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Dessapaye Arras cuassnt of Vélconts bck by G. Pov ETT ScroP q-5 -; from the London Quarterly Journal of Science, &c. for July, 1826, V. The Report of 3.1. "sass. Astronomer, &c. on his 7 penta non for ascertaining the most north- ) 558 t of the Lake of the Woods VI. ‘On the Vitality. of Mat tter, bs = _ VII.. On the Zodiacal Light; by Davin avin Lestse, Z Vill. Remarks upon Bleaching. Ss IX. Biographical Notice of "nesainder Volta, © x ah Stars, and the Order of the Starry ‘Flemié! XI. Pee of the Tracks of Foot-Marks of Kuitiaele fo oa impressed in Sandstone in the Quarry of Corncockle Muir, Dumfries-shire ; by the Rev. “Sides Duncan, D. D. inate at Ruthwell. From ‘Dr. Brewster’s hile Xl. Observations concerning | Fi ic Remicias Organ J. E. Doornix, M- M D. — Communicated for — - and by this Journal, by the ons in see h om “3 shed on Mt Cuvier’s Method of ecole the ry Organic Remains in Geology, Xl. Analysis of an “ Essai sur la temperature de Pinte- —— - tom ah M. Cordier ;” With obser- oorer, M. D. &c., President at ne College. 5 of 8 South Carolina, 109 Page. XIV. A sane os of the ners and Geology of a ot ova Scotia; ey Cuartes T. Jackson and Fra s Atcer. Continued ft vol. xiv. te 330, 132 Obituary N otice of William Phillips, 160 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. I. Foreien, . 1. ASummary of an “ Account of an Orang Outang, from the Isiand of Sumatra. _ Seated sae Dr. Brewster, Ean “161 2. Observations ‘on Sagem , sel alee > Bet. “mals; by Jouw Dave, M.D, F:R:S. F East Start oO sors Greenland, Eart h, 172 17. Premiums by the Society er Bncoiragemeat at Patisy 173 18. Action of the Moon on the Atmosphere, 174 19. Helvetic Society of Natural Sciences, OIE 176 20, 21. Necrol 1 ge nt cope, <' i 177 - rot T —Prussian Blu 178 (24, 25. Saltpetre poet ion fw wale frott: hot surfaces 180 26. Coleone of rain wa 181 ST; Be. agit = Atanvonia in Argillaceous Minerals— 182 29, 30. Ardea Spider's Web for Micrometers—Aialysis 31. On the babe “of the Taténeity of Light, i - 84 oe, 33 Fa 35. Impurity of rain water—Sulphur in Assafoe- Tie meses So omg Rngitee pots 185 36, 37. oe ee9 Bed-—Compressibility of ‘tient by eae Aa Oersted, 38. prability of Life. Comparative ‘results dedaced™ oe egisters cae at saremi and Calculations made y Dr. Odi 39, 40, o Process ie discovering and separating Antim fr and o rom Lead, Brass, r Metals sotble: in in Nitric Acid ; Besse gi _ ie taneous combustion of Cobalt; by M Note upon the loduret of Lead; by M. Beaenoy, 42, 43, 44. Observations upon some properties of Sulphur by M. =i icc of the Hon. Portable Gas, Il. Domestic. 1. Temperature of water in wells, observed by Gen. rele 2. Proceedings of the ee of Natural eee or 3. Drinking ice-Water, - . - - 4. Virginia 5. Note supplementary to Wright’s Theory of Fluxions, . Errors co ted in F- Robinson’ s ee of Mine- 7. Aurora Boreali is, Magnetic N eedle, &c 8, 9. Carpenter’s Chemical W arehouse—Writ for the Med- ical Convention of 1830, 188 190 199 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. —>>— Art. 1.—On the Muriate of Soda, or Common Salt, with an pet emt of the Salt Springs in the United States ; by Grorce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia. RE is perhaps no individual article more important or indispensable for the support of the animal creation than and, the Canta: in his arrangements for the eiontfort, happitiesd, and sustenance of man, has placed, in the most systematic and best adapted order—in situations easily accessible, and in astonishing profusion, the substan- ces most essential to the support and comfort of human life ; hence e find salt, iron, coal, limestone, &c. to be almost universally distributed over the surface of the globe in large quantities, and in the most accessible situations; whilst the less useful bodies, as gold, silver, diamonds, &c. exist in mi- nute quantities, and often in places not to be explored without great labor and expense. Salt, as before observed, exists in immense masses or at either at the surface of the earth, or at a great depth below the soi s been found i regions much elevated above the sea, and in some Pista an- ces it constitutes whole mountains = Bt) eeliderable al- titude. The ocean mab # is the test depository of salt ; nearly one-thirtieth the whole weight of the waters of the ocean is muriate of ae Other salts, viz. the muriates depth of the ocean is ten stiles 5 ; iret the water evaporitted, ie a would form a bed of seven hundred feet in thickness, t to cover all the present dry land with salt to the. ‘depth of two thousand feet ; and as the ocean has once aR Ae seas continents, = need not be surprised at 0. I Mo. Bot. Garden, i901. 