in its thickness and extent. The fused proximal portions of the oviducts form a median vessel serving as a receptaculum seminis and lying in the virginal female in a plane perpendicular to that of the uterus, later at an acute angle to it. The ducts of the two pairs of milk glands, which provide nourish- ment for the larva during intrauterine development, open by a single opening into the uterus; the anterior of the two pairs is more or less rudimentary. The structure of the vagina is such as to permit of extreme distention at the time that the fully developed larva is extruded. R. H. Worcorr. Nauplius Stage of Penzeus. — Although F. Müller announced as early as 1863 that Penæus emerged from the egg in its nauplius stage, this statement remained unconfirmed, notwithstanding the fact that Penzeus has been studied by several investigators, till the past year when Kishinouye! rediscovered this stage in material col- lected on the Japanese coast. ! Kishin ouye, K. On the Nauplius Stage of Peneus. Zool. Anz., Bd. xxiii, PP- 73, 74, 3 Figs., 1900. » 328 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST; [Vor. XXXIV. * Sense Organs of Nereis. — F. E. Langdon! has described three kinds of sense organs in the skin of JVzreis virens Sars. The diffuse sense organs consist of groups. of bipolar nerve cells whose bodies form a part of the external epidermis, whose peripheral ends extend as sense bristles into the surrounding water, and whose central pro- jections are in the form of nerve fibres terminating probably as peri- cellular nerve baskets around ganglion cells in the central nervous organs. The diffuse sense organs are most numerous in those parts of the body most exposed to contact, and represent organs for mechani- cal and possibly chemical stimulation. The prostomium possesses an anterior and a posterior pair of cephalic organs, each of which consists of a group of bipolar cells whose peripheral processes end in the epidermis, and whose central processes terminate in the brain. The anterior pair differ from the posterior in that their cell bodies lie between epidermis and brain instead of in the brain. The third class of organs consists of groups of spirally arranged cells, hence called spiral organs. The central processes from these organs take a direction appropriate for nerve fibres, but have not been traced into nervous organs. Their function as epidermal eyes is, therefore, hypothetical. P. Breeding Infusoria. — As bearing upon the problem of death it is interesting to note that the doctor's thesis of Dimitri Jonkowsky’ records some partial repetition of Maupas's famous work upon Infusoria. Maupas found degeneration and death befell many Infusoria when they were bred for many generations without conju- gating, but that the change in the nuclear machinery that takes place in conjugation would start another long series of generations. That degeneration is necessary without such renewal seems less probable from the experiment of the present author, though his evi- dence is not conclusive. In the case of FPleurotricha lanceolata (Ehbg.) 458 generations were reared in eight months and yet no degeneration was found, except in a few cases in the last generation. He suggests the rapidity with which the animals breed, which was greater in Maupas's experiments, may be a factor in the occurrence of degeneration. Bearing in mind the sensitiveness of many Infuso- ria to the chemical and physical nature of the liquid they are reared in, it seems not unlikely that degeneration may depend upon other 1 Langdon, F. E. The Sense Organs of Nereis virens, Sars. The Journ. of Comp. Neurology, vol. x, No. 1, pp. 1-77, Pls. I-III, 1900. 2 Verh. des Naturhist. med. Verlins zu Heidelberg, Bd. vi, 1898. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 329 factors than the lack of conjugation, and that we do not yet know any limit to the length of life these creatures may have under proper conditions. EX X Swiss Infusoria. — The school of Swiss zoólogists at Geneva, undtr the able leadership of Professor Yung, has in recent years shown great activity in the investigation of the local fauna. This work has been of high order and is abundantly illustrated with litho- graphed plates. That an interest in the Infusoria would still linger in the home of Claparéde is indeed to be expected, though a list of new genera and species of Ciliata from the environs of Geneva comes as a surprise. Nevertheless Dr. J. Roux has discovered there a dozen new ciliates whose structure and relationships he discusses at length in a recent paper.’ He also describes and fully figures a score of other forms concerning which his studies have added important information. Of prime interest is his Monomastix ciliatus — a new member of the Mastigotricha which combines characters of the Ciliata and Flagellata, having the cilia and nuclear conditions of the former and the flagellum of the latter. An amplified descrip- tion is given of Zionotus vesiculosus Stokes, originally described as from this country. The discussion of Loxodes rostrum sheds light on a number of controverted points; the animal is flattened dorso-ven- trally, not laterally, and the peristome is ventral, though placed to the left, being bordered by fine cilia and transverse stria which have heretofore been interpreted as long cilia. The genus should be removed from the Trachelina to a new family, Loxodina. Various American species of this genus have been ill-founded, resting merely on inconstant variations in color, number of nuclei, and excretory vacuoles. On account of its superb illustrations and the critical Character of the discussions, this paper is of especial value to all American workers in this much neglected group, and it is to be hoped that Dr. Roux will continue his studies. CO AU. Growth in the Rhizopodan Shell, after its formation at the time of the division of the parent, as acs by Rhumbler, is contested by Penard in a recent paper.? In observed cases in a ! Roux, J. Observations sur quelques ciliés des Environs de Genéve, avec la description de nouvelles espéces. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., tome vi, pp. 557-636, Pls. XIII, XIV, 1 1899. ?Penard, E. Sur la croissance supposée de la coquille chez les Thécame- biens. Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., IV Pér., tome vii, 23 pp., 1899. 330 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. number of species the new shell is usually as large as the older one, and when differences do occur, they are but slight and as often present larger shells as ‘they do smaller ones. The differences in size among the individuals of a given species in one locality are usually small, the greatest number presenting the medium dimen- sions, while dwarfs and giants are equally rare. These extremes are examples of variation within the species and cannot represent the young and the old — the extremes of a growth series. The instances cited by Rhumbler of great differences in size are explained by the supposition that more than one species has been included in the series, the author contending here, as elsewhere, for the recognition of a greater number of species in this group. The process of repair, local growth about the mouth, resolution of the shell, and exuviation are none of them regarded as proofs of the growth of the shell as a whole. The author's extended observations on the Rhizopoda thus lead him to confirm the views of Verworn. C A E. Abyssal Rhizopoda. — Dr. E. Penard has recently published! an account of his interesting studies upon the Rhizopoda from the bot- tom of Swiss lakes. His attention was given to collections of the bottom ooze, from which he describes a characteristic fauna of peculiar species. Many of these are new, differing from the littoral species to such an extent as to necessitate, in the author's estimation, varietal or specific distinction. In numbers they exceed the strag- glers from the shore fauna which occasionally invade the depths. The author does not favor the view that the Rhizopoda are some- times pelagic in habit, and suggests that their floating is due to the gases of putrefaction. This is certainly not the case in some Ameri- can waters where their numbers and activity entitle them to rank as planktonts. The abyssal Rhizopoda are most abundant at depths of 25-50 meters, being modified by shore contamination above that limit, and decreasing in numbers below it. Their distribution is widespread, though irregular as to species. During the winter sea- son they decline in numbers as their food, the diatoms, is at a mini- mum at that time. In addition to the Léman, eight other Swiss lakes were explored, and the same types of abyssal Rhizopoda were found in all of them. This fauna, living under almost unchanging con- ditions of great pressure, low temperature (about 4? C.), little or no light, no currents, and little food but diatoms, exhibits certain !Penard, E. Les rhizopodes du Lac Léman. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., tome vii, pP- 1-142, Pls. I-IX, 1899. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 331 peculiarities. As compared with littoral species, those of deep water are more variable, being often irregular in shape or ornamentation, Quadrula, for example, lacking the regular arrangement of the plates of the shell. They are also of larger size, and are more transparent, being less heavily charged with salts of iron and manganese, which cause the brownish and purplish tints of the shell. The contractile vacuoles are less active, as they are in those species also which inhabit sea-water, and the capacity of encystment seems in large measure to, have been lost. Starch grains are frequently found in the protoplasm, though no Zoóchlorellae were detected. The author suggests that diatoms may be retained within the protoplasm for a considerable length of time undigested in a temporary symbiotic relationship. On account of the great similarity of the abyssal Rhizopoda of the different lakes not at present connected, the sep- arate origin of these faunas from the common littoral group is not accepted, and the idea is advanced that they represent a relict fauna of the preglacial or glacial period. C A. K. A New Colonial Flagellate. — The Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History has recently issued a bulletin! on 7/a£ydorina cau- data, an interesting new genus of the family Volvocidz, described by C. A. Kofoid. This is a colonial form of sixteen or thirty-two biflagellate cells arranged in a horseshoe-shaped coenobium which bears three or five tails, formed by the envelope at the posterior end. The cenobium is flattened, and is slightly twisted in a left spiral. The cells appear to be arranged in one layer, and the two faces of e plate are exactly alike, as alternate cells upon either face bear flagella. In development the young colonies pass through a Gonium and a Eudorina stage and subsequently flatten, so that the cells of the two faces are regularly intercalated. This genus presents the most pronounced type of functional and structural polarity, and exhibits a greater degree of axial differentiation than any other genus of the family. The organism has been found in late summer and fall months for four years past, and has occurred in the waters of the Upper Mississippi, Illinois, and Wabash basins. The paper contains a key to colonial Volvocidz. . 1 Kofoid, C. A. Plankton Studies. III. On Platydorina caudata, a new Genus of the Family Vólvocidz, from the Plankton of the Illinois River. Bul. ZU. State Lab. Nat. Hist., vol. v, pp. 419-440, Pl. XX XVIII, 1899. : 332 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Sporulation in Amæba. — C. Scheel’ describes and figures a most interesting method of reproduction in Am@eba proteus observed in the winter of 1897—98. The conditions leading to this hitherto un- known method of rapid increase in this fresh-water Amceba could not be determined, nor could various experiments bring about the same results in material from the same locality, examined in 1898-99. The Ameeba was studied both alive and in prepared sections and a pretty complete series of stages obtained. The creature draws in its pseudopodia, takes on a spheroidal form, and then secretes a cyst or case that ultimately shows three succes- sive layers. Within this the Amceba rotates rapidly, once a second, in all directions with frequent change; it looks as if ciliated, but no evidence of cilia was found, and its motions may be due to pseu- dopodia. After several days this rotation ceases. In one case a contracting vacuole was seen discharging rhythmi- cally to the exterior, when the cyst was partly formed. The nucleus divides into pieces, and when there are about 20-30 they become arranged near the surface. These in turn continue to divide until 500-600 small nuclei are formed in the outer part of the Amceba, while the central part has none. Cell walls appear about the nuclei, first about the outermost ones, and gradually the pieces of protoplasm so circumscribed separate as small Amcebas. These break out through the cyst, which has in the mean time become softened and broken up. The whole process lasts from two and a half to three months. In this way hundreds of small Amcebas, 10—14 p in diameter, are set free at one time. The author was able to isolate the young and rear them to recog- nizable Amæba proteus in two and a half to three weeks. EA X Notes. — The second number of Vol. I of the Biological Bulletin contains the following articles: * The Early Stages in the Develop- ment of the Hypophysis of Amia calva,” by J. M. Prather; “ An Extraordinary New Maritime Fly,” by V. L. Kellogg; ‘On the Varia- tion in the Position of the Stolon in Autolytus," by P. C. Mensch; * Gordiacez from the Cope Collection," by T. H. Montgomery, Jr. ; and “ A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Batrachoseps attenuatus, Polymorphous Spermatogonia, Auxocytes, and Spermato- cytes," by G. Eisen. l Beiträge zur Fortpflanzung der Amoeben. Festschrift Carl von Kupfers, Jena, 1899. No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 333 The first number of Vol. X of the Journal of Comparative Neu- rology contains “ The Sense Organs of Nereis virens, Sars,” by F. E. Langdon; ‘‘ The Roof and Lateral Recesses of the Fourth Ventricle, Considered Morphologically and Embryologically," by J. A. Blake ; * Observations on the Weight and Length of the Central Nervous Organs and of the Legs in Frogs of Different Sizes," by H. H. Don- aldson and D. M. Schoemaker ; and * A Report of the Neurological Seminar of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass., for the Season of 1899," by A. D. Morrill. The number also con- tains an obituary notice of Fanny E. Langdon, by Professor Reig- hard, and the usual literary notices. Miss K. J. Bush has published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia a description of a number of new species of gastropods belonging to the genus Turbonilla from the western Atlantic fauna. The paper includes a synoptic list of species and a thorough revision of the synonymy, based upon exam- ination of a number of museum collections. Dr. S. Prowazek has published in Vol. XI of the Vienna Arbeiten a very exhaustive and fully illustrated account of the conjugation of Bursaria truncatella. He also contributes many interesting obser- vations on the structure, nutrition, excretion, encystment, conjugation, division, and parasites of Sty/onychia pustulata. The Echinorhynchi parasitic in Cetacea have been brought together in a critical discussion by Shipley (Arch. Paras., Vol. IL, pp. 262— 269). In a paper on the Porocephali of the dog and some other mam- mals, Neumann! shows that, contrary to the generally accepted belief, the larval forms of these parasites are not accustomed to abandon their cysts, but probably perish in them, and that, except in rare cases, they are harmless to their hosts. The larval form of P. constrictus, which is recorded as a dangerous parasite of man in Africa, is probably as innocuous as other species, and certainly was not the cause of death in the cases reported. A revision of the Echiurida and a discussion of their geographical range are appended by Shipley? to his account of the forms collected ! Neumann, G. Sur les Porocephales du chien et de quelques mammiferes. Arch. Paras., tome ii, No. 3, pp. 356-361, 1899. ? Shipley, A. E. On a Collection of Echiurids, etc. A. Willey's Zo. Results, Pt. iii, pp. 335-356, 1 plate, May, 1899. 334 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. by Dr. Willey. He lists a total of thirty-one good species, belonging four to Bonellia, four to Echiurus, one each to Hamingia and Sac- cosoma, and twenty-one to Thalassema, for which genus a good analytical key is given. .From the geographical distribution some interesting points are excerpted. Bonellia favors warmer or temper- ate waters; Echiurus, colder regions in both hemispheres, without known species in connecting regions ; Hamingia and Saccosoma are both northern forms. Of Thalassema the only species found outside of tropical and subtropical seas occur at points under the direct influence of the Gulf Stream. | A gape worm, Syngamus, has been reported by Railliet (Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol, March 4, 1899), which, like that recorded by von Linstow (Amer. Nat, Vol. XXXIII, p. 903), infests herbivorous mammals; it appears to be common in Annam cattle, but, unlike its avian congeners, harmless. 3 The rhynchodzal glands of Tetrarhynchus have been subjected to a careful study by Pintner.! These glands, which correspond to the greater part of the structures interpreted by Lang as rudimentary salivary glands, stand in close relation to the probosces, that is, to organs which are peculiar to a well-circumscribed group of animals aberrant in character. Their distribution, form, and chemical reac- tion show them to be most closely related to the cephalic glands of nemertines. They are neither cystogenic, nor mucous glands, and no evidence was found as to their real function. Simondsia paradoxa, the extraordinary nematode described by Cobbold, has been found again by von Ratz (Zeitschr. f. Thiermed., Bd. III, pp. 322—329), whose brief report covers chiefly pathological data I A ee on the Strongylide adds another to the valuable series of taxonomic summaries on groups of parasites, published by Stossich. An analytical key to the subfamilies and genera is fol- lowed by descriptions of the species. The references to the litera- ture on each species are particularly full, but the nomenclature is open to some criticism. A comprehensive list of hosts and a good index, including "m add much to the usefulness of the paper. 1 Pintner, Th. Die His eo agate der Tetrarhynchen. Ard. Zool. Inst. Wien, Bd. xii, pp. 1-24, 3 plates, 2 Stossich, M. Strongylide. ae monografico. Bull. Soc. Adriat. Sci. Nat. Trieste, vol. xix, pp. 55-152, 1899. No. 400] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 335 BOTANY. The Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.' — It has been the dream of years with Professor Bailey of Cornell to close the nine- teenth century with a comprehensive index to American horticulture, viewing plants from the garden rather than the herbarium, and con- sidering them as living, growing, varying things rather than biblio- graphical formule. To this end he spent a year in indexing all of the prominent American plant and seed catalogues, as a preliminary step, and then enlisted the interest and services of a large number of artists, expert gardeners and botanists, with whose coóperation he now has the work so well in hand that the first of the four volumes of which it is to consist is given to the public with the promise that the others shall be issued before the end of the year. The volume already published, covering the initials 4 to D, is a quarto of over 500 pages, illustrated by a number of full-page plates, and nearly 800 cuts in the text; and, as is the plan of the entire work, is made first hand, from original sources of information, the botanical matter nearly all newly elaborated from the living plants, and the cultural directions often repeated by several growers experi- enced in methods adapted to American conditions. The editor very modestly says that he considers his book only a beginning, bringing together scattered data as a foundation for other studies. It is sufficient to say that it is well written, well printed, and, though unequally so, well illustrated. The botanical treatment of so large and shifting a subject as the plants cultivated in a given country is a matter of some interest. Florists’ and gardeners’ varieties, because of their very transient nature and great number, are not characterized nor even enumerated, though the types under which they may be grouped are considered in the more popular genera of the moment. But the species and more permanent varieties are systematically handled, and the very real objection, that the systematic treatment of the plants grown in a single country deals with too shifting a quantity to have value of any permanence, is to a certain extent met by the introduction under the more important genera of supplementary lists of species which should be, or are likely to be, elements of our trade. Nomenclature in botany is sufficiently difficult and complex to ! Bailey, L. H., and Miller, Wilhelm. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900. 336 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. furnish occupation for a large number of thinkers and writers, and when the transient forms evolved under the hand of man and adver- tised and marketed in accordance with prevalent business methods have to be taken cognizance of, it becomes almost a pigs-in-clover proposition. For some years past the leaders in horticultural thought have been agreed on the adoption of simple and short vernacular names for such forms, and official action tending to secure a consist- ent application of principles of good taste, good sense, and business wisdom has been taken at various times by the American Pomologi- cal Society, the representatives of the principal experiment stations, and the Society of American Florists, while in 1893 a botanical congress at Madison, on the report of a committee of international membership, endorsed the actions of these bodies with the recom- mendation that, for practical reasons, the great Index Kewensis be - taken as the basis of nomenclature for the more permanent forms bearing Latinized names. These various conclusions have been made the working basis of the Cyclopedia, and although the parti- tioning of the work among many persons has made the results attained less uniform than would have been the case if one person had done it all, the book is going to place in the reach of makers of American trade catalogues a model which they can follow, and which it will be to their ultimate business interest to follow; while such action on their part will do very much to raise the semi-science of the botany of cultivated plants to a position where the general monog- raphers of plants can take cognizance of and utilize its great array of facts — a result which in one way or another the first half of the twentieth century must see achieved. T. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) ALEXANDER, P. Y. Darwin and Darwinism Pure and Mixed, a Criticism, with Some Suggestions. John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, London, 1899. 12, 346 pp. Cox, Ui O. A Syllabus of Elementary Physiology with References and Laboratory Exercises. Mankato, Minn. n.d., 8, 167 pp- DENIKER, J. The Races of Man. An Outline of Anthropology and ad .GIARD, ALFRED. rthénoge des Organismes Pluricellulaires. Vol. jubilaire cinquantenaire de la Société de Biologie. 14 pp. ILL, BENJAMIN F. Notes on a Set of Rocks from Wyoming, Collected by Professor Wilbur C. Knight of the University of Wyoming. Contrib. Geol. Dept. | Columbia nn LII. HOoLLICK, ARTHUR. The Relation between Forestry and Geology in New Jersey. risa Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LV ICK, ARTHUR. Some Features of the Drift on Staten Island, N. Y. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. L. InviNG, JoHN D. Some Contact Phenomena of the Palisade Diabase. Con- trib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LI. JULIEN, ALEXIS A. Building Stones, Elements of Strength in their Consti- tution and Structure. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. Kemp, J. F. A Brief Review « the Titaniferous Magostitas, Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LIV. Kemp, J. F. Granites of Southern Rhode Island and Connecticut, with oa on Atlantic Coast Granites in General. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LVII. : R, J. GRAHAM. Note on Hypotheses as to the Origin of the Paired ca ot Vertebrates. Proc. Cambridge-Philos. Soc. X, 227-235. ACDOUGAL, DANIEL TREMBLY. The Nature and Work of Plants.. An Introduction to the Study of Botany. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900. xvii, 218 pp. 80 cts. PARKER, T. JEFFREY, and HaAswELL, WILLIAM A. A Manual of Zoology. Revised and Adapted for the Use of American Schools and Colleges. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900. xxv, 363 pp-, 327 figs. PINCHOT, pen Report of the Forester for 1899. Washington, 1899. PLATE, L. Ueber Bedeutung und Tragweite des Darwinschen Selections- princips. Leipzig, Wilhelm Engelmann, 1900. 153 pP- RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Description of a New Species of Idotea Suis Hako- date Bay, Japan. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. XXII, 131-134. SHUFELDT, R. W. Notes on the Mountain Partridge (Oreortyx pictus) in pnus Ornis, Nov., Dec., 1899, pp. 71-76, Pl. I. 337 338 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. TOWNSEND, C. N. Pelagic Sealing, with Notes on the Fur Seals of Guada- lupe, the Galapagos and Lobos Islands. Washington, 1899. TRELEASE, WILLIAM. The Classification of Bcesidon] Publications. Re- printed from .Scie WEBSTER, C. T A Monograph on the Geology and Paleontology of the Iowa Devonian UE Statements relating to. Charles City, Iowa, 1900. PP- Cincinnati gy of Natural vagin Journal XIX, No. X — Crate Journal. XV, No. February, 1900. — Zhe Insect World. IV, No. Jan uary, 1900. — Johns porca: Hospital. ‘Bulletin. XI, No. 107. ae 1900. — Missouri Saa Gardens. Eleventh Annual Report. St. Louis, 1900. I s pp. 62 pls. — Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales. Tomo II, Fasc. XII. 899. ek mee Science Association of Staten Island. paccm si VII, Nos. 13, 14. — Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. Ano IV, No. 1900. — Santiago de Chili. kiyageng des Deutschen wissenschaftlichen Aeon Band IV, Heft 1. 1899.— nce Gossip. VI, No.69. February, 1900. — United States Department of ae Division of co eit Bulletin 22. — University of Tennessee. Record. October, 1899. — West Virginia Agricultural Wein Station. Bulletins 61, 62. — Wyoming Experiment Station. Bulletin (Number 399 was mailed March 30, 1900.) GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY Kiener’s Species General et Iconographie des Coquilles Vivantes. Continué par le Dr. P. FISHER, Aide-Naturaliste au Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. Complete in 165 parts, forming 12 volumes with 902 plates, superbly colored after the natural specimens. Edition on vellum paper. 4to. Published at 1800 francs, offered at $250. above well-known work on shells and one of the finest ever re —the arms being accurately and carefully colored by competent artists — especially worthy the attention of naturalists and librarians on mass of the ies price at which it is offered, being less than half the cost of importa C, J- PRICE, IMPORTER OF FOREIGN BOOKS, 1004 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. DISSECTING MICROSCOPES of every size, style and price, suited or all kinds of work. A new series of lenses for dissecting work have recently been perfected by us which have unusually long working distance and - ~< large flat field. These Len Holder for Anatomical Work. lenses are offered at prices less than any lenses of equal quality heretofore in use. The new Dissecting Stands are all nickeled metal with glass stage. 18” Catalog free. Sample copy JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY on request. BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL co. NEW YORE OFFICE OFFICE: 25th Street and hirea ROCHESTER, N. Y. State and i Washington Bicosta, Townsend Bldg. ; Stewart Bldg. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES ON THE VERTEBRATA. By the late Proressor E. D. COPE. With Introduction by HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN, Sc.D. 8vo. Cloth, $1.25; paper, $1.00. BOSTON, GINN & COMPANY, AGENTS . The American Naturalist Special Offer ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, paying the full subscription price of $4.00 a year in advance, may obtain the back vol- umes for the years 1892, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896, and 1897 upon the following terms: any single volume will be sent upon payment of $2.00; any two volumes for $3.50; any three volumes for $4.00; any four volumes for $4.50; and five or six volumes for $1.00 each, in addition to the regular subscription. This offer holds good until the stock of back volumes is exhausted. Volumes for 1898 and 1899, $4.00 each. * uu. + 1 + f, Anpil d .Inne. 1294. P , Ginn & Company PUBLISHERS 9-13 Tremont Place, Boston VOL. XXXIV, No. gor’ THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS I. Marine Biology at Beaufort . . Professor H. V. WILSON II. The Fruiting of the Blue Flag (Iris vated L.) Professor J. G. NEEDHAM HI. A Contribution to the Natural T and Development of Pennari nnaria tiarella McCr. Professor CHAS. W. HARGITT . R. W. SHUFELDT IV. The Worm ries Results of the Polar —— under Dr. Hen V. Synopses ae Takki EEE 1 The Scorpions, Solpugids, and Fedipalpi NATHAN BANES VI. Reviews of Recent Literature: edes. The Natural History of the VII. Pu Musical Bow, Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1897, Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1897-98, Notes — Genera! Biology, Protoplasmic Streamings — Zoó/ogy, A New Practical Zoólogy, Gogorza's List of the Vertebrate Animals of the Philippines, Lungless Salamanders, The Egg of the Hagfish, Waite's Fishes of the Thetis Expedition, Smitt on Lycodes, Abbott on Chilean Fishes, Moreno on the Olfactory Nerves of Fishes, California Water Birds, Ovogenesis in Tunicates, Reproduc- tion of Ameba, Arctic Deep-Sea Fauna, Arctic Marine Animals, Notes — Botany, Phenological Observations in Canada, King’s Irrigation and Drainage, Trimen’s Flora of Ceylon, Nuclear Phenomena in Ustilaginex, Cell Division in Sporangia and Asci, Notes — Petrography, The =o graphical Province of Essex AOS Mass.. N epheline-Syenites, No blications Received BOSTON, U.S.A. ——— | | GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS . 9-13 TREMONT PLACE Tlsp at the Das DM. Darta Bie: we T LCL Mail Matter di - » : » ada MAY, 1900 yo Fifth Avenue -~ 378-388 Wabash Avenue | 37 Bedford Street, Strand The American Naturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York. E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D. , Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, PH.D., Colby University, Waterville. CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D., Yale University, New Haven. DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland FAES Junior University, Cal. J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, [thac WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard i University, ‘Camiridge ALES HRDLICKA, M.D., Mew D. S. JORDAN, LL. = dee ide Tyce University, California. CHARLES A. KOFO H.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Lil. J. G. NEEDHAM, bx Ae Forest University. ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, PH.D., Princeton Univer. D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McGill Univer Montreal. H. M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, Ne W. E. RITTER, Pu.D., University of California, Berkeley. FRANK RUSSELL, Pu.D., Harvard University, Cambridge. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, LL.D., University of Michigan, Ann ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D, Q. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, sim cie ngton. W. TRELEASE, S.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Lou HENRY B. WARD, PH.D., University of Ne enin, Linc S. WATASÉ, PH.D, University of Chicago. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine of Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading facts and discoveries in Anthropology, General Biology, Zoology, tany, Paleontology, Geology and Physical Geography, and Miner- alogy and Petrography. The contents each month will consist of leading original articles containing accounts and discussions of new discoveries, reports of M cene expeditions, biographical notices of distinguished naturalists, or critical summaries of progress in some line; and in addition to t diner there will be briefer articles on various points of interest, editorial comments on scientific questions of the day, critical reviews of recent literature, and a final department for scientific news and personal notices. All naturalists who have anything interesting to say are invited to send in their contributions, but the editors will endeavor to select for publication only that which is of truly scientific value and at the same time written so as to be intelligible, instructive, and interesting to the glen scientific reader 7 All manuscripts, books for review, exchanges, etc., should be sent to THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, Cambridge, ; All business communications should be sent direct to the publishers. Annual subscription, 94:00, not, in advance. — 35 cents. Foreign subscription, $4. 3 > GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. | IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor. XXXIV. May, 1900. No. 401. MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. H. V. WILSON. THE sandy strip of land which extends along the North Caro- lina coast, separating the ocean on one side from the system of sounds on the other, is interrupted at intervals. The breaks or inlets thus convert the strip into a series of long, narrow islands, known as banks. On the mainland, opposite the inlet between Shackelford and Bogue banks, is the town of Beaufort, some 350 miles south of Baltimore and 250 north- east of Charleston. The coast line here runs nearly east and west, and Beaufort is at the end of a little peninsula which juts out from the mainland toward the south, and is nearly sur- rounded by water. Beaufort inlet is a mile and a half.in width, and it is about the same distance, in a straight line across the harbor, from the town to Fort Macon, at the extreme end of Bogue bank. The harbor occupies an area some four or five miles wide, passing to the east and west into the shallower waters of Back (opening into Core, thence into Pamlico) and Bogue sounds, respectively. The harbor is diversified with numerous sand shoals, mud flats, salt marshes, all more or less submerged at high water ; 339 340 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV. at which time, with the centerboard up, a “sharpy ” (the favor- ite form of sailboat, imported here from Connecticut) may be sailed in a straight line from the inlet to the town. Behind the protecting shoals the water is always quiet, so that one may go collecting in this part of the harbor in a skiff at times when the breakers are high in the inlet and running freely along the seaward edge of the shoals. The wealth of life buried in the sand shoals and mud flats is remarkable — every spadeful infa aT id Q OAAS a Iss yi 27, 7 MS prin, P Is 5 Shacxel ord. Banks i» Fic. x. —Beaurort HARBOR. After U. S. C. and G. S. Chart 420. Yue QW ow Qu brings up something. Worms are of course best represented, although sea anemones, holothurians, spatangoid urchins, bur- rowing Crustacea, and mollusks abound. The natural absence of rocks over the bottom forces the sessile forms to make use of whatever will afford a foothold. Diopatra tubes become covered with ascidians, these with alga, hydroids, polyzoa, and . small tubicolous annelids. Algz and sponges fasten on par tially submerged shells. The oyster beds (“oyster rocks" in the local vernacular) distributed round the margin of the flats afford a home for many other attached mollusks, and for anem- ones and sponges, while crabs, gasteropods, nudibranchs, ophi. No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 341 urans crawl about over the shells, and burrowing shrimps bury themselves in the mud beneath and between them. Passing from the shoals into the deeper water of the harbor channels, the bottom is found in places to be sandy, elsewhere muddy or covered with a shelly detritus. In many places one may collect with a long-handled scraping net, working from a skiff or sailboat. But for any extensive bottom collecting the dredge and trawl, with a steam launch, are necessary. Sponges, sea feathers and fans, the beautiful Renilla, Astrangia and rarely other corals, starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, bottom- loving shrimps, crabs, mollusks are thus taken. The sea bottom outside the inlet, within five or six miles off the coast, has been pretty well explored with dredge and trawl. Near shore, in many places, the bottom is a sticky mud, cov- ered with sand dollars and with abundant medusz (Chiropsal- mus). A sandy bottom is more common. The slope is gradual, the depth at five miles from the beach line being, in general, eight to nine fathoms. Many forms which are commonly seen on the beach, cast up after a storm, grow in abundance in lo- calities within the five-mile limit. Certain crabs (Persephona, Hepatus) and starfish (Astropecten, Luidia) may especially be mentioned as conspicuous examples. The beach collecting after a southerly blow is often good. Quantities of anemones (Paractis), holothurians, compound ascidians, spongon; and stranded jellyfish are to be had. The wharf piles at Morehead City (railroad terminus) and Beaufort, and the stone jetties on each side of the inlet de- serve to be mentioned. They are among the best collecting places for attached forms — algæ, hydroids, sponges, polyzoa, anemones. Beaufort is a capital place for the study of pelagic types. A strong tide sets into the harbor, bringing a great variety of hydromedusæ, Entomostraca, pelagic worms, and a wealth of larval forms. Certain interesting Protozoa (Acantho- metra, Noctiluca) are very abundant. The proximity of the gulf stream (the roo-fathom line, which marks the western bank of the stream,! is some fifty miles distant) frequently leads to the presence in the harbor of many forms character- 1 Agassiz. Three Cruises of the * Blake,” vol. i, p. 257- 342 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [ VoL. XXXIV. istic of more southern waters. These forms often appear in large numbers, and many remain for weeks. Among such may be mentioned Physalia, Porpita (Professor Brooks men- tions! that he has here taken nearly all the siphonophores known to occur on the Atlantic coast), the rhizostomous me- dusa Stomolophus, the pelagic annelid Amphinome. On a calm evening in Beaufort harbor, with a flood tide, it is best to abandon the tow net for the dip net. The individuals are abundant enough to make the use of the latter successful, and the perfect condition in which delicate forms, such as Diphyes, Lucifer, Cuninas, Phyllosoma larva, etc. may thus be taken repays for the time spent. Beaufort itself is a quaint and attractive town, with its wide, grassy lanes, and inclining trees (live oaks, mulberries, elms), which show plainly the direction of the prevailing wind. Viewed from the harbor the town presents a long line of white houses that edge the shore, each with its upper and lower porch, from which (more especially the upper) the harbor in turn offers a very pleasing picture. In the late afternoon, when the glare has become less intense, the picture is one that stays in the memory as a restful composition of sky and water, the latter broken here and there with green marsh islands and white shoals, with sand dunes on the banks and breakers in the inlet shutting in the view. To the eastward big reels, on which seines are wound, make a detail suggestive of the village life. The climate is equable, but cold comes occasionally, as in last February, when the fig trees were killed to the ground. The summer temperature is not unpleasant, though one's work- room should be a large, airy one close to the shore (“an the town front," as the saying is) and open to the sea breeze. I have before me a record of temperatures made by Professor E. A. Andrews during the warmer part of the year. The observations were taken at 7 a.m and 9 p.m. daily. During May the temperature at these times was, day after day, 74°- 75^. In June there were some cold days, the thermometer going down to 66°, the weather growing warmer, though, in the latter part of the month, when 78?—79? was reached. Dur- 1 Report of the President of the Johns Hopkins University, p. 82, 1883. + Fic. 2. — BEAUFORT — A PART OF THE “TOWN FRON (The photographs made use of in the preparation of this article have been kindly loaned by Professor J. I. Hamaker.) t. Cect am a Fic. 3. — East END or BEAUFORT — THE TOWN SHORE. 344 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ing July and August the temperaturé on many days was 79°- 81°, rarely going a degree or two above that, and much more frequently dropping several degrees below. In September the weather was cooler, the range being from 67? to 80?. At midday a very common summer temperature is 85? — only occasionally (at the times when 100?—105? is registered for so many of the cities) is it warmer. During the past season the laboratory was comfortable day and night, save once in June, when the heat of the lamps made microscopic work trying. With proper precautions Beaufort is a healthful as well as a pleasant summering place for most people. Morehead City, across the harbor, is a well-known resort in this part of the South, and many people come also to Beaufort. The fishing, sailing, and the daily bath make the days pass agreeably for those who have nothing else to do, and contribute much to the bten-étre of naturalists who are spending a working vacation. The ocean beach is a hard, fine one, and the surf bathing about like that of the better known Jersey coast. For the regular daily bath, however, most people prefer the harbor. With a skiff, in five minutes, one reaches a clean sand shoal, over which the ocean water is flowing from the inlet opposite, and with the first plunge becomes aware of the pleasure that lies in this part of the day’s routine. This is not the place for a catalogue of the Beaufort fauna and flora. And, indeed, many as are the forms known to occur here, which have been identified, much systematic work - will be necessary before they can all properly be listed. More- over, forms hitherto not known to occur here are discovered often in abundance with every season of work. The more important published lists of Beaufort forms are contained in the following papers : Wm. Stimpson, M.D. “A Trip to Beaufort, N. C." Amer. Journ. of Sci, Series 2, Vol. XXIX, 1860., The paper con- tains lists of ascidians, mollusks, and decapod Crustacea. The Lingula of the south Atlantic coast is here first described, al- though McCrady, writing shortly after from Charleston (Amer. Journ. Sci Vol. XXX), mentions that it “was found more than ten years ago on our coast by the Rev. Thomas J. No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 345 Young,” and that Professor Louis Agassiz, at his laboratory in Charleston harbor, had had specimens. McCrady was, I believe, the first to observe Lingula larvae, since described in Professor Brooks’s well-known paper and taken in Beaufort harbor, both by Professor Brooks and (during the past season) by Professor J. Y. Graham. Coues and Yarrow, “ Notes on the Natural History of Fort Macon, North Carolina, and Vicinity " (Nos. 1-3), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1871, 1877. The vertebrate lists are much more complete than the invertebrate. There are recorded 24 mammals, 133 birds, 27 reptiles, 6 amphibia, 111 fishes. Of the invertebrates recorded the only list approaching com- pleteness is that of the mollusks (147). A. E. Verrill, * On Radiata from the Coast of North Caro- lina," Amer. Journ. Sci, 1872. This paper includes lists of ceelenterates and echinoderms (Coues and Yarrow’s Collec- tion). A. E. Verrill, * Notes on Natural History of Fort Macon” (Coues and Yarrow’s Collection of Annelids), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878. J. S. Kingsley, * On a Collection of Crustacea from Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida," etc., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., 1879. J. S. Kingsley, “ List of Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic Coast," whose range embraces Fort Macon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., 1878. In these two papers of Kingsley’s there are recorded over sixty decapods for Beaufort harbor. Jordan and Gilbert, * Notes on Fishes of Beaufort Harbor, North Carolina,” Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1878. E. A. Andrews, “ Report upon the Annelida polycheta of Beaufort, North Carolina,” Proc. U. S: Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV, 189r. ; Many of the Beaufort forms have been first described by some of the older naturalists, whose collections were made farther south, along the coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Among such may be especially mentioned Catesby!, 1 Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. 346 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV. Bosc}, Say?, Le Sueur’, Louis Agassiz’, Gibbes’, Stimpson‘, McCrady*. Other forms are constantly met with, which were first described by naturalists working farther north, on the Virginian coast (H. E. Webster)’, on the coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey (Leidy)?, coast of New York (De Kay), New England coast (Verrill!!, Verrill and Smith P, Gould : and BinneyP). Other well-known memoirs, which are espe- cially useful for systematic work at Beaufort are: Alexander Agassiz’s “ North American Acalephz "5; Verrill's * Revision of the Polypi of the Eastern Coast of the United States” 1; the various reports on the results of dredging, under the su- pervision of Alexander Agassiz, by the U. S. Coast Survey Steamer Blake (published in the Memoirs and Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy); Dall’s * Catalogue of Mollusks and Brachiopods of Southeastern Coast of United States, ^ In the Studies from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns 1 Hist. Nat. des Crustacés ; Hist. Nat. des Vers ? An Account of the Crustacea of the United States, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., vol. i, 1817-18, The Complete Writings of Thomas Say on the Conchology of the United States, edited by Wm. G. Binney, 1 3 Observations on Several Species of the eae Actinia, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., vol. i, 1817-18. * Contributions to the Natural History of the United State 5 On the Carcinological Collections of the United States, ‘id sce dep of new species, Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv, Sci., vol. iii, 1850. ê Notes on North American Crustacea, Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. of N. Y., vol. vii, 1862. On Some kamki Mail Invertebrates inhabiting the Shores of South Carolina, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, 1856. 7 Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Harbor, Proc. Elliott Soc. Charleston, vol. i, 1853-58. 8 Annelida chaetopoda of the Virginian Coas ? Marine Invertebrate Fauna of Coasts d ‘Rhode Island and New Jersey, Journ. Pa. Sci. Phila., vol. iii, 18 D The Natural History of New York, Pt. i, Zoölogy. The volume on Mol- lusca and Crustacea is particularly ant to the collector, because of its con- densed descriptions of “ extra limital ” form H New En, 12 Report on Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound, 1873. 13 Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, 2d ed. M Must. Cat. of Mus. of Comp. Zoology, 1865. 15 Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 1, 1866-69. 16 Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 37, 1889. Vestiti ttis Un Fic. 4. — To THE EAST OF BEAUFORT — SHACKELFORD BANK IN THE DISTANCE. F1G.5. — SAND DUNE ON SHACKELFORD BANK. 348 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Hopkins University, and in the Johns Hopkins University Cir- cular, from 1880 on, naturalists working at Beaufort will find many papers and notes of faunistic interest, in which new forms are described or known ones recorded. Among these may be mentioned Professor Brooks's papers on “ Meduse” (Studies, 1882, 1883); and the lists and notes by Professors McMurrich (Actiniz), Osborne (Mollusca), Nachtrieb (echino- derms), Jenkins (fishes), collected together under the title * Notes on the Fauna of Beaufort, N. C." (Studies, 1887). A great many facts of general natural history interest (system- atic, distributional, ecological) will also be found scattered through the pages of the morphological and embryological memoirs which have been appearing since 1880 as the result of the work of Professor Brooks and his students at Beaufort. At the laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission, which was maintained during the past summer at Beaufort, the various species observed were recorded, and specimens preserved for the museum collection of the laboratory. It is planned that the record of each species shall include mention of the localities in which it is fairly abundant, most convenient collecting meth- ods, time of year during which breeding goes on, brief natural history notes on habits of adult (food, enemies, parasites, rate of growth, time and extent of migration, etc.) and on the life his- tory (character of eggs, where and how deposited, possibility of artificial fertilization, period of embryonic development, charac- ter of larva and period of larval development, habitat, food and enemies of larva). The economic value of such a knowledge of the natural history of the region will be readily understood, and it is equally obvious to what an extent it will aid natural- ists engaged in the study of the abstruse problems of morpho- logical and physiological embryology, of comparative anatomy and physiology. Its value in connection with similar results of the work at other coast stations, to the study of the variability of organisms, may be here alluded to. To carry out such a scheme of work for a rich fauna like that of Beaufort will require years. An excellent basis has, how- ever, been built up, and profitable lines of study marked out by the members of the Johns Hopkins Marine Laboratory and by No.40.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 349 other naturalists. During the past season’s work (1899) of the Fish Commission Laboratory many of the previously known facts, some recorded, some unrecorded (in the possession of former workers at Beaufort), have been brought together and confirmed, and important additions have been made. The forms actually collected during the season included 238 spe- cies of marine invertebrates, some 70 fishes, 50 birds, a num- ber of reptiles, amphibia, insects and arachnoids, and a very considerable number of land plants and alga. In the case of a good number of species, notes along the lines indicated above were made. In gathering the data of the record all members of the laboratory lent their assistance, during such time as they were able to spare from their special investiga- tions. I would especially thank Professors W. K. Brooks, E. W. Berger, J. Y. Graham, J. I. Hamaker, T. G. Pearson, Dr. D. S. Johnson, Dr. G. A. Drew, and Dr. Caswell Grave. Identifications and notes on breeding times have also been very kindly contributed by Professors E. A. Andrews, C. B. Daven- port, J. S. Kingsley, George Lefevre, M. M. Metcalf, J. P. McMurrich, E. B. Wilson. In another season's work, doubt- less, all the recorded forms will have been taken and identified. Further progress can only be made by a formal division of labor among the members of the laboratory. With the great awakening of interest, which is so apparent to-day, in the phe- nomena exhibited by animals and plants regarded as living units, it should not be difficult to find naturalists who will gladly work up the local natural history of the groups embrac- ing the particular forms on which they may be investigating problems of a morphological or physiological character. From among the forms occurring at Beaufort the following common summer ones may be selected with the purpose of giv- ing a conspectus of the local fauna and flora. The months given immediately after the name of each species are breeding months, but it is not implied that breeding is limited to these months. In many forms breeding undoubtedly continues through a large part of the year — oyster eggs, for instance, have been fertilized in December by Dr. Caswell Grave. With a few exceptions the forms listed were noted during the past 350 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. season. The exceptions include forms recorded by myself in 1886, 1894, 1898. Protozoa. — Noctiluca miliaris and A abundant in the tow throughout summer. Sponges. — Chalina arbuscula, Microciona prolifera, Cliona sulphurea, and several other monactinellid sponges are com- mon. No eggs nor gemmules have been observed during the earlier summer months, but by September Ist a number of species are breeding. Celenterates. Hydrozoa. — Hydroids: Hydractinia echinata, with gono- phores, June; Eudendrium ramosum, with gonophores, June ; Sertularia carolinensis (sp.?), with gonothecæ, June; Ag/ao- phenia trifida; Campanularia sp.; Parypha cristata, with gono- phores, June, July. Hydromeduse : Liriope scutigera, July, August ; Vemopsis bachet, July, August ; Cunoctantha octonaria, adults and parasitic larvae, July, August; Cunina sf., parasitic larve in Liriope, August; Turritopsis nutricula, July, August ; Margelis carolinensis; Eutima mira. Siphonophores : Diphyes sp., Physalia arethusa, Porpita linneana. Scyphomeduse. — Stomolophus meleagris, Chiropsalmus quad- rumanus, Dactylometra quinquecirra, Cyanea versicolor (sp. ?). Ephyra larva (s5.?), common in tow, July, August. Actiniaria and Madreporaria. — Paractis rapiformis, Autac- tinia capitata, Adamsia sol, Aiptasia pallida, Cerianthus ameri- canus, Astrangia dane, Oculina sp. Arachnactis larvæ, in tow, August. Alcyonaria. — Renilla reniformis, May, June, July; Zepto- gorgia virgulata, May, June, July ; Rhipidogorgia flabellum. Ctenophora. — Mnemiopsis gardeni. Echinoderms. — Starfishes : Asterias arenicola, April; Luidia clathrata, August ; Astropecten articulatus, August ; large bipin- narias with budding starfish in tow, July. Ophiuroids: Amphi- ura sf., June, larva a pluteus (species dredged three to nine fathoms, outside inlet); Ophiura brevispina, July, August, eggs discharged shortly after nightfall; Ophiothrix angulata (sp.?), June, July; Ophiolepis elegans, nine fathoms, outside inlet, eggs nearly mature July 12. Echinoids: Arbacia punctulata, +h tra sf. are No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 351 June, July ; Zoropneustes variegatus, June, July; Moira atro- pos, August; Mellita testudinata, early September. Holo- thurians: Thyone briareus; Leptosynapta girardii (sp.?), with apparently mature eggs, July; small synaptas abundant in night tow, August. Worms. — Annelids : Amphitrite ornata, June; Petaloproctus socialis; Notomastus sf.; Marphysa sanguinea; Diopatra cuprea; D. magna, egg mass containing larvæ, July ; Nereis limbata, Sep- tember; Hydroides dianthus, July ; Harmothoe aculeata; Axio- thea mucosa, June, July; Arabella opalina ; Loimia turgida ; Arenicola cristata, June to August; Sabella microphthalma ; Pectinaria gouldii; Sabellaria vulgaris, July ; Autolytus cor- nutus, August, September (in tow); Proceræa ornata; P. tardi- grada, early September (night tow); Rhyncobolus americanus ; Chetopterus pergamentaceus, June to August; Sthenalais picta. The interesting pelagic form, Amphinome pallasii (one of the Blake species), appeared in the harbor July 18; eggs and sperm were freely discharged. Other * worms": Bdelloura candida, June; Meckelia rosea (sp.?); Cerebratulus ingens; Sagitta sp., June to September; Thalassema mellita, June; Balanoglossus brooksii, B. kowalevskii (sp.?). Professor Andrews in 1885 discovered the presence of the interesting form Phoronis (P. architecta Andr.). Actinotrocha larvz are common in the tow during summer. Mollusca. — In Stimpson's list (oc. cit., 1860) 174 mollusks are recorded. Coues and Yarrow (/oc. cit.) again list most of these and record a few others. Osborn (doc. cit.) records still others. The following may be mentioned : Lamellibranchs: Venus rugosa (sp.2) June, the burrowing form Lithodomus lithophagus, Cytherea gigantea, Dosinia dis- cus, Moctra solidissima, Tagelus gibbus, T. divisus, Modiola plicatula, Pholas sp. (small species found in rotten wood ; shells of P. costata common), Solenomya velum, Anomia glabra, Arca transversa, A. ponderosa, A. pexata, Cyclas dentata, Cardium magnum, Pecten dislocatus, Donax fossor, Tellina alternata, Ostrea virginiana, Xylotria fimbriata (and other shipworms) August, Pinna semi-nuda, Lima sp. Venus mercenaria, Rocel- laria stimpsont. 352 IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL.. XXXIV. Gastropods. — Fulgur carica, June, July; F. canaliculata ; Neverita duplicata, June, July ; Szgaretus perspectivus; Purpura hemastoma, eggs deposited in confinement, July; Strombus alatus; Fasciolaria tulipa, June, July ; Crepidula fornicata, June ; C. plana, June; /lyonassa obsoleta ; Urosalpinx cinerea, June; Oliva literata; Ovulum unzplicatum ; Fissurella alter- nata; Littorina irrorata; Chetopleura apiculata. Among the opisthobranchs, species of Aphysia, Æolis, Doris, Polycera, Scyllæa (on gulf weed), Ancula, occur. Among the pteropods, Styltola vitrea is occasionally abun- dant. Among the cephalopods, Loligo pealii is rarely taken, and a form of lighter color (sf.?) more commonly. Squid eggs are frequently dredged during summer, outside the inlet. Crustacea. — As has been mentioned, something over sixty decapods are recorded for the locality. Beaufort is far enough to the south for the crab fauna, in particular, to show something of that variety, which becomes so pronounced in the tropics. Decapods. — Panopeus herbstii, June, July ; Lupa sayi, July ; Sesarma reticulata; Menippe mercenaria (“stone crab"); Calli- nectes hastatus, June; Ocypoda arenaria; Libinia canaliculata ; Hepatus decorus; Gelasimus pugnax; Persephona punctata, Sep- tember; Platyonichus ocellatus ; Porcellana ocellata, Septem- ber; P. macrocheles, July, August (commensal in Chætopterus tubes); Pinnotheres ostreum ; Pinnixa chetopterana, August (a rarer commensal in Chzetopterus tubes) ; Hippa emerita; Eupa- gurus vittatus, June; E. longicarpus; E. pollicaris ; Penaeus setiferus (sold during latter part of August and September) ; Palemonetes vulgaris, July; Alpheus heterochelis, July to Sep- tember; Alpheus minus, September; Gebia affinis, June; To- seuma carolinensis, August ; Lucifer sp., summer. The taking of the curious “false hermit” (Hypoconcha arcuata) may be re- ferred to—the form has been recorded by Stimpson from South Carolina. Among the forms belonging to other groups of Crustacea may be mentioned: Squilla empusa, Lysiosquilla excavatrix, Diastylis sp. (this cumacean is regularly taken in the night tow throughout summer); a large isopod (Ligia sp.), very abundant No. 401.]. MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 353 on wharves; an isopod (Gyge sf.), parasitic in branchial cavity of Alpheus heterochelis; another parasitic isopod (Livoneca ovalis, with embryos in August), common on gills of pinfish ; Orchestia sf.; Caprella s., June. Numerous copepods and cladocera, many with eggs or embryos, are constantly taken in the tow throughout summer. Among the cirripeds may be mentioned the common rock barnacle and ivory barnacle (Balanus eburneus), Lepas anatifera, which frequently appears in the harbor; a small Lepadide (Dichelaspis sf.), a common parasitic form on the gills of the edible crab, with abundant eggs in July, — this interesting form is probably the species mentioned by Fritz Müller (Facts Jor Darwin, p. 137) as occurring at Desterro on same crab (Lupa diacantha), —it differs in specific points from the sev- eral other members of the genus, described by Darwin and Hoek (Challenger Report). Limulus is of course abundant, young specimens swarming on the sand shoals in early sum- mer (June). The eggs of Limulus were, as far as I know, for the first time artificially fertilized in 1882 by Professor H. L. Osborn at Professor Brooks’s laboratory here. Naturally but little attention has been paid to the tracheate arthropods — enough though to show that the locality is an excellent one for these groups. A few characteristic forms are: the slender, long-legged myriapod Cermatia forceps, sphinx moth, Phlegethontius carolina (larva, ** tomato-worm,” excellent for anatomical work and for metamorphosis), rhinoc- eros beetle, Dynastes tityrus. One of the large hunting spiders, Lysosa sp. (carrying cocoon in early September), is abundant. The cow-killer ant (burrowing mutillid wasp, female wingless), Spherophthalma sp., is a common form. The polyzoa have not been studied. The common forms are species of Vesicularia, Bugula, Membranipora, Escharella, Pedicellina (species with spines, probably P. echinata). The only brachiopod known here, Lingula pyramidata, and its larva have already been spoken of. The particular locality in the harbor (first mentioned by Coues, /oc. cit) where Lingula, associated with Renilla and Amphioxus, was extremely abun- dant some years ago, has been encroached upon by a growing 354 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. . shoal and is no longer a good collecting place. Some equally good spots may in time be located. The tunicates, too, are badly in need of systematic work. A large ascidian, Styela s^. (doubtless the Cynthia vittata of Stimpson's list), two to three inches high, is extremely abun- dant on the sand shoals and wharf piles. Another large and translucent form, Ascidia s., is fairly abundant on wharf piles and old shells, breeding in May and June. Molgula manhat- tensis, Perophora viridis (breeding in June and July), Amarce- cium sf. are common species. Appendicularia sf. is a common form in the tow throughout summer — Professor George Le- fevre has found it breeding from April to August. Doliolum sp. is occasionally taken in the harbor through the summer — both the nurse with stolon and buds, and the sexual form with ripe eggs. The variety of fishes that may be taken in a short time in Beaufort harbor and adjoining waters is so great as to make it evident that the number recorded (Jenkins, /oc. cit., gives 134) for the region will be greatly increased when systematic col- lecting has been carried on for a few years. Some nine miles from Beaufort inlet the coast line makes a sharp, right-angled bend, with Cape Lookout at the angle. From the end of the cape a narrow line of shoals extends much farther out. The cape and its submerged continuation form a wall, as it were, reaching seaward for fifteen miles. Cape Lookout itself is so . shaped as to embrace a bay, a quiet and beautiful sheet of water, Lookout Bight. The coast configuration thus forms a remarkable natural trap into which fish, migrating northwards, fall. It is doubtful whether a better place can be found any- where on our coast for the carrying out of observations on oceanic species and on bay and river species during the oceanic period of their life. The seining that has been carried on at Cape Lookout has been extremely interesting and successful, both as regards the variety of forms and the number of indi- viduals taken. The following species may be mentioned from the harbor and adjacent waters: Amphioxus is found, but is not common — the pelagic larva are taken in the tow (July). The com- No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 355 monest sharks are the « sharp-nosed," Carcharinus terre-nove, * shovel-headed," Sphyrna tiburo. Young ‘ hammerheads,” Sphyrna zyge@na, are very abundant in the early summer in some years. The sawfish, Pristis pectinatus, is frequently taken. The sting ray, 7xygoz sayi, and butterfly skate, Pzero- platea maclura, are abundant. Several eagle rays are occasion- ally taken (cow-nosed ray, A/znoptera quadriloba, last summer), and the sea devil, Manta birostris, has been caught at Cape Lookout. Several cyprinodons (Fundulus, Cyprinodon, Gam- busia) are abundant alongshore and in “salt ponds " — F. hetero- clitus, with ripe eggs, July. Blennies are abundant about the wharf piles, Hypleurochilus multifilis depositing its eggs on sponges, etc., August. The toadfish, Batrachus tau, and its eggs (summer) are of course abundant. Selene vomerand some other ** moonfishes," two halfbeaks (Hemirhamphus braziliensis, H. unifasciatus), the shark pilot, Echeneis naucrates, pipefish, Siphostoma floride, and Hippocampus hudsonius, Nomeus grono- viz (in bell cavity of the rhizostomous medusa, Stomolophus), several swellfishes (Logocephalus levigatus, Chilomycterus geo- metricus, Tetrodon turgidus) may be referred to. The com- monest summer food fishes are the bluefish, Spanish mackerel, sheepshead, jumping mullet, sea mullet, hogfish (Orthopristis chrysopterus), pinfish (Diplodus rhomboides), croaker, spot, por- gee, weakfishes (local ** trouts," Cynoscion regale, C. maculatum), * blackfish ” (Serranus atrarius), a number of flounders (floun- der spearing with a torch of “ fat” pine is a common occupa- tion on summer nights). The menhaden (local **fatback ") fishery is an important industry. Some attention was paid during the past season to the breeding condition of the edible species, and June would seem to be a good month for fish- cultural work — the hogfish, porgee, and sea mullet are breed- ing at that time. Birds.—'The laboratory is indebted to Professor T. G. Pearson, of Guilford College, for the identification of some fifty summer birds. Gulls and terns are uncommon in the harbor. In the salt marshes several herons are abundant, also the clapper rail and the marsh wren (Worthington's), the interesting false nests of which are easily found. The Florida 356 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV. cormorant is frequently seen flying across the harbor. Charac- teristic shorebirds are the black-bellied plover, oyster catcher, willet, spotted sandpiper, yellow legs. Other characteristic birds seen about the harbor are the fish crow and boat-tailed grackle. In the town, and in the woods back of the town, and on the banks, many species are found which are common in the central part of the state (mourning dove, flicker, kingbird, crested flycatcher, phoebe, towhee, cardinal, mocking bird, brown thrasher, titmouse, Carolina chickadee). In the winter there is said to be good duck shooting in the neighborhood of the town. Other Vertebrates. — A number of lizards are abundant in and back of the town (Anolis carolinensis, Eumeces fasciatus, Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, Sceloporus undulatus). Alligators are said to be common in localities close to Beaufort, espe- cially in White Oak River, opening into Bogue Sound. Speci- mens are occasionally brought into Beaufort. The bank ponies quickly attract the attention of the newcomer. They run wild on the banks and adjacent parts of the mainland, and are peri- odically corralled (“penned”) for branding and sale. The ponies are fond of the salt-marsh grass, and droves may, on almost any day, be seen wading or swimming between the shore and the marsh islands. Deer are fairly abundant in localities, both on mainland and banks. Other common mam- mals are the mink, raccoon, opossum. Coues (loc. cit.) says the “marsh hare” (Lepus palustris) is “the most abundant and characteristic mammal” on Bogue bank. Porpoises are frequently seen in the harbor; the pairing season, according to Coues, is in April and May. Dr. D. S. Johnson and Mr. W. C. Coker, of Johns Hopkins University, made, during the past season, a reconnaissance of the flora of the region, the results of which Dr. Johnson has embodied in two papers (on the flora of the banks, and the algae of the harbor), which will appear in the Fish Commission publications. Dr. Johnson describes the peculiar physiographic characteristics of the banks, which (I quote from his unpub- lished paper) * vary in width from a quarter of a mile to a mile and a half, and in height from nearly sea-level, in the case of No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 357 certain fresh water and salt marshes, to a maximum height of perhaps forty feet in the case of some of the wind-blown dunes. The conditions prevailing on the higher parts of these banks are quite peculiar, in that while the shifting sandy soil holds very little water, yet the air is very damp, since during the growing season the prevailing wind is a strong sea breeze satu- rated with moisture. Thus are to be explained, perhaps, the frequent occurrence in this very dry soil of many plants which usually occupy a much damper soil, and the striking abundance of epiphytic lichens, liverworts, mosses, and ferns.” While the algal flora is not so varied as on more rocky parts of the coast, a very considerable number of species are present in abundance. Among these may be mentioned Hypnea musci- Sormis, Ulva lactuca, Dictyota dichotoma, Rhabdonia tenera, Gracilaria confervoides, Codium tomentosum, Padina pavonia, Sargassum vulgare, Dasya elegans, Melobesia pustulata, and species of Callithamnion, Ectocarpus, Enteromorpha, and Poly- siphonia. With its rich and accessible fauna it is not to be wondered at that Beaufort should have been so attractive to naturalists. Among those who carried on investigations in this locality before 1880 may be mentioned Professor Louis Agassiz, Dr. Stimpson, Dr. Gill, Dr. Coues, Dr. Yarrow, President Jordan, Professor Morse, Professor Packard, Professor Webster. In 1880 the marine laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, which during the previous two years had been located at points in the Chesapeake Bay, was stationed here. A large house near the extreme eastern end of the town was rented continuously, and an excellent equipment, including a 47-foot sloop and a steam launch, was provided. Professor Brooks, with his students and co-workers, continued their investigations year after year at Beaufort (with the exception of 1883, when the laboratory was stationed at Hampton, Va.) until 1886, when they spent the summer in the Bahama Islands. During most of the years since that time the Johns Hopkins laboratory has been stationed in the Bahamas or in Jamaica, with returns to Beaufort at intervals. The important share which this labo- ratory has had, since its inauguration in 1878 at Fort Wool, in 358 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. determining the character of zodlogical study in America is well known. A list of its members will be found to include many of the leaders in this branch of science in the several parts of the country, and the number of memoirs and papers based on observations made during its sessions is very large. During the last few years there have been in Beaufort, from time to time, parties of naturalists from Columbia (under Pro- fessor E. B. Wilson) and other universities, as well as from the Johns Hopkins. The U. S. Fish Commission has for years been familiar with the fact that Beaufort presented many opportunities for the scientific study of economic problems. The large number of edible fish and Crustacea, the extensive beds of clams and oysters, make the region one of commercial importance. At Professor Brooks’s laboratory many contribu- tions to the life histories of edible forms (shrimps, crabs, fish, oyster) were made. As a continuation, along economic lines, of Professor Brooks’s discoveries concerning the development of the American oyster, Lieutenant Winslow’s experiments on the artificial propagation of oysters may be mentioned. Pro- fessor Brooks, Lieutenant Winslow, Professor H. L. Osborn have all pointed out what an abundant “set” of spat may be had, and how rapidly the spat grows. An extensive survey of the oyster grounds of North Carolina was carried out some years ago, under the direction of Lieutenant Winslow ;! and the U. S. Fish Commission, conjointly with the director of the Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina, Professor J. A. Holmes, has had in progress since last Sep- tember a reéxamination of a part of the ground, with especial reference to the present condition of planted beds. As an outcome of this work we may expect to have, in the near neighborhood of Beaufort, a carefully planned and conducted experimental oyster farm, on which a continuous series of obser- vations may be carried out for some years, with the sure expectation that improvements in oyster culture will result. ! Winslow, Lieutenant Francis. Report on the Waters of North Carolina, with reference to their possibilities for oyster culture, State Printer. Raleigh, 1886 ; Report on the Sounds and Estuaries of North Carolina, with reference to oyster culture, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bulletin No. ro, 1889. No. 4o1.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 359 A year ago the director of the Geological Natural History Sur- vey of North Carolina represented to the U. S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, Hon. George M. Bowers, how desirable it was for the material development of the marine fisheries that some step be taken toward providing a headquarters, where continuous observations might be made on the natural history of the fauna of the south Atlantic coast, and how suitable the town of Beaufort was for such a purpose. In May Dr. H. M. Smith, in charge of the Division of Scientific Inquiry, announced (Sczence, Vol. IX, No. 227) the decision of the Commission to maintain, during the summer, at Beaufort, a laboratory for the prosecution of researches in marine biology. A suitable building was rented, and a proper equipment, includ- ing small boats, steam launch, dredges, trawl, etc., was pro- vided. The laboratory was occupied from June 1 to September 15. A dozen naturalists were there, representing the Johns Hopkins University, University of Alabama, Baldwin Univer- sity, Trinity College (N. C.), Guilford College, University of North Carolina. Mention has already been made of the fact that, in addition to the individual research work, considerable attention was paid to the accumulation of data on the local habi- tat, breeding times, etc., of the more abundant species of the region. The laboratory building is rented continuously, and the equipment and collections are stored there. The labora- tory will reopen for work in June. As at Woods Holl, no charge is made to the occupants of tables. While the temporary laboratory now organized at Beaufort answers many needs, it is greatly to be desired that a perma- nent Fish Commission station be established there. A bill providing the necessary appropriation for such a station is now before Congress. The policy of maintaining Fish Com- mission stations, at which ample opportunity is offered for sci- entific investigation, has been fully justified by the history of the station at Woods Holl. The results of the purely volun- tary researches of the naturalists who have annually visited this station are of the highest value. In no way can the Fish Commission accumulate useful information concerning the animal and plant life of a region, so rapidly and at so little 360 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. expense, as by maintaining a well-equipped laboratory, open to all who come to study the natural history of that region. Pro- fessor Alexander Agassiz, in his report on the Museum of Comparative Zoólogy for the year 1894-95, points out the mutual advantages that result from coóperation between the Fish Commission and those engaged in research work in biol- ogy. Mr. Agassiz has especially in mind the Woods Holl sta- tion, but his remarks have a wider applicability. Mr. Agassiz remarks that * no university laboratory can hope to obtain the facilities accruing from the maintenance of the fleet of small boats and steamers, and of the personnel which forms a neces- sary part of the equipment of the Fish Commission Station”; and farther on: * The mere collecting of material for ordinary investigation, at a marine station, is not expensive, but it is expensive to carry on the continuous observations of eminent specialists, and subsequently to publish their investigations. Such observations could well be carried on in connection with the work of a Government Fish Commission, and are not only ger- mane to its investigations, but all important to their success." ! The bill providing for a marine station at Beaufort has the earnest support of many naturalists and college presidents in the North, West, and South. It is widely recognized how advisable, both from the scientific and economic standpoint, it is to have several stations along our coast at which observa- tions may be carried on year after year. The wisdom of such a course becomes manifest when we consider the length of the coast, the difference in the character of its fauna at widely sep- arated places, and the migratory habits of many animals (food fishes, etc.). It may safely be said that many of the most inter- esting economic problems, such, for instance, as the effect of the feeding ground on edible animals, and the possibility of altering such grounds, can only be solved after a comparison of results, obtained at various points on the coast, has been made, and the same is true for the broader Muy of variation in its strictly scientific aspect. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA. 1 Italics are mine. THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG (IRIS VERSICOLOR L.). JAMES G. NEEDHAM. AT the time of the adjournment of my college classes last June, I spent a few hours afield, watching the blue flags and their insect visitors, at first solely for the pleasant recreation that such study affords. But I soon made a few enticing little discoveries which set me to work in earnest. I began by locating all the clumps that were easy of access from my home in Lake Forest, and then I studied them daily during the flowering season, and almost daily thereafter throughout the summer. The facts that first caught my attention were: (1) that there are many visitors to these flowers that seem to have been unnoticed hitherto; (2) that most of these are illicit visitors ; and (3) that the ill-adapted ones are habitually deceived by the flower itself as to its proper entrance. I propose to give in the following pages the more important results of the season's observations. It seemed to me that any new study of this so familiar flower should be undertaken on somewhat broader lines than are usually followed. The reproductive phase of the plant is a unit, and the flower is but one of a series of devices for fur- thering the reproductive process. Bud and flower and capsule and seed are the successive centers of interdependent ecologi- cal phenomena, determining the start in life of the next gener- ation. I have tried to study the effect of insects upon the outcome of the reproductive process as a whole, and I discuss, below the chief ecological relations under the following head- ings: Pollination ; The Waste of the Nectar; The Destruction of the Flowers; Fertilization ; The Destruction of the Seeds; Inflorescence, and Chances of Maturing Fruit; The Relation of Habitat to Fertility; Alteration of Environment. k 3601 > 362 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. I. PorriNATION. The flowers of the Iris have long been known to be entirely dependent on insects for the transference of their pollen. The structure of the flower has so often been described, there is no need of describing it again ; if the reader has forgotten, he may refresh his memory by reference to the accompanying figures. He will recall a flower divided into three parts, requir- ing three separate visits by the insect which would obtain its stores; in each part an ex- trorse anther placed with its back against an overarching branch of the extremely large, three-parted style (Fig. 1, K); below anther and style a passage- way to the nectary, with the usual guide streaks at its en- trance, is formed by the chan- neled sepal. The stigma is restricted to the upper surface of an inferior, transverse, flap- like appendage of the style branch, just beyond the apex of the anther (Fig. 2). This flap is very thin and remains ap- pressed to the style, with its free border toward the entrance, the stigmatic surface covered. The pollen-laden back of an '* entering insect, rubbing against it, readily everts the flap and The arrow indicates the position deposits pollen on the stigmatic on the proboscis ofap z surface. Released, it closes No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 363 elastically, and the rubbing of an emerging insect only closes it the more tightly. Although the flowers are slightly protandrous, ripe pollen and fresh stigmatic surface may be found in the same flower at some period of zstivation. In case insects fail there is no pro- vision for self-pollination by withering, as is the case in some members of the Iris family; the stigma, lifted away from the anther before maturing, remains so permanently. I shall now discuss briefly the insects which I have seen to enter these flowers, taking them up in the order of their impor- tance as agents of pollen distribution. I therefore begin with two small bees of closely similar size and habits: C/isodon terminalis Cr., Osmia distincta Cr. These bees exhibit such perfection of adaptation as was the delight of the naturalists of Sprengel's day, and as will ever be delightful to observe. They were seen only in warm sunshine, during the season of abundant flowers; late and straggling flowers seemed to be neglected by them altogether. They were not the most numerous nor the most conspicuous visit- ors ; but they visited very many flowers in rapid succession, securing the transference of the pollen with superior precision. Each bee alights squarely at the entrance and without the slightest pause speeds down the arched passageway, and does not stop until its head is wedged in the bottom, with the pro- boscis extended through one of the two holes (see Fig. 1, 5) leading to the nectary. A step backward and another momen- tary thrust of the proboscis, and away to another flower. That it rubs the stigma on entering may be seen by the tilting of the style tip; this is readily seen at a distance of several meters. Osmia distincta was perhaps a little less swift in its passage than the other, and this species alone was seen occa- sionally stopping on the way out from the nectary to scrape up some of the pollen fallen beneath its feet. Next in order should be mentioned a group of syrphus flies : Helophilus letus Loew.; Syrphus torvus O. S.; Eristalis dimi- diatus Wied. Of these the first-named was a very common visitor. Of the other two I saw but a single specimen of each on Iris flowers, although the last-named was abundant on flowers 364 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of the spreading dogbane. These are a little larger than 77. letus, and probably found the entrance way to the flower too close quarters. H. detus visits the flowers for pollen only. Its proboscis is too short to reach the nectar. It wanders in at the entrance, rubbing first the stigma and then the anther with its back, swinging its proboscis from side to side, the ter- minal flaps sweeping the fallen pollen from the floor of the passageway. The down of its back was generally found well . dusted with Iris pollen, and as an agent in pollination it was certainly second only to the bees above mentioned. In the method of their operations these bees and syrphus flies stand in striking contrast. The bees enter and leave the flowers on the run, visiting very many in a remarkably short time; the syrphids loiter about the entrance, turning this way and that and, although entering cautiously, remain inside some time; but between visits they spend much time disporting themselves with their fellows in the sunshine. While a syr- phus fly is visiting one flower a bee will visit a score. Bombus separatus Cr. —'The Iris and the bumblebee were the subjects of one of Sprengel's early studies on the relation between flowers and insects. Sprengel thought the bumble- bee the only insect concerned with the fertilization of the European species (/ris germanica) which he studied. Müller attributed rather more importance to a very long-tongued, nec- tar-eating syrphid, Rhyngia rostrata. American writers on [ris versicolor have treated the bumblebee as the visitor of first importance. My observations do not corroborate this opinion. I saw but three bumblebees on Iris flowers during the entire season, and each of these was seen but a few sec- onds, entering from one to three flowers at one side only, and then departing. The visits were not such as bumblebees make to flowers which they habitually seek. They showed evident dissatisfaction. Indeed, they seemed to me ill-adapted. They are too large; they enter with difficulty and some delay, and crowd the stigma too roughly in passing. In the single visit which I was able to observe in detail the stigmatic flap was torn from the style for half its width; the bumblebee de- scended the passage with its proboscis retracted, made no No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 365 attempt at sucking, but scraped the trough of the sepal with its legs, gathering pollen. Halictus disparilis Cr. — This minute bee is a common, though not a conspicuous nor an important visitor. It enters the flower by crawling beneath the tip of the style back down- ward, traverses the stigma, and walks back and forth, the length of the anther clinging to its underside, dislodging with its claws large quantities of pollen (Fig. 2). A strikingly large load of pollen is thus collected upon the hairs of its ven- tral surface. So it spends a long time under a single anther and visits but few in gathering its load. While it is highly probable that the bee everts and pollinates the stigma on Fic. 2. — A minute bee (Halictus disparilis Cr ;) collecti llen f the Iris anther; a., anther. JS filament ; s, style. 'The arrow indi I f i t i he fl entering, it is certainly very wasteful of pollen. A more equi- table arrangement is seen in its relations with Ludwigia poly- carpa, which it visits in pools near by, and whose small flowers will furnish a load of pollen only for the traversing of a multi- tude of stigmas. Trichius piger Fabr.— This ubiquitous flower beetle, ob- served by Robertson at Carlinville in the flowers of Z. verst- color, was rather common here. The channeled sepal seemed a favorite place for an afternoon nap. I found several there undoubtedly asleep — one so soundly that, after carrying it about in the flower in my hand for half an hour, I still had a chance to wake it. After repeatedly tickling two of its feet that were hanging over the edge of the sepal it at length stirred, then stretched itself like a lazy boy awaking; in a little while it was lively enough. I saw one beetle in the passageway eating fallen pollen. The species is not ill-adapted by its size for visiting these flowers, and should it pass directly from flower to flower, it 366 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. might be an important agent in pollen distribution; but I have not seen one pass from flower to flower directly and am in- clined to think it rarely does so. It is little disposed to flight and is much more at home clambering among the thyrsoid clusters of Rhus and Ceanothus. Furthermore, on reaching an Iris flower it is habitually deceived as to the point of entrance and tries for some time to get in at its center, between the branches of the cleft style. After clambering in and out of the central cleft repeatedly the proper entrance is at length stumbled upon. It cannot, of course, reach the nectar, and the supply of pollen on the floor of the passageway is very meager. If seeking pollen it might, if it had wit enough, get plenty of it by entering the other side up. Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr. (the Flag Weevil), — This beetle is one of the most characteristic insects affecting the blue flag, and one of the commonest. It is often found in the passageway to the nectary, picking up stray pollen grains, other grains sticking to its rostrum and feet and to the scaly ventral surface of its body, but not to its smooth back. What has been said of the preceding species, as to its part in pollen transference, and as to its activities in and about the flower, will apply almost literally to this species. Desiring to learn whether they would transfer pollen prop- erly, and finding too few entering the flowers of their own accord, I picked up a number of them with forceps and placed them in various positions on the flowers. They all, wherever placed, ran rapidly into the central cleft of the style, seeking to enter there, climbed out, and returned to try it again repeat- edly. A few then climbed out at the sides between two sepals and crawled through the space between sepal and style into the entrance way, without touching either stigma or anther. A far larger number came upon the proper entrance. Most of these latter climbed over the tip of the style and down its outer tace, entering back downward, traversing both stigma and anther. A lesser number wandered out upon the tip of the sepal and returned to enter right side up; owing to the lack of pollen on their smooth backs, these would effect nothing, though they touched the stigma. No. 4o1.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 367 Single individuals taken from the flower again and again and replaced on top, though they sought to enter speedily, went about it in the same bungling way as before. They did not readily learn by experience. Aylota fraudulosa Loew.; Sepsis violacea Meig; Chlorops proxima Say; C. assimilis Macq.; Chrysogaster nitida Wied. — These active little flies are minor pollen thieves, all small enough to run into the open passageway, gather a few pollen grains, and run out with them. The first is large enough to brush a low stigma in passing, and the second, a strutting, micro-hymenopter mimicker, might strike a stigma with its tilting wings; but all are very unimportant, both in pollination and in their petty thievery. Lastly, I should not omit to mention thrips, a few of which are to be found in almost every flower, and, antithetically, a humming bird (Zvochilis colubris Linn.) which I saw make several thrusts, in succession, with its beak into the proper entrance of these flowers. II. THE WasTE OF THE NECTAR. Two important sources of waste of nectar were much in evi- dence throughout the season — lepidopters and weevils. A. LEPIDOPTERA. — These were, by day, skipper butterflies (Hesperidze), and at dusk, two species of moths ! : Eudamus tityrus Fabr., seen at flowers several times. Eudamus pylades Scudd., seen at flowers but once. Pamphila hobomok Harr., seen at flowers continuously. Pamphila peckius Kirb., seen at flowers continuously. Pamphila cernes Bd.-Lec., seen at flowers continuously. Pamphila mystic Scudd., seen at flowers not uncommonly. Leucania pallens (?), seen at flowers several times. Evergestis stramentalis, seen at flowers several times. The pamphilas were the most conspicuous and persistent o: all visitors. Throughout the season one could find at even the ! Another moth, Crambus /aqueatellus Clem., was seen twice, vainly plying its proboscis at the proper entrance. 368 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. smallest clump of flowers one or more of these skippers sitting in the position shown in Pl. I, Fig. 2, far from anther and stigma, stealing the nectar. They get it with some difficulty, to be sure, the holes opening into the nectary not being visible from the outside. They must stand outside and insert the pro- boscis obliquely between the sepal and the base of the style, plying and thrusting with it until a hole is found. Repeated trials occasion loss of time, and when the hole is found not all the nectar adjacent to it can be reached from one position. Nevertheless, one cannot witness the persistences of the skip- pers, and their abundance throughout the season, without being convinced that they get a large share of the nectar. Very interesting as bearing on the validity of long-accepted theories of floral coloration (which some are nowadays saying were accepted without sufficient experimental proof) are the habits of the pamphilas in visiting the flowers. When the question is raised, Do the guide streaks really guide? the pam- philas on the blue flags will furnish affirmative evidence. Fig. 3 shows a flower as seen from above. The center of the flower is at the deepest point between the divisions of the style, and the lines of these divisions all point toward the cen- ter, analogously to the guide streaks on the corolla of Convol- vulus. There are special guide streaks, to be sure, at the proper points of entrance; but these are in unusual places and are also arranged radiately about the center of the flower. Pamphilas vis- iting the flowers habitually try to enter at the center. One will roam over the summit of the flower, returning to try for en- trance at the central cleft, again and again. When one has strayed to the end of the style branch and stumbled upon the right entrance, it will generally be seen to try for a moment to enter there. After several ineffectual attempts at the center, it will pass over the edge of the sepal and descend backward or sidewise to the position shown in the plate (Fig. 4). That something similar was observed by Professor Charles Robert- son is indicated by the two words which I have underscored in the following quotation: * Sometimes butterflies obtain nectar in an illegitimate way, by backing down to the base of the flower and inserting their proboscides between the bases of the ` No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 369 ‘falls’ [sepals] and the style divisions." ! He mentions Chryso- phanes thoe Boisd. and Lec. and Pamphila peckius Kirb. I have mentioned above that the flower beetle, Zrichius piger, and the flag weevil, Mononychus vulpeculus, are deceived as to the proper entrance in a quite similar manner, with the difference that when these stumble upon the true entrance they can enter there. I have never seen any one of these ill- adapted visitors alight directly at the proper entrance; all fol- Fic. 3. — Top view of the flower; false guide streaks. low to the center the lines simulating the guide streaks of. an ordinary open flower. But the Iris flower was not evolved by these insects, nor with them. Proper visitors know where the entrance is and make no mistakes. And if the bees afore- named pass from nectary to nectary with a speed that the eye can hardly follow, must we conclude that they are not guided - by the coloration of the flowers? Must we say the striking - lines of violet and yellow at the entrance aid them not, be- cause they give no sign? I think not. I may enter a barber Shop guided entirely by a striped pole and yet give no sign. I 1 Robertson, Charles. Junius Gazette, vol. xxi, p. 80; "- 370 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. believe it an analogy which does no violence to the truth if we compare a clump of the flowers to a business block in a city. Those whose business is there go about so automatically one might think they see nothing, while strangers have to stop and read the signs; and the rapidity with which the stranger will learn to feel at home will depend, not alone upon the persist- ency of his presence there, but also upon his mental adaptabil- ity to such knowledge. B. Mononycnus (the Flag Weevil and its Train).— This weevil wastes the nectar inordinately. It stands on the out- side of the nectary and, with its beak, sinks a shaft into the nectariferous tissue, nibbles a little, makes another hole, and another and another, until the nectar is left flowing from many punctures, attracting swarms of insects of all sorts. One is shown in Fig. A of the plate, together with a number of its attendants. It is no uncommon thing to find the ovary almost covered with insects following in the wake of the weevil, collect- ing the sap it has set flowing. The muscids are most numer- ous; I have seen a weevil making a puncture with three flies facing him and one on his back, all trying to get their probos- cides to the puncture, crowding one another like pigs around a trough. During hours of sunshine, competition is so keen that insects with proboscides to insert into the beetle punctures (Muscide, Capside, Pentatomidz, etc.) seem to have a decided advantage. I have seen the following feeding at the weevil punctures : Muscidz, abundant, of a number of common species. Capsidz, abundant, especially the first named : Pecilocapsus goniophorus Say, in four varieties. Pecilocapsus affinis Reut. Calcoris rapidus Say. Lygus pratensis Linn. Pentatomida, very common. . Euchistus ictericus Linn. Euchistus tristigmus Say. Podisus spinosus Dall. Coccinellida, common. Megilla maculata DeG. x Hippodamia 13-punctata Linn. No. 401.] ZHE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. | 371 Lampyridz, common at dusk and on dark days, especially the first-named: Telephorus carolinus Fabr. Podabrus bastlaris Say. Podabrus rugulosus Lec. Lucidota atra Fabr. The following insects, seen more rarely : Mordella marginata Melsh. Male mosquito (undetermined). III. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FLOWERS. The flowers of the blue flag when bitten have a sweetish taste, which seems to invite their destruction at the jaws of a number of insects that are ever near at hand. -I observed adult flag weevils, noctuid moth larvæ, and grasshoppers to be especially destructive while the flowers were in full bloom.! Any service the weevils may render as pollinators is greatly overbalanced by the destructiveness of their feeding habits. Not content with puncturing the walls of the nectary, they sometimes riddle the perianth leaves and the style divisions, destroying or (what is equally fatal) displacing the parts con- cerned in fertilization.? All the grasshoppers (Acrididæ and Locustidæ) about the flag beds and in the neighboring sedges eat the freshly opened flowers, mainly nibbling a little at the margins of the petals or sepals and doing little real harm, but sometimes destroying the flowers completely. The destructive moth larvae were of three species: Arsi- lonche albovenosa Goeze, Mamestra sp.?* and Spilosoma con- 1 Feeding upon the wilted flowers a day after they had closed and when re! ? This weevil has been reported by Mr. G. C. Davis as very destructive to pner garden Irides, at Flint, Mich. Znsect nig vol. vii, p. 201, 1894. 3 I did not rear this species; two of my larve taken for rearing were parasitiz with a species of Apanteles; the remainder bs well as many in the field) died of some bacterial disease. Arsilonche albovenosa was abundantly parasitized with Rhogas intermedius Cr. 372 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV. grua Walk. At the time the Iris flowers opened, these larvae were well grown. They then forsook the leaves, on which they had been feeding hitherto, for the daintier floral diet. Chetopsis enea Wied. and its Train.— This little bud- destroying ortalid fly deserves special mention, because in cer- tain situations it does more to prevent fruiting than all other insect enemies combined. Furthermore, its attack comes earli- est; its larva enters the pedicel at the base of the flower bud and bores downward into the common flowering stem (pe- duncle), killing not one bud, but the cluster of two or three arising at that point. Thus the flowers are killed before they open and are left to decay. Walking through a pasture near Lake Bluff, Ill., one day, I was led to examine some large clumps of flags by the very bad odor of their Chaetopsis-killed flowers. In clumps of several hundred plants each, not a single flower had been permitted to open. Finding Chetopsis larve still present in some of the pedicels, I collected a hundred or more terminal branches of the flower clusters and placed them on end in a jar, with a little water, some gravel, earth, etc., in the bottom, covered the jar with fine netting, and set it aside to await develop- ments. My little jar yielded, not a single species, but a little com- munity — a succession of interdependent forms, such as one often finds among insects with a brief life history, able to take advantage of a transient food supply. First there appeared a number of pomace flies (Drosophila phalerata Meig), which had probably been attracted to the buds by the souring of their saccharine juices. Next appeared the ortalids (Chetopsis «nea Wied.), the cause of all the trouble. These I found left the stems when full-grown larva and pupated on the wet soil in the bottom of the jar. By this time the rotting buds were teeming with oscinid larvae and studded all over the outside with pupe, from which soon issued swarms of the minute fly, Oscznzs soror Macq. With these also appeared a small number of beetles (undetermined) and a few parasitic Hymenoptera (Spalangia drosophile Ashm. and Heptamerocera sf.?). Finally, after the. decaying buds had been completely overrun with mycelial No. 4o1.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 373 threads of fungus, there appeared fungus gnats (Scatopse puli- caria Loew.) in great numbers. It is quite probable that the ortalids attacking the fresh buds, the pomace flies coming when the saccharine juices of the flower first begin to ferment, the other flies and beetles clearing up the rotting débris, with a few parasites to hold the commonest in check, form an entirely natural succession of forms belonging with such conditions. IV. FERTILIZATION. Not wishing to leave actual fertilization out of account, I (1) _ pollinated by hand a large number of flowers and marked them for examination later, and (2) counted the fertile and abortive ovules in a large number of capsules developing from flowers fertilized by insects. In my hand-pollination experiment half the flowers were treated with their own pollen, half with pollen from other plants. Before the seeds had grown sufficiently to be distinguished with certainty from the abortive ovules, grass- hoppers and Mamestra larvae had eaten all but a few. Those that remained happened to be half self-pollinated, half cross- pollinated, and the result may be worth mentioning, even though they were but few. The average by capsules was as follows : Cross-pollinated, ovules, 79; fertilized, 74, unfertilized, 5 (for 2 capsules). Self “ “ 82; ‘ 16, Im ( “ 2 “ : These were small capsules, from flags growing among thick sedges. i In a flourishing flag clump growing in the edge of a wood- land pool I selected thirty well-developed capsules from flowers fertilized by insects, for the following tabulation. The position of the several capsules in the cluster is indicated by the letter- ing in the first column, which is the same as that of Fig. 4. 374 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. TABLE I. — AVERAGES OF FERTILIZATION BY INSECTS FOR 30 CAPSULES. VERAGE P CEK NUMBER OF CAPSULES. NUMBER OF FERTILIZED. | UNFERTILIZED. | SR E CAPSULES FERTILIZED. COUNTED. la 126 74 52 58.73 IO Ib 129 57 2 44.96 5 Ic II4 2 82 28.07 5 IIa 123 44 79 3577 5 II 4 113 40 73 35.39 5 Totals Naba? 43 68 P 30 V. Tue DESTRUCTION OF THE SEEDS. I observed two types of seed destroyers, ecologically speak- ing : (1) those which are locally destructive, and (2) those which are with the flag in all the situations in which it grows. The influence of situation will be discussed under a subsequent heading, but here may be mentioned the insects locally destruc- tive to the developing seeds. These are grasshoppers, Mames- tra larvee, and ovipositing damsel flies of the genus Lestes. The grasshoppers are very destructive in meadow clumps and in the drier, more grassy situations, sometimes eating all the capsules over considerable areas, while generally disdaining to eat the leaves at all. Of the three moth larvæ already mentioned as feeding on the flowers, only Mamestra remains to attack the developing ovary; the others return to their aforetime diet of leaves. But Mamestra, having once bitten into a juicy capsule, will eat nothing else thereafter, so long as capsules are obtainable. In my rearing cages a single larva would eat out all the seeds from a well-grown capsule in two days. Mamestra hardly comes into competition with the grasshoppers, since it avoids the drier situations where these are numerous enough to be destructive. The injury from Lestes was: still more local and was of a sort apparently not hitherto recorded. It was confined to flags No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 375 growing in standing water. The sheltered pools in which the Iris thrives best are the special haunts of these insects. Lestes uncata Kirby and L. unguiculata Hag. were abundant, and the females of these species punctured the fruiting stems so thickly in Ovipositing as to kill perhaps a fourth of them. These egg punctures sometimes completely encircled the stem, but were more often confined to the more exposed side, overhanging the water. I observed as many as 250 punctures to the inch in length of stem in several cases. All were above water, some extending nearly to the top of the stems.! Nearly every well- exposed stem was thus killed outright or so injured as to pre- vent the maturing of its seeds. ; Many other Odonata are seen constantly about the flag clumps. Longfellow singled out a natural associate when he wrote of the Fleur-de-lis : The burnished dragonfly is thine attendant ; but the showier dragonflies which habitually poise on the sum- mits of the sword-shaped leaves have no ecologic relation to the Iris, save indirectly through their relations with other insects, : Of ubiquitous flag-seed destroyers I have found but two; the larvz of a very pretty little tortricid moth, Penthina hebe- sana Walk., and the larva of the flag weevil (Mononychus vulpecu- lus Fabr.. The moth larvae were common, the weevil larve, . abundant; both were often found attacking the same capsule. The larva of Penthina bores a hole into the seed capsule at its base, generally under the protecting tip of a bract, and eats its way upward through the seeds, usually consuming in its lifetime about half the contents of a single cell. Then it undergoes its transformations under the bract, or withered perianth, or in its burrow.? 1 Egg parasites of Odonata have not in this country been hitherto reported ; I bred from these Lestes eggs in flag stems five species of egg parasites and one hyperparasite, all of which proved to be species new to science. These are now in Mr. Ashmead's hands for uicta These species of Lestes oviposit even more abundantly in Spharganium lea ? With this species there was peabar found another tortricid (Cacæcia rosaceana Harris) of almost identical habits. 376 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV. The flag weevil (Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr.) has already been mentioned as a denizen and, to some extent, a destroyer of Iris flowers. The height of the season for the adult weevils is the blossoming time of the flowers. Even then they are not very active; I have found them flying freely from clump to clump only in the hot sunshine of early afternoon. They will dodge around the base of the flower like a squirrel around a branch when a hand approaches, but they will rarely fly; they will oftener fall to the earth or into the water. The females when ovipositing are still more shy and difficult to observe. I was able to see the details of the process of egg laying on only ‘one day —a very windy day, when everything about the wee- vil was in motion, and my own movements were, therefore, less noticed. The mother beetle rapidly gnaws a little hole through the wall of the ovary and, taking a few steps forward, inserts an egg into it. She then walks a little way and repeats the process or gnaws aimless little pits over the surface of the ovary The wounds thus made are quickly stopped by the dis- charge from mucilage cells, which are abundant in the walls of the ovary. The egg is often inserted into the external face of an ovule. When the egg hatches, the larva at once begins a shallow furrow across the outer ends of the developing seeds, travers- ing from two to ten of them. Thus it spends the larger part of its larval life, doing no damage whatever. In fact, during this stage it is in considerable danger of being eaten, along with the seeds, by grasshoppers or Mamestra larva. Entering upon its last larval stage, the larva burrows downward and begins feeding on the softer tissues of the center of the seeds. It eats voraciously and grows with marked rapidity. It burrows parallel with the axis of the capsule through the center of from three to five seeds, leaving of them only empty rings. Its growth is completed and all its damage is done during this stage, which lasts only about a week. Then it transforms 1 Possibly these blind pits may serve for the confusion of the weevil’s parasites. I found a little egg, presumably that of a parasite, just within the entrance to a hole, at the bottom of which a weevil egg was lying. Mr. J. Hamilton found the parasites (n. Mews, vol. v, pp. 287, 288, 1894). No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 377 within its burrow and remains there as an imago, until the bursting of the capsules in autumn causes the seeds and the weevils to be shed together. To determine the extent of the damage done by the weevil to the flag seeds, I picked at random, in several situations, fifty well-developed capsules and counted the weevils inthem. The result by capsules was as follows: Number of larvz per capsule, o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16. Number of times occurring, 3, 2, 4, 8, 4, 11, 3, 6 1, I, 2, I, I, I Thus, but three were found without larvae in them; two con- tained such numbers (fifteen and sixteen, respectively) that there were hardly enough seeds to insure their development ; the total number of larvae was 269, the average number per capsule, five. Each larva destroys on an average about four seeds; a preceding table has shown that the average number of seeds developing per capsule (among thirty counted) was forty-three. So it appeared that the weevils destroyed nearly half the seeds in capsules which had escaped other destroyers, all of which had had their turn first. While this weevil is the most constant enemy of the blue flag, it is at the same time the one best regulated. Unlike other enemies, it is present on or in the plant throughout the season, and, though occurring everywhere, it is never wholly destructive anywhere. Its own habits furnish checks to too great multiplication. This is but saying that the weevil repre- sents a higher type of ecologic specialization. It has become adapted for living on the blue flag exclusively. Other enemies might totally devastate the flag clumps and, in the next gener- ation, turn to some other food plant; but excessive injury by the weevil means future starvation for its kind. The grasshop- pers, Mamestra and Chzetopsis, work a havoc that strikingly suggests a disturbance of the balance of nature. But the wee- vil goes its accustomed way — the way into which it has been led by natural selection — and gets its living unobtrusively ; and save for the rather rare damage to flowers, which may as often be done after fertilization as before, the flags show no visible sign of the burden which, under natural conditions, they are doubtless able to carry. 378 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. VI. INFLORESCENCE, AND CHANCES OF MATURING FRUIT. The flowering stem of Z. versicolor bears a terminal cluster of three flowers and generally one or more lateral clusters of two flowers ! each, the latter springing from the axils of alter- nating bracts. Fig. 4 represents a stem which bore the typical complement of flowers. For convenience of reference I desig- nate these clusters by the Roman numerals applied to them in the figure. Cluster / is developed in all (100 per cent); cluster //, in about 60 per cent of the stems; cluster ///, in about 10 per cent of them; and cluster /V is rarely developed; I found it but once during the season.? The small letters indicate the several flowers in the clusters and also the order of their opening. The clusters are nearly isochronous, but there is some irregularity. Flower / a is generally the first to open. The few flowers which I Fic. 4.—Diagram of the Marked for observation opened in the ee morning before nine o’clock, and closed by withering during the afternoon of the day following. Flowers a, 6, and ¢ follow each other in regular succession, each being ! The statement of Goodale (Wild Flowers of North America, p. 32, 1882) that "the flowers may be single or in clusters of two, rarely more” is certainly not true for the vicinity of Lake Forest; I found but a single clump to which it would at all apply — a clump of much-dwarfed plants growing on a very dry hillock in a pasture near Fort Sheridan. This singular clump bore twenty flowering stems, of which five had cluster Z only, with but two flowers (a and 4) in that cluster; twelve had clusters Z and ZZ developed, with the second flower (4) developed in Z7 but twice; and three with clusters Z, ZZ, and 7/7 developed, and only one flower (a) present in cluster ZZZ. Elsewhere I found three examples of cluster / in which a fourth flower (7) was developed, and two in which the third flower (c) was not developed. The usual four bracts were developed in all; but the termi- nal bract, usually sterile, was fertile in three, and the third bract, usually fertile, was sterile in the other two. I also found a single cluster ZZ containing three flowers. ? These percentages w were derived from a count of 214 stems — the same ones other localities near Lake Forest yielded slightly different results, as follows: cluster Z developed in all (100 per cent); cluster ZZ developed in 87 (67.5 per cent); cluster 7/7 developed in 21 (16.3 per cent). No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 379 open for two days. Sometimes there is an interval of a day or two with no flower open. Some striking differences in time of flowering, due to situation, will be noticed under the next heading. I collected 214 stems from five different localities and stud- ied them to determine the proportionate fertility of the several capsules. Wholly infertile stems I disregarded altogether, and capsules developing any seed at all I counted fertile ; Table II summarizes the results of the count. Disregarding localities for the present, the total percentages of fertility are as follows : Flower Ja, 75 per cent; Z b, 63 per cent; I c, 28 per cent. u Z1 a, 66 per cent ; IT b, 43 per cent. *- Za, 68 per cent; LIT b, 54 per cent.! Clearly, the advantage is with the earlier flowers. But is there not further significance in these facts? In con- nection with the occasional occurrence of an extra flower in clusters / and // they seem to me to suggest that the flower cluster is in process of reduction by elimination of the later flowers. The observations of one season will not determine such a matter. It is sufficient to record the conditions of the present, that the future student may have the criteria necessary for determining it. VII. Tur RELATION oF HABITAT TO FERTILITY. My observations were all made on the eastern slope of the narrow Lake Forest moraine, which forms a part of the west shore of Lake Michigan, its wave-worn eastern edge rising abruptly some seventy feet from the water. Numerous sharp, post-glacial ravines, whose puny streams take their origin among the pools, marshes, and “ potholes” of the crest of the moraine and reach the lake level only at their mouths, give con- siderable variety to the otherwise uniform and scarcely percep- tible eastward slope. I found and studied the blue flag growing in eight different sorts of situations. ^ These will be referred to by numbers in the succeeding tables, as follows : ! The higher percentages for cluster ZZZ are somewhat misleading, because this cluster is developed only under the most favorable conditions. — . 