2 On the Muriate of Soda, or Common Sait. the quantity of rock salt found in various parts of the globe.” The proportion of salt contained in the water is, with few exceptions, nearly the same in all latitudes. The Baltic is much less salt than the ocean, and contains, when an easterly wind prevails, only ;3,; part of saline matter. The Dead Sea of Palestine is an exception of the opposite kind. Ac- cording to Gay Lussac, one hundred parts of this water con- tain muriate of magnesia 15°3, muriate of soda 6°9, muriate of lime 4:0.} It is stated in the first volume of Rome de V'Isle’s Crystallography, page 375, that the salt water in the Baltic sea contains ;', part-of its weight of salt; that of the sea between England and Flanders contains j'; part; and — that of the coast of Spain one ounce in the pound; and that between the tropics one ounce and a half or even two ounces, viz. one-eighth of the whole. From this may be seen the great advantage of separating the brine of the sea wa- ter in cold climates by freezing before it is set over the fire for evaporation. : Rock salt is found very high above the level of the sea, as in the Cordilleras of America, and also in Savoy, where it exists at an elevation equal to that of perpetual snow. Salt fountains are very common in various parts of Europe and elsewhere, so that hardly any kingdom is absolutely with- out salt either in mines or springs, Salt springs are found in Lorraine, Alsatia, Franche-Compté and Gascony, provin- ces of France, in the Palatinate of the Rhine, Spire, Hesse, and Luneburg, in Germany ; Halle in Saxony, in Ostro- gothland, Westmanland, &c. &c.j From the salt springs at Droitwitch, in Worcestershire, sixteen thousand tons of salt are annually procured, and one hundred and fifty-six housand tons of rock salt are annually raised from the great eposit near Northwitch, in Cheshire. In France there are any salt Sw e- r .. It is abundantly diffused ) countries of Asia, Africa, and America, _ The most celebrated salt mines in Europe are at Cardona in Spain, and im Poland. The former appears to be an enor- * Be ’s Mineralogy, 637.. + Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, page 128. % Cronsted’s Mineralogy, Vol. 1, p. 363, On the Muriate of Soda, or — Salt. 3 robably harder than the other There is an extensive ormation of rock salt on each side of the Carpathian an moun- tains for six hundred miles, from Weleiska in Poland to ene mie in Moldavia. Rock salt and salt springs most — occur near the feet of extensive mountain ranges, whic adds probability to ac opinion that these ranges were once boundaries of extensive lakes of salt water. In some parts of Africa there are salt akon which rest on beds of solid rock salt: these beds were probably formed ri fresh depositions of salt as the nest evaporates. Near Algiers the salt lakes are dried u er, and leave immense salt at the trom The lake Yelta, beyond the river Volga, supplies all Rus- sia with salt Muriate of soda is most generally associated with beds of clay, which frequently alternate with those of the salt ; sand, sandstone, and compact, fetid and bituminous liméstone usually accompany the deposits of salt. But the most in- timate connexion exists between this salt and the sulphate of lime or gypsum, over which the beds are usually placed, or sometimes they even alternate with it. e constant occurrence of the muriatic and sulphuric acids in the same situations is an interesting fact, which, in a more advanced state of chemical and ogice cal science oe serve to eluci- date the formation of gypsum and rock — In the United States, salt oe ins and a There i = no salt obtai r Arkansas boring, t + usual —e ° procuring it in other ities. anew any salt am Missouri ; in pies of on the Wabash. There is one manufactory in operation at Toots on a trib- * Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 77, and Foster’s Introduction to Mineralo- gy, page 32. 4 On the Muriate of Soda; or Common Salt. utary of the Wabash. Salt springs are worked at Sciota ; we quantity yielded, however, is comparatively small. There a no salt works on the Tennessee river, but on the Holston, a erie butary to the Tennessee river, are extensive salt springs, situ- ated near Abingdon, eras known by the name of King’s and Preston’s salt works. These springs yield a considera- ble quantity of salt, which sells at the works, at one dollar per e ing’s s wells have produced on a lease of five years, an annual rent of $60,000, or $300,000 for the term of five ears. Preston’s works: have been rendered much less_valu- Kentucky Phils amactone EES s- On the Big and Little ag are salt = ae in on anton ; they afford, wever, a weak brine, and are on the decline, in conse- quence oft ths. reduced price of malt, which sells at fifty cents per bushel. Green river furnishes numerous salt works, - which are very productive: these works are all flourishing, and under favorable ssompenis of i nope. They are the most extensive in the state: the price of salt at the works is fifty cents per bushel. On Goose creek, also, a tributary to the Kentucky Oe are very extensive works; these, and the springs on Green river, might support works affording mexhaustible quantities of salt ; the price at the works is fifty cents per bushe n Ohio many ‘salt works exist; they are, however, on the decline, in consequence of the reduced price of salt. The principal ones now in operation are on the Sciota, Muskin- ua and Yellow creek ; ‘the price of salt at these works is nts per bushel. Illinois, on Saline 1 river, near Shawneetown, are exten- pe works, formerly owned by the United States: they the property of the state. The price of salt at the 1s ityscents per bushel. fs “on reat Kanawha, are very extensive salt works. mas a furnished is about one million bushels* per annum, may be increased to almost any *It is stated in the last edition of Professor Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, that Lae ea amount of salt Tes eee - sont oth States, is one million n bushels ome : very lar the present annual as the Kanawha works prac furnish this amount, F sexe dae pe Ss 2 On the Muriate of Soda, or Common Salt. 5 amount. The brine at the namaste works, as appears from careful experiments made by Dr. Putney, is very stron sixty-five to seventy gallons yielding one bushel of salt. the e works is from twenty to twenty-five cents per Sahel according to the quantity purchased. It is obtained by boring to a depth of from three to five hundred feet. Large quantities of inflammable gas are sometimes disengaged, with- considerable noise and violence, preventing operations for several days. The salt works at Kennwha, and those on the olston re! Abingdon, are the only two in Virginia worked to any extent. These works, and those of the iskiminicus, one of re waters of the Alleghany river, furnish the principal part of that used in the western states. Pennsylvania. On the Sana near Pittsburg, are the most extensive works in the state. The price of salt at the works is from twenty to ples -five cents per bush- eL ere are several other works in the neighbourhood of Pittsburg ; ; they are, however, all comparatively small, The brine of the Kanawha and Pittsburg works is evapo- rated by coal: all the. sme works in the United States em- ploy wood, which operates in diminishing the profits by in- creasing t me Soong every year. This, with many other on of operation in many salt works, particularly i in places where a competition exists, and some of the competitors enjoy the above named advantages. Hence it is, that although the price of salt at Kanawha and Kiskiminicus is only from twenty to twen the manufacture is conducted with profit, whilst other estab- lishments, where salt brings fifty cents and upwards, are ra- some of which. are very atietee The best springs are near the canal which connects the Hudson with Lake Erie. ie? salt is obtained by the spontaneous evaporation of the brine exposed in vats to the influence of the sun, aided by onl conducted through tubes immersed in the brine. There are also ee. works in Alabama. Being i 6 On the Salt Springs at Salina, Syracuse, $c. discovered, they are at present of moderate extent. They will no doubt be extended and enlarged in a short time. Considerable quantities of salt are obtained in North Car- olina from a neck of the sea, by digging pits near the shore, which are filled by the tide; it is then carried by trenches to a distance, where it is evaporated by the sun; and being situ- ated near extensive fisheries, is employed to great advantage and profit in putting up fish for exportation Nearly all the salt furnished in the United States is ob- tained by boring, and the brine is bie by heat; the mother water, or bittern, as it is termed, is thrown away. It is a strong solution of muriate of rei and magnesia. As this article is produced in in considerable q salt and magnesia m might be advantageou y manafeetared from it. It is ee — ows bittern has wn He very delete- rious to animals ; ; horses, s, &c. have been killed by tak- ing small ions wi it, which frequently happens, as it forms on evaporation, incrustations which are mistaken for salt Arr. I1.