380 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Locality I. — A small clump of perhaps fifteen plants, grow- ing in the edge of a little creek that was formed by the conflu- ence of a number of ravines, near the lake and almost at the lake level. But one clump was found in this situation, and it bore but fourteen flowering stems; but, because of its striking vigor, fertility, and comparative exemption from insect ene- mies, it is included in the table. Locality 2. — A large area of flags, growing in an upland meadow pool that was the head water of one branch of the forementioned creek. This was the most extensive and the most typical of the clumps studied. Locality 3. — A large and compact clump, growing in the edge of a woodland pool. Locality 4. — Isolated single plants, growing between the sedges and the open water in a woodland pool. Locality 5. — A large number of scattered plants, growing among the sedges of a **filled-in"" pool. Locality 6. — A typical glacial “ pothole " in deep woods on the summit of the moraine, with abrupt banks, some depth of water in the middle, closely bordered with great oaks, and almost filled with a dense growth of buttonbush (Cephalan- thus) The flags grew between the buttonbush hummocks and the shore, tall and spindling, with remarkably pale flowers. They bloomed late, the water of the pothole being rather cold, and, with the exception of two flowering stems which grew upon an unoccupied hummock, set no seed at all; hence this locality is omitted from Table II. Locality 7. — At the foot of a hill bordering the creek men- tioned above (locality 1), in a pool of cold water, the outflow from a spring, grew perhaps fifty plants, intermixed with cat- tails and sedges. These made a very promising appearance, but they bloomed late; the flowers were considerably damaged by weevils and set little seed, and that little was early destroyed and none left for tabulation. Locality 8. — In a bottom-land pasture bordecide the creek numerous large, apparently healthy, clumps on dry ground. This ground had once been marshy bottom land; but as a result of pasturage, tillage, and deforestation of the hills above floods THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. No. 401.] Pl. I. — Two Iris flowers, with some illicit visitors. Entering the cleft in the style of flower a, Pamphila peckius Kirb. ; on the left side of the nectary, a flag weevil (Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr.) surrounded by a group of Muscidz ; below, a lampyrid (Telephorus carolinus Fabr.), also seeking nectar. On flower 4, Pamphila cernes Bd.-Lec. stealing the nectar; ny nectary; o. ovary. This, and Fig. 3, photographed from life by the author. 382 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. had increased, and the creek had deepened its channel, leaving the flag clumps high and dry. The flowers were destroyed by Chaetopsis, setting no seed at all. Thus, only the five first-named localities were available for the following tabulation. ` TABLE II. — COMPILATION OF DATA’ ON IRIS FRUITING. CAPSULES FERTILE. | By CLUSTERS. 3 & s s S E "n $ jo A 5 From |No. E Ei $ ysis * is Li FE E 5 «| E 1a) Ele] EIF EENE S SE E " i t EIN § Sigs] E WS à, x À A ee a loc. 1 | 14|| 10 9 9 28 66%, o| 8| 57%| 7| 50% " 3 10291. 65 81 36 212| 57%] | 74| 59%| 34| 27% : * 4 | 29| 18 20 8 46 63% o| 13| 52% 16% « 4 | gl 21 18 6 45| 63%| 1| 16| 64%| 6| 25% “es oot I 7 2 26 35% o| 7| 28%| 1| 4% Total |214||t6r| 75%|135| 63%| 61| 28%|357| 56%| 1|118| 55%| 51| 24% loc. 1 | 10| 7 4 II| 55%| o| 4| 40% * 2 |75| 56 39 95| 63%| 2| 38| 50% IH “ 3 |15| 10 7 17| 57%| 4| 6| 40% “ 4/13) 8 5 13| 50%| 3| 4| 34% UE ER 3| ro% 12| 0 Total |128| 84| 66%) 55, 43% 139| 5470, 21| 52| 41% lo.1 | 7| 5 6 11| 79%| o| 5| 71% * 32 1347 8 4 12| s0% o| 3| 25% Tow. IRSE 1 21100 j| o| 1/100% III uir 1| 1 I 2|100% | o| 1/100% “ 5 I o [e] I [e] : Total | 22]| 15| 68%| 12| 54% 27| 61%| 1| 10| 45% " IV A single example from loc. 1, both capsules fertile. This study by localities shows that the flags which grow in shallow water with open exposure to the sun have the better of it. Doubtless this but indicates their natural habitat. The inference previously drawn from this table, that the earlier flowers have the advantage, is strikingly corroborated No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 383 by the study of localities 6 and 7, in which cold water and consequent late flowering are accompanied by nearly total infertility. While various reasons might be assigned for this advantage, I am inclined to believe that the principal reason is the coincidence of the visits of the bees, pollen distribu- ters par excellence, with the time of blossoming of the early flowers. The following table expresses in general terms the relation which ravage by insect enemies was seen to bear to situation. The first three columns express broadly the more potent fea- tures of the several situations. In six columns are indicated, by abbreviations of their respective scientific names, the six chief insect enemies: Mononychus, Penthina, Mamestra, Arsi- lonche, Orthoptera (grasshoppers), and Cheetopsis ; the numbers in these columns merely indicate the relative destructiveness of the insects named for each locality. In the last column is given the percentage of injury done by the species that was most destructive in each locality. TABLE III. — RELATION OF INSECT RAVAGE TO IRIs HABITAT. WATER. Insect ENEMIES. * E > g EXPOSURE TO SUN. : ; : ; ii. P A t Temperature. š š Š [T a X be mount. S È S < è S AS 1 || Open 6 inches) Warm 11411 2 10 2 n 1-6 * y a413iris14105]. 3 3 “ 4 &« & 21472 6/2 5 40 £u 6 * " 3/41/1121 5] 6]| 6 5 || Overtopping sedges || Wet soil 5|6|2|3|1|4]| 6 6 || Deeply shaded o-20 inches| Cold I ; 45 7 || Open o-4 “ |Cold(spring)| 1|4 | 3 215]| 50 8 S Moist soil I || 100 So the blue flag is growing in certain native habitats now, under altered conditions, apparently not normal to it, in which it meets with enemies against which it is not fitted to cope. 384 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. . VIII. ALTERATION OF ENVIRONMENT. The blue flag has been less.disturbed by the progress of civilization than most native species. Wild trees and shrubs and flowers have been uprooted, and cereals and forage crops planted in their place, for the farmer coveted their fields. But the Iris grows in wet places, not at once available for tillage. Yet it has suffered, both directly and indirectly ; directly, through artificial drainage, drying up its native shoals; indi- rectly, through the influence of the change upon insects affect- ing its life history. It would be worth much to know, for the sake of comparison, what its relations to insects were before the white man came. In the absence of such certain knowl- edge there are facts of ecological adaptation which may justify an opinion as to some results of the change. To “ civiliza- tion " I am inclined to attribute the following phenomena: 1. The Destructive Abundance of Chetopsis enea Wied. — This species is an habitual enemy of the coarser, succulent grasses and cereal grains,! boring in their stems. Successive broods could not be maintained on the Iris, but the cultivation of corn and oats affords it almost unlimited opportunities for multiplication. A neighboring cornfield of the preceding year may well have furnished the swarms that devastated the Iris in locality 8. The scattering growth of the native coarser grasses in this region would not be likely to yield such swarms any season. 2. The Injury locally wrought by the Grasshoppers. — These were all field and meadow loving species, such as have doubt- less become much more numerous in this region since the cul- tivation of their food plants was begun. Partial drainage, bringing the forage grasses and the flag clumps into closer proximity, would encourage the attack. 3. The Nectar-Stealing of the Pamphilas.—The constant presence of large numbers of these butterflies, so well adapted for another type of flower, upon the Iris, which is so well adapted to another type of insect, furnishes an example of 1 Vide Howard, L. O. An Ortalid Fly Injuring Growing Cereals, Znsect Life, vol. vii, pp. 352-354 (Fig.), 1895. No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 385 marked unfitness where nature generally shows the finest adaptations. ‘Civilization " may well be held responsible for this. The larva of the pamphilas feed on grass, and meadows and pastures have greatly increased the amount of grass avail- able for their food. The butterflies, on the contrary, feed only on the nectar of wild flowers; these have correspondingly diminished in number; and the supply of nectar available for so specialized an insect has become very scant. They visit the Iris, because “stern necessity compels.” They are equally abundant about the flowers of Geranium maculatum Linn., which blooms at the same time, and about every other species from which they can get any nectar. Were enough nectar available in flowers adapted to them, I think it quite likely that they would leave the Iris flowers unmolested. I could not satisfy myself as to whether the apparent scar- city of the finely adapted bees (the only insects for which the nectar of the blue flag is made entirely available) was due to the diminishing of the nectar stores by the pamphilas or to some more remote cause effecting a decimation in the actual number of bees. But they were few about the flowers at the most favorable times ; and the foregoing tables zai shown the ovules incompletely fertilized. I trust I have shown in the foregoing pages that the flower should be studied as only one factor in the reproductive process, its pollination, one of the links in the chain of cir- cumstances, binding together two generations. It should be studied (1) in relation to local fauna and flora, (2) in relation to latitude, season, and situation, and (3) in relation to chang- ing conditions of environment. Past studies of flowers and insects, though very numerous, are only complete in having completely demonstrated the interdependence of these and in having shown the existence of numerous coadaptations between them. There are broader ecological adaptations yet to be worked out, which may explain the fitting of a species to its place in natural society, but which will certainly require the coöperation of students, in various places and for a long time, ~ content to spend much labor in gathering and correlating ecological data. i 386 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Nore. — For help generously given me in the determination of the names of the insects mentioned in the foregoing paper I am indebted to a number of gentle- men, as follows: Coleoptera, Mr. Samuel Henshaw ; Microlepidoptera, Professor C. H. Fernald ; other dimus Professor John B. Smith ; Hesperide, (T Healy; Apinz, Professor Charles Robertson; and, through the kindness of D r L. O. Howard, the following from the division of entomology of the Department of Agriculture : Hymenoptera, Mr. W. H. Ashmead ; Diptera, Mr. D. W. Coquil- lett; Hemiptera, Mr. O. Heidemann. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA McCr. CHARLES W. HARGITT. I. INTRODUCTORY. Tue observations of which the following paper is a summary have been carried on during three summers at the Marine Bio- logical Laboratory, and in part at the laboratory of the United States Fish Commission, from the directors of which I am very glad to acknowledge many courtesies and facilities for prosecut- ing the work. The circumstances attending the work have been so varied during the years of its continuance that it may be hoped most of the errors liable to hasty observation have been avoided, and to a considerable measure the error liable to the personal equation of prepossession, where time is not allowed for its elimination. Pennaria tiarella McCr. was first described by Ayers (52), under the name of G/obzeeps tiarella, who has summarized its generic characters in substance as follows : Polypodon rising from a creeping root, branched. Short stems from the branches, supporting each a single polyp. Polyps encircled by three rows of arms, basal, median and near summit ; the arms of the upper rows ending in globular heads. Polyp not retractile in tube. The name of the genus, Globiceps, from the peculiar form of the arms. The specific name from the number of the rows of arms. He gives no account of its distribution, except to mention that it has been taken at Sag Harbor and in Boston Harbor. Of its habitat he merely mentions that it occurs on fucus or similar substratum. It was later described by Leidy (55), under the name of Eucoryne elegans. McCrady (57) was the first to recognize its true affinities with the Pennaride and designated it by the 387 388 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. name under which it is now known. |. L. Agassiz early pointed out nomenclatural objections to the name Globiceps of Ayers, and Eucoryne of Leidy, and at the same time indicated certain . differences between the diagnostic characters of this hydroid and those originally designated as distinctive of the genus by Cavolini and Goldfuss. A. Agassiz (65) in the catalogue of the North American Acalephz has, however, followed the des- ignation of McCrady, and has in turn been followed by most American students of the Hydroidea. Still later, however, Allman (71) took up the suggestion of the elder Agassiz concerning the unavailability of the generic terms Globiceps and Eucoryne and, discrediting the conten- tion of McCrady as to the identity of the form with that of Pennaria, proposed the new generic name Halocordyle. He bases his claim for such distinction wholly upon the apparent difference as to the arrangement of the arms, or tentacles, those of the hydroid under consideration being distributed in verticillate whorls about the hydranth, while those of Penna- ria gibbosa have them somewhat promiscuously distributed over the body of the polyp. It might be sufficient warrant for doubt as to Allman's con- tention that his diagnosis is based chiefly upon published fig- ures of the hydroid, having in neither case had access to living specimens. And when added to this there is recognized the further fact that a careful study of several species from differ- ent regions, and from the same region, shows all degrees of intergradation in these respects, an unhesitating dissent from Allman's view will not be regarded as extravagant. IL MATERIAL AND METHODS. | The material chiefly used was obtained at Woods Holl dur- ing the summers of 1897, 1898, and 1899, and in almost un- limited quantities. Material of P. Cavolini was secured and preserved by the writer from the Bay of Naples in 1894, and was used in many points of comparison, as will be indicated in appropriate phases of the paper. In general, collections were made at low tide and in the waters in and about the harbor, No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 389 from eelgrass, piles of the Fish Commission docks, and from fucus and rocks in the shallowed waters in and about the rocky outlet of the * hole." Material specially for the developmental work was usually collected, when convenient, during the later afternoon, so that no considerable time should elapse before the discharge of the eggs. When by reason of tides this was not practicable, collections were made at other hours, and the material placed in floats off the exposed sides of the docks, where conditions of water, temperature, etc, would be as nearly normal as possible. Experiments, however, showed that this precaution was not essential, no apparent differences being distinguishable between collections brought to the labor- atory aquaria and those floated outside. For killing and fixing, many methods were tried, but without that marked preferential distinction for one or a few which is often found for other material. Almost any of the standard fixing agents will give fairly good results. If any preference is assignable, I should give it to the stronger solutions of Klein- enberg's picro-sulphuric acid, or picro-acetic, in which the acetic acid was often used in a solution as strong as IO per cent. The various corrosive solutions gave results of about equal value, and for carmine staining was specially good. Perenyi’s fluid gave fairly good results, though less certain than the others. Flemming’s fluid, while affording admirable fixation, rendered subsequent staining so difficult as to make its value secondary. For surface study of the eggs, out of a very large number of experiments with numerous staining agents, only one gave results of sufficient value to be worth record, namely, Conklin’s picro-sulphuric-haematoxylin, and this, when compared with results upon such eggs as those of Mollusca, was quite infe- rior, though enabling one to distinguish definitely considerable of the internal organization of the egg from surface views. In no other egg, save that of Eudendrium, have I found such dif- ficult material from which to secure even approximately good differential staining reactions. Whether this is due to some physiological condition peculiar to these eggs, or to their pecul- iar opacity, I am unable to say. 390 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. III. NATURAL History. Pennaria tiarella is one of the most abundant and beautiful hydroids to be found in the waters of the northeastern Atlan- tic coast, occurring abundantly in tide pools, upon piles of docks, fucus, etc. Its generic name indicates one of its most conspicuous features, namely, the feather-like form of the main stem and its branches, which spring laterally and alternately from either side. When growing in dense tufts or colonies this feature is often obscured in a measure or, in some cases, even lacking entirely. In size it varies greatly as found under varying conditions of environment. Under the best conditions it may have a height of six inches or even more, while under circumstances less favorable it may scarcely have a height of more than two inches. In this connection may be noted a rather interesting and, so far as I know, an unrecorded peculiarity of habitat, namely, its occurrence during the summer under apparently two conditions, the one appearing considerably earlier and finding a habitat, as already indicated, upon rockweed, piles, etc., the other occur- ring later and in great abundance upon eelgrass. The latter form rarely attains the larger size given, but it matures with much greater rapidity and has apparently a much briefer period of activity, hardly covering more than about four or five weeks. It is further distinguished by a higher coloration of the colo- nies and the meduse. Again, the medusz free themselves with much greater frequency and ease, and swim much more actively. The ova of the two forms likewise show the same difference of coloration, those of the latter being a brighter orange and much more conspicuous, while those of the former are of a creamy white, with the slightest tint of dull pink. Morphologically these forms exhibit no constantly distinctive differences. The first, from its habit in usually deeper water, and thus constantly submerged condition, does not exhibit that marked feather-like bilateralism common in the eelgrass form, which, from the fact that it often floats upon the surface and, at low tide, often lies quite exposed, would come naturally to assume the bilateral form. This fact may likewise account in No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 391 part for the higher coloration exhibited by the latter, and might naturally occasion the more rapid development of the colonies, as well as the greater activity of the medusz, since their expo- sure at low tide and always near the surface would give them the advantage of the naturally higher temperature of the sur- face water. May it not be probable that this condition is an adaptive one for the more rapid multiplication of the sexual persons which, by their greater activity, secure a greater dis- tribution ? For it must be noted that the medusz of the deep- water forms are much less active, in many cases never becoming free at all, and when becoming so rarely swimming actively. During one entire season I failed to detect this feature which I have since found to be a very common one, At one time I was inclined to suspect that, as McCrady had suggested (57), the ova might have developed within the bell of the medusz and emerged as planule, for, in more than one collection brought in during the early morning, numbers of planulze were found among the fucus-bearing hydroids, and among the stems of the colonies themselves, while the yet living medusz were found still attached to the hydranths. McCrady’s observations may have been due in part to the fact that in many cases these deeper water medusz do not seem to discharge the ova freely, and, since the free exposure of the ova within the bell of the medusa insures usually their fertilization, so, as a matter of course, the development follows without interruption. It is more probable, however, that his observations were due to a misinterpretation of the singular phenomena of segmentation, to be described later. After the discharge of the ova the medusze, when free, con- tinue to swim about actively for a time, but soon begin to show signs of decline and rarely live beyond a few hours, sometimes twelve or even twenty-four, though A. Agassiz has recorded their living in confinement for several weeks. My own obser- vations, however, show no confirmation of this. They rather confirm the observations of McCrady, who remarks upon the “apathetic condition of the ipie. following the expulsion of the planules." In common with most hydroids Pennaria is distinctively a 392 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. summer organism, at least in its actively vegetative condition. I have not found records of its occurrence in flourishing condi- tion later than November, and during several years of observa- tion have not taken it in mature form earlier than June, though its seasonal variation may be considerable. After its more active period there is an evident decline in vigor, and later a degeneration of the polyps and hydrocaulus, and a recession of the ccenosarc within the stoloniferous hydrorhiza, followed by a period, more or less prolonged, of quiescence. This is chiefly a seasonal peculiarity, induced doubtless by coincident changes of temperature, food, etc. It may occasionally, however, be induced by conditions purely local and temporary. Colonies now and then show an evident decline for a period of varying extent and then may revive and regain their normal activity within a few weeks. In these cases no discernible cause is evident, and hence they have been designated as purely local and temporary. Pennaria exhibits in a very marked way the phenomenon of “alternation of generations." The nonsexual, or vegetative, phase comprises the splendid hydroid features whose natural history has now been outlined. Its sexual, or medusa, phase presents an organism which Agassiz (65) has characterized as “one of the most remarkable of our naked-eyed medusa." In form it is elongate-oval, slightly smaller at the oral end. In Pl. I, Figs. 2 and 3, are shown adult medusz with developing and mature eggs. Its size varies slightly, but averages about I.5 mm. in length, and .8 mm. in short diameter. In its natural history the medusa exhibits some very interest- ing features. Some of these have already been pointed out, such as the variation in coloration, activity, etc. Smallwood (99) has observed in working out its development evidences of degenerative conditions which harmonize with some of the observations previously cited, and with similar conditions among not a few other of the Hydromedusz, e.g., Clava, Hydractinia, etc. The medusz mature with comparative rapidity and show a rather marked periodicity as to the time of liberation. And here again there is a rather sharp difference between the so- No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 393 called eelgrass forms and those of the deeper water habit. The former are liberated usually from about 7 to 8 P.M., followed almost immediately by the discharge of the sexual products. In the latter form the time of liberation varies from about 10 to 12 P.M. In each case the male medusz are, as a rule, first set free, usually from a few minutes to half an hour. Fertili- zation of the eggs occurs at once upon their discharge. In Pl. I, Fig. 2, is shown a mature medusa as it appears within a few hours of its liberation from the hydroid. At this time the nearly mature ova occupy almost the whole interior of the bell, often distorting in some measure its form. In no case, however, have I observed any such remarkable distortion at this stage as that described and figured by Agassiz (65), and I am disposed to suspect that his specimen must have been a very unusual one, for certainly with ova surrounding the whole of the manubrium and compressing it greatly a one-sided dis- tortion must be rather difficult to understand. As the ova grow about the manubrium they are flattened, disk-shaped bod- ies of an outer convex and an inner concave aspect. Approach- ing maturity they begin to assume a more or less spherical form, as indicated in the figure. Just prior to the release of the medusa, and perhaps induced in part by the rhythmic con- tractions by which this is effected, they assume a perfectly spherical form; the mesenterial membrane becomes more closely fitted to each individual egg, and at the moment of release the animal has the form exhibited by Pl. I, Fig. 3. Swim- ming rapidly about with the characteristic jerking movements common to these smaller medusz, the ova are discharged one by one as the animal swims, and thus a considerable distribu- tion is secured to the ova and the new colonies to arise from them. In the growth and maturity of the male medusa essen- tially the same phenomena are exhibited. The sperms closely pack the whole subumbrella cavity, but as the medusa is about to be liberated the mesentery seems to contract, and quickly following this, as release is effected, the membrane is ruptured and the sperms discharged in immense numbers. 394 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. IV. MATURATION AND FERTILIZATION. Under these heads I shall give at this time only the merest synopsis of my observations, for there are many points yet to be worked out in detail, and to these I shall give special atten- tion in a later paper, which is, however, well under way and may, I trust, appear within the near future. As Smallwood has pointed out (99), and as Doflein ('96) has also shown for Tubularia, and as I have found in Parypha, the ova grow within an ovarian mass of primitive ova by the con- sumption of their fellows, nuclei of which may be seen in all stages of degeneration, both about and within the growing eggs. In Parypha the most perfect illustrations of degenera- tive metamorphosis and amitotic division are shown, and in this form they are not wholly disintegrated during the process of segmentation of the egg, nor even till after at least the ectoderm of the larva is very clearly established. . As the egg grows the nucleus migrates toward the periphery, becomes very indefinite in form, and also seems quite indiffer- ent to ordinary staining processes. In only a few cases have I found from surface preparations, and in observations upon the living egg, any clear examples of polar bodies. However, the fact that the ova are devoid of membrane and are peculiarly opaque would naturally obscure or render quite transient these bodies. The ova are of relatively large size, varying from .4 mm. to.5 mm. in diameter, and heavily yolk-laden, and, as already indicated, vary in color from a creamy white with faint trace of pinkish hue to a clearly orange color. Fertilization occurs very soon after the ova are discharged from the medusa, and hence only external, unless, as indicated in another part of the paper, where, after the velum is ruptured as well as the mesentery suspending the egg, fertilization may readily take place within the bell cavity. A number of experiments and observations have demonstrated this quite conclusively. Artificial fertilization is quite easy and can be controlled at will Very soon after extrusion of the egg, sperms may be seen surrounding it in great numbers, in some cases completely covering it and adhering for some time. The No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 395 entrance of the sperm produces a profound effect upon the egg, which up to that time has been quite passive. Examined under a low power the egg very soon after access of the sperm shows a sort of convulsive surface torsion, which after a few minutes quite disappears, and the egg again becomes quiescent. But within half an hour, often sooner, the phenomena of cleav- age begin and usually go forward with comparative rapidity, the entire process, so far as surface features are concerned, becoming complete within a few houts, though varying greatly in different eggs and under slight differences of temperature. V. CLEAVAGE. Of cleavage phenomena in Pennaria it is extremely difficult to formulate an account, and that for several reasons. A glance at the figures which present only some of the more striking aspects of the subject will afford one, and perhaps a sufficient, reason. Again, the unusual opacity of the eggs renders diffi- cult, either in the living or preserved material, any critical insight into other than the surface phenomena. There seems to be no law or order attending the process. Every egg isa law unto itself and is absolutely indeterminate as to order or rate of development. Beyond the accounts of Wilson for Ren- illa (84), and Metschnikoff for Ratkea and Oceania (86), the literature at my command affords nothing comparable, and these are only remotely so. Andrews (98) points out * Some Ectosarcal Phenomena in the Eggs of Hydra," which, while in some features they are similar to some aspects associated with these phenomena in Pennaria, seem yet to be of a decidedly different character. Similar ectosarcal features were more or less obvious in the eggs of Pennaria, bits of protoplasmic mat- ter at times being extruded and even detached from the sur- face of the egg, including at times considerable portions. Again, the presence of more or less definite protoplasmic bands, or bridges, during the earlier phases of cleavage is a very con- Spicuous feature in Pennaria. That it may in some way be associated with fertilization, the entrance of several Spermato- zoa, artificial conditions, or otherwise, would seem not improb- 396 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. able. The highest powers of the microscope revealed nothing which seemed quite comparable with the so-called spinning movements of protoplasm, to which Andrews has directed attention. So anomalous are these phenomena that during the first sev- eral series of observations the conclusion was unavoidable that they were strangely abnormal or, perhaps, pathologic. Accord- ingly, the first series were wholly discarded, except a few speci- mens which had been isolated in watch glasses and set aside more out of curiosity than otherwise, and left overnight. An inspection the following morning revealed several apparently normal larve. The observations of the following night were to the same effect, though at this time a considerable series of all sorts were isolated with pains to eliminate possible error, and with results quite assuring, in that in a very large propor- tion of the cases perfect larve resulted and continued to de- velop. Following this, systematic collections were made and painstaking observations and records kept of every feature associated with development. Occasionally an egg would segment with a fair degree of regularity into the two, four, and eight cell stage, as shown in Pl. II, Figs. 7, 8. But beyond this point it was difficult to fol- low any order in the cleavage, though it might continue with more than ordinary regularity as compared with the average of its fellows, It was utterly impossible to trace anything like a definite lineage of cells, notwithstanding repeated and careful attempts. By no means was it possible to predict the direction or course or rate of any division beyond the first or second phase of the cleavage, and even then only occasionally. While Wilson (84) has noted a considerable degree of indi- vidual variation in the cleavage of Renilla, he is still able to reduce it to some half dozen types. With Pennaria, however, - while it is possible to recognize some few rather predominating types in the earliest cleavage, as, for example, a centripetal, a centrifugal, and a vertical, yet they are not of. sufficiently pro- nounced character to constitute well-defined types which are distinguishable as such. In no case were there any clearly defined and symmetrical equatorial phases recognizable, though No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 397 occasionally incipient aspects of it were detected. This may be due in part to the membraneless condition of the eggs, but perhaps rather to their more or less evident amoeboid condition, which asserted itself in the earlier phases. Again, the eggs early became somewhat flattened and disk-shaped, and only as the external phenomena of cleavage were completed did they resume an approximately spherical form. In Pl. II, Figs. 1-6, are shown a single series of cleavage phases noted at intervals of ten minutes or less. All were sketched from life by the aid of a camera, and, as will be noted also, there are presented only the earlier phenomena. As segmentation progressed its super- ficial aspects became less and less evident, owing to the opacity of the eggs, and only in a few cases were attempts definitely made to follow it to anything like completion. In these and other figures will readily be recognized the amceboid aspects referred to above. Reference has been made incidentally to the variable rate of segmentation. This feature was quite as marked as were others, both as to individual eggs and blastomeres. In many cases a single blastomere would divide at a rate quite phenom- enal, so that it was difficult to sketch adequately successive phases, while others might remain in a state of inaction for an indefinite period or even be engulfed bodily into the more rap- idly segmenting portion. Then, also, in many cases cleavage seemed to begin in a somewhat discoidal fashion at a single pole and only gradually extend to other portions, as shown in Pl. IV, Fig. 1. This could hardly be due to any marked inequality in the distribution of the food yolk, for in this respect the eggs of Pennaria seem to be quite isotropous, and indeed there seems little if any definite polarity of any sort evident in these eggs. Occasionally, as shown in Pl. IV, Fig. 1, cleavage appeared to advance from a single area, but in the large pro- portion nothing of the sort was evident, and, as Conklin (97) has shown in molluscan eggs, where the greatest variation in matter of yolk distribution is distinguishable, there is none the less a perfect symmetry of rate and character of cleavage. This would seem to be only another illustration of the inadequacy of any known law as an explanation of all cleavage phenomena. 398 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. That these are really cleavage, and not merely amceboid phe- nomena, can hardly be matter of serious doubt, even when con- sidered from the more superficial phenomena already presented. If, however, other evidence were needed, it is available in the greatest profusion from sectional sources, portraying the inter- nal structure and organization of the egg. In Pl. IV, Figs. 1-6, are shown camera sketches, of a few sections only, of eggs in different stages of segmentation. That they are clearly correlated in general features with the superficial features already noted there is no doubt whatsoever, though there may be many points of detail which need attention, but which can only be touched upon at this time. That Pl. IV, Fig. 2, is com- parable with that of Pl. II, Fig. 7, as a two-cell stage must be obvious at a glance. There are, however, here some interest- ing facts to which a moment's consideration may be directed. It will be seen, for example, that there are present, in the sec- tion, portions of several nuclear figures, a somewhat unusual condition at this stage of development. However, here again there is something in common with what Wilson has recorded in certain cases in Renilla, namely, the internal nuclear divi- sion preceding that of the cytoplasm which followed, or lagged, as it were, finally dividing at once into an equal number of cells. It is, however, quite different in that in these the nuclear cleav- age seems constantly to outrun that of the cytoplasm. It had occurred to me that possibly there might be here what has been noted by Loeb (99), Norman (96), and others, namely, a sort of artificially produced cleavage of the nucleus, induced by some chemical or pathological stimulus. The comparison of many sections, preserved under different conditions, and by different methods, however, leads me to conclude that it is a perfectly normal condition so far as these particular eggs are concerned. I have also observed the same thing in the eggs of other hydroids, and Hickson (93) calls attention to a similar condition in the cleavage of Allopora. It would seem as if from some cause, not perhaps easily distinguishable, that all the phenomena of cleavage in some of these organisms have been greatly modified, that in some way the nucleus and cyto- plasm have, as it were, been thrown out of concord, and their No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 399 rhythmic relations disturbed to such an extent that this very erratic and anomalous type of segmentation has resulted. May it not be within the line of possibilities that the peculiar meth- ods and conditions of growth and maturation of these and some similar eggs have in some way been the occasion of the disturb- ance?' While only a suggestion, yet it seems not without the range of possibilities. | In Pl. III, Figs. 1-7, are shown conditions not uncommonly met with, which are specially interesting in that from one such were derived spontaneously two perfect embryos, a fact, so far as I am aware, quite unusual, if not unique, though Metschni- koff ('86) cites a somewhat similar case in the development of Oceania armata. It does not seem clear, however, from his account whether the cases are quite similar, certainly not in the details of the cleavage. Following the first cleavage in these eggs, during which the blastomeres become widely sepa- rated, the two halves proceed to develop quite independent of each other and show no disposition to reunite until the cleav- age is quite advanced, apparently to the point of completion or nearly so, when usually they gradually approximate and finally fuse into a typical morula and develop into a normal embryo. In at least one case a specimen which showed this aspect in a very marked degree at an early stage gave rise to two perfect larva, though of small size. The specimen was carefully iso- lated in a large watch glass and set aside as a test case, and the next morning the larvae were found in perfect condition, as indi- cated. Several others of similar character were subsequently isolated in the same way, but in only the one case did this spontaneous division show itself conclusively. That such cases, though rare, are not strange among these organisms may be very well conceded, specially when the peculiar phe- nomena associated with the early development are familiar. VI. COMPLETION OF SEGMENTATION AND FORMATION OF THE PLANULA. Following the more conspicuous and anomalous aspects already considered, the egg gradually assumes a nearly spher- 400 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ical form, hard to distinguish from the freshly discharged ovum, almost all surface aspects of cleavage having disappeared. In this form it remains apparently quiescent for some hours, dur- ing which time, however, internal cell division goes on quite actively, as sections clearly show. With completion of this internal cleavage the embryo becomes a solid morula, with only the faintest indications of any differentiation into an ecto- derm (cf. Pl. IV, Fig. 6). Following this, however, the spe- cialization of an ectoderm soon takes place, and the embryo begins to assume the characteristic pyriform, or oval, shape of hydroid planule. Within from twelve to twenty hours cilia make their appearance over the ectoderm, and the free life of the larva is assumed. Up to this time, however, and for some time after, no definite endoderm has been formed; the entire mass of internal cells seem scarcely distinguishable from each other, except that near the central portion the remains of yolk débris are more or less apparent. It is not till after some hours of larval life that an endoderm is gradually specialized from the internal cell mass and takes on an appearance quite similar to that of the forming ectoderm. After the establishment of the diploblastic condition there still remain a mass of undifferen- tiated cells, intermingled with yolk granules, which seem gradu- ally to disintegrate and are consumed as food by the developing larva, which, up to the polyp stage, is wholly without mouth or other means of taking solid food, though in all probability absorption of water with soluble matter in small proportion takes place. The larval history of Pennaria seems considerably longer than the corresponding period of many other hydroids. In several cases specially noted the planule did not settle for attachment and transformation till some five days following the beginning of development, and only at the end of seven days were tentacles well marked, as shown in Pl. III, Fig. 10. The tentacles originate by a process of budding, the lower, or filamentous, series appearing first, those of the other series following somewhat later. Secretion of the perisarc begins almost at once after the attachment of the larva, preliminary to transformation. At No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 401 first it is an exceedingly delicate, almost indistinguishable, transparent film about the base of the polyp. This gradually thickens and soon hardens into a sheath about the growing polyp, covering at first the entire larva. Annulation of the perisarc seems to occur at no very definite time or place in its growth. In some’ cases it is apparent almost from the first. In others it only becomes apparent at a considerably later time, and nearer the hydranth than the base. As to the sig- nificance of the annulations, either in origin or function, nothing very definite can be said. That the perisarc itself is a protect- ive adaptation seems almost beyond question; but whether the annulations characteristic of this and many other hydroids is an additional adaptation, rendering the stem flexible, etc., may be doubtful. VII. ABNORMALITIES. The eccentric forms of cleavage already considered naturally raise the question as to probabilities of corresponding anoma- lies among the larvæ of these forms, and also of the resulting polyps; whether at any rate any variation appears from the normal type of embryo. The answer in part may be inferred from a glance at Pl. I, Figs. 4-6. These represent but three out of a considerable number of eccentric forms observed dur- ing the progress of the work. As will be seen, Fig. 4 repre- sents what might be designated as a twin planula, having a rather broad and blunt anterior and a bifurcated posterior. In Fig. 5 is represented a second type, quite common, which differs from the former chiefly in the shape of the body of the embryo, which is somewhat spindle-shaped, and also in the slender and attenuated character of the posterior bifurcated portions. In Fig. 8 is shown a third type which is some- what unusual. The body portion is decidedly eccentric in shape, with irregular tentaculate processes arising from it at various points and of various sizes and shapes. Whether such anomalies occur to any extent under perfectly natural conditions, of course, cannot be said. But from their occurrence under the most favorable conditions in aquaria, and Since, moreover, they seemed in no way to interfere with subse- 402 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. quent development, it may be inferred that their occurrence in a state of nature is not inthe least improbable. Similar abnor- malities have been reported among other genera of hydroids, eg., Bunting (94) figures embryos of very similar character. Now whether all such anomalous planulz develop into normal polyp may not be easily determined. That many should not is only what constantly happens with the most typical. That some of them develop there is not the slightest doubt. In Fig. 6 is shown a specimen which had become fixed in the ordinary way and had developed tentacles upon apparently two polyps heads. And in this connection it may be noted that in many cases these anomalous processes have been seen to be resorbed into the body of the larva as it approaches the period of transformation. This may suggest that they are per- haps only temporary processes which may serve some tempo- rary function of doubtful significance. The larva shown in Fig. 4 might suggest that it had its origin as a twin from a single egg which had segmented somewhat as represented in Pl. III, Fig. 4, where development of the two halves of the ovum had gone on so apparently independently. But in no specific case, several of which had been isolated and watched with care, had any such form resulted. Nor, further, in speci- mens of similar larve carefully sectioned was there any special evidence of such an origin. I am rather disposed to consider them as due in all cases to the intrinsic prepotency of hydroids to bud and branch; for, as I have repeatedly observed, and as Pl. I, Fig. 8, will show, the budding propensity asserts itself very early in the polyp life. - Concerning abnormalities among adult hydroids of this genus I have made no extended observations. Bunting (94) refers to several cases among Hydractinia and Podocoryne. But in these the polymorphic conditions would, it seems to me, render them specially favorable subjects in which to expect such diver- gencies, while in Pennaria, at least, this element is lacking. In Fig. 1 of the text is shown a somewhat unusual, though possibly not abnormal, young polyp. As will be noted, its unusual feature consists chiefly in the total annulation of the No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 403 stem, including the branch. This is in rather striking con- trast with those figured in the plates and in the well-known annulations of the stems of the Pennaridz. I was for a time constrained to wonder whether this might not have been a speci- men of some other genus which had accidentally been brought in with the collections and had developed along with the Pen- naria. Such a supposition is not impossible of course, yet the general aspects of the hydroid are so peculiarly pennarian, the annulations excepted, that I am rather constrained to regard it as simply a specimen which exhibits, in an unusual degree, a phenomenon which in itself is one of the most variable among hydroid characters, and that it shows how un- reliable must be such a character for diagnostic purposes. VIII. EXPERIMENTAL. 1. Darkness. — The liberation of the medusæ and the discharge of the sexual products upon the approach of darkness : suggested this as a possible cause of the Pech unusual activity at this time. Accordingly, several experiments were made to determine whether such were really the case. Colonies of both sexes were collected about 3 p.m. and were carefully excluded from light in suitable receptacles, but in no case could they be induced to discharge their products or become free at an earlier time, though that such conditions might have at some time in the life of the race been a factor in determin- ing the periodicity of their maturity and release may not be improbable. But, as has already been pointed out, the fact that the deeper water forms do not become free or discharge the sexual products until toward midnight would certainly seem to suggest that darkness alone could not be the deter- mining factor. 2. Temperature. — The observation that during specially warm weather larger numbers were liberated suggested the 404 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. possible influence of temperature upon the maturity of the medusz, and suggested also additional experiments. Artificial change of temperature by means of heat or ice had a very noticeable effect, both upon the activity of the medusz and the cleavage of the eggs, the reduction of temperature by a few degrees materially retarding the rate of cleavage, while raising it a corresponding amount proportionately accelerated these phenomena. This was likewise evident in the develop- ment and activity of the larvae. 3. Artificial Division of the Eggs.— During the earlier phases of segmentation experiments were made to determine the effects of detaching small portions of the egg, in imitation of the observed spontaneous detachment of particles from the surface, to which reference has already been made. From repeated experiments it was conclusively shown that removal of small portions, and indeed of considerable portions, did not materially retard or modify the development of the eggs, or prevent their final development into perfect larvae. Again, the experiment of dividing eggs at the first cleavage, and at the second, and also of dividing them into several por- tions, was made in a considerable number of cases, with the results of obtaining from these fractions perfectly normal, though small, embryos, which continued to thrive and, finally, in the usual time transformed into perfectly nor- mal polyps. Pl. III, Fig. 11, shows one of these (a) e half-egg polyps which was isolated and reared e d under conditions which leave no shadow of doubt B (2 as to the genuineness of the case. And this is e £ only one of a considerable number, some from O "m » smaller portions, which: were similarly secured. Cos In Fig. 2 of text are shown a series of planulz of normal and artificially produced specimens, in which the relative sizes are clearly exhibited. On a preceding page attention was directed to a rather remark- able feature, namely, the natural origin of two embryos from a single egg, by a spontaneous division at some point during the segmentation. These facts would seem to show conclusively that so far as the hydroids are concerned there is no such pre- Fic. 2. No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 405 determined organization of the egg as that a given part must necessarily determine a given organ or part. For in the half or fourth embryos the number of tentacles arising in the polyp was of the same number and arrangement as in the normal one. So, too, in the formation of perisarc, rate of growth, etc., there was nothing to indicate that the larva was other than a normal one in every respect, that of size alone excepted. It may not be without the range of these facts to refer in passing to similar experimental work by Driesch, Wilson, Loeb, and others and to refer in particular to that which is in some respects rather unique. Concerning the capacity of portions of eggs regularly to develop into perfect embryos it is unnec- essary to make special mention at this time. Loeb has shown (93) that under the unusual stress of osmosis, induced by vary- ing the density of the medium, double or multiple embryos of sea urchins might be produced almost at will. This has since been matter of common experiment. What seems to me of special note in connection with these experiments on Pennaria is that not only may such experimental results be obtained, but that similar results have been obtained in perfectly normal ways, that the entire phenomena of cleavage reproduce at some phase or other an almost identical counterpart of former experi- mentation along these lines. No one can follow the segmen- tation of the ova of Pennaria in its extremely variable and anomalous aspects without the conviction that there are here involved intrinsic forces, quite as pronounced as any which have been involved in the artificially operative chemical and physical agents to which reference has been made. That they may comprise much of chemistry and of physics is not ques- tioned. But if so, they are intrinsic and integral. SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, March 1, 1900. 406 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. LITERATURE €ITED. AvERS, W. O. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. .Lripv, J. Marine Invertebrates of New Jersey and Rhode Island. McCrapy. Proc. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist. AGASSIZ, L. Cont. Nat. Hist. U. S. Vol. iv. AGASSIZ, A. North American Acalephe. ALLMAN, J. G. Gymnoblastic Hydroids. VARENNE, A. DE. Recherches des Polypes Hydraires. WiLSON, E. B. Variation in Yolk Cleavage of Renilla. Zool. An- zeiger. WILSON, E. B.. Development of Renilla. PAilosophical Trans. METSCHNIKOFF, E. Embryol. Studien an Medusen. Wien. Hickson. Early Stages in the Development of Distichopora violacea. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. LoEB, J. Physiological Morphology. Biol. Lect. BUNTING, M. The Development of Hydractinia. Journ. of Morph. DorLEIN, F. J. Die Eibildung bei Tubularia. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. NorMAN, W. W. Segmentation of Nucleus without Segmentation of Protoplasm. Arch. f. Entwick. d. Organismen. Bd. iii. CONKLIN, E. G. The Embryology of Crepidula. Journ. of Morph. Vol. xvi. ANDREWS, E. A. Ectosarcal Phenomena in Eggs of Hydra. Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. November. - Logs, J. On the Nature and Process of Fertilization, etc. Amer. Journ. of Phys. SMALLWOOD, M. Morphology of Pennaria. American Naturalist. 408 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fic. 1. Single colony of Pennaria, natural size, showing mode of typical branching, attachment to substratum, et . 2. Medusa about mature, show ng form of ova at this stage, mode of attachment, etc.; ov, ova; rc, radial canals; 1, tentacles Fic. 3. Mature medusa, parts as in Fig. 2. Ova potoci spherical, and clus- ion. . 6. Rather unusual type of polyp, with small bud, 4, on side of body, and with less than usual number of tentacles Fic. 7. ‘Typical planula, about twentydoor hours after laying of the egg. Fic. 8. An unusual larva, similar in some respects to that of polyp in Fig. 6, but with several bud-like is ence, EV. Vol. XX XIV, No. 4or. PLATE I. CUT HT NN NAR AG Ai NS Y AY 4 410 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. Ic. 1. Egg in first cleavage phase; ?,a protoplasmic band connecting the blastomeres. IG. 2. A second phase of cleavage, indicated by furrow cutting off a small blastomere at x. Two protoplasmic strands are shown, one, 7, the same as in Fig. 1 Fic. 3. Next phase ten minutes later. Fics. 4-6. Show successive phases in progress of the development. IGS. 7-11. Show phases of cleavage in another egg, which differ in some respects from the former, yet resulting in practically same condition Vol. XXXIV, No. 401. PLATE II. x 412 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Fics. 1-5. Show a phase of "tif not uncommon, in aei after the first division, the blastomeres segment in a perfectly independent w F Show the final csi of the two portions, pe^ in Fig. 8, the resulting morula, which gradually assumes the planula form of Fig. 7 of Pl. I. The figures of this series are somewhat diagrammatic. Fic. 9. Young polyp phase soon after attachment. Fic. 10. Polyp with budding tentacles, 7. Fic. 11. Fully grown polyp, with full vim gaa s tentacles, mouth, annu- lation of perisarc, etc. Sketched from life, with cam PLATE III. Vol. XXXIV, No. 401. 414 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Fic. 1. Section of entire egg in early cleavage phase, showing more ra apid rate at one pole, while the ic i a a pi eae nucleus and no indications of segmentation. Camera sketch, x abou 2. Two-cell Fan At the le ee is hows a perfect nuclear spindle, s/, and in the opposite blastomere several asters, which may indicate the nuclear divisions which have occurred, without involving the cytoplasm. G. 3. Section of egg, X 135, showing various internal cleavage conditions, dud superficial; z, nuclei in resting conditio Fic. 4. Portion of egg more highly m nifio 4 Fic. 5. Portion of another egg, Fue essentially similar conditions. Fic. 6. Section of egg at completion of segmentation, showing a mass of nuclei partially organized into a cellular ectoderm, ec. PLATE LV: Vol. XXXIV, No. gor. GONE 5 DEN P UNS n. THE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE POLAR EXPEDITION UNDER DR. NANSEN. (A REVIEW.) R. W. SHUFELDT. WHAT was accomplished. for the science of ornithology during the journey of the Fram under Dr. Nansen and the intrepid explorers and naturalists who accompanied him in the North-European polar seas, during the years 1893-96, now appears in the form of a valuable quarto brochure, issued by its distinguished authors, to whom my thanks are due for a complimentary copy.! This excellent work exhibits throughout great care in prepara- tion, scientific accuracy, and a marked attention to details, de- scriptions and methods of presentation of the facts in the hands of its authors. It is handsomely printed and is illustrated by two plates devoted to Rosse's gull (Rhodostethia rosea). The first of these is an uncolored one, facing page 16, and represents two specimens of the bird, suspended by their legs in such a manner as to exhibit the pattern of the plumage upon their ventral and dorsal aspects. They were shot August 3, 1894. In the second plate, at the close of the work, we have a beauti- ful colored figure of this famous gull sitting on the ice, with another individual in flight in the background. In the distance we see the Fra» firmly frozen in the ice pack, while far beyond the horizon the picture is completed by the cold red sky of those north polar seas. The birds in this plate are specimens of the young in first plumage. By the aid of my camera I have copied this latter plate and offer it here as an illustration to the present review. e Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893-96. Scientific Results edited by Fridtjof Nansen. — IV. An Account of the Birds by Robert Collett and Fridtjof Nansen. Published by the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science. Christiania, Jacob Dybwad; London, New York, Bombay, Long- mans, Green & Co.; Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1899. Cloth, pp. 1-54, 1 plate, 1 figure in text. 417 418 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. From the Introduction we ascertain that the work is divided into four (IV) sections. In the first three sections the observa- tions recorded are extracted from Dr. Nansen's personal jour- nals, and supplemented by his verbal comments and explanations during the preparation of the work. The first section (I) has to do with the journey along the north coast of Siberia, from Yugor Strait (July 29, 1893), until the closing-in of the ship to the north- west of the New Siberian Islands on Sept. 25, 1893 (78° 50! N: Lat., 132° 20' E. Long.). “The birds observed during this time were principally on their way southwards. After the closing-in of the ship, no . birds were seen until the following year." The second section (IJ) gives the observations made at the time that the Fram was drifting with por ol (R. rosea). Young in first eo ae From the ice towards the north- otograph of original plate by the author west, during the first sum- mer, 1894, up to the time when Nansen and Johansen started on their sledge journey, March 14, 1895. This last point lies in about 84° N. Lat. Ores cE Long. * The first bird seen in the spring of 1894 (a gull, probably Pagophila eburnea) appeared on May 13; birds were seen now and again until after the middle of August. After August 23, or the day when all the channels and lanes about the ship began to freeze up, no birds were seen." . Eight specimens of R. rosea were shot and preserved during this part of the journey. They were all young birds of the year. No. 401.] RESULTS OF THE POLAR EXPEDITION. 419 The third section (III) gives the observations made during the aforesaid sledge journey, in the spring of 1895 to August 1896. During the journey in the Polar Sea, the first bird seen (a Fulmarus glacialis) was observed on May 29, when the travelers had begun to approach the north side of Franz Josef Land. That part of the journey in which the highest latitude, 86° 13.6', was reached was undertaken so early in the year that * no birds were yet visible." | The fourth section (IV) gives the observations made on the Fram after Nansen and Johansen had left in March, 1895, until the return of the ship in August, 1896. Great importance attaches to the ornithological records made during this part of the exploration. In the first place, * birds were observed in the highest northerly latitudes, in which birds on the whole have been known to exist," and farthest north of all was found F. glacialis, of which a specimen was observed in 85? 5' N. Lat. During this part of the cruise, the Fram being confined to a comparatively limited area northeast of Franz Josef Land, the total number of species observed was ten (10), namely, P/ectro- phenax nivalis, Sterna macrura, Pagophila eburnea, Rissa tri- dactyla, Rhodostethia rosea, a specimen of a Larus, which is stated to have been black-backed, a Stercorarius (species unde- termined), Fulmarus glacialis, Cepphus mandti, and Alle alle. * None of the species, however, seemed to occur in any great quantity.” | * The last summer, 1896, when the Fram was north of Spitz- bergen, the first bird (a snow bunting) was observed on April 25. It now appeared that for a distance of at least four hundred kilometers north of Spitzbergen, or between 81? and 83? N. Lat. the Arctic Ocean is inhabited by an abundant bird life, doubtless consisting principally of young, not yet mature birds, . Which spend the summer months here, in and near the open channels in the ice." ‘Among the specimens occurring here, sometimes in great numbers, may be named Cepphus mandtt, Alle alle, and Pagophila eburnea. A few specimens of waders (4igialitis hiaticula and Crymophilus fulicarius) were also found in these northern latitudes, and a specimen of Xema sabini was observed." 420 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Under the names of the various birds observed in the body of this memoir are given full accounts of habits, localities, plumage descriptions, and matters of general interest to orni- thologists everywhere. At the close of the work we find an index, which simply presents the scientific names of the thirty- three (33) species of birds observed during the entire journey. They are as follows: gialitis hiaticula, Alle alle, Anser sege- tum, Archibuteo lagopus, Arquatella maritima, Branta bernicla, Cepphus mandti, Colymbus arcticus, Crymophilus fulicarius, Falco esalon, Fratercula a. glacialis, Fulmaris glacialis, Ha- relda glacialis, Lagopus lagopus, Larus argentatus, L. fuscus, L. glaucus, L. marinus, Nyctea scandiaca, Pagophila eburnea, Phalaropus hyperboreus, Plectrophenax nivalis, Rhodostethia vosea, Rissa tridactyla, Somateria mollissima, Squatarola hel- vetica, Stercorarius crepidatus, S. longicaudus, S. pomatorhinus, Sterna macrura, Totanus nebularius, Uria lomvia, and Xema sabini. In other words, it will be noted that there was but one passerine bird observed (the snowflake, P. nivalis) ; a ptarmigan, five waders, two hawks and an owl, two ducks and two species of geese; and the balance of the list, made up of gulls, terns, guillemots, auks, fulmars, jægers, and the dovekie, together with divers and puffins, represent strictly a circumpolar avifauna — few birds, and those essentially boreal forms. Taken as a whole, this is one of the most important contributions to the orni- thology of high northern latitudes now extant, and it constitutes a very substantial addition to our knowledge of the habits, species and migrations, plumages and variations of the ornis of the Arctic Circle, and its distinguished authors are to be con- gratulated upon the completion of their worthy labors. SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. IX. THE Scorpions, SOLPUGIDS, AND PEDIPALPI. NATHAN BANKS. TuEsE three groups belong to that order of the Arachnida known as the Arthrogastra. It may be separated from the other arachnids of the United States, and practically of the whole world, in the following manner: Abdomen plainly segmented, palpi of male not modified for a genital organ, rarely of small size,-no jointed abdominal spinnerets Arthrogastra Abdomen not plainly segmented, joined to the cephalothorax by a slender pedicel, palpi of male modified for a os organ, at least one pair of jointed abdominal spinnerets. . Araneida Abdomen not plainly segmented, broadly mied é to EIE R no jointed spinnerets, male palpi not modified, of small or even minute size Acarina The three groups of the Arthrogastra treated in this paper are easily distinguished by the following characters : 1. Abdomen ending in a poison sting, base of abdomen beneath bearing a pair of appendages with teeth (pectines) ; palpi chelate at tips, legs without patelle ; porian part of abdomen much narrower than . the anterior part . . . » Scorpionida Abdomen not ending in poison sing ; no peclaes palpi not chelate at tips 2 2. Hind coxe heated a ie T: ‘taped PT hind noba of two segments, no sternum, no patelle in any legs . . . . Solpugida Hind coxz without such appendages, hind trochanters not biseg- mented, patellz in at least some of the legs ; sternum often present, ody considerably constricted between cephalothorax and abdomen Pedipalpi PEDIPALPI.! The Pedipalpi are ere dinem so that there is but a E] meri ican Naturali ist will undertake be cannot be placed i in the keys, and Haw corrections and criticism fer Pulvis ision. 421 422 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. slender representation of them within our limits. These, how- ever, belong to the three principal groups — Tartaridz, Phryn- ide, and Thelyphonidz. They are all of moderate to large size; there is a patella in at least some of the legs; there are no tactile organs on the hind coxa; the mandibles are of mod- erate size; the body never ends in a sting; and the palpi are never chelate at the end; the abdomen is usually elongate, and when short it is not joined broadly to the cephalothorax, as in the Phalangida. In the Tartaridz the thoracic segments bearing the third and fourth pairs of legs are not united to the head, as in most arachnids, but free, and their scute showing as separate pieces on the dorsum. The abdomen is rather slender, tapering each way, and at tip is a long triangular telson. The palpi are short and terminate in a stout claw. The legs, except the first pair, are pro- vided with a patella. The Thely- phonidz are readily known by the presence of a long multiarticulate telson or tail; whence the popular name of “whip scorpions.” The body is depressed and the abdomen joined broadly to the cephalotho- rax. Our single species, although greatly feared, is not poisonous. The Phrynidz are separable from the other Pedipalpi by the tenuity of the connection between the cephalothorax and abdo- men. The body is broad and flat, without a tail. Of the three species recorded from our country, two are quite doubtful. The Pedipalpi are tabulated as follows : Fic. 1. — Admetus. 4, telson. — B Cephalothorax transversely divided in posterior part, no eyes, telson short . . (fam. fora ens pentapeltis Cook € Cephalothorax entire, eyes pres . Abdomen with a long carta TOA abdome quite iain united to cephalothorax . . . (fam. Thelyphonide) Miside oe Lucas ¢Tex., Fla., Ariz.) Abdomen lacking xd telson, ene to pte by slender pedis .. . A : (fam. PArynide)3 N No. 401.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 423 W . Frontal border of cephalothorax with long teeth, only two long spines on upper inner edge of tibia of palpus Acanthophrynus coronatus Butl. (Cal.) Frontal border of cephalothorax only denticulate, more than two long spines on upper inner edge of tibia of palpus, smaller species 4 > Between the two longest a of tibia of palpus there are two small Admetus fuscimanus Koch (Fla.) spines Between the two diy en spines of tibia of palpus is only one short spine Admetus whitei Gerv. (Tex.) SCORPIONIDA. The scorpions are readily known from all other arachnids by the presence of two peculiar characters; the body termi- Fic 2. — Centrurus. a, cephalothorax ; * abdomen; c, cauda; d, telson; e, ads f, palpus ; 4, hand ; /, fingers; orsal area; d.k., dorsal keel; LA. Mni keel. nates in a poison sting, and on the venter, near base of abdomen, is a pair of appendages, each bearing a number of lamella; these are the pectines, or combs. The palpi are . enlarged at tip and chelate; the claw being of three parts, vzz., the hand, or basal portion, and two fingers, one movable, the other fixed. There are usually three groups of eyes. The last five segments of the body are much narrower than the others and form the cauda or tail. These segments bear ridges which are called “keels.” The legs have no pa- Fic. 3. — The two forms of sterna in scorpions. s, sternum; £.7., genital plate ; 7, jugum. 424 THE AMERICAN NA TURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. tella. The exact number of species occurring in our country is uncertain, owing to the fact that several Mexican species may be found in southern Texas. -_ M y » uua . 9 P. oo ND kami 9 — La . Only two lateral xA sternum broad, pentagonal; small short species m. Chacti E Broteas alleni Wood. e Ca pes Three to five lateral ne : ; Sternum broad, pentagonal, inai no spine i ads the E. . 3 Sternum long, triangular, usually a spine under the sting . . . 14 At base of last tarsal joint at least one spur on inner and one on outer side ; no spine under the sting . . . (fam. Vejoviide) 6 At base of last tarsal joint only one spur, which i is on the outer side ; sometimes a hump under the sting . . . (fam. FE 4 A hump under the sting No hump under sting; TNR ERE deed PERRERA on anterior margin, cauda small, claws large, color dark isthacanthus elatus Gerv. (S. Fla.) Comb with six to eight teeth. . Diplocentrus lesueuri Gerv. (Fla.) Comb with twelve to fifteen teet Diplocentrus whitei Gerv. (Tex., Cal.) Central area of each comb divided into at least eight small pieces 8 Central area of each comb divided at most into six small pieces 7 Movable finger with at least five small teeth, sting of $ as usual Uroctonus mordax Th. (West Coast) Movable finger with at most three small teeth, sting of ¢ swollen at Uroctonus phaiodactylus Wood. (Cal., Utah) ase : Pénullimate teu joint of three front legs with long hairs on back; a strong tooth near the under edge of the movable mandibular fin- ger; very large and hairy Hadrurus hirsutus Wood. (Southwest) No hairs on back of these tarsal joints, no tooth near tip of under edge of movable mandibular finger, smaller species . . . (Vejovis) 9 . Hand with distinct ridges or keels, more or less granulate . . to Hand smaller, without keels, the corners rounded and smooth . 12 On the underside of the first caudal segment the median keels are dis- tinct and sharp, although fine, the sting is very slender and long Vejovis punctipalpi Wood. (N. Mex., Nev.) On the underside of the first caudal segment there are no median keels or extremely indistinct, the sting of ordinary length . . Hand strongly keeled, no keels on hind tibiz, color yellowish or green- is . Vejovis boreus Gir. (Neb. to Idaho, Utah, and Nev.) Hand bh hatoi keeled, hind tibiæ with very plain keels, color uni- form reddish-brown, legs paler . Vejovis mexicanus Koch (Tex.) On under side of first caudal segment the median keels are plain, but — Ww - T — Vri — a” — Lg -— No 9 N = .401.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 425 not indicated by black lines, hand very slender, the fingers longer than in Vejovis spinigerus, color uniform yellowis Vejovis flavus Bks. (N. Mex.) On underside of first caudal (à no median keels, or at most only indicated by blacklines . . 13 . Underside of cauda not very dni the kets all Indicsthd by black lines, palpi usually yellowish Vejovis spinigerus Wood. (Tex., Ariz., Cal.) Underside of cauda, with the whole of dorsum and the palpi dark red- dish-brown ; no black lines indicating the keels on cauda, smaller than the preceding. . . Vejovis carolinus Koch (S. C. to Tex.) A tarsal spur at end of the first tarsal er of legs 3 and 4 (fam. Buthide) Pale ; no spine under sting, teeth on finger of palpus in many oblique rows, with stouter teeth at end of each and to one side; thirty to thirty-five teeth in combs, under keels of last caudal segment very strongly toothed . . . Uroplectes mexicanus Bks. (Tex., Cal.) No tarsal spur at apex of first tarsal joints, usually a spine under the stin 4 fam. Centrurid@) 15 S . The oblique rows or ih: on de finger o of paps have on each side a parallel row of minute teeth . . (Centrurus) 17 No parallel rows each side j so 0 The ends of the oblique rows of an olan a distinct spine under sting, id to twenty-two teeth in comb, color dark red brown . Tityus floridanus Bks. (S. Fla.) The ends of the rows ae maai but often connected in one direct line, cauda and palpi very long and slender Isometrus maculatus De Geer (S. Fla.) No spine.under the sting, cauda very long and slender Centrurus exilicauda Wood. (Cal.) At least a small spine or tubercle under the sting, cauda less slender 18 Body vittate with black and yellow 3 i ce: 24 Body nearly uniform reddish-brown or : blackish : 19 - Body a rig ITEE cephalothorax very ees aiti lBirongir granulat : . . Centrurus nigrescens Pock (Tex.) Body reddish « or yellowish dius au 20 Fingers paler than hand, yellowish, adrei din veð d spine under sting often small and blunt Centrurus eri pines Gerv. ios Fingers usually darker than han - Color yellowish-brown, combs with shy more + thant tventydoar ih spine under sting not very prominent Centrurus testaceus De Geer (S. Fla.) Color reddish-brown, combs with usually more than twenty-five teeth, spine under s well — usually much larger than the pre- ceding.

Arachnopsis E'. Eyes not long and slender. F. Inner crest of basal antennal joint very promi- nent and projecting downward at right angles to the outer crest. G. Postocular tooth pointing forwar d. ostocular tooth UN close to the eye . Dasygyius u. Postocular tooth not fitting close to eye nachoides G'. Paini tooth Aoin uident Collodes F’. Inner crest of basal antennal joint, when present, not projecting downward at right angles to the outer crest. G. Rostrum simple . . . . . Anasimus G'. Rostrum bifid. H. Spine of basal antennal joint not advanced to the line of the front. 506 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Hepatic region approximating the eye, its anterior margin transverse Batrachonotus H'. Spine of basal antennal joint advanced to the line of the front or nearly so. Hepatic region distant from the eye, its anterior margin oblique Euprognatha Cc’. Rostrum composed of two long spines : . Oregonia A’, Basal joint of antennz not extremely slender, often very | bindd Eyes with orbits, or capable of concealment. B. Basal joint of antenne truncate-triangular. Eyes without true orbits; eyestalks very short, either concealed beneath a supra- ocular spine or sunk in the sides of a huge beak-like rostrum. C. Antenne concealed beneath the rostrum. D. Rostrum formed of two long contiguous horns Sphenocarcinus D’. Rostrum not formed of two long contiguous horns. E. Eyes immovable . . UE VT, MOOR E. Eyes movable . . . Epialtus C. Antenne not concealed incid the rostrum. D. Entire lateral portion of carapace y acer Carapace smooth or nearly so . . Mimulus D’. Carapace with two large job c or teeth on each side. Carapace tuberculate . . . Pugettia B’. Basal joint of antenna broad, usually either bciliivay produced , outward or, often, with one or two distal spines. Eyes with its. C. Orbits with a large, blunt, cupped postocular process into which the eye is retractile, mat) is not completely concealed. Eyestalks short. D. No preocular spine E. Meral joints of ambulatory legs flattened. F. Carapace nearly as broad as long; suríace uneven . Chioncecetes F*. Carapace ide Igi ine bros; surface smooth Pelia E'. Meral joints of SDNY jan subcyliodricil ü as IX. A preocular spine. E. Ambulatory legs armed with spines . . . Nibilia E'. Ambulatory legs not armed with spines. F. Basaljoint of antenna deeply concave; second and third joints flattened, with thin, broad, lateral expansions. . . Scyra No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 507 F’. Basal joint of antenna not deeply concave; second and third joints not broadly expanded. G. Rostral horns long and slender . Chorilia G'. Rostral horns not long and slender. H. Basal antennal joint narrowing dis- tall | wv e Rhodia H’. Basal detail” joint not narrowing ist Loxorhynchus ay Č. Orbits complete, often tubular, cole piltély Alosctellag the retracted eye. D. Meral joints of ambulatory legs with very broad laminate expansions . . Hemus D’. Meral joints of dbuigiber leg ‘without aciients ex- pansions. E. Fingers spoon-shaped at tips. F. Carapace suboblong or suboval. Orbits di- rected forward. First movable joint of antennz broadly expanded. Legs unarmed Pitho Æ. Carapace subtriangular. Orbits directed ob- liquely forward. First movable joint of antenne not broadly Pme Legs spi- uw. wis . Mithrax nous E'. Fingers acute at tips. F. Orbits tubular, directed outward. Carapace subtriangular or oblong. G. Carapace with lateral pone Stenocionops G'. Carapace without pim spines Macroceeloma F’. Orbits not tubular, directed obliquely forward. Carapace orbicular. G. Basal joint of antennz with two spines on the inferior margin of the orbit Coelocerus G’. Basal joint of antennz without spines on the inferior margin of the orbit : Libinia THE SPECIES OF MAIID&. Genus Stenorynchus Lamarck . S. sagittarius (Fabricius), M(CH)SG Genus Metoporhaphis Stimpson. . . M. calcarata (Say), M(CH)SG Genus Podochela Stimpson. 508 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Key to Species. A. Rostrum acute or spiniform. B. Rostrum long-pointed, terminating in a slender spine P. gracilipes Stimpson, M( CH ).SG B'. Rostrum short-pointed, not terminating in a spine. C. A large postorbital tooth near the eye P. lamelligera (Stimpson), G C'. A small postorbital tubercle, remote from the eye P. hemphillii (Lockington), D A’. Rostrum not acute, but rounded. B. Pterygostomian region with a laminate crest. Basal antennal joint with lateral crests laminate P. réised Stimpson, M( CH)G B’. Pterygostomian region with a tubercle. Basal antennal joint with lateral crests smooth and rounded P. hyfoglypha (Stimpson), G S 2 Fic. 2. — Euprognatha Fic. 1. — Podochela riisei. rastellifera. Genus /Epinus Rathbun . . A. iore apos Ris Milne-Edwards), G Genus Erileptus Rathbun . . . E. spinosus Rathbun, D Genus Arachnopsis Stimpson . . . . . A. filipes Stimpson, G Genus Dasygyius Rathbun . . . . D. diro dees (Lockington), D Genus Inachoides Milne-Edwards Lucas . Z. magdalenensis Rathbun, D Genus Collodes Stimpson. Key to Species. A. Carapace with median spines C. depressus A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH )SG A’. Carapace without median spines. B. Interantennular spine advanced as far as the rostrum C. semen E G B. Interantennular spine not advanced as far as the ro C. dul ciii M Genus Anasimus A. Milne-Edwards. No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 509 Key to Spectes. A. Ambulatory legs more than twice the length of the carapace A. latus Rathbun, SG A’. Ambulatory legs less than twice the length of the carapace A. rostratus Rathbun, D Genus Batrachonotus Stimpson. . . B. fragosus Stimpson, M( CH)G Genus Euprognatha Stimpson . . . . &. m Stimpson, MS Genus Oregonia Dana O. gracilis Dana, AP Genus Sphenocarcinus A. Milne- pieds S. corrosus A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH) Genus Mocosoa Stimpson. . . . . . M. crebripunctata Stimpson, G Genus Epialtus Milne-Edwards. Key to Species. A. First tooth of the antero-lateral margin large and prominent B. No postocular tooth . . E. bituberculatus Sfline Edwards, D Fic. 3. — Epialtus productus. B’. A postocular tooth . . KE. productus oa APD A’. First tooth of the ditto labial margin small, not promine E. nuttallii iind D Genus Mimulus Stimpson . . . . . . M. foliatus Stimpson, APD Genus Pugettia Dana. Key to Species. A. Postorbital projection a triangular tooth. B. Hepatic expansion very broad . . . P. gracilis Dana, APD 1 B’. Hepatic expansion narrow, transverse . . P. richii Dana, AD 1 San Luis Obispo, California (Lockington). 510 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. A’. Postorbital projection an obtuse lobe . . . . P. dalli Rathbun, D Genus Chioncecetes Krgyer. Key to Species. A. Carapace tuberculous ; branchial reiss flattened C. opilio (O. Fabricius), WA A’, Carapace spinous ; branchial regions dilated C. tanneri Rathbun,! APD Genus Pelia Bell. Key to Species. A. Hands in male with margins tapering to the fingers, which have their edges meeting throughout . . P. pacifica A. Milne-Edwards, D Fic. 4. — Chioneecetes tanneri. A’, Hands in male with margins subparallel; fingers gaping at base P. mutica (Gibbes), MSG Genus Hyas Leach. Key to Species. A. Carapace subtriangular ; VERUR region not dilated laterally. Basal antennal joint subtriangular . H. araneus (Linneus), V A’. Carapace lyrate; hepatic region dilated laterally. Basal antennal joint with sides nearly parallel. B. Posterior angle of hepatic projection rounded. Basal antennal joint without a large tubercle at the antero-external angle i H. coarctatus Leach, NMA B'. Posterior angle of hepatic projection subacute. Basal antennal joint with a large tubercle at the antero-external angle H. lyratus Dana, AP Genus Nibilia A. Milne-Edwards AV. erinacea A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH )C Genus Seyra Dama... — . . . S. acutifrons Dana, APD Genus Chorilia Dana. . . . . . . . . . C. Zengipes Dana, APD * Only in exceptional has thi ies been found above the 100-fathom line. No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 511 Genus Rhodia Bell . . . . . CO parvifrons (Randall), D c Hire camptacantha Stimpson Genus Loxorhynchus Stimpson. Key to Spectes. A. Hepatic region with two large spines . . Z. grandis Stimpson, PD A’. Hepatic region with one large spine . . ZL. crispatus Stimpson, D Genus Hemus A. Milne-Edwards . JH. créstulipes A. Milne-Edwards, G Genus Pitho Bell. Key to Spectes. A. Carapace smooth, pubescent . . . P. anisodon (von Martens), G Fic. 5. — Hyas lyratus. A’. Carapace tuberculous. . . . |. «P. lherminieri (Schramm), S Genus Mithrax Latreille.! i] Key to Species. 4. Carapace with dorsal sulci on the branchial regions M. forceps (A. Milne-Edwards), M( CH)S A’. Carapace without dorsal sulci on the branchial regions. B. Divisions of rostrum tuberculiform. C. Tubercles of the carapace faintly indicated M. hispidus (Herbst), S C. Tubercles of the carapace well marked AM. pleuracanthus Stimpson, M( CH ).5G 1 M. denticulatus Bell, M. tuberculatus Stimpson, and Teleophrys cristulipes Stimpson are recorded from California by Miers, but this is very likely an error, as Miers used “ Californi ia” and * Lower California” interchangeably. 512 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. B’. Divisions of rostrum long and sharp M. acuticornis Stimpson, G Genus Stenocionops Leach. Key to Species. 4. Carapace with strong median n S. spinosissimus (Saussure), M( CH) A’, Carapace without a d median spines. B. Carapace smooth . ce w 0. o. 39. fercaius COW Fic. 7. — Pitho anisodon. B’. Carapace tuberculous S. furcatus celatus (A. Milne-Edwards), G Genus Macrocœloma Miers. Key to Species. A. Carapace ith d l spi besides th il hial d posterior spines. B. Rostrum strongly defiexed M. septemspinosum (Stimpson), SG No. 402.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 513 B’. Rostrum almost horizontal . . M. camptocerum (Stimpson), G A’. Carapace without dorsal spines except the epibranchial and posterior spines . - M. [ani (Latreille), M( CH)G Genus Ccelocerus k Milne Edwards M . C.grandis Rathbun, G Genus Libinia Leach. Key to Species. A. Carapace with lateral margin evenly rounded behind the rostrum. B. Median spines six . . : . . L. dubia Milne-Edwards, MSG B’. Median spines nine . ner ^ md Leach, VSG A’. Carapace distended at ae hepalie regions Z. spinimana Rathbun, G Fic. 8. — Mithrax acuticornis. KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PARTHENOPID. A. Carapace not laterally expanded. B. Carapace tuberculate. C. Carapace triangular, convex. Pterygostomian and subhepatic regions not deeply excavated to form passages to the effer- ent branchial apertures . Lambrus C'. Carapace sabriouboliigl. Ment. Pierygostomian and subhepatic regions excavated, this excavation forming, when the chelipeds are retracted, passages to the efferent branchial apertures . . AE NAT atylambrus B'. Carapace smooth . . . Solenolambrus A’. Carapace more or less tapssded. to "Dus a vadit i in which the ambu- latory legs are concealed. B. Carapace greatly expanded, both laterally and posteriorly Cryptopodia B'. Carapace expanded laterally, but not posteriorly . Heterocrypta 514 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. THE SPECIES OF PARTHENOPID&.! Genus Lambrus Leach. Key to Species. A. Carapace subtriangular, with lateral angles. B. Protuberances of the carapace Ta subacute L. pourtalesii Stimpson, MS B'. Protuberances of the carapace ,tuberculiform, broadly rounded at n fraterculus Stimpson, M(CH)G 1 + 5 Libinia ema FIG. 10. A’, Carapace posteriorly rounded, without lateral angles . agonus Stimpson, G Genus Platylambrus Stimpson . P. serratus (Milne-Edwards), M( CH YG Genus Solenolambrus Stimpson. Key to Species. A. Gastric and cardiac regions with angular ridges S. decemspinosus Rathbun, G A’, Gastric and cardiac regions without angular ridges S. tenellus Stimpson, G Genus Cryptopodia Milne-Edwards. 1 California is given by Owen as the type locality of Lezolamórus punctatissimus As it has not since been recorded north of Lower California, which was known * California" in 1839, it is inferred that the species does not occur in the United States. No. 402.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 515 Key to Species. A. Posterior margin of carapace d aues or nearly so. Cardiac region faintly indicated . : . C. concava Stimpson, G A’. Posterior margin of carapace sinuous. Cardiac region protuberant C. occidentalis Dana, PD Genus Heterocrypta Stimpson . . . . H. granulata (Gibbes), SGM TRIBE OXYSTOMATA OR LEUCOSOIDEA. Carapace with the antero-lateral margins arcuate or orbiculate ; some- times subglobose or more or less oblong, with subparallel margins. Epi- stome much reduced. Buccal frame more or less triangular, produced and narrowed forward, with the margins anteriorly convergent. Six to nine Fic. 11. — Lambrus pourtalesii. pairs of branchiz. Efferent channels opening at the middle of the endo- stome, which is produced forwards. The afferent channels open either behind the pterygostomian regions and in front of the chelipeds, or at the antero-lateral angles of the palate. First antenna folded longitudinally or obliquely. The genital organs of the male are exserted, either from the bases of the fifth pair of legs, or from the surface of the sternal plastron. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THE TRIBE OXYSTOMATA. 4. Legs normal in size and position. B. goes not closing the buccal cavern; their palp always ex- pos . CALAPPIDJE Milne-Edwards, de Haan, White B. Maxillipeds. desig the buccal cavern; the palp hidden. C. Afferent branchial openings in front of the bases of the chelipeds . . Matutip# M'Leay C'. Afferent branchial PRENS on either side of the endostome Leucosup Leach 5 16 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. A’, Last two pairs of legs much reduced in size, and having a peculiar position in the dorsal plane of the body DorIPPIDÆ Milne-Edwards, White KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY CALAPPIDÆ. A. Antero-lateral margin continuous with the postero-lateral. B. Carapace broadest in its posterior half . . . . . . Calappa B’. Carapace broadest in its anterior half. . . . .Acanthocarpus A’. Antero- and postero-lateral margins meeting at an angle armed with a sour De a s- y Fave THE SPECIES OF CALAPPIDÆ. Genus Calappa Fabricius. Key to Species. A. Teeth of the posterior margin of the carapace broad and shallow C. flammea (Herbst), MSG A’. Median pair of teeth of the posterior margin long and slender C. sulcata Rathbun, M(CH)G Fic. 12. — Calappa sulcata. Genus Acanthocarpus Stimpson. . A. alexandri Stimpson, MG Genus Platymera Milne-Edwards . P. piudichandis Milne-Edwards, PD KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY MATUTID&. 4. Carapace much broader than long ; front not produced ; surface evenly convex . Hepatus A’, Carapace nbasty as «Toii as (badi Jhon. considerably produced sur- face very uneven, nodulose . . Osachila No.4o2.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 517 THE SPECIES OF MATUTID. Genus Hepatus Latreille. Key to Species. A. Carapace marked with large patches of color, margined by darker lines. Length of penultimate segment of abdomen of male two- thirds its proximal width . . . H. epheliticus (Linneus), MSG A’. Carapace marked with transverse lines of small, dark spots. Length of penultimate segment of abdomen of male three-fourths its proxi- mal wid cig X39 ee e a ae H. princeps (Herbst), S Genus Osachila Smpsan IUS CO... «4 0 NIMES Sümpson, G KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY LEUCOSIID. A. Merus of external maxillipeds more than half the length of the ischium measured along the inner border. Fingers stout, gradually narrow- ing from base to tip. B. Little or no space between the edge of the floor of the orbit and the free edge of the buccal cavern. C. Intestinal region without a spine. Merus of external maxilli- peds nearly as e as the ischium measured along the inner border . . xo. PHA C'. Intestinal region with : a Res spine. Meu of external maxil- . lipeds much shorter than the ischium measured along the inner border . . Persephona 5. A considerable space bein thie eii of the lower wall of the orbit and the free edge of the buccal cavern. C. Carapace almost circular and globular . . . . Randallia C^. Carapace polygonal; surface very uneven . . - Lithadia A’. Merus of external maxillipeds half or less than half the length of the ischium measured along the inner border. Fingers slender, almost of the same diameter from base to near tip. B. Fingers moving in a vertical plane. Pterygostomian channels oil projecting considerably beyond the orbits . . . Iliacantha B'. Fingers moving in a horizontal plane. Pam channels not projecting beyond the orbits . . Myropsis THE SPECIES OF LEUCOSIID. Genus Philyra Leach o o i.. . Z fitum de Haan, P Genus Persephona Leach. . . . P. dpi (Linnzus), M(CH )SG Genus Randallia Stimpson . . . . ornata (Randall), PD Genus Lithadia Bell. 518 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Key to Species. A. A narrow bridge between two cavities connects the cardiac and branchial regions. . . L. pontifera Stimpson, M( CH) A’. No bridge connects the inus idi branchial regions. Fic. 14. R dallia ornata B. A transverse ridge between the large branchial protuberance and the lateral margin . L. cariosa Stimpson, 47(CH)G B’. A small circular ciugiberance beiden the large branchial protu- berance and the lateral margin . JZ. cadaverosa Stimpson, G Genus Iliacantha Stimpson . . . . J: subglobosa Stimpson, M( CH)G Genus Myropsis Stimpson . . . . . M. guinguespinosa Stimpson, G KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY DORIPPID;E. A. The external coer ech leave all the anterior part of the buccal cavern uncovered M CX as eee A’, The external madio cover ‘the buccal « cavern . . Cyclodorippe Fic. 15. — Ethusa mascarone. THE SPECIES OF DORIPPID&. Genus Ethusa Roux. Key to Species. A. Eyestalks Pint extending laterally beyond the postorbital spine E. mascarone americana (A. Milne-Edwards), M (CH )G A’, Eyestalks short, directed forward. No. 402.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 519 B. uet of second and third pairs of ~ broad, flattened E. microphthalma Smith, M B'. Dactyli of second and third pairs of legs slender, not flattened E. tenuipes Rathbun, G Genus Cyclodorippe A. Milne-Edwards. Key to Species. A. Carapace convex. No hepatic tooth C. nitida A. Milne-Edwards,’D A’. Carapace flattened. A hepatic tooth. . . C. plana (sf. nov.), G BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following citations are additional to those given in Synopsis No. MIL '8& MILNE-EDWARDS, H. Histoire naturelle des crustacés. ^ Vol. i chap. iii, pp. 266—362, and Atlas. '87 MiLNE-Epwarps, H. Histoire naturelle des crustacés. Vol. ii, pp. 96-162, and Atlas. 38 KRØYER, HENRIK. Conspectus Crustaceorum Gronlandiz. Natur- historisk Tidsskrift. Series 1, vol. ii, pp. 24 '89 RANDALL, J. W. Catalogue of the Crustacea Brought by Thomas Nuttall and J. K. Townsend from the West Coast of North America and the Sandwich bus etc. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel- fia. Vol. viii, pp. 106-14 44 DE Kay, James E. Ponidey a New York, or the New York Fauna. Pt. vi, Crustacea. '52 Dana, James D. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi- tion. Vol. i, pp. 75-142, 389-398, and Atlas '96 GIBBES, L. R. Monograph of the Genus Cryptopodia. Proc. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist. Pp. 32-38. June 11, 1856. ‘70 STREETS, T. HALE. Notice of some Crustacea of the Genus Libinia, with descriptions of four new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. xxii, pp. 104-107. "71 Stimpson, W. Preliminary Report on the Crustacea Dredged in the Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida, by L. F. de Pourtalés, Assist. U. S. Coast Survey. Pt. i, Brachyura. Bul. Mus. Comp. Zoól. Vol. ii, pp. 109-160. "71 Stimpson, WILLIAM. Notes on North American Crustacea in the : Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. III. Asn. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York. Vol. x, pp. 92-136. 1 Type, No. 14,256, U. S. Nat. Mus., southern California; W. H. Dall. 520 ai THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. LockINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific Coast, with descriptions of some new species. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Vol. vii, pp. 28-36. Feb. 7, 1876. LOCKINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific Coast of North America, including a catalogue of the species in the museum of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Vol. vii, pp. 63 bis-78. July 17, 1876. Miers, E. J. On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxy- rhyncha, with a synopsis of the families, subfamilies, and genera. Journ. Linn. Soc. London. Vol. xiv, pp. 634—673, Pls. XII, XIII. SMITH, SIDNEY I. Preliminary Report on the Brachyura and Ano- mura Dredged in Deep Water off the South Coast of New England by the United States Fish Commission in 1880, 1881, and 1882. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. vi, pp. 1-57, Pls. I-VI. RATHBUN, Mary J. Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family Periceride in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xv, No. gol, pp. 231-277, Pls. XXVIII-XL. RATHBUN, Mary J. Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family Maiide in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvi, No. 927, pp. 63-103, Pls. III-VIII. RATHBUN, Mary J. Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Crabs from the West Coast of North America and the Sandwich Islands. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvi, No. 933, pp- 223-260. RATHBUN, Mary J. Notes on the Crabs of the Family Inachide in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvii, No. 984, pp. 43-75. RATHBUN, MARY J. Synopsis of the American Species of Ethusa, with description of a new species. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. Vol. xi, pp. 109-112. CALMAN, W. T. On a Collection of Crustacea from Puget Sound. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. Vol. xi, No. 13, pp. 259-284. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. The Races of Man. — A new treatise upon anthropology, by Dr. Joseph Deniker, of the Natural History Museum, Paris, has been published by the Scribners in * The Contemporary Science Series." It is a very compact little volume of six hundred pages, containing many carefully selected illustrations for the elucidation of the text and numerous bibliographic notes. Comparison with somewhat simi- lar compendiums shows how rapidly anthropology has developed since the publication of Oscar Peschel's Races of Man and Fr. Muller's Allgemeine Ethnographie a quarter of a century ago. Deniker has treated his subject more fully than the philosophic Brinton in Races and Peoples; he has given less space to palethnography than has Professor Keane in Man, Past and Present. Dr. Deniker is inclined to adopt the classification of the anthropo- logic sciences advocated by Professor Brinton. We commend his views concerning ethnology to the attention of those who fear that this growing young science will seek to absorb all cognate fields of research, ‘This latter science should concern itself with human societies under all their aspects; but as history, political economy, etc., have already taken possession of the study of civilized peoples, there only remain for it the peoples without a history, or those who have not been adequately treated by historians. However, there is a convergence of characters in mankind, and we find even to-day the trace of savagery in the most civilized peoples. Ethnical facts Must not, then, be considered separately. We must compare them either among different peoples, or, down the course of the ages, in the same people, without concerning ourselves with the degree of actual civilization attained.” Three chapters are devoted to “ Somatic Characters," dealing suc- cessively with the * distinctive characters of man and apes," “ dis- tinctive morphological characters of human races,” “ physiological characters,” and “ psychological and pathological characters.” The principal physical criteria of race— head-form, pigmentation, stature, and hair — receive special attention, and a number of new statistical 521 522 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. tables are furnished in the appendixes to the volume. The hair is given particular prominence in the classification of races according to morphological characters. Confidence is expressed in the ability of Europeans to colonize the Tropics, though little evidence is adduced in support of the opinion. For the first time, we believe, in a general work attention is directed to the nervous susceptibility of savages, which some students of primitive culture regard as an important factor in the development of religion. * Ethnic Characters," including language, the arts, religion, the family, and social life, are treated in four chapters that seem all too brief to the serious student. Indeed, the entire volume reminds the reader of Tony Weller's comment upon brevity in letter writing. Half the book is devoted to Races and Peoples. Dr. Deniker modifies somewhat his classification of the races of mankind in gen- eral, published in 1889, and now divides the species into twenty-nine races, which in turn are separated into seventeen groups, by taking into account other characters than somatic alone. The ancient in- habitants of Europe are passed over with but brief mention; the Aryan question is dismissed as unanswerable and no longer of any consequence in anthropology. His well-known scheme of classifica- tion of the present races of Europe into six primary and four second- ary races is given in briefer form than in previously published papers of the Anthropological Society of Paris. The few paragraphs upon the archeology of Asia show that the subject is becoming better known and sheds light upon the ancient history of Europe. The complete account of the migrations of Asiatic tribes within historic times cannot yet be written. So also we can only discern in a gen- eral way the elements furnished by the eleven races into which the peoples of the continent are divided. Dr. Deniker accepts quaternary man in North America as estab- lished by the discoveries at Trenton, Little Falls, Minnesota, etc. The mounds of North America are ascribed to the Indians. The modern tribes are considered by ethnographic provinces rather than by groups based upon somatic characters or ethnic traits. _ The author is certainly correct in his belief “that even profes- sional anthropologists will be able to consult" this work * profit- ably.” While ethnic maps would have added much to the value of the book, and though there are statements of fact and deductions susceptible to criticism, yet it presents a masterly summary of an extensive and intricate subject. FRANK RUSSÉLL. No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 523 ZOOLOGY. The White-Fish of Lake Chapala. — In 1879 the writer secured a single specimen of the famous “ Pescado Blanco,” a delicious food fish found in Lake Chapala, in Mexico. This was described under the name of Chirostoma estor. It is an atherinoid fish (Sil- versides or Pesce-rey), translucent and delicate in substance and about a foot in length. Last winter Mr. J. O. Snyder and the writer visited this lake and obtained a very large collection of the “ Pescado Blanco." On critically examining it we were surprised to find that the material contained six distinct species, similar in color and appearance but differing in technical characters, and not one of them identical with the original Chirostoma estor. Two of these six species have been lately described by Dr. G. A. Boulenger from specimens taken by Mr. A. C. Buller, ede the names of Chirostoma lucius and Chirostoma sphyrena (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1900, pp. 54, 55). These names have priority over those printed but not yet published by Jordan and Snyder. par Evermann on Species and Subspecies. — In Science for March 23, Dr. B. W. Evermann gives a very sane and accurate account of the formation of species and subspecies, using two species of darters in Lake Maxinkuckee as illustrations. He closes with these words: “ We sometimes hear the remark that * systematists often go too far and describe as new species or subspecies forms which differ but slightly from known forms, that they give specific or subspecific value to differences which are due merely to slight differences in en- vironment. This misses the whole point. What produces species and subspecies except slight differences in environment with greater or less geographical isolation? And when we see these differences why should we refuse to admit their existence or their meaning ? " DSI Smith on the Fishes of Woods Holl. — In Science for December 15, Dr. H. M. Smith adds a number of tropical species to the list of fishes known from Woods Holl, raising the number of species to 240, the largest recorded from any Atlantic locality north of Key West. The species not hitherto recorded from north of Carolina are the following : Murena retifera, Apogon maculatus, Epinephelus adscensionis, Garrupa nigrita, Mycteroperca bonace, Mycteroperca inter- 524 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. stitialis (?), Eupomaceutrus leucostictus, Teuthis hepatus, Teuthis ceruleus, Teuthis bahianus, Lactophrys triqueter, Chilomycterus antillarum, Scorpena plumieri, and Scorpena grandicornis. All of these are evi- dently species borne northward in the Gulf Stream. DSL Eigenmann on Blind Vertebrates. — In Science for March 30, Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann publishes his address as President of the Indiana Academy of Sciences on * Degeneration of the Eyes of the Cold- Blooded Vertebrates of the North-American Caves." In this he discusses in detail the eye degeneration of the cave salamanders and cave blind-fishes. He concludes that “degeneration has not proceeded in the reverse order of development. Rather the older normal stages of ontogenetic development have been modified into the more recent phyletic stages through which the eye has passed. The adult degenerate eye is not an arrested ontogenetic stage of development but a new adaptation, and there is an attempt in ontogeny to reach the degenerate adult condition in the most direct way possible." DSI Microbdella biannulata. — Under this name J. Percy Moore’ describes a remarkable leech of the family Glossiphonidæ, recently discovered by him in the mountain region of North Carolina, attached to the body of the salamander Desmognathus fusca. Leeches of the family named have somites ordinarily composed each of three rings about equal in width. In Microbdella, however, a typical somite is biannulate dorsally, uniannulate ventrally. The two rings into which the somite is divided on the dorsal surface are not of equal width, the anterior one being much broader and corre- sponding evidently with the first and second rings of a typical somite of Glossiphonia. The segmental sense organs of the dorsal surface are situated in the posterior half of the broad anterior ring. The single broad ring of which the somite is composed on the ven- tral surface is clearly equivalent to all three rings of a somite of Glossiphonia. Moore’s discovery shows the correctness of two general conclu- sions recently announced by W. E. Castle? as a result of studies made chiefly on Glossiphonia : i. The sensory ring of the leech somite is the middle, not the anterior ring of the somite, as has been generally assumed hitherto. 1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., April, 1 2 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., i ag 1900. No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 525 A biannulate condition of the leech somite has probably pre- ceded phylogenetically the triannulate condition ; still earlier the somite was probably uniannulate, as in the chetopods. The simple uniannulate somite became biannulate by the separation of a narrow posterior ring from the rest of the somite ; the triannulate condition was reached by the separation of a narrow ring at the anterior end of the somite, the sensilla remaining on the middle ring. These conclusions have been reached quite independently by Moore, who presents incontrovertible evidence in their support. He further expresses the opinion that the shorter somites commonly found at either end of the body of a leech are not, as they are usually regarded, “abbreviated” somites once multiannulate, but rather represent “stages of development arrested or in progress ” from the uniannulate to the multiannulate condition. The number of somites in the body of Microbdella is probably the same as in Glossiphonia (Clepsine) and Herpobdella (Nephelis), though Moore finds some evidence, not to his mind conclusive, of the existence of an additional somite at the anterior end of the body. Locomotion of Solenomya. — Solenomya and its relatives show three methods of locomotion which have been studied by G. A. Drew. The first is well represented in Yoldia. This clam pos- sesses a spatula-like foot split into two plates at its distal end. The animal drives this foot into the mud, with the distal flaps held together. "These are then expanded and serve as an anchor so that the contraction of the longitudinal muscles of the foot draws the animal through the mud to the place where the foot is anchored. There is no reason to suppose that these mollusks creep about on the expanded foot as snails do. The second method of locomotion, that of leaping, is seen in Solenomya, and especially in Yoldia. When the animal rests sidewise on a smooth surface, the foot is protruded and turned under the lower valve. If the foot is then suddenly contracted, the shell may be thrown end for end some inches. The third method of locomotion is that of swimming. This is accomplished by the vigorous ejection of water from the mantle cavity. The mantle lobes are united except at their anterior and posterior ends. By the separation of the valves, through the action of the elastic ligament, the mantle chamber is filled with water. The anterior opening is then closed by the foot, and by a vigorous 2 Drew, G. A. Locomotion in Solenomya and its Relatives, Anat. Anz., Bd. xvii, pp. 257—266, 1900. 526 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. contraction of the mantle musculature the water is expelled through the posterior opening, thus driving the body of the animal forwards. By a succession of such jets the animal may swim some feet before settling. P. Ear Bonés.— The ear bones of vertebrates have undergone a careful comparative examination at the hands of J. S. Kingsley.’ In urodeles and ccecilians, where no tympanum exists, a stapes, which develops independently of the otic capsule, is the only ele- ment present. In the anura the space between the otic capsule and the tympanum is spanned by three elements, the stapes, the pseudo- perculum, and the extracolumella, which collectively constitute the so-called columella of this group. It is important to observe that the intermediate piece, the pseudoperculum, is developed from the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity. In lizards the chain of ear bones consists of only two, the stapes and the extracolumella. Of the three ear bones in the pig the malleus is composed of three parts, a manubrium corresponding to the extracolumella of lower forms, a body representing the articulare, and a membrane bone forming at least a part of the processus gracilis. The stapes of the pig is homologous with the stapes of lower vertebrates. The incus which unites malleus and stapes cannot correspond to the pseu- doperculum of lower vertebrates, because it develops from the ante- rior instead of the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity. As this position is that occupied by the quadrate, the incus is believed to be homologous with this bone. It will thus be seen that while the dis- tal and proximal ends of the chain of ear bones in mammals and in lower vertebrates are homologous, the intermediate members are not, being the posterior pseudoperculum in amphibia and the anterior incus (quadrate) in mammals. P. Otocysts of the Heteropods. — Ilyin? has experimented upon Carinaria and Pterotrachea with the view of determining the physio- logical value of the otocysts in these mollusks. The otocysts are apparently stimulated not as auditory organs but as tactile organs. When both organs are removed, the animal is unable to keep itself correctly oriented and swims in circles. The presence or absence 1 Kingsley, J. S. The Ossicula Auditus, Tufts College Studies, No. 6. (Scien- tific Series.) pe 2 Ilyin, P. Das Gehörbläschen als 29 Ago pao bei den Pterotra- cheidz, sro r Phys., Bd. xiii, pp. 691-694, 1900. No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 527 of the eyes does not alter this reaction, so that orientation is not accomplished in these forms by the eye, as in many other animals. The loss of one otocyst does not affect the animal's movements, the remaining one being sufficient to keep it normally oriented. P. Capillaries and Sinusoids. — C. S. Minot! draws attention to the fact that in the vertebrates blood vessels are connected not only by capillaries but also by irregular, minute spaces, for which he proposes the name “ Sinusoids." The walls of a sinusoid, like those of a capil- lary, are formed from a single layer of endothelial cells, but the capillary wall has the form of a tubule, while that of the sinusoid follows the irregular surfaces of the tissue spaces in which it lies; capillaries are tubules, but sinusoids are irregular, branching systems of spaces. Sinusoids form the main blood channels in the pro- nephros, mesonephros, liver, heart, supra-renal capsules, parathyroid glands, carotid glands (probably), and coccygeal glands. P. Villi of the Mammalian Intestine. — The development of the villi in the intestine of man and of the pig has been investigated by J. M. Berry." The inner surface in young embryos is at first smooth, but afterwards becomes thrown up into longitudinal folds, such as are found permanently in many of the lower vertebrates. These folds increase in size and then break up into rows of villi. After the first villi become fully developed, new ones are added to the intestinal surface, so that fully developed villi and forming villi may be found side by side, the number of the villi thus increasing with increase of age. DE. Notes. — Dr. Kishinouye has described (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XXII, p. 125) a new species of stalked jellyfish, Ha/iclystus stej- negeri. This genus has thus far been represented by three Atlantic species. The new form comes from the Commander Islands in the Pacific. The distome genus Clinostomum, founded in 1856 by Leidy, has been brought forward again by Braun (Zool. Anz., Bd. XXII, ! Minot, C. S. On a hitherto unrecognized Form of Blood Circulation without Capillaries in the Organs of Vertebrates, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxix, pP. OPES d 1900. rry, J. M. On the Development of the Villi of the Human Intestine, Anat. Anz., Bd. xvii, pp. 242-249, 1900. 