—WNotice of the Salt Sprmgs and Manu Saba of Salt at Salina, Syracuse, §-c. N. Y. made at the request of the Editor ; by Sraruen Suitu, Superintendent at Salina. In the town of Salina, and state of New-York, nearly equi- distant from Albany on the river Hudson, and Buffalo at the north-eastern extremity of Lake ies are situated hia orks, the most extensive in the United States, for the saaulantas of salt from. seared brine. The Sat a of that substance song the margin of Onondaga lake, were similar, as is be- = “he bowing & ard is adopted for Sieratiing salt from sea water by. pontaneous evapo m in hot climates: Several parcels of flat x oma — ny es seein tie IESE hich ire well ngs mith ly, ents, the last of whic are wel and erly beaten in | an even horizontal surface : is allowed to has partly r to run i ones, the heat of the sum, fia few hours, ev i ndanntade to e the salt, which alls ty the bottom, andi drawn out we with Pena at ve’ soon ev Baur to have been practised wi t eee also now used in various other parts - Seppe : Vol. On the Salt Springs at Salina, Syracuse, ge. 7 this region, from the aborigines, to whom, we ee presume, e discove- eastern termination, along the shore of which he passed a short distance to the right, and, ascending a rivu now al dis- on the shores of the lake, and many wells have been sunk to procure brine for the manufactories at the villages of Liver- pool, Salina, Syracuse, and Geddesburgh. The i not exceed eighteen feet in depth, and in the strength of wells, had subsided six or eight feet. ntil the close of the summer of 1822, the salt water had been pumped principally by men, who were then superseded 8 On the Salt Springs at Salina, Syracuse, &c. In the course of the last eight years, a manufacturer ‘at Salina, under a law of the state for the encouragement o the undertaking, has made several eae attempts, by boring in different places, to discover rock salt: and, within eighteen months, the same operation has 8 performed, with partial success, to obtain brine of increased strength and quantity. At one place, in Syracuse, the boring was two hundred and fifty feet, eighty feet lower than the deepest places in Onondaga lake, and principally through indurated ‘clay, but the adventurers, meeting with very hard rock, sup- posed to be granite, the work was discontinued without the discovery of any vein of salt or even fresh water. a another place, salt water o . com- mencement, but at the depth of et the , Owing to the difficulty of ring dawn the tube, of sheet iron, through a bed of rounded smooth stones, which were of every size from common coarse gravel to that of a man’s head, and of a variety of colors and texture. About a mile from the south end of the lake, and on the border of Onondaga creek, (the small river before mention- ed,) among stones resembling those just described, a well had been sunk thirty feet, and the work suspended three years; but last summer a tube was driven down, in the cen- tre of the well, fifty feet further, into a stratum, the thickness of which is undetermined, of clean washed gravel: ten feet from the surface of the ground the saltness of the water was first perceptible, increasing with the descent of the well, and afterwards of the tube, till the boring ceased at the depth of eighty feet, aie it was found to contain twenty-two ounces As om nd cn crs = re gallon. When the water of the well is lowered eight feet by pumping, the quantity discharg- ed from t e tube, which has the upper part cut Mf at that th, ts. one hundred gallons per minute, and, when the pum ee: = ‘sen to the surface of the —o and cee in a small stream A boring was eae Green Point, places on te shores oor the lake, there has been boring to considerable depths, not over eighty feet, and other veins have been open- of salt water which is Semively used at the former place and Liverpool. Three large metallic pumps, moved by the surplus water of the Ene canal, and one, worked by a small steam engine, — me te oe ee ee ee Uh pt he Si a ak Ser" ar “5. On the Salt Springs at Salina, Syracuse, &c. 9 ments, have be erected for the making of salt, and now principally used, are Works. arches at one end, and a flue or chimney, common to both, at the other end of the block. The fuel is exclusively wood, of the kinds most common in the forests of this part of the country, such as beach, ma le, elm, hemlock, bass wocd, &c. of which the prices, for the last six years, have been from seventy-five cents to one dollar and fifty cents per cord, de- livered at the works. In the boiling down of the water to saturation, a portion of the impurities, on ee and carbonate of lime stained with iron, is deposited in ladles and taken out, and the vaporiza- tion of the brine is continued until but a small quantity re- mains; when the salt which has been made, and which is, even at first, beautifully white and of fine grain, is taken out into baskets, drained, and removed; and the kettles are again filled with salt water, and the operation repeated. surface of the kettles soon becomes firmly incrusted with a compound of the earthy substances and salt, which require frequent removal to prevent injury from overheating and cracking the metal. Next in extent, or more properly in production, are the erections adjoining the Erie jn for evaporation by solar heat : they are vats of wood, resting horizontally upon a great number of small driven into the ground, according to the inequalities of the surface over which they are built, touch- ing it in some places, and at a height of ten feet in others ; but the most convenient height is between eighteen and thirty-six inches from the ground. Their width is eighteen and a half feet, depth from six to fifteen inches, and ngth © from eighty to six hundred and forty feet; and roofs in divisions of sixteen feet each, sustained by rollers — which travel “ level supporters, and are moved on and off © ‘ o. 1. 2 Vou. XV.— 10 On the Salt Springs at Salina, Syracuse, §e. by the strength of one man. The water from the reservoirs is received first into the deepest vats, in which is deposited much of the iron or coloring matter, which appears in the form of a pelted as soon as the temperature (at the wells it is 50°) is increased by the action of the sun or warm atmos- phere. From those it is passed by means of pipes into vats of less depth, not exceeding six inches, and at a lower level, in which it remains till, by the evaporation and consequent con- centration of the brine, and the precipitation of sulphate and carbonate of lime, it is sufficiently depurated for the crystal- ization of the salt which will then begin to appear on the surface. The brine, leaving behind pes substances that have been separated, Je Amman. awn off into vat of a, level still ower, which are kept clean, and in whic hic lt is. made with greater or less “apis vein to the altitude of the sun, the clearness of t ture, and the strength of the wind. ae the brine, by the formation of the salt in the last vats, diminishes, and as it is the bottom, anes ores are drawn occasionally, and as they are needed, from the second gradation or tier. e removal af the salt from the vats is without any regu- larity as to time or quantity, and is dependant upon the con- venience of the manufacturer, who sometimes leaves it till there is an accumulation of three or four inches, or takes it out when there is barely enough to cover the bottom. | It 1 a shoyelled into tubs, olding about one hundred pounds, which it is drained for a few minutes, and, without friar drying, | is conveyed in carts to the storehouses. _ The measured bushel will weigh from seventy-four to alt water free from agitation, the surface has heat 106°, while that in contact with or near the bottom of the y: vat was 122°, and, by the hydrometer, was ascertained to be sp y lighter than the upper portions. _ -Muriate of magnesia, - - ak wat -< of - “ 143.50 : ge: 15.54? Soe 12 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. The weight of the dry residuum from a like quantity of water was | ater has been repeatedly taken from the different wells, as it flowed in from the earth, and where it could not possi- bly have been in contact with the i iron of any part of the pumping machinery, and, on scraping into it some nutgall, with a piece of broken glass, there has Baca observed, in a short time, a change from mares ereherems to a purple co- lor, which soon became green, and finally of a reddish brown ; and, after standing two or ites weeks, there was a brown deposit that covered the bottoms of the tumblers in which the experiments were made. Bubbles of carbonic acid are continually escaping, pee frequently i in great quantity, from the brine of the springs “AE one of the plants that frequent salt marshes on the sea. shore was observed growing abundantly at Salina, Mr. Smith was requested to examine it for iodine—which substance _ did not appear on the addition of sulphuric acid and solution of starch to the fluid bittern, or the solid residuum which it afforded by evaporation. The follo ipa is Mr. Smith’s re- mark in a P.S. to his communication.