528 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. pp. 484-488, 489-493), who finds in it a natural group, clearly and sufficiently characterized by the anterior end and the genital and ex- cretory systems to be distinguished from all other distomes. He gives a résumé of the known species and adds six new. Almost simul- taneously with this has appeared an excellent description of an American species by W. G. MacCallum (Journ. of Morph., Vol. XV, pp. 697—710, 1 plate). The structure and biology of Oxyuris curvula have been studied by H. Ehlers (Arch. f. Naturges., 1899; 26 pp., 2 plates). He con- firms the previous opinion that the variably long tail of the female is a mark of advancing age and not a specific character, and finds that, contrary to the ordinarily received view, this species is of pathologic importance. Experimentation showed that direct infection is possi- ble, if not general, and that the period of development covers about three months. Towards the analysis of the old group of distomes Stossich has recently contributed a study on the dismemberment of the genus Brachycelium Duj. (oZ. Soc. Adr. Sci. Nat., Trieste, Vol. XIX, pp. 7-10), and a second paper on the partition of the genus Echinosto- mum Duj. (75., pp. 11-16). In some biological observations on Galeodes and Buthus, E. Lönnberg (Ofv. Kgl. Vet-Akad. Forh., 1899, No. 10, pp. 277-284) records that the poison of the latter was not strong enough to kill the former, and that the belief in the self-destruction of the scor- pion when surrounded by fire rests on erroneous observation. In Galeodes it is the mechanical power of the jaws only that renders it dangerous, and this is not sufficient to pierce the human skin. Another paper on the fishes of the Caucasus, based on Dr. Radde's collections, is published in German and Russian by Dr. S. Kamensky, assistant in zoólogy in Charcow. Numerous new species of Barbus (Barbel) are described and figured. The fourth part of Boulenger's admirable report on the fishes of the Congo is now published. It includes Cleopaide, Mormyridz, etc., and the descriptions are accompanied by excellent plates. NEWS. THE German Society of Naturforscher und Artze meets this year at Aachen from the 17th to the 21st of September. Mr. Dean C. Worcester has resigned his position as assistant pro- fessor of zodlogy in Michigan University, to accept his appointment as member of the new Philippine Commission. Dr. Th. M. Fries, professor of botany in the University of Upsala, has retired. The British Association for the Advancement of Science meets this year at Bradford, beginning September 5, under the presidency of Sir William Turner. An International Congress of General Botany is to be held in Paris from the rst to the roth of next October. The Congress will be under the auspices of the government in connection with the Exposition. The Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, announces the eleventh season of summer instruction in natural history. Professor C. B. Davenport will have for his staff: Professor H. S. Pratt, comparative anatomy ; Professor C. P. Sigerfoos, embryology ; S. R. Williams, zoólogy ; Gertrude C. Davenport and W. L. Tower, microscopic methods ; Dr. D. S. Johnson, cryptogamic botany ; Dr. H. C. Cowles, phanerogamic botany ; W. C. Coker, botany; Pro- fessor N. S. Davis, bacteriology; Dr. H. A. Kelly, nature study ; W. H. C. Pynchon, photography. The laboratory will be open from July 2 to August 25. Correspondence should be addressed to Pro- fessor Franklin Hooper, 5o2 Fulton Street, Brooklyn, or to Professor C. B. Davenport, University of Chicago. The Ohio State University announces a course of study for the summer of 1900 at its Lake Laboratory, at Sandusky, Lake Erie. Four courses are offered in zoology and three courses in botany. The staff consists of Professor H. Osborn, zodlogy and entomol- ogy; Assistant Professor Jas. S. Hine, entomology; F. L. Landacre, zodlogy ; Professor W. A. Kellerman, botany; Assistant Professor 529 530 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. J. H. Schaffner, botany. The school will open on July 2 and will continue for eight weeks. Correspondence should be addressed to Professor Herbert Osborn, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl announces a special course in nature study designed to meet the needs of teachers. The course will commence on July 5 and extend over a period of six weeks. The courses of instruction in botany will include crypto- gamic botany by Dr. Davis and Mr. Moore, plant physiology by Dr. R. H. True, plant cytology and micro-technique by Dr. Davis. Correspondence should be addressed to Professor C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago, or to Professor Ulric Dahlgren, Princeton University. | We are indebted to the May issue of the Review of Reviews for the following announcements: Mr. Albert L. Arey announces the eleventh season of his natural- science camp for boys at Canandaigua, N. Y. Instruction is given in the subjects of biology, entomology, taxidermy, and photography. The Rhode Island Summer School for Nature Study will hold its second session on July 5-20, at Kingston, R. I. Tuition is free to teachers in the schools of Rhode Island. Beloit College, Wisconsin, will hold a summer school on Madeline Island, Lake Superior, from July 26 to August 3 A school of applied agriculture and de ont m be established near New York City, to open in September for study and practical training. Students will have the use of the laboratories and the extensive collection of plants in the museum, the conservatories, and upon the grounds of the New York Botanical Garden. The work will be under the direction of Mr. George T. Powell. Appointments: Dr. Antonio Baldacci, docent for botany in the University of Bologna. — Dr. Alexander Balint, docent for zoólogy in the University of Klausenburg. — Dr. C. R. Bardeen, professor of anatomy in the University of California. — Dr. Llewellys Barker, of Johns Hopkins, professor of anatomy and neurology in the Univer- sity of Chicago. — Dr. A. N. Berlese, professor of botany in the University of Sassari, Sardinia. — Dr. Albrecht Bethe, docent for physiology in the University of Strassburg. — Dr. H. Bóckh, pro- fessor of mineralogy and paleontology in the Akademie in Schemnitz, Hungary.— Dr. Hermann Braus, professor extraordinary of anat omy in the University of Würzburg. — Dr. O. Brefeld, professor of No. 402.] ` NEWS. 531 botany in the University of Breslau. — Dr. Willy Bruhns, professor extraordinary of mineralogy and petrography in the University of Strassburg. — Dr. O. Burger of Gottingen, professor of zodlogy in the University of Santiago, and director of the zodlogical section of the National Museum. — Dr. W. E. Castle, instructor in zoólogy in Harvard University. — Howard Emlyn Davies, assistant in bacteri- ology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Gustav Fritsch, honorary professor of physiology in the University of Berlin. — Dr. Fünfstück, professor of botany in the Stuttgart Polytechnical School. — Mr. A. W. Grabau, instructor in geology in the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, N. Y. — Frederick O. Grover, professor of botany in Oberlin College. — W. F. E. Gurley, associate curator of paleon- tology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. J. B. Hatcher, of Prince- ton, curator of vertebrate paleontology in the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburg. — Dr. E. von Hibler, docent for anatomy in the University of Innsbruck. — W. H. Hobbs, professor of mineralogy and petrog- raphy in the University of Wisconsin. — Dr. E. O. Jordan, associate professor of bacteriology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. F. R. Kjellmann, professor of botany in the University of Upsala. — Eduard Lampe, conservator of the Natural History Museum at Wiesbaden. — Dr. Frank R. Lillie, of Vassar College, assistant pro- fessor of zoólogy in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Jacques Loeb, professor of physiology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Karl Mez, professor extraordinary of botany in the University of Halle. — Dr. Luigi Montemartini, docent for botany in the University of Pavia.— Dr. A. Osann, professor extraordinary of geology in the University of Basel. — Dr. F. Sandor, docent for mineralogy in the University at Agram, Austria, — Dr. von Schmidt, docent for his- tology and embryology in the University of Jena. — Dr. Max Semper, docent for paleontology in the technical school at Aachen. — Dr. Angelo Senna, docent for zoólogy and comparative anatomy in the Institute for Superior Studies at Florence. — G. Severin, the entomolo- gist, conservator of the Natural History Museum in Brussels. — Dr. Wilson R. Smith, instructor in botany in McMaster University, Toronto. — Dr. Hans Solereder professor extraordinary of botany in the University of Munich. — Dr. Stahr, docent for anatomy in the University at Breslau. — Dr. A. Steuer, docent for geology in thé Darmstadt Technical School. — Dr. Alexander Tornquist, pro- fessor extraordinary of geology and paleontology in the University of Strassburg. — John E. Webb, assistant in physiography and biology in the University of Chicago. — Stuart Weller, instructor in geology 532 . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Gregg Wilson, tutor in zoology in Heriott-Watt College, Edinburgh. — Mr. J. B. Woodworth, of Har- vard, assistant on the New York Geological Survey. — H. Woods, tutor in paleozoólogy in the University of Cambridge. Deaths: Émile Blanchard, zoólogist, at Paris.— Mr. Andrew Bolter, entomologist, in Chicago, March 18, aged 8o. — John Brooks Bridgman, student of Hymenoptera, at Norwich, England, October 6, aged 63. — W. E. Brooks, ornithologist, at Mount Forest, Ontario, aged 70. — Giovanni Canestrini, professor of zoology and compara- tive anatomy in the University of Padua, February 14. — Edouard Coucke, student of Coleoptera, in Brussels. — Frank Hamilton Cush- ing, ethnologist, well known for his studies of the Zuhi Indians, April 10, aged 43. — Francois Decaux, entomologist, in Neuilly. — George Dowker, botanist and geologist, at Ramsgate, England, Sep- tember 23, aged 71. — Dr. A. Ernst, formerly director of the National Museum at Caracas, Venezuela. — Richard Fereday, student of. lepidoptera, at Christchurch, New Zealand, August 3o, aged 79. — Hans Bruno Geinitz, the geologist and paleontologist, at Dresden, January 28, aged 86.— Walter Gótze, botanist, in German East Africa. — Baron J. C. L. d'Hamonville, ornithologist, near Manon- ville, France, November 17, aged 69. — F. L. Harvey, professor of natural history in Maine State College and botanist and entomologist to the Maine Experiment Station, by suicide, March 6, aged 50. — Baron Oskar von Loewis, of Menar, at Kudling, Livonia, an ornitholo- gist, Aug. 6, 1899, aged 61. — A. F. Marion, professor of zoólogy in the Faculty of Sciences at Marseilles, January 23, aged 53.— P. Matheron, paleontologist, in Marseilles, Dec. 31, 1899, aged 93. — M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, the eminent French zoólogist, April 21, aged 64. — Professor St. George Mivart, the well-known zoólogist, in London, April 1, aged 73. — Dr. R. Nasse, geologist, in Berlin, December 2; aged 62. — Dr. Wilhelm von Nathusius, well known for his studies of the shell of birds’ eggs in Halle, December 25, aged 78. — Dr. Manuel Paulino d'Oliveira, professor of zoólogy at Coimbra, Portu- gal, August 25. — Dr. Karl Maria Paul, of the Austrian Geological Survey, in Vienna, February 1o. — Dr. Lucien Quélet, mycologist, in Herimoncourt, France. — Mr. George P. Sennet, ornithologist, at Youngstown, Ohio, March 18, aged 59. — Dr. Karl Sommer, student of Lepidoptera in Oberlóssnitz, Germany, November 18.— Dr. Wilhelm Zenker, astrophysicist, but earlier a student of arthro- pods, in Berlin, October 21, aged 7o. — Dr. Giovanni Zoja, professor of anatomy in Padua. NOTE ON CESTODE NOMENCLATURE. In many of the cestodes there occurs at the beginning of the germ duct an organ, chiefly muscular in structure, which engages the germ cells on their release from the germarium and forwards them into the germ duct. From its characteristic movements in the discharge of this function the organ was well named “ Schluck- apparat" by Pintner, who made the first extended study of its occur- rence and structure. Its presence has been generally recognized by investigators on cestode structure since then, and the term used by Pintner has been widely employed even in French and English papers. The evident disadvantages of such terms as are unpro- nounceable and unintelligible to students unfamiliar with the Ger- man and are furthermore incapable of inflection, serve as my excuse for calling attention to a term in use in the laboratory here to desig- nate this structure, namely, odcaft. Formed on the analogy of Leuckart’s generally accepted term “odtype” for a neighboring structure in the reproductive apparatus and conveying the appro- priate idea suggested by Pintner, the term **oócapt " has proved in use both convenient and precise. As it is to be used in papers now being published by some of my students, this explanation is also necessary in order to prevent possible confusion or misunderstanding regarding its origin and meaning. Henry B. WARD. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. 533 PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are nor included.) BüTsc rin O. Untersuchungen über Mikrostrukturen des yi Schwefels nebst Bemerk ungen über Sublimation, Ueberschmelzung und Uebersáttigung des Schwefels und einiger anderer Kórper. Lapi Engelmann, 1900. p" pp., 4to, ha ec" A plates. 11 marks. — CORRENS, C. Untersuchungen über die Ver- r Laubmoose. xxiv, 472 pp..8vo, d figs. 5 mai E M. logy. Translated Ton the — n by J. sei we. London, The Medina. bere 1900. pp. I o, 6 figs. cents. — HILLEBRAND, WwW. F ische Anleitu 7s zur frees der Silikagesteine. Nebst einer SE SEAR erase oan einige Prinzipien der ghar Hii Chemischen Forschung von F. W. Clarke und W. F. Hiilebrand. Uebersetzt und fiir den Gebrauch in Laboratorien herausgegeben von Dr. E. Zschimer. ‘Uaioe g, Engelmann, 1899. 86 pp., 8vo. 2 marks. — LANKESTER, E. Ray. A Treatise on Zoólo ogy. Part III, The Echinodermata. By F. T Bather, J. W. Gregory, and E. S. G Goodid. London, Adam and Chas. Black, 1900. vi, 344 pp. $vo, 220 figs. 15/.— NICHOLSON, and AvERY, S. Laboratory Exercises, with Outlines for the Study of Chemistry. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1899. x, 134 pp. 8vo, 26 figs. 60 cents.— PLATE, L. Ue ber MAE Y und Tragweite des Darwin'schen gta tar ga an Leipzig, Engelmann, 1 153 pp. 8vo. 2 marks. — t e West Indian Species; Shipley, A. E., On a Collection of Echiurids from the Toit | Islands, etc. Cambridge, University Press, 1899. pp. 207-356. 1 plat FARRINGTON, O. C, Ne ew Mineral Occurrences and hone Forms of Calcit States. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxii, pp. 179-198, 1 plate.— GREENE, CHAS. Contributions to the Physiology of the California Hagfish Zo/istotrema stru I. The Anatomy and Physiology of the Caudal Heart. Amer. Journ. of Pis. Vol. iii, No. 8. — KERR, J. G. The External Features in the Development of Lepidosiren paradoxa Fritz. Phil. Trans. l. cxcii, pp. 299-330, 5 plates. — MILLEPAUGH, Utowanæ. Plants collected in ud rto Rico, etc. The Antillean Cruise of the Yacht Ut Part I, Catalogue of the Species. Field C. Series, Vol. ii, No. 1, 110 pp.— G S., Jr. Seven New Rats collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott in Siam. Proc. Biol Soc. Wash. Vol. xiii, pp. 137-1 i erida H. otes on Some Birds from Santa Barbara Islands, Cal. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxii, pp- 220-234 x uum & HC Catalogue of a Collection of Birds fen adagascar. E Mus. Vol. xxii, pp. 235-248. — OBERHOLSER, H. C. Notes on Birds collected, l by = W. L. Abbott in Cent U.S. Nat. Mus Vol. sori — VAUGHAN, T. W. A New il Species of Caryo- phyllia fm Cali ornia, and a New Genus and Species my Turbinolid Coral from Japan. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxii, pp. 199-203. (Wo. gor was mailed May 31.) 534 GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY Kiener’s pep General et Sacer Sor des Mei eme Vivantes. ontinué par le Dr. P. FISHER, Aide-N iste au Museum d'Histoire N aturelle. nie in 165 peru emm I2 vuluieat- with 902 Peg superbly colored after the natural specimens. Edition on vellum paper es Published at 1800 francs, offered at $250. e above osea work on shells and one of the cx ever ee —the ados being accurately and c — colored E competent artists — especially worthy the eis of naturalists and libra ves account of the low price at which it is offered, being less than half the ca el fiuportatioh: C. J: PHICE, IMPORTER OF FOREIGN BOOKS, 1004 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Anise be MICROSCOPES of every size, style and price, suited for all kinds of work. A new series of lenses for dissecting work have recently been perfected by us which have unusually long working distance and — = large flat field. These Lens Holder for Anatomical Work. lenses are offered at prices less than any lenses of equal quality heretofore in use. The new Dissecting Stands are all nickeled metal with glass stage. [$3- Catalog free. Sample copy JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY on request. BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO. NEW YORE OFFICE: chien nds 25th Street and rete, ROCHESTER, N. Y. CREE Bldg. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA SYLLABUS OF LECTURES ON THE VERTEBRATA. By the late PRorEsson E. D. COPE. With Introduction by HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN, Sc.D. 8vo. Cloth, $1.25; paper, $1.00. BOSTON, GINN & COMPANY, AGENTS The American Naturalist Special Offer ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, paying the full subscription price of $4.00 a year in advance, may obtain the back vol- umes for the years 1892, 1893, 1894; 1895, 1896, and 1897 upon the following terms: any single volume will be sent upon payment of $2.00; any two volumes for $3.50; any three volumes for $4.00; any four volumes for $4.50; and five or six volumes for $1.00 each, in addition to the regular subscription. This offer holds good until the stock of back volumes is exhausted. Volumes for 1898 and 1899, $4.00 each. * We cannot supply numbers for April and June, 1894. Ginn & Company PUBLISHERS 9-13 Tremont Place, Boston VoL. XXXIV, NO. 403” JULY, 1900 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS : PAGE I. Notes on a Species of Pelomyxa . . Professor H. V. WILSON 535 II. A Remarkable Axolotl from North Dakota š Professor H. L. OSBORN 551 III. The Female of Eciton Sumichrasti Norton, with Some Notes on the Habits of Texan Ecitons . . Professor W. M. WHEELER 563 IV. On the Linnæan Genera Myrmecophaga and Didelphis . J. A. G. REHN 575 V. Karpinsky's Genus Helicoprion. A Review . . Dr. C. R. EASTMAN 579 VI. Synopses of North-American Invertebrates. XI. The Cato- metopous or Grapsoid Crabs of North America MARY J. RATHBUN 583 VII. Reviews of Recent — Anthropology, = and his Ancestor, Notes 593 — Zoólogy, A Zoo d-Pacific, The Distribution 594 of the Opilionide, , The Management and Diseases of the Dog, Studies on Hirudinea, The Resources of is Sea, * Les Oiseaux," Heliotropism of Cypridopsis, Notes — Botany, An Experimental Botany, Prant's 605 Lehrbuch, * Lessons in Botany," ice Paleobotany, Cretaceous Plants, 608 Fossil Cycads, The Yale Collection of Cycads, Fossils of the Nor- wegian North Polar Expedition, Rothamsted Experiments, Plants in Calcareous Tufa, Fossil Flora of the Cascade Range, iat of the Coal Layers of La Ternera — Paleontology, Notes on Fossil Fi 612 VIII. News 613 IX. Publications Received : m BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 9-13 TREMONT PLACE New York Chicago London 70 Fifth Avenue 378-388 Wabash Avenue 37 Bedford Street, Strand RON OT SUA ena een M SEE Entered at the Post-Office, Boston, Mass., as Second-Class Mail Matter 'The American Naturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York. E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, PH.D., Colby University, Waterville. CHARLES E. BEECHER, Pu.D., Yale University, New Haven. aca. WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard University, Cambridge. ALES HRDLICKA, M.D., Mew York City. D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Stanford University. CHARLES A. KOFOID, PH.D., University of Illinois, Urbana. J. G. NEEDHAM, Pu.D., Lake Forest University. ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, Pu.D., Princeton University. D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B; F.R.M.S., McGill University, Montreal. H. M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, New York. W. E. RITTER, Pu.D., University of California, Berkeley. FRANK RUSSELL, Pu.D., Harvard University, Cambridge. ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, LL.D., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. W. TRELEASE, S.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis. HENRY B. WARD, PH.D., University of Nebraska, Lincoln. . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine of Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading facts and discoveries in Anthropology, General Biology, Zoology, Botany, Paleontology, Geology and Physical Geography, and Miner- alogy and Petrography. The contents each month will consist of leading original articles containing accounts and discussions of new discoveries, reports of scientific expeditions, biographical notices of distinguished naturalists, or critical summaries of progress in some line; and in addition to these there will be briefer articles on various points of interest, editorial comments on scientific questions of the day, critical reviews of recent literature, and a final department for scientific news and personal notices. All naturalists who have anything interesting to say are invited - to send in their contributions, but the editors will endeavor to select . for publication only that which is of truly scientific value and at the same time written so as to be intelligible, instructive, and interesting to the general scientific reader. All manuscripts, books for review, exchanges, etc, should be sent to THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, Cambridge, Mass. l business communications should be sent direct to the publishers, Annual subscription, $4.00, net, in advance. Single copies, 35 cents. Foreign subscription, $4.60. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. IAE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXXIV. July, 1900. No. 403. NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. H V. WILSON, IN rearing amcebas for class use, as every one knows, many interesting protozoa make their appearance. The Pelomyxa described in this communication developed in great numbers, something over a year ago, in a “culture” which had been pre- pared for this purpose. The method of preparation was one that I have employed for several years, and is as follows. Into an ordinary wooden tub (2 ft. by 1 ft.) sand is poured to a depth of four inches. The tub is then put under the tap of a table aquarium, and flushed until the water is comparatively clear. A good handful of Nitella, two or three opened mussels, and a crayfish, cut into a couple of pieces, are thrown into the water and partially imbedded in the sand. The tub is left exposed to a north light from large windows, at a distance of some yards from the windows. As decomposition progresses, a very gentle stream of water is turned on for a short time every few days. After an interval varying from two or three weeks to two months, large amcebas (A. proteus) are found in abundance in the surface layer of the sand, and on the sides of the tub. Small amcebas frequently appear in numbers before 535 536 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. the large ones come on. The commonest small form to appear is A. radiosa — occasionally A. limax (or some similar form). I have tried these tub cultures only during the warmer months of the year (April 1 to November 1). With rare exceptions they are successful. Mussels alone have frequently given me good amoebas, but the Nitella and the crayfish increase the chance of having enough to start with. The sand may come from anywhere, roadside or creek. The water is well water pumped into a reservoir tank. I am inclined to believe that a trace of mud, got along with the mussels or Nitella, is an advantage. But anything more than a trace is, here, sure to result in the development of Tubifex, which quickly spreads over the bot- tom, strewing it with fæces, while the ameebas, even if they get a start, gradually become scarcer, soon disappearing. In the succession of organisms developing in such a culture, the bacteria are followed by the flagellate, and then by the cili- ate Infusoria, both especially abundant in the surface film, where they feed upon the zoöglæa. A loose brown growth accumu- lates on the bottom, but more thickly on the wall of the tub. This consists of many things: fungus, hyphz, bacteria, unicel- lular algze, quantities of Infusoria, often Heliozoa (Actinophrys), and rotifers. The stuff gradually falls from the wall and accu- mulates on the bottom, round the edge. In this * growth ” the small amocebas referred to above are often found, and in it .S/ez- tor caeruleus frequently develops in the greatest abundance. It is usually after this growth has begun to accumulate on the bottom, round the edge, that the large amoebas make their appearance. They are more abundant over the general surface of the sand than in the thick masses of brown stuff. By this time the Infusoria are no longer present in excessive numbers. The Entomostraca soon develop, and the amcebas gradually dis- appear. Ithink Cyclops is particularly destructive — it is con- stantly *rooting" in the sand. Frequently, before the arrival of the Crustacea, small planarians appear in numbers — Micro- stomum lineare has swarmed several times. In a culture of this kind (mussels and Nitella both taken from a creek, the bottom of which in the particular locality is made up of soft mud, with abundant Tubifex), that had been No. 403.] NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 537 going during August, there appeared in the early part of Sep- tember numbers of a large rhizopod belonging to Greef’s genus Pelomyxa. After discovering the presence of the form, I examined the tub systematically and found that the Pelomyxas were about evenly distributed over the wall, and in the stuff round the edge, but were not present over the bottom, where Tubifex had already made its appearance. They were abun- dant. On the average, each pipetteful of stuff (about 2 cc.) contained a specimen, which could be detected at once with the naked eye in a watch glass. In the same brown growth Szen- tor ceruleus was present in great numbers, and the Pelomyxas were feeding chiefly on these. In the Pelomyxas recognizable pieces of Stentor were commonly present, and sometimes a whole Stentor still rotating. Unlike the Pelomyxas previously described, this form contained no mud nor sand. The Pelomyxas continued to be abundant in the tub (preserv- ing the same distribution) for nearly two months. Towards the end of this time they began to disappear, the Stentors going first. With the gradual disappearance of these forms, Crustacea, particularly Cyclops, developed. The probable share that Cyclops had in the destruction of the Pelomyxas was indi- cated clearly in the following case. On September 8, ten Pelomyxas were transferred to a small glass aquarium jar, together with some of the brown “growth” and a little Spi- rogyra. They were supplied, during the first few days, three times with Stentors in considerable number. Within five days the Pelomyxas increased in number to fifty odd. After a week or two, Cyclops began to appear, and the Pelomyxas diminished in number and soon disappeared. I never actually saw Cyclops seize a Pelomyxa, but the former was constantly darting into, or “rooting” in, the stuff in which the rhizopods lay. And the only animals observed in the jar, besides Cyclops and Pelomyxa, were small Infusoria. In the following case the Pelomyxas obviously disappeared because of gradual starvation. In this case a number of the thizopods were transferred, in September, to glass preparation dishes, of a size (30 mm. X 70 mm. in diameter) that would per- mit examination under a low objective. Inthese dishes was kept 538 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. clear water without any of the brown stuff or sediment, and the Pelomyxas were changed to fresh water occasionally. No Cyclops or other Crustacea developed in these dishes, For a time Stentor cwruleus was supplied, and later a small brown Stentor, Paramcecium, and other Infusoria. The Pelomyxas remained active and kept their size during this period, though they did not materially alter in number. After a few days they were no longer fed, though the dishes were kept supplied with fresh water. They gradually decreased in number, dimin- ished very noticeably in size, and were very sluggish in their movements. The last of these individuals were made use of in early November. These starved individuals were about one- third the size of those originally put in the dish. It is possible of course that some division went on during this period of star- vation, and that the shrinkage in size was not due age to the loss of tissue. To this form I have given the name of P. carolinensis. Its points of difference from the related species of Pelomyxa will be discussed later. Description of Pelomyxa carolinensis. Habitus. —The body, when viewed by reflected light, is white and conspicuous. When left for some time undisturbed (in small aquarium dishes suitable for microscopic observations), the body assumes a great variety of shapes, many of them indi- cating a high degree of consistency in the superficial layer of protoplasm. Owing to the large size of the species, these shapes may, with some success, be made out even with the unaided eye, though better with the help of a simple lens and low objective. The body is very apt to assume an elongated, more or less rod-like shape, as in Fig. 1; sometimes enlarged at one end (clavate), as in Fig. 2. The elongated body may lie flat on the supporting surface, as in Figs. 1 and2. More frequently the body is thrown into one or more curves, the animal resting on the bottom by its two ends, as in Figs. 3 and 4. Occasionally a Pelomyxa was observed in the remarkable attitude shown in * No. 403.] VOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 539 Fig. 5, a portion of the body resting on the bottom, while the rest of the animal, divided at the end into pseudopodia, pro- jected freely upwards in the water. In this condition, Pelomyxa appears for the time being as an attached rhizopod with ten- tacle-like pseudopods, the nearest analogue to which is the interesting minute form Szy/amaba sessilis, found by Frenzel! at Cordoba in Argentina. If the animal in the undisturbed condition is not more or less rod-like, the body is frequently divided up into very long, slender pseudopodia, as in Figs. 6 and 7. In this condition the animal rests on the tips of certain pseudopodia, the rest of FiG. 1. IG. I Fic. 3. ES Fic. 2. Fic. 4. Fic. 5. Fic. 1. — P. car. as an opaque object. Simple, elongated condition. Zeiss a, X 4. Reduced to %. Fic. 2. — P. car. as an opaque object. Clavate condition. Zeiss a, X 4. Reduced to 1. Fic, 3. — P. car. as an opaque — Body an arc wes on the two ends. Zeiss æ X 4. Reduced Fic. 4. — P. car. as an ipee object. Body onewtar spirally curved, resting on its ends, Zeiss o X 4. edu ced to 14. Fic. 5.— P. car. as an opaque object. Body in ap is on Senge in part protruding up into water, nod steti like pseudopods. Zeiss a, X 4. Reduc the body not touching the surface. The other pseudopodia project freely in the water in various directions, and the whole body is thrown into boldly arching curves, which usually lie in several planes. When the animal is in this condition, with its irregular body extending in so many directions, it obviously dominates (Z2, can gather food from) a much larger cubic space than when in the simple rod-like condition. Now in that aquarium jar in which the Pelomyxas were best fed, and in which they increased so considerably in number (ten to fifty in five days), some form of the rod-like shape was nearly universal. Here the food (Stentors and other Infusoria) was most abun- 1 Untersuchungen über die mikroskopische Fauna Argentiniens. Protozoa. Bibliotheca Zoologica, Heft 12, 1892-97. 540 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. dant in the brown “ growth,” with which the bottom was strewn. With the food thus distributed, the worm-like shape was doubtless well adapted to the situation. On the other hand, in those dishes containing no sediment or brown “growth,” but simply clear water, and in which the Pelomyxas did not increase in number, the irregular, branched condition (Figs. 6 and 7) was extremely common. In these dishes it is evident that food was scarce from the start, and the peculiar shape of the Pelomyxas is prob- ably to be regarded as an adaptation to circum- stances. We may think Fic. 6. Fic. 7. Fic. 6. — P. car. as an opaque object. Body thrown into bold curves and complexly branched, resting on ‘bottom KM by "A at des gm Remaining pseudopodia project freely into water. One millimetre Zeiss A X2. Reduced to % Fic. 7. — P. car. as an opaque — Body thrown into two curves, lying in planes e at right angles with bes other. Body rests on eei veins d lines) at four points, on pseudopodium projecting freely upwards. Zei R of the animals as thrusting their substance out in all direc- tions of space, searching for food. When brought on a slide in a drop of water, these animals assume the general shape of Amæba proteus. The body ex pands in a horizontal plane, and is, as a whole, applied to the surface over which it is creeping (Fig. 8). This is the case whether the drop be uncovered or covered — cover was always supported with wax feet, so as to permit free movement. This flattened shape is not directly caused by confinement between two surfaces (surface film and slide, or cover and slide), because it is also usually assumed when the Pelomyxa is first placed in No. 403.] a watch glass with plenty of water. NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 541 It would appear to be the shape into which the ameeboid body, more or less contracted after the reception of a shock, normally expands, beforeassuming any more characteristic habitus. If the Pelomyxa, owing to the shock of having been transferred to the watch glass, has contracted into a very compact shape, it may (rare condition) throw out short radial pseudopodia all over its body, excepting the lower surface (applied to the glass) Fig. 9. This con- dition is transitory, soon passing into the stage shown in Fig. 8. Size. — In the relatively contracted shapes (Figs. 8 and 9) P. carolinensis measures about I mm. in diameter. The largest form actually measured, in which the body was of the slender ir- regular character shown in Figs. 6 and 7, measured in a straight line from pseudopodium tip to pseudopodium tip 2.8 mm. Some _two hundred specimens of this species were examined by myself and the class demonstrator during September ; and for the elongated shapes, the length may be said to vary from 1 to nearly 3 mm., the common length being 1.5 mm. to 2mm. These measurements may 1G. 9. — P. car. as an opaque object. Shortly after having been transferred to watch glass. Body covered with cin radial pseudopods. Zeiss a duced to % 542 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. be taken as characteristic of the adult condition, since the Pelomyxas were always picked out with the unaided eye, no effort being made to discover young forms with the micro- scope. i Structure of the Body. — There is a perfectly clear peripheral (ectosarcal) region, which in the living state is very narrow, being conspicuous only at the ends of expanding pseudopodia (Fig. 8. The granular, more opaque and fluid endosarc con- tains numerous nuclei, vacuoles, and other bodies. Though the endosarc is naturally lighter near the edge than further in, this difference in transparency is due to a difference in thickness and not to a difference in composition. The nuclei are very abundant, and scattered without order through the endosarc. They are elliptical in shape, and measure 18 p X 16 4 (typical case). The vacuoles in the endosarc vary greatly in size. Large ones, distinct with an az (Zeiss) objective, and often measuring 40 4 in diameter, are scattered about in some abundance. When the body is compressed, or when sections are examined, the,endosarc is seen to be honeycombed with vacuoles of all sizes; the very small ones, a few microns in diameter, being especialy abundant. So abundant are the vacuoles in parts of the endosarc that the optical effect (in section or thinly expanded pseudopodium) is that of a spongy reticulum. There is no contractile vacuole in this form. If a vacuole disappears, it does so simply because of the shifting of the pro- toplasm. The endosarc contains in the greatest abundance minute crystals, which contribute very materially to its dark appearance with transmitted light. These bodies are of an elongated fusiform shape, about 24 in length. When seen end on, they look like dots. They are readily soluble in alco- hol and in dilute acetic (used in acetic carmine and methyl- green solution), but are neither stained nor dissolved by one per cent osmic. Their diminution in size and gradual disappear- ance, when treated with the above solvents, may be watched under thé microscope. It requires but a few minutes for them to vanish completely, leaving the other inclusions much more distinct than they formerly were. No. 403.]} .VOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 543 Scattered abundantly through the endosare are spherical bodies, having in the living animal a bright appearance with a dark contour, and looking much like oil drops. They very commonly have a diameter of about 8 microns, though smaller ones of all sizes are present. These bodies evidently corre- spond to the ** Glanzkórper " originally described by Greef! in P. palustris, although in the latter form they may reach a much larger size than I have observed in P. carolinensis. These *refringent bodies," as Gould? calls them, are insoluble in alcohol. They are stained by osmic acid and by iodine (alco- holic solution), in nowise differently from the granules of the endosarc (Ze., are browned). They cannot, therefore, be of a fatty or starchy nature. The contents of the bodies is fluid, as may be demonstrated by allowing the Pelomyxas to be gradu- ally compressed through the slow evaporation of water from under the cover-glass. At a time when the arrangement of the coarser and finer granules of the protoplasm is not inter- fered with, the globules burst and run together, suggesting fat droplets very strongly, but even in this condition osmic acid does not blacken them. On the other hand, the globules are stained a deep blue with haematoxylin. In sections (fixed in Zacharias, stained with Delafield's haematoxylin) it may be seen that the endosarc is thickly studded with coarse granules, Which stain blue with haematoxylin. The smallest refringent bodies, recognizable as such, differ but little in appearance from these coarse granules. They are slightly larger, of a more rounded shape, and take a deeper stain. From these minute globules, all gradations in size may be found up to the large ones, 8 microns in diameter. With the increase in size the depth of coloration increases — an effect due doubtless to the greater diameter. The bodies, when stained with hæma- toxylin, present a perfectly homogeneous appearance. From the evidence at hand, it would seem to me that the bodies are globules of an albuminous nature, consisting of a pellicle, en- closing a more fluid substance. Greef (/oc. cit.) inclined to the | Arch. f. mikr. Anat., Bd. x, 1874. ? Notes on the Minute Structure of Pelomyxa palustris, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xxxvi, 1894. 544 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. belief that the * Glanzkórper" were of intranuclear origin, and were concerned in reproduction. Gould (loc. ciz.), working on P. palustris, failed to see evidence for the truth of these ideas, and in the form which I have studied there was no such evidence. Gould found the « Glanzkórper " to have a homogeneous appear- ance when stained with ordinary stains (the exception does not seem to have any special significance) ; and she reached the con- clusion that they were “almost certainly either solid structures or filled with coagulable fluid." With the latter al- ternative I agree. dor e Enda Ibe condition of the JU 5 albuminous globules in IPSE starved individuals deserves a word. In healthy, active specimens the globules are scattered all through the Fia. 10. — Portion of a starved Pelomyxa. Crystals endosarc. In certain in- eis Du Reed a 79 P "39 dividuals kept without food in pure water for several weeks, the globules were much more numerous than in normal specimens, and were aggregated together in several regions of the body. In each such region (Fig. 10) the globules were thickly crowded, while elsewhere they were nearly absent. These starved Pelomyxas were about one-third the common size of healthy specimens, and were exceedingly sluggish in movement. In specimens of Pelomyxa kept without food for some time the body contains no inclusions except such (granules, crystals, albuminous globules) as seem to be normal and constant con- stituents. Owing to its large size and freedom from foreign inclusions, P. carolinensis presents certain marked advantages for the study of the fundamental structure of protoplasm. As a living object it is perhaps no better than smaller rhizopods, though under a cover-glass the pseudopodia may flatten out into very thin sheets. On the other hand, it is easy to handle for sections, and in sections the vacuolar walls in particular are instructive. One of the large vacuoles may be cut into several sections, and will thus afford both true sectional and surface No. 493] NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 545 views of its wall. For comparison with the living animal I have found it useful to employ surface preparations of specimens mounted in glycerine, after killing with acetic carmine or acetic methyl green; or surface preparations of specimens killed in alcohol and mounted in water. Acetic carmine (45 per cent acetic) kills the animal as quickly as an osmic fixative, the out- line of the living state being faithfully retained. Alcohol and acetic methyl green kill more slowly, the animal undergoing some change of shape, which involves especially the peripheral region. On addition of these fluids the coarsely granular endo- sarc either contracts, or the surface film of the Pelomyxa is raised up by absorption of fluid. That the latter is the case, is the impression made on one when the animal is kept under observation during the action of the fixative — the surface seems to rise up often in bleb-like swellings. The result, at any rate, is that the clear ectosarcal region, very narrow in life, is greatly increased in width, and thus a considerable area, exhibiting the fine reticular (alveolar) structure characteristic of this region, may be had for study. The general endosarc lying between the vacuoles shows the greatest abundance of coarse granules so closely set that they must obscure whatever finer struc- tures are here present. These gran- ules very commonly have a diameter of one micron, though smaller ones of varying size are abundant. In sectional view (Fig. 11) the walls of many of the larger vacuoles seem made up of similar coarse gran- ules, arranged regularly so as to form Fic . 11. — Part of section. showing vacuoles, deeply stained endosarcal a smooth bounding surface for the granules, and several deeply stained cavity. These bounding granules albuminous globules. Zeiss yy * : x 4. Reduced to 24 are generally about 1 4 in diameter, but in places they may be much smaller, ranging down to the size of microsomes. Long vacuoles are occasionally found somewhat constricted, so as to be incompletely divided up into chambers (crenellated vacuoles of Gould, /oc. cz/.), as in Fig. II. Intravacuolar strands may be seen in these vacuoles. In 546 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. some cases the strands are undoubtedly the free edges of folds. Some of the strands consist of a single row of comparatively large granules (intermediate in size between the microsomes and the coarse endosarcal granules), easily counted, and which are connected by the finest lines (fibres), in which no structure can be made out with 4, Zeiss. Other intravacuolar strands are of considerable thickness, appearing as a mass of finest granules (microsomes) closely set, in which a coarse granule is found here and there. Still other strands appear as exceedingly delicate lines, made up of one row of microsomes. In surface views of vacuolar walls, studied in sections, the same appearance is not always had. In many cases the wall seems made up of microsomes, arranged so as to give in places the appearance of a reticulum, the mesh of which is in the neigh- borhood of a micron. Interspersed among the microsomes much larger granules are found here and there, connected by fine strands, which often consist of a row of microsomes, though in other cases the connecting strand appears as a homogeneous line. In other vacuoles (always of considerable size) the wall when seen in surface view exhibits coarse gran- ules, set regularly and almost as closely as in the intervacuolar endosarc, between which run fine strands. If microsomes are present in such a wall, their presence is obscured by the coarser reticulum. The ectosarc in even a thinly expanded pseudopodium looks nearly homogeneous (4; Zeiss) in the living animal. In acetic carmine preparations mounted in glycerine, and in alcohol or acetic methyl-green preparations mounted in water, the ecto- sarc may be seen to be occupied by a delicate reticulum, the mesh of which is close to 1 u. I was not able to decide with certainty (working, however, only with Zeiss js) whether the microsomes are always situated at the points of intersection of the reticular lines (lamellae of Bütschli), or whether each (appar- ently) linear side of a mesh included a short row of microsomes. Dispersed in this delicate reticulum, which seems identical with that seen in many vacuolar walls, are to be found here and there a few coarse granules. The fine ectosarcal reticulum, in a fixed specimen examined 4 No. 403] NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 547 in water under an unsupported cover, may be seen with a Zeiss y to enter into the composition of the surface film. This now appears as a row of microsomes connected by strands. On the other hand, when the Pelomyxa is examined under a supported cover-glass with a dry lens, the superficial membrane has an appreciable thickness and is plainly doubly contoured. Blochmann! mentions that in his Pelomyxas the * Hautschicht " seems to have a double contour. The doubly contoured appearance of the surface membrane is, I believe, due to the arrangement of the superficial meshes (alveoli of Biitschli), which, as Biitschli? has shown in so many cases, are arranged in a layer with the partition walls vertical to the surface. That is, the membrane appears doubly contoured, because we see the outer and inner walls of the meshes of the superficial layer, and fail to distinguish the partition walls between the several meshes. Under slight pressure the retic- ular (alvéolar) structure comes into view. In these few notes on the finer structure of the cytoplasm I have used the terms “ microsomes ” and “ reticulum " as indicat- ing the optical appearances obtained, and not with the intention of expressing a belief that the structures as such have an actual existence. In P. palustris the regularly arranged coarse granules, de- scribed above as present in vacuolar walls, are not figured by Gould (oc. cit.). In P. carolinensis they may easily be seen in the living specimen. The regularity of their arrangement at first sight suggests that they are not, to use some apt expressions of Mrs. Andrews,® mere * passive chemical inclu- sions,” but are “ physiological areas or substance organs," t.e., permanently differentiated portions of the living substance. On the other hand, they are not always present throughout the extent of the vacuolar wall, and in many vacuoles are absent or nearly so. The presumption is thus a fair one that the bodies are mesostates, and owe their regular arrangement (in places) to the underlying fine reticulum. 1 Kleinere Mittheilungen über Protozoen, Biol. Centralbl., Bd. xiv. 2 Investigations on Microscopic Foams and on Protoplasm. 8 The Living Substance, p. 16. Boston, 1897. > 548 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The number, shape, and size of the nuclei have already been alluded to. The chromatin granules are extremely numerous, especially abundant just within the nuclear membrane. They also form a densely crowded large mass in the center of the nucleus. Between the peripheral layer and central mass, the nucleoplasm comes into view more conspicuously than else- where. The granules are connected freely by intervening deli- cate strands, which themselves often show a row of finest granules. The granules, as a whole, are too crowded to permit decision as to whether a continuous reticulum exists. The chromatin granules vary in size from that of the cytoplasmic microsome up to much larger ones, 1 u in diameter, the size of the common coarse granules in the wall of vacuoles. Motion. — I regret not to have studied the currents of the body, when the animal is in those shapes in which it is only applied to the surface at isolated points (Figs. 3-7). At such times a locomotory motion, if it existed, escaped my notice. The animal was at rest for sufficiently long periods of time to permit careful study and drawing. When the body is linear and applied throughout its extent to the surface, as in Figs. 1 and 2, the motion is, in general, similar to that of P. vi//osa,! or of the form commonly known as Ameba limax. As has already been said, P. carolinensis, when placed on the slide, assumes the habitus of Amba proteus (Fig. 8). In this condition the movements are active, the pseudopodia being protruded in, or nearly in, a horizontal plane, but in any direction. The difference in appearance between pseudopodia into which the current is going, and those out of which it is flowing, is in this condition very noticeable. The contour of the former is smooth, the. pseudopodia having an appearance of plumpness and distention. In the latter case, on the contrary, the surface is thrown into * mulberry-like” folds at the ends of the pseudopods. Moreover, it can fre- quently be seen in such a pseudopodium that the upper surface is thrown into longitudinal wrinkles. These are shown in two of the pseudopods in Fig. 8. The appearance of these pseudo- podia is in perfect harmony with Bütschli's description (doc. cit., l Leidy. Fresh-Water Rhizopods of North America, p. 73. No. 403.] NOTES ON A SPECIES OF PELOMYXA. 549 p. 313) of the backward flow of protoplasm from a pseudopo- dium : “ The viscid external layer cannot flow together rapidly enough to keep pace with this diminution, in consequence of which it is thrown into folds, etc." Returning to the expand- ing pseudopodium, I may say that Wallich’s remarks on Amæba villosa, quoted by Leidy (Joc. cit., p. 75) as applying to P. vil- losa, aptly describe the appearances to be had in P. carolinen- sts. After the local thickening of ectosarc, which precedes the formation of a pseudopodium, there is a sudden inrush of gran- ules. The very suddenness of this inrush inevitably suggests that something in front has burst or given way, rather than that something behind has egun to contract, and, as far as it goes, is an argument for Bütschli's theory (/oc. cit., p. 311), that the formation of a pseudopodium is primarily due to the bursting of superficial alveoli, whereby (through the action of the enchy- lema on the free surface of the protoplasm) the surface tension in that locality is diminished. Systematic. — In the assumption of complexly branched shapes (Figs. 6 and 7) P. carolinensis differs from the de- scribed conditions of the type species, P. palustris Greef, and of P. villosa Leidy, which are habitually more or less slug-like when in motion, and of massive shape when at rest. The peculiar posterior “ villi” characteristic of the latter form are absent in P. carolinensis, which, moreover, differs from both forms in the fact that it does not gorge itself with mud, and that it contains no * Stäbchen " or symbiotic bacteria, as they are believed to be by Gould (/oc. cit.) and some other observers. The Glanzkórper (albuminous globules) are present in Greef's species, and Leidy describes them in P. villosa. Blochmann (oc. cit.) and Frenzel (Joc. cit.), however, mention their absence in the forms which they identified as belonging to P. villosa. The minute crystals which I find so abundantly in P. caroli- nensis are apparently not present in P. palustris. Neither Greef nor Gould mentions them, nor were they found by Leidy in P. villosa. Possibly the granules which Blochmann finds in such quantity in some of his Pelomyxas correspond to my “crystals.” The Pelomyxas in which Blochmann finds the granules abundant have large and conspicuous Glanzkorper, 550 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. round which the Stabchen never form a mantle. Blochmann groups these forms under P. palustris. Other forms Bloch- mann unites under the provisional species, P. greefi, character- ized by the almost complete absence of the granules, and by the small number of Glanzkórper, which are always surrounded by a thick coating of Stabchen. The peculiar habitus assumed at times, absence of sand in the body, absence of Stabchen, presence of the crystals, are the distinguishing characteristics of my species against the related forms, P. palustris, P. vil- losa, P. greefi. The habitus in rhizopods, however, is undoubtedly a most inconstant feature, readily affected by the individual environ- ment, as may be learned from P. carolinensis itself. The interesting observations of Verworn (Allgemeine Physiologie, p. 190) on the change of shape in amcebas, through the A. ro- teus, A. limax, and A. radiosa condition, likewise indicate this. And it seems probable, from the diverse forms of Pelomyxa, that Blochmann (loc. cit.) has found that the cytoplasmic inclu- sions, even the characteristic Glanzkórper, are all inconstant, and are to be looked on as the outcome of the individual envi- ronment. A greater familiarity with the four above-mentioned forms may thus show that they all belong to. a single species. UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, December 18, 1899. A REMARKABLE AXOLOTL FROM NORTH DAKOTA. HENRY LESLIE OSBORN. THE name “axolotl” is primarily the popular designationamong the Mexicans for an animal found abundantly in their lakes. The name “siredon ” has also been applied to this and allied animals, at first as a generic name, till that was shown to be superfluous by the demonstration of the amblystomid nature of the axolotl, or siredon, larva. The Mexican axolotl is said not to metamorphose from an aquatic to a terrestrial form after the manner of Amblystoma, but to be a permanently aquatic animal, thus imitating Necturus physiologically, with which, however, it has no morphological relationship, as indicated by the fact that Necturus has no free gula folds or opercula, only two gill slits, no dorsal fin, a much shorter tail, and only four toes in the hind limb. It had early been strongly surmised that the axolotls were amblystomas, but Dumeril of Paris in 1865 was the first to observe the metamorphosis of axolotls into true adult amblystomas. Specimens in the Jardin des Plantes laid eggs which in developing did not stop when they reached the form of their axolotl parents, but continued to develop, losing the gills and many other larval features and becoming true terrestrial salamanders. Dumeril’s observations were corroborated by Marsh in 1868, by Tegetmeyer in London in 1870, and by Madame Chauvin in 1874. The latter managed to arrange an experiment in which young tadpole larvae were gradually transferred from an aquatic to a terrestrial environ- ment, resulting in the correlated metamorphosis to the terres- trial form. While Dumeril, Tegetmeyer, Marsh, and Chauvin have shown that an amphibian with the characters of the Mexican axolotl does metamorphose into a salamander under some con- ditions, it has not been satisfactorily shown as yet that the 55! 552 IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. Mexican form does so, for it is contended by Cope (89) that all of these have been working, not with the Mexican form, or “true axolotl,” but with larve of Améblystoma tigrinum. The latter have been found in several localities in this country. In 1852 Professor S. F. Baird described the external features of a siredon, called by him .Szredoz lichenoides, from Santa Fé Creek, New Mexico, and later, in 1859, the same writer de- scribed another, which he called S. gracilis, from the Cascade Mountains, near the fortieth parallel of latitude. This writer did not observe the transformation of siredon (though he conjectured it); but in 1868 Professor O. C. Marsh of Yale College collected siredons in a lake in Wyoming, at a level of 7000 feet above the sea, and conveyed them to New Haven, where they transformed into A. tigrinum. Teget- meyer (70) figures an S. mexicanus, which, while in his posses- sion, transformed into an A. tigrinum. It appears from his figure to be identical with Baird's S. /ichenoides. In all these cases, however, it will be noticed that the siredons were not in their normal surroundings, and hence it is not decided whether their transformation takes place in nature or whether they reproduce while still in possession of the larval characteristics. There is a great difference between merely a greatly over- grown true larva, one not yet capable of reproduction, and the condition of the axolotl in which the reproductive organs are matured before the other organs in the other systems have reached the form that they have in adult amblystomas. It is not impossible that both conditions exist, a siredon in which the animal is a true larva not yet matured, and an axolotl in which the animal is at once a larva and a mature form. In this sense Marsh's specimens would be siredons, and Dumeril’s first generation axolotls, and the second siredons. After the matter of this article had been made nearly ready for the press I had my attention called by Dr. T. G. Lee of the Minnesota State University to a collection of about twenty- five specimens of an axolotl which seems to be very similar to Marsh's S. mavortium, and which were found by him in an alpine lake in Montana. Dr. Lee has most generously placed all of this material (which is splendidly preserved in formalin) No. 403.] A REMARKABLE AXOLOTL. 553 Fic. 1. — Dorsal view of Dakota axolotl — one-half natural size. -half Fre. 1. Fic. 2. — View of right side of Dakota axolotl, one- the hind limb here is abnormal and dad be five. FIG. 2. natural size ; the number of toes in 554 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. at my disposal, and a survey of its contents shows me that, while it is decidedly unlike the axolotl described in this paper, it is suitable for the study of a number of points in the anat- omy of the axolotl, on which at present only the most scanty information is in print. I hope to make this material the sub- ject of a second paper, which will follow this one at a later date. I desire in this connection also to express my obligation to Professor L. Stejneger of the U. S. National Museum, and to Professor H. H. Wilder of Smith College, Northampton, Mass., for their suggestions with reference to the bibliography of this subject. The Dakota specimen shown in dorsal and side views in Figs. 1 and 2 differs from previously known forms, including the Montana ones of Dr. Lee, in a number of anatomical points, and besides it comes from a region that is very differ- ent in geographical conditions from all regions previously reported. It is known by only a single specimen, which was sent to the writer for identification by Miss Prudence Tasker of Aménia, North Dakota. It was found on March 21, 1899, in Rush River, a tributary of the Red River of the North, a situation described by the sender as “called a river merely by courtesy, —a stream that rises in a marsh and ends in a marsh, — dries up every summer, except in little pools.” The stream is mostly shallow, but at one place has been made. deeper by a dam, and here the specimen was found. The stream contains limited numbers of the smaller kinds of fish. It was found by a workman who had cut a hole in the ice to water horses, and while baling snow out of the hole baled this specimen out with the snow. He was attracted to it by seeing it crawl. It was taken to the store of Mr. Mosberg in Amenia, where it was examined by many persons, none of whom were familiar with anything like it. It died after a few hours and was sent to me packed in snow, and some drawings and measurements were made while it was still fresh. Since receiving this specimen another has been reported by Miss Tasker ; it was found by Mr. G. Makee in June, 1898, at Kenmare, North Dakota, on the bank of Mouse River, in No. 403.] A REMARKABLE AXOLOTL. 555 shallow water. This specimen was seen by Miss Tasker and identified as the same as the one herein described. It meas- ured eight inches in length. These specimens, coming as they do from lower levels and not from alpine localities, and from northern, in contrast with the warmer southern levels of most of the former discoveries, are interesting and hold out some prospects that a study of these creatures in their natural sur- roundings would throw light on the problem of the relation- ship of these peculiar larva to the amblystomas. The general appearance is shown in the accompanying drawings, which were made from the formalin specimen. The following dimen- sions were also taken from the specimen after preservation in formalin, but both were compared with the data from the fresh animal : eid to tip of tail . . eo I. ONES ae * border of gular fold . iia te See ee ne IM. " ^ armpit: (posteriorly) -. ea te: 72. mm. oU penter al pelvic arch a 5 ur cx oa 150 UU * * posterior edge of cloaca . ic. qe 09 NAE. Snout to line joining hinder ES of gils -o Se Greatest height of tail. . . ‘ «3d. oe ee w Ethickneas OF talk Nk — of EMI w o eight of dorsal fin sc cee en a OR EL (+: diamebthoft head o ek eee Width of mouth. . . Mae rer ape e AP Distance between anterior nares . . . . . . 14mm. T 3 posterior nares . . . . . : 18mm. “ centers of eyes . . . . . . 26mm. Width of headateyes. . koe qo 00. A NEN Snout to line joining centers al eves is .. 13mm. Length of filament-bearing border of first gil . 45 mm. * second gill . . : i g First HÆMAL ARCH ON CARRIES SA- E z me z P Vertebra 22. Vertebra 23. Vertebra 24. | Vertebra ? AEN S Ee 81 30 33 18 XM ee ee 16 4 2 IO RAP oi I I R. XVIII ^ ^ LI OSLX QS. BR AIX uz. L. XVIII , i RKFXRIX 1.11 EXT. 5. 3 3 REGNA. Lx. 5 2 I 3 ER AVHI ... Lt xVHLXIx| ' I AIR v. i Loxp xx : I R AIS SA Lu R s I Tol. iv. 114 | 34 = 41% of 82 | 44 = 54% of 82 | 4— 55 0f 82| 3? Some of the data listed in the above tables deserve further mention. One of the most striking points is the occurrence of as many as five individuals having three sacral ribs. Waite mentions one such instance, which I think is the only one previously recorded for JV. maculosus, while among the 114 individuals examined by us there are four such cases. One of these has, as an additional peculiarity, two sacral ribs on the eighteenth vertebra, and is the first one recorded in which that vertebra is invaded on both sides. The figure shown on P. 638 represents the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth vertebra 1 R. and L. are used as abbreviations for right and left. No. 404.] TABLE II.! THE SACRUM IN NECTURUS. 637 No. oF SPECIMENS RECORDED BY CHARACTER AND POSITION 241 oF SACRUM. PERE Juin. Pa SPECIMENS. Symmetrical. a ler. e o 4 IO IO 54 ALIE 133.2...) 63 15 52 10 110 ZEX 44... YN 2 2 AXIS Le NS Y ms I I NOEL xs oe a 6 24. 7 41 AEN i. i.e s 3 5 eR |... 149 Eel I Asymmetrical. OP BR. XVIIL L. XIX —22. ..... I 2 5 R. XIX, L. XVII —22...... 4 BOXIX,L. XX gg ee es s P ge RSX, L XIX ig 492-5 I 7 A 10 : R XX, L. XIX —234 ......- ; Ri SRT EAM eee I Ix dee I R. XVIII, L. XVIII, XIX —22. . R: XIX, XX, L. XIX —23. ... f" 2 R i 2? MIX, E. XIX, XX sss with the sacral ribs and ilia from the dorsalside. The dotted lines indicate the outlines of the cartilage and other tissue forming the articulations between the ilia and sacral ribs, as ! The Arabic numerals are used to designate the vertebra bearing the first hemal arch. ? The position of the first haemal arch of this specimen is not recorded. 3 The position of the first hæmal arch in one of these specimens is unknown. 638 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. seen in the dried skeleton. The two sacral ribs on the left side are about equal in size and share alike in the support of the ilium. | The other four specimens having three sacral ribs, listed in Table II, each have paired sacral ribs on the nineteenth verte- bra, while the unpaired sacral rib is borne on the right side of the twentieth vertebra in two of them, and. on the left side in the other two. Twenty- five specimens are listed which have an asymmetrical sacrum with but two sacral ribs, and in nine of these the sacral rib of the right side is further cephalad, while in the remaining sixteen it is the left sacral rib which is in advance. It seems curious that in the first ten specimens which were reported as having this condition of the sacrum, nine should have had the left side in advance, while in the next fifteen over half of them should have the right side in advance ; and again it is singular that, of six specimens in which the eighteenth vertebra is invaded, five of them should have the right side in advance, while in the remaining nineteen cases fifteen should have the left side in advance. It is evident that data from a much larger number of specimens must be obtained before trustworthy generaliza- tion can be made. One individual found during the past winter and listed above has a symmetrical sacrum on the twenty-first vertebra, ae dition not previously recorded, I believe; and in one specimen described by Parker this vertebra was invaded on the right side; but these two specimens are the only ones, SO far as I know, in which the twenty-first vertebra is invaded by the sacrum. I am under obligations to Mr. Ralph G. Mills, a student at the University, for making the drawing for the figure, and also for the examination of a considerable number of the specimens studied. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. Ld A STRANGE ABNORMALITY IN THE CIRCULA- TORY SYSTEM OF THE COMMON RABBIT (LEPUS SYLVATICUS. — JAMES ROLLIN SLONAKER. IN the March number of the Naturalist an article appeared “On the Frequency of Abnormalities in Connection with the Postcaval Vein and its Tributaries in the Domestic Cat (Felis domestica). Such variations are quite familiar to those who have charge of laboratory work in vertebrate anatomy. The abnormalities are, however, by no means confined to the region indicated in the above article. They are common to other parts of the circulatory system. Though the author does not discuss the probable causes of these abnormalities, he suggests that they may be due in part to “domestication, in breeding, disease, drugs, and shock.” I have found that abnormalities in the circulatory system are hot confined to the domesticated cat, but are also of frequent occurrence in the common gray rabbit. The most noticeable variation that I have found, and the only one which I shall describe, was found in the venous system of the rabbit. I have found it but once and, as I have seen no mention of such an occurrence in the literature pertaining to this subject, I will describe it. In injecting the posterior vena cava from the heart I was amazed by the rapid filling of the portal veins. This continued until they were as well injected as the other veins of the body. The injecting fluid used was a starch mass which was too Coarse to pass from the vena cava through the capillaries of the liver into the portal vein. The inference was that there was a vein of sufficient size forming a direct connection between the portal vein and the posterior vena cava. Careful dissection showed this supposition to be true. A small vein extended from the posterior mesenteric and united 639 640 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. with the posterior vena cava on the left side, just opposite the right ovarian vein. a.b., abnormal connecting vein; a.m., anterior mesenteric vein ; ^ bertus vein ; k., , kidne ey i ; vill "1 ovarian vein ; pP d P vein; teric vein, 7.v., posterior vena cava ; rec., rectum ; z.2v., right ovari ein This connecting branch was not modified from some of the branches of the vena cava normally belonging to this region, since these were all present. It may possibly have been one of the original branches composing the posterior mesen- teric which had in some way become attached to the vena cava. Some correlation might be made with the birds, since they have the portal vein and the posterior vena cava normally con- nected by the posterior mesenteric and the hypogastric veins. Such is, however, not justifiable, for this is, so far as I know, the only record of such an existence in mammals. It is best, therefore, to con- sider it strictly as an abnormality and in no sense a reversion to some possible past condition. In conclusion I may add that, though no attempt will be made to account for the causes leading to these abnormalities in cats and rabbits, I do not feel that domestication should be mentioned as a possible cause, since these variations occur as frequently in the wild rabbit as in the domesticated cat. THE ORIGIN OF THE MIDDLE OCELLUS OF THE ADULT INSECT. (PRELIMINARY COMMUNICATION.) CHUJIRO KOCHI. Many years have passed since Leydig and Brandt called at- tention to the fact that one of the three ocelli in the adult insect situated in its median line was double. I do not know whether there exists to-day any accurate theory of the origin of this middle ocellus. Most entomologists have simply regarded it as the fusion of two ocelli which once occurred separately in the ancestral form. If this theory is true, there must be some relics left in the generalized type of the insect by which we may trace out the original number of the ocelli, Z.e., two pairs in all. Among all the orders of the insects the Orthoptera is per- haps the most generalized one. Among the Orthoptera I shall refer to the cockroach as being one of the oldest, least modified, and, in many ways, very instructive for comparing it with the other specialized forms of insects. The head of the cockroach (B/atta orientalis) is vertically elongated, having a semicircular outline above, and narrowing downwards. The dorsal part of the head is the vertex, and a median suture may be seen traversing it from before back- ward, and dividing between the eyes into two branches, one of which passes toward the articulation of each antenna to form a V-shaped suture. The cephalic portion of this suture is the front, which was called the *clypeus" by Huxley, as well as by Miall and Denny in their work on the anatomy of this insect, Perhaps they did not notice that the clypeus was a small sclerite, situated above the labrum, and separated from the front by a curved suture at the point a. This suture also divides the gena from the front on each side of the head. 641 642 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The basal joint of the antenna is articulated with the front by a transparent flexible membrane, the antennary fossa, and allows of the free play of the antenna. On the inner side of and above the antennary fossa there is a peculiar membranous area of paler color —the fenestra. According to Sedgwick this fenestra is replaced by an ocellus in some cockroaches (the males of Corydia and Heterogamia) If so, we must regard this fenestra as a rudimentary ocellus. A little below the fenestra, and in the broad, flattened region of the front, there is another peculiar spot marked 4, which seems to have escaped the notice of all observers. This spot is, however, more prominent than the fenestra, and it looks like one of the originally paired ocelli, which afterward migrated toward the median line and fused together to form a middle ocellus in other insects. There often occur some perplexing dark spots in the head of the insects, surrounding their ocelli, but they vary a great deal in size and number as well as in shape and position. But in the cockroach these four spots are always present through- out all the species I have examined. Two of them are regu larly situated in the vertex, near its cephalic margin (sometimes they are situated on the boundary line between the vertex and No. 464] OCELLUS OF THE ADULT INSECT. 643 the front), while the other two are seen in the front, a little below the antenna. This peculiar appearance of the four spots led me to investi- gate the occurrence of the original four ocelli. In deciding this question I have made several microtome sections and stained them by the various methods. The preparations have not only shown the connection of the nervous system with these four spots, but their histological characters threw a light upon the nature of their origin as the optical organs. The complete account of my studies on this subject, with some illustrations, may be published in the near future ; there- fore I shall leave only the preliminary statement here for the present. CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y., une IO, 1900. SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. XII. THE TREMATODES. PART IL— THE HETEROCOTYLEA OR MONOGENETIC FORMS. H: S. PRATT. THE order Trematoda was established in the year 1808 by Rudolphi, who included in it the following genera: Monostoma Zeder, Amphistoma Rudolphi, Distoma Retzius, and Polystoma Zeder. During the succeeding half century, when the greatest activity was shown in the description of new species of trem- atodes, numerous attempts were made by Von Nordmann, Dujardin, Diesing, Leuckart, and others to arrange them ina system of classification which would express their natural re- lationships. But lack of accurate information on their anatomy and development led, at one time and another, to numerous errors, such as the inclusion among trematodes of pentastomes, planarians, and leeches, and the description of larval forms for adult animals. Thus, it was not until the year 1858 that a system was constructed which was a satisfactory solution of the problem, and the one which is the foundation of the system in general use to-day. In that year P. J. van Beneden proposed the names “ Monogenea ” for those trematodes which develop ` without metamorphosis, and “Digenea” for those which develop with metamorphosis, the former being, for the most part, ectoparasites, and the latter, endoparasites. The great additions, however, which have been made in recent years to our knowledge of trematodes have rendered it increasingly difficult to use these distinctions satisfactorily, and conse- quently, in 1892, Monticelli proposed an entirely new system, in which trematodes are divided into three groups or suborders, the Heterocotylea, Aspidocotylea, and Malacocotylea, the first 645 646 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of which exactly coincides with the Monogenea of van Beneden, while the second and third are included in the Digenea. This arrangement has been generally adopted by recent authors, and this synopsis is based upon it. The following are the families, subfamilies, and genera of the suborder Heterocotylea in Monticelli's system of classifi- cation, with certain modifications, however, which have been proposed since 1892 by himself, Braun, Cerfontaine, Goto, Saint-Remy, and others : Order. — Trematoda Rud. Suborder I. Heterocotylea Mont. Family I. Temnocephalide Hasw. Subfamily I. Temnocephaline Mont. Genera: Temnocephala, Craspedella, Dactylocephala. Subfamily II. Actinodactynellinze Mont. Genus : Actinodactylella. Family II. Tristomide Taschbg. Subfamily I. Tristominz Mont. Genera: Tristoma, Nitzschia, Epibdella, Phyllonella, Trochopus, Acantho- cotyle, Placunella. Subfamily II. Encotyllabine Mont. Genus: Encotyllabe. Subfamily III. Udonelline Mont. Genera: Udonella, Echinella, Pteronella. Family III. Monocotylidz Taschbg. Genera: Monocotyle, Calicotyle, Lophocotyle, Dionchus, Merizocotyle, Microbothrium, Pseudocotyle Family IV. Polystomidz Taschbg. Subfamily I. Polystominz v. Ben. Genera: Polystoma, Erpocotyle, Onchocotyle, Diplobothrium, Sphyranura. Kip II. Octocotylinz v. Ben. et Hesse. Genera : Octocotyle, Octobothrium, Dactylocotyle, Diclidophora, Antho- cotyle, Vallisia, Diplozoðn Phyllocotyle, Hexacotyle, Plectanocotyle, Platycotyle, Pleurocotyle. aum III. Microcotylinz Taschbg. Genera: Microcotyle, Gastrocotyle, Axine, Pseudaxine. Family V. Gyrodactylidz v. Ben. et Hesse. Genera: Gyrodactylus, Dactylogyrus, Tetraonchus, Diplectanum, Calceo- stoma, Amphibdella, Dactylodiscus, Fridericianella, Anoplodiscus. No. 404.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 647 ORDER. — TREMATODA RUD. Small parasitic flatworms, with unsegmented, flattened or cylindrical, unciliated bodies, with usually anterior mouth-opening and bifurcate intes- tine, and without anal opening, which attach themselves to their hosts by . means of suckers, or hooks, or both. KEY TO THE SUBORDERS. A, Usually ectoparasitic trematodes living upon the external surface or the gills, or in the mouth or cloaca of aquatic animals (except genus Polystoma), to which they attach themselves by means of suckers, or hooks, or both; suckers, when present, are usually near either one or both ends of the body ; when at the anterior end, in most cases, a single pair is present ; when at the posterior end, in most cases, one or more pairs are present, or, in their place, a sucking disk . Heterocotylea Mont. A,. E adopri inikas which attach chamnasives to their hosts either y means of one or more median (unpaired) suckers or a large ventral sucking disk ; hooks never present. B, Either a large ventral sucking disk or a mid-ventral row of suck- ers present; no oral sucker; intestine not bifurcate (except possibly Aspidocotyle) . . . . . Aspidocotylea Mont. B, Either one or two or, in a few cases, more than two median Suckers present; an oral sucker invariably present (except Gasterostomum) ; intestine, except in rare cases, bifurcate Malacocotylea Mont. KEY TO THE FAMILIES, SUBFAMILIES, AND GENERA OF THE HETEROCOTYLEA. 4;. Body with four to twelve finger-like tentacles at anterior end or on lateral sides, and with a posterior sucker ; lives on the outer surface of tropical fresh-water crustaceans and turtles, and in the branchial cavity of a mollusk ae . . Family I. Temnocephali 6,. Tentacles all preoral . . Subfamily I. Temnocephaline cı Tentacles four to six in Tiada sucker subterminal; two pairs testes. @,. Dorsal'surface without lamellæ ; pharynx distinct Temnocephala Blanch. (Fig. 1) d,. pna surface with several transverse lamelle ; pharynx mentary . . . Craspedella Hasw. (Fig. 2) Ci Fania twelve in haia sucker very small ; one pair lobed testes ; pharynx distinct. . . . Dactylocephala Mont. ^, Tentacles not all preoral . . Subfamily II. Actinodactynelline Tentacles twelve in number at sides and anterior end of pear-shaped 648 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIV. body ; 2 pairs testes ; sucker-like pit near mouth ; mouth with pro- boscis ; pharynx distinct . . . Actinodactylella Hasw. (Fig. 3) 4, Body without four to twelve finger-like tentacles. 6,. Body usually broad and flattened, sometimes elongate or cylindrical, with a single ventral or terminal posterior sucking disk, usually of large size and armed with hooks and with or without radial ridges ; paired anterior suckers either present or not. c,. Paired anterior suckers present or in their place a pair of pro- jections (or a pair of glandular depressions, Goto) Family II. Tristomide d,. Body elliptical or circular and flattened. e, Sucking disk large, with or without radial ridges, and either sessile or with short stalk ; genital pores in most cases on left . . Subfamily I. Tristominz fi: Genital pores on left. gı Sucking disk without radial ridges ; four eyes. A,» Anterior suckers present. . í. Body elongate; sucking disk terminal, with (or without, Linton) numerous minute hooks ; testes numerous : 1n branchial cavity of marine fishes Nitzschia v. Baer (Fig. 4) Z, Body elliptical ; sucking disk ventral, with three (two, Linton) pairs of hooks of unequal size and often with papilla ; two testes: on the skin of marine fishes Epibdella Blain. (Fig. 5) h,. Anterior suckers not present, in their place a paired membrane ; sucking disk with two pairs of hooks ; two testes: on the skin of marine fishes Phyllonella v. Baer (Fig. 6) £» Sucking disk with radial ridges ; eyes present or not ; anterior suckers present. A. Sucking disk with nine radial ridges and two large hooks; two testes ; four eyes ; body elliptical : on gills of marine fishes ^ . Tróchopus Dies. (Fig. 7) ha. Sucking disk with four to six faintly marked radial ridges and two or three pairs of hooks; two testes; four eyes; body elongate : on skin of marine fishes Placunella v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 8) A, Sucking disk with seven radial ridges: No. 404.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 649 body very broad, often circular ; no eyes ; numerous testes: on gills or skin of marine fishes — Tristoma Cuv. (Fig. 9) f. Genital pores median or on right. Sucking disk with numerous radial rows of small hooks ; ante- rior suckers present (or in their place a pair of glandular depressions, Goto) ; numerous testes : n the skin of the skate Acanthocotyle Mont. (Fig. 10) £, Sucking disk pie to body by a long stalk ; genital res median . . Subfamily II. Encotyllabine Body elliptical ; anterior suckers large, stalked ; suck- ing disk without radial ridges and with two hooks : in mouth of marine fishes Encotyllabe Dies. (Fig. 11) d, Body elongate, cylindrical, and sometimes ringed ; sucking isk terminal, without radial ridges or hooks; pharynx cxtensible ; genital pores median ; no eyes : on parasitic crustaceans . . Subfamily III. Udonellinz Z,- Anterior e Deni, body ringed in youth; pharynx without hooks ; one testis : on Caligus and Anchorella. . . Udonella Johnst. (Fig. 12) é,. Anterior suckers abiedt but in their place a pair of projections : on Caligus. Body ringed ; anterior projections narrow, tentacle- like ; pharynx with two hooks Echinella v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 13) f. Body ringed in youth, swollen in middle ; anterior projections broad, membranous ; pharynx without hooks, but with a large number of minute rods : Pteronella v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 14) ĉc» Paired anterior suckers or projections absent ; sucking disk with or without radial ridges ; body flattened and usually broad Family III. Monocotylide d, Sucking disk very small, without radial ridges or hooks : on skin of selachians. e, Body elliptical, with truncated ends ; vagina paired ; testes usually numerous Pseudocotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 15) €, Body elliptical, with attenuated ends ; vagina unpaired, opening on left of ventral surface ; one large testis. Microbothrium Ols. (Fig. 16) d, Sucking disk large, with radial ridges and (except in Lopho- hag two hooks; paired adhesive glands at anterior en r 650 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. e, Anterior glandular areas large and prominent, one on each side of anterior end. f, Body elongate ; sucking disk nearly circular and containing one central, eighteen peripheral, and seven intermediary depressions ; one very large ‘testis : on skin of skates Merizocotyle Cerf. (Fig. 17) f» Body elongate ; four eyes ; sucking disk elliptical, with ten radial ridges ; two testes ; no vagina: on gills of Remora . Dionchus Goto (Fig. 18) f$ Body ovoid ; sucking disk circular, with numerous radial ridges, with no large, but a group of minute, hooks on its edge ; testes numerous: on skin of marine fishes. . Lophocotyle Braun (Fig. 19) €» Anterior glandular areas inconspicuous. Jı Body heart-shaped ; sucking disk with seven radial ridges ; testes numerous: on skin and in the cloaca of marine fishes Calicotyle Dies. (Fig. 20) Ja Body elongate; sucking disk with eight radial ridges ; three testes : on skin of marine fishes Monocotyle Taschbg. (Fig. 21) ó,. Body usually elongate and flattened, though sometimes broad, with a more or less distinct disk-like region at hinder end, bearing either suckers, or hooks, or both ; paired anterior suckers either present or absent. cı. Posterior disk-like region with suckers, usually paired, and, in most cases, with hooks ; anterior paired suckers either present or absent. d,. Posterior region with either two or six suckers; paired anterior suckers absent. . Subfamily I. Polystominz e, Posterior region with two (one pair) large suckers and two large hooks ; body elongate: on skin of Nec- turus . . . . Sphyranura R. R. Wr. (Fig. 22) e. Posterior region with six (three pairs) suckers and with or without a terminal projection. f, Posterior region without a terminal projection ; body rather broad ; vagina paired, with an opening on either side of body: on gills and in urinary bladder of amphibians, and in mouth, nose, and urinary bladder of turtles | Polystoma Zeder (Fig. 23 Jy Posterior region with a terminal projection. £y Posterior disk-like region bearing the suckers is oval, the terminal projection is rather wide No. 404.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 651 . and bears two hooks; body elongate: on gills of Mustelus Erpocotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 24) £ Suckers stalked ; terminal projection narrow, with four hooks ; body attenuated : on gills of Accipenser Diplobothrium F. S. Leuck. (Fig. 25) £g The terminal projection is bifid at its extremity, each half bearing a small sucker; body elongate : on gills of selachians Onchocotyle Dies. (Fig. 26) d,. Posterior region with four to eight large suckers ; paired anterior suckers present . Subfamily II. Octocotyline e, Posterior region with four (five) suckers. f, Posterior region with two pairs of suckers at the end of long stalks ; body elongate: on gills of marine fishes Platycotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 27) Ja Posterior region with four suckers in a lateral, longitudinal row, to which may be added a fifth smaller sucker on the opposite side ; body elon- gate and asymmetrical : on gills of marine fishes (Scomber). . . Pleurocotyle Gerv. (Fig. 28) e, Posterior region with six (three pairs) suckers. fı- Body elongate ; posterior region with the six suckers bears at its posterior end a tail-like projection, at the extremity of which is a single sucker: on gills of marine fishes Phyllocotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 29) f, Body either elongate or broadly elliptical ; suckers on the broad posterior margin, in the median line of which, between the median suckers, a pair of hooks on a short projection may or may not be present : on gills of marine fishes Plectanocotyle, Dies. (Fig. 30) e, Posterior region with eight (four pairs) suckers. f, Individuals fused together, v-shaped, in pairs ; body elongate; posterior suckers sessile : on gills of fresh-water fishes Diplozoón v. Nordm. (Fig. 31) f; Individuals not fused together in pairs. gy Body asymmetrical, elongate, composed of two equal portions, which form an angle with each other; posterior suckers sessile: on gills of Lichia : Vallisia Par. et. Per. (Fig. 32) 652 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. £». Body symmetrical. h,. Posterior suckers alike in size. z,. Posterior region with median hooks at or near its posterior end; genital hooks with simple points. J, Body usually elongate ; posterior suckers with short stalks ; intes- tinal crura do not anastomose ; genital hooks arranged in groups ; vagina dorsal : on gills of marine fishes, especially the Clupide Octobothrium F. S. Leuck. (Fig. 33) Ją Body usually elongate, thick ; pos- terior suckers usually sessile ; genital hooks arranged in two lines in pairs; no vagina: on gills of marine fishes, especially the Scomberide - Octocotyle Dies. (Fig. 34) 4, Posterior region without median hooks ; genital hooks with double points and arranged in a circle. J; Body usually elongate ; suckers at the end of long stalks and func- tioning as pincers ; vagina ven- tral: on gills of marine fishes, especially the Gadide Dactylocotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 35) jJ» Body usually elongate ; suckers either stalked or not, and func- tioning as suckers, each sucker having a characteristic chitinous framework in form of a Greek cross; no vagina: on gills of marine fishes, especially the Spa- Diclidophora (Dies.) Goto (Fig. 36) ha. Posterior suckers not alike in size, one palT iffering from the others. i, Body elongate ; anterior pair of poste- rior suckers very large, at a distance from the others, projecting from the side of the body; the other three pairs minute, stalked, and grouped No. 404.) MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 6 53 together at the ee of the body: on gills of marine fishe Anthocotyle v. Ben. et Hense (Fig. 37) i. Body elongate; anterior end pointed ; posterior end bearing eight sessile suckers at extremity of body, the median pair being smaller than the others: on gills of marine fishes Hexocotyle Blain. (Fig. 38) d,. Posterior region elongate, and bearing numerous small suckers, either paired or not; paired anterior suckers present . . . Subfamily III. Microcotyline e,- Body amer syanibisical; posterior suckers paired, numbering from Io to 120 on a side ; no hooks: on gills of marine fishes Microcotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 39) by Body asymmetrical, one lateral side being more devel- oped than the other, and bearing most or all of the suckers. Jı Body tapering anteriorly, widening towards the hinder end, the latter forming, by a one-sided lateral expansion, a broad asymmetrical terminal disk bearing small suckers along its margin. £y Numerous suckers along the longer side of the terminal disk, a small number or none along the other side; no hooks present: on the gills of marine fishes Axine Abild. (Fig. 40) £y» A single row of suckers along the terminal disk, which is prolonged into a spatula-shaped appendix bearing two hooks: on gills of marine fishes (Caranx) Pseudaxine Par. et Per. (Fig. 41) f, Anterior end of body attenuate, hinder two-thirds widened on one side, on the margin of which is a row of small suckers ; hooks present at the pos- terior end : on the gills of marine fishes Gastrocotyle v. Ben. et Hesse (Fig. 42) €». Posterior region usi disk-like, without suckers, but with ON. . . Family V. Gyrodactylidae dı Two or four short sd acie lie projections at anterior end of body ; posterior disk with two large central hooks and numerous small marginal ones ; worms minute: on skin and gills of fresh-water and marine fishes. 654 A THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. e, Two short anterior projections ; posterior disk with usually sixteen marginal hooks ; no eyes Gyrodactylus v. Nordm. (Fig. 43) e, Four short anterior projections ; posterior disk with usually fourteen marginal hooks ; four eyes Dactylogyrus Dies. (Fig. 44) . No tentacle-like anterior projections. £€,. A pair of anterior suckers present; posterior end extended transversely, with four marginal hooks: on the gills of marine fishes Diplectanum Dies. (Fig. 45) e» No anterior suckers present. Jı Posterior region with four large central hooks. gı- Body contracted posteriorly; posterior disk with a number (12-16) of small marginal hooks; anterior end triangular, with four slight projections : usually on gills of fresh- water fishes . Tetraonchus Dies. (Fig. 46) £» Body elongate ; posterior region trilobed, with twelve minute marginal hooks : on gills of Torpedo . Amphibdella Chatin (Fig. 47) £y. Posterior disk stalked, with lobed margin and no marginal hooks : on gills of Coregonus Dactylodiscus Ols. (Fig. 48) J, Posterior region with no large central hooks or with ut one. £, Broad, Wea membrane-like projection at . anterior end ; posterior disk terminal, either unarmed, with minute hooks, or with a single large central hook ; body elongate, cylindri- cal : on gills of marine fishes Calceostoma v. Ben. (Fig. 49) £» A pair of glandular areas at anterior end ; pos terior disk terminal, irregularly elliptical, with minute hooks in center; a prominent glandular projection in middle of right side of body: on eggs of a fresh-water fish in Brazil . . Fridericianella Brds. (Fig. 5°) £y Two sucker-like depressions at anterior end ; posterior disk without hooks: on gills o Pagrus . . . . Anoplodiscus Sonsino. 655 NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. No. 404.] THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 656 No. 404.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 657 | 42 (A6 The measurements The line to the left of the figures indicates the actual size of the animal. Y 1 bib d In based, lly maximum measurements. ce difheul 50 47 A49 — €o19 I Eg P Th ftn E hla f, £ 4h VERE 1 (1) Temnocephala mexicana; (2) — — (3) Actinodactylella blanchardi; (4) i; (6) Saone solez; (7) Trochopus tubi- o) A Ni gata; (s) Epibdella bum porus; (8) Placunella pini; (9) e coccineum ; pruina ems (11) ncotyllabe nordmanni; (12) Udonella caligorum ; (1 ll ; (14) Pte nella molvæ; (15) Pseu quatinz; (16) th apiculatum; (17) Meri- zocotyle diaphanum ; (18) Dion agassizi; (19) Lophocotyle cyclophora ; (20) Calicotyle kroyeri; (21) le myliobatis; (22) phyranura osleri ; (23) P. oma hassalli ; (24) Erpocotyle levis; (25) Diplobothrium armatu (26) O tyle canis; (27) Platy- cotyle gurnardi ; (28) rocotyle scombri; (29) Phyllocotyle gurnardi; (3o) Plectano- cotyle elliptica; on Diplozoón paradoxum; (32) i ; (33) Octobothriu sagittatum ; (34) Octocotyle scombri ; (35) Dactylocoty: tvle denticulatum; (36) Diclidophora e thunninz; (39) Microcotyle longi- cauda; (40) Axine heterocerca; (41) —€— (43) Gyrodactylus pese (44) Dactylogyrus auriculatus ; (45) Diplectanum scienza; (46) Tetraonchus momenteron; (47) Amphibdel ella isset alis; (49) merken paedah (so) Fridericianella ovicola. affinis; (37) e epum: merluccii; (38) Hexacotyl teroc — ; (42) Gastrocotyle trachuri ; (48) Dactylodiscus bore- 658 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF NoRTH-AMERICAN HETEROCOTYLEA. GENUS TEMNOCEPHALA. Body ovoid ; tentacles five in number, long and slender ; pharynx very large, intestine short but broad, with a pair of lateral anterior projections ; .5-1 mm. long, .2 mm. wide: on carapace of Cambarus Digueti (Mexico) T. mexicana Vayssieére (Fig. 1) GENUS EPIBDELLA. Body flat, smooth, ovate, slightly constricted behind the anterior suckers ; anterior suckers crossed by twenty-two ribs ; posterior sucker attached by pedicel at posterior margin of body, elliptical, with four hooks ; 12.5 mm. long, 8.35 mm. wide: on skin of Dasyatis centura (Woods Holl) 4 E. bumpusii Linton (Fig. 5) GENUS TRISTOMA. a,. Diameter of sucking disk less than a third the length of the body. à,. Body ovate ; sucking disk small, less than a quarter the length of body and but little larger than the anterior suckers ; 10 mm. long, 7 mm. wide: on gills of Tetrapturus albidus T. cornutum Verrill b, Body heart-shaped ; color white, with small oval spots on the dorsal surface ; anterior end between the anterior suckers fringed ; 22.5 mm. long, 18 mm. wide : on the body of Diodon (California) T. maculatum Rud. č% Body nearly circular, ventral periphery with short, radial rows of papille, and dorsal surface with several series of pointed black papille ; sucking disk with crenulate border, and not reaching the posterior end of body ; 15 mm. long, 12 mm. wide : on gills of sword fish (Woods Holl, Linton) . . ‘occineum Cuv. (Fig. 9) . Diameter of sucking disk equals one-third or half the length of body. ; Body circular, ventral surface covered with papilla ; sucking disk large, its diameter equaling half the length of the body, and with a large central area; 15 mm. long, 14 mm. wide: on gills a Tetrapturus albidus (Woods Holl, Linton) . T. læve Verrill d» Body almost circular, slightly attenuate forward ; sucking disk large, its diameter equaling one-third the length of body, and with a plicate membranous border ; 18 mm. long, 19 mm. wide : on Mola mola (Woods Holl, Linton) . . . . . . T. mole Blanch. A tS GENUS NITZSCHIA. & m . Body lanceolate, reddish, contracted posteriorly ; sucking disk globose ; anterior suckers large, linear, oblique ; mouth triangular ; 16 mm. No. 404.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 659 long, 5 mm. wide ; from gills and under the opercles of sturgeon (Woods Holl, Linton, etc.) . . N. elongata Nitzsch (Fig. 4) 4, Body linear, contracted postiin i very small ; anterior portion papil- lose ; sucking disk not globose ; 1.9 mm. long, .5 mm. wide: from mod (Woods Hol. 5 . . 5. . LV. papillosa Linton GENUS ACANTHOCOTYLE. Body linear; anterior end blunt with a pair of glands and without anterior suckers ; sucking disk large, circular, as wide as the body, with thirty-four radial rows of hooks; about thirty-seven testes ; 5 mm. long, 1.2 mm. wide : on skin of skate (Cape Cod) . A. verrilli Goto (Fig. 10) GENUS DIONCHUS. Intestine bifurcate, distal ends fused ; anterior end of body triangular, with two groups of glands; genital pore minute, on left side of ventral surface, near mouth ; 2 mm. long, .5 mm. wide (Newport) D. agassizi Goto (Fig. 18) GENUS POLYSTOMA. & - . Posterior disk-like region attached to body between the two anterior pairs of suckers. /,. Body elongate, lanceolate; disk wider than body; three pairs minute hooks between anterior pair of suckers, one large and two small pairs between posterior pair of suckers ; 6 mm. long : in the nose of the food terrapin . . P, coronatum Leidy 4,. Body broad, tapering forward; disk kgd; testis a large slightly lobed body in center of body ; three pairs small hooks between anterior pair of suckers, and three pairs of small and one pair large hooks between posterior pair of suckers ; intestine bifurcate, unbranched ; 1.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide : from urinary bladder of Kinosternon pennsylvanicum P. hassalli, Goto (Fig. 23) . Posterior disk-like region, attached at its anterior end to body ; body elliptical ; intestine bifurcate, unbranched ; penis provided with six- teen spines, alternately small and large; 2.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide : in urinary bladder of musk turtle (Avomochelys odoratus) P. oblongum R. R. Wr. & to GENUS SPYRANURA. Body elongate, contracted anteriorly and posteriorly just before disk, which is wider than body and bears two large suckers ; intestine bifurcate, unbranched ; testes numerous; 4 mm. long, .6 mm. wide: on skin of Necturus , . o | o oc od MTM R Wr (Fw. 22) 660 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. GENUS OCTOBOTHRIUM. Body sagittate, tapering anteriorly ; posterior suckers on a distinct disk which is not so wide as the body; 6 mm. long, 2 mm. wide: on gills of Castastomus teres (R. R. Wright) O. sagittatum F. S. Leuck.! (Fig. 33) GENUS OCTOCOTYLE. Body elongate, lanceolate ; anterior suckers elongate, posterior suckers small, slightly stalked, in two rows; genital pore with two longitudinal rows of six (five) small hooks each; two pairs of hooks between posterior pair of suckers ; 5 mm. eda .6 mm. broad : on gills of mackerel (Newport, Goto) . > ; . . s « OQ. scomóri Kuhn (Fig. 34) GENUS DACTYLOCOTYLE. Body lanceolate ; anterior portion of each posterior sucker with numer- ous denticulate papilla ; 8 mm. long, 2 mm. wide: on gills of the pollack (Woods Holl, Linton) . . . . D. denticulatum Ols. (Fig. 35) GENUS DICLIDOPHORA. Body elongate, spatulate, anterior portion elliptical, posterior portion cylindrical; posterior suckers on long stalks; cirrus armed with fifteen bifurcate hooks ; 12-40 mm. sed from the Been of flounder (Woods Holy. : : : D. offinis Linton (Fig. 36) GENUS MICROCOTYLE. 4,. Testes not numerous, twelve to fifteen in number, median in hinder part of body. 6,. Testes about twelve in number, in front of which is ovary ; length of sucker-bearing region about one-third that of body, with about forty-six pairs of suckers ; 2.5 mm. long, .6 mm. wide: on gills of Scup (Newport) . . . M. stenotomi Goto ő» Testes about fifteen in number, in ce of which is ovary ; length of sucker-bearing region about one-fourth that of body, with about twenty-three pairs of suckers; 2.5 mm. long, 6 mm. wide : on gills of blackfish (Newport). . . . M. hiatule Goto 4,. Testes numerous, fifty to fifty-five in number, median in hinder part of » b,. Testes about fifty in number, in front of which is ovary ; length of sucker-bearing region about one-third that of body, with about seventy pairs of suckers ; 4 mm. 2 1 mm. wide; on gills of bluefish (Newport) . . . : . M. pomatomi Goto 1 The systematic position of this species is uncertain. No. 404.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 661 ó, Testes about fifty-five in number, in front of which is ovary ; length of sucker-bearing region about seven-elevenths that of body, with about 120 pairs of suckers ; 7 mm. long, 2 mm. wide : on gills of weakfish (Newport) . M. longicauda Goto (Fig. 39) GENUS GYRODACTYLUS. Body elongate, elliptical, mouth surrounded by a row of spines ; posterior disk round; the large central hooks have each double tubercles on its base ; 1 mm. long, .2 mm. wide : on Cottus scorpius G. grenlandicus Lev. (Fig. 43) GENUS PLECTANOCOTYLE. Body elliptical, broad ; mouth terminal ; no median sae: ponent: or hooks ; 4 mm. long, 2 mm. wide : on gills of Rocus america P. elliptica owe (Fig. 30) SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. '94 BRANDIS, G. Fridericianella ovicola, ein neuer monogenetischer Trematod. AA. d. ANaturforschenden Ges. zu Halle. Bd. xx, pp. 303-310, Taf. XIX. '92,'93 Braun, M. Plathelminthes : I. Trematodes. Bronn’s A/assen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs. Bd. iv, pp. 306-924, Taf. I-XXXIV. (A complete bibliographical list will be aus "T '96 — —. Hamburger Magalhaensische Sammelre '95 CERFONTAINE, P. Contribution à l'étude des WAREN Archives de Biologie. T. xiv, pp. 497-560, Pls. XXII-XXV. '97 — —. Le genre merizocotyle (Cerf.) Archives de Biologie. T. xv, PP- 329-366, Pls. XIII, XIV. '97 — .. Contribution à l'étude des octocotylidés. Archives de Biologie. T. xv, pp. 301-328, Pl. XII. 99 —_. Contribution à l'étude des octocotylidés. 4 rchives de Biologie. T. xvi, pp. 345-478, Pls. XVIII-XXI. '94 Goro, S. Studies on the Ectoparasitic Trematodes of Japan. Journ. Sci. Coll., Imp. Univ. Vol. viii, Pt. i, pp. 17273: Pls. I-XXVII. . Notes on Some Exotic Species of Ectoparasitic Trematodes. Journ. Sci. Coll, Imp. Univ. Vol. xii, Pt. iv, pp. 263-295, Pls. X-XXI. '88 Lemy, J. Entozoa of the Terrapin. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- delphia, pp. 126, 127. 662 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. '98 Linton, E. Notes on Trematode Parasites of Fishes. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xx, pp. 507-548, Pls. XL-LIV. . Fish Parasites collected at Woods Holl in 1898. Bull. U.S. Fish Commission. Pp. 287-304, Pls. XXVIII-XXXVIII. 1899. '92 MONTICELLI, F. S. Cotylogaster michaelis z. g., n. sp. Festschrift > zum siebenzigsten Geburtstage Rudolf Leuckarts. pp. 168-214, © Taf. XXI, XXII 1900 '99 Di una nuova specie del genere Plectanocotyle. Atti d. Accad. Reale d. Sci. di Torino. Vol. xxxiv, pp. 3-11, con una tavola. '99 Il genere Acanthocotyle. Arch. d. Parasit. Vol. ii, pp. 75- I20; Tav: I-IT '99 — —. Sulla Temnocephala brevicornis Mont. (1889) e sulle temno- cefale in generale. Boll. d. Soc. d. Nat. in Napoli. Vol. xii, pp. 72-127, Tav. 111, IV. : '91,'92 SAINT-REMY, G. Synopsis des trématodes monogénéses. ev. Biol. d. Nord. d. l. France. 3e Ann., pp. 405-416, 449-457 ; 4* Ann., pp. I-21, 90-107, 136-145, 186—191, 253-265, Pl. X. . Complément du synopsis des trématodes monogénéses. 4 rch. d. Parasit: Vol. i, pp. 521-571. 94 STILES, C. W., AND HassALL, A. A Preliminary Catalogue of the Parasites contained in the Collections of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Army Medical Museum, Biologi- cal Department of the University of Pennsylvania (Coll. Leidy), and in Coll. Stiles and Coll. Hassall. Veterinary Magazine. April, 1894, pp. 245-253 ; and May, 1894, pp. 331-354- 98 VayssIERE, A. Description du Temnocephala mexicana, 0v. sp. Ann. Fac. Scien. Marseille. T. viii, fas. 10, pp. 17-25; l. XI. VERRILL, A. E. Brief Contributions from the Museum of Yale Col- lege, No. 33. Amer. Journ. of Sci. and Arts. Vol. x. '85 ——. Results of the Exploration made by the steamer A /batross of the North coast of the United States in 1883. Annual Report of the Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1883. Pl. XLIII, Figs. 183, 194. "79 WRIGHT, R. Ramsey. Contributions to American Helminthology- Proc. Can. Inst. Vol. i, N: S., pp. 54-75, Pls. 1, II. ':87 WRIGHT, R. R., AND MACALLUM, A. B. Sphyranura osleri : A Con tribution to American Helminthology. Journ. of Morph. Vol. i, pp. 1-48, Pl. I. E o REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ZOOLOGY. Garman’s Deep-Sea Fishes. — The most important work in ichthy- ology for the past year is Mr. Samuel Garman’s monumental report on the deep-sea fishes collected off the western equatorial coasts of America and off the Galapagos Islands. It is based on the specimens obtained by the steamer 4/da/ross in the winter of 1891, while under the direction of Professor Alexander Agassiz. This report contains an annotated list of the species obtained, 176 of them new to science, together with a supplementary volume of plates, in which most of the species are beautifully figured. The general report is preceded bya valuable discussion of the distribution of the deep-sea fishes, and it is followed by an anatomical paper on the lateral line in fishes, its function and significance. The species added to the fauna of Middle America are the following : Raja badia. Raja alia (Yucatan = R. achleyi G. and B., not Garman). Centroscyllium nigrum. Jsistius (rather Leius) brasiliensis (Q. and G.). Liopropoma longilepis. Centristhmus Signifer (new genus allied to Anthias). Pontinus furcirhinus. Ectreposebastes imus (new genus allied to Scorpaena Hoplostethus pacificus. Trachichthys mento. Caulolepis subulidens. Melamphaés mizolepis (Günther). Melamphaés (Plectromus) nigroful- VUS, Melamphaës maxillaris. Melamphaës Jrontosus. Gempylus thyrsitoides (Lesson) (= G. serpens C. an V.). Trichiurus nitens. Teuthts elegans. Chiasmodon subniger. Lophiomus spilurus. Lophiomus caulinaris (L. setigerus Gilbert; Jordan and Evermann; not of Wahl—a Japanese species). Dolopichthys allector ale genus, near Ceratias). Chaunax coloratus dype of subge- nus Chaunacops). Oncocephalus porrectus. Halieutopsis tumifrons (new genus, near Halieutzea). Dibranchus hystrix. Dibranchus scaber. Dibranchus asper. Dibranchopsis (new genus for Hali- eutea spongiosa Gilbert). Dibranchichthys nudivomer. Malthopsis sparsa. Malthopsis erinacea. 663 664 THE AMERICAN Malthopsis spinosa. Malthopsis spinulosa. Prionotus frontalis. Peristedium barbigerum. Peristedium crustosum. Careproctus longifilis (Garman, 1892). aa jimbriatus (Garman, 1892). Paraliparis grandiceps. Paraliparis attenuatus. Paraliparis angustifrons. - Bothrocaropsis alalonga (new genus, near Maynea). Bothrocaropsts rictolata. Bothrocaropsis elongata. Gymnelis conorhynchus. Lycodopsis scaurus. Lycodes anguts. Lycodes serpens. Lycodes incisus. Lycodes cicatrifer. Phucocetes suspectus. Maynea bulbiceps. Leucicorus lusciosus (new genus of Brotulidz). Mixonus caudalis. Dicrolene filamentosa. Dicrolene nigra. Dicrolene pullata. Porogadus longiceps. Porogadus atripectus. Porogadus breviceps. Monomitopus torvus. Monomeropus malispinosus. Bassozetus nasus. Diplacanthopoma jordani. Holcomycteronus digitatus genus of Brotulidæ Eretmichthys ianen (new genus of Brotulidæ). Eretmichthys ocella. (new NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. Catetyx simus. Pseudonus acutus (new genus of Brotulide). Acanthonus spinifer. Sciadonus pedicellaris (new genus of Brotulidz). Lamprogrammus tllustris. Microlepidium grandiceps (new genus, near Lepidion). Lage filifer (new genus, near on). Nurs angustimanus. Antimora rhina. Lemonema gracilipes. Phyciculus longipes. Bregmaceros longipes. Macrurus bulbiceps. Macrurus bucephalus. Macrurus liraticeps. Macrurus barbiger. Macrurus loricatus. Macrurus cuspidatus. Macrurus convergens. Macrurus latirostratus. Macrurus anguliceps. Macrurus latinasutus. Macrurus trichiurus. Macrurus tenuicauda. Macrurus canus. Hippoglossina vagrans. Citharichthys maculifer. Monolene maculipinna. Monolene dubiosa. Symphurus varius. Symphurus microlepis. Sternoptyx obscura. Argyropelecus lychnus. Argyropelecus caninus. No. 404.] Argyropelecus afnis (=A. hemi- gymnus G. and B., not type). Polyipnus laternatus (from Barba- dos = P. spinosus G. and B., not type). Valenciennellus stellatus. Maurolicus oculatus. Maurolicus lucetius. Lychnopoles argenteolus (new ge- nus, near Gonostoma). Cyclothone signata. Cyclothone acclinidens. Synodus simulans. Bathypterois ventralis. Bathypterois pectoralis. Dn Myctophum aurolaternatum. Myctophum nitidulum. Myctobhum laternatum. Myctobhum atratum. Chauliodus barbatus. Chauliodus dentatus. Stomias colubrinus. Stomias hexagonatus. Stomias atriventer. Dactylostomias filifer (new genus, near Stomias agassizi (new Bathytroctes inspector. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 665 Narcetes pluriserialis. Alepocephalus asperifrons. Alepocephalus convexifrons. Alepocephalus fundulus. alosaurus attenuatus. Halosaurus radiatus. 'otacanthus spinosus. Uroconger varidens. Congermurena (Congrellus) cauda- lis. Congrosoma evermanni. Ophichthys(Cryptopterus)frontalis. Ophichthys biserialts. Echidna cocosa. Echidna scabra. Xenomystax rictus. Venefica tentaculata. Serrivomer sector. Labichthys bowersit. Nemichthys fronto. Atopichthys esunculus (group name for larval eels, of unknown rela- tions). Atopichthys sicarius. Atopichthys acus. Atopichthys ophichthys. Atopichthys cingulus. Atopichthys lychnus. Atopichthys obtusus. Atopichthys longidens. Myxine circifrons. Myxine acutifrons. Mr. Garman shows that the name “ Homea, Fleming” is prior to both Heptatrema (Voigt, 1832) and Bdellostoma (Müller, 1834). It should, therefore, take the place of both of these. It may be also noted (p. 223) that, in the original description of Engyophrys, Jordan and Bollman, « cycloid " was a slip of the pen for “ ctenoid." Mr. Garman completes his work with a most useful list of the -666 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . (Vor. XXXIV. deep-sea fishes of the world, with a table showing their distribution. A full bibliography and a number of other useful tables are also included. D.S Jenkins on Labroid Fishes of Hawaii. — In the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission Dr. Oliver Peebles Jenkins, of Stan- ford University, gives an account of new species of labroid fishes obtained by him and by others in Honolulu in 1889 and later. The chief collection was made by Dr. Jenkins and his assistant, Dr. George C. Price, under the auspices of De Pauw University. Later, both Dr. Jenkins and Dr. Price were called to Stanford University, and the original collection of fishes, by far the largest yet made about the Hawaiian Islands, was supplemented by others, the principal one being made by Dr. Thomas D. Wood, also of Stanford University. . In the single group of Labridæ and Scaridæ twenty-two new species were obtained. These are described and figured in the present paper. These new species are the following : Macropharyngodon aguilolo. Halichæres iridescens. Halichæres lao. Hemicoris remedtus. Coris lepomis. Hemicoris keleipionis. Thalassoma pyrrhovinctum. Novaculichthys woodi. Novaculichthys entargyreus. Hemipteronotus umbulatus. Iniistius leucozonus. Iniistius verater. Cheilinus zonurus. Pseudocheilinus octotenta. Anampses evermanni. Calotomus trradians. Scarus órunnueus. Scarus gilberti. Scarus paluca. Scarus ahula. Scarus miniatus. Pseudoscarus jordani. This list indicates the extreme richness of the Hawaiian fish fauna, its isolation and distinctness as compared with the fauna of the East Indies, and the fact that the few collections yet made about Hono- lulu have barely touched the wealth of the whole. D. S. J. Greene on the Caudal Heart of the Hagfish. — In the American Journal of Physiology Dr. Charles Wilson Greene gives his studies on the caudal heart in the California hagfish, Po/istotrema stouti. This structure was first discovered by Retzius in 1890, who accidentally noticed a paired pulsating organ in the tail of the slime eel (Myxine). The function of this structure is to drive the blood of the subcuta- neous spaces back into the circulatory system. : We are pleased that Dr. Greene calls this curious animal by its No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 667 actual scientific name. Bdellostoma, like Amphioxus, has its place in the history of anatomy, but neither of these terms is the scientific name of anything, any more than lancelet is, or hag. Branchiostoma is the scientific name of the chief genus of lancelets. Homea is the name of this group of hagfishes, Heptatrema and Bdellostoma being later synonyms of the same, with no standing in scientific nomenclature. For the species of Homea, with an increased number of gill openings, Dr. Gill has proposed the name of “ Polis- totrema.” There are two species of Polistotrema, P. dombey of Chili and P. szouti of California. These are not very much unlike and may be really the same thing, though the balance of evidence at present favors their distinction as species. If one does not recognize the genus Polistotrema, the California hagfish, which is rapidly taking its place among the anatomical classics, must be Homea stouti. D. S. J. Jordan and Snyder on Fishes of Mexico.— In the winter of 1899-1900 Messrs. Jordan and Snyder made a large collection of fishes in the fresh waters of Mexico, especially about Guadalajara, Mexico, Aguas Calientes, Puente de Ixtla, San Luis Potosi, and Tampico. Forty species were taken, twenty of them being new to science, and four new genera, Istlarius (Siluridze), Xystrosus, Falcula (Cyprinidæ), and Xenendum (Peeciliide), ; The collection indicates that the river fauna of Central Mexico is far more abundant and characteristic than had been hitherto sup- posed. A most unexpected fact was the large number of very closely related species of Pescado del Rey, or Pescados Blancos, found in the great lake of Chapala. All are alike excellent as food, rich and delicate in flavor. The new species are all figured. These are the following : - i Sled s, a large catfish from Rio Ixtla, south of the volcanoes in Morelos. Notropis rasconis, Rio Verde (Rascon), near San Luis Potosi. Notropis calientes, Rio Verde de las Aguas Calientes. Xystrosus Żopoche, Lake Chapala. Falcula chapale, Lake Chapala. Characodon encaustus, Lake Chapala. Xenendum caliente, Aguas Calientes. The genus Xenendum is allied to Goodea, but with bifurcate teeth, which, as in Goodea, are loosely attached. The intestines are very long, as in Peecilia, but the sexes are similar. 