— I have made, and repeated, the experiment requested by you, when here, with the samphire, of which the quantity employed yielded half a peck of ashes. The product was e of ae muriate of soda, without» Sas appearance iodin is Til. “FS othens on Volcanos and Earthquakes ; by Pam Du Commun, of the Military Academy at West- ‘Tar air Re atmosphere at the surface of the earth, will support, in barometer tubes, mercury at 30 in ches, : = water at : te ’ a water at about 32 feet. It is eight hundreds =e twenty-eight times lighter than water, or 00120 : 1. And because fresh water teto sea water as 16003 is to 1029, so air is a auodee = fifty-three tints oe than sea water, or 0,00118 : 1. a ee 13 But for reasons t explained in the course of this arti- er we will assume that _— air is igre — hundred times — than sea water, o > 0,00125 ; 1. This being granted: let us sup- = that a bell A B C, suspended by metallic chain, and full of atmos- streaie air, is plunged into the ocean; the air contained amt nett will be com- and ¢ comenamanale its sa:clensity, will be iniefeaned in proportion to the depth it penetrates. This condensation is here represented, at first by the line BC, at the moment of its immersion, -Gthen by the lines DE, FG, HI, &c. The following table will show the ratio of the condensation compared with the vole of the immersion Goemetrical Wei _Ammersion |Total pressure Tncrensingtion] ‘ratio of of the of the air {sity of the air in’ : Soh in Seen 1 jth com-| Se inter yl to 32 fe feet of | expressed "ie toot of as Atmospheres. | sea water. water. of sea water. 1 of 3 2 sy 4 64 4 32 128 8 32 256 16 32 512 32 32 1,024 64 32 2,048 128 32 4,096 256 32 8,192 512)” 16,384 1024 32 32,768 From this table it appears that the point at which the density of the atmospheric air would be exactly equal to 1, or equal to the density of sea water, is to be found between, 16,352 and 32,736 feet immersion in the sea. wish to determine by Eilculation. the. depth at which that. 14 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. precise point is obtained, we shall find twenty-five thousiand six hundred feet, or about four miles and seven-eighths, equal to the pressure of eight hundred atmospheres. ence it follows, that at the depth of four miles and sev- en-eighths the air would be compressed in the bell to the same density with the sea water. But now, when arrived at this point, if we plunge the bell more and more into the sea, the density will still-increase, and will soon exceed that of the surrounding water ; at that moment what will become of the bubble of air contained in the bell,ifeven we suppose it to be upset? Will it come up and break at the surface? It cannot, for by the supposition, it is heavier than its own volume of wa- 2: m .- 8 kL i. + es to _. a net ; an ter ; on t increased . a ee . . . j 3% - increased velocity ; for its density will increase as it sinks, and it must remain at the bottom of the sea, just as a stone itself would do. soon discover Let us take a glass of water from a running spring ; let us expose it for some time to the light and heat of the sun; we shall soon c ve bubbles rising from every part of the wa- ter, collecting at the surface, and breaking the one after the other. Let us put some of the same water into a convenient vessel by the fire, and we shall again observe a rising of bub- poo ry pee et and, still better, let us Some of it into a glass under the receiver of an air-pump, and produce a vacuum, when the bubbles will rise with aera it mates oie Sh Sk athe Pee . On Voleanos and Earthquakes. se great celerity ; let us collect the air thus disengaged, and w find its quantity a tory above four per cent. in bulk of e water under experim he water of the sea, ent under full atmospheric pres- sure, is constantly agitated by the wind, and, being divided, at its surface into waves an breakers, it so multiplies its points of contact with the atmospheric air, that it, of course, absorbs all that its affinity for it, under these circumstances, allows, Moreover, all rain water being divided into drops, the a insoretaa condition for its combination, brings down water perfectly saturated with air, and the whole quantity of rain ‘that falls on the globe goes ultimately to the se er it falls directly into it, or whether it is carried to it et rivers flowing down and renewing constantly their surfaces, all which circumstances unite to supply the sea with a new and perpetual addition of combined atmospheric air; it may then be admitted that the sea water is completely saturated with