668 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Xenendum xaliscone, Lake Chapala. Pecilia limantouri, Rio Ixtla, Tampico, and Rascon. Xiphophorus montezume@, Rascon. Eslopsarum arge, Aguas Calientes. Chirostoma breve Steindachner is an Eslopsarum and identical with the earlier named Æ. jordani. Chirostoma chapale. Chirostoma crystallinum. Chirostoma lerme@, this species has been recently described by Dr. Bou- lenger as C. sphyrena, also from Lake Chapala specimens. Dr. Boulenger’s name takes precedence. Chirostoma diazi; this is C. lucius Boulenger, a prior name. Chirostoma ocotlane. Chirostoma promelas. All these species of Chirostoma are from Lake Chapala, near Ocotlan in Jalisco. Xeros istlanus, Puente de Ixtla. Neetroplus carpintes, Lake Carpinte, Tampico. Cichlasoma steindachneri, Rascon. DSI Notes on Recent Fish Literature. — Dr. Louis Dollo, of Brussels, describes a new genus of trachinoid fishes collected by M. E.G. Racovitza, naturalist of the Belgian Antarctic Commission. To it he applies the name of Cryodraco antarcticus. The type came from a depth of 450 meters, in the Antarctic Ocean (Lat. 71° 22'S. Long. 88° 38' W.). Mr. Edgar W. Waite gives an account of an “ oarfish,” or “ king of the herrings ” (Regalecus glesne ?), taken near Port Jackson in Aus- tralia.’ The species of this rare and interesting deep-water gene have not been adequately determined, and Mr. Waite's paper vill prove valuable for future comparisons. In the Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires Dr. Carlos Berg publishes valuable notes on various fishes — Exomegas, Poly- prion, Curimata, Ilisha, Crenicichla, etc. He shows that the name Jlisha orbignyana should replace that of Misha flavipinnis, adopted by Jordan and Evermann. The identity of Cottoperca rosenbergt with Aphritis gobio is also shown, the species standing as Coto- perca gobio. hed in the Dr. L. Berg, of the University of Moscow, has publis in Russian Proceedings of the Caucasian Museum at 'Tiflis an account, and in German, of the fishes collected by Dr. G. Radde, director of the museum at Tiflis. Thirty-one species are included, one of them being regarded as a new “ variety." No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 669 In the Transactions of the London Zological Society Dr. Boulenger gives a second account of the rich fish fauna of Lake Tanganyika, from the collections of the Lemaire Expedition. A number of new genera and species of Cichlidz are described and well figured, three of the plates being in colors, the work of the artist of the expedition, M. Dardenne. In the Proceedings of the Scientific Society of Christiania Dr. Robert Collett discusses in detail the relations of Lycodes gracilis, a fish of the arctic parts of the Atlantic. Several figures are given, together with detailed description. Dr. Collett regards Z. perspicillum as probably the young of Z. reticulatus, L. rossi as probably the very young of Z. pallidus, and Z. zoarchus, from Nova Scotia, as certainly the young of Z. gracilis. These conclusions differ somewhat from those of Dr. Smith, noted a few months since. The species of filefish described by Jordan and McGregor from Clarion Island, Mexico, under the name of Cantherines carole, proves to be identical with the type of Cantherines, C. sandwichiensis Quay and Gaimard of Hawaii, a fact first pointed out by Mr. R. E. Snod- grass. It is not evident that either C. pud/us of the West Indies, or C. pardalis of the East Indies, is really different from C. sandwichiensis. In a private letter Professor D'Arcy W. Thompson, of University College, Dundee, corrects the current account of the genus Eumesog- rammus. ‘The type Æ. precisus has four lateral lines, not three, the fourth being a ventral branch, accessory to the third, and running from the breast to near the vent. This was correctly described by Dr. Reinhardt, but overlooked by later authors. In a recent note in the Watura/ist on Dr. Charles Wilson Greene's studies of the California toadfish, or “ midshipman ” (Porichthys nota- tus), the writer, by a slip of the pen, made a statement just the Opposite of the truth. The fish showed no luminosity, save when excited by electricity or by ammonia. In an aquarium made alkaline by ammonia water all the spots and organs of the lateral line gave out a brilliant glow, fading away in about twenty minutes. Parts of the fish, after death, were luminous under ammonia. A similar effect was shown by severe electric stimulations, but a mild current produced no effect. D.S. j Compensatory Movements of the Eyes in Fishes. — It is well known that when a dogfish is rotated on its long axis its eyes are 670 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. turned so as to compensate in a measure for the abnormal position in which the fish is placed. Lee showed that these compensatory movements may be called forth by stimulating the sense organs of the semicircular canals in a quiet dogfish resting in a normal position, and he therefore believed that the normal compensatory movements of the eye were reflexes produced by a stimulation of the organs of the semicircular canals. E. P. Lyon! has made the interesting dis- covery that certain eye movements can be produced without the inter- vention of the semicircular canals. If the tail of a dogfish is turned to one side, the eye of the same side is directed forward, that of the opposite side, backward. As this experiment succeeds after the eighth nerves are cut, it follows that this reflex is not to be regarded as originating in the ear. Moreover, when the spinal cord is divided well forward in the body, the reflex ceases, and the author, therefore, rightly concludes that the sensory disturbances, which give rise to the reflex, are located in the posterior part of the trunk and make their way forward through the cord. The author finally calls atten- tion to the uncertainty of compensatory movements of the eye as evidence of stimulation of the organs in the semicircular canals. y Development of Lepidosiren. — The development of this rare and interesting fish is being worked out by J. Graham Kerr,? whose first paper on the subject gives an account of the way in which eggs may be obtained and the external features of their development. The eggs are laid in underground burrows in swamps. The fertilized egg as taken from the nest is enclosed in a thin, horny capsule, round which is occasionally a jelly-like envelope. Segmentation is com- plete and unequal, as in Amia. The gastrula closely resembles that of Petromyzon. The medullary folds are low, and the neural axis arises mainly as a solid down-growth. There is no neurenteric canal. Four external gills are developed upon branchial arches, I, II, III, and IV. Auditory and nasal sacs and stomodzum are formed by secondary excavation of originally solid rudiments. The young fish, which at hatching is tadpole-like, remains two weeks without developing pigment, after which the retinal pigment begins 1 Lyon, E. P. Compensatory Motions in Fishes, Amer. Journ. of Phys. vol. iv (1900), pp. 77-82. TES 2 Kerr, J. Graham. The External Features in the Development of Lepidos paradoxa Fitz, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. B, vol. cxcii (1900), pp- 2997 330, Pls. VIII-XII. No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 671 to appear. The fore and hind limbs suffer rotation, so that the resultant upper surface of either is homologous with the lower sur- face of the other, as in Ceratodus. Pulmonary breathing begins before the external gills show signs of degeneration. About six weeks after hatching, the external gills are lost. The young Lepido- siren is remarkably newt-like in its general appearance and uses its hind limbs in, clambering about the vegetation. It also has some powers of change of color by the action of its chromatophores. p. Multiplication of Nuclei in Transversely Striped Muscle Fibres of Vertebrates. — Godelewski’s work, of which he gives a prelimi- nary account, was carried on at the Anatomical Institute of the Jagel- lonian University at Krakow. The material was from late embryos and recently born young ot the guinea pig and mouse, and from larve of Salamandra. ‘To avoid undue contraction of the muscles the whole extremity was employed; it was fixed in Perenyi’s fluid or in concentrated sublimate solution plus 2 per cent acetic acid. The sections, 5 4 thick, were stained either in thionin or in Heiden- hain's iron-hzematoxylin, followed by Bordeaux R or eosin. In the quiescent nuclei of embryonic or larval muscle cells the chromatin constitutes a thin layer at the periphery of the nucleus, which contrasts sharply by its blue color with the single brilliant red nucleolus. That the nuclei are highly elastic is shown by the flat- tened forms they assume in muscles that have strongly contracted owing to their being cut away from their attachments to bone before fixing. Nuclear reproduction takes place both by the mitotic and by the amitotic process. The author has observed all stages of mitosis in muscle fibres that were already distinctly striped, not only in the deep nuclei, but also in those that had already attained a peripheral posi- tion. The approaching division is indicated by an increase both in the size of the nucleus and in the distinctness of the chromatic net- work. The nucleolus disappears. The fibrilla next the nucleus Separate a little from each other, and a clear fluid plasma accumu- lates around the nucleus. If this is a marginal nucleus, it protrudes with its enveloping plasma beyond the surface of the fibre. Special attention was directed to the question of the presence of centrosomes. Though previous observers have never announced the existence of centrosomes in differentiated transversely striped muscle * Godelewski, E., Jr. Ueber die Vermehrung in den quergestreiften Muskel- fasern der Wirbelthiere, Bull. de l Acad. des Sciences de Cracovie. Avril, 1 672 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. tissue, the author found them in typical form, not only in the mon- aster stage, but even as early as the spireme stage. In the former the central corpuscle, stained black in iron-haematoxylin, was sur- rounded by a typical polar star. Also in the diaster stage the centro- somes continue to be evident; the axis of the central spindle is at first straight, but later may become bent; the interzonal filaments, with their equatorial thickenings, become pressed together to form the deeply staining ** Zwischenkórper," which here, as in other cases, is not dependent on the formation of a cell wall In the [cup- shaped] depréssion of the nuclei of the diaster stage a remnant of the centrosome and the achromatic cone fibres is still visible, and after the formation of a nuclear membrane around the two masses of chro- matin, establishing the two daughter-nuclei, traces of the * Zwischen- körper " and central spindle are still to be seen. During karyokinesis the surrounding protoplasm acquires a granu- lar appearance. The granules, which are deeply stained in iron- haematoxylin, appear in the monaster stage ; in the diaster stage and the following anaphase these increase in number, so that the mitotic figure is surrounded by coarsely granular protoplasm. In addition to the karyokinetic, there is also an amitotic nuclear division, and while in general it may be said that the latter method replaces the former, the author is unable to say just when the one ceases or the other begins. Both processes are, indeed, to be seen in older embryos at the same time and in the same muscle. The first indication of the non-mitotic division is to be seen in the nucle- oli, of which there are at first one or two to each nucleus. The nucleolus elongates, becomes narrower in the middle, at length dumb-bell-shaped, and finally divided ; the two nucleoli then move apart. This process may be repeated. The chromatic substance meanwhile becomes collected into lumps of irregular form, which are, however, uniformly distributed through the nucleus. The actual division of the nucleus may take place in one or the other of two ways : First, by the formation of a thin, flat partition, which is perpendicular to the axis of the elongated nucleus or, often, oblique to it. Sometimes only a single partition is formed, but often the nucleus is divided by such partitions into as many as six, or even more, portions — the new or daughter nuclei; secondly, by the formation of invaginations from [z.e., constrictions of] the periph- ery of the nucleus this very much elongated body is finally divided into two, or sometimes several, not always equal, parts, each of whic contains a single nucleolus or, less often, two. The daughter-nuclei No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 673 separate from each other, but occasionally they remain connected by a bridge of substance, and in some cases this is elongated, so that when several daughter-nuclei in succession are thus joined they resemble a rosary. Both forms of fragmentation may occur side by side in the same muscle, and even in the same nucleus. Besides these nearly trans- verse divisions, a longitudinal splitting of the nucleus is sometimes met with. t. Are the Solpugids Poisonous ?— It has long been a disputed question as to whether the arachnids known as Solpugids are poison- ous or not. In the regions where they occur they have a very bad reputation; but naturalists who have studied their structure have never found poison glands or ducts. Recently Lónnberg! has described his observations on Galeodes araneoides in the neighbor- hood of Baku, on the Caspian. He found that the “falanger,” as the Russians call it, did not poison insects and other animals upon which it preyed. In attacking a small scorpion it crushed one of the slender joints of the abdomen and then the segment containing the poison sac. It next attacked the larger abdominal segments, working its jaws into the interior and devouring the flesh. During this whole time the scorpion struggled and fought, moving freely and showing no sign of being poisoned. It could not penetrate the skin of a frog, although it attempted to bite it several times. Finally Lónnberg and a friend both allowed the Galeodes to attempt to bite them; but its jaws were not strong enough to penetrate the thick- ened skin of the finger tips, while flies which were bitten, but which did not have the nervous system injured, were able to crawl around along time after being bitten. These facts, together with the ab- sence of openings in the chelæ through which poison could escape, led Lönnberg to the conclusion that Galeodes at least is not veno- mous. At the time for hibernation it dug into the ground, using the two anterior pairs of legs, but where the earth was harder it used the chelz to remove small stones and bits of clay. New Jersey Insects. .— Professor J. B. Smith's list of the insects Occurring in New Jersey is issued as a Supplement to the 27/4 Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture and may be considered à revised and enlarged edition of the one published in 1890 by the Geological Survey of New Jersey. It makes a volume of more than 19 fversigt k. Vet. Akad. Forhandl. Stockholm, Bd. lvi (1900), p- 977- 674 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. 750 pages, with 328 cuts and two maps; one of the maps shows the locations of the colonies of the San José scale, and the other is the 1896 relief map of the State Geological Survey. The list proper is preceded by short chapters dealing with the development of insects, their injuries, insecticides, and machinery. According to the summary given on page 701, Professor Smith's first list contained 238 families, 2307 genera, and 6098 species ; in the volume under consideration 329 families, 3181 genera, and 8537 species are recorded. The increase in the number of families is apparent rather than real, as it is due to a more minute division than was deemed advisable in the earlier volume. As instances it may be noted that the bees listed in 1890 in two families are now given in fourteen, and the sawflies included in the Tenthredinidz in 1890 are now divided into ten families. The list, though a useful and interesting one, would have greater scientific value had Professor Smith followed Dr. Calvert's practice, in the Odonata, of including only those species of which he had seen specimens actually collected in the state, or for which the best authority could be cited. The records, * New Jersey probably," * should occur in New Jersey," * will probably occur in New Jersey," | are frequent, and in some instances such statements include the data given for all the species of a family. Mating Instinct in Moths. — A. G. Mayer! carried 449 cocoons of Callosamia promethea from Cambridge, Mass., to Loggerhead Key, off the Florida coast. When the moths emerged they were many hundred miles south of the southernmost range of this species. Experiments were then made on the way in which the females attract the males. Males do not come to females in hermetically sealed glass boxes, but they do congregate about boxes which do not admit of a sight of the female, but which allow odors from the female to escape to the outer air. Males will seek out such boxes even when the vapor of carbon bisulphide or of ethyl mercaptan is escap- ing from the box, together with such odorous material as the female may produce. The sense organs of the males stimulated by these substances are the antenna, for when these organs are covered with shellac, glue, or other impervious materials, the males no longer seek the females. Females thirty to sixty hours old are much more attractive to males than young females five to ten hours old. Virgin !1 Mayer, A. G. On the Mating Instinct in Moths, Psyche, vol. ix (1900): pp. 15-20. No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 675 females are somewhat more attractive than are fertilized ones of the same age. If the eyes of a male are covered with Brunswick black so as to prevent sight, the male will still mate in a normal way if placed near a female. If the wings of a female, which are of a reddish-blue, are cut off, and the wings of a male, which are darker, are glued to the stumps of the wings on the female, the female insect can be made to look much like the male, and yet males will mate normally with such individuals. Males provided with female wings apparently suffer no disadvantage in mating with females. These and other similar observations lead the author to conclude that the sexes pay no attention to the appearances of their partners, and that the dark coloration of the male has not been brought about through sexual selection on the part of the female. P. A New Text-Book on Echinoderms.' — It is difficult to character- ize this part of 4 Treatise om Zoology, edited by Professor E. Ray Lankester. What it contains has already been presented to students in a far better form and free from the insular prejudices which are apparent throughout the work. One might almost imagine from the preface that there was a British natural history of echinoderms, as contrasted with that found in the text-books of Zittel, Claus, Neu- mayer, Hertwig, Korschelt, Heider, and many others which will naturally suggest themselves to the student of echinoderms. The great value of a text-book consists in an impartial presenta- tion of well-ascertained facts and not in spreading before the reader the peculiar views held by the authors, especially when they are mere speculations reminding us of the elaborate. disquisitions of Haeckel on the imaginary crinoids he so carefully figures and describes in his last memoir on the subject. It would be difficult to write a general description of the echino- derms more likely to confuse the students than the one given by Mr. Bather in the introductory chapter to-this part of Lankester’s Zrea- tise on Zoilogy. It is noted for dwelling on what is not known and for giving us as little as possible (for a work of such pretension) on the structure and embryology of the groups. The speculations of Mr. Bather might make an article in a geologi- cal magazine, but have no place in a text-book designed for “ senior Students of zodlogy.” With the mass of material available to illus- 1 A Treatise on Zoilogy, edited by E. Ray Lankester ; Pt. iii, The Echinoderma, by F. A. Bather, assisted by J. W. Gregory and E. S. Goodrich. London, 1900. Adam and Charles Black. Svo, 344 pp», 11 figs. 676 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. trate the anatomy and embryology of echinoderms, it is hardly possi- ble to have given less characteristic illustrations of their structure and development than those selected by Mr. Bather in his introduc- tory chapter on the ** Echinoderma.” Mr. Bather has a very extensive and accurate knowledge of the crinoids, and he has given an excellent account of the group, but it is entirely out of proportion to the very moderate one given of the holothurians, starfishes, and Echinoidea. One need only compare Zittel’s account of the Echinoidea and Crinoidea with those of Mr. Bather and of Mr. Gregory to see how far Mr. Gregory’s account of the Echinoidea falls short of Zittel’s admirable presentation of the history of the order. The authors unite the ophiurans with the starfishes; in this they certainly will not receive the assent of writers on echinoderms, nor is their association of the holothurians, starfishes, and Echinoidea as * Eleutherozoa " in contrast to the Pelmatozoa likely to be accepted. The student of zoólogy is certainly entitled to a better account of the holothurians than that given by Mr. Goodrich. With the superb figures of Semper, Theel, Ludwig, Semon, and many others available, such figures as are given on pages 218, 219, 222, and 223 are hardly creditable in what is intended to be an important text-book. The figures as a whole vary greatly in quality ; many of the out- line cuts of the crinoids and the analyses of the plates are coarse. The figures of the few fossil Echini given are poor, and a large num- ber of the illustrations which accompany the starfishes and ophiurans are not even good as diagrammatic sketches. The palxontology of the echinoderms is not to be compared with that of Zittel and of Neumayer, and the volume bears too plainly the mark of having been written by palzontologists and not by mor- phologists familiar at first hand with the structure and development of echinoderms. Notes. — Students of earthworms will be interested in the results of Michaelsen's recent studies of Kinberg's types of Oligochzta (Ofversigt k. Vet, Akad. Forhandl. Stockholm, Bd. LVI, 1900). The only species from the United States included is Pherctima cali Jornica, which is shown to include two species of Amyntas, A. cali- Jornica and A. indica. In the Stockholm Academy's Proceedings (Vol. LVII, No. 1, P- 13) Dr. Einar Lönnberg gives an account of the observations of Professor von Grimm and himself on the fauna of the Caspian. Species of No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 677 Gobius, Benthrophilus, and Syngnalhus were obtained, together with numerous Crustacea, many Mollusca, a few worms, and some alga. A study of the genera Hygroceleuthus and Dolichopus has led Melander and Brues (Biol. Buil., Vol. I, p. 123) to place all flies belonging to the former genus under Dolichopus, though the species thus transferred form a natural group of less than generic value. In their revision of this genus the authors describe thirteen new species. The structures which have been described by previous writers as the rudimentary dental ridges in embryo birds have been reinves- tigated by H. D. Tjeenk Willink (Zz4seAr. d. Ned. Dierk. Ver. (2), Bd. VI (1900), pp. 243-254, Taf. XI). These structures are easily identifiable in many species of birds, but are too well developed to be called rudimentary. If they are the remains of dental ridges, which the author believes is by no means certain, they have most assuredly assumed secondary functions and contribute materially to the formation of the horny bill. This function in itself is a sufficient explanation of their presence, without assuming that they are the remains of dental ridges. Vanhöffen (Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. XXIII (1900), pp. 277-279) has investigated the finer structure of three genera of deep-sea medusa, Atolla, Periphylla, and Periphyllopsis, on material all of which was collected from a greater depth than 600 meters. Both Haeckel and Maas believed that the deep-sea medusz possessed, in addition to statocysts, eyes of a simple type. Vanhöffen finds no evidence of eyes in the material studied by him and believes that Haeckel mis- took pigmented entoderm for eyes, and that Maas was in error because of imperfectly preserved specimens. Bittacomorpha clavipes Fabr., a near relative of the crane flies, is characterized by having enormously swollen metatarsi on all its legs. Brues (Biol. Buil., Vol. I (1900), pp. 155-160) has found that an enlarged tracheal tube occupies almost the entire cavity of the swollen metatarsus. As this insect flies poorly, the author believes that the balloon-like enlargements of its metatarsi enable it to be wafted easily by currents of air. The coloration of these parts gives the animal, when suspended in air, a striking resemblance to drifting thistle seeds. The third number of Vol. I of the Biological Bulletin contains the following papers : “ The Early Cleavage and Formation of the Meso- derm of Serpulorbis squamigerus Carpenter," by S. J. Holmes ; * New 678 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. i Species of Hygroceleuthus and Dolichopus," with remarks on Hygro- celeuthus by A. L. Melander and C. T. Brues; “On the Origin of the Sperm Blastophore of Some Aquatic Oligocheta,” by S. Hatai ; * Peculiar Tracheal Dilatations in Bittacomorpha clavipes Fabr.," by C. T. Brues ; and * Lampreys in Captivity," by A. M. Reese. BOTANY. Alternation of Generations in Alga.! — The author has made a careful study of the European forms of the .Cutleriacez, a small but interesting group of alga, and the results are given in this paper of one hundred pages. Two genera have been known in European waters, Zanardinia and Cutleria, the former represented by a single species, Z. collaris, the latter by two, C. mu/tifida and C. adspersa. Each is represented by a sexual and an asexual form, in Zanardinia indistinguishable in habit, but in Cutleria so different that the asexual form was long known as a separate genus, Aglaozonia. The paper begins with a thorough résumé of the previous investi- gations by Thuret, Reinke, Falkenberg, Janczewski, Kuckuck, and Church, which showed Aglaozonia to be included in the Cutleria cycle of development, assigning to C. multifida, A. parvula, and to C. adspersa, A. chilosa. The author has discovered a new form, A. melanoidea, occurring in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, thus giving three sexual to two asexual forms. Though absolute proof has not been obtained, the author seems jus- tified in regarding the new form as connected with C. adspersa, the sexual form corresponding to A. chilosa being yet to be discovered. As the asexual form of C. multifida has a farther range northward than the sexual form, it is not improbable that the sexual form of A. chilosa may be some little known tropical or subtropical species. In studying the fertilization and development of Cutleria we find a curious complexity. The sexual form is dicecious; in many locali- ties only the female plant is known, propagating freely by partheno- genesis; in some localities male plants are extremely rare; in others they occur in equal numbers with the female, or are even twice as common; but in only one place have cultures shown fecundation of the oóspore. In the locality where the male plant is most abundant 1 Sauvageau, Camille. Les Cutlériacées et leur alternance de Générations, Ann. Sci. Nat., Ser. 8, Botany, vol. x, pp. 265-362. . No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 679 no trace of fertilization, or even of attraction between the anthero- zoids and spores, was found, but parthenogenetic growths were abundant. These growths were of two distinct types, both of which were found, only more fully developed, in plants growing in the sea, the two forms there growing intermingled, though not so in cultures. These forms the author designates, from their respective discoverers, as “forme thuretienne" and “forme falkenbergienne,” the former producing first a * support," the summit of which is then transformed into a Cutleria frond, the latter a stout cellular cylinder, here called * colonnette," from the base of which grows out an Aglaozonia frond. It would seem that either of these forms may be produced by either Aglaozonia or Cutleria spores, in the latter case by either fertilized or unfertilized spores, so that, instead of a definite alternation of generations, as in ferns and mosses, either the sexual or the asexual form may reproduce itself for an indefinite number of generations, changing to the other under conditions unknown to us. The * colonnette " is a peculiar development; the author regards it as an atavistic proembryo, representing what was a normal state in the remote history of the type, but is now only a survival, of no use to the individual. These three forms now found in the same spe- cies give the latter a wide range of affinities among the brown algz, indicated by the author as follows : Cutleria, thallus with Ectocarpus, Tilopteris, Carpomitra; reproduction with Tilopteris, Sphacelaria. * Colonnette," thallus with Myriotrichia, Litosiphon; reproduction unknown. Aglaozonia, thallus with Battersia, Sphacelaria, Zonaria, Padina, Dictyota; reproduction with Zonaria, Laminaria. It is this wide range of affinities that makes the study of this little group of so much interest. The paper is abundantly illustrated from excellent drawings by the author. F. S. CorriNs. Micro-Organisms and Fermentation.' — The translation of the third edition of Dr. Jórgensen's well-known work on the subject, in Which his word is one of authority, is doubtless a good service for many English-speaking readers. The general subject of fermenta- tion is here so construed as to exclude decomposition changes; the chief phases treated dealing with those activities producing charac- teristically acetic, lactic, and butyric acids, slime, and alcohol. The * Jórgensen, A. Micro-Organisms and Fermentation. Third edition, trans- lated by Alex. K. Miller and A. E. Tennholm. London, Macmillan & Co., 1900. 318 pp., 83 figs. 680 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. organisms producing these changes, bacteria, mould fungi, and yeasts, are discussed, chiefly from the standpoint of their morphology and physiology. The most important alcohol-producing organisms are treated in some detail. Here, as throughout the book, the work of Hansen is cited at great length. Since the work is intended for the brewer and the distiller as well as for the student of the purely scientific side of the subject, much of brewery and distillery technique finds place. As the standpoint of the author is decidedly that of the morphologist, the chemical side of fermentation is disposed of in the briefest manner. On the whole, the book gives a very useful account of the subject as seen from the standpoint of an enthusiastic disciple of Hansen. A fairly complete bibliography of the subject unfortunately closes the book. It is difficult to explain why a work of this scope, intended for fre- quent reference, should utterly lack an index, but such is the case. Notes.— Professor Rowlee begins the publication of a series of notes on North American willows in the May number of the Buletin of the Torrey Club, the first part dealing with the Longifolize, of which twelve species are recognized, three of them, as well as several vari- eties, being considered new to science. Gratification is expressed at the necessity that has been found of restoring all of Nuttall’s species. The taxonomic value of the staminate flowers of some species of Quercus is shown by Professor Rowlee and Miss Nichols in the Botanical Gazette for May. The Lycopodiaceez of the United States are found in review by Lloyd and Underwood in the Butletin of the Torrey Club for April. Dr. Spegazzini, in the March number of the Anales de la Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, gives some interesting notes on the irritability of the stamens of certain cacti, the extra floral nectar glands of Opuntia monacantha, and the narcotic properties of the floral nectar of Echin- ocactus gibbosus. Professor Nelson's active study of the Wyoming flora leads to the revision of the cormose-rooted Rocky Mountain claytonias in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for May, in which he further publishes a considerable number of new species of various groups. In No. 5 of the Contributions from the New York Botanical Garden Dr. Rydberg begins a series of studies on the Rocky Mountain flora, the first number of which deals with certain groups of Senecio. No. 404.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 681 : An annotated catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of Oklahoma, by Professor Bogue, constitutes Buletin No. 45 of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station. An interesting series of plant-formation figures is being published in the current numbers of the Revue Générale de Botanique, in. illus- tration of a paper by Boergesen and Paulsen on the vegetation of the Danish West Indies. | The flora of the Azores, which was summarized in the Zighth Report of the Missouri Botanical Garden, receives several important additions in a paper by Gandoger, published in the Buletin de la Société Botanique de France for February. PAL/EONTOLOGY. Zittel’s Text-Book.' — The appearance of von Zittel's Grundzüge der Palaeontologie in 1895 was generally welcomed as being a most convenient and well-executed outline of the elements of the science. No English translation of any similar foreign book on the general subject had heretofore been published, and the excellence of this Work and the fame of its distinguished author seemed to demand its reproduction into English. Dr. Charles R. Eastman undertook the translation and editing. As a former pupil of Professor von Zittel, and a paleontologist him- self, he was especially well qualified for this task. After consulta- tion with a number of leading educators, and with the consent of the author, it was decided to submit different portions to specialists for independent revision. The plan of the original work has been fol- lowed throughout, though the amount of revision really makes it a distinct publication. The early chapters on the Protozoa and Ceelenterata received very little alteration and stand essentially as in the original. The list of collaborators and the subjects revised by them are as follows : Wachs- muth, the Crinoidea and Blastoidea; Sladen, Asteroidea and Echin- ozoa ; Hinde, Vermes; Ulrich, Bryozoa and Ostracoda; Schuchert, Brachiopoda; Dall, Pelecypoda; Pilsbry, Gastropoda; Hyatt, Ceph- alopoda; Beecher, Trilobita; Clarke and Kingsley, the Eucrustacea 1l Zittel, Karl A. von. Text-Book of Paleontology. Translated and edited by Charles R. Eastman. London, Macmillan & Co. 1900. Vol. i x+ 706 pp. 1476 woodcuts. 682 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. and Acérata; Scudder, the Insecta. A few chapters, notably those on the: Molluscoidea, Mollusca, and Trilobita, are entirely rewritten. Science text-books are proverbially behind the advances of the sciences they represent. In general this conservatism is not without compensation, since no single author of a comprehensive treatise can judge of the value of new discoveries or adopt innovations until they have stood the test of time and become incorporated into the stand- ard body of scientific literature. Much of this danger has been obvi- ated by the codperation of men of recognized authority in special branches and by their restraint in following along prescribed lines. The result of this coóperation, as in the present volume, is a com- posite work. Instead of a compilation from various authorities, each chapter bears its own authority, and as such the book will have a standing and usefulness among advanced students it would not other- wise attain. CE RÀ NEWS. THE entomological collections of the late Professor J. A. Lintner are to be given to Cornell University by his widow. The French Association for the Advancement of Science meets at Paris, August 2 to 9. The International Botanical Congress will meet in Paris, October Iı to ro. The International Geological Congress meets at the same place August 16 to 28. Fellowships for the college year 1900 to 19o1 have been awarded as follows : Johns Hopkins University: Lawrence Edmonds Griffin (Ph.B., Hamlin University), Adam Pruce fellow in biology. University of Pennsylvania: J. R. Nurlin and Miss R. A. Vivian, zoology; Miss C. B. Thompson, biology. Tufts College: R. J, Seymour (B.S. Ohio State University), "biology. : Harvard University: W. A. Willard, zodlogy. Appointments: Miss Cora J. Beckwith, of Ann Arbor, assistant instructor in zoólogy at Vassar College. — W. Bergt, professor extraor- dinarius of geology in the Dresden Technical School. — Dr. A. N. Berlese, of Bologna, assistant professor of botany in the University of Sassari, Sardinia. — Dr. W. Busse, docent for bacteriology in the University of Berlin. — F. Cavara, professor of botany and director of the botanical gardens at Cagliari, Sardinia. — Mr. Cecil B. Cramp- ton, of Manchester, assistant geologist on the Scottish Geological Survey, — Dr. C. Eckstein, professor of zodlogy in the Forestry School at Eberswald, Germany. — Dr. A. Fritsch, of Vienna, profes- Sor extraordinarius of botany at the University of Gratz. — Dr. Ernst Góppert, professor extraordinarius of anatomy in the University of Heidelberg. — Dr. L. E. Griffin, instructor in biology in the Women's College of the Western Reserve University. — Dr. Georg Gürich, Professor of geology and mineralogy at Breslau. — W. L. Jepson, assistant professor of botany in the University of California. — Her- mann J. Kolbe, director of the zoólogical collection at Berlin, titular 685 684 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. professor. — Dr. Kiister, of Munich, docent for botany in the Uni- versity of Halle. — Dr. J. Marquart, of Tübingen, assistant in the Leiden Ethnographical Museum. — Dr. O. Mattivolo, of Florence, professor of botany in the University of Turin. — Dr. Max Meyer, of Worcester, professor of psychology in the University of Missouri. — Dr. V. Schmidt, of Dorpat, privat docent for histology and embry- ology at the University of St. Petersburg. — Dr. Schmeisser, of Claus- thal, director of the Geological Institute of the School of Mines in Berlin. — James M. Tuomney, of Arizona, assistant professor of for- estry at Yale University. | Deaths : Adrien Franchet, botanist, in Paris, aged 66. — Dr. O. Hoffmann, lepidopterologist, at Regensburg, February 22, aged 64. — Dr. H. Kiürskow, editor of the Botanisk Tidsskrift, Copenhagen, March 18, aged 64. — Miss Mary H. Kingsley, the well-known Afri- can explorer, at Simon’s Bay, South Aftica, in June. — Dr. E. J. Lowe, a British naturalist, at Chepstow, March 10, — Carl Meinshausen, of the botanical museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg. — A. Pellerin, director of the botanical gardens at Nantes, France. —Mr. James Thompson, of Glasgow, a geologist, aged 77. — Pro- fessor W. Waagen, professor of paleontology in the University of Vienna, and formerly of the Indian Geological Survey, in Vienna, March 24, aged 59. — Dr. Hugo Zukal, professor extraordinary of botany in the Agricultural School at Vienna, February 15, aged 55. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) BELZUNG, A. Anatomie et aie toy Végétales. Paris, Félix Alcan, 1900. 8vo, iii + 1320 pp., 1700 figs. 20 fra Biological Lectures from the Marine Biological Laboratory of Woods Holl, 1899. Boston, Ginn & Company, 1900. 282 pp. DANA, Mrs. WILLIAM STAR. How to know the Wild Flowers. New edition with colored plates. New York, Scribners, 1900. 8vo, xxxix + 346 pp., 152 pls., some colored. $2.00. HARTERT, EnNsT. Das Tierreich. 2: -— Aves, Trochilide. Berlin, Paias 1900. ix + 254 pp. 16m KEELER, HARRIET L. Our Native Trees and how to identify them. New York, Scribners, 1900. 8vo, xxiii + 533 pp- plates and woodcuts. $2.50. WILLEY, ARTHUR. Zoölogical Results based on Material from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty ae etc. Part IV contains: Gardiner, J. S., On the Anatomy of a Supposed New Species of Coenopsammia from Lifu; Sharp, D., On the Insects from New Bink Borradaile, L. A., On the Shienatopodh and eie Collinge, W. E., Report on the Slugs; Phillips, E. G., Report on the Polyzoa ; Thornley, L. R., The Hydroid Zoóphytes; Lister, J. J., Astrosclera willey, and the Type of a New Family of Sponges; Pycroft, W. P., A Contribu- tion toward our Knowledge of the Pterylography of the Megapodii; Hickson, E. J., The Stolonifera and Alcymacea; Ashworth, J. H., Report on the Xeniidz. Cambridge, University Press, 1900. viii, 357-530 pp» Pls. XXXIV-LIII. 21/. ASHMEAD, W. H. On the Genera of the Chalcid Flies belonging to the Sub- rams Encyrtine. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxii, pp. 323-414. — MILLER, S. (editor). The Anatomy of Necturus maculatus, etc. eni deoa from III-XV. — WAsHBURN, F. L. Notes on the Spawning Habits of the Razor Clam. Report by state biologist of Oregon. 6 pp., 2 pls. Insect World. Vol. iv, No.5. May. Gifu, Japan. — Znter: national Monthly. June. — New York Zoilogical pna Fourth Annual Report, — Proceedings Bio- ip- ment Station, Bulletin Nos. 63-65. Contains: Stewart, J. H., and Hite, B. H., Commercial Fertilizers, pp. 115-152 and pp. 179-196; Sugar-Beet Investigation in 1899, pp. 153-178. (No. 403 was mailed July 25.) 685 GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY Kiener's bye General et Iconographie des — Vivantes. é par . FISHER, Aide-Naturaliste au m d'Histoire ; Na ae Dem ete in 165 parts, forming 12 velint: with 902 plates, superbly colored after the natural ee Edition on vellum paper. 4to. Published at 1800 francs, offered at $250. The above well-known work on shells and one of the finest ever produced — plates being accurately and carefully colored by competent artists — is especially worthy the attention of naturalists and librarians on ir uie of the low price at which it is offered, being less than half the cost “of i impor C. J. PRICE, IMPORTER OF FORBIGN BOOKS, 1004 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. DISSECTING MICROSCOPES of every size, style and price, suited for all kinds of work. A new series of lenses for dissecting work have recently been perfected by us which have unusually long working distance and large flat field. These lenses are offered at prices less than any lenses of equal quality heretofore in use. The new Dissecting Stands are all nickeled metal with glass stage. I@- Catalog free. Sample copy JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY on request. 25th : D. Mer cee m C ROCHESTER, N T ae PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF EL = V VERTEBRATA. — 2 the late PRoFESSOR E. e COPE 8vo. Cloth, 8148; paper, $1.00. BOSTON, GINN & COMPANY, AGENTS E ue The American Naturalist Special Offer ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, paying the full subscription price of $4.00 a year in advance, may obtain the back vol- umes for the years 1892, 1893, 1894; 1895, 1896, and 1897 upon the following terms: any. single volume will be sent upon.payment of $2.00; any two volumes for $3.50; any three volumes for $4.00; any four volumes for $4.50; and five or six volumes for $1.00 each, in addition to the regular subscription. This offer holds good until the stock of back volumes is exhausted. Volumes for 1898 and 1899, $4.00 each. Ginn & _ Company | | 9-13 Pasar. esit Boston VoL. XXXIV, NO. 405” x SEPTEMBER, 1900 - E: NATURALIST == A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS I. Unusual Modes of Breeding and Development among Anura |© ise LILIAN V. SAMPSON IL On the Intestine of Amia Calva... -. WILLIAM A, HILTON 71 7 III. Studies in Cranial Variation Dr. FRANK RUSSELL 737 Iv. certe North-American 1 Invertebrates. xu The Actini- V. Mendes saves ixi: General Biology, Woods Holl Lectures for. 1899, Animal and Plant Colors rs, The Plankton of the Elbe — Zoólogy, 24 New Edition of * Wilson's Cell,' 2 Intracellular Canals in Ganglion Cells, biata Anatomy, Elementary Physiolog : dan and- Ev Fishes, Part IV, The Monasci | tion, Relation between Nervous and Gland: |; : BOSTON, USA. tim = 2o E GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS a: The American N aturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: TRA WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard University Cambridge Dm. ALES HRDLICKA, M.D., New York Ci . D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Stanford Universi CHARLES A. KOFOID, PH.D., scales A Illinois, Urbana. J. G. NEEDHAM, Pu.D., Lake Forest Univers ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, PH.D., Princeton ondas . D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McGill Unter iiy, Montreal. S HM. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, New York. . E. RITTER, PED. University of Cali ifornia, Berkeley. —. THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthh magazine E Er Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading — and Petrography. The contents each month will consist gb 7 | si original articles g ac and discussions of new — — discoveries, reports of scientific expeditions, biographical notices of distinguished naturalists, or critical summaries of progress in some — line; and in addition to these there will be briefer articles on various = points of interest, editorial comments on scientific questions of the day, critical reviews of recent literature, and a final eS for Scorer news and personal notices. ia All naturalists who have an x à AIL man manuscripts, books ks for geriew, exchanges, eis should. e | oe sent to THE AMERICAN Na Cambridge, M. i em ccc AI business. communications Should be Sent. direct. to x - publishers. o Annaei nibii 94.00, n inh i, Singlo copies, 35 conte. Foreign uri E ue GINN & & COMPANY, PupLisHERS. = THE AMERICAN NATURALIST = NOL. XXXIV. September, T900. No. 405. UNUSUAL MODES OF BREEDING AND DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. LILIAN V. SAMPSON. It has been my good fortune to obtain from Jamaica a com- plete series of stages of the development of Hylodes martini- censis. The eggs of this frog are deposited on land, and the entire development takes place within the egg-membranes. The Stages that correspond to the tadpole of our common frogs are passed through inside the egg-membrane and a fully formed frog emerges at the time of hatching. In connection with the study of the development of Hylodes it has been ... Necessary to collect the descriptions that have been given at exceptional modes of development in the Anura. These . Accounts are often very fragmentary and widely scattered, so that no small labor has been necessary to bring together the literature of the subject. In the hope that a consecutive and full account of what is known may be of service to others, the following pages have been prepared. In the groups of fishes and Amphibia the eggs are gen- erally laid in large quantities and are left unprotected, but . there are other exceptional modes of propagation in species of 687 688 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. unrelated genera and families. In these cases protection of some sort is generally afforded to the young, or else they have become adapted to an unusual environment. As a result, modifications in the young have been produced, as well as changes in the instincts and even in the anatomy of the parents. Examples among fish are the various cases of nest builders among teleosts ; the cases of Bagrus, of the siluroid Chromis, and of other fish that carry the young in the mouth for a longer or shorter period ; the case of Aspredo levis, in which the female carries the eggs and young attached to pedi- cels on the abdomen; the cases where the male fish is pro- vided with a temporary or permanent pouch for the young, and the cases of partially or entirely viviparous forms among teleosts and selachians. Examples among Amphibia are the viviparous salamander ; Plethodon and Autodax, which lay their eggs on land; Desmognathus, Amphiuma, and the Coecilia, where the eggs are laid in damp places and are sur- rounded by the parent's body ; and a number of Anura, which are the subject of the present paper. For the sake of com- parison with what is to follow, the salient points in the devel- opment of the common frog may be briefly stated. The eggs are laid in large numbers in water, where the larvae develop. The newly hatched tadpole adheres at first to a fixed object by means of an adhesive gland, but after a few days it becomes free-swimming. It possesses at first external gills; these are replaced by internal gills, covered by the characteristic oper- culum ; the internal gills are in turn gradually replaced by lungs ; in the mean time the hind legs and later the fore legs develop ; the tail is absorbed, the shape and position of the mouth are changed, the larval * mouth-parts" are cast off, and the characteristically coiled intestine is shortened. The metamorphosis transforms the aquatic larva into the adult air- breathing form. This general account is true for all the common frogs and toads of North America and Europe, with the exception gt Alytes. The Anura of other regions, especially 1n the Tropics and the Southern Hemisphere, far from having unk form breeding habits and one mode of development, vary No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 689 in many ways. For the sake of completeness, a number of forms will be mentioned that are often referred to in connec- tion with those that have an unusual mode of development ; they are forms whose embryology has been but little, if at all, investigated, but whose development takes place under some- what unusual conditions, so that the embryology is a question of interest. The eggs of the Japanese frog, Rhacophorus schlegelii, are laid from the middle of April to the middle of May in excava- tions prepared by the female in the muddy banks of paddy- fields, ponds, lakes, etc., 10 to I5 cm. above the water line. As the eggs are laid, they are fertilized, and the gelatinous substance about them is aérated by a kneading motion of the hind legs of the female. Both adults usually escape from the nest by breaking a hole in the side of the bank exposed to the water. The frothy egg-mass hardens on the outside, and within it the tadpoles hatch. The substance about the eggs . gradually collapses, and in time flows into the water, carrying with it the tadpoles. The eggs are about I mm. in diameter, and devoid of pigment until the tadpole stage, when pigment begins to show in the pectoral region. The segmentation is Said to be unequal and holoblastic, though more nearly mero- blastic than in any other amphibian egg. The embryo is described as resembling a ganoid embryo, the head being flat upon the yolk, and the body wedged into the large yolk-mass. It is interesting to note that eggs taken from the nest in the mud invariably die if put into water. 4ggs that are said also to be those of Rhacophorus have been found in various localities in Japan, in a frothy, gelati- nous substance on the leaves of trees overhanging the water. How the eggs are deposited is not. explained. Two other frogs, from different parts of the world, leave their spawn on trees, in nests formed of leaves stuck together. One of these, the West-African Chiromantis guiniensis, is found ! For an index to the forms discussed, with summary of literature referring to each, see Appendix, p.714. References to reviews are given after special articles. * The segmentation of several other anuran eggs that contain much yolk has not as yet been described. 690 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. in Cameruns, Victoria; the other, Phyllomedusa iheringii, in the province of Rio Grande, Brazil In both cases hatched tadpoles have been seen, moving with considerable freedom, in the frothy mass in which the eggs are laid. The nest of the Phyllomedusa has an inferior opening over the water. It is believed that the tadpoles of Chiromantis are washed off the leaves by rain. Tadpoles, hatched in confinement, at first swam in the gelatinous substance which liquefied about them, and being transferred to water, they lived and developed. The account of Chiromantis opens with an exclamation on the remarkable character of the metamorphosis of the frog, and yet the tadpoles are described as having a “ rudder-tail, a clump of gills, etc., just like an ordinary tadpole," and they «developed (in water) in the usual way." The little Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis, in Paraguay, selects for the deposition of its eggs a single leaf on a plant near à pool, or over it, not more than two feet above the water. The female carries the male, until a suitable leaf is found ; then both frogs hold the tip of the leaf together with their hind legs, and in the funnel thus formed the eggs are deposited, the frogs moving up the leaf as the bottom is filled. One pair of frogs may make two nests with about 100 eggs in each. The eggs contain much yolk and measure 2 mm. in diameter. If put into water, the eggs die, but develop if they are simply kept moist. The tadpoles hatch and escape from the leaf into the water after six days ; if the nest has not been directly WE the pool, the tadpoles may move (assisted by a jumping motion) several inches along the ground during a shower. Segmentation is holoblastic, but not very regular ; topore closes and a new anus is formed. The embryo at first lies flat upon the yolk, but before the yolk is absorbed the embryo is modeled high up upon it, and the head and tail are entirely separate from it. The yolk is covered by a plexus of vitelline veins. Three visceral pouches, the rst, 2d, and 3d branchial, vais formed, and external gills appear first on the Ist branchial arch and later on the 2d. The first pair grow rapidly and soon become very long; branched filaments; the second pair the blas- No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 691 never develop to the same extent. No adhesive gland is formed. When the external gills are developed the tail has grown to a large size and has so ample a blood supply from the dorsal aorta and cutaneous veins that it is supposed to be an important organ of respiration. After hatching, the tip of the tail often vibrates rapidly, perhaps to insure the flow of a con- stant stream of water over the tail. Before hatching, the operculum grows back from the hyoid arch, and has a median spiraculum; the external gills are rapidly absorbed, and internal gills are developed. The stomo- deum breaks through, at the last stage in the egg, and the tadpole hatches as a free-swimming, transparent larva, with prominent eyes, and with no longer any trace of yolk. The lungs are present. On the day after hatching, pigment appears in the larva. Five weeks later the hind legs begin to develop, and the tail is absorbed very rapidly, until only a little of it remains. After the legs are formed the frog leaves the water, and the final absorption of the tail takes place on land. . The eggs of Hyla nebulosa, found in Rio de Janeiro, hatch in a frothy mass in the sheath of withered banana leaves, but not near a pool. Unlike the tadpoles of Chiromantis, which probably reach the water in the natural course of events, the tadpoles of Hyla nebulosa invariably die if they are transferred to water. The tadpoles of Cystignathus (Paludicola) gracilis in Brazil, and of a frog believed to be Rhacophorus eques in Ceylon, are Said to undergo part, at least, of their development out of Water. The eggs have been found in frothy masses on land, those of Cystignathus usually in the grass.in the neighbor- hood of pools. The adult Cystignathus, and on one occasion two young, were found under decaying trunks of trees, near dried ponds ; the larger of the two young possessed the vestige of a tail. The naturalist d’Orbigny found the same species in the Argentine Republic, where it occurs under pieces of wood, near the borders of lakes that are common in the sandy soil. The tadpoles of Rhacophorus were observed superficially and are Said to resemble those of the ordinary frog. 1 For further details, see Budgett (99). 692 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. The adult of the Brazilian frog, Cystizgnathus mystaceus, in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, never goes to water, even to spawn. In the breeding season it prepares a hole under a stone or decayed wood, near the edge of a pool, but above the water line; here the eggs are deposited in comparatively small numbers. The frothy substance about them probably serves as food for the tadpoles, since it diminishes in quantity as they grow. In a dry season the tadpoles may attain great size in the nest, but ordinarily they are washed into the pool, when, after a rain, it overflows. They probably do not go through the entire metamorphosis in the nest, however long they may be detained in it, for tadpoles that had grown there to a considerable size still possessed tails. During develop- ment in the nest, external gills were observed; the tail was thought to be not so powerful as that of Rana esculenta, and is at first light in color, like the egg, but later becomes pig- mented dorsally. Another Brazilian nest builder is Hy/a faber, which is common in Rio de Janeiro, especially in the mountain regions. The female constructs for the eggs a shallow vessel of mud, about four inches high and a foot in diameter. The nest is carefully built on the bottom of a pool, with its edge projecting above the water. Similar nests have been found in Rio Grande do Sul! and there it has been observed that, if the pool dries, the tadpoles in their little lagoons perish, while the young of Cystignathus mystaceus survive, huddled together in the frothy substance in their nest in the bank. The eggs of Cystignathus typhonius, a frog common in Porto Rico, have been found under conditions similar to those described in the case of C. mystaceus. The tadpoles swam when put into water. The appearance of the hind legs and of the fore legs and the disappearance of the tail were observed. In Ceylon, a green frothy spawn, about the size of egg, has been found sticking to the walls of cisterns, to per- pendicular rocks of quarries over water, and to the damp a crow's o Grande do Sul that such ut there is good reason tO rog has been 1 It was formerly supposed by the observer in Ri nests were constructed by Cystignathus ocellatus, b suppose that Z/y/a faber is the artisan. In Rio de Janeiro this f observed in the very act of building, which takes place at night. No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 693 trunks of trees. After some discussion it has been decided that the spawn is that of Polypedates maculatus. A very similar account is given of the blue spawn of Rana temporalis, also found in Ceylon. The two descriptions agree so closely that one is led to suspect that the two cases may be one and the same. The tadpoles of a Brazilian frog, Hyla (Ololygen) abbreviata, have been found in cracks of rocks. The abdomen of the tadpole is flat and serves as a sucker, so that if the perpen- dicular rock is slightly moist, the tadpole can move rapidly over it without legs. The tail is round, with a fin only at the end; on the ventral side the fin is anteriorly converted into a sole, which probably aids the tadpole in adhering to the rock. The mouth is large and the lips are unusually developed. It is said that the frogs, for a time after metamorphosis, are the color of the rocks. Nothing is recorded as to where the eggs are laid, or how they develop. The breeding habits of Pipa americana, commonly known as the “Surinam toad," have been a subject of observation, still more of discussion, from time to time for more than a century. It has been found in British as well as in Dutch Guiana. The frogs are said to be essentially aquatic, and rarely to leave the water. The eggs are laid in the dry sea- son, when the temperature is exceedingly high. The earlier accounts of spawning are probably based on the observations made by Fermin in Surinam, and published in 1765. He states that the eggs are laid on the sand and are placed by the male on the back of the female; a few minutes after fertilization the female returns with them to the water and swims off. The Spawning has recently been described in a different way, as : Observed on one occasion in the Zoólogical Gardens of London. The animals remained in the water, the oviduct was protruded into a bladder-like pouch, turned up over the back; the male clasped the female, and pushed the eggs out of the bladder, leaving them evenly distributed over the back of the female. It is supposed that the eggs are fertilized in the ovipositor. : 1A few embryos of Pipa have been in the possession of the Warren Anatom- ical Museum of the Harvard Medical School. _ 694 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The dorsal skin of the female thickens about the eggs, until each is enclosed in a dermal “ cell" or sac, which is finally covered by an “operculum.” Leydig (96) regards the cells as modified glands, and, in corroboration of his view, states that other dermal glands are not found where the cells are formed; he regards the cap of the cell as a secretion of the gland, while formerly it was thought to be a hardened portion of the gelat- inous substance around the egg. Whatever the origin of the cells, they are temporary structures which form in response to the stimulus of the eggs; the number of eggs carried by one frog has been variously estimated, and may be more than one hundred. The eggs develop entirely within the dermal cells, and Fer- min has observed that they remain about eighty-two days on the back of the parent. I have found no direct statement as to whether the time of hatching is coincident with the time of leaving the dermal sac, except in Bronn's Thierreich. There it is said that *the hatched young find shelter and nourish- ment on the parent's back, until after completed metamor- phosis," implying that the eggs are hatched some time before the young escape. The only description of development, based on the observa- tion of many embryos, is one by Jeffries Wyman (54), giving the external characters of three stages. The limbs develop early ; even in the youngest stage, where there were three pairs of external gills, the fore and hind legs were present, in the condition of knobs at the sides of the embryo, the posterior said to be unconnected with the trunk. There were at this stage vitelline vessels, supplying the large yolk-mass. The head was broad and flat, with conspicuous cerebral vesicles and prominent pigmented eyes; the spinal cord was closed. Later (in the second stage), when the external gills had disappeared, fringed branchial arches were seen by removing the dermal folds which concealed them ; the opercular folds opened by a small branchial fissure on each side of the neck, and judging from the figures, did not cover the anterior legs. Rudiments of feet were present on all the extremities. It 1s No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 695 said that the whole yolk-mass was invested with a “tunic” and converted into a spiral intestine, returning to the trunk through the middle of the coil! The nostrils in this stage were seen as round terminal depressions. In the last stage toes were formed; the skin was furnished with papilla and protuberances ; the intestine had increased in length and was still coiled; the mouth, as in the preceding stages, was placed under the head, at a little distance from the anterior end. Another account states that the horny jaws are not developed. The tail in all embryonic stages was provided with the usual muscles as if for swimming, and was folded against the side of the egg. Wyman shows that, after the supply of gelatinous substance around the egg has been ex- hausted, the tadpole still continues to increase in size, and he concludes that it must therefore grow at the expense of mate- rial from the mother, probably by a secretion of the wall of the cell. In summing up the development of Pipa, Wyman notes that the embryo goes through the usual metamorphosis, having internal and external gills and lungs, also a tail adapted to swimming, although the gills and tail are never used as in the frog. The external branchiz are lost at a very early period, and the tail is absorbed before the animal escapes from the back of the parent. The folds of skin covering the internal gills differ from the operculum of the frog in that they open on both sides, and the anterior legs are not covered by them. These relations are similar to those in the larva of Dactylethra, the other representative of the primitive suborder of Aglossa. The Presence of external gills has been doubted at various times, but the balance of evidence and the last word on the subject scem to show that they exist for a short period. An early writer, according to subsequent quotations, affirmed that the tail is devoid of pigment, and believed that it is an embryonic breathing organ. This idea was entertained at a time when the presence of gills was not known; it is not in accordance with Wyman’s account, nor with Spallanzani's (1785), who concluded, after a careful examination, that the tail does not differ from that of the ordinary tadpole. Furthermore, 696 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIV, Bronn and Balfour state that the tail is absorbed before hatch- ing, and Bronn has implied, as already mentioned, that the hatched young remain for a time on the parent's back. If these statements be true, and if it were also true that the tail assumes the function of respiration, then the animal would be deprived of the embryonic breathing organ some time before it escapes from the cell on the parent’s back. Alytes obstetricans 1 is unique among European frogs in not laying its eggs in water. It occurs in various parts of Europe, such as the Rhine region in Germany, the neighborhood of Marbourg, Paris, and Liège. It has been said that it lives only in regions of hilly ground, where there are clear springs ; but Cope (85) records that it is common in dry places near Berlin. The frog digs skillfully, and remains underground by day, but at night it is active in the search for food. The eggs are laid from March to June (according to locality), in a double string of gelatinous substance. The male loops the eggs about its hind legs in the form of a figure 8, and thus carries them, for about three weeks, when the young have reached a stage of development far beyond that of the typical tadpole at the time of hatching. At the end of the period the male takes the eggs to water, and there the tadpoles leave the egg-membrane, and at once swim about actively. They are said to winter in the tadpole stage, although Claus (66) has affirmed that the metamorphosis is completed in a month. When the tadpole leaves the egg, the external gills are already reduced, and the internal gills are fully developed ; the oper- cular opening is median ; the tail is ready for swimming ; me lungs are developed ; the horny jaws, teeth, and fringed lips are formed (these are said to appear later than in the ordinary frog) ; the intestine is coiled, and the liver is present ; the head kidney is in process of degeneration, and the mesonephros par- tially developed ; the legs are not formed. It has been sug- gested that the lungs are used before hatching, because alr bubbles are given off as soon as the tadpoles reach the water. 1 A complete account of Vogt’s ('42) article is not given here. Gasser (82) also describes details not mentioned here, especially in regard to the blastopore the germ layers, and the development of the pronephros and kidneys. No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 697 The egg contains an unusual amount of yolk, and is not pigmented ; the segmentation was formerly thought to be meroblastic, but it has recently been described as similar to that of Bombinator. The embryo is said to be ciliated even on the head. Certain peculiarities in the development of the alimentary canal have been recorded. The cavity is at first wide, and in the foregut and hindgut it remains in this condi- tion, the anterior end having the widest lumen ; in the middle region the ventral yolk-mass is raised in a ridge, toward the dorsal wall, so that the midgut is, for a time, nearly or en- tirely barricaded. An early description seems to indicate that the cesophagus is at one time closed by yolk-cells, as in the frog. The liver is said to develop independently, and shortly to acquire an opening into the alimentary canal. It is also said that the vitelline veins are at first not connected with the liver, but pass into it later as the portal vein. The lungs arise as solid masses of cells in the cesophageal region, and subse- quently become hollow. An adhesive gland is not mentioned. Before the gills develop, four gill-slits break through; the external gills are then represented by a single pair, on the third visceral arch; they grow to an unusual length during the life in the egg, and are branched eight or ten times. These delicate plumes are very highly vascular and therefore bright red, and are easily seen through the egg-membrane. When the tadpoles are about ready to leave the egg, the hatching may be hastened or retarded within the limits of two or three days, by bringing the eggs into water a little before or after the normal time. Tadpoles that were put into water long before the usual time, for example when the external gills were fully. developed, fruitlessly turned within the egg-mem- brane, and finally died.! On the other hand, Agassiz tried without success the converse experiment of raising the newly hatched young in air. _ Some interesting facts have been discovered in connection ! The experiment of first cutting away the egg-membrane and then leaving the tadpoles in water was apparently not tried. Compare experiments on the embryos of the viviparous Salamandra atra. Those taken from the uterus, if tended with Breat care, cast off their gills in water and develop a new set. Chauvin (77). 698 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. with the Venezuelan frog VNototrema oviferum (Notodelphys ovipara, Opisthodelphys oviferum), found at Puerto Cabello. The female is provided with a large dorsal pouch, which opens to the outside at its posterior end. It has been regarded as an invagination of the skin, and unlike the dorsal cells of Pipa it is a permanent organ. Weinland (54) has described fifteen embryos that were contained in the pouch of one specimen, and had all reached the same point in development. They measured 18 mm. from head to tail, and were folded over a large yolk-mass, that formed about seven-eighths of the egg. The embryos were dark with pigment, but over the yolk there were only scattered pigment cells. The rudiments of body muscles are described as present beneath the skin about the yolk. The head was well defined and of the shape peculiar to the adult, with prominent eyes and semicircular nasal open- ings. The mouth was ventral near the anterior edge of the head, and measured little less than one-half the width of the head. It is said in the course of the description that the horny jaws were not developed, although at another place in the same account the embryo is paralleled, in respect to the mouth, with the newly hatched Alytes, where the tadpole mouth-parts are present. : In the embryo of Nototrema no adhesive gland was found, and the tongue was not developed. The fore legs measured about 2 mm. and were concealed beneath the operculum; the hind legs were twice as long, the toes were forming. The tail measured 5 mm. in length and 2 mm. in width, and with the hind legs was laid against the side of the egg. The heart was three-chambered, and the aortic arches separated not far from it. The dorsal aorta, posterior vena cava, and portal vein from the gut to the liver were large vessels. The lungs were well developed. The three-lobed liver, the gall bladder, and large pancreas were present, the pancreas surrounded by à coil of gut, leading to the stomach portion. The foregut and also the hindgut were thick-walled and appeared white, while the gut between them was formed of coils packed with yellow yolk. The pronephros had entirely disappeared, and the fat bodies and the kidneys were present. No. 405. ] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 699 The most remarkable structures were the gills. Three vis- ceral arches were present, and according to one statement three gill-slits (three slits appear in the figures, but in another part of the description it is said that the first and third arches have each only one free edge — a condition that would admit of only two slits). The gills consisted of a pair of very thin bell-shaped membranes, each gill connected with the gill arches by two filaments, one ending on the first and one on the second arch. This peculiar arrangement led Weinland to the conclu- sion that the bells represent two gills fused together. He regarded them, in function at least, as external gills. On the free edge of the third arch was found the rudiment of what was supposed to be an internal gill, which suggested that the bell-gills are temporary larval organs. The bell-gills were veined by a capillary network, and the vessels were filled with blood, so that the gills were probably already functioning, although pressed close to the embryo in the egg; it was only after floating them out in water that their windflower shape and large size were discovered. The gill measured across, when expanded, not less than three-quarters of the diameter of the egg. The gill filaments were provided with striped muscle fibres; these muscles, Weinland argued, could not be of use in the egg, but the gills may be retained a short time after hatch- ing, when the muscles might function in water, whether the _ tadpole remained within the pouch or escaped. Weinland knew nothing of the subsequent history of the tadpoles, as to when they hatch and whether they ever live in water, either free or within the pouch; Boulenger makes some unqualified statements in regard to these questions. He has noted the occurrence of eggs in the dorsal pouch of the female of Nototrema fissipes ; he observed a single specimen, ? which there were sixteen ova, measuring each 10 mm. in diameter. «From the size and small number of the ova,” he writes, « it may be safely predicted that the young undergo the whole of the metamorphosis, within the pouch, as in Nototrema oviferum, which is the nearest ally of Mototrema fissipes” Of ye species of Nototrema found in Ecuador and Peru, also pro- vided with pouches, Boulenger says in an earlier work (82), 700: THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. “In Nototrema testitudineum, as in Nototrema oviferum, the young undergo their complete metamorphosis in the maternal pouch; while in Vototrema marsupiatum they leave the pouch in the tadpole state." The tadpoles of JVozotrema marsupiatum, and those of another species, /Vozotrema plumbeum, are set free in water, according to Werner ('98). Yet another frog of the tropical Andes, Amphignathodon giintheri, is said to have a dorsal pouch, which is probably a receptacle for eggs. The female of a small Venezuelan species, Vototrema pyg- maum, bears from four to seven young in a dorsal pouch, which splits open when the development of the tadpoles is complete. The pressure of the active young starts the splitting of the pouch at the slit-shaped posterior opening, and the whole pouch is laid open in the middle line. The pocket is perhaps formed from lateral folds after the eggs are placed on the back, and is possibly not closed again after the young escape, but is formed anew at the next breeding season; or the pouch is perhaps never formed a second time. Observations on a number of tadpoles of Rhinoderma dar- winit have disclosed some of the facts of the development of this interesting frog. It was first discovered on the voyage of the Beagle, in the shady forest of the province of Valdiera in Chile. It was formerly supposed to be oviparous, but, in reality, the tadpoles develop in an enormously expanded gular pouch, which covers nearly the entire ventral side of the male frog. One account tells of fifty embryos in the pouches of five adults, and a much later account describes certain features of eleven tadpoles of one pouch. The tadpoles from one adult are not equally developed. : The youngest tadpoles described were thought to be just hatched. They measured 4 mm. to the tail; the alimentary canal was not differentiated, but contained much yolk. In all later specimens the alimentary canal was short, coiled, and of a yellow color, due to the presence of yolk. No external gills were observed, nor horny mouth-parts. Internal gills are not mentioned, although the anterior legs in young stages are con- cealed beneath a fold of skin (suggesting the operculum) : No. 405. DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. OI 7 The hind legs develop before the fore legs and in late stages the feet are webbed. The tail is weak and small, and in the youngest embryos lies along the middle line of the egg-sphere. The oldest tadpoles had lost the tail, but at a period before its absorption both fore and hind legs were present and free. The adults of Hy/a gældii have been found in Rio de Janeiro in water, contained in the central cup of certain Bromeliacee, and also on dry bamboo near Bromelia. The dorsal skin of the female is slightly raised around the edge of the back, form- ing a shallow cup, where the eggs are carried. In one case the dorsal vessel contained twenty-six pale eggs. Judging from the figures, the embryos, in external appearance, resemble . to a remarkable degree those of Hylodes martinicensis. They are unpigmented and are bent around a large yolk-mass, 4 mm. in diameter. The head, which is large and flat, and the eyes may be seen through the egg-membrane. No traces of gills were discovered. The accounts vary as to the condition of the embryo when hatched. According to Goeldi (95), frogs that hatched in confinement possessed both pairs of legs and small tails; the young jumped about actively and pre- ferred not to stay in water. No details are recorded, but it is implied that the development is abridged and direct. Werner (98) affirms that the tadpoles are ready to swim when hatched, and that the mother finds water to deposit them in. According to Fritz Müller's description in a letter to Darwin, the tadpole which he observed did not possess fore legs until two weeks after hatching; he saw no external branchiz or opening that might lead to internal branchiz. : Another mode of carrying eggs by the female frog is seen in the case of Rhacophorus reticulatus (Polypedates reticu- latus). A single specimen, which was captured at a high ele- vation in Ceylon, carried twenty-one ova adhering firmly to the abdomen, _It is uncertain whether the frog was caught in water ?r on land, and nothing has been noted as to the development. An interesting adaptation in a dry climate is recorded of à Species of Spea (hammondii ?) in western North America. The eggs are deposited in rain pools, which collect in the dry atroyas and in the low lands. The tadpoles acquire their legs 79? THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. very early, and are soon able to escape from the muddy fluid; thus, by accelerated metamorphosis, the chances of succumb- ing because of drought are lessened. Lythodites latrans, which lives in fissures of limestone precipices of western Texas, is also supposed to deposit its eggs in pools of rain water. The eggs of Phryniscus nigricans, in Paraguay, are laid singly, in temporary pools in grassy ground. “The eggs and larvee do not seem to differ in any great degree from those of Rana. There is, however, a very large yolk plug, which remains evident after the closure of the neural groove.” The develop- ment is very rapid, and, within twenty-four hours after segmen- tation begins, the tadpoles are hatched and wriggling about. They are probably washed into deeper pools. Another case of rapid development is that of Paludicola fuscomaculata, also found in Paraguay. It spawns in January in shallow pools, and the eggs float on the surface. They meas- ure I mm., are unpigmented, and have very little yolk. The tadpoles hatch within eighteen to twenty-four hours after seg- mentation begins, and hang in the water from the floating froth. * Many of the processes of development are blurred and, as it were, hurried over. The external gills never reach a high state of development." Eggs which are thought to develop like those of Paludicola are said by the natives of Paraguay to belong to the frog called by them * Po it," more scientifically Eugystoma ovale. Eggs and larve are found in froth in holes in the ground, beneath fallen tree trunks. The nests * were a most ingenious CON- trivance for collecting water and keeping the eggs and larvae at least moist between the storms of the wet season. They were always found within the forest belts which lay on the highest ground." The larva “would exist for a very long time in a small quantity of water without increasing in size, but when removed to a tank they grew enormously and Very soon left the water." A curious indifference to water has been observed 1 case of Sea bombifrons, near Market Lake, in Idaho. tadpoles, still “in the free-swimming condition," but en n the The tirely No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 793 air-breathers, were seen quite out of reach of the water, in small spaces which they had cleared in the ground. The legs were full-grown, the tail undiminished, the jaws toothless and cartilaginous and ‘some quite larval in form." Two species of Dendrobates resort to a device by which it is supposed that the young are transferred from one pool to another. The accounts are sometimes referred to as if they related to a single species. The species closely resemble each other, except in size; the larger, Dendrobates trivittatus, is found in Dutch Guiana, the smaller, Dendrobates braccatus,? occurs in western Brazil. These frogs and Phyllobates trini- tatus from Trinidad and Venezuela have the habit of carrying their tadpoles attached to the back, whether by suckers or by a viscid secretion from the parent, or by both, has not been determined. It has been observed in the case of D. trivittatus that the frog spawns in water, and that the free-swimming tadpoles attach themselves to the parent. They adhere firmly, since they were not brushed off when the parent was hotly pursued and crawled rapidly through the grass; the frog on this occasion was found far from water, and emerged from the grass and bushes freshly wet with rain. D. braccatus is found on a table-land where, even in the wet season, the water may dry off in two or three days. The tadpoles of both species possess the usual larval organs, including the horny mouth-parts. The intestine of the tadpole of D. trivittatus is said to be shorter and less coiled than in the ordinary tadpole, and to contain yolk. In the case of Phyllobates it is the male frog that trans- Ports the young, but the sex of the frog is not recorded in either case of Dendrobates. The tadpoles of Phyllobates are ranoid, and the tail is about twice as long as the body; the anus is dextral, and the spiraculum sinistral. ! Dendrobates trivittatus has been wrongly called by one observer (Wyman, '59) Hylodes lineatus. ? Smith, in describing Dendrobates braccatus, reports that the natives of Brazil brought him from the Santarem forest a similar, though larger, frog and affirmed that, like Dendrobates braccatus, it transports its young. This may have been Dendrobates trivittatus, which is described by Wyman and others, since the differ- ence between the two species is one of size. 794 THE AMERICAN .NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. A case which resembles Phyllobates and the like, superficially at least, has been discovered by Brauer (98) in the Seychelles. Arthroleptis seychellensis inhabits a forest about 500 feet above the sea, where the streams are swift and there is no still water. The frogs are found in decayed trunks and among damp leaves on the ground, and on one occasion, late in August, a number of eggs were found under leaves from which the adult had been frightened away. The eggs were not in- cluded in a common gelatinous covering; they hatched in a glass, and the tadpoles immediately stuck to the glass by their abdomens. Tadpoles of about the same stage of development were also found adhering to the back and sides of an adult. The tadpoles had prominent eyes, mouth well under the ante- rior end of the head, short hind legs, fore legs concealed beneath an operculum, rudder tails more than twice as long as the body, and a large amount of yolk bulging out on either side of the body. No opening was found to the operculum, and no internal gills, nor were the rudiments of lungs discov- ered. The outer layer of epithelial cells on the abdomen was columnar, making the epithelium appreciably thicker there than elsewhere; gland cells were wanting on the abdomen only, though a slimy secretion covered the surface. An adult carrying older tadpoles was found at another time. Gland cells were present on the abdomens of these tadpoles; the anterior legs had come through the skin, the toes were found . on all the feet, the length of the tail was not reduced in pro- portion to the body, and much yolk was still present. Rudi- ments of lungs were found, and the entodermic epithelium had differentiated from the yolk. ; Brauer concludes that the eggs are covered with leaves by the parent (probably the male), that the young, when hatched, place themselves, with the assistance of their tails, on the parent's back, where they adhere partly by suction, partly by aid of the roughness of the parent's skin, and partly by a secre tion, largely from the adult. Finally, the tadpoles are not attached to the parent for transportation to water, but undergo a large part of their development on its back. P : : i Hylodes martinicensis has been described as the ''coqu No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 795 found on several of the islands of the West Indies. Super- ficial descriptions of the eggs are recorded by two writers (Bello, '71; Peters, '76). The eggs were found on -damp leaves of plants, and near them was the female, apparently on guard. The frogs hatched in the adult form after fourteen days. The embryo is described as wrapped about the yolk, like a mammal. On the seventh or eighth day both pairs of legs were present, and the tail, eyes, and pulsating blood vessels were observed. On the twelfth the characteristic toes and suckers had appeared. The tail was turned downward, with the broad surface pressed against either the right or left side of the embryo. There was no trace of gills or gill-slits, but the tail was so fully supplied with blood that it was regarded, without doubt, as a breathing organ. On the fourteenth day newly hatched embryos were 5 mm. in length, and the tail, Which measured about 1.8 mm., was absorbed during the course of the day. In 1873 there appeared in several magazines various ac- counts, by Bavay, of a frog which he called Hylodes martini- censis. The accounts differ in some respects from those of the other observers of Hylodes, but are not altogether consistent among themselves, so that Bavay’s observations were probably not very accurate. He affirms that in one locality, at least, spawning does not take place during the dry season, or even after lack of rain in the wet season; the eggs are always found in damp places, under stones or with decaying leaves. Instead of fourteen days, he allows only ten or eleven for hatch- ing, and states that the frog goes through the usual metamor- phosis within the egg. The eyes, legs, tail, and feet he describes at a period earlier than that in which they were found by the other observers, but in regard to.the tail his own accounts vary; he stated at first that it disappeared two days before hatching, but afterwards announced in a published let- ter that he found a vestige of a tail in tadpoles just hatched, when they were hardened in glycerine. The vitellus, accord- ing to his observations, was at first connected with the embryo by a cord, for the embryo on the fourth day moved independ- ently of the yolk-mass, although at the same time both 706 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. rotated together in the egg. On the sixth day the yolk was covered with a vascular network, and on the ninth it had been incorporated in the body. On the fourth day, when the embryo was turning actively, the heart was beating, and on either side of it there was a trace of a gill; a vein and artery were seen running parallel in the gill. In the course of the next few days the gills had first increased and become blood- red, then diminished, and on the seventh day only a red spot remained, which disappeared on the ninth. Bavay’s observa- tions were made in Guadeloupe, and it is possible that on this island there is a frog differing from Hylodes martinicensis in the points indicated by Bavay’s description. A study of two stages of the excretory system of Hylodes led Selenka (82) to the opinion that the embryonic and per- manent kidneys develop earlier than in the frog, producing a condition which approaches that of reptiles. It would be interesting to know something of the develop- ment of Hylella platycephala, a frog which occurs in southern Mexico. It is said to lay its eggs in the axils of the leaves of Tillandsia, where the frog ‘undergoes its metamorphosis, high above the ground.” 1 Whether the entire development occurs within the egg membrane, and whether water continually remains on the plant is not stated. A short note on a frog, supposed to be Hylodes lineatus, records some evidence that its embryos undergo their entire development within the egg-membrane. The eggs have been found in Peru under grass far from water, and the embryo not yet hatched possessed no trace of a tail, but well-developed feet provided with suckers. m The young of Rana opisthodon hatch in the adult condition. Eggs were collected in crevices of rocks close to a stream on a peak of one of the Solomon Islands. The eggs measured from 6 to 10 mm. in diameter. In the younger stages the 7 1 Andrews ('92) reports that the eggs of a tree frog in Jamaica have been gos in the water at the bases of the leaves of epiphytic bromelias. They sr observed in early stages of development, at the end of May, in the region Mandeville, No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 707 embryo was folded around a large yolk-mass in the same way as Hylodes martinicensis. The tail was entirely wanting in the more advanced specimens. No traces of gills were found, but on each side of the body were several transverse folds of skin that were thought to be respiratory organs. The legs were well developed ; the anterior were shorter than the posterior. The tip of the upper lip was furnished with a small conical protuberance, which in one case projected through the envelope of the egg, suggesting that its function is to perforate the egg-membrane. The South African frog Dactylethra capensis, like Pipa ameri- cana, the other representative of the Aglossa, lives entirely in water; the tadpoles of the two forms agree in having the fore limbs free from the operculum and in having two spiraculae. Leslie (90) writes of Dactylethra (called by him Xeno- pus): “Its habits are essentially aquatic, the animal never leaving the water except in search of places where food or shelter is better supplied. Unlike other frogs, it feeds in the water, on insects, small fishes, or even young and larve of its own kind, and is apparently unable to feed out of that ele- ment. The mode of eating is by forcing the prey into the mouth by means of the hands, which act as a pair of claspers; the deglutition always takes place under water. Locomotion on land is by difficult and awkward crawling and leaping. But Xenopus is a most admirable swimmer, and remarkable for the manner in which it remains poised for a long time immediately under the surface of the water, with the nostrils only exposed. The whole structure of the animal denotes its thoroughly aquatic habits — the broadly webbed toes, the smooth, slimy skin with its symmetrically disposed muciferous tubules ; there are no eyelids proper, but merely the transparent nictitating membrane, moving up and down ; and the nostrils have a disk- like internal valve. When at rest, Xenopus never assumes a sitting posture like other frogs and toads, and the back never appears humped." The €ggs (measuring about one-sixteenth inch in diameter) are laid singly and attached to water-plants or stones, each 708 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV. surrounded by a mucilaginous covering. They are at first very slightly pigmented. Tadpoles in the Zoólogical Gardens in London hatched in about two days; the head of the newly hatched tadpole is broad and flat ; the fin is developed on the tail to the posterior end, and there is no chimzroid lash as Parker (77), and subsequently the text-books, have figured; the intes- tine is coiled as usual. Thetadpoles in confinement had access to vegetable food, but subsisted entirely on an animal diet. A single ventral adhesive gland persists for a long time and at an early period occupies the whole ventral surface of the head. The buccal cavity is open to the exterior the day after hatch- ing. No jaws or beak develop. A few days after hatching a pair of tentacles develop on either side at the angles of the jaw; one of them may become bifurcated and each is provided with two channels through which the blood streams. External gills are not wholly wanting (as was formerly thought), for two days after hatching, when the operculum is commencing as à free fold, there are vascular lamelle on the first three bran- chial arches. The gill-slits open later than the mouth; the hyoid cleft opens last by a tube into the first branchial cleft, a long way from its opening to the exterior. At the same time that the gill-slits open, a tufted filtering apparatus is developed from the branchial arches; this becomes vascular and must, It is thought, be respiratory, as no internal gills develop. Hee opercular folds do not cover the arms, but open by a slit on each side, anterior to the arm. The spiracule persist for a long time. The pronephros develops as in the ordinary frog. The vascular system develops as described by Maurer for Rama esculenta. à It is evident from the foregoing review that many points Mn the embryology of the Anura remain to be investigated; 1t 18 not, however, surprising that the work has been left undone, when we consider the geographical, the climatic, and other difficulties attendant upon making observations and collecting material. GERMANTOWN, PENN., 1900. No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 709 LITERATURE. '92 ANDREWS, E. A. Notes on the Fauna of Jamaica. Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. Vol. xi, p. 75. ^ '85 BALFOUR, F. M. Comparative Embryology. 1885. '96 BARTLETT, A. D. On the Breeding of Pipa americana. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London. May, 1896, p. 595. Abstr. in Zool. Anz. Jhrg. xix, p. 276. "73a Bavay, M. Note surles embryons de l'Hylodes martinicensis. Extrait d'une lettre. Compt. Rend. T. lxxvii, p. 788. "73b*! Rev. des sci. nat. T. i, No. 3, p. 285. "73c Extrait de '73b. Journ. de Zool. T. ii, p. 1 "73d Note sur l'Hylodes martinicensis et ses metamorphoses. (Extrait) Note publiée à Basse-Terre Guadeloupe en 1872. Ann, des sci. T. xvii; Article 16. "73e Note by Meyer in Zool. Garten. Jhrg. xiv, p. 3 '94 BEDDARD, F. E. Notes on the Tadpole of Xenopus eis (Dac eth capensis). Proc. Zodl. Soc. London. 1894, p. 10 71 BELLO v Espinosa. Zool. Notizen aus Puerto “ee Nach dem Spanischen frei bearbeitet von Herrn E. von Martens in Berlin. Zool. Garten. Jhrg. xii, p. 351. ‘36 BERTHOLD. Notodelphys ovipara. L’institut. 1856, p. 286. .'95 BOETTGER, O. Neue Beobachtungen über Brutpflege bei anouren Batrachiern. Zool. Centralblatt. Bd. ii, p. 614. '80 BOULENGER, G. A. Reptiles et batraciens recueillis par M. Emile de Ville dans les Andes de l'équateur. Bul. Soc. Zool. de France. 1880, p. 41. '81 Sur les larves des genres Pipa et Dactylethra. Bull. Soc. Zool. de France. T. vi, p. 27. 82 Catal. of Batrachia salientia. P. 417. '83 — . On a Collection of F rogs from Yurimaguas, Huallaga River, Northern Peru. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London. 1883, p. ‘86a Appendix to Ihering, '86. (A classification of Anura based on breeding habits, with references.) '86b On the Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands. Trans. Zobl. Soc. London. Vol. xii, p. 51. '88a On the * Nursing "-habits of Dendrobates, as observed by A. Kappler. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6.) Vol i, p. 454- '88b On Some Reptiles and Batrachians from Iguarasse, Pernam- buco. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6.) Vol. ii, p. 42. 88c — On the « Nursing "-habits of Dendrobates. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (6.) Vol. ii, p. 122. Articles which I have been unable to find are marked with an asterisk throughout the list. 710 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. '95 BOULENGER, G. A. On the * Nursing "-habits of Two South American Frogs. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 1895, p. 209. '98 — —- The Tailless Batrachians of Europe. London. 1897-98. '98 BRAUER, AuG. Ein neuer Fall von Brutpflege bei Fróschen. Zool. Jahrb. Abdth. für Syst., Bd. xii, Heft 1, p. 89. "J8 BREHM. Thierleben. Bd.i, Abth. 3. 1878. "8 BRONN, H. G. Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreiches. Wirbel- thiere. Bd. vi, Abth. 2, pp. 533, 565. '75 BucunHorLz, R. Ueber die in West-Afrika gesammelten Amphibien. (Eierlegen von Chiromantis guineensis.) Berliner Monatsber. 1875, p. 204. Plate. Laichmasse von Chiromantis guineensis. Berliner Monats- ber. 1876, p. Gras, Fhte H, '99 BupGETT, J. S. Notes on the Batrachians of the Paraguayan Chaco, with observations upon their breeding habits and development, espe- cially with regard to Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis Cope. Also a description of a new genus. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. Vol. xlii, Pt 3, D. 305. 1788* CAMPER. Pipa americana. Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gottingen. Cl. Phys. Bd. ix, p. 135. '77 CHAUVIN, MARIĘ, v. Ueber das Anpassungsvermégen der Larven von Salamandra atra. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. Bd. xxix, p. 324 morphose dieses Thieres. Sitzungsber. der Gesellschaft sur Beförderung der gesammten Naturwiss. 1866, p. 5. Dv '65 Cope, E. D. Sketch of the Primary Groups of Batrachia salientia. Nat. Hist. Rev. 1865, p. 109. : t. Sci. Phila. '66 Genera of Arciferous Anura. . Journ. Acad. Na (2.) Vol. vi, p. 85. '85 Batrachia. Standard Nat. Hist. Vol. iii, p. 322. : '87 Synopsis of the Batrachia and Reptilia obtained by H. H. Smith in the Province of Mato Grasso, Brazil Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. Vol. xxiv, p. 44. '89 — — The Batrachia of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat, Mus No. 34 T '94 The Batrachia and Reptilia of the U. P. West Indian Expedition of 1890 and 'gt. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila. 1894, P. ee '76 DE L'ISLE. Moeeurs et accouchement de l'Alytes obstetricans. Sci. Nat. T. iii, Article 7. iin] 1741 Demours. Crapaud mile accoucheur de la Fénelle. (Alyt Mém. Acad. Sci. Paris. 1741, p. 28. '5& DuMÉRIL ET BIBRON. Erpétologie générale. 71 ESPADA, JIMENEZ DE LA. Faunae neotropic nondum cognitae. Jorn. Sc. Lisb. Vol. iii, p. 62. T. 8. alis species quaedam E No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. ZII '72* ESPADA, JIMENEZ DE LA. Rhinoderma. An. de Soc. Esp. d. Hist. Nat. Mad. 1872, p. 139. (Translated by Spengel, '77.) '76 FERGUSON. Singular Ceylonese Frogs. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Vol. xviii, p. 357. 1765a* FERMIN. Maladies les plus fréquentes à Surinam. Amsterdam. 1765. (Translated by Göze, 1776.) 1765b Développement parfait du mystère de la génération du fameux crapaud de Surinam. Maestricht. 1765. bstr. in Gazette lit. de Berlin.* T. iii, p. 110 (1767), and Neues allgem. Harzmagazin.* Bd. i. Blankenburg. 1768. (Translated by Göze, 1776.) '91 FIELD, HERBERT H. The Development of the Pronephros and Segmental Duct in Amphibia. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harpard Coll. Vol. xxi, No. 5. '82 GASSER, E. Zur Entwickelung von Alytes obstetricans. Sz/zungsber. Marburg. Ges. Nr. 5. 1882. '36 Gay. Lettre. Compt. Rend. T. ii, p. 322 '95 GOELDI, E. A. Contribution to the Knowledge of the Breeding-Habits of some Tree Frogs (Hylida) of the Serra dos Orgãos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Proc. Zoól. Soc. London. 1895, p. 89. 1776 Göze, J. A. E. D. Philipp Fermins Abhandlungen von der Surina- mischen Króte oder Pipa, etc. Braunschweig. 1776. '64a Gray, J. E. Notice of a new Genus ERE of Frogs from West Africa. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3.) Vol. x rors, Note on the Clawed Toad (Dactylethra) oi Alia. Proc. Zoól. Soc. London. 1864, p. 4 "76 a Mode of Propagation of Some Ceylonese Tree Frogs. ". Mag. Nat. Hist. Vol. xvii, p. 377. '96 "Tisai C. The Midwife a Alytes obstetricans. Vat. Sci. Vol. viii, p. 392. ‘67a HENSEL, R. Report. guiiocdiei naturforschenden Freunde zu Berlin. 1867,p Beitráge zur Main der Wirbelthiere Südbrasiliens. Arch. Sir Naturgeschichte. Bd. xxxiii, Theil 1, p. 129. Berlin 89 HoLLAND, W. J. Arboreal Tadpoles. Am. Nat. Vol. xxiii, p. 383. 88 Howes, G. B. Notes on the Gular Brood-Pouch of Rhinoderma darwinii. Proc.. Zoöl. Soc. London. 1888, p. 231. 86 IHERING. On the Oviposition in Phyllomedusa thieving hi Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5.) Vol. xvii, p. 461. 97 IKEDA, S. Notes on the Breeding Habits and Development of Rhacophorus schlegelii Günther. Annot. Zool. Japon. Vol. i, Pt. 3, pp. 113-122. (Reviewed by Reh* in Vat. Wochenschr. Bd. xii, Nr. 44, p. 524.) 95 Kappler. Die Tierwelt im Hollándischen Guiana. Das Ausland. Nr. 43, p. 858. 1885 78 KNaUEm. Naturgeschichte der Lurche. '64b '67b 712 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 1768* LAURENTI. Synopsis der Reptilien. P. 25. '90 LESLIE, J. M. Notes on Habits and Oviposition of Xenopus Toi. Proc. Zoól. Soc. London. 1890, p. 69. '77 LEYDIG, FRANz. Die anouren Batrachier der deutschen Fauna, 1877, p. 69. '96 LEvDic, F. Brutráume der Wabenkróte, Pipa dorsigera. Zool. Anz. Bd. xix, p. 49. '98 MARSHALL, A. MILNES. Vertebrate Embryology. 1893. ‘96 MULLER, C. Männliche Brutpflege. Zool. Garten. Jhrg. xxxvii, Nr. '79 MÜLLER, F. On a Frog having Eggs on its Back. ature. Vol. xix, p. 462. A '77 “NATURE.” The Development of Batrachians without Metamorphosis. Nature. Vol. xv, p. 491. '47 p'OnBIGNY. Voyage dans l'Amérique méridionale. T. v, p. 10. (Rept.) '66 OWEN, RICHARD. Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol. i, p. 515. '86 PACKARD, A. S. Zodlogy. 1886. "77 PARKER, W. K. On the Structure and de of the Skull in the Batrachia. Az. Trans. Vol. clxvi, P "75 PETERS. Ueber die von Herrn Buchholtz in Wess gesammelten Amphibien. Berliner Monatsber. 1875, p. 209. Entwickelung eines Batrachiers, Hylodes martinicensis Dum.- Bibr, ohne Metamorphose. Berliner Monatsber. 1876, p. 703- '97 PLATE, L. Männliche Rhinoderma Frösche mit Brutsack. Verh. d. deutsch. Zool. Ges., 7. Vers., p. 213. '87 SaRASIN, P. v. F. Ergebnisse naturwiss. Forschungen auf Ceylon in den Jahren 1884-85. Bd. ii. Wiesbaden. 1887-90. Zur Ent wickelungsgeschichte und Anatomie der ceylonischen Blindwühle, Ichthyophis glutinosus. '97 SCHONICHEN, W. Zur Biologie einiger Batrachier. Partial review of pus '95, and Goeldi, '95. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss. Bd. lxx, I5. '95 SLM P.L. Note on the Breeding of the Surinam Water Toad (Pipa surinamensis) in the Society's Reptile House. Proc. Zobl. Soc. London. 1895, p. 86. '82 SELENKA, EMIL, Der embryonale Excretionsapparat des kiemenlosen. Hylodes martinicensis. Sitzungsber.d. kin. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin. 1882, p. 1 ':87 wigs HERBERT H. oa Oviposition and Nursing in the Batrachian pecies Dendrobates. Am. Nat. Vol. xxi, p. 307. 1785 SPALLANZANI. Expériences sur la génération. 295. '77 SPENGEL. Die Fortpflanzung des Rhinoderma daciriuit Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. Bd. xxix, p. 495. (Translation of Espada, 72.) '46* STEENSTRUP. Rapport sur l'histoire naturelle de quelques Amphibes de Danemark. Kiel. 1846. No. 405.] DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 713 '42 VoGT, CARL. Untersuchungen über die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Geburtshelferkróte, Alytes obstetricans. .1842, p. 87. Solothurn. 33 WAGLER. Descriptiones et Icones Amphib. Pt. 2, p. II. 1833. 54a WEINLAND, F. D. Ueber den Beutelfrosch. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. Bd. xxi, p. 449. Lichtenstein's Remarks on Specimen of Notodelphys in Wein- land's Collection. Berliner Monatsber. 1854, p. 372. '98 WERNER, FRz. Ueber Brutpflege bei Amphibien. Verh. d. k. k. zool.- bot. Ges. Wien. Bad. xlviii, Heft 1, p. 11. TT Merk, B. G. Note on Embryo of Pipa americana. Am. Nat. ol. xi, p. 491. '90 Wountastonrr, W. Vollständige Entwickelung eines Frosches (Hylodes?) im Ei. JaZresber. u. Abh. Naturf. Ver. Magdeburg. 1890, p. 317. ‘54a —— WYMAN, JEFFRIES. On the Development of Pipa americana. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. v, p. 13. '54b '54b Observations on the Surinam Toad, Pipa americana. Amer. Journ. of Sci. Vol. xvii, p. 369. 57 On the Exhibit Pa Surinam, Hylodes lineatus. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vi, p. 269. '59 On Some Unusual Modes of Gestation. Amer. Journ. of Sci. : Vol. xxvii, p. 5. ‘62 Dactylethra. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. ix, p. 155. APPENDIX I. Since this paper went to press, there have ‘appeared the following notes o " Nototrema by Brandes, 99. “ Larven zweier Nototrema-Arten. Demons sies Verhandlung der deutschen Zool. Ges., g. Sahresvers, Hamburg, p. 288 work, hind legs in the condition of knobs, horny teeth, and an operculum with a lateral spiraculum. Through the spiraculum project two filaments, which can be traced to the first and second gill arches of the opposite side. The filaments are expanded at their ends into a delicate membrane, spread out under the egg-mem- rane. The gills are thus reduced to two, both arising from the same side. In the larva examined, the yolk had been entirely absorbed, so that life in the egg- membrane was no o longer possible. A larva caught in water resembled a tadpole of the European Pelobates shortly before fonum qum JVototrema oviferum carries only thirty large e The tadpoles observed had well developed hind legs ; the tails had entirely degenerated ; there was no spirac- ulum, but through a broad slit in the operculum projected the two bell-gills described by Weinland (54a) Four gill arches were present, and the gill fila- ments were attached to the first and second arches. 714 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. APPENDIX II. index to species, with a summary of references to each. Alytes obstetricans. Euro 2 1741. Wagler,' 33. Vogt, ^B ec "46. Claus, ’66. D. PIsle, '76. Leydig, 77. Gas- ser, '82. Hartmann, ’96. Wyman, "59 y 77 n, '78 Knauer, 78. Cope,’85. Sarasin, '87. Boulenger 86a. M, ' Werner, '98. Page 696. Amphignathdo guenthert. Tropical gem e, 85. Page 700. A aaa seychellensis. Seychelles. auer, ’ Page 704. Chiromantis guiniensis (C. refuscens). est Africa. apad 7 j^ s 76 (plate). Iher- g, '86. ture, 77: Bronn, ’78. Con ig "Sick '87. Boulenger, "86a. erner, 98. Page 689. Gyms pande (Paludicola gra- ne Republic. Cystignathus mystaceus. Rio Grande ` dö Sul Hensel, '67a. 75, '67b. Nature, Z7 2E '78. Bronn, ’78. Sara- ulenger, '86a. Page 692. ducum Vena Porto Rico. Pet "76 age 692. ANITIN capensis (Xenopus lævis). E aded Africa. 62. Gray,'64a. 75.,'64b. Boulenger E ^5 ulenger,'8r. Les- lie, 90. Beddard, '94 dis 707 Dendrobates braccatus. zil. Smith, '87. C 87. Boulen- ger,'88a. /5,'88c. Zb., ’9 u- ope, '87, although these authors have described two spe- cies, which Cope says differ in size.) Cope, '89. Werner, ’98. Page 703. Dutch Guiana. '59 (under the Kapp- Dendrobates trivittatus. Wyman 5. name of Hylodes lineatus). ler, '8s. Boulenger, '88a. "8c. 5, 'gg.- Smith, which mention is made of from the Santarem forest, which is perhaps Dendrobates trivittatus). Lngystoma ovale. Budgett, ’99. Page 702. Hyla abbreviata AU A abbreviatus). Rio Grande d Hensel, "trà. e A 78. Page 693 Hyla faber. Rio de Janeiro. (Early accounts under the name of Cystig- nathus ocellatus. Rio Grande do Sul.) Zb., '67b. Goeldi, 78. Knauer, 778. Pal ERES "Ba. Schónichen, 97 Hensel, ie Page 692. Hyla palate Rio de Janeiro. Fritz Müller, ’79 Goel i,’95. Bou- lenger, ee rner,'98. Page 701. Goe '9s. Hylella pie Sokis Mexico. Cope, '85. Hylodes lineatus ds pon Wolterstorff, ’90. Page 706. Hylodes martinicensis. West Indies. Steenstrup, ’46. Bello, 71. Bavay, len 7° mage dang Cope, '8s. Page 702. FRUGUM, fissipes. Brazil. Boulenger, '88b. Page 699. Nototrema marsupiatum. Ecuador,Peru. lenger, '8o. bee '54a- Nature; 77. Cope, 85. rasin, '87. Boulenger, "86a. Sar 5 700. No. 405.] Nototrema oviferum (Notodelphys ovi- feru: Opisthodelphys oviferum). Venezuela. Weinland, ’54a. /75,'s4b. Bert- hold, ?56. Wyman, ’57. Zb., 's9. Owen, 66. De l'Isle, ’76. Na- ture, 77. Bronn, ’78. Boulenger, 82. Cope, 8s. Howes, ’88. Sar- asin, 87. Boulenger, '86a. P - 698. Nototrema plumbeum Werner, ’98. Page 700. Nototrema pygmaum. Puerto Cabella, Venezuela. ibit AE Page 700. Not Ecuador. Peru Boulenger, '82. Cope, ’85. Sara- sin, '87. Boulenger, '86a. Page 700. ee cuca Paraguay. »'99. Page 702. Paraguay. ge 702. Trinidad. Ven- E eu. nigricans. P udgett, ' Phyllobates trinitatus. ezuela. Boulenger, ’95. Werner, ’98. Page 703. Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis. Para- guay. Budgett, ’99. Page 690. Phyllomedusa iheringii. Rio Grande. rin l wes, » 87. Goeldi; '95. Ni E Page 690. Pipa americana. British and Dutch Guiana Fermin, 1765a. 72., 1765b. Lau- renti, 1768. Göze, 1776. Spallan- DEVELOPMENT AMONG ANURA. 715 zani, 1785. bare 1788. Wy- man,’54a. Zb., °54b. Parker,’ 77. Wilder, 77. pas fe '96. Bartlett, '96. Duméril et Bibron, ' ^it Sort ius Peters, 76. Nat auer, 778. Bronn, "B. Boateng, "86a. Schó- Werner, '98. Page nichen, '97. 693. Polypedates maculatus. Ceylon. Gunther, los aria 76. Sar- asin, '87. 3. Rana ee ett Islands. Boulenger, ’86b. Sarasin, '87. Bou- r,'86a. Page 706. Rana temporalis. Ceylon. Sarasin, '87. Page 693. sete eques. Ceylon. , 87. Page 691. Peseta reticulatus (Polypedates een Ceylon. m. her, '76. Ferguson, 76. Bronn, a enger, '86a. Šo 701. Riaspheru schlegelii. Japan o Ikeda, mn Wer- Gay, 36. E 77. Howes, '88. Boulenger,'86a. Plate,'9z. Wer- age 702. Shea hammondii. Western North ca. Cope, '85. Page 701. ON THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. WILLIAM A. HILTON. ALTHOUGH much work has been done upon the morphology and embryology of Amia, but little attention has been given to the microscopic anatomy of the intestine. After an examina- tion of sections of Amia’s intestine, and after comparing them with what has been done on the subject, it was found that there were many interesting but rather difficult problems which remained to be solved. In consideration of some of these points a more careful investigation was undertaken.’ In order to obtain a clear idea of the form of the mucosal convolutions, specimens were examined which had been injected with and preserved in either formalin or alcohol. For inject- ing the capillaries the “Berlin blue injection mass" was used. The body was transsected caudad of the vent, and the injection made into the dorsal aorta within the haemal arch. In making preparations to show cellular structures the usual histological fixers and stains were used; such fixers as Flemming's, Her- mann's, Zenker's fluids and mercuric chloride solution ; such Stains as safranin, iron-haematoxylin and chloral haematoxylin, with picro-fuchsin. The gross structure of Amia's intestine has been carefully described elsewhere (Hopkins, '92), so a simple description is all that is necessary to give here. The stomach lies parallel to the cephalic part of the intestine and joins it ata very acute angle; the pyloric valve marks the junction of the two parts and appears on the exterior as a very deep constriction. In- ternally, the pyloric valve projects as a tube a short distance into the cavity. The first part of the intestine is quite long and extends in a parallel line for about two-thirds the length of l The work was done in the histological laboratory of Cornell University. I wish especially to thank Professors Wilder, Gage, and Kingsbury for their valuable suggestions relating to the investigation. 717 718 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the abdominal cavity. After the first turn the intestine is of considerably less diameter than that of the first part. This second part, after quite an acute angle with the first part, as- cends parallel with it for from one-third to one-half of its length, and then, after a very sharp turn, descends once more. After a few centimeters of descent the intestine bulges out to a large diameter, indicating the location of the spiral valve; as it ap- proaches the vent, the spiral valve having ended, the intestine once more becomes of small diameter. The spiral valve, which occupies a few centimeters of extent above the end of the rec- tum, has from four to four and one-half turns (Hopkins, '95). ° Before taking up the finer structure of the intestine, the general form and arrangement of the mucosal convolutions will be considered. In this part of the study it was found that the character of the convolutions was much more easily and accu- rately made out from gross’ preparations than from sections, for, although serial sections may show much, a clear compre- hension of all the complications can be obtained only by ex- amination of the whole ental surface of the intestine. The following description is largely taken from a single specimen, one having been selected in which the most characteristic con- dition was presented. Upon a superficial examination of the intestine, slightly distended, the whole ental surface appears to be covered with villi thickly and irregularly placed, varying somewhat in height, but less in general shape, at different parts of the intestine. These appearances are to some extent decep- tive; the upper part of the intestine is covered with a network of long and short zigzag folds and isolated vill. The folds run in every direction, and their free edges are more or less irregu- larly but deeply notched or wavy. Some of the projections or villi are perfectly isolated; others, which at first sight seem to be perfectly free, are found on more careful examination to have connection with their neighbors at the bases. There are all gradations, from perfectly isolated , villi to irregular, short, zigzag folds. Many folds or nearly perfect villi join egch other throughout their whole height; others slightly at their bases. All are of irregular, undulating heights. Many folds are several centimeters in extent, so that a very complicated No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 719 . appearance is presented. Between and about the network with the few isolated villi, which altogether form a rather loose meshwork, are much lower and much smaller villi or folds. These are not easily seen, because of the overshadowing higher folds and villi, and, in some specimens, seem to be altogether absent. Some of these lower, smaller folds are joined to the higher ones. In one of the intestines examined there were, in one or two instances, clumps of folds in very close contact, almost cemented together in one mass; in other places the folds in little groups were in close contact when the intestine was not especially distended, but these, unlike the case just cited, could be sepa- rated from each other without tearing. In many cases folds are joined together in the form of a small ring or rather large crypt, not completely closed on one side; but in at least one case a complete ring or crypt was formed by the folds. There are comparatively few projections or villi which are completely separated from all about them, although in many cases the place where they unite with others may be of so little extent that it is easily overlooked. The tendency of the folds, as well as the arrangement of the larger villi, seems to be fully as great toward a transverse as to a longitudinal direction. The higher villi begin at the pylorus with a height of about .8 mm., and at about the central portion or last portion of the first part of the intestine a height of about 3.5 mm. to 3.8 mm. may be reached; after this the folds and villi become gradually shorter caudad. Nearer the pylorus folds can be more easily made out than a short distance below, because at first the folds are not so deeply indented on the free edges as farther down ; they are also more numerous near the pylorus, that is, less split up into villi, With that part of the intestine a little above the first turn, the folds are more of them deeply split, and there are also numerous large villi, such as 3 mm. long by 1.2 mm. broad. The thickness of the folds and villi is about .2 mm., being in shape thin, plate-like, or leaf-like. Below the first turn the folds are lower and appear a little more evenly placed, forming more of a continuous network of 720 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. rather square meshes than was the case cephalad. Their free edges also seem to be less jagged, but, like those cephalad, they have wavy, free edges, and between the higher convolu- tions there are lower ones somewhat connected with the larger ones or free. There are comparatively few large, free projec- tions or villi in this region. At the beginning of the second turn the regular network appearance is usually lost, and the projections shorter, more irregular, and more jagged. After the most cephalic face of the spiral valve is passed, there are a few long, straight folds which appear to run in a longitudinal direction when the intes- tine is cut open lengthwise and slightly distended. Most of the other folds of the spiral valve might almost be considered to be villi, with rather broad bases and sharp tips. Below the spiral valve the convolutions are usually almost all longitudi- nally disposed; there are quite a number of low projections nearly free from each other, having rounded edges and ar- ranged' in parallel lines, almost like villi, but usually joined to each other by their bases. The above description applies especially to medium-sized or rather large specimens, many points being obscure in smaller individuals, partly because of the smaller size of the convolu- tions, and partly because of individual variations. Aside from the usual variations which occur in all specimens without any special rule, there is a way in which large specimens differ from small in quite a constant manner ; that is, the difference in the height of the convolutions, the larger individuals usually having longer projections than the smaller. This difference is rather a general one with the villi of many mammals and birds. The muscular coats of the intestine are, as in all vertebrates, an outer longitudinal and an inner circular. The longitudinal coat is rather thin and made up of small, more or less irregular, bundles of plain muscle. The circular layer of muscle is enor- mously developed and, for most of its extent, seems to be of about the same thickness. There is but scant connective tissue about the bundles which make up the inner coat, while the connective tissue about the smaller bundles of the longitudinal coat is well developed. These muscular coats vary but little No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 721 until the most caudal portion of the intestine is reached, and then, gradually, the muscle of the outer coat becomes less prominent, and at the end of the intestine the outside coat is made up of simply a thick band of connective tissue, with a very few small muscle bundles. There are so few of these that it does not seem that they have a very great part to play in the contraction of the intestine. The inner muscular coat under- goes no such decrease in size at the end of the intestine, but it does undergo some change, and at the last of the intestinal canal there is quite a marked decrease in the thickness of the coat, and the muscle fibres are not completely circularly ar- ranged, as in the rest of the intestine; but a rather complex arrangement of the muscle fibres has taken place, which differs much from the perfectly circular layer of fibres in the other places (Fig. 8. Perhaps this complicated arrangement is partly to compensate for the diminished longitudinal coat and also to take on some new functions, such as some of the muscles of the rectum perform in higher animals. Just entad of the inner muscular coat is a thick layer of connective tissue composed of fibres longitudinally disposed. This band of connective tissue is about as thick as, or some- what thicker than, the outside muscular coat and very dense. It does not seem to vary throughout the intestine, except at the end, where it gives place to a dense mass of connective tissue and isolated clumps of plain muscle bundles. At this place the mass of muscle and connective tissue extends uniformly from the epithelium to the inner muscular coat. It is about as thick as the two muscular coats together. With this exception the band of connective tissue is uniform throughout the intestine. It might be considered as an outside layer of submucosa, a sort of base upon which all the rest of the submucosa and mucosa Test. A dense connective-tissue band lying directly inside the muscular coats, but not so close to them as in Amia, has been described for several forms, as in the trout and Tinca vul- garis; this membrane has been called the membrana compacta Or stratum compactum. Doubtless the connective-tissue layer in Amia is homologous to this »emórana compacta. Especially above the spiral valve connective-tissue strands 722 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. from the membrana compacta extend to the tips of the folds and villi. In the upper intestine the submucosa is rather thin, and but a scant muscularis mucosa exists. In the region of the spiral valve the submucosa above the szrazum compactum is a little thicker, and a prominent muscularis mucosa is present, lying in a rather dense mass. There are in many places rather isolated muscle fibres of the muscularis mucosa going up into the villi, and the connective-tissue prolongations so character- istic of the upper intestine are not nearly so marked. The muscle fibres of the villi extend upwards longitudinally, and were, without doubt, derived from the muscularis mucosa, as in mammals and birds. At the very end of the intestine, where folds and villi usually cease, there is an abundant muscularts mucosa, there being many longitudinal, and possibly a few transverse, muscle fibres and bundles of fibres scattered irreg- ularly through all the dense connective tissue between the epithelium and muscular coats. _ In general, the cores of the villi and folds, also all the sub- mucosa above the stratum compactum, are composed of rather dense adenoid connective tissue. There are no lymphatic glands or patches of adenoid tissue anywhere in the intestine, but there are in many places areas of diffuse adenoid tissue, especially in the lower part of the intestine. Before leaving the submucous structures to go on with those of the epithelium, it may be well to speak of the elements composing the spiral valve. Macallum (86) states that in the spiral axis of Acipenser and Amia there is a large quantity of unstriated muscular fibres, which in Amia is aggregated into a single bundle. In Acipenser he states that there are several bundles arranged irregularly in direction and position, so it 1s almost impossible to conceive that they represent excessively de- veloped portions of the muscularis mucosa. In Amia, although sections at times seem to show nearly a uniform bundle of muscle fibres occupying the central part of the valve, other and most of the sections show clearly numerous more or less closely placed bundles of plain muscle, most of the fibres run- ning transversely, that is, nearly parallel with the free edges No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 723 of the valve. Comparatively few run in the other direction. The muscularis mucosa at the base of the spiral valve is not especially thickened or diminished; it occupies its usual posi- tion on the ental side of the stratum compactum. The con- nective-tissue layer of the stvatum compactum on each side of a turn of the spiral is seen in section to send upward into the spiral valve a thick portion of connective tissue ; on the ental surface of each of these portions is the usual muscularis mucosa. These two layers meet in the basal part of the valve to form a sort of arch. Beneath the arch thus formed are muscle fibres composing one large bundle or several small bundles. It may be seen that in this way muscle and connective tissue are con- siderably mixed up in the basal part of the valve ; but farther entad all become arranged once more, the muscle occupying the center of the valve, while on each side of it, between it and the submucosa, is a rather dense band of connective tissue ; these bands, however, are not so dense as to prevent muscle fibres from going up into the villi (Fig. 9). Three conclusions are to be drawn from the above compli- cated condition. First, the relative position of muscle and connective tissue is somewhat different from that in the in- testine in general. Secondly, the core and, in fact, a large part of the spiral valve are made up of muscular tissue. Thirdly, there is more muscle in the spiral valve than the double thickness of the muscularis mucosa, and although a small part of the muscle is derived from the muscularis mucosa, by far the larger part is not. The intestinal epithelium of Amia presents a very interest- ing condition. The cells are exceedingly small, and in most places it is impossible to make out in sections the cell outlines. Macallum (86) describes the epithelium to be composed of short cylinder cells resting on four layers of nuclei. This is often the appearance presented in sections; sometimes there seem to be six or eight layers of nuclei, especially in the upper part of the intestine ; possibly, at times, a few of these nuclei "y be those of underlying cells. Macallum figures the nuclei in even layers; this is seldom the case, the nuclei seeming to be scattered irregularly through the epithelium. They are 724 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. usually somewhat elliptical, but may be irregularly circular. Isolated preparations from the epithelium are of the utmost value in determining the character and relation of cells. For isolating, Ranvier's dissociator of one-third alcohol was found to be especially good. The isolated cells were of the same length as the thickness of the epithelium, as shown in sections, the cell bodies being usually thin or even .thread-like, with nuclei at all levels, thus showing with the greatest clearness that, although somewhat modified, the cells form a simple columnar epithelium. There might have been a few inter- posed cells at the bases of the longer ones, but if so they were not recognized. Usually, beneath the striated border of the cells is a band which takes a darker stain than the rest of the cell body. This was especially true of the epithelium towards the pylorus. Although essentially similar in all parts of the intestine, the epithelium is especially thicker in the cephalic portion, there being in this first region a more complicated arrangement of nucléi at different levels. From the spiral valve caudad it is somewhat simpler, that is, it is not so thick, and the outlines of the cells are much easier to trace, there being at most but four layers of nuclei. Compared with the height of the epi- thelium of the lower intestine, there is greater distance from the surface to where the nuclei are located than is the case in the upper intestine. Goblet cells occur throughout the intestine, being more numerous caudad. In depth the thecas of the goblet cells occupy but a small proportion of the thickness of the epithelium or of the lengths of the cells of which they are parts. This is especially true of the upper part of the intestine. Macallum (86) describes cilia throughout the intestine of Amia. Comparing Macallum's statements with sections, in many places cilia seemed to be present, but careful examina- tion of fresh specimens did not bear out these observations. In these experiments, as a check, living cilia were obtained from the esophagus. Hopkins (93) describes cilia in a very small area just caudad of the spiral valve; this is the only place in the intestine of Amia where true cilia occur; what No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 725 appear to be cilia in other parts are simply the striated border of the epithelium. This border is best marked above the spiral valve; it becomes narrower as the caudad end of the intestine is reached. The blood of the folds and villi in Amia is supplied by a capillary network which resembles the blood supply of the villi in higher forms. Large blood vessels run in the submucosa and send up branches into the folds and villi. With a villus there are usually three main trunks of arterioles going up into afine capillary network. When the projections join each other, there are numerous small blood vessels which connect, to a greater or less extent, the two almost distinct capillary systems. The blood supply of the more distinct folds is practically the same as that of the villi—a continuous network, usually sup- plied by about as many main trunks as if a number of villi occupied the same position. It will be seen from some of the preceding structures de- scribed that a very interesting condition exists in the form and structure of the enteric convolutions. The intestine of Amia presents an appearance midway between folds and villi, having some of both structures, the latter, in a way, developed from the former by unequal growth. The villi possess all the char- acteristic structures of villi of mammals and birds, as do the folds, but falling short of villi simply because of their extent or lack of separation. In some of the higher forms, to a limited extent, signs of a transition from folds to villi are found, as in the double projections which occur occasionally in the small intestines of rabbits. Villi have been described in a few species of Pices, but their presence is not usual in this class. However, it may be noted that in general the forms in which villi have been described are what are generally regarded as the higher teleosts. As villi are characteristic of the highest vertebrates, such as mam- mals and birds, it is not difficult to accommodate villi to the highest fishes. But how are we to account for the specialized condition of the intestine of Amia? Simply as follows : Amia is a very ancient form of vertebrate, one that has changed but little from the ancestral type, and, therefore, has had as a 726 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV, species a long time for specialization, so the intestine has, during at least part of this time, become highly specialized, probably to suit more exactly the character of its food. Another interesting point about Amia is the fact that in the spiral valve there is more muscular tissue than could have been derived from the muscularis mucosa. How did it get there? The answer to this question can be solved definitely only from the standpoint of embryology, but perhaps a suggestion may not be out of place. If the spiral valve was originally, if not in Amia in its progenitors, formed by a twisting of the whole thickness of the intestine, then a folding of the whole wall would, of course, involve the muscular coats as well as the submucosa and mucosa. In such a case muscle would be left in the spiral valve after readjustment of the outside coats once more to their usual appearance. Muscle from the muscularis mucosa would also be in the spiral valve, but the greater part would be from the muscular coats, and, because of the thick- ness of the inner muscular coat, the larger part of the muscle would run transversely, as is actually the case in the spiral valve of the adult. | GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. I. The intestinal convolutions are very complex in form and arrangement, being made up of variously shaped folds and free projections or villi. 2. The muscular coats are well developed, an outer longitu- dinal and inner circular, the latter very thick. 3. Athick connective-tissue band, of uniform nature through- out the intestine, occurs next the inner muscular coat. This band of connective tissue sends up projections of fibres into some folds and villi. 4. A muscularis mucosa is present, a few fibres of which are prolonged into the cores of folds and villi. 5. The epithelium is simple, columnar, four to eight layers of nuclei appearing in sections. 6. The epithelium is not ciliated, except for a small area caudad of the spiral valve. No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 737 7. The blood supply of the folds and villi is similar to that of the villi of mammals. 8. True villi and partially developed villi occur. CONDENSED BIBLIOGRAPHY. '66 Grimm, J. D. Ein Beitrag zur Anatomie des Darmes. Zzaug.-Diss. Ser. 47. Taf. III. Dorpat. '92 Hopkins, G. S. On the Digestive Tract of Some of the North American Ganoids. Abstract in Proc. Amer. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci. Vol. xli, pp. 197, 198. '98 Hopkins, G. S. Lymphatics and Enteric Epithelium of Amia calva. Wilder Quarter-Century Book. Pp. 367-384, 2 '95 HoPKINS, G. S. On the Enteron of American Ganoids. Journ. of orph. bw xi, pp. 367-384, 2 pls '86 MACALLUM, A. B. The Alineituty Canal and Pancreas of Aci- penser, Amia, and Lepidosteus. Journ. Anat. und Phys. Bd. xx, pp. 604-636, Taf. I '29 MECKEL, IF: Syiiein der vergleichenden Anatomie. '81 Moreau, ÉwiLE. Histoire naturelle des poissons de la France. T.i, 220 figs. Paris. '66-68 OweEN, R. Anatomy of Vertebrates. Voli. London. '85 PrLLIET, A. Sur la structure du tube digestif de quelques poissons de mer. Bull. Soc. Zool. France. Vol. x, pp. 283-308. 1800 Ruporrur, K. A. Einige Beobachtungen über die Darmzotten. Reils Arch. Ser. 4, p. 63. 728 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV, EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fic. 1. Intestine of medium-sized Ama calva; st., stomach; fy.v., pyloric valve; I, first turn of the intestine; 2, second turn of the intestine ; sf.v., region of the die valve ; 7., rectum. Fic. 2. Folds and small villi of intestine near the pylorus; /, fold; v., villus. Fic. 3. Intestine below first turn showing the ental surface; f. fold; v., villus. Fic. 4. Last three faces of the spiral valve split lengthwise and distended, showing longitudinal folds on the spiral valve; f., fold; 2, second face of valve; 3, third face of valve; 4, fourth face of valve ; w., intestinal wall. Fic. 5. Folds near the end of intestine. No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 729 PLATE I. 730 THE. AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II £., epithelium ; ¢., cores of folds and villi; from the stratum c niu issu e prolongations 7H.) ; im., inner ben o coat; om., outer muscu coat ; Zm., lateral muscular otis: tm., transverse muscular bundles ; 74., muscle bundles; mm., muscularis muc Fic. I Sections of the intestine near the pylorus, moderate magnification Fic. 7. Section of intestine below spiral valve Fic. 8. Section of the end of intesti Fic. Transsection of spiral valve, not showing epithelium (All figures x37.) i No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. PLATE II. 732 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Epithelium under 1 dins in. oil immersion objective; s., striated border; 7t, nucleus; g., goblet cell; c., cell body. Fic. ro (a), (b), (c). iios of epithelium from the first part of the intestine. Fic. 11. Section of epithelium from the spiral valve. Fic. 12. Section of epithelium near caudal end of the intestine. FiG. 13. Isolated epithelial cells showing nuclei at all levels. (All figures x 350). THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 733 No. 405.] Hee OT == S MUCH T yi d dU Te TUUM. CT TY HT ] HEZISDCH i U PFE if l a T LE PLATE III. 734 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. Injected folds and villi, cores of villi alone represented, except in Fig. 19. 14. us near the pylorus. X 70. Fic. 15. Villi below the spiral valve. x 70. Fic. 16. Villus or part of fold on the spiral valve. x 70. Fic. 17. Villus or part of fold below the pylor x 70. Fics. 18, 19. Folds from near the pylorus ied highly magnified than the above, showing the usual main arterioles with the network of capillaries, and also that the network in these cases is continuous. No. 405.] THE INTESTINE OF AMIA CALVA. 735 A \ e p i AX E A m. o. Dy 22 SEP aa — v DS SEE h ROT ] AS ILA) ess GACY RUNSAAT dS. [Y] oN a HR KON IY AR SAG YY Ñ | 17 Vo os (a ap di; DUX DEP QU PLATE IV. STUDIES IN CRANIAL VARIATION. FRANK RUSSELL. THERE are a number of characters of infrequent occurrence in the human cranium that are said to have considerable impor- . tance as criteria of race. The morphological significance of some of them is not yet known. The present study is almost wholly statistical; it has been carried out upon a collection of Amerindian crania which are not so well known as those of Old World peoples. Nearly two thousand skulls in the Pea- body Museum at Harvard University were examined. Many of these are in a fragmentary condition, so that the number available for the study of one character may be very different from that of another, e.g., statistics relating to the metopic suture may be tabulated when the frontal bone alone is present, but those relating to the hard palate can be reckoned only upon skulls that are nearly complete. | Metopic Suture. — The median frontal suture (Fig. 1) closes normally in the infantile skull during the second year. It remains open throughout life, however, in a certain number of cases that is fairly constant for each of the main divisions of mankind. This percentage of open mietopic suture varies widely in the different groups, as, for example, between Europeans (8.7 per cent) and Australians (1 per cent). The morphology of metopic crania has been exhaustively treated by Dr. Papillault,!. who has shown that they are higher and broader, in a word have greater capacity than the normal. The percentage of occurrence of the metopic suture in the adult crania of the Peabody Museum collection is seen in the - table on the following page. Tympanic Exostoses.— There is a tendency in all races toward the formation of bony tumors or exostoses in the [4 1 Pan; Papillault, Dr. G. La suture métopique, etc., Mém. Soc. d'Anth., T. ii, et. 3» fas. Y: 737 738 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV, NUMBER. PERCENTAGE. Eskimos., ©... 52 o New England . 68 2.9 Ohio and Tennessee 681 8 California . . 160 I.9 Miscellaneous ! 260 [e] North America 1127 I.I Peru? 458 LI Total 8 1585 I.I NUMBER. PERCENTAGE. a uaaa gg xy 565 dus (Anutchin) * A&mennds 7. 8 5... s. 426 1,2 A E 416 3 (Harrison Allen) 5 external auditory meatus. The tendency is increased in de- formed crania, though it is now believed that such exostoses are not a necessary accompaniment of deformation ; in support of this it will be noted that the small series of crania from New Mexico with pronounced occipital deformation exhibit not a single case of tympanic exostosis. I was somewhat surprised to find this condition of more frequent occurrence in the skulls from Ohio and Tennessee (Fig. 2) than in the deformed crania from Peru (Fig. 3). The exostoses varied in size from minute nodules to large tumorous growths and, in several 1 Including small collections from the Northwest, New York, New Jersey, New Mexico, and the territory occupied by the plains tribes. In subsequent tables the term “ miscellaneous ” will be applied to the last two groups. ? The localities from which the Peruvian crania in the Peabody Museum have come are Ancon, Casma, Grand Chimu, Amacavilca ? Compare the results Eie: by Anutchin and ‘Topinard in their investiga- tions upon European cr Europeans of both sexes — to. xen skulls 8.7 per € — eme in). Catacombs of Paris « .9I per cen Topinard in his Éléments Pait ibas, P: 793): 4 Anutchin, D. N. Reviewed m M. C. Merejowsky in Rev. d’Anth., T. vi, Sér. 2, p. 5 Allen, Mti. Crania from the Mounds of the St. John's River. Jour”. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, New Series, vol. x, No. 4- No. 405.] STUDIES IN CRANIAL VARIA TION. 739 instances, to complete occlusion of the external auditory meatus. Dr. Whitney has called attention to the fact that when one lip only of the tympanic ring is affected, it is com- monly the inferior. Frontoparietal. —To economize space I have combined some of the characters in the tables; the somewhat rare anomaly known as the frontoparietal (Figs. 4, 5) may be placed here for convenience. TYMPANIC EXOSTOSES. FRONTOPARIETAL. Number. Percentage. Number. ema © BINE o. 5. sS s 5I o 52 19 pee eed ... 64 o 64 8 FED |. 58 5.2 57 n Ohioand Tennessee . . . 456 15.1 468 de eee . . .. 22 o 22 - EMEND S ss 158 I.2 159 ve Miscellaneous. . . . . . 66 3- 62 1.6 Mabe a a s” 47 8.5 52 T port Amena oo. . 865 9.2 884 7 Peru (Ancon, Arica) ete: . . 447 5-4 449 -* EN uuo no 1312 7-9 1333 ‘S Parietal Foramina.— As these foramina are exceedingly variable, statistics relating to them, while difficult to procure, should be of considerable interest. Observations were made to determine whether any significance attached to their occur- rence on the one side or the other, but as none appeared I have disregarded this in the table; “ present" may mean on one side or on both. Owing to the fact that the foramina are frequently present, yet of extremely small size, and that the condition of many skulls obscures this character, it was found to be almost impossible to obtain accurate data. However, the table Will be found to be very nearly correct. Enlarged foram- Ina were discovered in only one group — three cases among crania from the aboriginal cemetery at Madisonville, Ohio. Epactal Bone. — ]t is difficult to tabulate the variations Occurring in the size and shape of supernumerary occipital 740° THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Mona PERCENTAGE PRESENT. ROO 42159 v. 4o or o 2 61.5 New knpghnd s 5 39 2655 a 63 47.6 Florida Rue a cT 56 44-7 Ohio and Timber Pe ao vos 515 50.3 w Mexico s 2I 61.9 California : 3 158 67.1 Miscellaneous £0.58 2550 d 61 54-1 Mex ee E e c e aris 54 62.9 aped Ados ee E 928 55.8 Kui rat uu. og 447 70.3 Total Pepe ut Rue TE x WT Y tys 59.2 bones. The true interparietal, the composite and incomplete epactals may be distinguished with tolerable certainty, but the smaller bones at the apex of the occipital are not so readily identified. Following Washington Matthews,! I have consid- ered all Wormian bones at the lambda as falling in the class designated os triguetrum seu apicis. PERCENTAGE. E NUMBER. f om- | Com- In- Os quad- |Os friquetrum plete. | posite. | complete. | ratum. i KEXRNOR o 2. 4 3 49 40 | 0 o o send New England . . . 66 30] 6 o o " Florida i = 62 49 | 15 o o Pg Ohio ind onnies s | S 4-1 j 2 d 31 Ne» Mexico... . 2. 21 o o o o = California’. . . . ..]| 159 191] ó o 1.2 47 Miscellaneous . . . . 69 o 2.8 o o 13.0 Mexico La x 57 18. | 18 o o na North Mawes 5 4 2 2 Pon 34 9 I 5 13 re NEE r8 | 1.8 5 I.I 21.5 TOME ovo age | 29] fa 3 7 15 It will be observed that the complete or true interparietal bone occurs more frequently among North American tribes than among Peruvians. -This is in harmony with the results ! The Human Bones in the Hemenway Collection, Mem. Nat. Acad. Sc vol. vi, p. 198. No. 405.] STUDIES IN CRANIAL VARIATION. 741 obtained by Dr. Matthews from an examination of Cibolan (New Mexican) crania. Professor Boas informs me that some northwest coast tribes exhibit a high percentage of occipital anomalies. Compare Anutchin's! tables with the above. NUMBER. CoMPLETE. Guiness Amerinds “except Peruvians” . . 390 1.30 .26 six voa Dp e a 664 5.46 1.05 As Anutchin’s observations were made upon crania that were less uniformly deformed, they were probably in part of another tribe. This illustrates the desirability of abandoning the loose and unscientific term “ Peruvians.” Platybasic Crania. — Occasionally a skull is found that has the occipital condyles and adjoining portions of the base thrust upward, as it were, into the cranial cavity. Presumably due to a greater or less degree of yielding of the floor of the calvaria to weight and muscular tension, it naturally occurs in all stages of development, according to the conditions. It is, therefore, difficult at times to distinguish between normal and platybasic crania; Topinard describes three varieties. Only well-marked . examples are here noted. The results so far as they go seem to show that no relation exists between this condition and either cephalic index or artificial deformation. The highest percentage of occurrence is found among the Eskimos, who have the largest cranial capacity, but the number of skulls is too small to attach much significance to this. Jugular Process. — The above table includes statistics con- cerning this somewhat rare anomaly, in which the process is enlarged until it extends beyond the plane of the condyles (Fig. 6). It is homologous with the paramastoid of the dog, etc. It occurs about once in one hundred crania from Peru and somewhat less frequently in North America. Aymará Fossa. — Particular interest attaches to this charac- Lis (Figs. 7, 8), owing to its supposed frequency of occurrence in the crania of criminals. As the fossa is very variable in 1 Rev. d’ Anth., T. vi, Sér, 2, p. 143. s 742 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. PLATYBASIC CRANIA. JuGuLaR Process. Number. | Percentage. Number. Percentage. Eskimos .-. . 49 6.1 48 2 New England . 51 2 45 o Flórnd$ soo voa 55 o 38 o Ohio and Tennessee . 477 .2 359 5 New Mexico 21 o 2I 4.8 California . . 158 6 155 o Miscellaneous . 57 1.7 55 o Mexico . . < 52 o 48 2.I North America 871 d 721 5 Peru . 447 o 439 9 Total . 1318 3 1160 7 depth, care must be exercised, and it is practically impossible to wholly eliminate the “personal equation "; only cases in which an actual concavity exists are-here noted. While it is of slightly more frequent occurrence among the crania from the coast of Peru than in those from the northern continent, it will be observed that it is by no means confined to southern tribes, as is shown by the high percentage among the Eskimos. Aymara Fossa. FUSED ATLAS. Torus PALATINUS. " ái Per- Number. Somes Number ai Number. centage: Eskimos . . 49 10.2 48 o 43 18.6 New England . 50 6 46 2 48 8.3 Flori 47 8.5 36 o 8 4 Ohio and orinis 425 37 358 8 377 = New Mexico 21 o 21 o 2I 9-5 California doe 158 38 155 o 158 ans Miscellaneous. . . 55 1.8 54 o s 75 Wo ,. 4 Cy 47 6.4 47 o 42 47 North America 803 zt 717 6 704 nad Puu. d wx» 5.9 438 2 436 7 Tomb... s. 1240 4.8 1155 FR d Fused Atlas. — As might be expected, the Ohio-Tennessee collection contained several skulls having their condyles firmly joined with the atlas, sometimes resulting in the almost com- No. 405.] STUDIES IN CRANIAL VARIATION. 743 plete absorption of the latter. Crania and skeletons from that region exhibit a large percentage of all kinds of malformations —atavistic, artificial, and pathological. Torus Palatinus.— This hyperostosis of the middle line of the hard palate is most pronounced in the Eskimo crania. It was slightly more frequent in the Ohio collection (Fig. 9), though the ridges were not so large. With the exception of these two groups, this anomaly appears to be fairly uniformly distributed in North America. The number of skulls from Florida upon which this character could be noted is so small that it would be extremely hazardous to assume southern affinities for this group, because it resembles those of South America, where the percentage of occurrence of this anomaly is so low that I have not combined it with that of North America to form a total for the race. The Florida series also stands apart from all others studied in having a larger per- centage of “pterion in K." In addition to the above characters, observations were made to determine the percentage of occurrence of the infraorbital suture, right and left; of *pterion in H,” etc.; as to whether the malar entered the spheno-maxillary suture; the number of bipartite malars (one case to the thousand skulls); and con- cerning the morphology of an anomalous process at the basion that was found three times in the whole collection. However, I have regarded these characters, somewhat arbitrarily perhaps, of less interest than those considered above and shall not pub- lish the data relating to them. I hope that the facts presented may prove suggestive and interesting, but do not expect them to establish firmly any hypotheses regarding the origin or affinities of the Amerinds. 744 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV, Fic. 1 ee suture. . Grand bang Peru. Cat. nex Fie. 2. con, Per To us Cat, 407. £ ERE Fic. 3. — Tympanic adbars. inem Grave, Nashville, "Peapeepén. Cat. No. 12, No. 405.] STUDIES IN CRANIAL VARIATION. ” A, 8 7 Mes 4, 5. — Frontoparietal. Stone Grave, Se oe beers Cat. Nos. 2600, 17,314 dias 6. — Jugular process. Lynville, Wisconsin. . No. 11,252. k 7-— Interior of white skull, showing normal eri elia crest, I X 3 ES x E 8 F . Casma, Peru. Cat. No IG. 9, — Torus palatinus. Stone Grave, Nashv ile, aan Cat. No, 18,280. SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. XIII. THE ACTINIARIA. G. H. PARKER. Tue Actiniaria, or sea anemones, are marine animals inhabit- ing the shallow and deeper waters of our coasts, and usually found attached to some rock or other firm object. They have been justly noted for their exquisite colors and forms. Asa rule, each species is represented by separate individuals or polyps, but in the Zoantheze (Fig. 22) colonies are formed by budding, much as in many corals. The sea anemones are further char-. acterized by the fact that they produce no independent skeleton and that their tentacles are very usually simple or undivided. In the more typical species the polyp has the form of a short cylinder, the attached end of which is known as the pedal disk, the free end the oral disk, and the intermediate part the column. The pedal disk is the organ of attachment for those species that are fixed and the chief organ for locomotion for those that move. It is usually well developed, but in species inhabiting muddy or sandy bottoms it is either reduced, as in Ammophi- lactis (Fig. 12), or entirely absent, as in the Edwardsice (Fig. 1) and the Ceriantheze (Fig. 21). The column is generally undivided, but in Halcampa (Fig. 3) as many as three parts can be distinguished: a pedal physa of small extent, an intermediate scapus corresponding to the col- umn in the restricted sense, and an oral capitulum, which often Suffers involution when the polyp contracts. The surface of the column is either smooth or more or less covered with emi- nences, known as ¢wbercles (Figs. 9, 10). In the Sagartinee (Fig. 17) the column wall is very usually pierced by pores, cinclides, through which water from the internal cavity of animal and 747 748 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. nettling filaments, acontia, may escape. The cinclides are sometimes borne on tubercles, which are then called cinclidial tubercles. In rare cases, as, for instance, Epiactis (Fig. 8), the eggs seem to be carried in pits on the column, and the young may be retained in these egg pits for a considerable period. The oral edge of the column is at times characterized by a series of enlargements that are probably neither tubercles nor tentacles, but have been called marginal spherules. Usually the oral edge of the column passes directly over into the tenta- cle-bearing portion of the oral disk. In some species, however, a fold is interpolated in this region, giving rise to what has been called a collar. The column, though usually strictly naked, may be covered with a slight secretion, cuticula, which may be firm and rough, as in Phellia, or slightly adhesive, so as to accumulate sand particles, as in Epizoanthus. The oral disk carries the circle of tentacles. These are hol- low processes from the wall of the disk and are usually pointed, though sometimes blunt or even club-shaped, as in Eloactis (Fig. 4). They are usually firmly attached to the oral disk, but in Bolocera (Fig. 6) the region of attachment is marked by a well-developed circular muscle, by whose contraction the base of the tentacle may be much constricted or even cut through, thus setting the tentacle free. As a rule, the tentacles cover a single circular area intermediate in position between the mouth and the margin of the oral disk. In Cerianthus (Fig. 21), however, they form two distinct bands, one marginal (prin- cipal) and the other circumoral (accessory) The mouth lies in the center of the oral disk and is generally surrounded by swollen lips. In Bicidium a portion of the lip is so much enlarged as to produce a projecting proboscis, the conchula. Of the internal structure of the sea anemones little need be said in this connection, as the features upon which the follow- ing key is based are chiefly external. The mouth leads into a gullet or esophagus, which opens at its pedal end into the one internal cavity possessed by the animal, the gastrovascular space. This is partly divided by membranous partitions, or mesentertes, that start from the inner surface of the column wall and pro- ject centrally. From the inner edge of the mesenteries come No. 405.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 749 the nettling filaments, or acontia, already mentioned. The line of attachment of a mesentery to the column wall is often marked, as in the Edwardsiz (Fig. 1), by a depressed line or furrow on the exterior of the column. A second internal feature of importance is the sphincter, or circular muscle, in the region between the oral disk and the column. This muscle, by virtue of which the upper part of the column may be puckered over the oral disk when this is con- tracted, lies either in the intermediate layer of the body wall (mesogloea), as in the Paractida, or in the inner layer (endo- derm), as in the Bunodida. These distinctions are not easily made out unless the region in question is examined microscopi- cally. When the sphincter is poorly developed, as in the Bolo- ceridæ, the polyps, even when contracted, usually leave their tentacles exposed. The following key gives the species of Actiniaria recorded for North America at depths within 100 fathoms of the sur- face and occurring north of Florida on the east coast, and north of southern California on the west coast. In indicating the geographical range the following abbreviations have been used : N., Arctic Ocean to Cape Cod. A., Arctic Ocean to Puget Sound. M., Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. P., Puget Sound to San Francisco S., Cape Hatteras to Florida. D., San Francisco to Southern California. KEY TO THE TRIBES OF THE SUBORDER ACTINIARIA. — - Colonial . à T : : : . * Zoanthez 58 - Not colonial 2 Tentacles in. two ile one nein (principal) wad the het cir- cumoral (accessory) . ; . Cerianthee 56 N = 2. Tentacles in a single circle 3 3- Column smooth, wrinkled, or vit longitudinal ionia, at eu twelve in number (six pairs of mesenteries) . Hexactinie 7 3. Column with eight longitudinal furrows (eight TER Edwardsiæ 4 GENERA AND SPECIES OF EDWARDSIÆ. 4. Tentacles sixteen or fewer ‘ Edwardsia 5 - Tentacles more than sixteen, usually at Haast tiet PS Edwardsiella 6 Polyp slender ; tentacles sixteen ; non-parasitic Edwardsia elegans Ver., N., low water bn 750 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIV. 5. Polyp very slender, length 30 mm., diameter 1.5 mm. ; tentacles six- teen ; parasitic on Mnemiopsis leidyi E. leidyi Ver., M.! 6. Polyp slender, length 125 mm., though canale of contracting to 35 mm., diameter 4 mm. S tentis twenty to thirty-six ; column with a brownish eet PE at aboral end, which is naked . sipunculoides (Stimp.) Andres, N., low water (F ig. 1) 6. Polyp Hae length 25-35 mm., diameter 2.5-3 mm. ; tentacles twenty-four to d ; column including aboral end with a brownish investment . ^ . E. lineata (Ver.), M., 4-12 fathoms Fic. 1.— Edwardsiella sipunculoides (Stimp.) Andres. After Verrill. FAMILIES OF HEXACTINLE. 7. Pedal disk absent- A ; ; } i . Ilyanthidæ 11 7. Pedal disk present ; i ; oto ctp o oa. ME 8. Acontia present NU Pond eheu . o. | Sagari ae 8. Acontia absent í : : à ; 9 9. Sphincter diffuse aid kik s : : : > Boloceride 18 9. Sphincter strong ia 10. Sphincter endodermal Shei ih titercubdted Bunodide 20 10. Sphincter mesogleal (column usually not tuberculated) Paractide 31 GENERA AND SPECIES OF ILYANTHID#. 11. Conchula (proboscis) Saree ; : : . . Bicidium 12 r1. Conchula absent : 12. Polyp elongated, iiem. 30 mm., THREE 6 mm., longitndinal sulca- tions twelve ; tentacles twelve ; usually parasitic on Cyanea arctica Bicidium parasiticum Ag., N. (Fig 2) 13. Column divided into three sections, an oral retractile capitulum, an intermediate scapus, and a pedal physa : Halcampa 14 13. Column continuous, not divided into sections . 15 14. Polyp elongated, length 25 mm., diameter 3 mm. eae twelve Halcampa farinacea (Ver.) Andres, N Bas fathoms (Fig. 3) 14. Polyp slender ; tentacles about twenty-four H. pallida (Ver.) Andres, z e water 15. Tentacles blunt or club-shaped mac eT actis 16 15. Tentacles tapering to a point . . naia H 16. Polyp much elongated, length 200-250 mm., whieh may by contraction be reduced to 75 mm., diameter 18 mm., longitudinal sulcations twenty ; tentacles twenty Eloactis Pora (Stimp.) Andres, M., low water (Fig. 4) 1 Known only as an immature form. * No. 405.| MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES.’ 751 17. Polyp elongated, tapering from oral to aboral end, length 25 mm., greatest diameter 6 mm. ; tentacles thirty-six, in two imperfect rows Llyanthus levis Ver., N. (Fig. 5) 17. Polyp rather slender, tapering from oral to aboral end, length about 9o mm., greatest diameter 18 mm. ; tentacles numerous, in several rows. « . : : E . . J. chloropsis Ver., S. ENG Fic. 5. SEO Fic. 2. — Bici b 177 Ag. After Verrill. Fic. 3. — Halcampa farinacea (Ver.) Andres. After Verrill. Fic. 4. — Elvactis Producta (Stimp.) Andres. After Verrill. Fic. LS Tivanthus 7, s Ver. SPECIES OF BOLOCERIDE. 18. Tentacles with strong sphincter muscles at base (often deciduous) __ olocera 19 19. Polyp broad and low, height about 30 mm., diameter of oral disk about 200 mm. ; tentacles several hundred, crowded, in some twenty indis- tinct rows. 3 Bolocera multicornis Ver., N., 45 fathoms 19. Polyp massive, height about roo mm., diameter of oral disk 150- 250 mm. ; tentacles numerous, in some three concentric rows B. tuedie (Johnst.) Gosse, N., 37-365 fathoms (Fig. 6) OER SAHIN) UK ASRS RN Sa T, 65°45 LLET A oo ooann: so o Fic, 6. Fic. 7. Fie. 8. Fic. 6. — Bolocera tuedie (Johnst.) Gosse. After Andres. ‘Fic. 7. — Evactis artemisia (Dana) Ver. After Dana. Fic. 8.— Epiactis prolifera Ver. After Verrill. 4 25. 26. . Column with scattered tubercles . Polyp columnar, height 150 mm., greatest diameter 35 mm. ; THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIV, GENERA AND SPECIES OF BUNODIDA. Column perforated by numerous pores through which water may be discharged . i é : : ; i š . Evactis 21 Column not perforated by pores ‘ t 22 . Polyp broad and low, diameter of oral disk 6o mm. ; tentacles in three series . ‘vactis artemisia (Dana) Ver., P. (Fig. 7) . Column surrounded at its middle by a band of egg pits Epiactis 23 . Column without egg pits . 24 Polyp ro mm. in height, diameter of aboral disk 12 mm. ; tentacles about ninety-six ; egg pits as many as thirty to forty, often contain- ing young, which then resemble buds s Epiactis prolifera Ver., P. (Fig. 8) : i à . 25 . Column with tubercles in longitudinal rows — . : : . FiG. 10. Fic. 9. — Tealia crassicornis (Miill.) Gosse. After Andres. Fic. 10. — Bunodes stella Ver. After Verrill. Oral edge of column with marginal spherules . . Phymactis 26 Oral edge of column without marginal spherules — . . Tealia 27 Polyp 50 mm. in height, diameter of oral disk 38 mm.; tentacles ninety-six, in four circles : Phymactis cavernata (Bosc) Andres, S., between tides Polyp 50 mm. in height, diameter of oral disk 120 mm. ; tentacles sig Tealia crassicornis (Miill.) Gosse, A., N., 16-40 fathoms (Fig. 9) . Tubercles forming rows on column from oral to aboral end . Bunodos 29 . Tubercles limited to oral portion of column € Cos iae . Polyp 5o mm. in height, diameter of oral disk 35 mm. ; tentacles large: forty-eight to seventy-two — . S Bunodes stella Ver., N., tide pools (Fig. oe tentacles ninety-six, in four circles r Aulactinia capitata Ver., M., S., low wate No. 405.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 753 GENERA AND SPECIES OF PARACTID&. 31. Inner tentacles many times longer than outer 31. All tentacles of about the same length . 3 32. Polyp massive, height 150-180 mm., diameter of ital disk 200-250 mm.; tentacles numerous Actinostola 32 Actinostola callosa Ver., N., M., 45-300 fathoms (Fig. 11) 33. Diameter of pedal disk much less than that of column Ammophilactis 34 Sent MAS cC Soles e STI) 5 Oe I eS ak h t »! eS do Fic. 11. Fic. 12% Fic. 11. — Actinostola callosa Ver. After Verrill. Fic. 12. — A mmophilactis rapiformis (Les.) Ver. After Verrill. 33. Diameter of pedal disk as great as that of column or greater . 35 34. Height of column 80 mm., diameter of oral disk 25 mm., of column 12- 25 mm., of pedal disk 10-12 mm. ; tentacles numerous (144 or more) Ammophilactis rapiformis (Les .) Ver., M., tide pools e ig. 12) 35. Sphincter well developed, collar pronounced, especially in contracted specimens Siiri 36 35. Sphincter poorly developed, collar scarcely noticeable even in con- tracted specimens : x , : . Paractis 57 Fic. 13. FiG. 14. Fic. 13. — Stomphia carneola (Stimp.) " P usu Verrill. Fic. 14. — Paractis perdix Ver. After V 36. Height of column 50 mm., diameter of oral disk about 37 mm. ; tenta- cles ninety-six or more, in two or three crowded marginal rows Stomphia carneola eras Ver., N., 8-35 fathoms (Fig. 13) 754 37- o oo m be) Ae Ọ O > N ere . Surface of column smooth, height 5-8 mm., ine ix mm. ; THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Height of column 75-100 mm., diameter of oral disk about 125 mm. ; tentacles very numerous (about 384) Paractis perdix Ver., M., 62-192 fathoms (Fig. 14) SUBFAMILIES OF SAGARTIDZ. . Column divided into two segments, an oral capitulum and an aboral scapus ; cinclides usually absent . : . Phelline 53 . Column undivided ; cinclides usually create ; . Sagartine 39 GENERA AND SPECIES OF SAGARTINAE. . Column wall smooth or with d very Mec evidence of tubercles, no cinclidial tubercles : à i : : 40 . Cinclidial tubercles present i i : à i K 48 . Oral disk lobed, tentacles very numerous ; . Metridium 41 . Oral disk not lobed, tentacles numerous . ‘ ; Sagartia 42 SPECIES OF METRIDIUM. . Column roo mm. in height, diameter of oral disk 75 mm. ; tentacles very numerous, the central ones longest Metridium marginatum (Les.) M. Edw., N., M., low water to 9o fathoms (Fig. 15) . Polyp as in preceding species but with tentacles longer and more slender . ; : : M. fimbriatum Ver., P., low water ! SPECIES OF SAGARTIA. . Tentacles peripheral, so that more than half of the oral disk is expo . Tentacles chem m oral disk so that very little or none of it is expose . Height of column 15-25 mm., pe 10-20 mm.; tentacles about fifty, in two, three, or more rows, rather small uito S Ver., M., 72-1 Ro fathoms Height of column less than 10 m 45 Height of column about 20 mm. 46 Height of column 40 mm. or more 47 ; tenta- cles eighty-four, in four rows, central ones longest S. lucia Ver., M. N. tide pools . Surface of column broken by longitudinal and transverse furrows, height 6 mm., diameter of pedal disk 10-14 mm., of oral disk 6 mm., tentacles loug, sixty-four, in four rows S. pustulata McMur., M., shallow water 1 Probably synonymous with M. marginatum. No. 405.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 755 46. Height of column 20 mm., diameter 3-4 mm. ; tentacles forty-eight, in four rows . . S. gracillima MeMiüm M., shallow water 47. Height of column és mm., diameter 15 mm.; bie about sixty, rather short, length less hai the diameter of the oral S. modesta Ver., M., low water aa ig. 16) 47. Height of column 40 mm., diameter 25-35 mm. ; tentacles numerous, in three to five rows, longer than the diameter of the oral disk S. abyssicola (Kor. and Dan.) Ver., N., M., 75-640 fathoms i Fic. 15. Fic. 17. Fic. 1 Hoc on marginatum (Les.) M. Edw Fic — Sagartia modesta Ver. After Verrill. On the sides of the column several twisted acontia are seen, their points of exit rad the positions of cinclides Fic. 17. — Cylista leucolena (Ver. Andres. After Verrill, OTHER SPECIES OF SAGARTINA. 48. Cinclidial tubercles small, in irregular vertical lines . . Cylista 50 48. Cinclidial tubercles large : 49 49. Cinclidial tubercles forming a tud NERA middle of colia Aiptasia 5I 49. Cinclidial tubercles forming a band around pedal end of column damsia 52 50. Height of column 63 mm., diameter 10 mm. ; tentacles ninety-six, in five rows, slender, and longer than twice the diameter of the column Cylista leucolena (Ver.) Andres, M., shallow water (Fig. 17) 51. Height of column 38 mm., diameter of oral disk 18 mm. ; tentacles ninety-six, in four rows, length of inner tentacles 20 mm., of outer ones 6 mm. Aiptasia pallida (Ver.) Andres, S., shallow water 52. Height of column 75 mm., diameter 43 mm.; tentacles very numerous (500 or more in large bpecimida d ; on dead shells inhabited by her- mit crabs Adamsia tricolor (ben) Duch. and Mich., S., shallow water 32. Height of column 10-14 mm.; tentacles numerous, in two circles ; young on dead shells inhabited by hermit crabs (Catapagurus soci- alis Smith), later the shell may be dissolved, the polyp having formed a horny hood in which the crab protects its abdomen A. sociabilis Ver., M., 76-410 fathoms (Fig. 18) - 756 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV, GENERA AND SPECIES OF PHELLINJE. 53. Capitulum with longitudinal ridges, scapus strongly tuberculate Actinauge 54 53. Capitulum smooth, scapus granulated i . Phellia 55 54. Height of column 80-150 mm., diameter 5o-100 mm. ; tentacles ninety- six, in five rows Actinauge verrillii McMur., N., M., S., 50-506 fathoms (Fig. 19) Fic. 19. FIG. 20. Fic. 2 ecu "ness Ver. After Verrill. The cinclidial tubercles that occur near pedal ma of the column ted in the figure. Fic. 19. os tinauge serie: MeMer. her Verrill. Fic, 20. — Phellia arctica Ver. After Verrill t 55. Height of column (contracted) 18 mm., diameter of oral disk 5 mm. ; scapus with rough, thick cuticula ; below the middle are several transverse rows of large egg pits Phellia arctica Ver., A., 30 fathoms (Fig. 20) SPECIES OF CERIANTHEÆ. 56. Aboral end rounded and provided with a pore; aboral portion of column contained within a secreted tube Cerianthus 57 57. Column cylindrical, tapering aborally, length ae mm. a. (contracted, vnd mm.), diameter of column near middle, 25 mm.; marginal tentacles (125 or more) 32-38 mm. in length, circumoral tentacles 18 mm. in length Cerianthus americanus Ver., M., S., shallow water (Fig. 21) Fic. 21. — Cerianthn / Ver. After McMurrich. Fic. 22. — Epi: th 7 Ver. After Verrill. No. 405.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 757 [v - . Column cylindrical, tapering aborally, length 450 mm., diameter 40 m.; tentacles very numerous; marginal tentacles of different lengths, outer ones 25 mm. long, inner ones 56 mm. long; circum- oral tentacles 25 mm. long, in several rows H C. borealis Ver., N., M., 7-150 fathoms SPECIES OF ZOANTHEJXE. un rs Surface of body more or less incrusted with sand grains Epizoanthus 59 . Colonies of from three to ten or more polyps growing out of a common flesh ; height of polyp about 25 mm.; tentacles thirty-eight or more ; attached to stones or to dead snail shells inhabited by her- mit crabs (in many instances the shelly material has disappeared, leaving the common flesh of the colony to form an investment for the crab) Epizoanthus americanus Ver., N., M., 28-466 fathoms (Fig. 22) Ui be) BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the larger works of Andres (Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, Bd. IX, Die Actinien) and of Hertwig (“ Voyage of the Challenger,” Zoology, Vols. VI, XXVI), the following papers will be found of special importance in studying the North-American Actiniaria. AGASSIZ, A. '62 Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. ix, p. 159. '63 Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vii, p. 525. AGASSIZ, E. C., AND AGASSIZ, A. ‘65 Seaside Studies in Natural History. AGASSIZ, L. '59 Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vii. '60 Contrib. Nat. Hist. U. S. Vol. iii. GOULD, A. A. .'41 Invertebrates of Massachusetts. LE SUEUR, C. A. '17 Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. i, pp. 149, 169. McMunnicg, J. P. '87 Stud. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ. Vol. iv, p. 55- 19. '98 Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Univ. JAN "Vol. iv, p. 225 758 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. STIMPSON, W. '58 Marine Invertebrates, Grand Manan. VERRILL, AE 63 Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Nol. i, p. r. 65 Proc. Essex Inst. Vol. iv, p. 145. '66 Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. x, p. 333-- OB Proc. Essex Inst. Vol. v, p. 315. Ti 9 American Naturalist. Vol. ii, p. 251. 72 Amer. Journ. of Sci. (3). Vol. iii, p. 432. T3 Amer. Journ. of Sci. (3). Vol. v, p. 1. 73 Report U. S. Fish ae 1871-72. P. 295. 74 Proc. Amer. Assoc. Vol. x WE 340- '80 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. li, p. 165. Amer. Journ. of Sci. (3). Vol. x xxiii, pp. 216, 309. '98 Amer. Journ. of Sci. (4). Vol. vi, p. 493. '99 Amer. Journ. of Sci. (4). Vol. vii, pp. 41, 143, 205 375 REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. GENERAL BIOLOGY. Woods Holl Lectures for 1899.! drift of affairs at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl can be found than that contained in the volume of lectures for the past year. The growing interest in the station as a botanical center is shown in the fact that, while in 1898 no botanical lectures were published, in the past year one-fourth of the lectures are by botanists. D. H. Campbell spoke on the evolutions of the sporo- phyte in the higher plants; the importance of fossil plants was emphasized by D. P. Penhallow ; and D. T. Macdougal discussed some factors in distribution and the signifigance of mycorrhizas. Animal psychology was represented by two lectures by E. Thorn- dike, one on instinct, and the other on associative processes in animals, and by a lecture by H. S. Jennings, on the behavior of unicellular organisms. ‘ Some Governing Factors usually neglected in Biological Investigations," by A. Hyatt, and “The Aims of the Quantitative Study of Variation," by C. B. Davenport, were both con- tributions to the field of general biology. Physiology was repre- sented by A. Mathews's paper on the physiology of secretion and J. Loeb's interesting contribution on the nature of fertilization, while from the experimental standpoint T. H. Morgan's lecture on regen- eration is of importance. Cytology, which heretofore has been para- mount, was represented by only two papers: “ Nuclear Division in Protozoa," by G. N. Calkins, and * The Significance of the Spiral Type of Cleavage," by C. M. Child. Other interesting lectures were one on blind-fishes, by C. H. Eigenmann, and one on the develop- ment of color in moths and butterflies, by A. G. Mayer. The series of lectures, taken as a whole, shows an unusually well-balanced devel- opment of biological interests. P. Animal and Plant Colors. — Color in nature has been made the Subject of an interesting volume of some 350 pages, by Marion I. ! Biological Lectures from the Marine Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass., 1899. Boston, Ginn & Company, 1900. 282 pp. 759 760 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Newbigin. The introductory portion, which is included in the first two chapters, deals with the well-known distinctions between pig- mental and structural colors and a further classification within these two groups. It also contains a brief account of light-producing organisms. Then follows a series of chapters devoted to the consid- eration of the color phenomena in plants and in the various groups of the animal kingdom, special attention being paid to butterflies and to birds. As a result of this survey, the author states “that it is as yet impossible to give a definite physiological explanation of the origin of pigment; that it is practically impossible to classify pigments in a logical manner; that most of the problems connected with the subject are entirely unsolved." After this general denial of results, except from a simply descriptive standpoint, the author devotes a closing chapter to the theoretic aspects of the subject. This gives in an impartial way the explanations of the origin of different types of coloration as advocated by such Darwinists as Poulton, by such Lamarckians as Cunningham, and by those who, like Wallace, occupy iftermediate grounds ; Simroth's fanciful con- ceptions occupy what seems to us an undue amount of space. The Darwinian views are criticised from the standpoint of Piepers's able paper, and the views of the non-Darwinians are dismissed because they imply the inheritance of acquired characters. The volume shows little originality, but the very fact that the author has no special views of her own to advocate allows her to give the views of others in a more impartial way. The book is concluded with a good list of references, an index of authors, and an index of subjects. It is exceptional in having escaped the hands of the chromo-lithographer or, in fact, those of any illustrator. P. The Plankton of the Elbe, near Dresden, has been studied by Dr. B. Schorler? in collections made at eleven intervals, from April to November, 1898, in the main stream and in three contiguous bays. The current in the Elbe ranges from 40 to 190 cm. per second, and the plankton was less abundant in the main channel than it was in the quieter water of the adjacent bays, thus illustrating Schróder's law that the volume of plankton in a stream is inversely proportional to the rate of the current. In all, 143 species were found, of which ! Newbigin, M. I. Color in Nature, a. Study in Biology. London, J. Murray, 1898. xii + 344 pp. 2 Schorler, B. Das Plankton der Elbe bei Dresden, Zeitschr. f. Gewässer- kunde, Bd. iii (1900), pp. 1-27. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 761 88 are plants, and about one-third are reported as common. Like that of the Oder, the Elbe plankton is characterized by the predomi- nance of diatoms, especially in spring and autumn. In the main stream the phytoplankton greatly exceeds the zoóplankton in volume and variety and plays a very important part in the self-purification of the river water. Access of sewage does not have a deleterious effect upon the plankton. Dr. Schorler does not regard the Elbe plank- ton as autonomous, but dependent for its maintenance upon accessions from adjacent bays and lagoons, and from tributary waters. The littoral faana and flora also contribute to the potamoplankton. In the still water of the bays an abundant animal plankton of rotifers and crustaceans was found, which reached the unusual volume of 112 C.c. per cubic meter of water. CARK ZOOLOGY. New Edition of ‘t Wilson's Cell." — The penalty that an author must pay for writing a successful text-book is that of revision, and this penalty has been conscientiously and fully met by Dr. Wilson? in the new edition of his text-book on the cell. The first edition was published in 1896 and contained 371 pages and 142 illustra- tions. The second edition, now before us, contains upwards of a hundred additional pages and nearly fifty new illustrations. Minor changes appear on almost every page, and some sections have been entirely recast. The more striking changes reflect the steady growth of cytological knowledge. Thus, the centrosome, which in the first edition was treated as a permanent organ of the cell, is, in view of the most recent work on both plants and animals, regarded now as of mixed character, in that it sometimes exhibits the peculiarities of à permanent organ by being inherited from cell to cell, and at other times is strictly temporary. The statements as to the finer structure of protoplasm have also been considerably modified. In the first edition Dr. Wilson favored the fibrillar theory, though without deny- ing that other views might contain more or less truth. In the second edition the alveolar theory and even the granular theory have gained sufficiently to be fairly abreast their former rival. This change of ! Wilson, E. B. The Cell in Development and Inheritance. New York, The Macmillan Company, i900. Second edition, xxi + 483 pP- 762 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. view is presumably largely due to Dr. Wilson's own work, and the opinion now expressed in his book is that the various types of structure assumed for protoplasm by different schools may in reality represent different phases in the functional activity of.this substance. So thoroughgoing and complete has been the revision for the new edition that it will form an invaluable aid to every one interested in modern aspects of cytology. P. Intracellular Canals in Ganglion Cells. — The system of canals within the protoplasmic substance of ganglion cells, to which Holm- gren has recently called attention, has been identified by Bethe' in the spinal ganglion cells of the rabbit. That these canals have a wall of their own as contrasted with the protoplasm of the cell in which they lie seems doubtful They can be traced, however, beyond the limits of the cell, and in such regions show an undoubted wall; but this contains no nuclei, and hence its histological compo- sition is in doubt. No connection between the canals and blood vessels could be demonstrated, the structures in this respect differ- ing from the tubes discovered by Adamkiewicz. The physiologi- cal significance of these canals, whether they be lymph spaces or other such structures, is still to be ascertained. P. Vertebrate Anatomy. — Professor W. S. Miller? has edited and published under one cover four papers on vertebrate anatomy, the work having been done for the most part by students in his labora- tory. The first deals with the histology of the lung of Necturus, the second with this animal's vascular system, and the third with its brain. These three contributions are simple descriptive statements of the more obvious facts that they have to deal with, and are not far-reaching in any direction. The fourth paper takes up the ques- tion as to whether there are preformed natural openings on the lining of the body cavity of the cat, a question which is answered in the negative. The papers on the whole are not of a high order, and, in fact, it is difficult to justify the publication of the first three. Nor is the editorial work well attended to, as the following sentence ! Bethe, A. Einige Bemerkungen über die “intracellularen Kanälchen "RM Spinalganglienzellen und die Frage der Ganglienzellenfunction, Anat. Anzeige”, Bd. xvii (1900), pp. 304-309. : ? Miller, W. S. Contributions from the Anatomical Laboratory of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin, Bul. Univ. Wis. Science Series, vol. ii (1900), pp- 199-245 Pls. III-XV. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 763 shows (p. 203): * The nuclei of these cells do not seem to occupy any one characteristic position, but are found in all parts of the cell." ` P. Elementary Physiology.' — This small book consists of a series of outline headings in physiology for schools, with references to standard books where information on the subjects can be had, as well as a,set of laboratory exercises in this science. The grade of the work can be judged from the fact that on page 2 ten book refer- ences are given, of which six lead the reader to Shepard’s Chemistry and inform him that *any other good chemistry will answer just as well,” and four direct him to the “Dictionary, any unabridged.” The laboratory exercises equal the outlines. On page 140 we are instructed to * get from a butcher either the head of some mamma which still has the eyes uninjured or some eyes that have been care- fully removed," and, after certain preliminary steps, to pour out the vitreous humor and observe *the yellow spot, or area of acute vision.” As an obvious yellow spot is limited among mammals to human beings and monkeys, one is naturally inquisitive about the butcher shops in the neighborhood of the State Normal School of Minnesota. Unpretentious as the book is, one must regret that it departs so far from facts. P. Formaldehyde. — The properties of formaldehyde have been made the subject of an interesting communication by Neuville? An historical sketch of its discovery, uses in biology, as well as an account of its method of preparation and its physical and chemical Properties, precede a discussion of its action on albuminoids and color compounds. Gelatin, when subjected to its action, is rendered insoluble, though still remaining flexible. This action is not a simple coagulation, but a real chemical action, for, if the solution of formaldehyde used is weak, all traces of this reagent disappears when considerable gelatin is mixed with it. On the other hand, blood serum is less easily coagulated by heat, etc., in the presence of formaldehyde. Its action on pigments is very diverse. The coloring matters of bile and of urine seem unaffected by it, but those Which give to organisms their normal colorations are so differently !Cox U.O. 4 Syllabus of Elementary Physiology, with References and Lab- oratory Exercises. Mankato, Minn., Free Press Printing Co., 1899. viii + 167 pp- " Neuville, M. H. Sur la formaldéhyde, Bull. Soc. Philomathique, Paris, Sér. 9, T.i (1899), pp. 104-121. 764 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. affected that no rules can be laid down for its use, though it is cer- tainly less of a decolorizer than alcohol. Its considerable antiseptic and toxic properties are finally described. P. Jordan and Evermann's Fishes, Part IV.! — The last volume of this great work has just been issued. It contains the additional Addenda and the plates illustrating nearly one thousand species of American fishes. This entire work is in one sense a revision of * Synopsis of Fishes of North America" (Bulletin No. 16), by Jordan and Gilbert. Bulletin No. 16, however, included only the fishes then known to inhabit North America north of the Tropic of Cancer. Aside from the Addenda, it forms one volume of 866 pages and records 1339 species. The Addenda contain 108 more pages, which adds about 160 more species. The volume contains no plates. The present work includes all salt-water fishes which inhabit America north of the equator, and all fresh-water fishes north of the Isthmus of Panama. Aside from the Addenda, the work contains 2744 pages and describes 3127 species of fishes. The Addenda in Vol. III contain 130 pages, and Vol. IV has an additional Addenda of 160 pages. Vol. IV also includes a com- plete table of contents for all species listed in the four volumes. “From this systematic arrangement it is seen that the fish fauna of North and Middle America, as now understood by the present authors, embraces 3 classes, 30 orders, 225 families, 1113 genera, 325 subgenera, 3263 species, and 133 subspecies." This is by far the most extensive and most useful work.ever written on American fishes. It contains descriptions of all the species known from the region which it covers and analytical keys to facilitate identification. Atterition is often called to doubtful species in footnotes, and in many cases the original description is given. This tendency not to place in synonymy doubtful species, when chances are even that 2 careful study will prove them valid, is to be commended. It will no doubt require a careful study of variation to dispose properly of many doubtful species and many subspecies. It is best to let them stand as first indicated until this sort of study can be made. The next century will witness a great deal of study of the variation of animals, which, with its complement of morphological study, will eventually reduce the work of the classification to a proper basis. Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W. The Fishes of North and Middle 1 America, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. (1900), Pt. iv, No. 47, ci + 3137-3313 PP» 392 plates. No. 405.]} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 765 The authors will invite some criticism because of their extensive use of genera and subgenera. Any characteristics which will group species must be noticed, but whether or not as much prominence should be given many of these groups by giving generic or subge- neric names will remain as a matter of opinion. If in this respect - the authors have gone to one extreme, they have chosen the more scientific one. The retention of common names will prove very useful. The type of each genus is indicated, as is also the locality of the type of each species. ‘The museum in which the type is preserved is also given. In the mechanical construction of the book we regret that the family and generic names are not at top of the page, as in Bulletin No. 16; a useful feature has here certainly been omitted. The authors have done well a great work, and Bulletin No. 47, for many years to come, will represent the ideas of our.best American ich- thyologists concerning the classification of our American fishes. : S. E. MEEK. The Monascidians of the Bremer Expedition. — The report on this group of animals is by Dr. Robert Hartmeyer (Zool. JaArb., Abth. f. System. Geog. u. Biologie, Bd. XII (1899), pp. 433-529). In all, eleven species are treated, three of which are new. The genus Dendrodoa, the validity of which has been doubted by several Writers, is accepted by the author and a new species added. It is pointed out that, as between the northern and more southern range of each species, in every case the latter were taken in the greater depths of water. The author thinks that the distribution of the species confirms the idea of circumpolar range of species. The same writer reported some time ago (Zool. Anz., Bd. XXII (1899), Nr. 599, P. 268) that the two Arctic species in Dendrodoa of the collection retain the larvæ in a brood pouch until a late stage of life. This method of larval protection is not uncommon among compound Ascidians, but is known in only one or two other instances among the simple ones. The author points out that the tendency of Arctic marine animals to thus retain the young for protection is seen in various groups; and that, consequently, the habit in these two species of Monascidians is only in keeping with a general physiological adaptation ; that, in all probability, other species will be found to possess the same peculiarity. I may add that I have recently observed the same thing In a species of Ascidia from Alaskan waters. W. E. RITTER. 766 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Relation between Nervous and Glandular Tissue in Ascidians. — ]t is now fully established that the brain and neural gland in the ascidian embryo develop from a common Anlage. Professor M. M. Metcalf (Biol. Buil., Vol. I, No. 1) has studied the relation of the nerve and duct which spring from the brain and gland, respectively, and run along the median line on the partition wall between the : pharynx and cloaca, and finds a closeness of relations there between the two tissues that is quite as remarkable as is the fact of their common origin. In Amaroncium constellatum, for example, a rudimentary duct starts out from the gland, but soon loses its lumen and becomes so inti- mately united with a strand of cells from the brain that it is impos- sible to tell whether the common mass should be regarded as coming from brain or gland. W. E. RITTER. The Life Cycle of Adelea Ovata, a coccidium parasitic in the digestive epithelium of Lithobius, has been described by Siedlecki." When the sporocysts, which are resistant stages, are taken into the intestine of the host, the two sporozoites are liberated from the cyst and enter the epithelium, where, by a process of endogenous gtnera- tion, they give rise to two sexually different stages, the microgameto- cytes and the macrogametes. These pass into the lumen of the intestine, where a smaller microgametocyte attaches itself to a larger macrogamete and undergoes two divisions, producing four microgametes. These two divisions differ in character, the first being a regular division resulting only in a quantitative reduction of the chromatin, while the second is irregular and apparently reduces the number of chromosomes. The nucleus of the macro- gamete also rejects a portion of its chromatin. A single micro- gamete then unites with the macrogamete, and divisions follow which result in the formation of the resistant d C Notes. — In the Prague Sitzungsberichte Dr. Mrazek describes the destruction of cysts of the sporozoan Glugea in the spinal cord of Lophius by the phagocytes of the host which press through the walls of the cyst and devour the spores. The limnetic Peridinidæ of Norway are discussed by Huitfeldt- Kaas in the Christiania Skrifter. Five species are reported, of 1 Siedlecki, M. Étude cytologique et cycle évolutif de Adelea ovata Schneider, Ann. de l Inst. Pasteur (1899), pp. 169-192, Pls. I-III. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 767 which three are new. One of these, Ceratium curvirostre, resembles C. kumaonense, described by Carter in 1871, from Hindostan. The cosmopolitan C. hirundinella reaches its greatest development in Norwegian waters at the maximum summer temperature, in one instance attaining 50,000,000 per square meter of lake surface. The inaugural address of Rektor Karl Brandt of the University of Kiel reviews the methods, progress, and problems of planktology, with special reference to the productivity of the sea. The poverty of the tropical oceans is correlated with the greater activity of denitrifying organisms in these waters, while the low temperature of the arctic seas hinders this process and greater fertility ensues. The larval form of Æpischura lacustris, a peculiar asymmetrical copepod of our Great Lakes, has been found by Professor C. D. Marsh in Green Lake in the winter months. The structure of the male abdomen and fifth feet are described in the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy. The development of the larva indicates but a remote relation to Diaptomus. The asymmetry appears late in the development of the larva. No. 3 of Vol. IV of the American Journal of Physiology contains the following articles : * The Occurrence and Origin of the Xanthine Bases in the Fzces," by W. H. Parker; “ Physiological Studies on Mucine,” by Levin; “On the Reactions of Certain Infusoria to the Electric Current," by R. Pearl; and “A Plethysmographic Study of the Vascular Conditions during Hypnotic Sleep," by E. C. Walden. BOTANY. The Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.!— The second vol- ume of this important work, the first volume of which was noticed in the. April number of the American Naturalist, proves equally good With its predecessor. Several of the larger genera of Cacti, elabo- rated (as to their garden representatives) by well-known students of the group, are of especial interest to American botanists ; the chapter on the Grape is gratifying to those who hope for the improve- ment of other American fruits in as successful a manner as has been achieved in grapes; much of historic interest is to be found under Greenhouses and Horticulture; and the article on Insects forms an re little introduction to entomology. y; L. H., and Miller, W. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (in four am v ii, E-M. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900. 768 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Notes. — Simultaneously with the concluding number of Erythea appears the first number of Vol. V of Zoe, which, after a suspension of several years, has resumed publication. In its new form Zoe is a thin octavo and apparently to be devoted to botany, so that, judg- ing from this first number, it is a pretty close equivalent of the discontinued Ærythea. No. 19 of the Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, constituting No. 25 of the current volume of the Proceed- ings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, is by Mr. M. L. Fernald and deals with Mexican and Central American phanerogams, chiefly Labiatee and Solanacez. Revisions are given of Salvia and Solanum of the subsection Torvaria, as represented in that region. The former comprises 217 species (contrasted with 118 recognized by Bentham in 1848, and 126 recognized by Hemsley in 1887). A very useful addition to the paper is an alphabetical list of collectors, with an indication of the disposal that has been made of their specimens, In the Atti del R. Istituto d'ncoraggiamento di Napoli for 1899 Professor Comes publishes a monographic revision of the genus Nicotiana, illustrated by seven plates. M. Crépin has a note on a probable hybrid of Rosa carolina and R. nitida in Rhodora for June. Under the title * Economic Grasses, III," Professor Scribner issues, as Bulletin No. 20 of the Division of Agrostology of the United States Department of Agriculture, an illustrated synopsis ofsthe tribes and genera of Graminez that will prove useful to all students of that important family of plants. [ Carex willdenowii and its allies are given comparative treatment by Holm in the American Journal of Science for July. Under the title of “Icones Flore Japonice” the College of Science of the Imperial University of Tokyo is issuing a folio con- sisting of plates, accompanied by bibliography in Latin or English, and descriptive text in Japanese. The first fascicle, published in February, illustrates Prunus pseudo-cerasus, a spontanea, and /sopyrum nipponicum. Messrs. Ito and Matsumura have begun the publication of a Tentamen Flore Lutchuensis in the Journal of the Science College of the University of Tokyo. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 769 Professor Stanley Coulter contributes an annotated catologue of the spermatophytes and pteridophytes of Indiana to the twenty- fourth Annual Report of the Department of Geology and Natural Resources of that state. In La Semaine Horticole of June 9 M. Rodigas states that in Paris are cultivated not far from go,ooo trees, the average duration of the principal species of which is placed as follows: horse-chestnut, II5 years; sycamore, 61; ailanthus, 54; locust, 42; linden, 24; Paulownia, 14. The mortality among the trees in the center of the city is said to be twice as great as in the suburbs, and the principal causes of their death are given as: (1) dust on the leaves; (2) reverberation of solar rays from buildings; (3) gas, etc., in the soil ; (4) injury to trunks and branches; (5) lack of aération of roots; (6) the use of salt after snow falls in winter. The Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1899, recently issued, contains a number of résumés of progress in science as applied to agriculture, by competent writers, which give the volume an unusual interest and value for the teacher’s library. The Proceedings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science for 1899 contains an index to the contents of the publica- tions of that body during its existence that will greatly facilitate reference to the often valuable matter that they contain. Der Tropenpflanzer for June contains an interesting article on cotton production and manufacture, illustrated by maps and the most effective graphic devices. The application of photography to scientific illustration finds exemplification in Mr. Woods's paper on Stigmonose, a disease of carnations and other pinks, recently published as Buletin No. 19 of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology of the United States Department of Agriculture. Among other things the sucking apparatus of aphides, fixed in situ, is represented in leaf sections, and it is interesting to observe that these creatures afford a practical demonstration of the course of the flow of sap, since their beaks seek the fibro-vascular bundles of the leaves. A biographical sketch of Edwin Faxon, accompanied by an excel- lent portrait, appears in Ahodora for July. 770 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. GEOLOGY. The Yellowstone National Park.!— The final results of detailed geological investigation in the Yellowstone Park by Arnold Hague, geologist in charge of the survey, are to be published in a monograph consisting of several volumes. Part II of the series has been issued, containing descriptive geology of portions of the area and special papers on petrography and paleontology; several of these, notably those chapters by Professor Iddings, have already been printed in abstract, or more fully in annual reports of the survey. The authors of the several chapters are: Arnold Hague on the Mesozoic ridges of the southern part of the park, J. P. Iddings and W. H. Weed on the Gallatin Mountains and the Tetons, Weed on the Snowy Range, Iddings on petrography, the rhyolites, and some description of por- tions of the Absaroka Range, C. D. Walcott and G. H. Girty on Paleozoic fossils, T. W. Stanton on Mesozoic fossils, and F. H. Knowlton on the fossil flora. South of the park the Teton Range contains a nucleus of crystal- line schists and gneisses overlain by flexed Paleozoic and Meso- zoic strata; these were deeply eroded and covered by breccias and rhyolites, the latter forming vast flows, which constitute a large por- tion of the present Yellowstone plateau. In the Gallatin Mountains, northwest of the park, strata ranging from Cambrian to Cretaceous have been elevated, folded, and faulted, and at the close of the Laramie the rdcks were invaded by dikes, sheets, and laccoliths of igneous rock. In comparing the rocks of Electric Peak and Sepul- chre Mountain, the former coarsely crystalline and the latter volcanic, in close proximity, Iddings has determined that diorites may be chemically identical with andesites of different mineral composition. Like the Tetons, the Snowy Range, northeast of the park, has an archzan core bordered by sediments dipping toward the lavas. In the southern part of the park a number of ridges of Cretaceous sandstone occur, with the rhyolites abutting against their upturned anks. There are here several exposures of dacite or quartz andesite, apparently older than the rhyolite. A sandstone near the base of Pinyon Peak contains Laramie plants; a conglomerate 1 Geology of the Yellowstone National Park, Monograph XXXII, U. S. Geolgt cal Survey, Pt. ii, Descriptive Geology, Petrography, and Paleontology, by Arnold Hague, J. P. Iddings, W. H. Weed, C. D. Walcott, G. H. Girty, T. W. Stanton» and F. H. Knowlton. xvii+791 pp., 121 plates. Washington, 1899. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 771 overlying the Laramie and beneath the earlier volcanics is here conspicuous and is believed to be of Eocene age. An interesting physiographic feature described by Mr. Hague is the old outlet of Yellowstone Lake, which formerly drained off to the southward by way of Snake River, and sent its waters to the Pacific. The outflow was through Outlet Canyon, south of the lake, and this gorge was so obscured by forest and glacial drift that for many years it was not suspected as being so important a key to the physiography. It is described as a “ broad, deep gorge, and through- out a long period of time evidently served as the channel for a rapid, powerful stream carrying a large volume of water. To-day its bot- tom is a flat, grassy meadow.” . .. An old terminal moraine across the bottom of the canyon marks the course of the present continen- tal divide. A mighty change was effected in late geologic times by the damming of the lake to the southward. and its overflow through the decomposed rhyolite on the north, so that the whole vast basin was diverted to form Yellowstone River and drain to the Altan- tic. The Yellowstone canyon and falls are results of this natural accident. Professor Knowlton’s study of the fossil flora, largely collected from the Tertiary tuffs and breccias, is a valuable contribution to paleobotany. Many species new to science are described, and it is shown that the present flora of the park is wholly distinct from that of Tertiary time. * Climatic conditions must have greatly changed. The climate during Tertiary time, as made out by the vegetation, was a temperate or subtemperate one, not unlike that of Virginia at the present time, and the presence of the numerous species of Ficus would indicate that it even bordered on subtropical." The volume consists of goo pages of heavy paper, exclusive of plates, and there are 121 plates, in part map folders and thick helio- types. A book, 12 X 9 inches, of this thickness, is, to say the least, unwieldy, and it seems undesirable to bind together diverse material, by various authors, in such bulky tomes. The margins are unneces- sarily wide, and a book of this sort is extremely difficult to handle, and absolutely useless for the geologist in the field. As all the chapters are distinct in authorship, and the sequence is of no especial significance, such a work might much better be bound in a number of smaller volumes by separate authors. The microphotographs by Iddings are of unusual excellence, and most of the illustrations are good. The reconstruction of geologic cross-sections in the air (Pls. V, XXXII), for heights of 10,000 feet, 77? THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. is unwarranted by the facts cited or actual sections shown. Illus- tration of the descriptive geology would be improved with more diagrammatic figures in the text. There is a prejudice among sci- entists against text-figures in monographs ; it seems to the writer that brevity and precision are the first requirements of a modern scientific work, and sometimes a text-figure will save referring to a remote plate, or reading a page of otherwise obscure statement. EAT I Maryland Weather Service.!— If the plans of the Maryland Weather Service and Geological Survey are carried out to a finish, that state will in a few years have the most complete record of natural resources ever made for a single area. The Weather Service pro- poses to investigate land forms, weather, water, climate, soil, forestry, crops, fauna, and flora; the Geological Survey is studying earth physics, rocks, and minerals. Both organizations are under the effi- cient management of Professor William Bullock Clark, supported by state funds and by a corps of scientific assistants picked from Johns Hopkins University. The first volume of the Maryland Weather Service is issued in the same size and style as the Geological Survey, with lavish illustration in the form of maps, charts, half-tones, heliotypes, and colored plates. The colored cloud pictures of the Hydrographic Office are reproduced. In the introduction Professor Clark states the plan and organization of the service. Cleveland Abbe, Jr., has a chapter on the physiog- raphy of the state. Meteorology is treated by Cleveland Abbe, of the U. S. Weather Bureau, F. J. Walz, and O. L. Fassig. The same thorough reconnoissance of the field is shown in this volume as in the early volumes of the Geological Survey. Professor Abbe's chapter on Aims and Methods of Meteorological Work is a complete statement of modern methods of studying the weather, with illustra- tions of all the instruments used. Other chapters are historical, statistical, and bibliographical. T. A. J., JR Experimental Geology.* — The course of public lectures given by M. Stanislas Meunier in the Natural History Museum of the J ardin des Plantes in 1898 has been published in a small volume in popular form. The work is divided into two parts; the first deals with experimental imitation of surface processes in geology, denudation, 1 Maryland Weather Service, vol.i. Johns Hopkins Press, 1899. ? Meunier, Stanislas. La géologie expérimentale. Paris, 1899. No. 405.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 773 and sedimentation ; the second with the chemical and mechanical processes of the earth’s interior. The book is illustrated with fifty- six text-figures, mostly in illustration of apparatus now exhibited in the museum. The experiments described are those which have been carried on in the author’s laboratory, as stated in the preface; this being the case, it is unfortunate that the account of apparatus and method is so brief that it would frequently be impossible to reproduce an experiment from the description given. The arrangement of the book is geological, but the text deals almost wholly with laboratory experiments; the geological application is not always clear, and in other cases the demonstration seems self-evident. Thus, particles of quartz are placed on a marble slab under a stretched elastic band, a weight is placed above, and the elastic slowly released. *Striations are produced comparable to those of glaciers.” The conclusion is stated that glaciers cannot move as they do without eroding their beds. Again, Elie de Beaumont is quoted as stating that deltas are characteristic and distinctive of the present epoch; M. Meunier is convinced, after experimental study of deltas, that analogous structures have always existed since sedimentation began — a conclusion not likely to be disputed. This elementary treat- ment of the subject, however, is perhaps justified by the popular quality of the work; the experiments are illustrative rather than conclusive, T. A. J., Jn. Maryland Geological Survey.' — The third volume of the Mary- land Geological Survey has been promptly issued and is as thorough and well executed as the earlier volumes. The subject is highway investigation ; Professor Clark, state geologist, contributes two chap- ters on organization and on the relation of the geography, geology, and climate of the state to road building. Excellent physiographic, geologic, and meteorologic maps of the state are presented, and micro- photographs showing the structure of the principal rocks which may be used as road metals. St. G. L. Sioussat gives an interest- ing historical chapter on the development and influence of highway legislation in Maryland, and A. N. Johnson describes exhaustively the present condition of the state highways and methods of road construction. The last three chapters are by Professor Reid, on experimental tests, administration, and highway economy. The ! Maryland Geological Survey, vol. iii. Johns Hopkins Press, 1899. 461 pp. 35 plates. 774 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. volume is thoroughly indexed, and in an appendix are printed the laws of Maryland relating to highways. In this volume, as in the earlier ones, the wealth of illustration is an especially marked feature. Separate colored maps of every county show the different kinds of roads and the distribution of rocks available for road build- ing. The chapters on construction, tests, and administration — about one-half the book — are a complete summary of modern road- making methods and have a wide interest outside of the state. The bibliographies are very complete, and the method of road adminis- tration of all the states of the Union and many foreign countries is concisely summarized. If publication by the state of an attractive book of instructions tends to produce good roads, Maryland, in this respect, is far in advance of other states. LAL IE - PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) Bessey, C. E. The Modern Conception of the Structure and Classification of Diatoms, with a Revision of the Tribes and a Rearrangement of the North Amer- ican Genera. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. Vol. xxi, pp. 61-86, Pl. V. — BEYER, Gro. E. Louisiana Her vata with a Check List of the Batrachians and Rep- tiles of the State and the Avifauna of Louisiana, with an Annotated List of the Birds of the State. New Orleans, 1900. 45pp. Reprinted from Proc. La. Soc. Nat. Meg RUNER, H. L. On the Heart of Lungless prim poenas . Journ. of Morph. Vol. xvi, No. 2, pp. 323-355, Pl. XV. — CALL, R. E. k Dons Illustrated Catalogue of the Mollusca of Indiana. 24/4 Ann. Rep. Dept. Geol., etc., Indiana. PP- 337-535, 78 plates. — CURRIE, RoLLA P. A New en of Paradise. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxii, No. 1204, pp. 497-499, Pl. XVII. — JoRDAN, D. S., . V. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 47, ci + 3137-3313 pp. 392 plates. — Macoun, J. Catalogue of Canadian Birds. Pt. i, Water Birds, Gallinaceous E and Pigeons. Geol. Survey Canada. Ottawa, 1900. 218 pp.— ALLEY, HEN Report on the Warrior Coal Basin. Geol. Survey Alabama. Jacksonville, fh. Vance Printing Company, 327 pp., map and figs.— MERRILL, G. P., and STOKES, New Stony Meteorite from Allegan, Michigan, and a New Iron Meteor- ite from Mart, Texas. Vol. ii, pp. 41-68. — MILLER, G. S., Jr. The Giant Squir- rels of Burmah and the Malay Peninsula. Vol. ii, pp. 69-77. — MILLER, G. S., Jr., Descriptions of Two New Squirrels from Tuong, Lower Siam. Proc. Wash- ington Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 79-81. — MILLER, G. S., Jr. Preliminary Revision of the European Red-backed Mice. Proc. Washington Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. Europe and America, etc. Ann. V. Y. Acad. Sci. Vol. xiii, No. 1, pp. 1-72. — RANKIN, W. M. The Crustacea of the Bermuda Islands. Ann. W. Y. Acad. Sci. ol. xii, No. 12, pp. 521-548, Pl. XVII. — SMITH, FRANK. Notes on Species of North-American Oligochzta. IV. On a New Lumbricid Genus from Florida, etc. Bull. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. Vol. v, pp. 459-478, Pl. XLI. — SMITH, JouN B. A Hundred New Moths of the Family Noctuide. Proc. U. S. Nat. us. ol. xxii, BP verd —'TRELEASE, WM. Some Twentled-Cendaty Problems. Science Lot xii, pp. 48-62. Bulletin Johns Hopkins Mota Vol. xi, Nos. Pages 113. July-August. — Journal Cincinnati Society of Natural History. Vol. xix, No. 6.— Znsect World, The. Vol. iv, No. 6. June. — Science Gossip. Vol. vii, ud 74. July. (No. 404 was mailed August 27.) 775 TO THE DEAF. A rich lady, cured of her deafness and noises in the had dei Dr. Nicholson’s Artificial Ear Drums, gave $10,000 to his institute, so that deaf people unable to procure the Ear Drums may have them free. Address No. 11479. THE NICHOLSON INSTITUTE, 780 Eighth Avenue, New York, U.S.A. MARINE BIOLOGICAL SUPPLY DEPARTMENT Preserved material of all Ltypes of animals, for class work or for the museum. For price list ind all Victa. address GEO. M. GRAY, CURATOR - - OE HOLL, Mass. merican Naturalist = Special Offer Bos ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, the full subscription price of $4.00 a - obtain the back vol- mm bs sais VOL. XXXIV, NO. 406. OCTOBER, 1900 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS PAGE I. Reconsideration of ee Evidence for a Common Dinosaur-Avian Professor H. F. OSBORN 777 The Gall of the canine Pine : . W.A. CANNON 801 Note on Distomum Arcanum (N. Sp. ) in Ark | Fro Ogs Professor W. 8, NICKERSON 811 Instinct or Reason! . . G. W, and E. G. PECEHAM 817 . Editorial Comment: Doubtful Nnm. Frazer's Life of Cope, The Biological Bulletin VI. Reviews of Recent Literature: Psychology, Individual Vedan Eo 821 of the Crayfish, The Problem of Innate Ideas, Empirical T 43 HH Zoülogy, The Effect of Staleness of the Sex-Cells upon Siding Pro- 823 tozoan Studies, The aie tae Scientific Results of H. M. S. “ Thetis,” The Temple Primers, The Biological Bulletin, Notes — Botany, Text- 828 830 Book of Botany, ed —Paleontology, Fossil Cephalopods in the Timan, Russian Carboniferous Cephalopods VII. News 832 VIII. Publications Received BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 9-13 TREMONT PLACE Chicago London 37 Bedford Street, Strand New York g! 70 Fifth Avenue 378-388 Wabash Avenue pe Ot a tas Entered at the Past-Office, Boston, Mass., as Second-Class Mail Matter ~ American Naturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: , PH.D., "Later of Texas, puces on mag lea F =e Naruratssr i is an iustae s IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor. XXXIV. October, 1900. No. 406. RECONSIDERATION OF THE EVIDENCE FOR A COMMON DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM IN THE PERMIAN. DINOSAUR CONTRIBUTIONS, NO. 4. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. Tur relation of dinosaurs to birds has been one of the most attractive problems of comparative anatomy during the thirty- seven years which have elapsed since Gegenbaur’s observation that the tibiotarsus of Compsognathus, one of the smallest car- nivorous dinosaurs, closely resembles that of the bird. Since a number of new avian resemblances have recently been discovered among dinosaurs, it seems important to recon- sider this much debated problem. I. Avian RESEMBLANCES IN CARNIVOROUS BIPEDAL DINOSAURS. We owe to Fürbringer (88, p. 1592) a valuable historical summary of the literature and progress of opinion. The recog- nition of avian characters among dinosaurs has been generally 1 Presented before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Section Zoólogy, June 27, 1900. 777 778 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. C, the , A, pigeon (Columba), after Baur; B, carnivorous dinosaur (Megalosaurus), after Cuvier; Fic. 1. — Ankle joint of dinosaurs and birds, tibiotarsus. same, back view; D, young ostrich (Struthio), after Baur; Æ, the same, from the side; 7, Ornithotarsus, from Baur, after Cope attributed to Cope and Huxley ; but it appears that Gegenbaur enjoys the priority ; for, in 1864 ('64), he pointed out that Comp- sognathus in the structure of its tarsus presents a transition stage between birds and reptiles, or a species of double relation- ship, which in fact per- vades the entire skeleton. Cope ('66, p. 317 ; '67, pp. 234, 235 ; '69, p. 123) made a similar observation in Lælaps, the great carniv- orous Upper Cretaceous dinosaur, and considered the carnivorous dinosaurs in general as intermediate in position between rep- tiles and birds, adding to the list of avian characters the elongation of the ver- tebra of the neck and the very light construction of the arches of the skull. Unaware of Cope's ob- servations, Huxley's atten- tion was directed to the matter by Professor Phillips's collection of carnivorous dinosaur (Me- galosaurus) remains in the Oxford Museum; fresh from his memoir on the classification of birds, pub- lished in 1867, his eye was No. 406.] keen for avian resemblances, and he at once noted that the ilium of Megalosaurus was bird-like. In fact, Phillips had previously noted the resemblance of this bone to that of Apteryx. Stimulated to further comparison, Huxley (69, pp. 15 f.) observed other avian features, vis., that the ischium of dinosaurs ex- tends back parallel with the ilium ; that the. pre-acetabu- lar process, or pubic pedun- cle of the ilium, extends further downward than the post-acetabular, or ischial peduncle; that the acetabu- lum itself is partly open; that the limb bones are distinctly tubular; that the scapulo-coracoid elements are anchylosed together ; that the sacrum is partly ornithic, partly reptilian ; that the femur is vertical to the body, its head ex- tending outward into the acetabulum ; that the tibia possesses a prominent pro- cnemial crest ; that the as- tragalus embraces the lower end of the tibia. Huxley concluded (68) * there could be no doubt that the hind quarters of Dinosauria wonderfully approached DINOSAUR-A VIAN STEM. 779 Fic. 2. — Pelvic arch of left side, dinosaurs and birds. osau A, carnivorous dinosaur (All Tus), triradiate fa rotated backwards, after Gegenbaur , iguano- dont dinosaur, vestigial postpubis, Loin type, after Marsh. 780 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. those of birds in their general structure, and, therefore, that these extinct reptiles were more closely allied to birds than any which now lived.” He did not commit himself to the theory of direct ancestry, however, as shown in the follow- ing passage: “It may be regarded as certain that we have no knowledge of the animals which linked reptiles and birds genetically, and that the Dinosauria, with Compsognathus, Archzopteryx, and the struthious birds only help us to form a reasonable conception of what these intermediate forms may have been." In one important anatomical point Huxley was in error, since he believed that the pubis of dinosaurs, like that of birds, was directed backwards; whereas we now know that in all dinosaurs the pubis is directed forwards, like that of other reptiles. Huxley’s ideas culminated in his proposal of the group Ornithoscelida, or * bird-limbed " reptiles, to embrace two suborders, Dinosauria and Compsognatha. The latest expres- sion of Huxley's opinion is found in his paper on the “ Respira- tory Organs of Apteryx” ('82, p. 569): ** Thus, notwithstanding all the points of difference, there is a fundamental resemblance between the respiratory organs of birds and those of crocodiles pointing to some common form (doubtless exemplified by some of the extinct Dinosauria), of which both are modifications.” (The italics are our own.) Huxley’s final view, therefore, was that birds sprang from some primitive and unknown type of dinosaur. The conception of direct descent of birds from dinosaurs gained ground until it reached the force of positive theory in the writings of Hoernes, and especially of Marsh, as seen in the following paragraph (77, p. 228): “It is now generally ad- mitted by biologists who have made a study of the vertebrates that birds have come down to us through the dinosaurs, and the close affinity of the latter with recent struthious birds will hardly be questioned." Subsequently, however, Marsh (80, p. 188) pointed out that the absence of feathers in dino- saurs and pterosaurs and the presence of a free quadrate in birds rendered it probable that birds descended not from dinosaurs but from a more ancient sauropsid form. No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 781 II. RISE oF THE THEORY or HomopLasy. The theory of direct descent was more or less strongly sup- ported by many anatomists, but there were also many dis- senters. Seeley (Fiirbringer, '88, p. 1595) pointed out with truth that the direct descent theory rested upon resemblances of certain bones of the pelvis and posterior extremities which are found only in certain genera and are not characteristic of the whole group. Vogt also advocated the homoplastic view. Their opinions (79) were given by Seeley (81) as follows : * * All the characters whereon are based the claim of dino- saurs to be regarded as the ancestors of birds are only related to the power of keeping an üpright position upon the hind feet.’ * Vogt believes that certain dinosaurs were leaping or perch- ing animals, and infers that the avian characters of the pelvis and hind limbs thus came to be evolved from community of habit with birds. He is, however, not indisposed to see in dinosaurs possible parents of the ratites; while the Archzop- teryx would be the ancestor of the birds that fly." In 1882 Dollo also (82, '83) advanced the more modern idea that the resemblances in the pelvis and hind limbs might as well be considered adaptive as genetic. Baur, however (83, PP. 417 f.; '85 (2), pp. 446 f.), held firmly to the idea of direct descent, singularly enough, not through the carnivorous dino- saurs, but through the herbivorous iguanodont types. Dames, in opposition to Baur (84) concluded with Vogt, Seeley, and Dollo that the resemblances were due to adaptation, and that the direct ancestors of the birds could not be designated. A Still more conservative view, that the resemblances were alto- gether due to adaptation and not at all indicative of genetic descent, was taken by Richard Owen, by W. K. Parker (87), by Cleland (87), and by Mehnert (88). In the mean time, however, Owen, Cope, Mivart, Wiedersheim, had more or less strongly advocated the theory of the derivation of the carinate birds from the pterosaurs. Thus arose the extreme theory of Mivart (81) that the carinate birds sprang from pterosaurs, 782 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIV. and the ratite birds from dinosaurs. This was supported by Wiedersheim ('86). As a result of his own detailed review and comparison, Fürbringer in his great monograph upon birds (88, p. 1624) concludes that the direct descent of birds from any known type of Dinosauria is excluded; that the birds are monophyletic ; that the resemblances between dinosaurs and birds are all “convergence-analogies”’ and * parallels" due to relationship of the “middle grade"; more definitely (88, p. 1630), he regards Dinosauria, Crocodilia, and Lacertilia in the order named as the nearest relatives of birds, and believes that the stem of the birds is to be sought in a common sauropsidan ancestor lying between the Dinosauria, the Crocodilia, and the Lacertilia ; that this stem, as Marsh had already supposed, is to be found in the last division of the Paleozoic, namely, the Permian; here occurred the first differentiation of fine sauropsidan scales into feathers. The problem thus presents itself now in three forms: (1) are birds directly descended from primitive dinosaurs? (2) have birds and dinosaurs originated from a common stock? (3) are the remarkable resemblances between these two groups entirely due to parallelism or homoplasy ? Before discussing this triple problem we may continue with the subject of the resemblances and differences, or positive and negative evidence. III. ADDITIONAL Avian RESEMBLANCES IN BIPEDAL DINOSAURS. Cervical Vertebral Formula. — Fürbringer (88) observes that the cervical + cervico-dorsal vertebrae of birds vary from ten to eleven (Archzeopteryx) to twenty to twenty-five in the larger, long-necked forms, indicating that the number of vertebra is distinctively an adaptive character. More in detail, we may give the avian formule as follows: No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 783 VERTEBRAL FORMUL& OF Binps.! 4 oa | Li one -d o " ~ 5 $23 tao d mM g so g zo |34 ixi SF. tri | ud z BP e bes 55s|ls5sb5s| Be = 2 Seias eon vogs 3t £g |B38|$82| 2449/2543) $52 as ACE Ee! 5 $938 d $ e E ^ EE AE a e ae 4 ti (22° FEsigks (eobsl es | 3 Er Eg|sÉRO|sOR8|S3O0B8| Sa E O c a = -= a | o Archeopteryx2? . . | 10, t1 -= — |Itori2 21? 5,6 |200r21 BPO 6, n2 | 54 -I 4-26 | Promens ....5 20, 2I 2—4 I 7-11 27-32 uns E O oe SHAO 5 2,3 5 7,8 27, 28 — | — Hesperornis? .. Ir — — — 23 14 12 Anser cinereus. ..| 18 2 4 6 24 — o — Cygnus olor... | 23 2 4 5 6,7 29; 30 v poem Most Passeres . . “| 14 2 5 7,8 21, 22 | — | — From this table can be drawn the general conclusion, posi- tive or favorable to the common dinosaur-avian stem theory, that primitive birds had numerous cervicals, few dorsals, and numerous caudals. Pubis of Birds. — An important negative contribution to this problem is that upon the pubis by Mehnert (88), who shows that the pubis of birds in the earliest stages of development is directed forwards, like that of dinosaurs and other reptiles, and is secondarily shifted backwards, parallel with the ischium ; that the processus ileopectineus, rising mainly from the ilium, is a secondary structure, exclusively characteristic of birds, which has no homology with the falsely called prepubis of dinosaurs; thus the various comparisons of the bird and dinosaur pelvis by Huxley and others lose one of their strongest supports. The primitive (or embryonic) bird pelvis, however, is triradiate and resembles that of the primitive carnivorous dinosaurs. The secondary, or adaptive, bird pelvis is totally different from that of any dinosaur. This militates against the theory of the deri- vation of birds from any specialized dinosaurs, such as the Iguanodontia or Megalosauria, but not against the theory of a common dinosaur-avian stem. ! Mainly from Newton, '93-'96, p. 849. 2 Fürbringer, '88. 8 Marsh, '80. 784 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Musculature of Leg. — Dollo (83, 2) adds an extremely interesting resemblance in his comparison of the attachment of the muscles connecting the back of the femur with the ischium and with the caudal vertebre in birds and in Iguanodon; he shows that the so-called “third trochanter” of birds and dinosaurs, to which the name “ fourth trochanter” should be Fic. 3.— Right hind limb of duck (Anas boschas), showing, £74, the supposed 4th trochanter; i.f., ischio-femoral ; c.f., caudo-femoral muscles. After Dollo. applied, is actually a process quite distinct from the * third trochanter” of mammals, that its function is especially for the insertion of the “ischio-femoral” muscle and for the origin of the ** caudo-femoral " muscle; he concludes that the femur of Iguanodon is constructed upon the bird and not upon the reptilian type, and, as a corollary of this, that the extrinsic musculature of the tail in Iguanodon presented close resem- blances to the corresponding musculature in the bird. As No. 406.] DINOSA UR-AVIAN STEM. 785 shown in Fig. 3 there are two muscles at the back of the femur, the larger of which, or *ischio-femoral," passes from the crest of the fourth trochanter back to the ischium ; while the more slender caudo- femoral ” passes from the apex of the fourth trochan- ter back to the caudals and causes the sudden lateral movements of the tail, so characteristic of the duck. The pronounced develop- ment of this character in Iguanodon indicates a very powerful ‘caudo- femoral" muscle in this type. Further, Dollo ob- serves that Hesperornis, with its well- developed tail, presents a condition of the fourth trochanter intermediate between the avian and dinosaurian types. Returning to the car- nivorous bipedal dinosaurs, Osborn (99 (2) p. 163) described the complete hand and foot of Mega- losaurus from the famous Bone Cabin Quarry. Of greatest interest is the first digit, or hallux, not RXVTNMERUITMQU META a TA E e ), right hind Fic. 4.— Carni li (All limb, x 3s. After Osborn. before described; proximally the metatarsal of this toe (I) persists and fits into a shallow groove of metatarsal II ; the 786 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. shaft is, however, entirely interrupted in the middle portion; distally it is fitted to the roundér posterior portion of the shaft of metatarsal II, demonstrating that it was directed inward like the small hallux of Apteryx; unlike this bird, however, Fic. 5. — Hind foot of bird (Apteryx). Internal view of right tibiotarsus and pes. After Osborn. Megalosaurus possessed a complete and functional phalanx and claw upon the hallux, which undoubtedly were of service in grasping, as in carnivorous birds. IV. Avian RESEMBLANCES IN OUvADRUPEDAL DINOSAURS. It will be noted that all the resemblances above recorded relate exclusively to the bipedal bird-footed carnivorous and herbivorous dinosaurs, namely, to the Megalosauria and Iguano- dontia. The resemblances pointed out below refer to the entirely distinct group of Cetiosauria or Sauropoda, which, in contrast, are quadrupedal and reptile-footed. In describing Camarasaurus, Osborn (98, p. 220) directed attention to the resemblance between the cervicals and anterior No. 406.) . DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 787 * cervico-dorsals" of the Sauropoda and those of the emeu (Dromzeus), as follows: ** The long neck, similar in structure and almost as flexible as that of an emeu (Dromeeus), could thus pass through a prodigious arc in the search for food, either under or above water. The neck motion partly involved the anterior non-spine-bearing dorsals (vertebrae with free ribs, equivalent to the *cervico-dorsals' of birds), as in Dromzeus, behind which the comparatively inflexible, large, spine-bearing dorsals rose to maximum height in the sacrum for the inser- Fic. 6. — Neck of bird (Dromzus). Cervicals 13-14 and cervico-dorsals 1-2 E lacking median spines; dorsal 3 with a large blunt in spine. After Osborn tion of the Zgamentum nuche and elevator muscles." The importance of such an hypothesis of function will appear in the following description and discussion, and it applies to all the Cetiosauria, namely, to the Morosaurus and Diplodocus types as well, which, so far as known, are uniform with the camarasaur type in the peculiar bird-like arrangement of the posterior cervicals and anterior dorsals. (See Fig. 7.) Again, in the description of Diplodocus, Osborn (99 (1), p. 200) pointed out the resemblances in the relations of the posterior ribs to those of Apteryx. Two features were brought out, namely: two of the ribs actually underlie the anterior 788 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. border of the ilium, both in Diplodocus and Apteryx ; the last dorsal vertebra of Diplodocus coalesces with the superior . border of the ilium by a bar, which may be considered either a metamorphosed rib or an expansion of the metapophysial lamina : if this is a rib, Diplodocus presents a condition analo- gous to that in Struthio, in which the last vertebra and rib, technically known as a * pelvic vertebra," is all but united with the ilium. (See Figs. 8 and 9.) Dorsal Vertebral Formula. — 'The latest contribution to this subject results from the explorations of 1899 in the dinosaur beds of Wyoming. Holland (1900, p. 817) shows from the explorations of Fio: 7. deu RAINS aL Posterior cervical, lack After Marsh. rasaurus. Anterior dorsal vertebra, with blunt | median spine. After Cope. the Carnegie Museum in the Jurassic of Wyoming that the number of dorsal vertebrae in Diplodocus has been overestimated hitherto by Osborn; that this animal possesses in fact only ten dorsal vertebra, the entire vertebral formula being esti- mated as follows: Cervia. . . . . at bs 13 DOM = - |. IO BAUW o e 4 kudas 2... s 32-35 Contemporaneous with this discovery is that of the American Museum party, that the dorsal vertebrae of Morosaurus also number zen. No. 406.] DINOSA UR-A VIAN STEM. 789 Thus, in two of the largest Cetiosauria or Sauropoda we have an extremely short back, resembling the short back of birds, also an extremely long flexible neck, a very rigid attach- ment between the sacrum and ilium, correlated with the power of temporarily raising the entire presacral portion of the body. The significance of these avian resemblances in the neck and trunk of these gigantic dinosaurs is rather homoplastic than genetic, for the peculiar paired cervical and cervico-dorsal spines, the posterior abdominal ribs, the lengthened pre- acetabular iliac bar, correlated with certain feeding motions, are bird-like structures mingled with other non-bird-like struc- tures too numerous to mention. So also with the resemblances among the bipedal dinosaurs, in which the presacral portion of the body is permanently raised, bird-like and non-bird-like structures appear in close propinquity. The main avian character pervading all Dinosauria is the one originally observed by Gegenbaur, namely, the close junction of the astragalus with the tibia or tendency to form a tibio- tarsus. However, where there is so much smoke there may . be some fire, and we may now proceed to look into the proba- bility of the existence of a primitive bipedal dinosaur-avian ancestor. V. Tur CLAWED QUADRUPEDAL ANCESTRY OF BIRDS. Pycraft (96, p. 261) has recently discussed’ with care the osteology of Archaeopteryx. In opposition to the view of Hurst, that the manus retains five digits, two of which were used in climbing trees, Pycraft supports the older view, that digits I, II, III are the only ones represented, and that digit III, as in the Archosauria! generally, and in the Dinosauria in particular, had four phalanges, the terminal of which was armed with a claw. In addition to these reptilian characters are the thecodont, or socketed teeth, the flat, or amphiplatyan, ! * Archosauria " is a term employed by Cope for reptiles with two cranial arches at the back of the skull, namely, Rhynchocephalia, Crocodilia, and Dino- sauria. In the writer's opinion this group should be extended to include the Lacertilia, in which one arch has been lost. — - qu qt *eqo113A «c "u1J0Q$8() A91]IN "umi We po»so»[eo» 1u2uioo2 o1ajad ,, 40 ‘esop yor *uinit[t punjoq qu 9224] yy yum Y1qo312A ]es1op Wing 'snoopoj[diq — *g '514 Fic. 9. — Apteryx. Ilium overlapping the two posterior ribs oth and Struthio. On right side, 7.9.2, 7th dorsal; on left side, 2..9.:, 8th roth, as in Diplodocus. Decided /eo-fectinea/ process. Incinate dorsal, overlapped by ilium; oth and roth dorsals absorbed in processes as in Rhynchocephalia sacrum. 792 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV, vertebral centra, the numerous caudal vertebra. As regards the ribs, Pycraft considers it unsafe to infer that they lack uncinate processes, since these would be readily macerated off; the cervical ribs were slender and movably articulated. Abdominal ribs appear to have been present, as in the Crocodilia and Progano- sauria. In connection with the clawed quadrupedal stage in the history of birds, Opis- thocomus, the Hoactzin, proves to be of exceptional interest, ‘for,’ as Pycraft remarks, “it is probable R. f Ponens Right pes, x 1. After Bau Fic. 10. lura eig A, right manus, x 8, from Headley, after Dames ; B, right pes, Owen. T tibia ; Fb, fibula; R, radius; U, ulna; 7-7, metacarpals and metatarsals. that the peculiar habits of the nestling may be a survival of an order of HUE handed down from the very dawn of avian development." The young are reared in trees and at an early age climb out of the nest ; the hand is considerably longer than the forearm ; the pollex (I) is especially long and provided with a large claw; index II has an equally large claw, which is No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 793 produced beyond the skin fold that encloses the bases of the quills. These proportions are peculiar to the nestlings ; the adults shorten the hand and lose the claws as soon as they have ceased to be of assistance ; but, as Pycraft observes, could we discover a yet more primitive form “it is probable we should find that the claws and long hand were maintained throughout life." Further light upon the quadrupedal habits of primitive birds is given by the very interesting observation of Dean upon the locomotion of young cormorants, which, when frightened, clamber over irregular surfaces with the assistance of the fore limbs. Young gallinules, coots, and grebes are also quadru- pedal in habit. So far, therefore, as the osteology of Archzopteryx and the embryology and habits of recent birds guide us, the theory of à quadrupedal proganosaurian prototype is not excluded. VI. Tue Most Primitive QuUADRUPEDAL LAND REPTILES. This suggests a consideration of the Proganosauria, the most primitive representatives of the Hatteria phylum, as one of the possible sources of the birds. The Proganosauria, Baur (= Proterosauria, Seeley), constitute - a suborder of Rhynchocephalia and include some of the most ancient reptiles known of the Permian period. They occupy the cleft between Crocodilia, Lacertilia, and Dinosauria. In his extremely interesting and important papers upon. Palzeohatteria and Kadaliosaurus Professor Hermann Credner (88,'89) has described two proganosaur types from the Per- mian, near Dresden, one of which approaches most nearly the hypothetical ancestral dinosaur. Palzeohatteria, if we may judge by the comparatively unossified extremities of the limb bones, was probably an aquatic type ; Kadaliosaurus, on the other hand, was undoubtedly a land type, the limb bones being completely ossified proximally and distally, with spongy inte- rior. The prefix xa6aX(cev refers to the exceptional elongation of the limbs, the proportions of which are well represented in Fig. 11. Professor Credner has pointed out the striking resem- blance of the somewhat forward and backward spreading ilium 794 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. of this animal to that of a dinosaur. It is further to be noted that, while the forearm is extremely long, the metacarpals are shorter than the metatarsals, which are decidedly long and slen- der; the skull and shoulder girdle are unfortunately unknown ; the number of dorsals is estimated at twenty; there are two sacrals. While the ectepicondylar foramen of the humerus points in the direction of the lizards (in distinction from Palzohatteria, with its entepicondylar foramen), there is no I : B A Sq Fic..11.— Limbs of Proganosauria. Palzohatteria. A short-limbed, probably Kadaliosaurus. A long-limbed, pres terres- amphibious type. Left hind limb. Re- trial and active type. Metatarsals longer than stored by McGregor, after Credner. metacarpals. After Credner. question that we have here a type which comes very near the dinosaur atavus. The fact that the humerus and femur are of the same length accords with the condition characteristic of the early Cetiosauria, for the Cetiosaurus of Oxford has a humerus and femur of nearly equal length. The foot structure of Palæohatteria, as restored from Cred- ner's plates by Dr. McGregor (Fig. 11), fulfills all the required ancestral conditions, both for dinosaurian and avian ancestry. Granting, therefore, for the sake of argument, the hypo- thetical value of the Proganosauria in the largest sense as No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 795 ancestral to all Archosauria, including birds, the crucial ques- tion remains, whether birds sprang off independently from a proganosaur stem or from a common dinosaur-avian stem. In the origin of the birds we have to imagine, first, a terrestrial stage, in which bipedal was gradually substituted for quadru- pedal progression ; it would appear probable that the bipedal progression was first acquired during a terrestrial stage, because the foot of birds is primarily a walking, and not a climbing, organ ; second, a cursorial bipedal or, more probably, an arbo- real stage, in which both fore limb and tail enjoyed a change of function contemporaneous with the acquisition of feathers. VII. CORRELATED DEVELOPMENT OF TRIDACTYLISM AND BIPEDAL PROGRESSION. It appears probable that the ancestral dinosaur was a quad- rupedal type, with the body well raised off the ground, distinc- tively a land animal, because the distinctive specialization of this group appears to have been terrestrial, the Cetiosauria or Sauropoda secondarily acquiring an amphibious mode of ife. The manner in which the four-footed primitive dinosaurs acquired the bipedal habit and consequent reduction of the fore limbs and elongation of the hind limbs is beautifully illustrated in Chlamydosaurus of Australia and some other living lizards. As observed by Saville-Kent, this animal in all its rapid move- ments raises the fore limbs, balances the anterior part of the body with the tail, and runs along rapidly upon the hind limbs. This analogy appears to demonstrate that an important func- tion of the tail was to serve as a balancing organ. (We note in parenthesis that this function is developed among birds.) Kent remarks further: * Such is the construction of the hind foot and its component digits that, when thus running, the central digits only, rest upon the ground. As a consequence of this structural peculiarity, the track made by this lizard When passing erect over damp sand or other impressible soil would be tridactyl like that of a bird, and would also corre- spond with the tracks that are left in Mesozoic strata by vari- Ous typical Dinosauria. This tridigitigrade formula of the 796 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. gradation of Chlamydosaurus, induced by the great relative shortness of the first and fifth digits, is distinctly indicated in Fig. 1 of the plate previously referred to.” Thus, tridactylism is correlated with rapid bipedal progres- sion, the inner and outer digits suffering reduction. In fact, a glance at the digital formula of Archosauria shows why tri- dactylism is a likely resultant of rapid digitigrade progression. teeta ak II III IV V Number I I I I I of 2 2 2 2 2 Phalanges 3 3 3 3 in 4 4 Archosauria 5 There is considerable ground for regarding a certain degree of bipedalism as a character common to all dinosaurs. Among the carnivorous Megalosauria there can of course be no ques- tion, because this condition marks the oldest Triassic types. Osborn, in Diplodo- cus, has demonstrated the truth of Cope's conjecture that the quadrupedal cetio- saurs occasionally rose upon their hind limbs. Among ion XEM sm d iet uo ap ham dp Aa the Predentata, the Iguano- dontia are typically bipedal, and the iguanodont or quadriradiate structure of the pelvis in the quadrupedal Stegosauria and Ceratopsia has led Dollo to advance the somewhat daring hypothesis that these animals also were at one stage more or less bipedal and that their fixed quadrupedal habit is possibly secondary. VIII. HYPOTHETICAL ORIGIN or BIRDS FROM A PRIMITIVE BIPEDAL DINOSAUR. If bipedalism subsequently proves to be a common dinosaur character, it would naturally strengthen the dinosaur-avian stem hypothesis. The presence of a free guadrate in birds, a No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 797 difficulty which suggested itself to Marsh, is explainable as a secondary character, like the secondarily free quadrate of cer- tain Lacertilia and Ophidia, due to degeneration of one of the cranial arches. The passage from a quadrupedal to a bipedal type would also mark the transition from the Proganosauria to the Dino- sauria, and all that our present knowledge and evidence justify us in saying is that zz this bipedal transition, with its tendency to form the tibiotarsus, the avian phylum may have been given off from the dinosaurian. This form of the Huxleyan hypothesis seems more probable than that the avian phylum should have originated quite inde- pendently from a quadrupedal proganosaur, because the numer- ous parallels and resemblances in dinosaur and bird structure, while quite independently evolved, could thus be traced back to a potentially similar inheritance. Upon the whole, therefore, the dinosaur-avian stem hypoth- esis deserves not to be discarded but to be very seriously reconsidered in connection with future research and discoveries among birds and dinosaurs. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 83 Baur, G. Der Tarsus der Vögel und Dinosaurier. Morph. Jahrb. Bd. viii, pp. 417 f. Leipzig. Note on the Pelvis in Birds and Dinosaurs. Amer. Nat. Vol. '84 xviii, pp. 1273 f. Philadelphia. 85 (1) Zur Végel-Dinosaurier Frage. Zool, Anz. Bad. viii, pp. 441 f. Leipzig. 85 (2) Dinosaurier und Végel. Eine Erwiederung an Herrn Prof. W. Dames in Berlin. Morph. Jahrb. Bd. x, p.446. Leipzig. BS (3) Bemerkungen über das Becken der Vögel und Dinosaurier. Morph. Jahrb. Bd. x, pp. 613 f. Leipzig. . 87 CLELAND. “Culminating Sauropsida.” Mature. Vol. xxxv, pp. 391 f£. '66 Corr. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. p.317. '67 —— Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. pp. 234, 235- '69 —_ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. p. 123. 798 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV. '88 CREDNER. Die Stegocephalen und Saurier aus dem Rothliegenden des Plauen'schen Grundes bei Dresden. Theil vii, Palaohatteria longicaudata Cred. Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Ges. Bd. xl, pp. 490 f. Die Stegocephalen und Saurier aus dem Rothliegenden des Plauen’schen Grundes bei Dresden. Theil viii, Kadaliosaurus priscus Cred. Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Ges. Bd. xli, pp. 319 f. '8& DAMES UND KAYSER. Palaeontologische Abhandlungen, herausgege- ben von Dames und Kayser. pp. 119 f. Berlin. ':82 DorLo. Première note sur les dinosauriens de Bernissart. Bul. du Mus. Roy. d Hist. Nat. de Belgique. T.i. Bruxelles. ':82 —— Deuxième note sur les dinosauriens de Bernissart. Bull. du Mus. Roy. d' Hist. Nat. de Belgique. T.i. Bruxelles. Troisième note sur les dinosauriens de Bernissart. Bull. du Mus. Roy. d' Hist. Nat. de PUNAN Tk Bruxelles. Notesur la présenc lu “ troisième trochanter” des dinosauriens et sur la fonction de celui-ci. uL. du Mus. Roy. @ Hist. Nat. de Belgique. T.ii. Bruxelles. Note sur les restes des dinosauriens rencontrés dans le crétacé supérieur dela Belgique. Bull. du Mus. Roy. d" Hist. Nat. de Bel- * gique. T.ii, pp. 205 f. Bruxelles. '83 (4) Quatrième note sur les dinosauriens de Bernissart. Bul. du Mus. Roy. d' Hist. Nat. de Belgique. T. ii, pp. 223 f. ':88 FÜRBRINGER. Untersuchungen zur Morphologie d Systematik der Vógel. Amsterdam and Jena. '63 GEGENBAUR. loc - rae ybcsa Miu Bemerkungen über das Fuss- skelet der Vögel. Arch. f. Anat. und Phys. pp. 450 f. sae aci zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Wirbelthiere. I. Carpus und Tarsus. Leipzi ’84 HoERNEs. Elemente der Punters. Leipzig. 1900 HoLLAND. The Vertebral Formula in Diplodocus Marsh. „Science. Vol. xi, N.s., No. 282. '68 HUXLEY. On the Animals which are most nearly intermediate between Birds and Dinosaurs. Proc. Roy. Inst. Gr. Br. 1868. London. Also in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.4. Vol. i, pp. 220 f. London. '69 —— On Hypsilophodon foxii, a new Dinosaurian from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. xxxvi, pp- 3 f. Further Evidence of the Affinity between the Dinosaurian Rep- tiles and Birds. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. f. '82 —— On the Respiratory Organs of Apteryx. Prov. Zoül. Soc. pp. 560 £ '97 KENT, W. SaviLEE. The Naturalist in Australia. London. : '77 Marsą. Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America. Proc. A. A. A. S. p.228. Odontornithes : A Monograph on the Extinct Toothed Birds of North America. Washington. '89 '83 (1) '83 (2) '83 (3) , No. 406.] DINOSAUR-AVIAN STEM. 799 ':88 MEHNERT. Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung des Os pubis der Vögel. Morph. Jahrb. Bd. xiii, p. 25 '81 Mivart. A Popular Account of Chameleons. Nature. Vol. xxiv, pp. 309 f., 353 f. London. '93—96 NEWTON, A. A Dictionary of Birds. London. '98 OSBORN. Additional Characters of the Great Herbivorous Dinosaur, amarasaurus. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. x, pp. 219 f. New Yor A Skeleton of suom Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Voli, Pt v. New Yo Fore and Hind pee of Carnivorous Dinosaurs from the Jurassic of Wyoming. Dinosaur Contributions, No.3. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. Vol. xii, pp. 161-172. '87 PARKER, W. On the Morphology of Birds. Prec. Roy. Soc. London. Vol. xlii, pp. 52 f., and ature, Vol. xxxv, pp. 322 '96 PYCRAFT. The Wing of Archeopteryx. Natural Sinci. Vol. viii, pp. 260 f. '81 SEELEY. Professor Carl Vogt on the Archaopteryx. Geol. Mag. Decade II. Vol. viii, N.S., pp. 300 f. : "79 Vocr. Memoir on pine. Revue Scientifique. Sept. 13, 1879. (Quoted in Seeley, '81. '86 WIEDERSHEIM. Das Ce E der Chamileontiden. Be- richte nat. Ges. zu Freiburg i. B. Bd. i, p. 65. '99 (2) THE GALL OF THE MONTEREY PINE. W. A. CANNON. ONE species of pine, the Monterey pine,! which is especially abundant in the arboretum of the Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity, has recently been so seriously affected by a gall that the beauty of a great number of the trees has been greatly impaired, and their total destruction made probable. The gall is caused, as was first observed by Mr. W. A. Snow,? by larve of a gallfly belonging to the family Cecedomyiide. The gall consists of a malformation of the leaves and !eaf bases. The galled leaves vary in length from .5 to 1.5 cm., and their bases are so badly swollen that the leaves are often pear-shaped. The larva live in pockets in the swollen leaf bases. The gall occurs on the youngest leaves, and for that reason leaves containing larve are to be looked for at the tips of the branches. Where the same branches have been galied several successive seasons their tips appear as if closely clipped and look like great bottle brushes. The galled leaves do not remain so long on the tree as the normal ones. If one of the galled leaves be examined the autumn after it has been stung, it will be found to contain in its base four or more larva. These are without biting mouth-parts, but they are none the less completely enclosed by plant tissues. It was to learn, primarily, how the larva got inside of the leaf base, and also to trace the immediate cause of the hypertrophy, that this study was undertaken. To these were added, in the course of the investigation, other questions of physiological interest, l Pinus radiata D. Don., Trans. Linnean Soc. vol xvii (1836), p. 441; formerly known as Z. insignis Loudon, Arb. Brit, vol. iv (1838), pp. 2265, f., 2170-2172. ? This study was taken up with Mr. Snow, since deceased, and subsequently carried on by Miss Helen Mills. Zhe Entomological News, vol. xi (1900), p. 489. 801 802 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [ VoL. XXXIV, In dealing with the inner morphology of the galled leaf it was not thought necessary for the purpose of this paper to follow minutely all of the changes in the plant tissues during the development of the gall, but rather to observe the condi- tions of the tissues in well-marked stages of growth, and con- trast them with each other and with the conditions in normal leaves. L In the middle of February the young shoot representing the season’s growth of the branch is about 3 cm. long and consists of a central axis covered closely with leaf bundles, or fascicles. There are about seventy leaf bundles, or fascicles, to each young shoot. Each bundle is composed of a short secondary ‘branch bearing three leaves, or “ needles," which are closely and completely enwrapped by several protective scales. The whole springs from the axil of the primary leaf (Fig. 1). Early in the season each primary leaf completely covers its leaf bundle, but by the middle of February the leaves begin to grow appreciably and soon stretch up above the tip of the primary leaf. At the tip of each young shoot there will be fascicles hidden by the primary leaves, while at the base of the same shoot these bundles may be twice as long as the pri- mary leaves, and between tip and base an intermediate condition may be found. At the time the gallfly is active the majority of leaf bundles are about 2 mm. in length. The length of the leaf bundle in relation to that of the subtending primary leaf and to that of the ovipositor is of great importance in connec- tion with the successful deposition of the eggs. To learn in what part the eggs were placed, the young shoots were examined in February, during the activity of the gallfly. The eggs were found deposited in masses on the outside of the youngshoot. They were placed, also, in great numbers between the leaf fascicles or between the primary leaves and the fasci- cles they subtend (Fig. 1, B), and it was thought at the time that the fly did not deposit the eggs in any other parts. The young shoots were examined to see if some substance, such as formic acid, were not deposited by the fly at the time the eggs No. 406.] GALL OF THE MONTEREY PINE. 803 were laid, which might in this case, as in others, stimulate the plant tissues to abnormal growth and thus bring about the gall. The cells, however, adjacent to the masses of eggs did not show the slightest discoloration or shrinkage of contents, nor did they in any other way that could be discovered indicate that substances were deposited which might stimulate or affect the plant tissues. All of the eggs which were placed on the out- side of the young shoots disappeared on the first of March. A closer examination of the leaf bundles showed that, in addition to the great numbers of eggs placed on their surfaces, the Fic. 1.— A, young shoot with leaf fascicles (//) and primary leaves (Jj). x2. B, dorsal view of a m qd or £27. at AS cpi QM M M E of eggs between the two. e iV + } J La wl , =i P X circa 10. C,t tion of the same with the protecting scales. X circa 16. fly also placed some inside of them. The eggs which were deposited within the leaf fascicles were in much smaller masses than those on the outside. The number of eggs in these masses did not, in any case observed, exceed six. They were found in three positions. Some eggs were between the enwrapping scales, others inside of them but near the tips of the leaves, and still others within and at the bases of the inner scales (Fig. 2, A, B). These different positions of the eggs might not all be met with in any one bundle, but they were of frequent occurrence. In those cases where the eggs were placed between the scales, and also where they were deposited 804 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. within the scales but near the tip of the leaf, they did not give rise to larvae that matured, because, as will be shown later, the young larvae were not in contact with living tissue which could give them nourishment. The larve take their food only by absorption through the surface of the body. This makes it essential for them to be in contact with living cells, from which the necessary food matters can be abstracted. This con- dition, namely, that the larvae must be in physical contact with tissues which will give them food, is fully b J ‘realized only when the f eggs from which they / develop are placed at Fic. 2.— A, longitudinal section of a leaf fascicle with eggs the bases of the inner placed at the base of the leaves and of the i protecting scales. It is conse- scales ; one egg is also shown between the scales. X 28%. B, longitudinal section showi f eggs at the base quently necessary that TM TOME the distance from the tip of the needles, or in other words the length of the leaves, be approximately the same as the length of the ovipositor of the fly, for only in this way can the eggs be so placed that the larvae which result from them will live. This exacting condition we find is complied with by most of the leaf bundles of the Monterey pine during the month of February, or during the season of the gallfly’s activity. by mn 5 IE; All of the young leaves grow rapidly in length during the month of March, and the first week in April most of them are approximately 1 cm. long ; thus, they have increased about five times in length in somewhat over four weeks (Fig. 3). UP to the first of April there is no apparent difference between the normal and the galled leaves; from this time on, however, the difference in length and diameter between the affected and No. 406.] GALL OF THE MONTEREY PINE. 805 the normal leaf bundles, or fascicles, is increasingly marked. By the first of May the normal leaf bundles are about 3 cm. long, and the galled ones from 1 to 1.5 cm. in length. In addition to the difference in length, the bases of the latter are much swol- len, and many of the leaves cease to grow in length, although the diameter of their bases continues to increase until autumn (Fig. 4). To learn what plant tissues were affected, and in what man- ner, so that some conclusion might be drawn as to the immediate cause of the hypertrophy, there were selected for more careful ; study leaf bundles taken in April Pel raid a — the season of great changes DaT hades ann; and development in the leaf bun- Hi Jair, Natu- dle. All of the material was fixed in hot alcoholic t corrosive sublimate, a saturated solution in 30 per cent alcohol being used. If a galled leaf bundle is examined in the middle of April or the first of May, the cavities in which the larve lie will be A genes A ( Se X b — 7 5 ae f Fic. s. — Showing the development of the protuberances which — = upper part of the larval cavity: 4, May 1; B, July 15; C, mature, a autumn (7, c, scale; X, devel- opment of protuberances and larval cavity). found almost completely developed. The cavity is in the axil of the leaf and is nearly covered above and on the sides by 806 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. projections of plant tissue, one from the periphery of the leaf, and another from the inner surface of the inside scale (Fig. 5, A). It will be seen by consulting Fig. 6 that the young lar- ve are at this time completely surrounded by thin-walled cells, and that the plant tissue which is in contact with the body of the parasite is composed of epidermis, thus showing that the parasite has consumed none of the plant cells or tissues. The young epidermal cells of the young normal leaf are long, thin-walled, and have little granular contents. The older epider- mal cells lose their contents, their outer walls become strongly cutinized, and they serve the plant only as a protective covering. The epidermal cells of the leaf which are in contact with the larvae have an appearance quite different from those epidermal cells in the other parts of the leaf. The first difference is noticed in the size and shape of the epidermal cells that line the cavity in which the larvae lie. They are much longer and deeper than the normal epidermal cells, and they very closely resemble the cells lying beneath them, which are the large mesophyll cells. Furthermore, these epi- dermal cells are densely filled with granular food matter. Above the larval cavity, where the epi- dermal cells of the leaf arch over to meet those of the scale, they are shorter and deeper than those leaf epidermal cells touching the larvae, but they are much larger than the epidermal cells in the older parts of the leaf into which they insensibly merge (Fig. 6). These cells have less contents than those in contact with the larvae, but more, again, than the normal leaf epidermal cells. The epidermal cells on the inner surface of normal scales are long, shallow, and thin-walled ; the epidermis on the outer surface parenchyma). April 25. X circa 56. No. 406.] GALL OF THE MONTEREY PINE. 807 varies only in the character of the outer cell wall, which, in this case, is thickened and strengthened by transverse ridges. On the inner surface and near the base of the scales the epi- dermal cells are shorter and resemble those of the leaf at a corresponding distance from the axis. The epidermal cells of the scales have very little contents. In the galled leaves the scale epidermis lining the cavity in which the larvze lie consists of long, thin-walled cells, which in size, shape, and density of contents resemble those epidermal cells of the leaf that line the other part of the cavity. The scale epidermal cells are shorter and deeper above the larvae where the epidermis of the scale and of the leaf meet, and they gradually change into the normal form, somewhat above the neck of the larval cavity (Fig. 6). It is thus seen that, in consequence of the presence of the parasite, the epidermis of scale and leaf is modified in shape and size, in structure, in contents, and in function. A cross-section of the base of a galled leaf bundle, made from one of the same age as that represented in the longitudi- nal section in Fig. 6, shows that the tissue adjacent to the cavities containing larvae is mainly parenchymatous, Ze., the cells that compose it are relatively large and thin-walled, and are those cells which, in plants, are most sensitive to stimuli. The tissue of the scale base is composed of large, rounded cells, between which are many intercellular spaces. These cells have but little contents. Near the juncture of scale base and leaf the cells are some of them larger and some smaller, and there are fewer intercellular spaces. In the axil of scale and leaf the cells are normally much smaller than any met with in the scale. Finally, the tissue surrounding the rudimentary conducting tissue, which in galled leaves abuts on the inside of the cavity containing the larva, is composed of small cells of the kind just described as occurring in the scale base. The thin-walled mesophyll cells of the leaf normally are differ- entiated into quite another tissue; as the leaf becomes older these cells become oblong, thick-walled, supporting cells (scle- renchyma) of the mature pine leaf. The cells of the tissues described have but little contents. 808 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The parenchymatous tissue of the scale and leaf which is in contact with the epidermis of the cavity containing larvae, for two or three cells from the cavity, follows the shape, size, and appearance of the epidermal cells (Fig. 6). Beyond these layers of parenchyma the cells become larger than in normal corre- sponding tissue, and gradually merge into the tissues of the scale on the one hand, and of the leaf on the other. These cells for six or eight layers around the cavity are filled with granular matter that increases in density toward the cavity. The parenchymatous tissues which surround the parasite are affected in a negative manner as well. They are prevented from being differentiated and from developing as do their fel- lows under normal conditions. The scales in the normal leaf bundle turn brown early and die. They form the cup which surrounds the bases of the three leaves, or “needles,” and which persists during the period of the normal leaf's activity. In the scales of the galled bundle the parenchymatous tissues remain active until early autumn, or during the activity of the parasite. Those cells of the leaf inside the region of the cavi- ties containing larva, as has been stated, become in normal leaves thick-walled supporting tissue. In galled leaves they become, when fully developed, as large as the underlying parenchyma, and their walls in thickness reach a condition intermediate between the thick-walled supporting tissue, Or sclerenchyma, and the parenchyma. It is to the change in form and size of the cells which sur- round the cavity containing larvae that the hypertrophy is due. In July the condition of the galled leaf bundles of the Mon- terey pine differs only in degree from that just described as their condition in April. The parenchymatous cells are some- what larger, the epidermis of the cavity containing larvaé, and all of the cells in the adjacent tissues of the scale and leaf, are active in providing food for the growing larvae. III. We come now to the question, What is the immediate cause of the hypertrophy? And to this only an imperfect, and perhaps No. 406.] GALL OF THE MONTEREY PINE. 809 unsatisfactory, answer can be given. And this must be based on the all too slight evidence which lies before us. There is no indication that the hypertrophy is either caused or affected by any substance deposited with the eggs. Extensive experimentation would be necessary to prove what the effect would be of a foreign body, living or lifeless, in con- tact with such plant tissues; or, again, how much the waste matter given off from a living body would affect the tissues. There is some evidence, although negative, touching the former in the cases cited above, where the eggs of the gallfly were placed either between the scales or between the inside scale and near the tip of the leaf. In neither of these cases did the larvee mature, and the reason for this must be that the cells which touched the young larvae were not such as could easily give up their contents to nourish the parasite. In either case, however, they hatched into larva, and we may believe that, although no food may have passed from the cells of the host to the parasite, yet the plant tissues may have been mechanically irritated by the mere presence of a living foreign body. That the leaf epidermis was thickened would appear to make no difference if the plant tissues in question were stimulated to abnormal growth, mostly by this mechanical irritation, because cases are not wanting among plants! in which epidermal cells, although strongly cutinized, have been rejuvenated and have been caused to perform functions other than normal, or at least usual, and this, too, mainly from external mechanical stimu- lation. It is highly probable that the mere presence of the parasite does, to some extent, in the case of this gall, as in others, stimulate the living plant tissues. Briefly it appears that the immediate and principal cause of the hypertrophy is the response on the part of certain plant tissues to the parasite’s demand for food. This is indicated mainly by the gradual enlargement of the cells surrounding the parasite, in a manner which corresponds to its growth, and also by the unusual amount of food material which these cells. contain. l Peirce, G. J. On the Structure of the Haustoria of Some Phanerogamic Parasites, Annals of Botany, vol. vii (1893), No. 27, p- 295 810 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. IV. I have been asked, why does not this gall attack other spe- cies of pine? and it may be said that one other species, of half a dozen that were examined which are growing in the Stanford University arboretum (Pinus attenuata), has a few galled leaf bundles. The young shoot of this pine is, early in the growing season, similar in structure and size to that of the Monterey pine, but the leaves of P. attenuata do not remain the right length for being visited by the gallfly long enough to be seri- ously injured by it. The other species of pine do not develop their shoots at the right time, or the shoots are covered with resin, or they are otherwise unfitted either by size or by struc- ture to be galled. The opinion may be ventured that the con- ditions for the proper laying of the eggs and those governing the life of the larvæ are so delicate and exacting that other species of our pines are not likely to suffer from the parasite. The materials for this paper were collected in the spring and summer of 1898, from galled Monterey pines which were grow- ing in the university arboretum. LELAND STANFORD UNIVERSITY, PALO ALTO, CAL NOTE ON DISTOMUM ARCANUM (N. SP.) IN AMERICAN FROGS. W. S. NICKERSON. In frogs used for laboratory dissection I have observed, in many cases, cysts forming considerable swellings just at the pylorus. These, when opened, are found to contain small dis- tomes, together with a mass of friable material, which under the microscope is seen to consist in part of eggs and in part of a finely granular stainable substance whose source I, have not determined. The worms, though closely resembling several species which inhabit the intestines of European frogs, seem nevertheless to be distinct from them morphologically, and have, I believe, not been mentioned heretofore. I shall describe them under the name Distomum arcanum, the specific name referring to their being concealed from view in the cyst. So far as observed, the cysts occur always, when present, just at the pylorus, where they form conspicuous rounded swellings, about three millimeters in diameter. In extreme cases of infection as many as four or five of these may be present in the same frog. Two worms are usually present in a cyst. The wall of the cyst is composed of fibrous tissue and smooth muscle, which completely surround and enclose the contents. Several series of sections of cysts and contents have failed to show any indi- cation of a connection between the cavity of the cyst and the lumen of the intestine. The accumulation of so large a mass of eggs and other material within the cyst tends further to dis- prove the existence of an opening from the cyst. The sexually mature worms have been completely imprisoned by their host. The preserved specimens are small, stout, ovoidal, or sphe- roidal worms, the largest measuring 274 X 134 mm., and the average size being about 134 X 14% mm. The rather small Suckers are of nearly equal size, the oral being slightly larger than the ventral The latter, which is rather feebly developed, 811 812 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. is about two-thirds the length of the animal from the anterior end. The surface of the body is thickly set with minute scales or spines, which diminish in size toward the posterior extremity. The sexual orifice is near the left side, ventral, rather nearer to the oral than to the ventral sucker. The excretory pore is dorsal, nearly terminal, median, j surrounded by a small cluster of gland cells. | The pharynx is small and placed immediately behind the oral sucker, and is followed at once by the bifurcation of the intestine. The limbs of the in- testine are short and sac-like, extending backward, not farther Fic. r. — Outline deny. d 7 D. arcanum, showing positions of from ventral si ral side. Uterus (except termi- nal portion) not repres C than the middle of the body. The walls are thin and feebly developed. The ovary is irregular in form or lobulated, and is situated just rynx; As, penis a v, vitellary glands; vs, behind the forking of the in- testine, a little to the right of the median line. Vitellary glands lying nearer the ventral surface are irregularly distributed through a zone extending from about opposite the pharynx back nearly to the ventral sucker. They appear as small cell-clusters or masses having a loosely dendritic arrangement. The region of the union of the oviduct with the ducts from the vitellary glands and of the giving off of Laurer’s canal is in the central portion of the body, just back of the ovary and nearer the dorsal surface, but the exact arrangement of these tubules I have not made out. The shell gland is readily seen in sec- tions but not usually evident in entire preparations. Laurer's canal opens on the dorsal surface posterior to the ovary, nearly overthe ventral sucker. The oviduct or uterus fills the greater portion of the space remaining between and around the other internal organs, but its folds appear to lack any definiteness of arrangement, $c; 7, ventral suck No. 406.] AMERICAN FROGS. 813 There are two testes, somewhat elongated or of slightly irregular outlines, situated one upon either side of the body, about in line transversely with the ventral sucker. The penis sac is a prominent organ at the left of the ovary and having a length of about one-fourth the length of the worm. It has thick muscular walls within which the retracted penis lies coiled. The vagina, or terminal portion of the oviduct, opens imme- diately beside the opening from the penis sac and in front of it. The two openings appear in many specimens as separate apertures upon the surface of the body; in others they open into a common groove or depression of the body wall or genital atrium. The eggs are elliptical or very slightly ovoidal in outline, measuring about 23 x 13 4. The line of separation of the lid is usually not evident. The excretory vesicle forks just in front of the excretory pore, forming two tubules which diverge as they extend forward near the testes, beyond which I have not traced them. It will be seen from the foregoing description that D. arca- num is closely related to several species which it resembles in its small size, compact form, spiny covering, rudimentary intestine, and laterally placed sexual aperture, as well as in being parasitic in the intestine of the frog. D. medians is the form which it resembles most closely, the two species being essentially alike in many respects. D. medians has, however, a regular rounded ovary, situated on the right side, while, as already stated, the ovary in D. arcanum is lobulated and nearly median in position. The latter species appears also to be a little smaller and less elongated. The vitellaria, also, are dis- tributed over a zone whose breadth is about one-half the length of the worm, while 2. medians has the vitellaria restricted to the anterior quarter of the animal. Measurements of the eggs of the two species show that they also differ in size. There is further to be taken into account the fact that D. medians lives free in the intestine in (European) frogs, while D. arcanum is found completely enclosed within cysts at the pylorus of THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. 814 ‘2Y SOL pun 2yostq 42425un usmopsice aig ‘(¥6g1) ssoor] Áq uoAt3 se aie sateds uvedoiny so1q) IYJ jo suonduosop 21 r q | Ápoq 1oxons | ounsojut (uveouroury) jo eppprur yeaquaa jo 3103 s301} jo sn1ojád C1 x Le d AM 3838301) riya. puodsaq Suryovai qm oui | jo xoeq asní | ‘ds ^u ye sjsÁ9 ut Sea x St ee Tem jou ut pejd | 'uerpour Ápreou UNUDIAD (T *10us SY10J pisos. | *peye[nqo] | (ueədomg) | apis | Jayons yonp pes | yore uo euo [&31u9A jo Suruado jo $1:91 | — 'xuÁieud jo Ssoo'q yorq jou *sn1o[Ad £1 x pE 1 x gË '1981v[ HoWs $3193. | qM eui ju04j ut wnsnfuo? (T ye *239 ‘Bory aT [eto | ur (pua ‘uerpour Jo eursojur 1onojue 1BU ‘papunor dona m | tem jo espr C ee 91soddo uoss[O 0} snio[Ád woz T o" ades ‘198121 [e10 jo SIPPII uu tapis supipau ‘q speo} pue s3o1 yoval S310] ut paerd à j3u ub f P j Afexo1el i 4 jo eurnjsojut [eao 10 punou | (uvadoinq) | : c) i 1oxous | ; : ` poq jo yed peua eau | pry 2919 's801j o1 X tt Suo £E — + Suo[ sys0j 3spuf ur Spis juu uo | mnsan “A jo eunsojut ges [e1o dide. : : ‘pepunor — | | | "HON3N3022() | "ul “YAO ‘WW “AZIS 'sumxong "HNILSHIN[ "S3LLS3I T, "ANVAQ | ,ONINSAO) ANIAG ANV (14471) 3WOHdONOf) Q3OVId ATIVAALVT HLIA S3KOISK[ TIVINS No. 406.] AMERICAN FROGS. 815 (American) frogs. In view of these differences there can, I think, be no question that the two forms are distinct species. From 2. clavigerum it differs in being smaller and less elon- gated and in having short limbs to the intestine, while in that form the limbs of the intestine reach nearly to the posterior end of the body. It is readily distinguished from 2. confusum by the fact that the latter form has the testes far forward, alongside of the pharynx. The resemblances and differences of these four forms may be best shown perhaps by the tabular statement on the opposite page of their chief characteristics. I have collected about fifty specimens of D. arcanum, all from frogs dissected in Massachusetts. I have not found them in western frogs. No record was kept of the species of frogs from which specimens were taken, and I have, therefore, no means of judging whether it occurs in all the different species or only in particular ones. The specimens collected were taken from frogs used for laboratory dissection, the greater number being the larger common species, except the bullfrog (R. cates- biana). I had hoped to supplement these observations, made mostly several years ago and in large part upon preserved specimens, by the study of other living worms; but, as such specimens are not to be obtained in Minnesota, it seems best to publish such notes as I have without further waiting. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, July 17, 1900. INSTINCT OR REASON? G. W. AND E. G. PECKHAM. IN our work on the instincts of solitary wasps! we included among the true instincts the way in which the wasp acts after bringing her prey to the nest, and gave as an example the habit of Sphex ichneumonea in placing her grasshopper at the entrance to the tunnel and then running in and out again before dragging it down. We also referred to the experiment of Fabre on a Sphex, in which he took advantage of the moment that the wasp was out of sight below to move her prey to a little distance, with the result that when the wasp came up, she brought her cricket to the same spot and left it as before, while she visited the interior of the nest. Since he repeated this experiment about forty times, and always with the same result, it seemed fair to draw the conclusion that nothing less than the performance of a certain series of acts in a certain order would satisfy her impulse. She must place her prey just so close to the doorway ; she must then descend and examine the nest, and after that must at once drag it down, any disturbance of this routine causing her to refuse to proceed. We recently found a Sphex ichneumonea at work storing her nest, and thought it would be:interesting to pursue Fabre’s method and find out whether she were equally persistent in following her regular routine. We allowed her to carry in one grasshopper to estab- lish her normal method of procedure, and found that, bringing it on the wing, she dropped it about six inches away, ran into the nest, out again, and over to the grasshopper, which she Straddled and carried by the head to the entrance. She then ran down head first, turned around, came up, and, seiz- ing it by the head, pulled it within. On the following day, when she had brought the grasshopper to the entrance of the nest, and while she was below, we moved it back five or six 1 Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps, p. 232, 1898. 817 818 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. inches. When she came out she carried it to the same spot and went down as before. We removed it again with the same result, and the performance was repeated a third anda fourth time; but the fifth time that she found her prey where we had placed it, she seized it by the head and, going backward, dragged it down into the nest without pausing. On the next day the experiment was repeated. After we had moved the grasshopper away four times, she straddled it and carried it down into the nest, going head foremost. On the fourth and last day of our experiment she replaced the grasshopper at the door of the nest and ran inside seven times, but then seized it and dragged it, going backward into the nest. How shall this change in a long-established custom be explained except by saying that her reason led her to adapt herself to circumstances? She was enough of a conservative to prefer the old way, but was not such a slave to custom as to be unable to vary it. EDITORIAL COMMENT. Doubtful Economy. — That much of the work done by the United States through the Department of Agriculture and by the various State Commissions and Experiment Stations is of high practical importance has long been recognized both here and abroad. Scientific men may, however, well hesitate before endorsing many of the recommendations advocated. The application of kerosene as a preventive against mosquitoes should be used only when other methods are not applicable. The destruction of herons, kingfishers, loons, grebes, and other birds, advised by the Superintendent of Hatcheries in the ZZird Annual Report of the Commissioners of Fish- eries, Game, and Forests of the State of New York, shows the extreme to which practical science tends. These birds have a scientific value and interest equal at least to the gastronomic value of the trout they destroy, and the State of New York can better afford to estab- lish a hatchery for the benefit of the bearers of fur and feathers than to countenance or allow their slaughter. Frazer’s Life of Cope.— The August issue of the American Geol- ogist is devoted chiefly to a memoir by Dr. Persifor Frazer, entitled “The Life and Letters of Edward Drinker Cope.” The life is told mainly by the letters; Dr. Frazer's threads connecting them are slight, and though appreciative are sadly lacking in the happy touches needed for the subject. The illustrations include an inter- esting portrait of Cope at ten years of age and several reproductions from pen-and-ink drawings made when their author was still a lad. The care and faithfulness shown in these drawings are remarkable, qualities not fully recognized by Dr. Frazer's comparative praise. Gill's admirable address delivered at the Detroit (1897) meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science is not mentioned in the list of biographies. The Biological Bulletin. — From the programme of the Biologi- cal Departments of the University of Chicago, 1900-1901 (p. 4), it would appear that the publications of the University included both 819 820 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. the Bulletin and the Journal of Morphology, and also that contribu- tions were limited to zodlogy and general biology. It may be well to note that the Biological Bulletin is still published under the auspices of the Marine Biological Laboratory, and is open to botanical as well as zoological papers. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. PSYCHOLOGY. Individual Psychophysiology of the Crayfish. — In what sense, if at all, may the term “individuality” be applied to the crayfish? is the question which Dr. Dearborn! has attempted to answer experi- mentally. - Starting with the definition, *a living organism is an individual in proportion to the relative constancy and strength of its own proper tendencies considered as manifestations of an inherent will" the writer, by studying the individual reactions of about twenty repre- sentatives of Cambarus affinis, arrives at the conclusion that there is no evidence of psychic individuality. The experiments upon which this conclusion rests are: 1. The determination of traction strength, or the pulling power of the ani- mal. The traction power per gram of body weight varies from 1.7 to 3.5. Three tests were made for each individual on different days, and great variation is noticeable. 2. The pinching power of the chele, 3. Returning habits ; the crayfish being placed on its back on a glass plate and allowed to right itself if possible. In this, too, there is remarkable variability. It is an interesting and suggestive experiment, by the future use of which much should be learned con- cerning the mechanism of the crayfish. 4. Training in the returning habit. Training was given in a particular method of returning, but with negative results. 5. Reactions to galvanism. 6. Galvanotro- pism. The animals invariably go to the cathode, although at widely differing rates. 7. Hypnosis. Crayfish are easily hypnotized by holding them firmly in a stable position for a short time. Dr. Dear- born emphasizes the fact that the time necessary for hypnosis varies greatly in different animals and in the same animal from time to time, as does also the duration of the hypnotic influence. He differs from Verworn in holding the process of hypnosis in the crayfish to be the same as human hypnosis. 8. Reaction time. The reaction of the forceps of the chele to tapping on some part of the shell (the ! Dearborn, G. V. N. Notes on the Individual Psychophysiology of the Cray- fish, Amer. Journ. of Physiol., vol. iii, No. 9 (1900), pp- 404—433 821 822 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. place of stimulation is indifferent, the writer states) was determined for ten animals, and found to vary from .2o second to .65. A comparative study of the results of these experiments ‘fails to discover anything . . . so far comparable to individual tempera- ments " as “sensitive and weak" or “ dull and strong." “Absence of correlations and inconstancy are the two significant features of the results." The value of this work, it would seem, lies chiefly in its suggestive- ness. Almost every page of the report points out some line of work which might claim months of careful study. Much of the evidence furnished by the experiments seems to us inconclusive because of an insufficient number of observations. Dr. Dearborn has, by the use of the “extensive” method, exposed himself to the criticism “ frag- mentary and superficial." R. M. Y. The Problem of Innate Ideas. — The third of Dr. Ad. Wagner's Studien und Skizzen aus Naturwissenschaft und Philosophie’ is a philosophic discussion of “innate ideas.” Of the two earlier papers of this series the first dealt with scientific thought and popular science, the second with the problem of free will. Dr. Wagner calls attention to the far too common avoidance of fundamental problems by natural scientists . . . “ der Naturgelehrte meistens sagen: Ach was! Ich bin Naturforscher. Lasst mich mit Eueren philosophischen Problemen in Ruhe! Die gehen mich nichts an." In this short essay the nature of knowledge is very clearly and concisely treated. In many respects Wagner's standpoint is Kan- tian. He considers space, time, and causation “forms” of thought. The latter part of the paper is devoted to the relations of the brain as the organ of mind to the “a priori” (commonly so-called) of knowledge. R. M. Y. Empirical Teleology.*— It seems unfortunate that Cossmann should have chosen a title so unattractive to the majority of biologists as “Elements of Empirical Teleology,” for there is much in his book worthy of their attention. 1 Ueber das Problem der angeborenen (apriorischen) Vorstellungen. Berlin, Gebriider (eesti ne 1900. 77 pp. 2 Co n, Paul Nikolaus. Elemente der empirischen Teleologie. Stuttgart, A. disi. ipe No. 406.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 823 The work consists of two parts, of which the first treats of the teleological laws of nature, and the second of the methods for the investigation of these laws. Necessary connections or natural laws the author finds to be the objects of science. Empirical science, and especially the scientific concept of cause, is discussed to some extent, but by far the greater part of the book is devoted to what might be termed the philosophy of biology. Causality, having been defined in terms of general empirical sci- ence, and also of special biological science, the biological concepts of living, organic, etc., are analyzed in an interesting fashion. Under methods of investigation the possibility of methodical work in the teleological sphere is discussed in connection with the standard methods: induction and deduction. R. M. Y. ZOOLOGY. The Effect of the Staleness of the Sex-Cells upon Develop- ment and upon the formation of hybrids has been reinvestigated by Dr. H. M. Vernon. He finds in the case of the echinoderms that the number of normal blastula formed from sex-cells kept for some time in sea water diminishes about one per cent per hour up to the twenty-seventh hour, after which time abnormalities rapidly increase in number. Within this period the same decrease was noted whether either or both of the sexual products were stale, but after the twenty- seventh hour the decrease in normal embryos was most rapid when both of the sex-cells were in this condition. The larva: obtained from stale sex-cells were of the normal size, though when the sperm alone was stale they were often larger, and when the ovum was stale they were smaller, than those derived from fresh products. Con- trary to the conclusion of the Hertwigs, staleness of the ova in hybrids of Sphzrechinus 9 X Strongylocentrotus ó did not increase the number of hybrid plutei, though in the reciprocal cross a larger percentage of blastulee was produced. The hybrid larve obtained on crossing Sphzerechinus ova with Strongylocentrotus spermatozoa vary ! Vernon, H. M. The Effect of Staleness of the Agata Cells on the Develop- ment of Echinoids, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixv (1899), PP- 3 0-360. Vernon, H. M. Cross Fertilization among Suan ak f. Entwickelungs- mechanik der Organismen, Bd. ix (1900), pp. 464-478. 824 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. in type at different seasons of the year. In the summer, when the sexual products of the latter are at a minimum of maturity, the hybrids show a greater resemblance to pure Sphzrechinus plutei than do those obtained in the spring. Co A X. Protozoan Studies. — The continuation of Dr. Prowazek's! work upon the Protozoa contains his observations on many species and discussions of many protozoan problems for whose solution the frag- mentary evidence offered, though important in its bearings, is often insufficient. The reproduction of the Rhizopoda is illustrated by stages in the copulation of Euglypha and Trinema, and by sporula- tion in the autumn months in the same genera and also in Nebela, though no relation between the two processes was detected. These genera are frequently parasitized by Achromatium oxaliferum, and in this condition superficially resemble stages in sporulation. Autotomy was observed in Amceba and in Nebela, the rejected portion of the body usually containing the detritus from food vacuoles. From many observations on different species the author concludes that the formation of pseudopodia is always initiated by the ectoplasm. The structure and movements of flagella and of cilia are discussed and the inclusions in protoplasm are described and classified. Six types of non-living inclusions are recognized: (a) the Microgranula, com- posed of minute particles, the products of metabolism, found princi- pally near the vacuoles and the ectoplasm; (4) the Hyalogranula, derived from the first and composed of transparent, bluish-green, somewhat refractive, elongate or flattened granules which are abun- dant near the vacuoles in the endoplasm and are also frequently found on cysts and in gametes ; (A the Lamprogranula, consisting of yellowish or greenish, spherical or oval, highly refractive bodies apparently enclosed in vacuoles and usually exhibiting Brownian movements ; (7) excretory inclusions of spherical form, often with concentric structure and central cavity ; (e) excretory crystals of vari- ous types ; (f) the Leucogranula, composed of colorless, slightly re- fractive granules in the ectoplasm of Stentor and some other ciliates. A sessile heliozoan of unique form and habitus, Myxodiscus cr, stal- ligera, is described from a marine aquarium. Sessile life has induced a polar differentiation, the pseudopodia being confined to the free surface. Its food consists of ciliates. Phacodinium muscorum, @ new ciliate, is described from damp woodland moss. C. A. K. 1 Prowazek, S. Protozoenstudien, II, Arb. zool. Inst. Wien, Bd. xii (1900); 58 pp., 2 pls. No. 406.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 825 The Aleurodide.— The insects so named constitute a family of Homoptera, allied to the Coccide, but having four wings in the adults of both sexes. Two genera are recognized, Aleurodes and Aleurodicus. We have before us the first attempt at a revision of the American members of this family, written by Professor A. L. Quaintance of the Georgia Experiment Station.’ All the species of North and South America, so far as yet recognized in the litera- ture, are enumerated, and many new species are described. Although the group is quite numerous in species, some of which are decidedly of economic importance, it has been strangely ignored in the past by American entomologists. Only the following species were described previous to 1880: Aleurodes phalenoides Blanchard, 1840 (not now recognized), 4. cocois Curtis, 1846 (now referred to Aleurodicus), A. abutilonea Haldeman, 1850, A. corni Haldeman, 1850, 4. asarumis Shimer, 1867 (now referred to Aleurodicus). At the present time Professor Quaintance is able to list forty-two species of Aleurodes and ten of Aleurodicus. All the species of the lat- ter genus are tropical or subtropical, except 4. asarumis from Mt. Carroll, Ill. This last is not now known to exist in collections, and is placed in Aleurodicus because Shimer says the central vein branches. It seems just possible to the writer that it is an Aleurodes, as some species of that genus appear to have the branching vein of Aleurodicus, owing to the presence of a decep- tive fold. Altogether the work is a very valuable and timely one, and it is to be hoped that it will further the study of the Aleurodidz, which it renders comparatively easy. It is, unfortunately, rather marred by numerous misprints. T. D. A. COCKERELL. Scientific Results of H. M. S. ‘ Thetis.’’*— The second part of the “Scientific Results of the Trawling Expedition of H. M. S. ‘Thetis’ off the Coast of New South Wales” is devoted to the higher Crustacea, by Mr. Thomas Whitelegge, zoologist of the Australian useum. As evidence of the richness of the fauna about Port Jack- son, the author enumerates sixty-five species of invertebrates attached to or living upon a rock of about thirty pounds in weight, which was t Bulletin No. 8 (1900), Technical Series, Division of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, pp. 9-64. 2 Scientific Results of the Trawling Expedition of Æ. M. S. Thetis off the Coas of New South Wales, etc., Pt. II. The Crustacea, Pt. i, by Thos. Apes a Mem. Australian Museum, vol. iv, pp. 135-199, Pls. XXXII-XXXV. Sydney, 1900. 826 ITHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. fished from a depth of thirty fathoms. After this preliminary we are prepared for the statement that the Z7Ze/;s in its search for fishes obtained incidentally forty-nine species of Decapoda and Stomato- poda, of which twenty-one are additions to the fauna and ten are new. These last are Pugettia mosaica, Chlorinoides waitei, Parami- thrax tuberculatus, Pilumnus australis, Paguristes tuberculatus, Sym- pagurus diogenes, Glaucothoé hexagonata, Porcellano-pagurus tridenta- tus, Galathea (sp.?), and Arctus crenatus. The new species, as well as some of the old ones, are fully described, and illustrated by photographs and outline drawings. Among the most notable of the other additions to the fauna is Pseudosguilia stylifera (Milne- Edwards), which was known only from Chile and southern Cali- fornia. This species, by the way, is entitled to a new name, being different from Sguilla stylifera of Lamarck, which Dr. Bigelow con- siders synonymous with 2seudosqui//a ciliata (Fabricius?) Miers. It is perhaps not remarkable that generic names that have been accepted for fifty or a hundred years, like Arctus, Eupagurus, and Squilla, should still be adhered to, though proven untenable. The Temple Primers, which are intended to give condensed infor- mation on great subjects, open with a volume on Some Problems of the Day in Natural Science: An Introduction. About half the book is given to first principles, including the definition, aim, and bound- : aries of science, the relations of science to philosophy, the senses as agents of the mind and their extension by artificial aids, the classifi- cation of the sciences, and the history and method of science. The remainder of the book is devoted to certain scientific problems of the day, such as the age of the earth, the ultimate constitution of matter, the origin of species, the coagulation of the blood, the function of nerve cells, and microphytology. In such restricted space so many problems can be touched on only superficially, and herein lies the chief defect of the volume. The book is neither better nor worse than its kind, but one is forced to ask why the impossible should be attempted. P. The Biological Bulletin. — Two issues of the Biological Bulletin were received in August. Vol. I, No. 4, dated July, 1900, com tains: *Our North American Echiurids," by Charles B. Wilson ; * Some General Features of the Metamorphosis of the Flag Weevil, 1 Hill, Alexander. 74e Temple Primers. I. An Introduction to Science. London, Dent & Co., r9oo. viii + 140 pp. No. 406.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 827 Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr.,” by James G. Needham ; * Notes on the Physiology of Regeneration of Parts in Planaria maculata," by C. C. Lemon ; and * The Structure of the Eye of Scutigera (Cer- matia) forceps," by Josephine Hemenway. Miss Hemenway does not refer to Packard’s paper on the eye of S. forceps, and errs in stating that there is but one American Scutigera ; other species have been described by Wood, Meinert, and Bollman. No. s, August, 1900, contains; “ Abnormalities in the Cestode Moniezia expansa, I,” by C. M. Child; and “A Description of the Male of Peripatus Eisenii Wheeler," by Augusta Rücker. Miss Rücker's paper is No. 5 of the Contributions from the Zoblogical Labo- ratory of the University of Texas, a series that already proves the wis- dom of the university authorities in their choice of a director. Notes. — The discovery of Moringuoid eels in American waters, by Dr. T. N. Gill and H. M. Smith (Science, Vol. XI, p. 973), is a matter of considerable interest. They find that the group is repre- sented in the American tropics by four genera : Moringua, Aphthal- michthys, Leptoconger, and Gordiichthys. Parts I-II, Vol. XXIII, of Zermeszetrajzi Fiizetek contain many papers of entomological interest. Among these mention may be made of Forster’s *Odonaten aus New-Guinea, Part II,” “Les espèces du genre Troides appartenant aux collections du Musée National Hongrois," by Horvath et Mocsáry, with three magnificent plates, and a * Catalogus Tabanidarum orbis terrarum universi," by Dr. Colomannus Kertész. The giant hydroid Brachiocerianthus (Monocaulus) imperator, de- scribed by Allman from the Challenger collections, has again been taken in Japanese waters and minutely described by Miyajima (Journ, Col. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, XIII, Pt. II). In the long dis- cussion and comparison with Mark's B. urceolus the reader is led to infer that the latter is also a Japanese species instead of Dens - tropical form from the extreme eastern Pacific. No indication is given as to the habitat, nor that it was taken by the Agassiz “ Albatross ” expedition of 1891 in the Panama district. No. 4 of the fifth volume of the American Journal of A hysiology contains the following articles: “On Uric Acid Formation after Splenectomy,” by L. B. Mendel and H. C. Jackson; “On the — phorus Content of the Paranuclein from Casein,” by H. C. Jackson ; “Further Experiments on Artificial Parthenogenesis and the Nature 828 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIV. of the Process of Fertilization,” by J. Loeb; and * Mammalian Smooth Muscle: The Cat’s Bladder,” by C. C. Stewart. The concluding number of Vol. XVI of the Journal of Morphology contains: ** The Development of the Coxal Gland, Branchial Carti- lages, and Genital Ducts of Limulus polyphemus," by W. Patten and A. P. Hazen; “The Embryology of a Termite,” by H. McE. Knower; “The Gastrulation of Amphioxus," by T. H. Morgan and A. P. Hazen; and * Photographs of the Egg of Allolobophora Foetida,” by K. Foot and E. C. Strobell. BOTANY. Text-Book of Botany.'— A copiously illustrated text-book of botany has been issued recently from the press of Baillitre & Co., under the editorship of Felix Alcan, the object of which appears to be to supply a work of reference for university students, to which purpose it is well adapted. The treatment of the subject is logical and thorough, and generally in accord with the most recently ascer- tained facts, although adherence to an obsolete classification detracts somewhat from its usefulness. Under ten separate parts, the work presents a comprehensive view of plant life in all its phases, and dis- cusses the place which plants occupy in nature. These are, respec- tively: (1) The Structure, Properties, and Products of the Body in general; (2) The Tissues; (3) The Structure of Members; (4) Growth of the Plant; (5) Nutrition ; (6) Plant Associations — Symbiosis; (7) Movement; (8) Reproduction and Development ; (9) Structure and Development of Cryptogamic Plants ; (10) Ferments. It is especially gratifying to find a recent work which takes a com- prehensive view of the entire subject, and the chapters on Ferments and Plant Associations will be found particularly acceptable to stu- dents who wish to study these subjects in their proper relations to the general phenomena of plant life. DES Notes. — An expected upheaval of generic and higher botanical names begins in the June number of the Allgemeine Botanische 1 Bebzung, Er. Anatomie et Physiologie Végétales. Paris, Bailliére, 1900. 8vo, 1303 pp., 1700 figs. No. 406.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 829 Zeitschrift, with the first of a series of papers by Kuntze and von Post, and promises to be far-reaching if not final. In Science for July 13, Dr. C. A. White contends for the use of the terms *'epitropism," *'apotropism," *'hypercotyl" and “ hyper- nasty," in place of the words *geotropism," *apogeotropism," “epicotyl,” and *epinasty," now in common use. Mr. Gannett's excellent paper on * The Forests of the United States " is separately published from the Zwentieth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey. The flora of Ohio receives important consideration by Professor and Mrs. Kellerman in University Bulletins 27 and 28 of the botani- cal series of the Ohio State University. C. A. Purpus is giving an account of the succulents of the La Salle Mountains of Utah, in current numbers of the Monatsschrift für Kakteenkunde. An anatomical study of variegated leaves, by Mlle. Rodrigue, constitutes the greater part of No. 17 of the Mémoires de lAerbier Boissier. Bulletin 107 of the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, devoted to cotton, contains, among other matters, chapters on the varieties of cotton, its improvement by hybridization and by selec- tion, and its diseases, with a list of fungi recorded as growing on it, and a bibliography of its diseases. The Rocky Mountain Robinia neo-mexicana is figured in Curtis's Botanical Magazine for July. Bryophyllum crenatum, of Madagascar, a species related to the well-known life-plant, is figured in the Revue Horticole for July. Mamillaria vivipara is figured in Curtiss Botanical Magazine for June. Professor von Wettstein is publishing a study of certain North American gentians in current numbers of Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift. The well-known poisonous properties of Primula obconica form the subject of an article by Nestler in Heft V of the current volume of Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft. Helenium tenuifolium is figured in Curtiss Botanical Magazine for 830 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Hesperale yuccefolia, in the form which has been called A. Engel- manni, is figured in Curtis’s Botanical Magazine for July. A well-illustrated revision of the species of Bromus occurring north of Mexico, by C. L. Shear, is published as Buletin No. 23 of the Division of Agrostology of the United States Department of Agriculture. The folklore and history of the yew form the subject of a series of articles in the current numbers of Prometheus. Professor Bessey contributes a revision of the tribes and a rearrangement of the genera of North American Diatomacez to Vol. XXI of the Transactions of the American Microscopical Society. The dedication of Vol. LVII of ZZe Garden is to Sir William Tur- ner Thiselton-Dyer, and is accompanied by a short biographic sketch and an excellent portrait of the director of the celebrated Kew Gardens. A portrait of Franchet accompanies Nos. 4 and 5 of the Buletin de la Société botanique de France of the current year. A portrait of the late Professor D. C. Eaton forms the frontispiece of the July number of The Fern Bulletin. PALEONTOLOGY. Fossil Cephalopods in the Timan. — Professor Holzapfel’s’ work should be read in connection with a recent memoir by Dr. J. M. Clarke (“Naples Fauna," Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Geol., 1898), on the Intumescens fauna in America. In Dr. Clarke’s work we see the fauna after it had immigrated to American waters, and in Professor Holzapfel’s we see the fauna nearer to its origin. In New York the genus Manticoceras seems to be the prevailing one; in the Timan Gephyroceras is preéminerit, while it is lacking in New York, but represented by Probeloceras Clarke. Those forms assigned by Clarke to Gephyroceras seem to agree with Timanites. The Intumescens fauna of the Timan agrees closely with that of the Urals, a number of species being identical. ! Holzapfel, E. Die Cephalopoden des Domanik im südlichen Timan, Mém. Comité Géol. (Russie), T. xii (1899), No. 3. No. 406.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 831 The New York fauna also shows a difference in the earlier appear- ance of Clymenia, which had not yet reached European waters. Genuine Prolecanites occur in the Timan beds, but appeared later in America, in the Chemung, and became common first in the Kinderhook. An important note in Dr. Holzapfel's paper is that Karpinsky's genus Ibergiceras (Gon. Tetragonus Roemer), which has been supposed to be the radicle of the Prolecanitidz, is merely the young of Pronorites cyclolobus and came from the Carboniferous limestone of Iberg, not from the Intumescens beds, as has been thought heretofore. LP Russian Carboniferous Cephalopods. — In this paper the author’ has given another important contribution to our knowledge of the cephalopod faunas of the Russian Carboniferous limestone. What is most interesting to American stratigraphers is that in this small collection are recognized a number of characteristic American spe- cies, most of which belong to the St. Louis-Chester horizon. This strengthens the probability that the lower part of the Moscow lime- stone belongs to the Lower Carboniferous and is the equivalent of the Visé formation of western Europe. It should be noted, however, that the range of these species seems to be different from that in America. Thus Nautilus chesterensis Meek and Worthen in America is confined to the St. Louis-Chester horizon, and in Russia ranges up into the Coal Measures. The same thing is true of Zemmocheilus spectabilis Meek and Worthen. Brancoceras rotatorium, as described by Tzwetaew, is correct gener- ically, but the species is more robust than B. rofatorium or B. ixion, its American equivalent. Also in western Europe and in America this type occurs only in the Tournaisian, or Kinderhook, which gives additional weight to the improbability of specific identity. i 1 Tzwetaew, Marie. Nautiloidea et Ammonoidea du calcaire carbonifère, Mém. Comité Géol. (Russie), T. viii (1898), No. 4. NEWS. AFTER eighteen years of active work Professor J. C. Arthur resigns as editor of the Botanical Gazette, but will continue as one of the associate editors. The fifth International Zoólogical Congress will be held in Berlin in 19or, under the presidency of Professor Karl Möbius. Professor Carl Gegenbaur, of Heidelberg, has retired from active teaching. Appointments: Dr. H. Ambronn, professor extraordinarius of botany in the University of Jena. — Dr. Walter B. Cannon, instructor in physiology in Harvard Medical School. — Dr. Fridrano Carava, associate professor of botany in the University of Cagliari. — Dr. George V. N. Dearborn, assistant professor of physiology in Tufts College. — Professor Dr. J. V. Deichmiiller, custodian of the mineral- ogical museum in Dresden. — Dr. P. Dinse, curator of the Museum of Oceanography at Berlin. — Dr. Geo. P. Dreyer, professor of physi- ology in the medical school of the University of Illinois. — Dr. Charles L. Edwards, professor of natural history in Trinity College, Hartford. — Dr. J. W. Folsom, instructor in entomology in the Uni- versity of Illinois. — Dr. A. Fritsch, professor extraordinarius of bot- any in the University of Prag. — Dr. C. Gagel, regional geologist of Prussia. — Dr. Walter E. Garrey, of Chicago, professor of physiology in Cooper Medical College, San Francisco, Cal. — Frederick O. Grover, professor of botany in Oberlin College. — Professor Leon Guignard, director of the school of pharmacy in Paris. — Sir George F. Hampson, first class assistant in the British Museum, Natural History. — Miss A. P. Hazen, assistant in zoólogy in Smith College. — Dr. Janni, professor extraordinarius of mineralogy and geology in the University of Basel. — Dr. P. B. Kennedy, of Washington, asso- ciate professor of botany and horticulture in the University of Nevada. — Dr. Charles A. Kofoid, assistant professor of histology and embryology in the University of California. — Mr. ' Thomas Large, assistant in the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, in charge of ichthyology. — Mr. John H. McClellan, instructor In zoology in the University of Illinois. — Dr. Albert P. Matthews, 832 instructor in physiology in Harvard Medical School. — Dr. Alfred G. Mayer, curator of natural science in the museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science. — Dr. M. Meissner, custos of the zoó- logical section of the museum of natural history in Berlin. — Mr. E. W. Morse, instructor in natural history in Harvard College. — Professor H. F. Osborn, vertebrate paleontologist to the geological survey of Canada. — Edmund Perrier, director of the Natural History Museum at Paris. — Professor Ferdinand von Richthofen, director of the Museum of Oceanography at Berlin. — Dr. M. Siedlecki, pri- vat docent for zoólogy in Cracow. — Miss F. C. Smith, assistant in botany in Smith College. — Dr. Julia W. Snow, instructor in botany in Rockford College, Illinois. — Dr. Hermann Triepel, prosector in the anatomical institute of the University at Greifswald. — Dr. Lewis G. Westgate, professor of geology in the Ohio Wesleyan University. — Dr. S. R. Williams, professor of zoólogy in Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.— Alexander N. Winchell, professor of zoólogy and mineralogy in the Montana School of Mines, Butte, Montana. — Dr. E. Zimmermann, royal Prussian geologist. Deaths: E. Allard, coleopterologist at Paris, in April. — Dr. Henry Beauregard, professor of cryptogamic botany in the Paris School of Pharmacy, in April. — Dr. Gustav Born, professor of anat- omy and director of the embryological section in the University of Breslau, July s, of heart disease, aged 49. — J. Lucius Caflisch, pres- ident of the Swiss Entomological Society, at Chur, March 9. — Dr. Corrado Tomassi Crudeli, professor of pathological histology at Rome. — Dr. Paul Hagenmüller, conchologist, at Marseilles, June 8. — Professor E. Kernstock, lichenologist, in Klagenfurt, April 14, aged 48. — Dr. Karl von Kraatz-Koschlau, mineralogist and privat docent in the University of Halle, at Para, Brazil, in May, of yellow fever. — Professor W. Kühne, director of the physiological institute of the University of Heidelberg, June 11, aged 62. — Edgar Leopold a ornithologist, at Budleigh Salterton, Devon, England, aged 5. He was well known for his Birds of South Africa. — Carl Tita: Lindeberg, botanist, in Alingsas, Sweden, May 4, aged 85. — G. Sherrif Tye, conchologist, at Birmingham, England, February 4. — Walter Percy Sladen, well known for his studies of echinoderms, at Florence, Italy, June 11.— Percy S. Selous, naturalist, at Green- ville, Mich. , April 7, from the bite of a moccasin. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) ATKINSON, J. Winter ade Bull. Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 5 pP. 24- 30. August. — BIOLETTI, and IAL Praz, A. M. Bench- uae Resistant Vines. Bull. Cal. Agr. roe ity No. 127. p. 38, 9 figs. — BocuE, E. E. An psa ime of the Ferns and Flowering Plants of Oklahoma. Bul. Exp. Sta., No. 45. p.48. March.— BRANNER, J.C. Results of the Branner Agi Expedition to Brazil. IV. Two ue Geologic Sections on Northeast Coast of Brazil. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 185-201, 3 ae siendo B.C. Alfalfaasa Fertilizer. Bull. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta. No. P. 93-106, 3 figs. April.— Burrum, B. C. Alfalfa as a Hay Crop, etc. But "Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 43. pp. 47-91,8 figs. March. — BuFFUM, B. C., and FAIRFIELD, W. H. Some sopa with — Bull. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 41. pp. 1-21, 2 figs. November, 1899. — B, J. N. The Stur geon Fishery of the Delaware River zx vm Rept. U. y js Com., 1899. 369-380, plates 18-21. — EVERMANN, Descriptions of Two New Species of Darters from Lake itikadi. uiii Rept. U. S. Fish Com., 18 p M E plate 17. — FARR, Ma ARCUS S. Check List of New York Birds. Bull. Y. State Museum. Vol. vii, No. 33, pp. 198-409. — FRA sG S. The Digesti- bii of Some Nos dtiiogescus Constituents of Certain using Stuffs. Sull. North Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 172. pp. 49-80." May. — GILBERT, C. A. Results of the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil. III. The Fishes. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 161-184. — Howarp, L. O. Notes Qn the Mos- quitoes of the United States, giving Some Account of their Structure and Biology, with Remarks on Remedies. United States Department of Agriculture, Division Descriptions of Entomology. Bulletin No. 25 70, 22 figs. — JENKINS, O. P w Species of Fishes from the Hawaiian Islands belonging to the F amilies La S S. Fis , 1899 45-6 14-22. — Massey, W. F., and RHODES, A. Gardening vider Glass. Carolina Agr. Exp. Sta, No. 170. pp. 1-24. March. — MILLER, G. S. Jr. Mammals collected by Dr. Ww. L. Abbott on Isiands in the North China Sea. Legis- ment of Agriculture, Division gosia ples Bulletin No. r2. p. 94 7 88 2 plates. — PALMER, T. S. A Rev of Economic Ornithology in the doner States. Year-Boo£, Dept. of Agr. pa ue pp. 259-292, plates vi- —viii. — RATH- BUN, MARY J. Results of the ee Expedition to Brazil. I. The Decapod and Stomatopod Crustacea. . Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pP- 133- 156. — RICHARDSON, HARRIET. s t the Branner-Agassiz Expedition to Brazil. II. The Isopod Crustacea. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp- 157-159 834 PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 835 — RITTER, WM. E. Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. II. Noii Maculosa, a New Genus and Species of vp unen from Alaska, ig Special Regard to the Character of the Notochord. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, - III-132, plate vii.— SMITH, J. C. Notices of din petet "iP from the Infusorial Fauna of Louisiana. Zrans. Amer. Micr. Soc. l. xxi, pp. 87-96, plate vi.— TouRNEY, J. W. Practical Tree dus United States Department of dpa ed Diohen of Forestry, Bulletin No. 27. 4 plates, 2 figs. — WHEELER, H. J., and ApAMs, G. E. The Needs and Treat- nt of the Warwick Plain and other Saidy ‘Soils of Rhode Island. Zw. R. 7. Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 68. pp. 159-174. June.— WHEELER, H. J., and BOSWORTH, A. W. Feeding and Feeding bar Bull. R. 1. Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 64. pp. 103-124. March.— WHEELER, H. J., and TILLINGHAST. Effect of Liming pi ay Relative Yields and Durability of Grass des Bull. R. I. Agr. Exp. No. 66. 137-147, I1 figs. April. — WHEELER, H. J., and Trane HAST. poris Experiments with Poticek Bull. * F Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 65. pp- 127-134. April.— WHEELER, W. M. The Free-Swimming Copepods of the pri Woods Holl harida Bull. U. S. Fish Com., 1899. pp. 157-192, 28 figs. Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Tomo ii. Fasc. xiii. — Boletin do Museu Parense. Vol. iii, No. 1. cera — Bull. Johns Hopkins Hospital. Vol. ii, No. 114. September. — Zzsect World. Vol. iv, No. ^ July. — Memorias y Revista de la Sociedad Cie mus Pih Alzate.” Tom. xiv, Nos. 7-8. — Modern ike Vol. ix, No. 7. July.— Revista chilena de ponies Natural. Año. iv, s. 5-7. May-July. — Science Gossip. New Series. Vol. vii, No. 75. August. (No. 405 was mailed September 27.) TO THE DEAF. rich lady, cured of her deafness and noises in the ia by Dr. Nicholson s Artificial Ear Drums, gave $10,000 to his institute, so tha! people unable to procure the Ear Drums may have them free. : Address No. 11479. - THE NICHOLSON INSTITUTE, e Preserved material of all types of animals, for class — work or for the museum, For price list : and all information, address GEO. M. GRAY, CURATOR - - WOODS HOLL, Mass. - DISSECTING MICROSCOPE! : The imerican Naturalist |. — Special Offer : = ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, | (paying the full subscription price of $4.00 a in advance, may obtain the back vol- ee "the years 1892, 1893, 1894; 1896, — and 1897 upon the following terms: VOL. XXXIV, NO. 407° NOVEMBER, 1900 AMERICAN _ NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES . IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE = CONTENTS _- = A Singular Arachnid (Kenenia Mirabilis Grassi) occurring Texas. . . . . . . . Profesor W. Mt. _ IL ANew Myrmecophile from the Mushroom Gardens of the Tex: . TIL On the Variation of the Shell of Pecten Irradians Lamarck Island | PERS Rescate. Space ri be cisci UNS, [he American Naturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: L a ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York. E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. WILLIAM S. BAY LEY, PH.D., Colby University, Waterville. CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D, Yale University, New Haven. DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, PH.D., Stanford University. ( aee SB, Cornell University, Ithaca. ALIA , M.E., Harvard a Camb rides ALES HR EE MD, New York Ci Eoi LL.D., Stanford Univer. CHARLES A. KOFOID, Pu.D., Univers ed of Mlinois, Urbana. ,EDHAM, PH Dra ke Forest Univ OLD E. ORTMANN, PH.D., Princeton a Uni toe rsity. . PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McGill n Montreal. i M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, Ne : RITTER, dus University of California, Blei. I Rl SSELL, PH.D., Harvard University, Cam SRAEL. € RUSSELL, LLD., University T Meer Ann Arbor. ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D., U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washi THE AMERICAN NATURALIST Vor. XXXIV. November, 1900. No. 407. A SINGULAR ARACHNID (KCENENIA MIRABILIS GRASSI) OCCURRING IN TEXAS. WILLIAM MORTON WHEELER. IN 1886 Battista Grassi? described as the representative of a new order a remarkable arachnid which he found near the base of Mt. /Etna in the campagna of Catania, Sicily. Grassi’s description was imperfect and seems to have excited little interest in his discovery till Dr. H. J. Hansen in 1893 collected a number of specimens of the same species in southern Italy (near Palmi and Scilla in Calabria) and together with Dr. W. Sórensen published a careful description of the external anatomy, with some good figures of the animal? During the past spring, while collecting specimens of Iapyx, Campodea, and Scolopendrella, in the vicinity of Austin, Texas, I 1 Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Texas, No. 8. 2 I Progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli Insetti. Mem. V. Intorno ad un nuovo Aracnide Artrogastro (Kæœnenia mirabilis) rappresentante di un nuovo ordine (ii beayobs clas), Bull. d. Soc. entom. Italiana, pp. 153-172. Anno 18. Firenz 6. 3 The Order Palpigradi Thor. (Keenenia mirabilis Grassi) and its Relation- ship to the other Arachnida, Entomol. Tidskr., pp. 223-240. Arg. 18 Taf. IV. 837 838 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. found a minute arachnid which at first sight resembled the whip- tailed scorpions (Thelyphonus), but on closer inspection proved to be something very different. Text-books were consulted in vain, with the single exception of Lang's Vergleichende Anatomie, which put me on the track of the Microthely- X SN EY KE 4 P aN 4 j / A Au BET SS y ry y uu V Wy Z^ WM N RI va ES aU SS PT si 1 NES Se ARIES jo NN J Aun Ñ / [1111 EN T, mm TUES’, (pm JN |i A a M à) A RS 4 b) i] A (A ()) Fic. 1 phonida of Grassi. Then, through the kindness of Drs. Hansen and Sorensen, I received a copy of their paper on Kanenia mirabilis. To my surprise the Texan form proved to be iden- tical with the Sicilian species ! In the following pages I shall consider, first, the external structure and systematic affinities of Koenenia ; second, its habits and habitat ; and, third, its singular geographical dis- tribution. If I repeat many of the statements in Hansen No. 407.] A SINGULAR ARACHNID. 839 and Sórensen's paper, this is because I have confirmed nearly all of their observations, published in a journal that may not be accessible to the reader, and because I am able to adda few facts of interest. An account of the internal anatomy, by Miss Augusta Rucker and myself, is reserved for future publication. The observations of Grassi and Hansen and Sorensen refer only to the female Koenenia, as the male was quite unknown to these investigators. In more than a hundred specimens I find only one which may, perhaps, be the male of this arachnid. To this I shall return in the sequel, after describing the female. The general appearance of the female is correctly shown in Fig. 1, although in life the first pair of appendages, the chelicerze, have their chela bent down so that they are not visible from above, and the caudal filament, or flagellum, is turned up over the back, or at least carried obliquely upwards. The length of the body varies from .7 to 1.25 mm. ; the length of the caudal flagellum nearly equals that of the body. The animal is of a translucent white color except for the blades of the chelicere, which have the yellow tint of thickened chitin. The general chitinous integument is very thin and transparent, scarcely differing in thickness in the segmental and intersegmental, and on the dorsal and ventral regions of. the body. The body and limbs are sparsely covered with bristles, which have a characteristic arrangement. They are delicately plumose under a high magnification. The trunk proper consists of the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head, comprising at least four segments, as indicated by its four pairs of appendages, is covered dorsally with an elon- gate octagonal cephalic plate, or shield. This is broadest in the region of the coxz of the third pair of limbs. It is abruptly declivous in front to the insertions of the chelicere. There are no traces of eyes, but Hansen and Sórensen have discovered two pairs of minute sense organs “as if in compen- sation ” for the lack of visual structures! “The foremost of these couples is situated in the median line of the body and on 1 Loc. cit., pp. 230, 231. 840 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. the front of the head, close above the first pair of limbs (chelicerae) ; it consists of two flat, lancet-shaped bodies, which by a common basal part are attached to the head, against which they are pressed. The second couple forms two blades, which are placed close up to the sides of the head above the coxa of the second pair of limbs, and which, though deviating some- what in shape, in quality very much resemble the first couple of blades; they turn, at least when in repose, horizontally forward and outward. As they are articulated to the head, it is not unlikely that they can move. Morphologically they are hairs." Hansen and Sórensen do not pretend to have demon- strated the sensory function of these structures. The Danish investigators have also given an accurate account of the mouth of Koenenia.! «It is simpler than in any other arachnid, nay, than in almost all other Condylopods, no limbs at all participating in its forming, and we are of opinion that in. this respect the mouth of Kcenenia, simple and plain as it is, presents great interest. It has the shape of a downward sloping protruding knot, and its opening consists of a relatively large split extending not quite up to the base of the mouth eminence. Seen from below, this split is slightly crescent shaped and curves towards the front. It is bordered by two flaps which along its margins are furnished with a rather strongly chitinized “list” or frame, which seems to become somewhat weaker towards the corners of the mouth. The fore- most or uppermost of these flaps no doubt constitutes the organ which in other Arachnida one of us (William Sóren- sen) calls the labrum (or, when divided into two parts, the clypeus and the labrum), but which otherwise (according to the different authors) goes by rather varying names (rostrum, epis- toma, camerostoma) . . . We entertain some doubts as to how the lower or hindermost flap is to be understood from a morphological point of view. So for the present we will call it hypostoma, as we consider this name morphologically tolerably indifferent. It is furnished outwardly with very tiny backward turning hairs placed somewhat less close together than those on the labrum. The labrum, as well as the hypostoma, 1$ 1 Loc. cit., pp. 226, 227. No. 407.] A SINGULAR ARACHNID. 841 movable, so as to allow the mouth to open and close. The muscles, which, by the bye, we have not examined more closely, are very strong." The thorax, which is quite distinct from the head, consists of two separate segments, each bearing a pair of limbs. In this respect Koenenia resembles the Tartarides and Solifuge, the only other arachnids with a bisegmental thorax. The six pairs of limbs are, with the exception of the first pair, or chelicerz, of a remarkably simple structure. Even the chelicerze are of a primitive type, in that they consist of three joints. They are said by Hansen and Sórensen to * correspond entirely with the type appearing in the Opiliones," except in their minuter characters. The insertions of their long and powerful first joints are slightly to the sides of the mouth ; a very significant fact, since in all the higher Arachnida these organs are definitely preoral. The second and third joints of each chelicera form a pair of pinchers. Each of these joints is furnished with a dense series of eight slender, pointed teeth. i The second to sixth pairs of appendages have essentially the same simple type of structure, although the pairs differ in length and in the number of joints. The formula of their lengths is as follows : 45>65>2>5> 4. The second pair have nine joints, the third twelve, the fourth and fifth each seven, the sixth eight joints. All the legs ter- minate in two claws and a curved pseudonychium. All are provided with a coxa, trochanter, and femur. The third to sixth pairs have a separate patella and tibia, but these two joints are represented by a single piece in the second pair. “The metatarsus is two-jointed in the second pair of limbs, four-jointed in the third pair, and undivided in the fourth, fifth, and sixth pairs.” The “tarsus is three-jointed in the second and third pairs of limbs, one-jointed in the fourth and fifth, two- jointed in the sixth." ! Although the second to sixth pairs of limbs are all used in 1 Hansen and Sörensen, /oc. cit., p. 230. 842 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV. running, the very long third pair are usually held aloft like antennz when the animal is not disturbed and is moving about slowly. Some of the metatarsal and tarsal joints of this pair of appendages are provided with very long, delicate hairs of uniform thickness throughout. They are very prob- ably sense-hairs (possibly auditory in function, as suggested by Hansen and Sörensen). Between the insertions of the legs the ventral surface of the head and thorax presents a series of sternal plates to which the Danish arachnologists have called particular attention. The lower surface of the head has two of these plates, a larger anterior one just behind the mouth and corresponding to the second and third pairs of appendages, and a smaller piece cor- responding to the third pair of limbs. Farther back there are two more sternal plates, one to each of the thoracic segments. The condition of the sternal apparatus of the head is empha- sized “as a curiosity, as it is quite unique in Arachnida, which otherwise show no trace of independence in the segments con- stituting the head.” ! The abdomen is elongate elliptical in outline, without any traces of dorso-ventral flattening, and consists of eleven seg- ments. The first is short and narrow, and on this account may be readily overlooked. The ninth, tenth, and eleventh are very much narrower than the preceding segments. The last bears the anus on its ventral surface. To its posterior surface the caudal flagellum is attached. The dorsal surfaces of the ab- dominal segments each presents a single row of bristles which are inserted rather far apart and near the middle of their respective segments. Hansen and Sórensen have failed to give a satisfactory account of the ventral surface of the abdomen. The condi- tions are not so easily studied as might at first sight be sup- posed. Nor am I certain that my analysis of this region is complete, as my specimens differ considerably in the clearness with which they show certain structures, notably the com- plicated valves surrounding the genital orifice. I am of the opinion that segments two to six are each provided with a 1 Hansen and Sörensen, /oc. cit., p. 226. No. 407.] A SINGULAR ARACHNID. 843 pair of appendages, presumably the serial homologues of the cephalic and thoracic limbs. The appendages of the second and third segments have come together in the median line to form four peculiar setigerous valves surrounding the genital orifice lying between these segments. The shape of the valves and the characteristic arrangement of their bristles are shown in Fig. 2. The anterior pair, which I regard as the append- ages of the first segment, are arcuate and closely applied to each other in the mid- ventral line. Their posterior edges are raised on either side into six papilla, each capped with a strong bristle. The posterior pair are flattened and enclose the orifice of the chitinous genital conduit between their bases. Their posterior edges are fringed with a series of graduated bristles. PP- ae No. 407.] A SINGULAR ARACHNID. 847 “1. The mouth of the Palpigradi (as we have already pointed out above) differs from that of all other Arachnida, nay, from that of almost all other Condylopods, in being formed exclu- . sively by the labrum and the hypostoma. And even if Kæne- nia did not offer other characteristics, this circumstance would, to our eyes, be sufficient to set it aside as an independent order. “2. The antenna (chelicerze) of the Palpigradi are three- jointed, and the two distal joints form a pair of pinchers with horizontal movement of the third joint against the prolongation of the second. In this structural feature Koenenia agrees with the Opiliones and Scorpiones, and differs most decisively from the Pedipalpi, in which the antennz are two-jointed and do not form real pinchers. “3. The five remaining pairs of limbs are similar in all the most essential features, as none of the anterior three pairs (second, third, and fourth) are provided with maxillary lobes which help to form the mouth, but are developed exclusively as organs of movement, like the two posterior pairs of limbs which in all arachnids, where they are found at all, are merely instru- ments of movement. Therefore the foot (tarsus~s. /a7.) in all five pairs is divided into a metatarsus and a tarsus (s. str.). In the four posterior pairs of limbs patella and tibia are well devel- oped, while in the second pair only one single joint is present. “4. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, which arenot —— divided into dorsal and ventral plates. ue the Pedipalpi r e consists of twelve segments, which ( ones in the Uropygi) are divided into a i dorsal and a ventral v plate. (Only in Amblypygi and Tartarides. the first ventral E Et plate is very sparingly chitinized.)" . The relationship of Koenenia to other arachnids eh the po central group of the Pedipalpi is comparable to the relationship of the Thysanura (Campodea, Iapyx, Lepisma, eg.) to other — insect orders through the Orthoptera (including Dermaptera). In fact, Koenenia, with its simple and generalized. organization, | reminds one of such phylogenetically important types as Poly- =~ Berdius, Campodea, Scolopendrella, Amphioxus, : and Myxine. : de ied these animals ] it sn combines i in its ipon & 848 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. many simple ancestral characters with others, which, like the reduction or absence of eyes, tracheze, etc., may be interpreted as the effects of degeneration. Till the internal structure of Keenenia has been studied and compared with that of other arachnids, it is hardly possible to make more precise state- ments than the above concerning its phylogenetic relation- ships. The statements made by Grassi and Hansen and Sörensen concerning the conditions under which Koenenia lives in Sicily and southern Italy may be repeated almost verbatim for the Texan specimens. I have found them most abundant along the margin of a cedar thicket on a rocky hill (altitude about 700-800 feet), only a few minutes' walk from the campus of the University of Texas. They occur under stones rather deeply imbedded in the ground but easily overturned. The earth under these stones is of a very definite degree of moisture, which one soon learns to recognize when searching for speci- mens. The animals are found crawling over the surface of the _ Stone, very rarely on the impressed soil. Sometimes four or . five will be found on a single stone. They are very agile and easily escape into some crevice or under the particles of earth adhering to the stone. They are most easily captured, as - Hansen and Sórensen have shown, by means of a fine brush dipped in alcohol. In Europe Keenenia was found associated with Iapyx, Cam- podea, Pauropus, and Scolopendrella. In Texas it is associated with the very same series of forms, excepting Pauropus, which I have not yet seen in this locality. I am inclined to believe . that the arachnid feeds on the eggs of Campodea or Iapyx. T infer this from the fact that the intestine and its short diver- ticula are always filled with something very much like the yolk- - bodies of an arthropod egg. Moreover, the Koenenia was most abundant where the very young Campodea and Iapyx lived in greatest numbers. _ The association of a group of fortis like Koenenia, Iapyx, Campodea, and Scolopendrella — all very small, primitive, and : synthetic types, and all devoid of pigment and visual organs— s in two Menem so ide MW ted as ge and Texas, is of i; * : x . In Munich, several years ago, I saw a fine panorama representing i No. 407-] A SINGULAR ARACHNID. | 849 considerable interest from the standpoint of ecology and geo- graphical distribution. Although there is an unmistakable general similarity, due to similarity in climate and soil, between the southern European and the Texan faunas, this does not extend to identity of species in any case of which I am cogni- zant, except that of Koenenia. One is at first tempted to sup- pose either that the arachnid is a native of Texas (and possibly also of Mexico and the West Indies) and has been introduced into Sicily and southern Italy with the century plant (Agave) and the prickly pear (Opuntia), or that, conversely, the arach- nid has been introduced into America from Europe! It would seem, however, that we cannot accept either of these alternatives, but are forced to the conclusion that Koenenia is indigenous to both continents on account of the associated forms, for we can hardly assume that the species of Iapyx, Campodea, and Scolopendrella have also been imported? It is certainly more reasonable to suppose that all these forms have a wide and disconnected geographical distribution as relicts of a very ancient fauna which have survived, like many cave forms (e.g., the singular blind Menobranch Amphibians, Proteus and Typhlomolge), because they have inhabited conditions subject - to little or no change during enormous periods of time. A strik- ing instance analogous to that of Koenenia has recently | been | brought to light in the form of a very primitive. Thysanuran, 2 Projapyx styli ifer. This Spese an Toyran — wa 1These plants, ire since the discovery of America, are now so widely peus = distributed in southern Italy that they form an essential part of the landscape. us in the days of Constantine. In this painting the artist, who had evidently s studied - Rome _ the modern Italian landscape, had been misled into the amusing anachronism of —— — filing out a corner of his canvas with campe of Agaves ivan _Opuntias ! = above-suggested introduction of Kai li from the fact that a species of Schizonotus, a genus da inue | Tartarids inhabit- ing Ceylon and Venezuela and somewhat resembling Kenenia in structure and - habits, has been iotroduced into “Europe * — with exotic pipats gar ee Pocock. TheG and Solifugz, Natasa’ Sols, vol. xiv, No. kn March, 1899, pP. 213-231, 21 Ds *'The American species of t these Symphyla and Thysanura ura are certainly very similar to the y yet be proved to be identi- Cal in the light of study: as thorough: as that which has been been devoted to the ded : | 9nony o sonis oet B EE e uu cu cis er 850 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. eleven-jointed cerci in the place of the more specialized anal forceps, was discovered by O. F. Cook in Liberia. Very recently the same form was taken at Federacion in the Argen- tine Republic by Silvestri. COLEBROOK, CONN., August 14, 1900. ! Anche Projapyx stylifer, O. F. Cook, nella R. Argentina. Nuovo genere di Polyxenidz, Zoo. Anzeiger, Bd. xxiii, Nr. 609, March 5, 1900, pp. 113, I14. A NEW MYRMECOPHILE FROM THE MUSHROOM GARDENS OF THE TEXAN LEAF- CUTTING ANT. WILLIAM MORTON WHEELER. On the 10th of April last, with the assistance of Messrs. A. L. Melander and C. T. Brues, I excavated a large nest of leat- cutting ants (Atta fervens Say), situated in a piece of wood- land a quarter of a mile from the University of Texas. The large burrows, nearly an inch in diameter, were found to ex- - tend down to a depth of from three to five feet and to open into large chambers, some of which were fully ten inches across and five to eight inches high. A few of these chambers were traversed by the roots of a large cedar, in the shade of which the ants had dug their formicary. Descending into the pit we had dug, and braving the attacks of tens of thousands of infuri- ated ants, we soon discovered the objects of our search — the - mushroom gardens heaped up on the floor, or, more rarely, enveloping, as aérial or “hanging” Lanes the roots that ic extended across the chambers. |. ; The gardens were hastily sacs —I say pee because putting one's hand into one of these chambers is like grasping _ the handles of an electric machine, so valiantly do the ants ; D defend their property. T he material, reeking with an odor. we . like that of stale honey, was placed in large glass j jars. These : had to serve as artificial nests, as nests of the Lubbock and Janet pattern were obviously not suited to these aberrant ants. By the following day the ants had complere | rebuilt their gardens on the bottoms of the jars. _ These gardens proved to be very milar to those so really described and figured by Móller? for several South American Species of Atta (A. discigera Mayr., 2 4. hystrix Latr., A. coronata 1 Contributions from the Zoilogical Laboratory dog University of Texas, No. 9. * Die on. i da ute Fischer, 1895, 2 ie Bs 2c 2 852 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. Fabr, and A. Mölleri Forel). Möller has described how the ants cut and bring the large pieces of leaves into their cellars, then cut them into smaller fragments, and finally com- Fic. 1.— Mush len of Atta fervens Say. 5 minute these still further till they form a flocculent greenish- brown pulp! This pulp is heaped up and soon becomes invaded 1 Atta fervens, like other species of the genus, is not fastidious in its choice of the material to be used as a soil for its gardens. Almost any vegetable substance will answer this purpose. In October, 1899, I saw a colony busily engaged col- lecting caterpillar excrement which had dropped from the overhanging foliage of a large sycamore. Several months later I found a large colony near the same spot marching in long procession, conveying big grains of cracked corn which No. 407.] A NEW MYRMECOPHILE. 853 by the mycelium of a fungus (Rozites gongylophora). The mycelium is kept aseptically clean — ż.e., free from all other spe- cies of fungi and even from bacteria — and induced to grow in an abnormal way by bringing forth minute swellings which Fic. 2. Mush den of Atta fervens Say. 5 constitute the only food of the ant colony. Möller likens these swellings to the “ Kohlrabi ” of the German kitchen gardens. they had filched from a mill near their nest. Sometimes they prefer to collect seeds or young flower-buds. In winter, when the leaves have fallen from a th trees except the live oaks and cedars — trees which the Attas avoid, probably because the leaves offer too much resistance to their mandibles — they garner the young leaves of the sorrel and lupine. At such times, especially when the land- scape is flooded with the brilliant Texan sunshine, one may, perhaps, not inap- Propriately compare the ant procession with a procession of “ unday-school children carrying banners" (McCook, On the Architecture and Habits of the Cutting Ant of Texas (Atta fervens), Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil, pp. 33-49; 1879). 854 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV. More recently Forel has studied the habits of two other spe- cies (Atta cephalotes L. and A. sexdens L.) in Colombia! He seems to have given some attention to the róle performed by the different casts of worker ants — casts which are also repre- sented in our Atta fervens — in this process of collecting and comminuting the leaves and in cultivating the mushroom. At p. 31 he says: “The largest workers (soldiers) triturate the leaves and defend the nest. They draw blood when they bite. The indigenes are said to use these insects for closing wounds. They induce them to bite the two lips of the wound and there- upon sever the bodies from the heads, which then serve as a suture. The medium-sized workers cut the leaves from the trees, while in the nest the workers of the minim cast are for- ever clipping the threads of the mycelium of the Rhozites, which then develops the * Kohlrabi,’ on which the ants feed." The shape of a mushroom garden is that of a discoidal sponge. On its upper surface the ants pile up the flocculent vegetable débris, threaded in all directions with fungus hyphze, in the form of thin, vertical, anastomosing plates, so that as much surface as possible is exposed to the atmosphere of the chamber. This atmosphere must contain a great amount of carbon dioxide and a very small amount of oxygen. The pecu- liar appearance of the surface of two large gardens is shown in the photographs (Figs. 1 and 2, about X4 the natural size). Although these gardens of Atta fervens closely resemble those of the South and Central American species observed by Möller and Forel, I have seen fit to figure them, both because Móller's work is out of print and may not be readily accessible to the reader, and because, to my knowledge, the gardens of our Texan leaf-cutter have not been figured heretofore. The ants leave several tubular or funnel-shaped openings (clearly shown in the figures), varying in diameter, and extending down into some chambers excavated in the base of the vegetable mass. In these chambers lives the huge queen of the colony, — an insect nearly an inch long, — the newly fledged males and vir- gin queens, together with the larvae, pupae, and attendant ants. 1 Biologia Centrali-Americana Hymenoptera. Formicidæ (1899-1900), PP. 3! et seq. No. 407] A NEW MYRMECOPHILE. 855 The whole mushroom garden swarms with workers, represent- ing all the different casts so characteristic of the genus Atta. The big-headed soldiers — like ‘ Brownie" police officers — stalk about slowly over the surface of the comb, descending from time to time into the interior, as if to make sure that the great family is properly attending to its multifarious occupa- tions, while thousands of minims keep moving about through the meshes of the mycelium, weeding the garden. In the presence of these varied activities and instincts one has a feel- ing of regret that all * anthropomorphism" is now to be ban- ished from the study of ant life, and that we are asked to look at all this elaborate division of labor as nothing but an agglom- eration of machine-like “ reflexes.” 1 It is natural to suppose with Wasmann? that the vast amount of comminuted and decomposing vegetable matter collected by the leaf-cutting ants as a soil, or culture medium for the growth of their mushroom diet, would form a most favorable resort for a great number of myrmecophiles. Nevertheless, compara- tively few of these symbiotic animals have been taken up to the present time. Besides the amphisbzenians, which, though often found in the nests of the tropical Attas,? may not even be myrmecophagous, I find mention of comparatively few species in the literature. These include the following histerid beetles taken in the nests of Azta fervens in Mexico and enumerated in Wasmann's very useful Verzeichnis * : Philister rufulus Lewis, Hister (?) costatus Mars, Reninus Salvini Lewis, and Carcinops (?) multistriata Lewis. Belt? saw a species of “ Staphylinus ” in the Atta nests of Nicaragua, and Wasmann ê 1 See Bethe, Dürfen wir den Ameisen und Bienen psychische Qualitäten zu- schreiben, Arch. f. d. gesam. Physiologie, Bd. lxx (1898), pp. 15-100, Taf. . il 5text-figs. ; and Bethe, Noch einmal über die psychischen Qualitäten der Amei- sen, 7did., Bd. Ixxix (1900), pp. 39-52- Die Ameisen- und Termitengäste von Brasilien, Verhandl. d. k. k. zool. bot. Gesell., pp. 2-46, Wien, Jahrg. 1895- 3 See Bates, Zhe Naturalist on the River Amazons, London, 1876, pp. 51 and 52; Brent, Notes on the CEcodomas, or Leaf-Cutting Ants of Trinidad, Amer. Nat., vol. xx (1886), pp. 123-131, No. 2 ; and Wasmann, loc. cit., p. 9: 5 Kritisches Verzeichnis der myrmekophilen und termitophilen Arthropoden. Berlin, Felix Dames, 1894. A Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 94. Die Ameisen- und Termitengaste von Brasilien, oc. cit. . 856 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. mentions two species of Aleochara and an Atheta found in the entrances to the nests of AZta sexdens L. at San Paolo, Brazil. This short list of myrmecophiles led us to sift with consider- able care the gardens of the nest we excavated. The result was a single species of myrmecophile, but this appeared in considerable numbers — more than seventy specimens being taken from three of the large gardens — and proves to be a cockroach (Blattid) of very small size and peculiar structure. With the exception of four males and two females, all the lll; 'specimens are immature. The 7e species appears to be undescribed, and as it does not belong to any genus of which I can find an ac- count, I propose to describe it as the type of a new genus under the name of Attaphila fungicola. In the artificial nests above men- tioned the little cockroaches were frequently seen moving in and out of the tubular perforations in the vegetable mass. Occasionally one of them would mount a huge soldier that was slowly patrolling Fro. 3.—Ataphila fungicola n.sp, the surface of the garden, and ride Minima ges about on its back or enormous head for minutes at a time. The ant did not appear to be in the least annoyed by this performance, nor did any of the other ants pay the slightest attention to the cockroaches when they were encountered inthe passages. It is probable that Attaphila, like the ants, feeds on the modified hyphee of the fungus. This is indicated by the fact that the intestines of several dissected specimens contained a whitish substance which may be the remains of the masticated mycelium. If this supposition proves to be correct, the relationship between the ants and the cockroaches is of a peculiar character. It is, in fact, a kind of myrmecoclepsy, or thieving. As the cockroaches eat the fun- gus cultivated by the ants for their own consumption, this kind of myrmecoclepsy may be said to differ from the typical form + JU ^l ME "i PS DN NS \ tUa. a ANN WS AMAN: NES [ n i Ri Ims MEAM, om MERIA LE TET M \ E Y Wilh tara UN i RN 1 1 fas it . H / coi - P AY t t "à Pi a Mr u uU MEUM: ! PEREAT MH iyu te tld L No. 407.] A NEW MYRMECOPHILE. 857 exhibited by the Thysanuran Lepismina and the mite Anten- nophorus. In these cases, as Janet has shown in an excellent paper,! the guest steals some of the liquid food while it is pass- ing from the mouth of one ant (Lasius umbratus mixtus Nyl.) to that of another. Before passing to a more detailed description of Attaphila, attention may be called to a few of its structural and taxo- nomic peculiarities : 1. Up to the present time a genus of diminutive crickets (Myrmecophila) has comprised the only known myrmecophiles ITA Ahaha eae az EOM "Mu "t I P. Sadie ke AE TCU ee AA. LA y Fs - ptr att I irot 1 ' \ MES a VES tay 1 taf egt t Pen pa VAN nhi sty GT KENA htl 51 uai orta dus VA I Lr pecho a s po aen CRUS NN Pe EE EE Sg he. 3-43 uy png tet An Mey ett d Nae CN [ 7 T ma ADD TP ont et / ' $43 ! CO ey ‘ (t pM es vad En ee di ds dit MS Malen HERMAN OMIT MUERE E x [ts v E: VES bere abge PP a eb per EYE E ATTE um M bpd y Fae Bi Mase, We AE ears RL uM Mn tabes ety ley oder £s V SNR. TRAD OP "Ud p l 3144. Ma dd dc "n / salleh ! Jl HN ] 1 app i 1 ty MSS RN iu TEE Oca ie rtin JPTT TA D LANT V ESSO N mi tes Fic. 5. Fic. 4. — A ttaphila fungicola n. sp., female, dorsal aspect. Fic. 5. — Attaphila fungicola n. sp., female, ventral aspect. in the great Orthopteran order.? With Attaphila a genus belong- ing to a very different family, the Blattidæ, must be added to the long list of insect myrmecophiles. Considering that there is no family of Orthoptera apparently so well fitted to enter into symbiotic relations with ants, it is rather surprising to find that other myrmecophilous Blattidae have not been discovered, espe- cially in the tropics, where the family is rich in species. 1 Éfudes sur les fourmis, les guépes, et les abeilles. Note 13, Sur le Lasius mixtus, l'antennophorus Uhlmanni, etc., pp. 1-58, 16 figs. Limoges, 1897. For an account of the habits of one of the species (M. nebrascensis Bruner) the reader may be referred to an article in Psyche (1 900). 858 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 2. While the Orthoptera, as a rule, are large or medium- sized insects, both Myrmecophila and Attaphila are so far below even the average stature of insects of this order that we must conclude either that they have become reduced in size secondarily in adaptation to their present habitat and compan- ionship, or that they were originally diminutive species, and, for that very reason, better able to enter into symbiotic rela- tionship with the ants. The latter alternative seems to be the more probable. 3. The eyes of Attaphila are vestigial in both sexes. This is indicated by their very small size, the greatly reduced number of their facets, and their irregular orbits (Fig. 6). There are scarcely more than seventy ommatidia in either eye, whereas, according to Miall and Denny,! there are about eighteen hundred in the eye of the common cockroach (Periplaneta orientalis), and some other species have even larger eyes, and therefore, in all probability, a still greater number of ommatidia. The vestigial condi- tion of the eyes in Attaphila is of interest because it shows that the insect has become thoroughly adapted to living in the dark. It hc dahil dacs is, in fact, a truly cavernicolous form, living cola n. sp., eye of adult in caves constructed by its emmet hosts. The reduction of the eyes has not, however, proceeded so far as in another diminutive cockroach, Vycticola Simoni, which is known to inhabit caves in the Philippine Islands. 4. Additional evidence of the lifelong confinement of Atta- phila to the chambers of the ants’ nest is seen in the extremely rudimental condition of the tegmina and wings in the adult male, and the complete absence of these structures in the adult female. There can be no doubt that the specimens figured (Figs. 3-5) were mature, as the testes of the male contained ripe spermatozoa, and the ovaries of the female contained large, elliptical white eggs. The oótheca of this form must be an 1 Studies in Comparative Anatomy. III. The Structure and Life History of the Cockroach, p. 99. London, 1886. No. 407.] A NEW MYRMECOPHILE. 859 interesting object, if the species actually produces one. My specimens were taken too early in the year, as shown by the great number of immature individuals, so that I am unable to . make any statements concerning the breeding habits. 5. It is a singular fact that in every one of my specimens of Attaphila the antennz are incomplete, so that I cannot ascertain the full number of joints. There seems to be only one explanation of this, vzz., that the antenna have been clipped off by the ants, either by the minims, which are continually trimming the fungus hyphae, or by the large workers, which cut up the pieces of leaves brought in by the medium-sized workers. It is easy to understand how an insect like a cockroach, living in the midst of thousands of ants which are continually opening and closing their scissor-like mandibles, should be certain sooner or later to have its long antenna cropped. One wonders how the tarsi of the cockroach escape the same treatment. The human habit of cropping the tails of horses and the ears and tails of dogs may be said to be remotely paralleled by the leaf-cutting ants when they inad- vertently clip the antenna of their household insects. The treatment to which the cockroaches are subjected in the nests of Azta fervens — a treatment which they have probably undergone for ages— suggests an interesting problem for those who may still believe in the inheritance of mutilations. The number of antennal joints that escape the scissors of the ants varies in forty-five specimens, in which they were counted on both sides, from three to eleven. In seventeen of these specimens the number of joints is the same in both antennae, the variations being: 7-7, 8-8, 9-9, and 10-10. In twenty-one cases the two antennz differ by only a single joint, the variations being: 7-8, 8-9, 9-10, 10-11. In seven specimens the discrepancy between the two antennz is greater, being 3-9, 5-7, 5-9, 7-9. Thus in thirty-eight out of forty- five specimens the cropped antennz are very nearly or quite symmetrical. I am unable to explain this singular condition, which can hardly be a mere coincidence. It is probable that in this symmetrical and cropped form the antenna of the Attaphila are more like those of the ant, and as they are kept 860 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. in constant vibration, they may on that account more readily simulate the “antennal language" of the host insects. This, however, would be the result, not the cause, of the symmetrical clipping. 6. Judging from the stumps which remain, the antenna of Attaphila differ considerably in structure from those of other Blattidae known to me. The joints are relatively much larger and longer, and therefore of a more generalized or embryonic type than those seen in the nymphs and adults of other species. Can this somewhat hypertrophied condition be the result of the continual clipping to which these organs are subjected? 7. The structure of its antenne suggests that a more extended comparison of Attaphila with other Blattidae may assign it a peculiar, if not unique, taxonomic position. On this matter my limited acquaintance with the insects of this family hardly qualifies me to write. . The following is a more detailed description of the myrme- cophile that is the subject of the foregoing general remarks. ATTAPHILA FUNGICOLA, NOV. GEN. ET NOV. SP. Male (Fig. 3). — Length, 3-3.5 mm. Color: amber yel- low ; antennz, tibiz, tarsi, pleurze, tegmina, and overlapping portions of terga and sterna of the thoracic and abdominal segments more brownish. Body about twice as long as broad, glabrous, covered with rather evenly distributed short, yellow- ish hairs. Head scarcely projecting beyond the anterior margin of the pronotum, so that only its posterior edge is visible when the insect is seen from above. Epicranium and front broad, smooth, without any traces of the A-shaped suture and fenes- tre. — Labrum not bilobed, but obtusely pointed, extending à little beyond the acute, tridentate mandibles. Labial palpi scarcely half as robust as the maxillary palpi. Eyes very small, with irregular orbits, occupying the extreme lateral portions of the head and separated by a considerable dis- tance from the antennal fovea. Antennz incomplete in all the specimens, both nymphs and adults; first joint rather stout, somewhat longer than the second to fifth joints taken No. 407.] A NEW MYRMECOPHILE. 861 together ; joints six to eleven of gradually increasing length, but little narrower than the basal joint. Pronotum evenly rounded in front, considerably broader than the meso- and metanota, and as long as both of these regions taken together. There is a brown spot on either side above the eye. Tegmina rhomboidal, without traces of nervures, covering and extending somewhat beyond the meso- and metathoracic segments, and meeting for a short distance in the mid-dorsal line. Wings very small, vestigial, completely covered by the tegmina and exhibiting only very feeble traces of nervures. Abdominal segments short and broad, the first concealed, considerably narrower than the succeeding segments ; terga of seventh and eighth without hairs and lighter in color than the preceding segments ; tergum of ninth segment, forming the lamina supra- analis, subtriangular, not more than one and one-half times as broad as long, rounded behind, and fringed with a few hairs. Cerci very short, not longer than broad, ovoidal, one-jointed, covered with radiating hairs except over an elongate, glabrous area on the upper surface. Subgenital plate small, rounded and smooth, projecting beyond the supra-anal lamina and turned to the left. Above the subgenital plate lies a pointed, spine-like projection (penis ?), which turns to the right side. Stylets apparently absent. Legs short, flattened, the pairs increasing in length from before backwards ; tips of the fore femora far from reaching the pleural edges of the prothorax, those of the hind pair just reaching the lateral edges of the abdomen. All the femora furnished with spines on their lower surfaces. Tibiæ, especially the middle and hind pairs, with robust spines on their extensor edges and at their tips. Tarsi short, flattened, second to fourth joints oblique ; fifth joint provided with a distinct arolium between the claws. Female (Figs. 4 and 5).— Length 3.25-3.5 mm. Differs from the male in the following characters : Body much broader and more rounded behind ; meso- and metathoracic segments without tegmina or wings, but with broad pleural flaps, so that these segments are slightly wider than the prothorax, though their antero-posterior diameter is only about half that of the large pronotum. Posterior edges of the lamina supra-analis 862 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. notched in the middle. Cerci with a very clearly circumscribed, linear white spot on the dorsal surface. Subgenital plate large, nearly as long as broad, evenly rounded behind. Nymph. — Length, 1.5-3 mm. Resembling the female, except in the smaller size and the distinctly lighter color. COLEBROOK, CONN., August 20, 1900. ON THE VARIATION OF IHE SHELL OF PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK FROM LONG ISLAND. C. B. DAVENPORT. Tuis study is concerned with the shells of the prevalent species of scallop, Pecten zrradians, from Cold Spring Har- bor, Cutchogue, Fire Island Beach, and Oak Island Beach, Long Island, state of New York, collected during August and September, 1899. Pecten (Fig. 1) is a genus of bivalve Mollusca whose nearly circular valves are provided with a number of ridges radiating from the beak at the hinge. The hinge is elongated tangen- tially, forming a pair of **ears" where the ends of the tangent depart most widely from the circle. The ears of the two valves are very different, as, indeed, are the conditions to which the two valves are subjected in nature. For when Pecten is about three millimeters in diameter it attaches itself, so that it lies in a horizontal fashion, by means of a byssus. It remains attached until it is from ten to thirty millimeters long, after which it lives free. The byssus passes to the exterior between the anterior ear of the right valve and the main body of the shell ; consequently, when the right valve is viewed exteriorly, the right-hand ear is deeply notched,? while the left-hand ear is not notched at all. In the left valve both ! As it is necessary nowadays to recognize that a specific name by itself means very little, a string of synonymy must be appended. Recent names for the “species” or “variety” to which the form-units that I studied belong, are: Pecten (Plagioctenium) gibbus, var. irradians (Dall, '98, p. 748), and Chlamys (Egquipecten) irradians (Verrill, '99, p. 77). Dall recognizes two northern varie- ties of gibbus : “ gibbus var. borealis ” of the New England coast, and “ gibbus var. irradians" “from New Jersey” south. Neither of his descriptions of these two forms agrees closely with the Cold Spring Harbor form-unit, which might therefore receive a new varietal name were not the futility of this endless naming, alas, too evident. 2 Fig. 1, top. 863 864 THE AMERICAN .NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. ears are unnotched.! Since the byssus passes out on the right side, the right side of the young Pecten lies next the sub- stratum, while the left side is broadly exposed to the water above. I was interested to see whether the Pecten ever lies on its left side —a condition which would be comparable in a way Fic. 1. Ey Photographs of Pecten irradians from Cold Spring Harbor : a, 4, two cases of partial division of a rib; c, case of interpolation of a secondary ridge between two primary ones; e, f, showing an extremely small (14) and extremely large (20) number of rays. with left-handedness in dextral gastropods. If the abnormal condition ever occurs, it will show itself by the circumstance that the notch will appear on the left side of the valve, viewed exteriorli. Now, although over a thousand notched shells 1 Fig. 1, bottom, left. No. 407.] PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. -> 865 were examined by me, I found no exception to the condition of being notched on the right ear. Jackson ('90) found no exception to the normal condition, and states that Professor Hyatt examined over three hundred specimens of P. irradians, all of which lay on the right side. There is, accordingly, a wonderful constancy in the tendency to lie on the right side ; and this tendency is characteristic of many related genera, such as Pinna, Spondylus, Plicatula, Hinnites, and Anomia. The constancy in the position of the notch is referable to a constancy in the position of the byssus gland. This is nor- mally laid down in development as a pair of glands, right and left. Apparently only the right gland persists, or else perhaps both glands are united on the right side. Whatever the mor- phogenetic process which determines the position of the byssus gland, it is a remarkably constant one. The shell of P. irradians exhibits on its outer surface five areas : First, a middle one, characterized by large prom- inent ridges, alternating with furrows. Since these are made by foldings of the mantle, the outer ridges appear as grooves on the inner surface, and the outer grooves as inner ridges. Second, a pair of “ear” areas characterized by fine linear ele- vations which do not correspond with marked grooves on the inner face. Third, a pair of triangular areas, lying between the middle areas and the ear areas, and transitional between them. These may be called the “transition” areas. They bear indistinct radial thickenings. These areas are bounded laterally by the ear areas. On the right, or notched, side of the right valve the boundary is distinct ; on the left side of the right valve and on both sides of the left valve the lateral limit of the transitional area is determined by the line where the ear begins. But this is not a very precise line. The transi- tional areas are bounded mesially by the middle area. The limit may be defined as the line where an internal groove corresponding to an external ridge first appears. Since the external ridges on the shell are so often obscure, I early aban-. doned the attempt to count them. I then noticed that the internal grooves are much more precise than external ridges ; 866 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIV. so I counted these grooves to get the laws of variation in the number of radii in Pecten. Such a study is of some impor- tance, because the valves on which the series occur are not typically symmetrical, but show a certain tendency towards being dorsal and ventral We have here, then, a case among pelecypods resembling that of the flounder among fishes. The grooves in all the shells examined ran continuously from near the beak to the free margin of the shell. I did not observe any case of bifurcation of a groove, the obliteration of a groove distally, or the introduction of a new groove towards the free margin of the shell This is the more remarkable because in allied species, such as P. eboreus Conrad (see Dall, '98, p. 749), some of the ribs become obsolete toward the margin, and in others, as P. zs/audicus, new grooves are begun at various stages in development of the shell. The number of grooves corresponds to the number of ridges in the *middle" area. But the number of grooves on the inner face of the shell is not always definite, especially towards the transition area. We here sometimes find a very slight lateral depression passing hinge-ward only one-tenth to one- fifth the whole distance. The rule was adopted to count as grooves only those depressions where the margin of the shell was folded to form a complete U rather than merely an L. A strictly ambiguous or halfway groove at both ends of the series counted for one full groove, but when only one groove was ambiguous, that was omitted from the count. About ten per cent of the shells from Cold Spring Harbor and all from the other two localities were counted by my wife, Gertrude C. Davenport; the rest were counted by myself. We satisfied ourselves of the equivalence of our estimates of doubtful cases by making a series of independent determina- tions on a number of identical shells, finding that we agreed in our determinations in the case of each individual shell. The shells from Cold Spring Harbor were picked up on the sand spit, where they had been thrown by waves and shifting sands. They were therefore not pairs, and were not con- sciously selected. The shells from Fire and Oak Island Beaches were picked up on the beach and were also separate and - No. 407. PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. ^ 86 7 often somewhat water-worn and broken by the pounding of the surf which rolls in on that unprotected shore ; but no shells were rejected unless so worn or broken as to obscure the grooves. The shells from Cutchogue were very kindly sent me by Mr. Huron Bretsch. Mr. Bretsch writes me that all came from Peconic Bay, near Cutchogue, some from a shell heap left by fishermen, and some picked up on the shore by himself. He says, *I did not pick out the best ones, but took them at random." Results. — I give in tabular form the observed and per mille distribution of frequencies of the different classes of groove numbers for the two valves from the three localities. RicHT (Lower) VALVE | LEFT (UPPER) VALVE ; | z C. S.H Cutchogue | F. I. & O. I. C.S.H. | Cutchogue | F.I.&O.I. o | | Obs. | p.m. |Obs.| p.m. | Obs.| P.M. | Obs. | su. | Obs.| rm | Obs. | P.M. sii Seren! k | Beis A dile 13 | I 1.2 | | | 14 2 1.9 I a2 M. 3 a5 5 32.7 | 95.2 15 15 14.3 33 117.4 6 120 43 53-2 | 3 248.4 190.5 16 | 108 | 103.3 | 95 | 338.1 | 15 3oo || 269 | 3330 | 77 | 5032 | 10 | 476.2 17 | 515 | 492.3 | 127 452.0 | 24 480 || 320 396.0 | 27 176.5 4 190.5 18 | 308 | 294.5 22 78.3 4 8o || 151 186.9 Da 26. 1 47.6 19 9o 86.0 4 14.2 2 232.3 2 13.1 20 7 6.7 | | | 21 1 1.0 | 1046 1000.0 | 281 | 1000.0 50 | 1000 | 808 | 1000.0 | 153 | 1000.0 | 21 | 1000.0 The quantitative study of these seriations gives the following constants calculated from the observed and not the per mille data. Here z is the number of individual shells counted; M is the mode, or the prevailing number of rays; A is the average number of rays; c is the standard deviation or index of varia- tion; c is the coefficient of variation; F is the critical function of Pearson, by which the type of the curve is determined. The numbers following the + sign are the probable errors of the determinations. For further information concerning this analysis of frequency distributions, the reader is referred to the works of Duncker in Roux’s Archiv, 1899, or my Statistical Methods, New York, 1899. 868 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. Ricut (Lower) VALVE be LEFT (UPPER) VALVE | | C. S.H. | Cutchogue | F. I. & O. I. | Cutchogue |F.I.& O.I. |- | n 1046 | 281 | 50 | 808 153 | 2t M 17 17 | 17 17 16 | 16 A 17.353 + .o18 | 16.534 + .034 | 16.480 + .084 16.790 + .022 15.954 + .105 | 15. T. B, : o 0.876 + .013 0.852 + .024 0.877 + .060 | 0.916 +.015 | 0.881 + .075 | 0.97 c 5.049 € .074 Bdg6 es 5.32; 36,36 5.457 + .092 5-52 3.47 | Mais p F 1.46 0.0476 | Type ET f Type IV or | | Type V1 | Skewness + 0.023 + -0000000058 | 1 Fx M= .028; he tines Aa E .9711. v Conclusions. — From these numerical results we may draw the following conclusions : 1. The right valve has on the average about half a groove more than the upper valve (more precisely .56+ more). This result is due to the circumstance that the series of ridges and grooves must end either in a ridge or in a groove. Of course it may end in a ridge at one end of the series and a groove at the other; but in the majority of cases there is a high degree of symmetry in the ends of the series. Now I find, in looking over the right and left shells without prejudice, that in the right shells the series tends strongly to end in a groove, so that the last or most lateral ridges of the series (looking at inner sur- face of shell) are very distinct. In the left valve, on the other hand, there is a more marked tendency for the series to end in a ridge, so that the last grooves are distinct. For in twenty-three right valves I found only three in which the series ended in ridges, whereas twenty ended in grooves; whilst in twenty-nine left valves in fourteen cases the series ended in ridges, and in fifteen cases in grooves.! Since the series of the right valve show this prevailing tendency to end in grooves, the excess of grooves on the right valves is fully accounted for. Doubtless if ridges had been counted instead of grooves, the right valve would have averaged one-half a ridge less than the left. l The tendency to end in a groove or a ridge is beautifully shown in P. oper- culatus Linn. No. 407.] PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. 869 2. The prevailing number of rays in the right valves from all localities is seventeen ; in the left valves from Cold Spring Harbor it is seventeen also; but at the east end and the south shore of Long Island it is sixteen. Comparison of the aver- ages shows that the Cold Spring Harbor shells tend to have a comparatively large number of rays on both valves— in the mean 0.8 of a valve more than in the other localities. In the average number of grooves Cold Spring Harbor stands widely separated from the other two localities, which are closely related. 3. Using as an index of variability the standard deviation c, it appears that the Cold Spring Harbor shells are possibly more variable than those from Cutchogue. However, the difference is less than the probable error, and no stress is to be laid on the fact. The same is true of the apparently greater variation of the South Shore shells. So we may conclude that, despite dif- ferences in the mean, the variability of the grooves is constant. This result accords with certain others obtained by counting integral variates. Duncker ('99, p. 328) says: “ While the average values of a character may differ widely in different form-units of the same species, the indices of variability remain fairly constant, not only in the form-units of the same species, but also in those of species belonging to different genera, even to different families. This fact does not seem to me to have been sufficiently regarded hitherto; the explanation of it is, I suppose, the constancy of the physiological capacity of a given organ for reacting to the individual causes of variation with respect to a given character. Some authors, bdwever, seem to assume a more or less constant relation between the height of the average and that of the index of variability of a character." I will not here discuss, as I propose to do else- where, the relation between the mean and the index of varia- tion. The matter needs special investigation. 4. The variability of the right or lower valve is in every case less than that of the left or upper valve, and this difference in the case of the Cold Spring Harbor specimens is greater than the probable error. From this fact we may conclude that the right valve is the more conservative, or responds less to 870 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. varying environmental conditions. This small variability of the lower valve is in accord with the fact that the young shell of Pecten is larger and better preserved on the right valve than on the left. Again, in P. squamosus, in which the scales are becoming obsolete in the adult, they are found at a later stage on the right valve than on the left. In other cases,” the grooves of the left valve divide and become ornamented, while the right valve remains simple. . Here, then, the index of variability is an index of phylogenetic changeableness. 5. The type of distribution of frequencies was determined only for the shells from Cold Spring Harbor, because they alone were sufficiently numerous for this purpose. The right valve is Type IV, with a rather small skewness however, namely, +0.023. For the left valve the distribution is remarkably near the theoretical normal distribution, the skewness being +.0000000058. The skewness will rarely be theoretically zero. Applying Pearson’s limits, the distribution may be said to be of the normal type. Applying the prevailing method of interpreting these results, we may say that the Cold Spring Harbor race is, as regards the grooves in the upper valve, very stable; while as regards the grooves in the lower valve it outer. exhibits a slight tendency to the exces- caue VO cae TE EN sive production of a large number of i rays, or to the selective annihilation i "X. Lu. of the small numbers. The excessive c. "wA production of large numbers may be . due to innate or to external causes. = ud N Abnormalities of the grooves often inue. occur. All gradations were found be- Fic. 2— Cross-Sectionsof de i; tWEEN the condition of a broad ridge maa seo fitus : tbe on the inner face of the shell and the a double ridge; o a double COndition of a double ridge, the halves Grooves d,a lateral groove. — of which were separated by a groove (Figs. 1, a, 4; 2,6). In other cases the groove contains à ridge of varying size (Figs. 1, c; 2, c). Occasionally a small groove 1 From Mauritius, No. 2412, Field Columbian Museum ? For metes Pecten madreporium, from Singapore, No. 6109, Field Colum- bian Mus No. 407.] PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. 871 lies close by the side of one of normal size (Fig. 2, 7). All these abnormalities may be regarded as congenital. In addition I have found certain variations, probably due to injury of the mantle. Jackson (90) remarks that the mantle is subject to injury by fish and thereafter regenerates only imperfectly. He accounts for the incurved edge of the shell which is occasionally found (Fig. 1, 7) as follows: “When one mantle border is injured, the other repairs the damage which would be caused by local want of shell growth, by curving the shell deposition of the injured side rapidly inwards, thus obviating the deficiency of the injured area. This ingrowth is probably induced by the lack of resisting support on the part of the damaged border." We have now to consider the question whether the individual variations and the abnormalities which we have studied throw any light on the question of the origin of species in the Pectin- ida. This involves an examination of the genus Pecten.! This genus has been variously subdivided. The subgenus Chlamys (as defined by Dall, '90, p. 695), which includes P. irra- dians, is a fairly well defined subdivision, and our attention may be confined to it. The species all have * ribs," as I shall designate the alternating ridges and furrows, which are true flutings or corrugations affecting both inner and outer surfaces of the shell. If the ribs are absent in any case, they have secondarily become lost. The valves are nearly equally in- flated; the ears vary from a nearly equal condition to one of great inequality. The anterior ear of the right valve is typically notched, to let pass the byssus. In judging of the position of P. irradians we need to know something of the phylogeny of the subgenus Chlamys. We can infer some- thing, as Jackson (90) has, on the recapitulation hypothesis, by noting the condition of the shell at different stages of development. The record of these changes remains in the adult shell, and can be studied by examining the beak and adjacent parts. Fossil remains also tell something. The beak ! In making this examination I have had the great privilege of examining, with the kind assistance of Dr. S. E. Meek of the Field Columbian Museum, the very fine collection of Pectens possessed by that institution. 872 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of the valves, especially the rzght valve, shows an area with- out striations ; at this stage also the hinge is as long as the greatest diameter of the shell, and there are no sharply marked off *ears." At this stage the shell resembles the Devonian Aviculoids, which are usually regarded from this as well as from paleontological evidence as the ancestors of the Pectinidae. The genus Pecten began to emerge in the Devonian and Car- boniferous. These emerging Pectens, Pterinopecten (Devonian), had a long hinge line, with large, not sharply defined, nearly equal ears, and with a byssal sinus on the right valve. Both the valves seem to have been convex. Jackson (90, p. 386) says that Ptrerinopecten dignatus Hall and other species bear a close resemblance to the young of P. irradians. In Aviculo- pecten (Devonian), which represents another step towards Pec- ten, we see the hinge becoming shorter and the two ears well defined; a deep byssal sinus occurs on the right valve in many species. In both Pterinopecten and Aviculopecten the shell is corrugated. These dawning Pectens then had the charac- ters of the subgenus Chlamys, which may consequently be regarded as the most primitive of the subgenera of Pecten. P. irradians, therefore, belongs to the most primitive division of the genus Pecten. Inside the subgenus Chlamys the species show modifications in various directions. There are species in which the posterior ear has become very much smaller relatively than in irradians ; e.g. islandicus of our coast, hericeus (= hastatus) of the Cali- fornia coast and Vancouver, and niveus of Great Britain. Associated with this diminution in the posterior ear is the formation of scales in a linear series on the ribs. The scaled condition is secondary, as is clearly shown in niveus, where the younger shell is without scales ; 1 the scales are obtained only in the later stages. The inequality of the ears is also derived, for in the primitive condition there was equality of the auricles. This group is therefore more modified than P. irradians. 1 The scales appear earlier on the lower than on the upper shell. 2It is interesting that in certain species, ear, P. sguamosus of Mauritius, scales seem to be secondarily disappearing. This species would seem to have originated from an ancestor resembling P. hericeus. the No. 407.] PECTEN [RRADIANS LAMARCK. 873 A second class of modifications consists in the formation of striations on the ribs. These striations are thickenings of the shell in radial lines. They may in some cases become so pronounced as to form ribs at the periphery of the shell. These striations I regard as secondary, both because they are clearly something added to the simple rays which we have in Pecten, because the young stages of Pecten show no such stria- tions, and because in the young stages of striated shells the strize are absent. Consequently these striated species are more modified than irradians. A third class of modifications is that of smooth or nearly smooth shells. Of this condition our P. magellanicus (= clinto- nius) is typical. Although the ancestors of Pecten were smooth- shelled, the magellanicus modification is by no means ancestral, for if, as Verrill (99, p. 78) states, “when about 3-4 mm. in length it develops small, regular, raised ribs over the whole surface of the upper valve and usually at both ends of the lower one,” this shell must have been derived from ribbed ancestors. So, too, in P. glaber of Smyrna and P. danicus of Scotland we have the process of obliteration of ribs going on with the formation, apparently, of a few large secondary crena- tions.! In all cases we start with a ribbed form like irradians. Let us consider, finally, the relation of irradians to the other species of Chlamys in respect to the number of ribs. The data for such a comparison can be got from an important lot of countings made by Dall (98) and from some determinations of my own made on shells in the collection of the Field Colum- bian Museum. I give only modes (or, in the absence of suffi- cient data, the ranges) for the /z/7 valve. In some cases external ridges are given because these are often alone avail- able and Dall has counted ridges only. In other cases I give internal grooves ; these are exclusively derived from my count- ings. Since the extreme lateral external ridges usually have no internal grooves, the groove numbers run one or two lower than the ridge numbers. 1 An insufficient amount of material requires me to put forward this explana- tion with some reserve. 874 P. nodosus, P. jeffersonius, P. latiauratus, P. pallium, P. madisonius, P. gibbus, P. eboreus, P. operculatus, P. hericeus, P. varius, THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Southeastern North America Miocene fossils, S. E. North America . var. monotimeris, California Pacific Islands precursor of P. jefersnius, fossil var. amplicostatus var. borealis, recent . from New England, aan * South Shore, L. I., irradians * Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., irradians . irradians, recent a « fossil, late Pisces . dislocatus, fossil, late Pliocene : recent precursor of P. gibbus (= Miocene and Pliocene . British Vancouver . Naples irradians) [Vor. XXXIV. RIDGES. 7-10 GROOVES. I2 16 17 18 19 24 From this table it appears that P. ( gibbus) irradians is inter- mediate in the number of its ribs between the extremes. The question arises whether in phylogeny the number of rays has been increasing or decreasing to produce P. irradians. the data given and on the assumption that P. eboreus is the ancestor of P. irradians we have the series : P. eboreus, Miocene and Pliocene P. irradians, late Pliocene P. irradians, recent From 22 ribs. . 22-19 ribs. 19 ribs. This seems to indicate that there has been a tendency for the number of ribs slightly to decline. On the other hand, the fossil P. gibbus, var. dislocatus (the southern form of irradians), shows an increase from eighteen to twenty ribs in passing from the late Pliocene to the present. species, such as varius, twenty-four rays; Also, the more specialized striatus, fifty-one rays; miniaceus (South Africa) thirty to forty rays ; and islandicus (east coast, United States), thirty-five to fifty rays, — No. 407.] PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. 875 tend to larger numbers than irradians. In many of these cases of species, with a larger number of rays at the periph- ery, there is an ontogenetic increase. Thus the epionic shell of miniaceus has only sixteen rays, and the left valve of islandicus has only nineteen ridges at 5 mm. from the beak. These species, then, judging from ontogenetic changes, have been derived from species with fewer rays, such as we find in irradians. Finally, Dall (98, p. 748) concludes in respect to P. gibbus ( — irradians in part): ** Taking all varieties together, the generalization may fairly be made that in the Pliocene the proportion of specimens with less than nineteen ribs is decid- edly larger than among recent shells." The apparent contra- diction between this statement and the figures which Dall gives for the number of rays in fossil groups suggests that the fig- ures are based on too few individuals to be significant. It may be concluded, consequently, that the condition of about eight- een rays exhibited by P. zrradiass is not far removed from the ancestral condition, and that most of the species with numerous rays have been derived from forms which, like irra- dians, have fewer than twenty rays.! These facts have a close relation to those of individual varia- tion in our form-unit of P. irradians. First, the number of ribs, which is so variable in the individuals of the form-unit studied, is likewise very different in the different species of the genus. Again, as we have seen, the asymmetry of groove frequen- cies in P. irradians is in the positive sense; that is, there is a tendency to an excess of rays; in other words, there is a tend- ency to vary in the direction of P. zs/audzcus; to go the path that it has trod. 1I have paid some attention to the ways in which the increase in rays is brought about in the different species. In islandicus the nineteen rays at the beak increase in the left valve to forty, chiefly by the interpolation of new ridges in the old furrows. Such interpolated ridges start at various stages. In the older shells the increase is also effected by bifurcation of certain of the larger ribs, of Which there are about six to eight. In the right valve, on the other hand, the ribs increase chiefly by bifurcation, although interpolations also occur. I have observed the same difference between the left and right valves in other species ; namely, P. alvolineatus Sby., from Viti (Field Columbian Museum, No. 6111); P. tigrinus Müll., from Great Britain (Field Columbian Museum, No. 6118); and P. madreporarium Petit, from Singapore (Field Columbian Museum, No. 6109). 876 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV. The abnormalities of irradians also become significant in comparison with the normal condition in other species. The grooving of an external ridge takes place normally in P. island- icus, right valve, as we have seen. The development of a rib by interpolation in a groove is also typical of P. zslandicus, left valve. The formation of a small rib on the side of a typically large one is found on the left valve of P. zs/andicus, is the reg- ular thing in P. australis, from South Australia,! and is also common in other species where the number of rays increases with age. How are we to interpret this correspondence between an abnormality and a normal condition in another species? There was a time when we should not have hesitated to put the phenomenon in the category “reversion.” But we have so many instances of parallelism between the abnormal of one species and the normal of a second that we should be cautious in attributing them all to reversion. It seems better to recognize that a physiological potentiality which crops out (as an abnormality) in various species becomes fixed as a normal specific character in one of them. SUMMARY. The right or lower valve of P. irradians has on the average half a groove more than the upper, because the series of alternating ridges and grooves of the right valve has a prevail- ing tendency to end in grooves. Of three Long Island locali- ties, the most nearly land-surrounded shows Pectens with the greatest number of rays. The right valve is less variable than the left, a result which agrees with the fact that the right valve of Pectens is generally more archaic than the left. The varia- tion is nearly normal in both valves; more so in the left than in the right valve. The skewness is positive, showing a slight tendency towards an excessive production of the many-rayed individuals, or the selective annihilation of those with few rays. This positive skewness is paralleled by the fact that P. irra- dians seems to be developing towards a larger number of rays. The various abnormalities of Pecten are either explained as 1 Field Columbian Museum, No. 8430. No. 407.] PECTEN IRRADIANS LAMARCK. 877 self-adjustments to accidents or as sports which represent typical conditions in allied species. LITERATURE CITED. '98 DALL, W. H. Tertiary Fauna of Florida. Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia. Vol. iii, Pt. iv, pp. 571-947, Pls. XXIII-XXXV. April, 1898. '99 DuNCKER, G. Variation Statistics in Zodlogy. Natural Science. Vol. xv, pp. 325-337. November, 1899. '90 JacksoN, R. T. Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. iv, pp. 277-400, Pls. XXIII-XXX. July, 1890. '99 VERRILL, A. E. A Study of the Family Pectinide, with a Revision of the Genera and Subgenera. Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts and Sciences. Vol. x, pp. 41-95, Pls. XVI-XXI. VARIATIONS IN THE CREST OF DAPHNIA HYALINA. MINNIE MARIE ENTEMAN. THE characteristic tendency of Daphnia to form local varie- ties is expressed in D. hyalina by a variability in the cephalic crest, such that every kind of crest displayed in the genus may be observed in the species, which at the same time remains relatively constant in other distinguishing characters of D. hyalina. The object of this paper is a comparison between the American and the European forms, with a more careful . inquiry into the conditions for several lakes offering widely different varieties. My thanks are due to Professor E. A. Birge, of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin, who furnished me with collections from northern Michigan and Wisconsin, and through whose kind- ness I had access to the literature on the subject; to Professor C. B. Davenport, of the University of Chicago, for many help- ful suggestions in revising the results of my study ; and to my brother, Karl E. Enteman, for assistance while collecting from Southeastern Wisconsin. : Historical. — D. hyalina was first found by Leydig in the depths of the “ Schlier See," and was given its name on account of its extremely pellucid character. Following are the chief points in its description as given in Leydig’s Natur- geschichte der Daphniden, 1860: About as large as D. longi- Spina, but somewhat narrowed, and at first sight distinguished from all known species by its extreme transparency; the head prolonged into a long, straight rostrum, without a ventral concavity, and so closely approximated to the thorax that the posterior outline is hidden between the valves of the carapace ; macula nigra present; terminal claw smooth, showing under high power of microscope fine cross striations at base; the fornix much higher than in all known forms, the shell delicately 879 880 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. sculptured into rhombs and prolonged posteriorly into a long dorsally directed spine (Fig. 1). Observers subsequent to Leydig failed to find this species, but described forms which resembled it in all points excepting the form of the crest. The deviations here were sufficiently great to lead to "mer classification as distinct species. Such were D. gracilis Hellich, D. pel- lucida Müller, and D. galeata Sars ; and not until recent years, when forms transitional between them and D. hyalina were found, have these come to be regarded as varieties of D. hyalina. Of D. galeata, Sars (63) said : “It is distinguished from all other forms by the very char- acteristic development of its crest, which projects forward in an acuminate apex, giving the head a certain likeness to a hel- met of the olden time. This singular projection undergoes noticeable variations in different localities. Sometimes it takes a direction straight forward, sometimes it is bent downward, Fic. 1.— Daphnia hyalina Leydig; mn.,mac- and again it is very short, M Acre ad |^e.tmim! almost disappearing in adult females. In other localities the apex is highly developed, sabre-pointed, and in some even slightly recurved." The writer, however, fails to note a resem- blance between any of these varieties and D. hyalina. In his résumé of thé characters of D. pellucida, Müller (68) makes mention of a pectinated terminal claw on the telson, which, if it is anything more than the fine striations noticed by Leydig, would serve to separate the two species ; but later, in his * Clado- ceres des Grand Lacs de la Suisses," he identifies Pellucida with Hyalina, since he found * all transitions between D. yalina No. 407.1] THE CREST OF DAPHNIA HYALINA. 881 with a low even crest and terminal claw deprived of basal denticles, and D. pellucida with a large crest and a terminal claw ornamented at its base by a series of slight denticles." D. gracilis Hellich was distinguished from the forego- ing mainly by its great height of evenly rounded crest, and was believed to be closely allied to D. galeata. Eylmann (86) was the first to recognize the close relationship among the forms hitherto described. He classed them all as varieties of D. hyalina. Matile (90) takes the same view. I translate from Eylmann : “In the course of my work the conviction was more and more forced upon me that all Daphnia possess a tendency toward the formation of local varieties, and indeed these variations are not limited to one part of the body, but extend to all parts; now it is the shape of the head, now the form of the valves, and again the size and development of the append- ages, which give rise to the distinction as a variety. However, the differences which arise in one habitat are very slight, and extend to only a few individuals; but if we compare Daphniz from separate localities, the differences are so strik- ing that a doubt often arises as to whether the specimens are of the same or of different species, and often the question cannot be decided until transition forms are found in other localities which make possible a gradual change from one form to another.” He cites D. hyalina as the best example of this character, and gives as a reason for these manifold deviations from the type the fact that the species is rigidly confined to lakes, the consequent isolation offering very favorable condi- tions for the origination of new forms. Richard (96), in his * Revision des Cladoceres," included the above-mentioned forms, together with D. plitvicensis Sostaric! and D. rectifrons Stingelin,? in the single species D. Aya/ina, with the remark : * D. hyalina est d'ailleurs trés variable, comme on le verra plus loin." The American Representatives of the Species. — These have been but little studied. A brief description of two varieties 1 Low, rounded crest. 2 Similar to var. galeata. 882 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. found in lakes Wingra and Mendota was given in “ List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis.," by Professor Birge in 1875, while Herrick ('81) has described several forms which plainly belong to this species. Later observation led to the fact that “almost every lake possesses its own variety of D. hya- lina” ; and with this in mind Professor Birge, several years ago, gave me collections from a number of our lakes, and sug- gested that I study the different forms, their relations to one another and to the various European types. The material was all pelagic and collected from various parts of Michigan and Wisconsin. The lakes differ widely in character, from the small, reed-bordered Lake Wingra, or shallow Winnebago with its sandbars, to lakes like Mendota, of far greater depth, and whose shores slope from precipitous bluffs. In general, the forms are remarkable for their close resem- blance to the varieties of Europe, every variety but one being represented here; while several differ widely from any thus far described for Europe, but correspond in external appearance - to the American representatives of widely different European species. Thus, while some European varieties of D. hyalina vary in the direction of the Kahlbergiensis, our forms vary to correspond with the American species Retrocurva and Brevi- ceps. The transitions between the different types are suffi- ciently gradual to connect them with the original D. hyalina Leydig, thus seeming to confirm what has heretofore been, in a measure, assumed by other writers, — that the form first discovered is the one from which the others have departed. Following is a diagram (Fig. 2) representing the deviations from an assumed central form found in Lake Wabasis, Michigan, while the table on page 884 gives the principal characters in which the varieties are observed to differ. Each variety is named from the lake where it occurs. IA xj tulo T, TS IX 1q2302) p "anata + U F + + + PI MOYS 0} poSuvire ‘uey pue uisuoostA, jo sayer oy} wory ‘tO 884 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. NAME. CREST. ROSTRUM. ANTENNA. SPINE. Wabasis Round, low, Long Basal joint Long, slightly slightly nar- d ire oy upturned rower than aches carapace se of the a Crooked Little higher Long than the above-men- tioned form : Mendota price eut Postero- Curved, t Very long, n+ ventral, bare isis recurved "a res of ending in ing m postero- carapace sharp po dorsally Winnebago Nearly $ length | Short, Slight, with Middle of later- of carapace rounded short basal al aspect, and and as broa joint a little longer Twin Pointed apex, | Rather Slight, with han head dorsal to me- short short basal dian line of joint , lateral aspect : Tomahawk Apex somewhat | Rather Slight, with more pointed short short basal eue the fore- joint ing Kawaquesaga, | Apex HT Rather dpt aed with at Minocqua | acumin short du al Reed's Antero-dorsal | Short se trong Sum 1 convexity pro- joint greatly longed into curved blunt apex Superior, near | Ventral line Extremely | Basal joint Ashland curved, dor short and | nearly straight, js straight rounded and strong slightly up- ward Gogebic Elongated and | Long and Short and ~— re- blunt slight rved Wingra ae Short and | Large and Near median prominent blunt strong line of lateral . saboralar aspect elevation Vieux Desert genes 4 length | Long and Large and vig blunt strong ecurved St. Claire Medis and Rather Strong ventral curves| long and marked, apex rounded recurved Kawaquesaga, | Dorsal and ven- | Rather at Minocqua | tral curves long and marked, apex rounded recurved No: 407. THE CREST OF DAPHNIA HYALINA. 88 5 Types. — These numerous varieties may be classed under five types, three of which are quite the same as those described for Europe under the names Pellucida, Galeata, and Gracilis, while the other two are peculiar to our lakes. These are the St. Claire form, characterized by slight elongation and tri- angular shape of the head, and the Gogebic form, with greatly elongated and compressed shell, slender antennae, and recurved apex of the crest. These two varieties differ most widely from the typical Hyalina, and at first sight appear to be entitled to specific rank. The most striking deviation is toward a form with pointed crest, the apex of which in European forms is ventral and in American varieties is dorsal to the median line of the lateral aspect. Further, the crested variety, as it occurs in Europe, approaches other European species, such as D. kahlbergiensis, while our recurved variety is very similar to D. retrocurva, the American representative of D. kahlbergiensts. Range of Variation in One Locality. — In two localities only did this earlier material reveal the.occurrence of more than one variety. In Lake Mendota two types may be distinguished, one closely resembling D. gracilis, the other the extreme round form of Lake Winnebago. Minocqua furnished forms approach- ing three widely differing types of development: (1) rounded crest, carried out into a sharp point; (2) extremely recurved apex; (3) triangular head with decided prominence over eye. Further examination, however, reveals a much wider range of variation for the single lake. In the summers of 1896, 1897, and 1898, collections were made from a limited region in southeastern Wisconsin, known as the lake district of Waukesha County, and including about fifty lakes varying in size from the merest pond to those four or five miles in length and thirty meters deep. Thirty-five lakes were visited in all, most of them several times, but only fourteen of these have, up to the present time, yielded material in sufficient abundance for comparative study. With a single exception these lakes furnish no new types, but in some lakes a single type with slight deviations is present, while others yield what might be considered distinct types, were it not for the occurrence of all imaginable transitions. This Sad, Ss ^N tye Hh) 2 | BoA fry Fic. 3. Qael ee, EA 1 g asi t lal H sh BRAE Wisconsin. No. 407.1] THE CREST OF DAPHNIA HYALINA. 887 is best shown by the accompanying series (Fig. 3), obtained in each case from single collections from Pine, Okauchee, and Fowler Lakes. It will be observed that in the two former every transition exists, from the low, evenly rounded to the extremely recurved and elongated crest, and the two series are seen to include all the American forms described, except- ing perhaps the extreme of the triangular and the high-rounded types of develop. Wf &» ment. The amount of these variations was not uniformly great in all the lakes studied, nor for all the sea- f + Y; TAE g e$ =, V LOWE'S ud, al "FEL sons in which collections i a fe > > A One Mile. ttn Sí af £ t£ Fic. 4. — Map showing di i t rn Wisconsin. Taken from U. S. Topographical Survey. Lakes Laura and Garvin inserted by writer. were made. Thus, several collections taken from Beaver, one summer, showed the prevalence of a high-rounded crest with slight tendency to antero-dorsal angulation, while the following summer many crests exhibited a distinctly recurved apex. Lake Garvin, which communicates with Lake Okauchee by means of a channel having an approximate width of fifteen feet and depth of six feet, nevertheless appears to retain a 888 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. distinct type of crest. Lake Laura, in the immediate vicinity of Okauchee and Oconomowoc Lakes, and Lowe’s Lake, which lies in the same system with these, show a uniform low-crested variety, while Lakes Five and Mouse exhibit the high-rounded type of crest, with marked subocular prominence. Theaccom- panying map (Fig. 4) shows the greater part of the area in which these forms are distributed. The lakes of the Bark River system were very poor in Crustacea and furnished almost no Daphnie. Seasonal Variation. — More striking still is the fact that this range of variation is confined to the summer forms. Of course, owing to the difficulty of obtaining material in the winter, no very extended study of the winter forms has been made, but Professor Birge has for years made collections of winter forms from Lake Mendota, and I have his permission to state that they are uniformly low crested, while my own study of the winter forms of Lake Oconomowoc and Okauchee gives identical results. When it is remembered that the summer broods of Daphnia are produced parthenogenetically, the deter- mination of the kind and conditions of variation must have an important bearing on questions of heredity and the origin of specific differences. Correlations in Vari- ability. — Although no quantitative study has yet been undertaken, careful com parison shows a direct relation between the length and curvature of the crest Fic. 5. —1, Lake Five; II, Mouse; III, Lowe's and the length and cur- Lake form. ; vature of the terminal spine. The basal joint of the antennz also varies, in size and strength, with the form and size of the shell. An attempt has also been made to relate the form of the crest with some No. 407.1 THE CREST OF DAPHNIA HYALINA. 889 character of the environment, such as depth and size of lake, temperature, etc., but thus far the attempt has been unsuccess- ful. Lakes widely different in character, such as Mendota and Winnebago, possess very similar forms, while some small shallow lakes produce such extremes as those of Lakes Laura and Henrietta (Fig. 6.) Again, the occur- rence of a particular variation appears to bear some relation to the forms with which it is called upon to compete. Birge (97), considering the occurrence of D. hyalina and D. retrocurva in Lake Mendota, states that one declined in numbers according as the other increased, and concludes this to be the result of active competition between the two species. My own much more limited observation indicates a competition in which certain variations are favored to the detriment of others. A more exact study of the quantitative differences, as well as a careful investigation of the environmental influences, will be made before we attempt to show the significance Fre. 6.—1, Form from Lake of these variations; but I think the facts "eua; T Lake Tau as here given may serve to indicate the range of interesting problems offered by a generally accessible but little known form, and thus, perhaps, invite a more extended inquiry into the condition of the species in other localities. BIBLIOGRAPHY. '78 BIRGE, E. A. Notes on Cladocera. Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. iv. '91 BiRGE, E. A. List of Crustacea Cladocera from Madison, Wis. Trans. Wis. Acad. Vol. v '97 BIRGE, E. A. Plankton Malin in Lake Mendota, II. Wis. Acad. Sci. Vol. xi. 890 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. '86 EYLMANN, E. Beitrag zur Systematik der europäischen Daphniden. Freiburg i. B. FORBES, S. A. On Some Lake Superior Entomostraca. Rep. Fish. Com. Washington, 1888. HeELLICH. Die Cladoceren Boehmens. Prag, 1877. HERRICK, O. L. Notes on Some Minnesota Cladocera. Eleventh Ann. Rep. of State Geol. 1887. Kurz, W. Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. Wien, 1874. LEYDIG, A. Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. Tübingen, 1860. MATILE, P. Die Cladoceren der Umgegend von Moskau. Moscow, 1890. MUELLER, P. E. Danmarks Cladoceren. Copenhagen, 1868. MUELLER, P. E. Cladoceres des Grand Lacs de la Suisses. RICHARD, J. Revision des Cladoceres. Ann. Sci. Nat. Series 8. Sars, G. O. Om en i Sommeren, 1862, foretagen Zoölogisk Reise. Christiania, 1863. Sars, G. O. Oversigt af Norges Crustacer. Christiania, 1890. HULL ZOÖLOGICAL LABORATORY, ovember 28, 1899 DOUBLE LOXOSOMLJE. W. S. NICKERSON. WHILE investigating the structure of Loxosoma davenporti several abnormal specimens came under my observation. These, five in number, are all double monsters, and in all cases the paired individuals are united in the same manner — side to side ; the oral surfaces are turned in the same direction, and the stalks are so united as to have a common foot. Three of Col) Fic. 1. Fic. 3. Fic. 1. — Anterior aspect. 18 and 19 tentacles. 4.= bud; /. = flask organ. x 57. Fic, 2. — Anterior aspect. 16 and 15 tentacles. x 57. Fic. 3.— Anterior aspect. 11 and 12 tentacles. f. = Anlage of flask organ. x 114. the specimens are fully grown ; the other two are immature, one being a bud still attached to the parent, and the other, though detached when found, was even less developed, and had undoubtedly been separated from the parent by the handling it had undergone in preservation. These cases represent three different degrees of union between individuals. Three of the cases, one adult (Fig. 1) 891 892 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. and two buds (Figs. 2 and 3), present essentially the same condition. In these a common stalk bears two bodies united side to side, each with its own lophophore, reproductive organs, digestive system, nerve center, and budding zones. In serial sections of the adult (Fig. 1) I have not detected any essential modification of the individual organs. All four of the gonads are ovaries. The two immature buds (Figs. 2 and 3) I have studied only as entire objects, but could discern no abnormali- ties in the different organs. A second degree of union is shown by the specimen repre- sented in Fig. 4. Here only the lower parts of the stalks are Fic. 4. — Dorsal aspect. 4. = bud; /. = flask organ. x 57. joined, so that, while the two animals have a common foot, all portions of their bodies above the middle of the stalks are quite separate and normal. The only abnormality observed in indi- vidual organs is in the arrangement of the cells of the dorsal row (Fig. 4). Where those of the two individuals come together in the fused stalk near the foot, three rows of the cells instead of two are present for a short distance, and there are slight irregularities in the arrangement of the cells. A third condition, represented in Fig. 5, shows a greater degree of modification of the individuals and requires a more detailed description. The stalk is simple and in no way dif- ferent from that of a single individual. From the body arise two lophophores, which are quite normal, and bear respectively No. 407.] DOUBLE LOXOSOM.E. 893 eighteen and twenty tentacles. In the parts located in the body, abnormalities occur in digestive, reproductive, and ner- vous systems. The position and arrangement of the buds is also peculiar. The digestive tract consists of a single bilobed stomach, into which lead two gullets, and from which lead two intestines, one gullet and one intestine having the normal rela- tion to each lophophore. The sexual organs consist of three testes, one median above the stom- — ach somewhat Fic. 5. — Anterior aspect. 20 and 18 tentacles. +. = rectum; s. =: stomach; 7. = testis. x 57. larger than the others, and one on the outer side of each cesophagus. A pair of seminal vesicles, one on either side of the median testis, open to the exterior in normal positions with respect to the two lophophores. From each of the lateral testes a duct com- municates with the adjacent vesicle. The median testis has an opening into the left-hand seminal vesicle, but I have been unable to detect one to that on the right side, though the two organs lie close together, their Fic. 6. — Outline of brain made by superposing successive cavities separated only pe pe o by a membrane. The brain has the form shown in Fig. 6, the median portion being somewhat higher than the ends and directly above the 894 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. median testis. .A nerve bundle passes off from each end as from a normal brain. There are eight buds arising from three budding zones. The two lateral of these zones bear each three buds, the un- paired zone having but two. These latter have the normal relation to the right-hand cesophagus and lophophore, and are unrelated to those of the other side. I have not succeeded in making out the relations of the excretory organs in this case. It should perhaps be noted that in each of the adult double monsters (in which the gonads are developed) the paired indi- viduals are of the same sex (Figs. 1 and 49, and Fig. 54). None of the buds developed upon any of the double mon- sters is double or in any way abnormal. The condition there- fore appears to be not heritable. Two hypotheses may be offered in explanation of the facts given. According to one, the conditions found represent three different stages in a process of longitudinal fission. Accord- ing to the other hypothesis, which I believe to be the correct one, they have resulted from the incomplete separation of two masses of germinal tissue, destined under normal conditions to give rise to two distinct buds. Each individual of the pair represents the resultant of the tendency toward normal devel- opment modified. by the hampering influence of the adhering mass of tissue. Each double monster is therefore the result of a compromise between the two conflicting bud Anlagen. There seems to be no good ground for comparing the double monsters of Loxosoma and the double embryos normally pro- duced sexually in the phylactolaematous Bryozoa. In opposition to the first hypothesis is the fact that the union between the paired young buds (Figs. 2 and 3) is no more intimate than that between the adults shown in Fig. 1, and is less intimate than that between those shown in Fig. 5. If fission were taking place we should expect the older indi viduals to show the later stages of the process. Two facts tend to support the second hypothesis : (1) the position of the individuals of the pair with respect to each other is side to side, as would naturally result from the union of adjacent bud Anlagen ; (2) in all the cases (four) in which No. 407.] DOUBLE LOXOSOM. 895 it has been possible to determine the number of tentacles they have been found unequal on the two lophophores ; one of these is therefore in each case more advanced in development than the other, as is always the case with two buds which arise side by side, the degree of difference being, moreover, such as our hypothesis would lead us to expect. In the specimen represented in Fig. 5 the brain and the stomach correspond in each case to two organs fused. The median testis may likewise owe its larger size to its being the result of fusion of two testes; but whether that be the case or not, its outlet is on the side of the younger individual. The mesial budding zone which has been suppressed or remained undeveloped is that of the younger individual. The latter fact harmonizes well with the theory of fusion, since when two buds come into conflict in their development the younger natu- rally suffers most. The relations of the median testis, on the other hand, can hardly be considered as lending support to either hypothesis. Fission seems inherently improbable in so highly organized an animal as Loxosoma, while against the theory of fusion no such objection holds. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, July 5, 1900. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ZOOLOGY. Notes on Recent Fish Literature. — In the Proceedings of the Zoological Scciety of London for 1899 (Pt. IV, p. 956, 1900) Mr. G. A. Boulenger records reptiles and fishes collected by John Whitehead in Hainan. The following are described and figured as new: Corcoperca whiteheadi, Gymnostonius lepturus, Barilius hainanensis. In Annales and Magazine of Natural History (Ser. I-V, No. 26, p. 165) Boulenger describes three new species of Siluroid fishes, from the streams of São Paulo, near Santos, Brazil. These are: Plecosto- mus heylandi, Loricaria latirostris, and Loricaria paulina. In the Zoologischer Anzeiger for June 14, 1900, Hector F. E. Jern- gersen, of Copenhagen, gives a study of the urogenital organs of Polypterus bichir and Amia calva. In the records of the Expedition Antarctique Belge, M. Louis Dollo, of the museum at Brussels, describes a new deep-sea fish of the family of Chenichthyide under the name of Racovitsia glacialis, an ally of Gerlachea and Cryodraco, already described by him. Incidentally he calls attention to the fact that the name of the deep- sea genus of Macruride, Moseleya, is preoccupied by Moseleya Quelch, 1884, a genus of corals. The genus of fishes may stand as Dolloa, zo» gen. nov., and its typical species as Dolloa longifilis. In another paper of similar date Dollo describes as new Macrurus lecointei, also from Antarctic depths. In the recent subdivision of this group this species would be placed in the genus Dolloa. It may stand as Dodlloa lecointei. In the Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences (II, 161), Dr. Charles H. Gilbert records the fishes collected by Arthur W. Greeley as a member of the Branner-Agassiz expedition to Brazil. Eighty-five species were obtained, four of them being described and figured as new. These are: Upeneus caninus, from Pernambuco; Apogon brasilianus, from Mamanguape Reef ; Sphroides greeleyi, from Maceio, and Brannerella brasiliensis from Maceio. Brannerella belongs to the Clininz, being near Starksia, differing in the detached 897 898 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. first anal spine and the lack of notch on the spinous dorsal. Dr. Gilbert reduces the list of doubtful species by relegating Æupo- macentrus dienceus to the synonymy of Æ. fuscus, Zridio kirschi to the synonymy of Z. poeyi, and Gerres embryx with Gerres brasilianus to the synonymy of Gerres lineatus. Chloroscombrus ectenurus and Labrosomus xanti, species hitherto considered doubtful, are regarded as well established. In the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada (1899, p. 141), Dr. Philip Cox presents a list of the fishes and Batrachians of Gaspé, Quebec, with notes on their distribution. He finds the species known as Couesius plumbeus, C. dissimilis, and C. greeni very closely related, and suggests their probable identity, at. the same time describing two forms of C. p/umbeus, which he calls varieties. These species will bear further study, the present arrangement being wholly provisional. In the Records of the Australian Museum (1900, p. 193), Mr. Edgar R. Waite makes a number of interesting additions to the fish fauna of Lord Howe Island. These species are described as new: Amphi- prion latezonatus, Holacanthus conspicillatus, Holacanthus semicinctus, and Luchilomycterus quadradicatus. Euchilomycterus is a new genus of Diodontidz, having the anterior dermal spines four-rooted. The name Acanthocaulus is suggested as a substitute for Prionurus, pre- occupied by Prionurus Ehrenberg, 1829, a genus of spiders. The original date of Prionurus Lacépède is set down as 1830, but its original publication dates from prior to 1828, when it was men- tioned by Cuvier. It is therefore earlier than Prionurus Ehrenberg, which is given as 1829. The interest shown by Australian natural- ists in their rich fish fauna is most commendable. It is to be hoped that it may crystallize soon in a general manual of Australian ichthyology. I may note that the description of Gempylus serpens by Jordan and Evermann, noted by Waite (p. 199), was copied from previous authors, the authors having no specimen in hand. In the Records of the Australian Museum (1900, p. 210), Mr. Edgar R. Waite, of Sydney, records a collection of fishes, mostly from Fremantle, Western Australia, in the Museum of Perth. A new species of Oplegnathus is described under the name of Hopleg- nathus woodwardi, with an interesting discussion on the difficulties which a man in the field encounters in dealing with scanty literature, No. 407.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 899 more or less inaccessible and most of it closet made. So far as the reviewer can see, O. woodwardi is a valid species. It is well figured by Mr. Waite. In the Revista do Museu Paulista, Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann and Allen A. Norris record (in Portuguese) species of fishes collected by Dr. H. von Ihering about Santos, in the Province of Sao Paulo. The following are described as new: Mannoglanis bifasciatus, Impar- Jinis piperatus, Geldiella (eques) (new genus), Lheringichthys (labrosus), Bergiella (westermanni), Perugia (agassizii), Parodon tortuosus, Tetra- gonopterus multifasciatus, Catabasis acuminatus, Myletes tieté. Of the new genera, Imparfinis is an ally of Rhamdiella; and Catabasis of Salminus. The others are based on known species. Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann sums up his researches on the degenera- tion of Amblyopsidz and the reaction of blind-fishes to light in a lecture before the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, published by Ginn & Company (1900). He regards the bleaching due to absence of light as an acquired character which is now fully inherited. “It is evident that in Amblyopsis we have the direct effect of the environment on the individual hereditarily established.” In the Anatomischer Anzeiger (XVII, p. 313), Professor George H. Parker has a valuable study of the blood vessels of the heart of the headfish or sunfish (Mola mola). He finds that, unlike most bony fishes, this species has retained in part the complex structures found in the Elasmobranchs, without the simplification or degradation seen in the ordinary bony fishes. When anatomists realize that not all bony fishes agree even in important characters, they will not so generally confine their studies in fish anatomy to the primitive end of the fish series. There is no more open field in science than that of the structure and development of the different groups of Teleost fishes. D. S. J. The ** Tierreich ’? Sporozoa.!— The work opens with a summary of abbreviations of technical terms and one for the literary references, together with a systematic index. The taxonomic survey of the vari- ous genera and species of the group, which occupies the major portion of the book and follows the general plan employed in the publication as a whole, is complete and better illustrated than some previous numbers. After this comes a list of hosts, which embraces 1 Labbé, Alphonse. Sporozoa. Das Tierreich, 5. Lieferung. Berlin, Fried- länder, 1899. xx + 180 pp., 196 figs. goo THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. more than six hundred species in every branch of the animal king- dom and which shows clearly by the number of entries — 91 under Vermes, 121 under Hexapoda, 95 under Pisces, and 93 under Aves — what groups are particularly infested by these parasites. An alphabetic index of genera and species completes the work. The fact that, as entered on the last page, the manuscript was closed in December, 1897, while the title-page bears the imprinted date of July, 1899, goes far to explain certain shortcomings in the work, for our knowledge of this group has been particularly widened by some very recent contributions. An additional difficulty in the treatment of these forms is to be seen in the record of 94 known and 29 doubt- ful genera, embracing 239 certain and 259 doubtful species, as given by the author at the opening of the systematic part. The system employed by Labbé is as follows: I. Legion Cytosporidia (spore wanting or without polar capsules). I. Order Gregarinida (sporulation not intracellular). 4. Suborder Cephalina. a. Tribe Gymnosporea. 6. Tribe Angiosporea. . Suborder Acephalina. 2. Order Coccidiida (sporulation intracellular ; no motile free stage in adult form). A. Suborder egy (many archispores). a. Tribe P. digeni 6. Tribe P. monogenica. B. Suborder Oligoplastina (few archispores). a. Tribe Tetrasporea. 3. Order Hemosporidiida (sporulation intraglobular). 4. Order Gymnosporidiida (adult ameeboid ; no cyst). II. Legion Myxosporidia (spores with polar capsules). I. Order Phznocystida (polar capsules distinct). 2. Order Microsporidiida (capsules invisible in life). Sporozoa incerte sedis: Sarcosporidia, Amocebosporidia, Serumsporidia. A number of genera, including Amcebidium, Piroplasma, and Babe- sia, are listed as Sporozoa incerta, while Coccidioides and the pseudo- Coccidia are included in an appendix. It is not to be expected that a group including so many poorly known forms and so many species, genera, and even possible orders, No. 407.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 9OI whose relations are uncertain and concerning whose life history nothing has yet been ascertained, could be satisfactorily mono- graphed at this time. Even the brief interval which has intervened since the completion of the book has furnished positive evidence that certain genera, Eimeria and Pfeifferella, are merely developmental stages in the evolution of other forms, a relation which, by the way, is noted as a possibility in the description of some species in the text. With this the entire tribe of PoZy//astina monogenica probably disappears, as the species are incorporated into the life history of others in the P. digenica. Similarly, in the Oligoplastina the single species of Trisporea is but a chance variation of the usual four- spored condition of that form, and thus another tribe falls out. The two orders of Hazemosporidiida and Gymnosporidiida are distin- guished by the presence of a gregarine stage and of a cyst in the former, and by their absence in the latter. Recent discoveries on the life history of the malarial parasite have shown that this distinc- tion will not hold, and apparently the two orders are much nearer together than most of the families given in the synopsis. In the classification of the Myxosporidia, Labbé has followed Thélohan very closely and has attained a less artificial system than that of Gurley. Under the Sarcosporidia, however, the result is less satisfactory, and in the present ignorance concerning these forms it is not clear that anything has been gained by the suppression of Blanchard's genera, Miescheria and Balbiania, a movement in which the author is not likely to be followed at present, at least. A considerable number of changes in generic and specific names were necessary where the earlier names were preoccupied; it may be questioned, however, whether changes in spelling, e.g., Plistophora for Pleistophora Gurley, do more than add to the already heavy bur- den of synonyms. Among familiar names which have been sup- planted necessarily may be noted Glugea, antedated by Nosema, Proteosoma by Hzmoproteus, and Drepanidium preoccupied and replaced by Lankesterella. In glancing over the list of genera cur- rent among the Sporozoa one cannot help being struck by the dedicational-phobia which has afflicted students of the group! Among the large number of uncertain genera and species listed, some are capable of being precisionized : thus, of the fifteen doubt- ful species of Gregarinida briefly described by Leidy, the unpublished drawings for his monograph on the group are still in existence and, it is to be hoped, may be published with satisfactory descriptions. Others of the sf. ing. are yet under discussion and will ultimately be 902 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. placed; but many of the references are mere rubbish and should be noted as such, to save the labor of future students. Thus, the un- certain genus, Molybdis Pachinger, has been shown by Braun to be in all probability based on eggs of Déstomum turgidum, and yet no note of this fact appears in the text. If all references to sup- posed members of the group are to be included, reference should have been made to Coccidium pylori Gebhardt, a species founded on a similar confusion. The listing of such forms without explanation entails endless labor on those not familiar with the details of the particular case, and reference should be made under doubtful forms to all such explanations, whether accepted by the monographer or not. Some instances were noted of opposite conclusions in cases in- volving very similar conditions. Thus, the author accepts two gen- era, Haemoproteus and Halteridium, for the parasites of the avian red-blood corpuscles, but reduces similar forms of man, not only to one genus, but even to varieties of a single species! Some of the differences given to the first-named genera in the text, it should be noted, have never been confirmed since the original observations of Labbé on these forms. Again, he accepts the genus Goussia on the basis of a trivial difference in the form of the sporocyst, but rejects Benedenia as an independent genus, though it differs radically in number of sporozoites produced. Recently discovered differences in life history make the distinctness of this genus unassailable. Withal, these are minor criticisms; Labbé has traversed nearly untrodden ground. It is not surprising that the results are most satisfactory on best-known territory, e.g., Gregarinida, and weakest in those groups, such as the Coccidiida and Hzemosporidiida, which are not only least known, but which are now the object of careful study at many hands. The work of the author is very complete and is a mine of useful information for workers on this group; remark- ably few references are lacking, and only a simple misprint was noted. The figures also are well selected and, for the most part, well reproduced. Henry B. WARD. Faune de France.! — Half a century ago this work would have been accepted as very good ; to-day it is out of date in classification, in method, and to some extent in illustration. The classification shows little improvement on that of Cuvier. The method is synop- tic; in the special synopses the points of comparison are most often 1 Acloque, A. Faune de France. Les Poissons, les Reptiles, les Batraciens, Jes Protochordes. Paris, Bailliére, 1900. Pp. 209, 12mo, illustrated. No. 407. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. O 993 , well chosen, but they are too few in number; though the data may serve to eliminate all but one of the species compared, they are insufficient to identify that one, with any degree of confidence, in modern definitions of species, varieties, etc., or in view of possible intrusions of outside species. ‘The book was compiled mainly from literature; the illustrations drawn from Moreau and Blanchard are tolerably good, but the few drawn from nature painfully indicate the author’s lack of familiarity with his subject. Some of these figures are mere caricatures: for examples, the codfish, Gadus morrhua ; Scomberesox saurus, Belone vulgaris, among others, or the figure of Spinax niger, which resembles no known shark. Various figures of dentition show nothing of the basal portions of the teeth. Borrowed illustrations are credited in this way: “ Spinax niger (E. Moreau)" ; this would mean to naturalists generally that E. Moreau was the authority for the specific name, niger. Not all of the species are included. Notes. — C. M. Fürst (Anat. Anzeiger, XVIII, 190-203) has inves- tigated the finer structure of the hair cells in the ear of the salmon. Each hair cell carries a brush of hairs projecting beyond the limits of the cell. The enlarged bases of these hairs give rise to a disk- shaped body just within the cell wall. From this disk a cone-shaped mass extends into the interior of the cell. From the staining qual- ities of these parts the author concludes that the brush of hairs represents cilia whose basal bodies have united to form the disk- shaped mass;-and whose cone organ is represented by the cone-shaped body. In other words, sensory hair cells have the morphological peculiarities of ciliated cells. The richness of the entomological collections of the Oxford Uni- versity Museum is well illustrated by Swinhoe's recent volume.! Two thousand three hundred species are listed; the Noctuina, Geometrina, and Pyralidina by Swinhoe, the Pterophoride and Tineina by Walsingham and Durrant. Many new genera and species are described, and the synonymy and bibliography are given in extenso. In method of citation and typographically the pages con- tributed by Walsingham and Durrant differ from those of Swinhoe ; ZEgeriadze, Gelechiadz, are contrary to the best usage. The work is published in the handsome form characteristic of the Clarendon Press. The eight beautiful plates figure, chiefly, species imperfectly described by Walker. 1 Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera, Pt. II. Oxford, 1900. viii, 632 pp., 8 plates. 904 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. In the Proceedings of the Manchester Institute of Arts and Sciences, Vol. I, 1899 (1900), Mr. E. J. Burnham gives an annotated list of twenty-eight species of Anisoptera taken in the vicinity of Manchester, N. H. To the same publication, and also from the vicinity of Man- chester, Miss Susy C. Fogg contributes a list of thirty-five Orthoptera. In Novitates Zoologice, Vol. VII, No. 2, August, 19oo, Warren describes more than two hundred and forty new species of Dre- panulidz, Thyridida, Epiplemide, and Geometridz from South and Central America. More than three-fifths of these new species are described from uniques, and of the others only a few are represented by adequate series. K. W. Verhoeff (Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. XIII, p. 465) reports that railroad traffic in the neighborhood of Sennheim in Alsace has been seriously interfered with by a swarm of myriapods (Schizophyllum salu- Josum) crossing the tracks in a wooded district. The crushed bodies of the animals rendered the rails so slippery as to impede seriously the progress of the trains. The animals were sexually mature males and females, and their migration was caused, the author believes, by over-population, whereby egg-laying was made unfavorable. A. Dendy (Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. XXIII, p. 509) points out that the females of three of the Australian species of Peripatus are provided with well-developed ovipositors, and that two of these species, and possibly the third, lay eggs, a habit unknown in the other species of Onychophora. This justifies, in the author's opinion, the erection of a separate genus for the reception of these three species, and for which the name Oóperipatus is proposed. Professor Keibel's Normal Tables for the Development of the Vertebrates, of which the first part, published some three years ago, dealt with the pig, have been extended in the recently published sec- ond part to the chick (Normentafel zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Huhnes, von Prof. Dr. F. Keibel und K. Abraham. 1900). The third part of Oppel's Lehrbuch der vergleichenden mikrosco- pischen Anatomie der Wirbeltiere has just made its appearance and contains an account of the mouth cavity, liver, and pancreas. In size and number of illustrations this part is somewhat larger than the combined first and second parts, which together deal with the cesophagus, stomach, and intestine. No. 5 of Vol. IV of the American Journal of Physiology contains the following papers : ** On the Physiological Action of the Poisonous No. 407. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. O 995 Secretion of the Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum)," by J. Van Denburgh and O. B. Wight; “A Study of the Effects of Complete Removal of the Mammary Glands in Relationship to Lactose Forma- tion,” by B. Moore and W. H. Parker; and * Brief Contributions to . Physiological Chemistry," communicated by L. B. Mendel. BOTANY. books two more or less conflicting tendencies come to the surface — that to reasonable completeness and symmetry of treatment, and that to due brevity. Nearly every general text-book of the past decade or more, if it has met with favor, has appeared shortly in an abridged form. The latest of these abbreviated books are Atkinson’s Zessozs,! Barnes's Outlines, and Coulter's Plant Studies ;? and each represents virtually a one-term text-book based on the earlier full-year books by the same authors. In the main, the characteristics of the latter pertain to them in their shorter form. Each author approaches his subject ` from his own point of view, and what has been said in earlier num- bers of the JVazura/is? about the fuller books need not be repeated here for the abbreviated editions. A pamphlet of suggestions to teachers, by Dr. Caldwell, accompanies Part II of the fuller edition of Coulter, — Plant Structures, — and, while it is not above criticism, is likely to assist even the trained teacher in many small ways. p, Nicholson's Dictionary of Gardening.* — Simultaneously with the appearance of Professor Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, of which two volumes have already been noticed in the Naturalist, comes a supplement to its great predecessor, Nicholson's Dictionary, which a competent authority characterized in its day as the best refer- ence book within reach of the gardener and fruit-grower, and a model 1 Atkinson, G. F. Zessons in Botany. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1900. 2 Barnes, C. R. Outlines of Plant Life, with Special Reference to Form and Romano New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1900. 3 Coulter, J. M. Plant Studies. An Elementary Botany. New York, D. Pics & Co., * Nicholson, G. The 1900 " Supplement to the Dictionary of Gardening, a practical and scientific ee of horticulture for gardeners and botanists. Hyde Park, Mass., Geo. T. King, 1900. A to F. 4to, pp. viii + 376, ff., 385, with several colored plates. ‘Price $5.00. 906: THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. of its kind. Nearly twenty years have elapsed, however, since the work was published, and progress has been both varied and rapid in gardening, so that it is a matter for congratulation that Mr. Nicholson, the well-known curator of the Kew Gardens, has found time to pre- pare a supplement bringing it up to date. This supplement is to consist of two volumes, of which the first, bearing a preface date of June, 1900, is already in hand. ‘To say that the supplement equals, if it does not surpass, the original volumes is sufficient to indicate that in text and illustrations it is excellent. While for American gardeners Bailey’s Cyclopedia, being an American work, is likely to be more directly useful, the fact that its scope is limited to this coun- try makes the possession of the Nicholson Supplement, as well as the original Dictionary, all the more necessary for the larger establish- ments, which are constantly introducing the better of the plants grown abroad, and for all amateur libraries. James’s Practical Agriculture.! — The author has embodied in this work the most elementary principles and practical applications of agricultural science in a very pleasing manner. It is especially well adapted as a text-book for beginners in the study of agriculture, and is certainly an impetus for the more general introduction of the subject in the public schools. Agriculture embraces such a broad field, it is impossible to treat elaborately each branch in a text-book of the ordinary size. While these first principles are concisely treated, they are nevertheless clear and accurate, and easily understood by persons not familiar with the study of botany, geology, or other sciences that have to do with agriculture. The life cycle of a plant is traced from the seed to the mature plant, including both structure and essential conditions of germina- tion and growth. The nature, origin, and improvement of the soil and its relation to the plant are discussed. One part is devoted to various field crops, taking up grasses, legumes, root crops, etc., giv- ing the nature, habit, and treatment of each and the reasons therefor. Another part considers horticulture and its products, including the vegetable garden, orchard, and vineyard. The habits of many of the most common insects and fungous diseases of both field and gar- den are discussed. Live stock and its product, milk, receive some attention, as well as the history and characteristics of different breeds, H. C. IRISH. 1 James, Charles C. Practical Agriculture. American edition by John Craig. D. Appleton & Co., 1900 No. 407.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 907 Notes. — Several handbooks of photographic illustrations of the famous Kew Gardens have been placed on the market and form attractive souvenirs of a visit to the charming suburb of London, in which the gardens are situated. The latest of these (E. J. Wallis, Illustrations of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, from photographs taken by permission, London, 1900), with half-tone plates 514 X 614 in. is prefaced by a laconic note by the Director, Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, who has also written a few words of description of each of the pictures. Professor Boppe, director of the forestry school of Nancy, with the aid of his associate, M. Jolyet, has brought together in book form the substance of his course of lectures in that institution, illus- trating it by a number of instructive, if not always well-done, views, indicating landscapes, plantations, and methods (L. Boppe and A. Jolyet, Les Forêts; Traité pratique de sylviculture, 8vo, pp. xi + 488, ff. 95, Paris, Baillitre, 1901). Professor Saunders’s extensive experimental tests of woody plants in the British territory to our north are further evidenced by a cata- logue of fruit trees under test at Agassiz, British Columbia, pub- lished as Bulletin No. 3, second series, of the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, in which 1217 varieties of apples, 36 of crabs, 557 of pears, 311 of plums, 154 of cherries, 213 of peaches, 53 of apricots, 25 of nectarines, 12 of quinces, 7 of medlars, and 6 of mulberries are included. The recommended varieties are: apples 20, pears ro, plums ro, cherries 11, and peaches 5. Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne, who, while engaged as a pastor in New- foundland, has made extensive collections representing the flora of that island during the past decade, died recently in Jamaica, where he went early in the season in the hope of recovering from disease incurred in the performance of his trying duties, which not infre- quently involved great hardship and exposure. ds, bequeathed to Yale Uni- Professor Marsh’s residence and groun the home of the newly versity for a botanical garden, are to be made created school of forestry, to the direction of which Professor Toumey has been called. Illustrations of the residence are given in Zhe Forester for August. f the Anales del Instituto Médico Nacional, of plants of that coun- In the number Current numbers o Mexico, contain numerous articles on the native try which are employed as domestic remedies, etc. 908 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. for November last, recently issued, is an especially noteworthy illus- trated article on Peyotes, by which name are known certain alkaloid- bearing species of Senecio and Anhalonium. An index to the new genera, species, and varieties of plants described in the first twenty-five volumes of Engler’s Botanische Jahrbücher is brought to completion in the number of that journal issued on July 13 of this year. It occupies over ninety double- column pages. A forest fire about 2000 years ago forms the subject of an inter- esting article in Zhe Canadian Record of Science for July, by G. F. Matthew, who obtains his information from the exploration of the contents of a recently opened bog near St. John. An illustrated paper on the comparative anatomy of Chlorophytum elatum and Tradescantia virginica, by Gravis and Donceel, is published in Vol. II of the current series of Mémoires de la Société royale des Sciences de Liége. Some of the unpublished results of the investigation of the tannins by the late Professor Trimble appear in the American Journal of Pharmacy for September. The park and city flora of Detroit, comprising thirteen pterido- phytes and eight hundred and forty-eight spermatophytes, is listed by O. A. Farwell in the eleventh Annual Report of the commissioners of parks and boulevards of that city. Mr. Sudworth's account of the White River Plateau and Battle- ment Mesa forest reserves is reprinted from Vol. XX, Part V, of the Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey. Professor K. C. Davis's papers on the native and cultivated Ranunculacez of the United States are continued in Part IV of the current series of Minnesota Botanical Studies, the genera Delphinum, Ranunculus, and Thalictrum being passed in review. The West American Scientist for July contains Part V of Mr. Orcutt's “ Review of the Cactacez of the United States.” Mr. W. A. Wheeler publishes an ecological paper on the flora of southeastern Minnesota in the most recent number of Minnesota Botanical Studies. A preliminary report by Professor Hume on pecan culture, with figures of the better varieties of nuts, constitutes Buletin No. 54 of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. No. 407.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 909 A hybrid of Quercus phellos X Q. rubra, cultivated in France, is recorded by M. de Vilmorin in the Buletin de la Société botanique de France for November last. A series of half-tone illustrations of the Californian palm in its native home are published in Zhe Land of Sunshine for August and September. Tsuga canadensis pendula, as cultivated in the grounds of Professor Sargent at Brookline, is illustrated in Moers Deutsche Gártner-Zeitung of August 18. A lecture by Dr. Francis Wyatt, on the influence of science in modern beer brewing, is published in the Journal of the Franklin {Institute for September. CORRESPON DENCE. To the Editor of the American Naturalist : Sin, — Permit me to add a few lines to the review of Garman's Deep-Sea Fishes in the August issue of Zhe American Naturalist, for I feel that a work of such importance is deserving of further mention in your pages. Possibly the reviewer in speaking of it as ** monu- mental" and *the most important ichthyological work of the past year" considered such summary praise sufficient. "With this I can hardly agree, for the many who are not privileged to see the two magnificent volumes will probably fail to get a just estimate of the true character of this splendid work. That such a monograph on the.deep-sea fishes should be dismissed with little more than a long list of species described seems hardly just to the work of the author and to the auspices which made its publication possible. One would not know from the review given in your journal that this report, with its more than four hundred pages of text and one hundred plates, forms Vol. XXIV of the Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoólogy, nor that its genuinely monographic treatment of the subject has been worthily aided by the customary admirable presswork and illustrations which characterize the Memoirs. Two other extensive works on deep-sea fishes exist: Giinther’s Challenger Report and Goode & Bean's Oceanic Ichthyology. It is noteworthy that the latter also is in great part based upon the results of explorations under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz. Mr. Garman’s report, while in number of pages and plates intermediate between the other two, is clearly the equal of either in every respect. It certainly should have been noted that among the plates, which are superior to any here- tofore published, there are fifteen colored lithographs of deep-sea fishes giving the most perfect illustrations that have yet been pro- duced, and one of the most important of the many contributions of the artist Westergren. Umeyr B. WARD. UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, September 22, 1900 PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) BOPPE, L., and JOLYET, A. Les Forêts, Traité pratique de sylviculture. Paris, Pailliere, 1901r. xi, 488 pp., 8vo, 94 figs. 8 francs. — CREW, Henry. The Ele- ments of Physics for Use in High Schools. Second edition revised. New York, Macmillan, 1900. xv, 353 pp» 8vo, 266 figs. $1.10. — DAVENPORT, C. B. and G. C. Introduction to Zoology, a Guide to the Study of Animals for the Use of Second- Schools. New York, Macmillan, 1900. xii, 412 pp. 8vo, 306 figs. $1.10. — DougcLass, EARLE. The Neocene Lake Beds of Western Montana and Descrip- tions of Some New Vertebrates from the Loup Fork. Missoula, The University of Montana, 1899, 27 pp. 4 plates. — HAcKER, V. Der Gesang der Vógel, seine anatomischen und biologischen Grundlagen. Jena, Fischer, 1900. viii, 102 pp.» 8vo, 13 figs. 3 marks. — JoRDAN, D. S., an KELLOGG, V. L. Animal Life. New York, Appleton, 1900. ix, 329 pp» 180 figs. — KiLIAN, W. Album de Microphotographies de Roches Sédimentaires Faites par Maurice Houllacque. Paris, Gauthier-Villars, 1900. 14 pp. 4to, 69 plates. — MOSES, A. J., and PARSONS, C.L. Elements of Mineralogy, Crystallography and Blowpipe Analysis. New and enlarged edition. New York, D. van Nostrand & Co., 1900. vii, 414 pp. 8vo, 4 figs. — OESTLUND, Oscar W. A Laboratory Guide in Entomology. Minne- apolis, H. W. Wilson, 1900. 49 pp. 8vo, 8 figs. 50 cents. — REBMANN and SEILER. The Human Frame and the Laws of Health. Translated from the German by F. W. Remble. London, J. M. Dent & Co., 1900. 148 pp., 16mo, 32 figs. 40 cents. Temple Primer Series.— V. SCHOELER, HEINRICH. Probleme und kritische Studien über den Monismus. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1900. viii, 107 pp. 8vo. 2 marks. — SwINHOE, C., WALSINGHAM, LORD, and DURRANT, J. H. Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum. Part II, Noctuina, Geometrina, and Pyralidi Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1900. viii, 632 pp- 8vo, 8 plates. $10.50. ANKs, N. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Entomol., Bull. No. 24 U. S. 95 pp. — BUMPUS, H.C. Contributions n Fishery of Maine. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp- XXVIII-XXXIIL— Error, D. G. Description of an Apparently New Species of Mountain Goat. Field Columbian Mus. Put. Zoó Vol. iii pp. 1-4, 4 plates. — GORHAM, F. P. i tory of the U. S. Fish Commission, Woods Holl. Fish and its Cause. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 33-37. ! — GREEN, E. H. Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission, Woods Holl. The Chemical Composition of the Sub-Dermal Con- nective Tissue of the Ocean Sunfish. Bull. U. 5. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 321- The Gas-Bubble Disease of 912 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. 24.— Hopkins, A. D. The Hessian Fly zi West Virginia and how to Prevent Losses from its Ravages. West Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 67. August, I 241-250, 2 plates and map. — HowE, F. Contributions from the Biological Lissa of the U. S. Fish Commission, Woods Holl. Report of a Dredging Expedition off the Southern Coast of New England, September, 1899. Bull. U: S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 237-240. — HUNTER, S. J. The Coccidz of Kan- as, III. Kan. Univ. Quart. Vol. ix, No. 2. April. — JENNINGS, H. 8. Con wS to the Biology of the Great Lakes. Rotatoria of the United States with Especial Reference to those of the Great Lakes. Bul. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 67-104, Pls. XIV-XXII.— JENNINGS, H. S. Contributions to the Biology of the Great Lakes. A Report of the Work on.the Protozoa of Lake Erie with Especial Reference to the Laws of their Movements. Bul. U.S. Fish Com- mission for 1899, pp. 105-114. — JoRDAN, D. S., and SNYDER, J. O. Notes ona Collection of Fishes from the Rivers of Mexico, with Description of Twenty New Species. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 115-147. — KELLOGG, J. L- Contributions from the Biological gesagt) of the U. S. Fish Commission, Woods Holl. Observations on the Life History of the Common Clam, Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish ARDE E for 1899, pp. 193-202. — KELLOGG, J. L. The Clam Problem and Clam Culture. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp- 39-44, Pl. XIII. — LEVENE, P. A. Contributions from the Biological Labora- tory of the U. S. Fish Canaio Woods Holl. Some Chemical Changes in NTON, E. th Coin, Woods Holl. Fish Parasites Collected at Woods Holl in 1898. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 267-304, Pls. XXXIII- XLIII. — MEAD, A. D. Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commis- sion, Woods Holl. The Natural History of the Star-Fish. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp. 203-224, Pls. XXIII-XXVI. — MEEK, S. E. The Genus Eupomotus. Field Columbian Mus. Pub. 47, Zo0l. Ser. Vol. iii, No. 2, pp. TO~ 14.— MiLLsPAUGH, C. F. Plante Utonanze, etc., Part 1 A. Reconsideration of the — and of Cakile. Field Columbian Mus. Pub. 50, Bot. Ser. Vol. ii, No. 2, pp. 113-133. — MiLLsPAUGH, C. F. Planta Insule Ananasensis. A Cata- logue of Plants Collected on the Isle of Pines, Cuba, by Don José Blain. Field Columbian Mus. Pub. 48, Bot. Ser. Vol. i, No. 6, pp. 425-439. — OSGOOD, W. H. Revision of the Pocket Mice of the Genus oe a U.S. I b ” = i i T Bass. Bull. U.S S. Fish [OE for 1899, pp. a 1-320, Pl. XLIV, and 8 figs. — SuiTH, H. M. Notes on the Florida Sponge Fishery in 1899. Bull. U. S. Fish Siere for 1899, p 9-151. — Tower, R. W. Contributions from the Biological Laboratory ae da U. S. Fish Commission, Woods Holl. Improve ments in Preparing Fish for Shipment. Ju. U. S. Fish Commission for 1899, pp- 231-235. (No. 406 was mailed October 30.) TO THE DEAF. A rich lady, cured of her deafness and noises in the head by Dr. Nicholson's Artificial Ear Drums, gave $10,000 to his oon so that deaf people unable to procure the Ear Drums may have them Address No. 11479. THE NICHOLSON acetone 780 Eighth Avenue, New York, U.S.A. MARINE BIOLOGICAL SUPPLY DEPARTMENT Sede ere of all types of animals, for class or the museum. For price list e all information, address GEO. M. GRAY, CURATOR - - WOODS HOLL, Mass. po MICROSCOPES of every size, style and price, suited for all kinds of work. A new series of lenses for dissecting work have | 2e recently been perfected by — . us which have unusually long working distance and . à; large flat field. These Lens Holder for Anatomical Work. lenses are offered. at prices less than any lenses of equal quality heretofore in use. The new Dissecting Stands are all nickel metal with glass stage. 1@ Catalog free. Sample copy JOURNAL OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY on request. . BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO. 25th Street and Broadway, ROCHESTER, NY. m e T ien PUBLICATIONS oF THE TESTA ED x | ON the late PROrEssoR E. D. COPE. cow With Introduction by HENRY FAIRFIELD osom sen: | EB MS o. Cloth, $125; paper, $1.00. - ; | Bos GINN & COMPANY, AGENTS The American Naturalist Special Offer ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, E paying the full subscription price of $4.00 a = year in advance, may obtain the back vol- umes for the years 1892, 1893, 1894; 1895, : 1896, and 1897 upon the following terms: any single volume will be sent upon payment of $2.00; a ny two volumes for $3.50; any three volumes for $4.00; any four volumes for $4.50; and five or six volumes for $1.00 each, | in addition to the regular subscription. This offer holds good until the stock of back volumes ie exhausted Volumes for 1898 and - 1899, — each. + aa S Tr. ae W > Ginn & Company - E PUBLISHERS — — t E Tremont Hah Boston THE AMERICAN NATURALIST A MONTHLY JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES : ; IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE CONTENTS PAGE I. The Study of Mammalian Embryology . » à Professor C. S. MINOT 913 Il. Origin of the Mammalia, III. opic tanis nit ger S ET Type essor H. F. OSBORN Tripartite i unt a E ee oa Growth Professor T. W. GALLOWAY 943 949 IY. On the Variation of the Statoblasts of Pectinatella Magnifica Rae cr Sees from Lake i at Chicago ; Professor C. B. DAVENPORT $959 — N. A Soaling Stone Jar for Zodlogical Laboratories - .. J.B.JOHNSTON 969 VI. Reviews: of Recent Literature: Anthropology, African African Masks and Secret iem (OVE Pabtioations Beosivoà BOSTON, , U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 9-15 TREMONT PLACE = The American Naturalist. ASSOCIATE EDITORS: J. A. 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WHEELER, Pu.D., University of Texas, Austin. = Tur AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine a Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading Beam and discoveries in E General Biology, Zoology, 5 day, critical revie reviews E recent literature, anda nal aries for scientific news and personal notices. . . All naturalists who have anything interesting to say are invited to send in their contributions, but the editors will endeavor to select . for publication only that which is of truly scientific value and at the Wo the general scientific reader. |... All manuscripts, books for review, exchanges, etc., should be Re sent to THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, Cambridge, E nn e ME: Tona communication s should be Haz direct to the —— publishers. em Marne erin, 9.0, net, in advance. Saga copias, 35 cnt a < "poreiga subscription, $4.60 GINN & 3 COMPANY, 1 PUBLISHERS. T. Z same time written so as to be meine le instructive, and interesting t : THE AMERICAN NATURALIST VoL. XXXIV. December, 1900. No. 408. THE STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY.! CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. Tuis article is intended to give a preliminary account of a Text-Book of Embryology, upon the preparation of which I have been working for a considerable period. The book is intended especially to meet the needs of the student of human anatomy, but it is hoped to render it suitable for use as a general intro- duction to vertebrate embryology. The distinctive aim of the work will be to direct the beginner in the practical laboratory study of mammalian embryology, guiding him through an intel- ligent examination of the external form and of the microscopic sections. The publication of Foster and Balfour's admirable Elements of Embryology gave a great impetus to the science, but it is, unfortunately, many years since the last edition of that work appeared (1883). Duval’s A//as is at present the most avail- able guide, but is too elaborate and costly to be within the reach of most students. It is a work which ought to be in every laboratory, for it is a fine monument of well-directed learned industry. Both of these works deal with the embryology 1 Copyright, 1900, by Charles Sedgwick Minot. 913 9I4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. of the chick, — the one chiefly, the other exclusively, — and furnish little aid for mammalian embryology. Marshall’s Embryology is on a more comprehensive plan, but as it scarcely passes beyond the general principles of vertebrate embryology it cannot satisfy the needs of anatomical study. There is in these three works the merit of an adaptation to practical laboratory study, but there are no recent manuals of this type. On the other hand, there is, as all morphologists know, an abundance of recent embryological text-books ; but all of them, I think without exception, follow the general pattern established by Kölliker in the first edition of his Extwickelungsgeschichte (1861), and offer generalized descriptions of the development of the germ-layers, and then of the various organs. A beginner profits more from a presentation of the subject which clings to the actual preparations which he may make for himself. These considerations have led me to the conviction that an introduc- tory work more or less upon the model of Foster and Balfour would be useful. It is such an * Introduction" which I have undertaken. The plan adopted is briefly as follows : First, a study of pig embryos of from 9 to 12 mm. Experi- ence has shown that embryos of these sizes can be obtained in considerable numbers from the pork-packing establishments, such as may be found near most large cities. The anatomy of the pig at this stage is readily understood by the student who knows the general anatomy of the adult. Older embryos are more complicated, and yield such long series of sections that the beginner is apt to be discouraged ; younger embryos, owing to their spiral twisting, are exceedingly difficult for students to understand when sectioned. Second, a study of pig embryos of about 17.0 mm. and of the head of an embryo of 20 to 24 mm., which will suffice to render clear the relation of the early embryonic anatomy to the adult structure. Third, a study of the chick embryo of 20 to 30 hours to illustrate the character of the germ-layers. Fourth, a study of the fcetal envelopes, including the placenta in man and perhaps also in the pig and rabbit. No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 915 Fifth, a study of the genital elements, impregnation, seg- mentation, etc. This scheme is not logical in its order, but it seems to me to follow that psychological order which is natural for beginners in embryology who have already studied anatomy. It is, I believe, often a mistake in introducing a pupil to a new sub- ject to sacrifice the natural, and therefore easy, psychological sequence to the artificial demands of a logical arrangement. I hope, therefore, that the scheme adopted will prove advanta- geous for laboratory work. | Most stress will be laid upon the young mammalian embryo. Figures have been prepared to show several stages of the pig, all magnified eight diameters. To represent the first stage to be studied, a pig of 10.0 mm. has been chosen (Fig. 1). This figure, as well as the others in this article, are woodcuts after pencil drawings. The drawings were made for me by Mr. E. A. Locke with great care and accuracy. The woodcuts were made by Mr. C. L. Albert Probst, of Braunschweig, Germany, and reproduce the original drawings with remarkable and satisfac- tory success. The German school of wood engraving uses the black line, while the American school uses the white; so that a German woodcut reproduces microscopical textures better than an American, since in our s/azzed sections we rely in our studies chiefly upon the dark or stained parts, and these are indicated by the black-line better than by the white-line engrav- ing. There is the further advantage that the cost in Germany is considerably less. The wood engravings combine softness and delicacy of tone with brilliancy of texture, and thus sur- pass, it seems to me, very considerably even the best “ process” engravings. As the number of good figures of sections of mammalian embryos is very limited, and as there is no series of illustrations of systematically chosen typical sections of typical mammalian embryos, it is hoped that the present series will be useful, not only to students, but also as a conven- ience to advanced workers. On the other hand, it cannot be claimed that the new pictures represent definite original research, because they are intended primarily for text-book use. I have pleasure in acknowledging very valuable assistance 916 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. in the identification of parts rendered by Drs. R. T. Atkinson and F. A. Woods, and by Mr. F. T. Lewis and Mr. J. L. Bremer. Mr. Lewis has made also several dissections of the cephalic nerves, and Mr. Bremer models by Born's method of the brain and pharynx. I hope the results of these researches will be published separately. I wish also to express my appreciation of the great excellence of the recent text-books of embryology which have appeared in England, France, and Germany, although I venture to point out that they differ in plan from the proposed new book. A mammalian embryo may be conveniently regarded as having assumed its typical class organization at the time when the limb-buds have just become distinct appendages, as found in pig embryos of 9 to 12 mm. At this stage a mammalian embryo is readily distinguished from that of any other class of vertebrates, and the differentiation of the anlages! of all the important organs is accomplished so that these anlages can be identified with certainty and their genetic relations to the adult structures can be clearly grasped by the student. At the same time, although the anatomical differentiation is well advanced, the histological differentiation has made very little progress, so that the stages in question are particularly instructive to begin- ners. Fig. 1 represents a pig embryo of 10 mm. The student should make a careful and thorough study of the external form, noting the following features. The head, which is very large in comparison with the body, forms as a whole nearly a right angle with the back, so that dorsal outline of the head forms a distinct though rounded angle with that of the back; this angle marks the position of the neck-bend, and corresponds to the junction of the brain with the spinal cord. The neck-bend is one of the most marked and distinctive characteristics of the mammalian embryo, being much less marked in birds and reptiles, and being absent in amphibians and fishes. It 1s probably closely correlated with the cramping of the ventral cervical region, which leads to the formation of the cervical 1 Anlage is from the German, and has been adopted as a technical term 2 designate the first accumulation of formative material recognizable as the commencement of an organ, structure, or part in a developing organism. No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 917 sinus (C..S.), and to the disappearance of the second to fourth gill-clefts. The neck-bend is so great that the mandibular and nasal regions of the embryo are closely appressed to the cardiac region of the body proper. The cephalic region has a second flexure, the head-bend proper, which marks the site of the mid-brain, and in the figure appears as a rounded angle obliquely above the eye. From the mid-brain one axis, hori- Ven. Md. Au. Fic. r, — Pig embryo of romm. A.Z., anterior limb; 4., auditory, or first, gill-cleft; C.S., cervical sinus; Z7.L., hind limb; Md., mandibular process; M.L., milk-line ; Mx., maxil- lary process; W., nasal pit; Of., eye; Seg., muscular segment ; Um., umbilical cord; Ven., floor of fourth ventricle (medulla oblongata). x 8 diams. zontal in the figure, extends backward through the region of the fourth ventricle, or hind-brain (Ven.), to the neck-bend, while the other axis extends vertically downwards to the region of the fore-brain, which is marked by a rounded protuberance in the outline of the head. The dorsal outline of the body proper forms a long sweeping curve, ending in the tail; this dorsal. curvature is another characteristic of the amniote embryo, the back in the embryo of fish-like forms being 918 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. relatively straight. It is thus brought about that the dorsal side of the embryo is two or three times as long as the ventral. From the ventral side springs the large umbilical cord, the connection of which with the body occupies prac- tically the entire length of the ventral median line of the abdominal region proper. Above the umbilical cord the pro- tuberant outline of the cardiac region passes below the nasal (V.) and mandibular (Md.) regions toward the cervical sinus (C.S.). The long tapering tail extends near the umbilical cord. The surface modeling of the embryo offers important fea- tures. Beginning with the head, we observe first the shallow depression, constituting the nasal pit (/V.). The eye (Op.) is entirely without lids; the lens appears in the center and is sur- rounded by the outlines of the optic vesicle. The small size of the eye is a characteristic of the mammalian embryo ; by which it differs from all sauropsidan forms, but in certain other mam- mals the embryonic eye is slightly larger than in the pig. Below the eye is the maxillary process (JZx.), which is destined to form the greater part of the upper jaw; the anterior bound- ary of the maxillary process is marked by a shallow depression, the lachrymal groove, which runs from the angle of the eye (Op.) to the nasal pit (W.). The mandibular process (Md.), out of which the lower jaw is developed, is bounded in front by a groove separating it from the maxillary process, and behind by a second groove (Aw.), the anlage of the future meatus audi- torius externus. This groove marks the boundary between the mandibular process and the first or hyoid branchial arch, and is itself the ectodermal member of the first gill-cleft. The fourth ventricle ( Vez.) or cavity of the hind-brain, having very thin walls for its roof, can be readily distinguished. _ The thickened floor of the fourth ventricle is the anlage of the medulla oblongata. The cervical sinus (C.S.) is an area of invagination, presenting at this stage a triangular outline ; within the sinus are found the external or ectodermal ter minations of the second and third gill-clefts. The territory of the mandibular process and cervical sinus corresponds to the pharyngeal region. It is the site of some of the most No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 9I9 important, interesting, and complicated developments by which the embryonic is changed into the adult anatomy. The body of the embryo shows the position and number of the segments (Seg.) by the external modeling. Both limbs are well advanced, the anterior (A.Z.) more so than the posterior. From the base of the front to the base of the hind limb extends the milk-line (47.Z.), curving so as to be nearly parallel to the dorsal outline of the body. Along this line the mammary glands are ultimately developed. Extending across the body are several shadowy lines, shimmering through the translucent body-walls. One marks the position of the embryonic dia- phragm ; it extends from the upper edge of the anterior limb obliquely downwards towards the edge of the umbilical cord. Another, which extends in a nearly straight line from limb to limb, marks the ventral edge of the large Wolffian body or mesonephros, the dorsal limit of which is approximately indi- cated by the milk-line (J7.L.). The outlines of the smaller left dorsal lobe of the liver are distinct, and mark out a pointed area immediately below the fore limb (A.Z.). Of the remaining figures, 2 to 7 represent six transverse sections through a pig embryo of 12.0 mm. But the position of the sections can be easily followed with the aid of Fig. 1, which represents a slightly younger embryo. The plane of the sections would be indicated by a nearly horizontal line across Fig. 1. The sections are ten microns in thickness, and are 966 in number, not 1200, as the student might expect. The discrepancy is due to the shrinkage of the embryo when imbedded in paraffine. The shrinkage is always very great, and in the case of embryos causes a loss of almost 20 per cent in the length ; but as it seems to take place uniformly through- out the embryo, it causes no distortion, so that the embryo in paraffine is an exact though greatly reduced copy — so to speak — of the living embryo. It should be remembered that no correct measurements of the size of organs or cells can be obtained from sections made by the paraffine method. This limitation upon the use of sections is too often forgotten. The six transverse sections chosen were selected to show the most important points in the structure of the embryo, as 920 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. far as the upper part of the abdomen. The organs of the pelvic end of the abdomen and the character of the muscles can be more advantageously studied in other series and stages. I2 is Ven. Of, DE: New. 7.6 5 Fib: D.E., ductus s. Transverse section 185. ; ; Ven., hind-brain Fic. 2.— Pig embryo of 12.0 mm. Series No. endolymphaticus; 7.5., fore-brain; Neu., neuromere; Of., 0 ; al (fourth ventricle); 5, trigeminal nerve; 7.8, acustico-facial nerve; 9, glossopharynge nerve; 70, vagus nerve; 72, hypoglossal nerve. x 22 diams. Fig. 2 is at a level about halfway between the eye and the highest point in Fig. 1; it passes, therefore, through the fore- brain (F...) and the fourth ventricle ( Ven.) or cavity of the No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 92I hind-brain. The section is bounded by the thin layer of epider- mis, between which and the brain-walls there is a large amount Jug." F.b. Fic. 3. eis embryo of 12.0 mm. No. ransverse section 195. Æc., ectoderm; /.4., fore- ; Jug.', Jug.", ge vein; un infundibular gland; Mad., medalla oblongata ; oe Fotocys bp Str., striae acusticze; Ven., cavity of — * trigeminal ganglion ; Bede 9, a pharyngeus; 70, vagus; ccessarius; 77., third vende ofthe brain. x 22 dia of mesenchymal tissue. Alongside the hind-brain lie a series of important structures imbedded in the mesenchyma, which 922 THE AMERICAN NATURALLIST. [Vor. XXXIV. are identical upon the two sides, although they differ in the section, as the plane of cutting was not symmetrically trans- verse for the head. These structures are in the following order: 5, the trigeminal ganglion; 7.8, the acustico-facial gan- glion complex ; the otocyst, Oz., with upon one side the separated ductus endolymphaticus, D.Z., and upon the other side the opening of the ductus displayed by the section ; 9, the glosso- pharyngeal ganglion; 70, a portion of the vagus ganglion; 12, one of the hypoglossal ganglia. Upon the left side of the figure the connection of the trigeminal ganglion with the angle of the wall of the hind-brain is demonstrated; by this connec- tion and by its large size the trigeminal ganglion may always be identified in the embryo. The brain-wall has a thin outer layer both in the hind-brain and mid-brain ; this is the outer neuroglia layer (Randschleier of His) and is conspicuous from the absence of stain; inside of the external layer the wall of the brain is crowded with nuclei, and therefore appears deeply stained in the preparation. Three neuromeres (/Vew.) appear in the section, each marked by a concavity on the inner side of the brain-wall. Fig. 3 is from section 195, and therefore ten sections below Fig.2. It is given to show three points not shown in the pre- ceding illustration: 1, the spinal accessory nerve root (Z7) arising from the cervical (in the figure, upper) end of the hind- brain and running forward to join the vagus ganglion; 2, the trigeminal ganglion with the internal jugular vein, which is cut twice (/ug.', /ug."), abutting close against it, —a very charac- teristic relation (this vein takes a sinuous course along the side of the hind-brain, for it passes inside the twelfth, eleventh, tenth, and ninth nerves, then outside the otocyst and the seventh-eighth nerve, and inside the fifth); 3, the infundibular process or gland (/zf.), springing from the floor of the fore- brain (£4). Attention may also be called to the structures (Str), resembling the strize acusticz, but which seem to be rather the fibres of the lateral root of the facial. The next figure (4) is from a lower level. The section passes through the eyes, the upper end of the auditory cleft (Fig. I, Au.), and the upper cervical region of the spinal cord. The No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 923 spinal cord is clearly divided into a dorsal (D.Z.) and a ventral zone ( V.Z.) on each side; the two dorsal zones are connected bral ; inferior maxillary nerve ; Of., optic nerve; PA., pharynx; Ret.,retina; V.R. tral zone of spinal cord; 7, facial nerve; 9, glossopharyngeal jams. ganglion; 70.77, vagus accessorius nerve. x 22 across the median line by the thin deck plate, and the ventral zones similarly by the thin floor plate. The lower or ventral limit of the dorsal zone is marked externally by the entrance of 924 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. the dorsal or ganglionic root, internally by the lateral angle of the central cavity, shown in the section. In the ventral zone the development is more advanced, — the three primary layers in the walls of the neuraxis (or medullary tube) being clearly differentiated, namely: the light outer neuroglia layer; the middle layer, commonly called the mantle layer, but which might be better named the neurone layer; and, finally, the inner- most or ependymal layer. These three layers are primary and appear throughout the entire brain and spinal cord. The sepa- ration of the dorsal and ventral zones is of fundamental mor- phological importance, and their characteristics must be clearly understood before the anatomy of the brain is studied. The ventral zone contains all the neurones from which fibres arise forming the ventral nerve root (V.R.). Following downwards in the figure we come to the section of the jugular vein (/ug.), just inside of which lies the common trunk (70.77) of the united vagus and accessorius nerves, and also the lower part of the glossopharyngeal ganglion (9) Lower down and nearer the ectoderm lies the facial nerve (7), and again still lower is the large trunk of the inferior maxillary (J/v.7.), or mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve. Between the two nerves last mentioned is a long oblique slit, which is found at another level to communicate with the pharynx (P7.); this slit is the inner or entodermal portion of the first or auditory gill-cleft, and is the anlage of both Eustachian tube and of the cavity of the tympanum. Its outer (in Fig. 4, upper) end lies near the bottom of an ectodermal groove; this groove (Fig. 1, Au.) divides the mandibular process from the hyoid arch, and is the anlage of the meatus auditorius externus. The hyoid arch is marked in Fig. 4 by the facial nerve (7) and the arched over- lying ectoderm. The internal carotid artery (C.7.) appears near the optic nerve (Of). External to this artery lies the superior maxillary nerve, which, however, does not show in the figure. The vesicular lens (Z.) and the cup-shaped retina (Ret.) of the eye can be readily identified. The fore-brain has begun to form two lateral expansions, the cavities of which ultimately become the lateral ventricles (Z. V.) of the brain, and the walls of which are the anlages of the hemispheres (/.). No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 925 Fig. 5 is from section 321, and is therefore considerably lower down in the series than the section represented in 12.0 . Nose Dran Ao.4, fourth aortic arch; Az., ctodermal depression of the first or auditory gill-cleft; Cerv.z, first cervical nerve; ` i ical nerve ; d. lion nodosum (lower vagus m sverse section 321. nerv' . rve; OLJI ramus externus accessorii; S.C., spinal cord; Thy: Ve. vein; iii, third gill-cleft of the right side. x 22 It passes through the cervical sinus a and therefore also through the spinal s two distinct unequal parts: Fig. 4. nd olfactory pits (compare Fig. 1), cord of the neck. The section comprise 926 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV. the first and larger is the section of the cervical, pharyngeal and mandibular regions; the second and smaller is the section from the tip of the low bent head. The spinal cord (.S7.c.) in the upper part shows clearly both the three primary layers of its walls and the division into dorsal and ventral zones. The outermost layer is very lightly stained, and may be, perhaps, best defined as the anlage of the white matter. The inner layer is deeply stained, while the middle layer (mantle or gray stratum) is intermediate in color. The nerve cells develop most abundantly and rapidly in the ventral part of the mantle layer, which is consequently more enlarged than the dorsal part and has caused a bulging sidewards and downwards of the ventral zone. The ganglion (Cerv.2) is the second cervical; it sends a root upward to enter the dorsal zone of the spinal cord, and a tract downward to join the ventral root, thus constituting the second spinal nerve (/Vv.2), which subdivides almost at once into a dorsal and a ventral ramus. Between the dorsal sum- mit of the ganglion and the spinal cord there is a small bundle of nerve fibres, not shown in the figure. These fibres consti- tute the commissural trunk of the eleventh nerve. The third gill-cleft (Z77.) is cut almost symmetrically, and extends from the median line to the edge of the section; it is lined through- out by the entoderm, which at the end of the cleft on each side has met and fused with the ectoderm to form an epithelial membrane (Verschlussplatte), which closes the cleft laterally. All vertebrate embryos probably have their gill-clefts at an early stage all closed by a similar membrane ; but, whereas in fishes and amphibians the membrane is soon broken through, in mammals, on the contrary, it remains intact, and the clefts are, it is thought, normally always imperforate. At the end of the cleft the entoderm has undergone a special growth, form- ing a distinct mass ( Thm.) on the side of the cleft towards the head. This entodermal structure is the anlage of the thy- mus, and is already penetrated by small blood vessels, which - are perhaps not capillaries but sinusoids. The third gill-cleft extends to the bottom of the cervical sinus, a large and deep depression of the outer surface, clearly shown both in Figs. ! and 5. The sinus is bounded cephalad by the large and No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 927 protuberant first or hyoid branchial arch (77y.), and this arch is separated from the mandibular region by a groove (4z.) or ecto- dermal depression, which is later transformed into the meatus auditorius externus. In mammals there are four pairs of gill- pouches, or so-called clefts, all of which are lateral diverticula of the pharynx. Owing to the curvature of the pharynx these diverticula are brought to different levels, and into different planes in the pig embryo at the stage we are considering; hence in a series of sections the various gill-pouches are encountered in different portions of the series, and thus it occurs that only one pouch, the third, is shown in the sec- tion. The student should clearly understand that the median region of the two-thirds gill-pouches in Fig. 5 is the pharynx proper, and that it gives rise to the anlage of the median thy- roid, of which both the stalk (JZ¢/.) and the glandular portion (Thyr.) appear. Just above the third gill-cleft may be seen the large, darkly stained lower ganglion (ganglion nodosum) of the vagus nerve (G.zod.), and just above the ganglion is situated the section of the jugular vein (/ug.). Close to the ganglion on its ectal side appear two fibrous nerve trunks, of which the one nearest the pharynx is the accessorius or eleventh nerve (N.x.t.) while the other nearest the jugular vein is the hypo- glossus, which reappears (JV.xzz.) below the aortic arch. A little above the jugular vein is the section of the first cer- vical nerve (Cerv.7) laterad from which is the external branch (A.ex.xz. of the spinal accessory nerve. This branch in the adult innervates the sternocleido-mastoid and trapezius muscles. The lower part of Fig. 5 represents part of the head and shows the two nasal fossz (/Va.) closed towards the mouth side by the olfactory plate (O/.p/.), an epithelial membrane some- what similar to the closing plate of a gill-cleft. On the dorsal side of the olfactory fosse — below in Fig. 5 — the cerebral hemispheres are cut, their darkly stained wall bounding on each side the large lateral ventricle (Z. V.). The next section figured is No. 470, and is therefore much lower in the series. It was selected in order to show the anterior limb-buds, the ducts of Cuvier, and the heart. The 928 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. position and shape of the limb anlages are shown in Fig. 1, and the section demonstrates that they are formed by mesoderm, with a thin covering layer of ectoderm. The mesoderm is Spc. D.R. G. Í Fic. 6. — Pig of 120 mm. No. 5. Transverse section 470. Ao.S., left dorsal aortic trunk; cesophagus; X.D., ramus dorsalis of spinal nerve; A nerve ; S.a.c., septum of auricular canal; Sci. V., EEE ; Som., somatopleure ; ae spinal cord; S.s., — is eme Tra., ane chea y Val, ;atrio-ventrcular valve ; 7..5., left ventricle; V.R., very little differentiated, none of the skeletal elements being yet formed. The nerves and blood vessels are growing into No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 929 the limb; the nerves are the rami ventrales (R.V.) of spinal nerves, and form branches within the limb; one of these branches, as yet unidentified, is shown at Vv. The vein Scl V. is the so-called subclavian or axillary vein, a branch of the jugular, as explained below. The lower part of the section is occupied by the large heart lying in the pericardial chamber. The body-wall (Som.), or somatopleure, which forms the outer covering of this chamber, is quite thin, and without a trace of muscular or skeletal structures. The heart consists of two auricles and two ventricles. The auricles have thin walls and are separated from one another by a very thin membrane, the septum superius (S.s.). The right auricle (Az.d.) receives upon its dorsal side the opening of the vein or duct of Cuvier, this opening being guarded by valves; of these valves, the one towards the median line disappears, but the other, towards the right of the embryo, persists to form both the Eustachian and Thebesian valves of the adult. The corresponding opposite vein, or left duct of Cuvier (D.C.S.), is almost symmetrically placed, but does not have any communication with the left auricle, being instead connected at a lower level by a transverse venous trunk with the ductus Cuvieri of the right side. The upper portion of the left duct (D.C.S.) is seen in the section to be somewhat constricted off from the lower portion, and in fact it shows the jugular vein of the head at its actual junction with the ductus. The ventricles of the heart are much larger than the auricles, and the left ventricle ( Vzz..S.) is already larger than the right; the external groove (f.) which marks the boundary between the two ventricles, is clearly shown by the section. The trabecular structure of the ventricles is well developed and affords a diagnostic mark by which the ven- tricles, however cut, may be easily recognized in sections. The development of the trabeculz corresponds to the forma- tion of the blood sinusoids of the heart, to which I have re- cently directed attention. The constricted region of the heart, which connects the auricles with the ventricles, is known as the auricular canal A broad partition (S.a.c.) divides the canal into right and left channels, and at the ventricular ends of these channels the formation of atrio-ventricular valves 930 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. (Val.) is well advanced. The dorsal or trunk region of the section is formed chiefly by the more or less dense mesen- chyma. It includes important structures. The spinal cord (Sp.c.) resembles that in Fig. 5, but is both larger and more differentiated. The fundamental morphological characteristics of a spinal nerve are well illustrated by the left nerve of Fig. 6. The dorsal root (D.R.) bears the ganglion (G.) and is joined a little below the level of the cord by the ventral root (V. A.) to form a single nerve trunk, which, however, soon subdivides into its two primary branches; the first or dorsal branch, ramus dorsalis (R.D.), bends at an acute angle upwards and outwards; the second or ventral continues downward and curves into the limb; owing to this curvature it must be traced through adja- cent sections, but in Fig. 6 it can be seen again (A. V.) at the base of the limb, where it crosses the subclavian vein (Sc/.V.). Some distance below the spinal cord is the small notochord (VcÀ.). Much lower, and between the two ducts of Cuvier, appear the cesophagus (Oe.) and trachea (772.), each a ring of entodermal epithelium with commencing condensation of sur- rounding mesenchyma. This condensed tissue is the anlage of the future submucosa and muscularis. Above the cesoph- agus, to the right and left, appears the dorsal aortic trunk, of which the left only (Ao.S.) is completely retained through- out life. It should be noted that the blood vessels, including the largest, have at this stage only endothelial walls, the adventitial and muscular coats being added later. A// blood vessels are endothelial chambers, and this fundamental con- ception ought to be made clear to the student. We now pass to a section (No. 633) well below the heart, in order to study the characteristics of the Wolffian body, stomach, and liver., At this level, as comparison of the figures will show, the body of the embryo has its greatest dimensions. The upper edge (Us) of the umbilical cord also appears in this section. The spinal cord, with the ganglia and nerves, presents essentially the same features as in Figs. 5 and 6. The notochord (Nch.) forms a small circle in section and is surrounded by an area over which the mesenchymal cells are more crowded or condensed than elsewhere. The condensed No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 93I mesenchyma is the anlage of a vertebra (Ve77.). It is more expanded laterally than dorso-ventrall. In the median line below the notochord is the large dorsal aorta (Ao.), which is SP.C. Nch. ; G. N. Vert. W.t. Som. Ao. D.V. W.B. Gen. Ec. Om.mayj. 75. St. nsth. Li. Om.min. V.U.D. Un. V.U.SS. Fic. 7. — Pig of 12.0 mm. No.5. ‘Transverse section 633. 40., aorta; D.V., ductus venosus ; Ec., ectoderm of the somatopleure ; G., ganglion on dorsal root of spinal nerve; G.A., gall bladder; A e eni land; LZ, liver; mes., mesenchyma of somatopleure ; msth., mesothelium of the somatopleure; Mch., notochord; W., spinal nerve; ma omentum major; Om.min., minus; .So»r, somatopleure; Sż., stomach; umbilical cord; Vert., anlage of the body of a vertebra; V.U.D., right umbilical vein; .U.S., left umbilical vein; W.B., Wolffian body or mesonephros ; J/.7., Wolffian tubule. x 22 diams. formed by the union of the two dorsal aortic trunks of Fig. 6, and which extends through the abdominal region of the 932 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. embryo to the pelvis, where it forks to form the two allantoic arteries, which run to the umbilicus, and entering the umbili- cal cord supply the extra-embryonic or placental circulation. The aorta is surrounded by mesenchyma, and to this are, so to speak, appended the large Wolffian bodies (W.4.), one on each side. They are much larger, relatively to other parts, in the pig than in man or the rabbit. The Wolffian body is the fetal or embryonic kidney, and is also termed the meso- nephros. It consists of numerous epithelial tubules (W.t.), very much contorted, with blood spaces (sinusoids) between them, and of glomeruli, which always lie towards the median and inferior side of the organ. All of the tubules open into the single longitudinal canal, the Wolffian duct. This duct is always situated close to the surface on the ventral side of the organ, and is very easily distinguished in dissected em- bryos after the removal of the intestines and liver. In the figure it may be easily found in the left mesonephros (JJ. .), it being thére the lowermost of the cavities drawn. On the median lower surface of the Wolffian body, underneath the glomeruli, is an accumulation of tissue (Gez.), the anlage of the genital gland. Below the aorta, on the right of the embryo, is the large ductus venosus, or upper end of the vena cava inferior, on its way past the right dorsal lobe of the liver towards the heart. Below the aorta on the left is the meso- gastrium (Om.maj.), or future great omentum, by which the stomach is suspended from the median dorsal wall of the abdo- men. The stomach (Sz.) is entirely upon the left side of the body, and is directly connected by means of the anlage of the lesser omentum (Om.min.) with the liver. The liver is by far the largest organ of the body; it takes up nearly half of the section. It is divided into four main lobes, two dorsal and two ventral, two on the right and two on the left. The ref- erence line (Z7.) runs to the left dorsal lobe. The liver con- sists of a complicated network of relatively large blood sinu- soids, the spaces between which are occupied by the embryonic liver cells. Near the median line between the ventral lobes appears the gall-bladder (G.4/.), which is cut three times. The liver is attached in the median ventral line to the body-wall No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 933 and the base of the umbilical cord. The two umbilical veins enter the liver directly from the cord. The right vein (V.U.D.) is already smaller than its left fellow (V.U.S.). They are con- nected respectively with the right and left ventral lobes of the liver. The right vein in a little later stage is no longer rec- ognizable as an open channel. It will be noticed that the right and left sides of the abdominal cavity (splanchnoccele) are completely separated from one another, and that there is a special part of this cavity shown in the section between the stomach and the right dorsal lobe of the liver, and which is known as the lesser peritoneal space or cavity of the omentum. The body-wall (Som.), or somatopleure,! consists of three layers, — the ectoderm (Zc.), the mesenchyma (mes.), and the mesothelium (zzs24.). It is of the greatest importance for the student to understand the arrangement of the germ-layers in the somatopleure. The mesothelium (mst%.) is commonly known in the descriptive anatomy of the adult as the peri- toneal epithelium. In sections like that of Fig. 7 it can be followed not only over the inner surface of the body-wall but over the surface of the Wolffian body and liver, and upon the left side of the body also over the surfaces of the greater omentum, stomach, and lesser omentum. We see, in fact, that the body cavity is completely bounded by mesothelium, and that all the abdominal viscera are therefore outside of it. This conception, which is so important yet so difficult to the student of anatomy, is easily mastered by the study of the embryonic relations. From the sagittal series of the same stage many instructive pictures are obtainable. I have selected a median section of the head, and one passing through the principal cephalic ganglia, for engraving, and give here the latter. The mag- nification is 22 diameters, the same as for the transverse sec- tions Figs. 2 to 7. To the student of anatomy such a sec- tion as is shown in Fig. 8 is highly instructive, for it exhibits in a single picture many important fundamental relations of the cephalic nerves, particularly of the second, fifth, seventh, 1 It is much to be regretted that German embryologists use the term **somato- pleure " erroneously. 934 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. eighth, ninth, and tenth. As the section is remote from the median plane, little of the brain appears, there being only a shaving from the lateral wall of the fore-brain (#.) and a sec- tion of the widest part of the hind-brain, which shows the cavity or lateral recess (A.L.) of the fourth ventricle. The auditory vesicle or otocyst (O£. is cut; its narrow upward prolongation is the anlage of the ductus endolymphaticus. The otocyst lies in a line with the great cephalic ganglion, occupying its invariable and permanent position behind the acustico-facial ganglion (4c.F.) and in front of the glosso- pharyngeal. Only the lateral portion of the pharynx (PA.) appears ; this portion forms a wide diverticulum, almost slit- like (compare Fig. 4), from which extend the first and second entodermal gill-pouches. In the figure the pharynx has a small depression extending downward at the cesophageal end of. the part shown in the section; this depression marks the be- ginning of the second cleft. Nothing is seen of the third and fourth clefts in the section, as these both lie nearer the median plane. The pocket or diverticulum of the cervical sinus (com- pare Fig. 1) appears (Cerv.S.) near the ganglion nodosum (G.nod.). It might be mistaken for a gill-cleft,. but it is lined by ectoderm and its cavity can be easily traced through the series to the exterior. Cephalad from the sinus but close to it lies a small dark mass, the anlage of the thy- mus gland. The mass is produced by proliferation of the entodermal cells on the anterior side of the third cleft (com- pare Fig. 5, Zim.), and is penetrated by blood vessels which seem to be sinusoids, although their history has not been worked out. The jugular vein (/zg.), owing to its irregular course, is cut several times ; its main stem ( /ug."") rises nearly vertically through the cervical region, and is, relatively to the size of the embryo, of huge diameter, and continues (Jug.") upward along the dorsal side of the vagus nerve to a level about halfway between the ganglion nodosum and ganglion jugulare, and as the vessel there curves inwards and forwards it is not encountered again until it bends outwards (/ug.’) on its way past the trigeminal ganglion. A branch of the jugular vein (/ug.") is cut just above the ganglion. No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 935 No. ttal sect Aur., auricle of the heart; pe JF. Fic. 8. — Pig of 12.0 mm. re Fagit n 25. facial gan lion complex ; ‘Ce. , ceelom d the — - pericardial —Ó erv.S., div erie. ulum of the cervical sinus, ‘oot in front of eps vend anlage of the 2 D is deeply Mund: G.jug., ganglion jugulare dena [^s e; G.nod., ganglion n of the vagus nerve; G. wd gang ad of the trigeminus nerve; Ja teral wall of the cerebral hemisphere ; Jug., jugular vein ; Jug. y behind the trigeminus ; ye ug." , branch in front of the trigeminus ; Jug. vagus; Jug." » main stem desc i in oe ‘uvi ture, y Probably t the anlage of ble: gem nerve; N.o., optic Fen Nx: ei ssus lateralis of se fourth gece d ; r hypoglossal nerve; Ot., da vein; Vent., ventricle of the heart. x 22 diam e., small branch’ ot PAK cone 936 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. The nerves are shown as follows : The optic nerve (JV.op.) still has its central cavity, which, nearer the median plane, opens into the third ventricle of the brain, and in the section resembles in shape an inverted U. On the side of the nerve towards the mouth there is a deep notch, — the section of the choroid fissure. The trigeminal ganglion (G.tvz.) is very large, and its trilobate form is clearly indicated by the figure. The lobe to which the reference line (G.77z.) runs gives off the ramus ophthalmicus ; the lobe nearest the jugular gives off the ramus maxillaris inferior, while the middle lobe gives off the ramus maxillaris superior. From the ganglion the fibres and nerve cells extend upwards to form the root (V.V.), which joins the hind-brain at a characteristic point, — namely, at the summit of the Varolian bend and where the hind-brain is widest (compare Figs. 2 and 3). By its great size and by its topographical association with the lateral apex of the recessus lateralis of the fourth ventricle, the trigeminal ganglion may always be readily identified in sections of em- bryos. The acustico-facial ganglia (/4c.7.) may also be readily determined by their typical position immediately in front of the otocyst (O7). But it is quite difficult to identify the four com- ponents of this complex structure, namely : 1?, the motor root of the facial nerve; 2?, the facial or geniculate ganglion ; 3°, the vestibular ganglion ; 4°, the cochlear ganglion. In Fig. 8 three divisions are shown. The large, darkly stained division, to which the reference line (Ac.F.) runs, and which lies nearest to the otocyst, is the vestibular portion of the acoustic ganglion ; the small, light area occupying a middle position in the inferior part of the complex is the motor division of the seventh nerve, or lateral root of the facial; it can be followed to the brain, which it enters as four bundles of fibres; its path of entrance is shown better in frontal sections (Fig. 10). Just in front of the facial motor root lies a second smaller dark mass, the genicu- late ganglion of the facial, with an upward prolongation, the sensory root. The ninth or glossopharyngeal nerve is repre- sented by the ganglion petrosum (G.petr.) and its ascending sensory root. This nerve may be quickly identified because it is the first behind the otocyst. The upper ganglion of this No. 408.] STUDY OF MAMMALIAN EMBRYOLOGY. 937 nerve, the so-called Ehrenritter’s ganglion, is represented by an accumulation of cells in the upper part of this root. As regards the tenth nerve, or vagus, both its ganglia and the fibrous trunk connecting them are shown. The upper or jugular ganglion (G.jug.) is nearly on a level with the otocyst, while the lower or nodosal (G.zoZ.) lies near the cervical sinus. To the nerve trunk zr. between the two ganglia are adjoined the fibres of the mes. eleventh or spinal accessory nerve, which does not other- £4. wise appear in this section. A small piece only of the hypoglos- sal nerve can be seen (Writ). The space occupied by this. 7.s. nerve is blank in the engraving; Z.R, in the specimen it shows hori- zontal fibres. £ . The frontal series has special value for the study of the hind- Jug. brain, its nerves, and of the oto- cyst. From this series I present here three figures of the head region. The first of these sec- $ - Fic. 9.— Pig of 12.0 mm. Series No. 6. tions (Fig. 9) passes through Frontal section 284. Æc., ectoderm; the widest part of the hind- Eż., ependymal roof of the fourth ven- ; tricle; D.Z., upper portion of the do brain and through the roots zone of His; G.éz., ganglion trigemini; ot the trigeminis: PR 1 sper 3 A Lun zl aae! E ad o Days (6 Bo c4 734 —90 ee 39 HB. 40 do. 560 Graphic representation of Table I, column au nore average total Fic. 1. — Rana. weight on successive days of the experi 405 Mess. d 30 25\ 4h ; \ Im 20 12, 12'- 15r 15 ; Pw EN sols LA Es U Y <2 N. SEM Samer 58-22-29} RE m ].22-55* d fs. B5.» sw sw ta het Perea + L$ t Fic. 2. — Rana. phic rep weight. vet ibis L column 7. "i weight. From these were derived the amount of water present and the percentage of dry substance. Five individuals were taken at random in determining all the averages recorded in this Báper, except in the later 952 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. TABLE II. — AMBLYSTOMA PUNCTATUM. 1. TEMPERATURE 6°-8° C. DATE R dequi- ps 4 = 7. i. Pl Pias Days. mm. rAr. Substance. Water did mg. THES | Substance. A RE s ss — — -= — — " MIL. IO 7.5 6.82 3.02 3.80 44.2 ME es 15 8.5 8.62 2.92 5.70 33-8 May Fee ees 25 10 9.54 2.58 6.95 27 4 E vss 35 12 13.70 2.70 11.00 19.7 Je tek 42 13 16.22 2.70 13.52 16.6 M" NR ass 44 13.5 17.46 2.68 14.58 I5.3 los 4... 5I 14 19.20 2.66 16.54 15.8 B ilc 55 14.5 23.80 2.64 21.16 II.I E 10.1.7. 59 15 25.82 2.46 23.36 9.5 Bo 30 rs 69 16 29.64 2.24 27.40 yh 2. TEMPERATURE 12'- 18? C. Api iSe s... =- — — — — — "ORE LC 8 9 9.94 2.90 7.04 29.1 "Esso 15 12 12.26 2.74 9.52 22.3 " 29... .. 17 13 15.00 2.84 12.16 18.9 May 3..... 21 14 18.52 2.64 15.88 14.2 Soo Ok vd 25 15 22.92 1.88 21.04 8.2 ie e vena 35 16.5 28.40 2.32 26.08 8.1 4 20. 38 16 24.08 1.88 22.20 7.8 8. E.A 42 17 26.70 2.02 24.68 7.6 4 3B. s 46 17 23.60 I.50 22.10 6.3 3. TEMPERATURE 20-24* C. Aprii3..... — e pe 2 pue — " dv i 4 8.5 8.79 2.69 6.10 30.6 " AS er 8 10.5 9.78 2.68 7.10 Se HO OE Ss 10 12 12.20 2.59 9.61 21.2 we PE 13 14 14.64 2.78 11.86 19 " 29... .. 17 14 21.84 2.58 19.26 11.8 May 3... 21 14.7 23.94 2.22 21.72 »^ BERE 9 25 15 22.78 2.54 20.24 ILI = 15! 34 14.5 17.80 1.86 15.94 10.4 a 25i 38 14.5 17.00 1.20 1 5.80 7 1 Good many dying; evidently not thriving. No.408.[] EFFECT OF HEAT UPON GROWTH. 953 measurements of Bufo at the highest temperature; in this latter case ¢hree were taken. Results. —'The results are embodied in the accompanying tables and in the curves (Figs. 1-6) constructed from them. Milligrammes 30 poe, ae or N PNG Z| #0 Pd V^ xs Lo y Aae sw n : = 15 / //2.12*-48* Ra eit AL Le do pum. eee 10 E P” 5 0 5 I5 90 en 390 35 40 45 50 565 500 68 70 Days Fic. 3.— Amblystoma. Graphic representation of Table IT, column 4, showing average total weight on successive days of the experiment. 40 \ aU 25 x i pee wy vM N i am 15 8| 20-24 t i 0 ő Jé 315 20 35 W 38 40 45b BO 4 9" € 70 Fic. 4.— Amblystoma. Graphic representation of the ratio of dry substance to the total weight. (See Table II, column 7. The column headed * No. of Days " indicates the number of days reckoned from the beginning of the experiment, — not from hatching. The exact date of fertilization is unknown. In Table I it will be seen that there are two sets of observations 954 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. recorded for the highest temperature. Owing to great accel- eration and high rate of mortality, the first series (1; 3) was very short. To supplement this record I took some embryos of the same spawning, which had been for seven days in the aquarium, at a temperature of 12?—15? C., and placed them in the warm chamber (I; 4). .. An accident prevented my getting a record for Bufo at the lowest temperature (6°—8° C. Conclusions. — 1. All the processes involved in the early development of these larva are accelerated by an increase of TABLE III. — BUFO AMERICANUS. 1. TEMPERATURE 12° 18° C. . Wt. DATE. No. of | Length. AUN apes : pese id PS c Days mm. T Substance. Water. s uc dt ; mg. Apnis6..... — = -— — see May. 3... » 4.8 3.00 82 2.18 221 Es 9 6 3.36 1.02 2.34 30 We oe ak ae II 7.5 5.98 .98 5.00 16.3 N^... 21 10.5 12.68 84 11.84 6.6 a Us ris 24 10.5 II.00 70 10.30 6.4 "o dE is 28 10.8 12.00 64 11.36 5.3 uM Sere 32 10.5 12.08 51 11.57 4.2 "c 3 rk. 35 10.5 11.62 60 11.02 5.1 2. TEMPERATURE 22°-25° C Apiiab. s sas — — — — -— n ak 2d 4 5 2.50 .86 1.64 34-4 Nay 3. 5. 6 8 4-40 -94 3.46 21.4 reek ok 7 IO 9.54 1.10 8.44 11.5 Ade ru rem 9 II 15.96 1.00 14.96 6.6 ai, oq 11 13 21.00 .96 20.04 4.6 "o E us 13 13 21.44 .92 20.52 43 Se AQ oes 14 13 22.12 -90 21.32 4 a er uu po 21 13 20.82 I.OI 19.81 48 temperature within the limits used: + 6? to + 25? C. This is true of the early cell divisions preliminary to hatching, as No. 408.] EFFECT OF HEAT UPON GROWTH. 955 well as of the beginning and ending of the period of rapid imbibition of water. 2. Under the conditions of the experiment, the absolute dry weight appears to undergo little change. There is apparently a slight loss from the begin- aüigrammes ning of the experiment to the period of maximum percent- 20 ES. age of water in the embryo. __ PEF In studying the data I do not / P= a find any constant relation be- 10 "d tween this decrement and the , / temperature. Inasmuch as 4 the prevailing difference in 06 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 dry weight is so slight, it IG. 5. — Bufo. Graphic representation of Table scems probable that the sud- III, column 4, showing average total weight on den fluctuations of weight -7 rS das of experiment seen in some of the measure- ments may be due partly to ,,|. | | individual variation in the A | . amount of food taken and in 3? the presence of facal matter 1 in the digestive tract, and \ partly to errors in weighing, l Y which may amount to as 15 much as o.5 milligram. In .. | b. some of the smaller weigh- '. ipn Eom ings this would mean a pos- sis : sible error of 20%. Of course | "E the probable erroris much less * pays” than this. It appears safe to ric. 6. — Bufo. Graphic representation of the : . ratio of dry substance to the total weight. (See say that during the period em- Table III, column 7.) The broken line indi- braced in my experiments, Sas cates the probable posi on o the curve ; on hatching amb the at second measurement is doubtless inaccurate. tainment of the maximum percentage of water, — the dry weight is unaffected by temperature. It follows, therefore, that the acceleration and retardation experienced at ug p in cras growth of the larvae by reason of different temperature conditions is due almost entirely to the changed rate of imbibition of water. 5 S e M > wN E to © w e So S eo « 956 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. 3. The measurements of Rana also show that there was no appreciable gain in the dry weight of the egg, with the albu- men removed, up to the time of hatching. There was during the same time a slight increase of water. Thus it appears that a part of the acceleration — by increased temperature — of the cell multiplications leading up to hatching may be due to the earlier inauguration of the imbibitory process. 4. The developmental process up to the point where the water amounts to 75% of the whole weight is not retarded so much by lowered temperature as is the stage representing the maximum percentage of water (see Table IV). In the first stage assimilation of yolk and cell division is prominent; in the latter imbibition of water is the main process. The TABLE IV. — DESIGNED TO SHOW RELATIVE RETARDATION OF AN EARLY AND A LATER EVENT IN THE LARVAL DEVELOP- MENT, PRODUCED BY LOWER TEMPERATURES. 1. TrmeE iN Days REQUIRED || 2. TIME IN DAYS REQUIRED TO ATTAIN Lae oF WATER; TO ATTAIN Maximum PER- i.e., 25% Dry SUBSTANCE. CENTAGE OF WATER. Highest | Medium | Lowest || Highest | Medium | Lowest Temper- | Temper- | Temper- || Temper- | Temper- | Temper- ature. ature. ature. ature. ature. ature. Rok o o a eh. 2 L^. 20 5 28 50 + Amblystoma....... 9 12 27 21 S t or Polo: o 220.25 XN $5 7.5 — 14 3% d Avere. 7. X 5.5 8.4 23.5 13.3 366 | 60+! Retardation in days, reckoned from time i : — 2.9 18 — 23.3 | 466 + required by highest temperature J . . ENRETE TEPU 1 Retardation in per cent — 53% 327% en 175% | 350% 1 This result is certainly too small, since the length of time consumed in my observations did not suffice to reach the minimum percentage of dry substance in the lowest temperature conditions. No. 408.] EFFECT OF HEAT UPON GROWTH. 957 conclusion reached above (2), víz., that it is chiefly the im- bibitory process which is accelerated by heat, is thus further strengthened. 5. Organisms reared in the warmer conditions tend to attain a maximum percentage of water slightly higher than that reached by those reared at a lower temperature. This fact accentuates the conclusion reached in 4, in that a shorter time is required to accomplish a greater result. 6. On the other hand, it appears (see Figs. 1 and 3) that the lower temperatures allow the attainment of a somewhat greater maximum total weight, no extraneous food being sup- plied. The significance of this is not apparent. It is possibly due to the albuminous food material in the egg envelope being better preserved, and hence more completely available as food after hatching, than at the higher temperatures. 7. Finally, the individuals which were subjected for seven days to a temperature of 12°-15° and were then placed in a warm chamber, showed a greater rate of increase of imbibition water than those reared in the warm chamber from the begin- ning (Figs. 1 and 2). This indicates a tendency compensatory for early unfavorable circumstances, — an instance of the well- known regulative capacity of organisms. ON THE VARIATION OF THE STATOBLASTS OF PECTINATELLA MAGNIFICA FROM LAKE MICHIGAN, AT CHICAGO. C. B. DAVENPORT. Tuis study is. concerned with the hooks on the statoblasts of one of our common fresh-water Bryozoa — Pectinatella mag- nifica Leidy — taken in August, 1898, from the Jackson Park lagoon, Chicago, connected with Lake Michigan. Pectinatella is a genus comprising two known species: Magnifica, found in the United States west of the Rocky Mountains, and elsewhere reported only from Hamburg, whither it has doubtless been imported ; and Gelatinosa Oka, from Japan. The most striking peculiarity of the genus is the close association of many colonies, which, by secreting together a gelatinous base, come to lie on the surface of a great globular gelatinous mass. One is inclined to think at first that the whole mass must have been produced by the activity of a single colony; but it is certain that it is due to the activity of a number of independent but associated colonies. The separate colonies are, however, probably all derived from a single statoblast, the descendant colony of which has repeat- edly divided to produce the colony complex. Consequently, all the associated colonies are closely related; this has an important bearing on our results. The statoblasts are formed inside of the colonies and fre- quently in large numbers. In twenty-seven colonies, in which all fully formed statoblasts were counted, the maximum num- ber obtained was forty-six, the minimum was four; and the mode was at twenty to twenty-four. As all colonies contained 1 A possible third species of this genus has been named by Hyatt (’66~'68) Pectinatella Carteri, from a single statoblast described by Carter (59), remark- able for its hooks, which grow only at the ends of the statoblast and which are furnished with many lateral claws. 959 960 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. developing, still immature statoblasts, these numbers would have been greater later in the season. The statoblast consists of a central, nearly circular, disk surrounded by a narrow, ring-shaped float. Placed radially at the margin of the statoblast are a varying number of hooks; the variability of this number was the starting point of the present investigation. The statoblasts counted were found partly floating free in the preserving fluid and were partly picked out of the colonies, those from one colony being carefully kept together ; 827 stato- blasts were counted altogether, of which 635 came from known colonies. Results. — The results of countings made on all statoblasts and on statoblasts from known colonies only is as follows : CLA Eis. ALL STATOBLASTS FROM) | Prise ALL STATOBLASTS FROM STATOBLASTS. | COLONIES ONLY. | STATOBLASTS. | COLONIES ONLY. H H 7 17 11i 18 12 106 79 18 2 I 13 265 201 19 2 2 14 238 186 20 o o 15 122 93 21 I I 16 57 47 The quantitative study of these seriations gives the follow- ing constants : ALL. STATOBLASTS. STATOBLASTS FROM COLONIES ONLY. A 827 635 M 13 13 A 13.782 + .031 13.814 + .036 € 1.318 + .022 1.326 + .026 c 9.57 +.16 9.60 +.I9 F=— 1.758 Type IV Asymmetry = + 0.0766 Conclusions. — Since the results based on “all statoblasts " and on *'statoblasts from colonies” differ by less than their 2. Fic. 5. Lo DI $ Fics. 1-6. — Outline camera drawings of statoblasts of Pecti g variati h ber of hooks. r. 11 hooks. 2. r3 hooks, 3. 15 hooks. 4. 16 hooks. 5. 18 hooks, 6. 21 hooks. Compare the length of the hooks in Figs. 1 $ x 962 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. probable errors, we need discuss only the larger collection of 827 statoblasts. The mode is 13, the range from r1 to 21; or, omitting the single statoblast with 21 hooks, the range is 11—19 (Figs. 1-6). Statoblasts from Fresh Pond, Cambridge, Mass., are stated by Hyatt to have had, in 1866, 12-17 hooks; and those of Pennissewassee Pond, Maine, 20-22 hooks. The statoblasts of Pectinatella magnifica which Kraepelin found at Hamburg varied like those at Fresh Pond, 12-17. The mode lies over toward the lower limit of the range; consequently the mean lies above the mode and the skewness is rather large, + 0.077.! The index of variation (e) is rather large as compared with that of other integral variates. The coefficient of variation (c) is also large as compared with that derived from some graduated variates, as the following series shows : CUM INDEX Mu COEFFICIENT us OF VARIATION. OF VARIATION. Rays of dorsal fin, Acernia EO V 2 0.6040 14.16 4.266 Müllerian glands of swine ....... 1.6808 3.50 48.009 Rostral teeth Patent varians .. 0.8627 4-31 19.999 Height of U. S-vecruits -o 2.5848 in. 67.30 in. 8.689 Height of St. Lonis sociis aged 8 5.5524 cm. |118.27cm. | — 4.698 Length-breadth index, Bavarian skulls 3.468 mm. | 83.07 mm. 8.621 Length right human ¢ nini: Es 23.72 mm. 452.28 mm. 5.425 Length right radius human 9 — 10.95 mm. | 214.86mm. 5.096 Angle of neck of femur with shaft . . 5:578? 124.26° 4.469 Maximum length of clavicle? .... 9.208 mm. | 136.85mm. 6.724 - Sacral Whee Pe ee 9-353% 115.000% 8.137 Scapular mier, e eee 3.815% 65.900% 8.575 Infra spinous index of scapula... . . 8.572% 89.454% 9.893 ! For comparison I introduce some skewness determinations of other qualities : PN T Weldon’s crab measurements, “ No.4?” . . . + .077 Baxter's height of 25,875 recruits, U. S. 2) 035 iS * Porter's height of 2192 St. Louis schoclghds (U.C o AMI x * goo Bavarian skulls: length-breadth index. . . + -032 M * dorsal teeth of Palemonetes varians . . + . + +130 Pearson & Filon, '98, Müllerian glands of swine . . . . - T3! scd v ge lower valve. . . noan . à » «. 0045 nppet " . . «+ 0.0000000058 ? The first three data are derived from counting. T They are integral variates. In them we see that the index of variation is more constant than the coefficient No. 408.] PECTINATELLA MAGNIFICA. 963 The curve is of Type IV, or has unlimited range, like most biological curves. The skewness of the distribution indicates possibly a selective weeding out of statoblasts with a small number of hooks. Such a result is not unlikely, for (within certain limits) we might expect statoblasts with a larger num- ber of hooks to have a better chance of keeping their hold and forming new colonies than those with fewer hooks. On the Fic. 8. Fic. 7. — Early stage in formation of hooks. Section taken in the plane of the float and at its outer margin. Fic. 8. — Later stage in formation of hooks. Section taken as in Fig. 7. X ca. 400. other hand, the skewness may mean a tendency of the species to give rise to races with a larger modal number of hooks than 13. Sucha race has been formed in Maine (Hyatt) ; and in P. gelatinosa the number of hooks is said to be “ great " (Oka). We have next to consider the question whether there is an hereditary tendency to produce a certain constant number of of variation, and it is doubtless to be preferred to the coefficient. In the remain- ing cases, which are graduated variates, the coefficients are the more constant, varying from 4 to 9, whereas the indices vary from 2 to 23. Doubtless here the coefficient is to be preferred; moreover it is an abstract number, so that the results are comparable, whether millimeters, inches, degrees, or percentages are mployed as units of measurement. 964 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV, hooks in the same colony ; or, in other words, whether the variability in the number of hooks found on statoblasts of the same colony will be less than the variability of the statoblasts from all the colonies taken together. To answer this question, I selected the eleven colonies showing the greatest number of statoblasts, and determined for each colony the e and the c. Then I averaged the e's and the c’s for the eleven colonies, and compared these averages with the e and the c of the 635 statoblasts coming from known colonies considered together. If the average e or c of statoblasts from the same colony is no less than the e or c of the population at large, there is no heredity. If, on the other hand, the es and c's of the colonies average zero, so that the differences between the vari- ability inside the colony and in the whole population is the greatest possible, then there is the strongest possible heredity. In general, the percentage which the difference between the averaged e or c is of the e or c of the whole population, sub- tracted from unity, will serve as an index of heredity. I find: € E Average for 11 colonies, 1.197 8.772 All statoblasts from colonies, 1.326 9-597 : ; 1.197 Index of relative heredity based one, 1 — 1226 = I — 0.9027 = .0973. 8.772 “ & és [1 i e re p = 140 .0860. 9.597 : The hereditary tendencies inside the colony are thus seen not to be very strong when compared with the tendency to similarity between all the statoblasts of the complex of colo- nies. I interpret this to mean that there is a close relation- ship between all the colonies in the complex. The question next arose, what is the ontogenetic explanation of this variation? To get some light on this matter, I studied the method of development of the hooks. As already stated, the hooks arise at or near the outer margin of the ring-shaped float ; there is a little variation in the line of origin. Even after the float has been formed, the statoblast is clad externally with cells. Those at the outer edge of the statoblast are narrow and elongated No. 408.] PECTINATELLA MAGNIFICA. 965 perpendicularly to the surface of the statoblast. Between the cells are large water spaces, which may indicate that the hook- forming layer is turgescent, at least at the time of forming hooks. The first step in the formation of a hook is a fold (Fig. 7). As many folds arise at about the same time as there are hooks. Consequently the number of hooks is determined by the num- ber of folds, and the question of the cause of variability is transferred to the folds. I had thought at first that each fold might be derived from one cell, but since the hook-forming layer spreads over the forming float and consists already of numerous columnar cells, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to dem- onstrate this if it were so. The forming papilla is made up of 100 to 200 cells at its beginning. In its center is a core, filled with a secretion, which hardens to form the shaft of the hook. The prongs are secreted as a superficial cuticula at the apex of the papilla (Fig. 8). From this it will be seen that my hypothesis was incorrect, and I find in the embryology no ground for referring the number of hooks to a predetermining number of hook-forming Anlagen. It is possible that the number of papillae may be correlated with a variation in the perimeter of the statoblast, so that the number of hooks per unit of perimeter is constant. To settle this question, I measured the perimeter! of 125 statoblasts. I found these measurements interesting in themselves. The modal perimeter of the statoblasts was about 3.3 mm. The average was 3.319 ; o = .06649 mm. ; and c = 2.00, a remarkably low variability, almost one-fifth that of the number of hooks. By the use of the Galton-Pearson-Duncker? method of calculating 1 The perimeter was measured by finding the length of a camera outline by means of the map-measure described in my Statistical Methods (New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1899). 2 The reviewer of my Statistical Methods, in Nature, Dec. 14, 1899, says : “ On p. 33 we notice a lengthy method, quoted from Duncker, given for reducing the product sum; this should be replaced by the ordinary straightforward process of reduction to the mean.” Although I have been satisfied of the correctness of Duncker’s formula, which is got from Pearson’s by a process of simplification, I calculated » by Pearson's method. Using logarithms, this took about four hours ; whereas to calculate » by Duncker’s method took in this case about twenty min- utes. The results differed by .oor. The length of Pearson's process is a great obstacle to its use. 966 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV. correlation, I found the correlation between the number of hooks and the length of the periphery of the statoblast to be r= — .0920+.0055, a very low correlation, but slightly negative. I give the correlation surface : Xa X II 1a 13 I4 I5 16 17 18 19 255-59-9 I I 260-64.9 | 2 I 265-69.9 | 3 3 E I 270-74.9 | 4 5 14 I2 » 4 F 275-79-9 5 I 18 6 2 5 I o I 280-84.9 | 6 I 3 I5 6 4 3 285-89.9 | 7 3 o o I xd A= 13.8264. xd A = 48182. € = 1.3403. g = 1.0499. The negative correlation between length of periphery and number of hooks signifies that in the long run small stato- blasts tend to have slightly more hooks than large statoblasts, a result which we should hardly have anticipated. The result makes it clear that the number of hooks which shall develop is not determined by the space at their command for development. In a statoblast with eleven hooks, these are twice as far apart as in a statoblast with twenty-one hooks. The ontogenetic cause of the variation in number of folds remains thus still undetermined. Although the zumber of hooks is not directly correlated with the periphery of the statoblast, it is rather strongly correlated with the /ength of the hooks ; and the correlation is inverse. This is quite striking from superficial observation. To express the relation in a roughly quantitative way, I measured a repre- sentative lot of the hooks on each of ten statoblasts. In eight statoblasts having thirteen or fourteen hooks the average length of the hook was about .22 mm. ; in the two with sixteen hooks the average length was .19 mm. The figures of statoblasts accompanying this paper will show that at greater extremes the difference in the hooks is still greater. As the hooks decrease in size with increase in number, we might expect to find the hooks very small in the statoblasts No. 408.] PECTINATELLA MAGNIFICA. 967 with many of them. Such apparently is the case, for Oka states that the numerous hooks of P. gelatinosa are “ minute," projecting beyond the annulus only 0.02 to 0.03 mm. In studying the hooks, I came across a number of interesting abnormalities that are, indeed, rather common. As already stated, there are typically two claws at the distal end of the or H PRT Fic. 9. — Abnormal forms of hooks. e with only one Ian II, type with bifid claw; JII, type with additional claw on one vite in first four cases below; in last case above, normal; ZV, type with double outgrowth ; in final case a s ekak hook is formed. hook. The abnormalities concern chiefly these claws. They may be grouped under four types (Fig. 9) : Type I, only one claw. Type II, a bifid claw. Type III, an additional claw — on one side. Type IV, a double outgrowth on one side — producing in extreme cases a hook with two complete double claws at its distal end. In addition, very rudimentary hooks, mere thread-like spines, are frequently found, often lying outside the typical marginal row. In P. gelatinosa these abnormal hooks are apparently even more common. Oka (90, Pl. XIX, Fig. 35) has figured some of them. They can for the most part be referred to the same 968 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. fourtypes. The abnormal multiplication of claws in Pectinatella is paralleled by the normal condition in Cristatella, where the radial outgrowths of the statoblasts form grapnels with many claws. The condition in Cristatella is in so far different as the claws stand out in all radii in Cristatella, whereas they lie almost or wholly in one plane in the case of Pectinatella. Also * Pectinatella Carteri” has ** many lateral claws " to each hook. Both abnormalities and individual deviations from mediocrity in Pectinatella are thus normal or modal in other species of Phylactolzemata. Summary. — The hooks on 827 statoblasts of a Lake Michi- gan Pectinatella were counted. The number ranged from ri to 21 ; the mode was 13; average, 13.782 + .031 ; and index of variability, 1.318 +.022. The skewness was + 0.077 ; that is, the variation tends in the direction of the larger numbers, and this is correlated with the fact that species or races of Pectina- tella with much larger numbers of hooks occur. There is a slight hereditary tendency in the statoblasts from one colony, about 0.1 when 1 is the maximum inheritance. There is an inverse correlation (of — .092 + .006) between the number of hooks and the perimeter, and a larger one between number and size of hooks. The number of hooks is thus not determined | by room, nor does it seem to be predetermined from an early stage of development of the statoblast. The hooks show abnor- malities, some of which resemble the normal condition of hooks in Cristatella. LITERATURE CITED. '56 CARTER, H. J. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. III. '66—68 Hyatt, A. Observations on Polyzoa, Suborder Phylactolemata. Proc. Essex Inst. Vols. iv and v ; also separate. 103 pp., 9 pls. '90 OKA, A. Observations on Fresh-Water Polyzoa. Jour. Coll. Sci., Imper. Univ. Japan. Vol. iv, pp. 89-150, Pls. XVII-XIX. '95 PEARSON, K. Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Evolu- tion. II. Skew Variation in Homogeneous Material. PAz/. Trans. Roy. Soc. London. Vol. clxxxvi, A, pp. 343-414, 10 pls. '98 PEARSON, K., AND FILON, L. N. G. Mathematical Contributions, etc., iv. On the Probable Errors of Frequency Constants, etc. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Vol. cxci, A, pp. 229-311. A SEALING STONE JAR FOR ZOOLOGICAL LABORATORIES. ! J. B. JOHNSTON. THE jar described below was designed as a cheap sealing jar for class use and for the storage of large specimens or of material in quantity for future use. It has been in use since 1898 in three universities in this country, and is now described, since it has proved more satisfactory for the purposes indicated than any other jar known to me. Its cost is inconsiderable when compared with that of glass jars of equal capacity. It has the additional advantages of greater poe durability and ease of opening and resealing. $ The accompanying sketch shows a vertical sec- tion of the upper part of the wall of the jar (W) and a part of the cover (C). The rim of the jar bears a groove (Q) to be filled with a sealing fluid, indicated by the horizontal shading. The rim (X) or edge of the cover projects well beyond this groove to keep out dust. There is upon the under surface of the cover a dependent flange (7) fitting into the groove (O), so that when the latter is filled with a fluid the jar is sealed. The cover is provided with a knob for lifting, and the rim of the jar, with handles (77). The jars are made by the Zanesville Stoneware Company, Zanesville, Ohio, in the following sizes, inside measurement in inches : peph . < i 0 8 I2 I2 24 Diameter . . ro I2 IO 12 I2 I have tried a number of sealing fluids before anything suitable for permanent sealing was found. For daily class use it is sufficient to fill the groove with water. Indeed, the mere empty groove reduces the rate of evaporation very con- siderably, since the alcohol or other vapor must pass downward 970 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. to escape beneath the flange. For permanent sealing, glycer- ine is useless with alcohol, and most available oils * creep " so rapidly that the groove is soon emptied. However, a heavy paraffin oil, obtainable from the Edison Manufacturing Com- pany.of New York City, being free from this characteristic, and non-volatile, makes an excellent sealing medium. WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, MORGANTOWN, October 4, 1900. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. ANTHROPOLOGY. African Masks and Secret Societies.'— The subject is divided ethnographically and ethnologically. That is, the author arranges his material first in geographical order, beginning with South and East Africa and passing through the west coast to the northwest ; then upon this material he constructs a historical and racial develop- ment in the use and manufacture of masks and in the working of the secret fraternities. For further work the second half, the correct- ness of the conclusions being assumed, will be the starting point. The introduction to this part presents different analyses of masks and the author’s judgments upon these. His conclusion offers some suggestions as to work and methods. The introduction to the second half is in part as follows (p. 157): “Two methods are known of grouping masks in their entirety so as to get a general view of them; either according to their significance or their form. Andree has undertaken the former as follows: Religious Masks, War Masks, Funeral Masks (Letchenmasken), Play and Dance Masks. This classification has the disadvantage of leaving out of consider- ation their historical development. Form is not taken into account, and customs are developed like side scenes, without regard to the proper guiding principles of observation. Such a division is more of a benefit to the customs than to the masks when it comes to the determination of the relations between the individual groups. Ratzel has given a classification more appropriate, because less assuming: A. Simple imitations of the human face. 1. Rough works. 2. Careful copies true to nature. 3. Geometric conventionalizations (57/2527) partly dependent on tattooing. 1 Frobenius, L. Die Masken und Geheimbünde Afrikas, Vova Act. Acad. Ces. Leop-Carol. Germanice. Nat. Cur., tome Ixxiv (1898), pp. 1-278, Tables I-XIV. 972 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. B. Distorted figures, caricatures, scare-faces. 4. Grimaces to arouse mirth or terror; dance or war masks. C. Animal masks. D. Head-pieces. * As may be seen from this arrangement, it deals almost exclusively with the forms from whose nature only occasional conclusions as to their significance can be drawn. Such is an ethnographical view that would be very well in place where geographical relations had been already worked out and where only a collection of the forms of a place, district, or province had to be made. So such tables as Ratzel's are only desirable when convenient to a treating of masks like that of Haddon on those of southeastern New Guinea. For more esoteric work these systems have little value. The method that Dall has used might be considered, and in fact would not be at all bad, if one could convince himself of the truth of his premise, viz., that masks arose from weapons of protection." Dall’s searching classification is then given; it is allowed by the author to be clever, but condemned by the false premise just quoted. Nevertheless, he admits that Dall has shown that the “relations of form and significance, while various, are yet close." The introduc- tion continues : * Every experienced man must have observed from the ethnographic part (of the book) that the African masks compose no simple structure, and that custom and belief are continually influencing the form, changing it and developing it. * Masks are bound up with particular ceremonies, — they always appear at funeral feasts ; where the fraternities begin to disintegrate, masks gain in variety (Cameroon, Loango, Yoruba). “ The classes of head and body masks stand forth clear and distinct : here they are combined, here they are divided. We see derived forms on every hand, as in the bushy circumcision dresses. “In short, African masks, after examination, attain the appear- ance of a composite whole, a complicated development, whose several parts are to be traced back to various sources. So it is worth while to note our old point : the form corresponds to the con- tent. Plastic expression, custom, are the forms which owe their existence to the content, to beliefs. * If we now observe these beliefs and views in origin and growth from their roots up, we shall readily derive the understanding for the various points in our field of study. . . ." Frobenius then proceeds to derive nearly all African masks and customs from the cult of the dead. Even tree worship arises from No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 973 planting a tree on the grave instead of burying the dead in the forest. Hence come sacred posts, stakes, and scepters. Masks refer back to this cult in two ways. First, in some places the dead are buried in peculiar little huts, and hut temples readily arise. An imitation of these “ spirit huts” is seen in the tent- or hut-like head coverings, and shoulder- or loin-coverings that form a large chapter in African costumes. It would be hard otherwise to explain the apparent superfluity of clothing in a climate demanding the opposite. The second development is from the human skull: starting from skull dances with the crania tied about the waist, or held whole or in part in the mouth, the transition is easy to skull masks, conven- tionalized traces of which are to be seen in some of the masks pictured in the text (p. 182). The work is not too analytic to be interesting; the first part is full of traveler’s tales set down by the author (apparently not an African visitor himself) with an Herodotus-like naiveté. The illus- trations are numerous and good, but beset with a vicious system of numbering which makes reference a difficult task. There are some misprints in the German, and quite a number in the little English text quoted. Towards the end the author makes comparisons between the masks and customs of Africa and Oceanica, which prove to him a connection between them, and that the African instances point to more eastern sources. The conclusion is partly as follows : “It should not be assumed that the subject is exhausted in the present work. Still, no such complete handling has as yet been devoted to the masks of a primi- tive people. The work may ask for some indulgence from its nature. Whoever wanders in unbeaten paths, as we do here, must often, like the pioneer in his work, find his hand too rough for skilled labor. Therefore many questions are still open and many a fault may have been committed. . . . «I repeat my often expressed wish to strike out from the scien- tific order of the day the unhappy nomenclature which so retards progress. Words like ‘magician’ (* Zauberer’), ‘fetich,’ are essen- tially superfluous. T heir existence naturally gives to the inquirer a false idea of science. He thinks his duty done when he has dubbed an article as of the class of ‘fetiches.’ I can tell a story about that. I enlightened several missionaries to the effect that by the word ‘fetich’ absolutely nothing worth while was expressed. These gentlemen thereupon sought for the significance of many of 974 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. the amulets of the west coast called ‘fetiches.’ Behold pages of description and explanation of their use and significance poured in. That was evidence that my desire was justified. . “It seems as if the problem of African la, or, for aught I care, religion, had been so worked over as to be worn out and a bore. Yet the many tomes on fetichism and African religion have brought forth not much more than clever views, — hardly ethnological. “It now begins to dawn, and the light shows very remarkable and unexpected phenomena. We can only attain clearness if in Africa too inquiry is directed along the new lines. It is an aim of this work to urge on this process. It will be and can be only a pleasure if students and ethnologists tear up the book and discover faults and mistakes; up and forward! The ethnological part will be justified if it only offers inducement to zealous coöperation and energetic 3? progress. CHARLES PEABODY. Ancient Crania from the Valley of the Rhone. — Dr. Pittard? has published a summary-of his investigations upon a large series of ancient Valaisian crania. After an exhaustive comparison of the crania of the two sexes he reaches the following conclusions : 1. In the auricular angles the female skull surpasses the male by the absolute size of the frontal angle, by the size of the two occipi- tal angles — cerebral as well as cerebellar. 2. In the curves the various segments of the skull are larger in the male. 3. The weight of the male skull is absolutely greater, as is also the cranial capacity; but relatively the female skull has greater capacity in proportion to its weight. 4. In relation to their total horizontal circumference the female skulls have a greater capacity than the male. s. The principal cerebral diameters are better developed in proportion to the cranial capacity in the female skulls. 6. 'The frontal breadth is greater relatively to the facial breadth in the females. 7. On the other hand, the parietal region is less developed in the female skull if compared with the horizontal circumference and the true cerebral curve. 8. In the female skull the frontal is more vertical, the nasal aperture is larger, and the orbits higher. 1 Pittard, Eugéne. Quelques Comparaisons Sexuelles du Cranes Anciens de la Vallée du Rhone, Z’ Anthropologie, tome ix, No. 2. No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 975 g. It is by the frontal breadth and in a lesser degree by the maximum transverse breadth that the female skull approaches most closely to the male; it is farthest from the male skull in the basal region and in the face; the forehead is larger relatively to the face than among the male skulls. “In conclusion, the above researches, incomplete as they are, demonstrate that the female skull has, in relation to the male cra- nium, a frontal type, as has been shown already by M. Manouvrier, and that the cranial capacity is relatively greater." It is to be remembered that these results were obtained from the study of a brachycephalic series of crania. Notes. — Dr. R. Verneau (Z Anthropologie, Tome IX, p. 2) figures and describes a new instrument for measuring cranial angles and diameters. The advantages claimed by the inventor for this new apparatus are that: i. It renders measurements comparable by always securing the parts in the same relative position. 2. The projections can be quickly measured which heretofore have been obtained by geometric drawings. 3. Both vertical and horizontal projections can be taken at the same time. 4. All the dihedral angles relating to one horizontal plane can be directly measured. We have received reprints of two papers by Mr. James Mooney of interest to ethnologists and students of American history. “ The Cherokee River Cult" was published in the Journal of American Folklore, Vol. XIII. The peculiarly sacred character of the flowing stream to the primitive mind is explained, and a number of formulas used by the native priests when invoking the aid of the river-god are translated. Reprinted from the American Anthropologist of July, 1899, is an account of “The End of the Natchez.” Mr. Mooney devotes him- self especially to the history of the tribe subsequent to the year 1730, when they were broken and dispersed by the French. Perhaps twenty individuals belonging to this tribe survive, all living in the Indian Territory with the Creeks. In the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, Vol. XIII, 1900, is published a paper by Mr. Lucien Carr upon “The Mas- coutins.” The history and even the identity of this tribe has been 976 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. uncertain. Mr. Carr shows that they were a branch of the Shawnee division of the Algonquian stock that was finally absorbed by another branch, the Kickapoos. F. R. GENERAL BIOLOGY. Biology of Crystals.' — From biology to the structure of crystals seems a far cry, but those who have penetrated farthest in the study of organisms have time and time again come to the borderland of the inorganic realm. Most have declined to go over into the untrav- eled domain of a foreign country. Professor Bütschli is not one of these. His studies on the structure of protoplasm are the most profound that have been made. ‘They led him to recognize a single fundamental protoplasmic structure, — the alveolar or “foam " struc- ture, — of which the karyokinetic figures are only special expressions. At the time of his early discoveries there were few inorganic substances which were known to have any such structure. Emulsions alone were comparable. Studies of starch, cellulose, and chitin revealed to Bütschli a similar alveolar structure, and now he has continued his researches into crystals of sulphur and certain salts and finds here the same structure. The protoplasmic structure is, then, not some- thing peculiar to living substance, but is probably characteristic of substance in general — at least of changing, forming, growing sub- stance. Moreover, in the forming crystal we have radial lines pro- ceeding from a center, and these are structurally like the radiations of the asters — like, because due in both cases to a central pull exerted on an alveolar structure. The vast mass of the work deals with matters of interest, first of all, to crystallographers and physical chemists — the microscopic details of crystal formation, the polymorphism in crystallization, the determination of the polymorphic form by external conditions. These are matters which will be eagerly read by the biologist also, a few years hence, when the close and fundamental relations be- tween organic development and crystalline development become more generally appreciated. C ED 1 Bütschli, O. Untersuchungen über Microstrukturen des erstarrten Schwe- a nebst Bemerkungen über Sublimation, Uberschmelzung und Ubersiittigung des hwefels und einiger anderer Körper. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1900. Quarto, i PP- 4 pls., 6 figs. No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 977 Finding Flaws. — Every scientific man knows that science is progressing and ideas are changing. Aristotle’s writings on animals read strangely to-day, but we are not therefore to lay stress on his limitations. Darwin wrote the first edition of the Origin of Species over forty years ago, and it would be strange indeed if every part of it were acceptable to-day. Every bit of Darwin's earlier evolu- tionary writings was not acceptable to Darwin himself before he died — a fact to be put down to his credit. The author of this book’ devotes over three hundred pages to pointing out Darwin's changes of views, * special errors and inconsistencies,” ‘‘ looseness and con- tradictions." Some of the *flaws" which the author holds up to view and takes great delight in pointing to again and again belong to the category of natural advances in knowledge; others are still debat- able points; in other cases the author seems to be straining things to make a point. The worst of it is that the whole book is written in a style of oiled fluency, cocksureness, and conceit, which makes the reader doubt the author's sincerity. Thus on page 193: I have tried to understand many things, but Mr. Darwin I cannot under- stand. You cannot have * uniformity of conditions " and uniformitarianism of process and result too; for the one is based on fixity and the other on fluctuation — it may be slow, but ceaseless — though it may be very, very slow, yet also of a necessity very, very sure. Hegel's Absolute was always a becoming ; phenomena, conditions, are always a-coming and a-going; it is because of this that they are phenomena and conditions, and to have to write thus in the year of grace 1899, in reference to the work not only of a great naturalist but of a thinker, makes me rather ashamed of falling back so much and so fully on what I was well taught in the logic and metaphysic classroom of Edinburgh University by the worthy successor of Sir William Hamilton, * forty years ago, my boys, forty years ago." But after all, if only one can be undisturbed by these personal things, he will find in the book many interesting facts which the author has collected and which are new to speculative books of this sort. Recent Work in Electrotaxis. — In two papers? published within the year, Dr. Oskar Carlgren has considerably advanced our 1 Alexander, P. V. Darwin and Darwinism, Pure and Mixed. A Criticism, with Some —— London, John Bole, Sons, and Ecol 1899. 346 2 Carlgren, O. Ueber die Einwirkung des constanten galvanischen Seain auf niedere Organismen, Arch. Anat. u. eden rie gee Abth., 1900, pp. 49-76 Carlgren, O. Ueber die Einwirkung u. s. w.: Zweite Mittheilung: Versuche an sdiudüctóorn Entwicklungsstadien einiger abodeibiéqn: Arch. Anat. u. Physiol., Physiol. Abth., 1900, pp. 465-480. we 978 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. knowledge in regard to the action of the constant electric current on lower organisms. The work bears evidence of having been carefully and well done. The first of the two papers is principally given to a description of the electrotactic reactions of Volvox, introduced by a brief account of the normal movements of the animals based largely on the results of Klein and Rösel. He finds the sense of the re- sponse to the current to be kathodic immediately after the circuit is completed. After the current has been passing for some time, however, this kathodic response becomes less and less evident, until finally there ensues a more or less distinct anodic movement; but this latter never becomes so well marked as the previous motion towards the kathode. If the Volvox is placed in a thin gelatine solution, so that it remains alive but is unable to move, very strik- ing changes in the form of the body accompany the action of the current. The anode side of the colony becomes wrinkled and crumpled together, while the kathode side is correspondingly swollen out. These phenomena become more apparent the longer the cur- rent acts, and take place without relation to the orientation of the axis of the body with reference to the current direction. At the same time all the parthenogonidia move towards the anode side of the colony. This movement is evidently an entirely passive one, since it occurs regularly in all stages of their development, as well before they are able to move actively as after. That the change in body form is of a purely passive character is evidenced by the fact that it takes place in the same way in colonies which have been killed in formalin. To extend the results the effect of the current was tried on lifeless individuals of Paramecium aurelia and bursaria, Colpidium colpoda, and Amcebe of different species, and in all these cases there resulted the anode crumpling and the kathode swelling. In his theoretical discussion Carlgren advances the view that the effect of the current on organisms is to a certain extent of a purely physical nature. He believes that this physical action is of extreme impor- tance, but does not attempt to make it account for all the facts. His results make it evident that in any future work on the subject this factor must at least be considered. In the second paper there is a detailed account of the electrotactic response of the larvae and embryos of a number of marine inverte- brates. "The point of greatest general interest is in regard to the reactions of the larve of certain echinoderms (Strongylocentrotus lividus, Spherechinus granularis, Ophiotrix fragilis, and Asteracan- thion glacialis). Young free-swimming stages of these animals gave No. 408:] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 979 no response whatever. Older larvae, Plutei and Bipennariz, became oriented in stronger currents and went to the kathode. Again at a later stage of development the electrotaxis completely disappears. All theoretical discussion of the results is left for a future paper. In view of the character of the papers here reviewed, particularly the first, further work along the same lines by Dr. Carlgren will be awaited with interest. RavuoND Print ZOOLOGY. An Introduction to Zoólogy.'— In twenty chapters the authors take up successively the grasshopper, the butterfly, the beetle, the fly, the lithobius, the spider, the crayfish, daphnia, the earthworm, nereis, the slug, the fresh-water clam, the starfish, the hydra, para- moecium, the smelt, the newt, the lizard, the English sparrow, the mouse. In each the type and “its allies” are described from a general natural-history standpoint and with an appended key to the chief representatives of the group. A last chapter deals briefly with the development of the frog’s egg. Then in one appendix we find the stimulating outlines of labora- tory work upon each of the above twenty-one forms that was proposed for entrance requirement at the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University. A second enumerates more than one hundred works and papers of reference; and a third gives a useful classification of the animal kingdom, with brief distinguishing characters of larger groups and references to the pages of this work, in which orders and families are mentioned. An index and glossary conclude the four hundred and twelve pages. The book is well described in the preface: * The general plan of this text-book is at the same time both old and new. Old, because it attempts to restore the old-time instruction in Natural History ; new, because Natural History is not to-day what it was a generation ago. The treatment will seem new also in contrast with modern text-books of zoólogy, since they are devoted primarily to compara- tive anatomy, a field upon which we lay little stress. . . . Itisa guide to the study of animals, which it is hoped may introduce many 1 Davenport, C. B. and G. C. 7ntroduction to Zoology. A Guide to the Study of Animals, for the use of Secondary Schools. New York, Macmillan, 1900. xii 4- 412 pp., 306 figs. 980 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV. students to the sciences of comparative anatomy, comparative embry- ology, cytology, general physiology, variation and inheritance, and the others that are grouped under ‘zoology.’ This book is like a ‘Synoptic Room’ in the vestibule of a vast museum, containing the most essential things for those who can go in but a little way, but also fundamental for those who can penetrate farther." This Natural History, vivified by general physiology, seems worthy to replace many of the school text-books now in use, if only the teacher be prepared to make the field and laboratory work dominate over the “cram” which presentation of so many facts makes an opening for. The three hundred and eleven illustrations are a most important feature, remarkable in that the majority are from original photo- graphs. Many of these are excellent, and, as the authors state, * their publication may be considered as something of a contribution to science." Yet it is to be regretted that, in some illustrations of invertebrates, black photographs have been preferred to good draw- ings; while, on the other hand, in the higher groups, notably the mammals, drawings of stuffed specimens have been used, where photographs from life, such as those of Gambier Bolton, might have been used to advantage. We hope the book will meet with a success that will insure revi- sions. Meanwhile, the *blue crab" figured on page 109 will be of peculiar interest to the specialist. EEA Merogeny. — The notable work of Yves Delage, first published in the Comptes Rendus, October, 1898, and in detail in the Archives de Zoologie Experimentale, VII, Nos. 3 and 4, 1899, widens the field of experimental research by a new method, and adds facts difficult to assimilate with the current conceptions of the phenomena of fertilization. In the echinoderms Strongylocentrotus lividus and Echinus sp., in the mollusk Dentalium, and in the annelid Lanice conchylega, he has succeeded in cutting eggs into two or more pieces and in keeping these pieces under observation in drops of water till they developed into the characteristic larvae of these groups. In each case sperm was added, and it is inferred that it entered and fertilized the pieces. Moreover, in some echinoderm eggs the egg nucleus was seen in one piece and not in the other; yet the piece with no nucleus formed a larva just as well as did the piece with a nucleus. It is inferred that most of the fragments were without nuclei. No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 981 This development of fertilized, enucleated pieces of eggs the author calls merogenetic development. In cleaving, such fragments tend to be abnormal at first, but by progressive self-regulation normal larve are formed. In the sea-urchin three larva were got from one egg, and in another case an active blastula was obtained from a piece of egg one-thirty-seventh of the bulk of the normal egg. In this well-controlled Gallic method of cutting a single egg while under observation under the microscope we seem much more sure of the results than in the former gross Teutonic method of shaking eggs wholesale in a tube, to break them to pieces. Still, the author finds it necessary to give reasons for rejecting the ideas, — that the egg was fertilized before cutting; that the cutting itself acted as a stimu- lus; and that the nucleus might have been cut to supply parts to each piece of egg. In this he seems successful, except as to the last point, and we may still have doubts regarding the assumed restriction of the nucleus, or the nuclear matter, to one of the pieces. Another possi- bility, or indeed probability, the occurrence of polyspermy in these fragments, seems to have escaped the author's attention. This may vitiate some of his most important conclusions. Incidentally the author points out that the cut halves of an egg may be drawn together again by the viscous envelope (we presume Hammar’s layer) that is not necessarily severed. There is no evidence of *cytotropism" in this. On the other hand, there is often an abnormal tendency of the blastomeres to fall apart; we infer this is a state similar to that induced by Herbst in removing calcium. It is interesting to find that the enucleated pieces may be bastard- ized by sperm of a related animal, but they do not develop when treated with the sperm of a widely different animal. In this the author sees the importance of the cytoplasm; and he also finds evidence of a maturation of the cytoplasm. Thus a ripe and an unripe egg in two drops on the same slide, when cut and treated with sperm, yielded for the ripe egg cleaving pieces in six out of ten cases, and none at all in the unripe eggs. Granting that these merogenic larvz are actually fertilized, enu- cleated pieces of an egg, it is a very remarkable fact that they have eighteen chromosomes in the nuclei of their cells, for this is the normal number that is commonly held to have come about by the addition of nine chromosomes in the sperm to nine in the nucleus of 982 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV. the egg, yet in this case we start with only the nine of the sperm and have no egg nucleus at all in the fragment studied. Delage concludes that the constant number of chromosomes, 7, is a con- stant factor of the cells, as are the contractile or secretive functions of cells, and that it is not produced by the activities of chromosomes acting as individuals. In the last paper he defines his position as to the meaning and nature of fertilization. Assuming that experiment has shown that a piece of egg protoplasm, with no nucleus, can form an embryo if combined with a sperm, and not otherwise, he affirms that the essen- tial thing in fertilization is this union of egg cytoplasm with the sperm. The egg nucleus is not necessary for the formation of a larva. Moreover, his experiments show that the per cent of frag- ments developing is larger than the per cent of whole eggs develop- ing under given conditions, and he infers that the egg nucleus is not only unnecessary, but even a hindrance to fertilization. In normal fertilization he regards the nuclear phenomena as rather a substitution of a male for a female nucleus than as a combination of the two. He does not deny that the egg nucleus is of use to the race in aiding in handing down characters of the maternal side, it may be; but to the making of the individual it is not useful, but detrimental. Accepting the recent experiments upon echinoderm eggs, in which they are stimulated by chemical agents to develop parthenogenet- ically, he supposes that in fertilization the sperm nucleus is the active stimulating factor, while the egg nucleus is inert — to such an extent as to inhibit the sperm to some extent. Extending this idea, he supposes that the process of maturation of the egg is to be inter- preted as follows. The polar bodies take from the egg nuclear matter and so reduce the inertness of the egg nucleus to a point where the sperm may overcome what is left. Were there no polar bodies, the sperm could not overcome the inertness of the entire egg nucleus. FA Skeleton of the Black Bass. — The skeleton of the black bass, on which Dr. Shufeldt has already made several interesting reports, has been described by him in full in a recent memoir.’ This is accompanied by eight well-executed figures which illustrate in par- ticular the structure of the skull of this fish. The text includes 1 Shufeldt, R. W. "The Skeleton of the Black Bass, U. S. Fish Comm. Bul- letin for 1899, pp. 311-320. No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 983 some elementary directions as to methods of preparation and study, as well as a description of the parts under consideration, and is written from the standpoint of the older anatomy. Thus the state- ment is made that the black bass seems invariably to have thirty vertebrae, though in a former count the author reported thirty-two. His present changed opinion rests on the examination, as he tells us, of two perfect specimens, a rather limited number on which to base a general statement, and certainly not sufficient to show that the former count of thirty-two may not at times be realized. The modern anatomist is beginning to appreciate the fact that perfect uniformity in the number of parts is rather the exception than the rule, and that the truth of the matter is often better expressed in statements indicative of the range of variation in structures than in careful descriptions of them from one or two individuals. In this respect Dr. Shufeldt’s work belongs to the older school. P. Skeleton of Vulpes Macrotis. — The fact that the skeletons of none of our smaller western foxes have ever been fully described has led Dr. Shufeldt! to prepare an account of the osteology of Vulpes macrotis, The description is taken from a single specimen collected in Arizona and now in Dr. Shufeldt's possession. An exhaustive study has brought to light many points of resemblance and differ- ence in the skeleton of this species as compared with those of closely allied forms, but without disclosing any important morphological matters. In the account of the skull, Dr. Shufeldt takes the late Dr. Elliott Coues to task for having systematically ignored the tur- binal masses, and yet lays himself open to the same criticism by giving no description of these parts in the animal under considera- tion. To the scientific reader the text is somewhat marred by inser- tions such as those pertaining to the clavicles. These bones were missing in the specimen described by Dr. Shufeldt, and yet the reader is informed that * there is every reason to suppose that they agreed in their general character with the vulpine carnivora gener- ally; that is, in some respects they were rudimentary and did not reach either the acromion or the sternum.” Statements of this kind add nothing of importance to osteological descriptions such as this paper abounds in, and tend to discredit what is otherwise a com- mendable collection of anatomical details. p. 1 Shufeldt, R. W. The Osteology of Vulpes Macrotis. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. XI, pp. 393-418, Pls. XXII, XXIII. 1900 984 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | (Vor. XXXIV. Notes. — Professor M. M. Metcalf’s extended studies on the tuni- cates have been published in the Zodlogische Jahrbiicher as a series of short articles under the general heading “ Notes on the Morphology of the Tunicata,” On the basis of recent studies on the life history of certain gre- garines, Léger and Dubosca (C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 5 Juin, 1900) find that the epimerite alone is intracellular, and maintain that, con- trary to generally accepted views, a true intracellular stage in devel- opment is very exceptional among these forms. A detailed description of two fish tapeworms from the Great Lakes is given by Benedict (Journ. Morph., Vol. XVI, pp. 337—368, 1 pl.). One is a well-known European form, and the other an imperfectly known species originally described by Leidy. Both belong to the genus Proteocephalus Weinland (= Ichthyotania Lönnberg), which is shown to be more complicated in structure than hitherto supposed. In his chapter on the entozoa, in the Fauna Hawaiiensis (Vol. II, Pt. IV, pp. 427-441, 2 pls.), Shipley reprints with emendations the description of the peculiar form Apororhynchus (= Arhynchus) hemig- nathi which he had previously discussed. It is important as the only known Acanthocephalon with no trace of the evertible proboscis and hooks ordinarily accepted as characteristic of the group. A number of new genera of North American Hydrachnidz are described and figured by Wolcott (Zrans. Amer. Micr. Soc., Vol. XXI, pp. 177-200, 4 pls.). The only one in the list which was previously known was reported once each from Russia and Vene- zuela, and is exceedingly aberrant in structure. A new cestode of peculiar structure has been found in the turkey and is described by Ransom (Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc, Vol. XXI, pp. 213-226, 2 pls.) It is characterized by the migration of the eggs in masses from the uterus to a point nearer the center of the proglottid, where a prominent egg capsule is secondarily constructed to include them. "The uterus then becomes reduced, until it dis- appears entirely, — whence the name given to the form, Metrolias- thes lucida. The plankton of Echo River, Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, as listed by Kofoid (Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., Vol. XXI, pp. 113-126) from collections made by Eigenmann, is characterized by absence of plant life, particularly diatoms, by absence of rotifers, by predominance of No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 985 copepods, and by the presence of many littoral species. Among all the forms listed, twenty in all, few, if indeed any at all, are stygian, while most are common epigean forms. The author thinks that free access of surface water provides for the renewal of the plankton and prevents the development of peculiar cave forms. The annelids of the Nordenskjéld expedition to Patagonia have been studied by Ehlers (Vachr. Ges. Wiss., Göttingen, 1900, Heft 2). The collection embraced eighty-four species, of which twenty-one were new, and supplements well that made by Michaelsen in the same region. Three species and two varieties are noted as charac- teristically “ bipolar" in distribution so far as known at present. Jagerskiold has given (Centra/b. Bakt., 1 Abt., Vol. XXIV, p. 737) a valuable discussion of the curious rosette organs of the lateral line in ascarids. Though exceedingly variable in different species, they are undoubtedly homologous; their function must still be left uncer- tain, though size and development show them to be active and important. Van Denburgh and Wight (Amer. Journ. of Phys., Vol. IV, p. 209) have studied the more important effects of the poison of the Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum). A subcutaneous injection of six or seven drops into the groin of a dog was followed by death in less than twenty-four hours. Observations on numerous cases showed that the poison acted directly upon the respiratory center, causing a quickening and then a gradual paralysis of the respiratory mechan- ism. When artificial respiration was resorted to, death nevertheless supervened as a result of cardiac failure, showing that the heart is profoundly affected as well as the respiratory apparatus. The authors conclude that the effects of the Gila Monster poison are in no important respect different from — of the venom of various poisonous snakes. H. M. Vernon (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc, 1898) brings additional evidence to that furnished by Seeliger and by Morgan to show that Boveri’s (American Naturalist, March, 1893 and 1895) famous attempt to establish by experiment the dependence of adult charac- ters upon chromosomes did not rest upon a firm basis. He finds that in the echinoderms bastards resemble now one parent, now the other, according to the time of year in which the crossing was car- ried on. He concludes that the “characteristics of the hybrid offspring depend directly upon the relative degrees of maturity of the sexual products.” 986 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vow. XXXIV. The Oregon State Biologist, Professor F. L. Washburn, has just published a brief illustrated account of the food fishes of the Oregon coast. The pamphlet includes brief descriptions of some dozen food fishes, accompanied by photographic and other illustrations, and marks a beginning in the systematic study of the food fishes of the state. BOTANY. Mrs. Dana's Wild Flowers.'— Mrs. Dana’s now well-known book owes its inspiration to an idea of Mr. Burroughs', that some day a book would appear by which our wild flowers should be made known without the trouble of analyzing them ; and his suggestion of color and season as the leading means of attaining this seemingly desir- able end has been faithfully worked out in it. Seven years have elapsed since the first edition appeared, and the fact that the edi- tion now under review marks the issuance of the fifty-sixth thousand shows that it has met with measurable favor. Opinions have differed as to its real value. People who love but do not know flowers, and who want to learn their names without trouble, have always liked it. People who believe that one might as well learn botany while learn- ing the names of the commoner and more showy plants have not infrequently regretted its publication. While the present reviewer would not start a student of botany with it, he believes it to be a very good book of its kind and for persons who will not go at the study in more than a holiday spirit, and it is a delight to thumb its pages. It may be that the numerous colored plates which form the novel feature of the new edition add to the value of the book, and they certainly are well done for three-color work, and will add to its salability. T. Our Native Trees." — Miss Keeler has made a very commendable addition to the semi-popular treatises on American plants, in a 1 Dana, Mrs. W. S. How to Know the Wild Flowers. A Guide to the Names, Haunts, and Habits of our Common Wild Flowers. Illustrated by Marian Sat- terlee and Elsie Louise Shaw. New edition, with colored plates. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1900. 8vo, xxxix + 34 ? Keeler, Harriet L. Oz Native Trees = prip to Identify Them. A Popular eid of their Habits and their Peculiari New York, Charles Scribner's 1900. 8vo, xxiii + tud pp. with n Vbi oie from photographs and iem Maisi from dra No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 987 well-written, well-illustrated, and well-printed account of the native and naturalized trees of the * Manual" region. Bits of the best from poets and prose-writers relieve the monotony of description, and the folklore of a number of trees is well if briefly told. Clements and Cutler's Manual.' — Dr. Bessey has long taken not only a theoretical but a very practical interest in secondary school training in the sciences, and the Nebraska high schools are reaching the point where their graduates can be said as a class to be better prepared for the real and serious study of botany for having had botany before entering college. Dr. Clements, of the University of Nebraska, and Mr. Cutler, of the Beatrice High School, have pre- pared this little book as an authoritative expression from the Uni- versity upon the desirable kind and amount of such preparatory study. And while its use is likely to be limited to Nebraska, it may well find place in the working library of any high school. T Notes. — “The Plant Covering of Ocracoke Island,” a study in the ecology of the North Carolina strand vegetation, by Thomas H. Kearney, Jr., constitutes No. 5 of the current volume of Contributions from the United States National Herbarium. It is illustrated by a number of figures in the text, representing structural adaptations. A paper by R. M. Harper, on the flora of Sumter County, Georgia, appears in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for August. Ecological lists, of some four hundred or five hundred species, are followed by critical notes on a considerable number of the species. A systematic key to the phanerogamic spring flora of Kansas City and vicinity has been prepared by Kenneth K. Mackenzie, for use in the high schools of that city, and is published as an octavo pamphlet of twenty-three pages. In the Botanical Gazette for September, Professor Nelson begins a series of “ Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium,” con- sisting of descriptions and critical notes on species and varieties believed to be undescribed. Part IV of Professor Piper's * New and Noteworthy Northwestern Plants,” in the July Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, contains a considerable number of new species, of various dicotyledonous groups. 1 Clements, F. E., and Cutler, I. S. A Laboratory Manual of High School Botany. Lincoln, Nebraska, The University Publishing Company, 1900. 8vo, 123 pp. 988 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV. With fascicle 124, issued in April, Part III of Vol. XIII of the Flora Brasiliensis is brought to a conclusion, with title-page and index. The volume includes the natural families Polygalacez, Turneracez, Caricacee, Loasacee, and Sapindacez. The third part of a series of papers on Mexican materia medica, by a number of students, has recently been issued by the /ystituto Médico Nacional, of the City of Mexico. In Publication No. 50 of the Field Columbian Museum, Dr. Mills- paugh publishes a reconsideration of the Cyperacez and of Cakile as treated in his earlier paper on the Antillean cruise of Mr. Armour's yacht Utowana, in the West Indian and Central American region. A catalogue of plants collected by Don José Blain on the Isle of Pines, Cuba, is published by Dr. Millspaugh as Publication No. 48 of the Field Columbian Museum. The synonymy of several North American species of Eryngium is reviewed by Britten and Baker in a recent number of the Journal of Botany. Part III of Mrs. Brandegee’s * Notes on Cactez " is published in Zoe for July. Von Seemen describes two Colorado willows, supposed to be new, in Heft 2 of Vol. XXIX of Engler’s Botanische Jahrbiicher. Hydastylus, a genus proposed in 1812 by Dryander and Salisbury for the plant which has commonly been known as Sisyrinchium Cali- fornicum, is revived by Bicknell in the Buletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for July, and is now made to include twelve species, all of Mexico or the Pacific United States. Recent numbers of the Acta Horti Petropolitani are largely occu- pied by papers on Orchidacez, by Klinge. Exoascus deformans, and the means of controlling the leaf-curl of the peach due to it, form the subject of an extensive bulletin by Newton B. Pierce, recently published by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Variation among pathogenic bacteria, a fruitful subject for study, is considered by Dr. Theobald Smith in a paper recently reprinted from the Journal of the Boston Society of Medical Sciences. From the seeming fact that new disease germs are not constantly No. 408.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 989 appearing, Dr. Smith argues that most species cannot adapt them- selves to a parasitic existence, but that the many germ diseases are due to a comparatively small number of primary species, endowed from the beginning with certain fighting or invasive characters, and subsequently adapted to various hosts. Mr. E. S. Salmon’s recent monograph of the Erysiphacez, in the Memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club, is followed in the August number of the Bulletin of the same society by a paper on the Japanese representatives of the same group, with a host-index. The interesting smut genus Mycosyrinx forms the subject of a paper by Penzig in a recent number of Malpighia. Notwithstanding his advanced age, Professor Oudemans con- tinues his studies of fungi, and has recently distributed the first of a series of “Contributions to the Knowledge of Some Undescribed or Imperfectly Known Fungi " (in English) from the Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Amsterdam. The needs of a young and growing botanical garden are mod- estly stated in the August number of the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden. “ A Study of Plant Adaptations” is the title of Buletin 69 of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. (Regular exchanges are not included.) CHRISTISON, J. S. Brain in Relation to Mind. — oS acc j Meng. Publ. Co., 1900. 143 pp. 8vo, 31 figs. — FRAZER Moo and thers of the Boundaries. New York, Scribner’ T od pues PP» Seo T by Arthur Heming. $2.00. — SCH C. A. Some Business Problem American Forestry. Asheuilt, The. Pah Broad Press, 1900. 26 pp., S : SHMEAD, W. H. Classification of the Ichneumon Flies, or the eieaa NA dd Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxiii, pp. 1-220. — BUSK, ew Species of Moths of "is DT Sc from Florida. Proc. U. 4 Nat. Mus. Vol. xxiii, 225-254, Pl. I. — CoviLLE, F. S. Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. IV, The Tree Willow iol Alaska. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 27 dant Pl. XV. — CORBETT, L. C. Fruit Diseases and riman Alaska Expedition. "V, Notes on the Hepatice Collected in Alaska. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 287-314, Pls. XVI-XVIII. — Graves, H. S. The Practice of Forestry by Private Owners. Year Book, Department of Agriculture for | 1899. Pp. 415-428, 4 pls. — Hopkins, A. D. The Hessian Fly in West Vir- ginia and how to Prevent Losses from its Ravages. Bull. W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., No. 67. Pp. 239-250, 2 pls. and map. — INBY, B. Corn Culture in North Caro- lina. Bull. North Car. Coll. Agr. and Mech. Arts, No. 171. Pp. 27-43. — LUCAS, F. A. A New Rhinoceros, Trigonias Osborni, from the Miocene of South Dakota. Proc. U. .S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxiii, pp. 221—223, 2 figs. — NUTTING, . C. American Hydroids. Part I, The Plumularide. U. S. Nat. Mus., Special Bulletin, 1900. 285 pp., 4to, 34 pls. — PiNcHoT, G. Progress of Forestry in the United States. Year Book, Department of Agriculture for 1899. Pp. 293-306, 4 pls.— RITTER, W. E, and Crocker, G. R. Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. III, Multiplication of Rays and Bilateral Symmetry in the 20-Rayed Starfish, Pycnopodia Helianthoides (Stnpaouys Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. 247-274, Pls. XIII-XIV. — ROBERTSON, ALICE. Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition. VI, The Bryozoa. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci. Vol. ii, pp. x 5-340, Pls. XIX-XXI. — SHUFELDT, R. W. _ Professor Collett No . European idet of the Family Strigide. Journ. Morph. Vol. xvii No. I, Pl. XVIII. — SMITH, J. P. Conttibulons to Biology from in "Hopkins Seaside Laboratory of d Leland Stanford Jr. Pleaser XXII, The Development and Phylogeny of Placenticeras. From . Cal. Acad. Sci. [3], Geol. Vol. i, 990 PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 99I pp. 181-238, Pls. XXIV-XXVIL — SuiTH, W. S. T. A Topographic Study of the Islands of Southern ee Bull, Dept. Geol. Univ. Cal. Vol. ii, No. 7, pp. 179-230, Pl. V.— Strong, G. E., and Smiru, R. E. The Rotting of Green- house Lettuce. Bul. Ph Exp. So. Mass. Agr. Col., No. 69. 40 pp., 10 figs. — WASHBURN, F. L. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Food Fishes of the Oregon Coast, etc. Kept. State Biologist, July, 1900. Salem, W. H. Leeds, 1 9 PP», 6 pls. American Museum Journal. Vol. i, No. 3. October.— Anales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Tome iii, fasc. xiv.— Brooklyn Medical Journal, Vol. xiv, No. 10. October. — Bulletin of The Johns Hopkins Hospital. Vol. xi, No. 115. October. gecesi of The Geological Institution of the University of Upsala. VOL dv Pt. L . 8. — Insect World. Vol. iv, No. 9. September. — Zanter- national Po Vel ii, No. 4. October. — Memorias y Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica “ Antonio Alzate.” Tom. xiv, Nos. 9 and 10.— Modern Medicine. ol. ix, Nos. 8 and 9, oe and September. — Proceedings Natural Science Association of me Isla Vol. vii Nos. 15-18. March- June. — Revista Chilena de Historia Mind Ano iv, No. 8. August.— Science Gossip. Vol. vii, Nos. 76 and 77. September and October. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Annual Report of the Board of Regents for the Year ending June 30, 1898. — Report of the National Museum, TN 1900. xviii + 1294 pp., 374 text-figs. and 34 pls. (No. 407 was mailed November 26, 1900.) TO COLLECTORS l have a few fine, perfect specimens of Argonauta Argo (paper Nautilus), about 2% inches, at $1.00 each.. Also a large number of rare, scarce shells. - List submitted on application. x J. F. POWELL, Waukegan, n. ics 3 MARINE BIOLOGICAL SUPPLY DEPARTMENT - $ Bag eee of all types of animals, = class ae ce | or the museum. For pri and all information, address ; c GEO. M. GRAY, CURATOR - - WOODS HOLL, Mass. DISSECTING MICROSCOPES B of every e e = price, suited CHE A new series of lenses for dissecting work have recently been perfected by -us which have unusually - long working distance and = ee : large flat field. These Lens Holder for Anatomical Work. lenses are offered. at in use. The new Dissecting Stands are all nickeled metal with glass stage. 18 Catalog free. — : Ec Senph np OURAN OF APPLIED MICROSCOPY on request. io „BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO. £ OFFICE: ica: 2 25th Street and Broadway, = CHEN N.Y. | Enc m ce d m ad Av Ava N per iig Si spe igh a “durable , compact. : a simp er eer x E Write for Pamphlet ; = FELT e TARRANT MFG. CO. eS s The merican Naturalist : = .. Special Offer ALL new subscribers to the volume for 1900, po