this fluid. e have seen, in one of the preceding paragraphs, that a affinity of the air for water is very weak. Is it a chemi- com pe abe or mere rely an affinity of cohesion? It mat- that the SS c ange in the temperature, or in the relative densities, destroys their union. We bere ust seen that’ in Se aae a separates from the w ate I, seme breaks into bubbles at its surface. Now, below the depth of twenty-five thousand six hundred feet, the air is denser than tie water ; and if a density different from that of the water in nus has been sufficient to operate their disunion, a similar difference i in plus must produce the same effect. _A bubble f ai density being’ superior to. t ‘medium in which it is pace it must plunge to the Bottoni, performing it we have ascertained to be the case with the of the ‘sea, to supply the gonetant consumption of it, as we Until this is moment we ere called the air Speidhed by vi ter atmospheric air; which, according to the siclpiodia prs 16 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. as, the air absorbed by water, Se a compound of the three same gases, contains them in different proportions. The analysis of the air contained in spring water has been made at different times, in different places, and by different persons, and, a the results are all different and uncertain. nalysis of the air contained in rain water, river water, stk piatiealally sea water, should be the object of our immediate researches, as going more directly to our purpose; but I could not find any publication on this sub- ject. To arrive at any positive result would require no small trouble, and meet with many difficulties, as the ~ le should be a pero a — in ars ican bo quantity of oxygen, which alteration must increase its densi- ty. These Senediereticns have induced us, in the foregoing table, to represent the density of the air and water by the numbers 800 and 1, instead of 853 and 1. This is the expla- nation we have promised to give. The depth of the sea water is not a variable, it is an abso- lute quantity ; a measure which will be determined to a foot by calculation as soon as we have exactly the relation of the three gases it contains. — By our aie which is, how- ever, not far from the truth, we found it twenty-five thou- sand six isi feet. or four miles stad seven-eighths ; but whatever be the depth, at the point of contact, the air must be exactly of the same density with the water. It cannot be ess ; for, if it were less, it would rise to the surface ; if it were. more, a new quantity of it would shower again through the water. ompressed ai placed in this tube would acquire a velocity sev oom ral {mes greater than that of a cannon ball; ——_ LST Re ee ee ee eee eee A Ree Le ee ee RRS E SEL ey Ne TM ee een Niet eS On Volcanos and Earthquakes. ae must penetrate, under ground at four miles and seven-eighths below the surface of the earth, through the crevices o' rocks, and in all the subterranean vacurties which communi- cate with each other, or with the general reservoir of air. And if it meets there, or rather, when it meets there com- bustible substances, as bitumen, sulphur, coal, &c. a confla- gration must ensue, which is constantly supplied with a new quantity of blowing air, forced by the pressure of the sea, as if by a permanent forge bellows. The air, after ve sup- ported combustion, rarefied by the heat, vole way, and anic mountains, which we have called craters, as it does in common chim- nies at the top of the flues. Such is our conception of these subterranean fires called volcanoes, considered in their quiet and peaceful operation. It would be difficult to conceive how combustion should be constantly nn under ground without a constant supply of air; and we do not perceive how that air would brought into those a aanee cavities, except by the means just suggested; we see no hole or opening which might be considered as a draught for the pose of air; on the contrary, ~* the reel gen observed emit gases that may t of the conflagration of combusti- ble bodies, aid dec: angaiiot of water by fire. We see smoke ascending fot the top of volcanic mountains, and all these phenomena seem to speak in favour of our our hypoth- esis. We do not think it necessary to enlarge on the various products of these subterranean fires ; a great deal has been said and published on this subject ; the formation of carbo- nic acid; its emission in its natural gaseous state ; its combi- nation with lime, magnesia, metallic oxides, &e.; its abun- dance in mineral waters; the flowing of hot water springs, either sainiple or su Iphurous ; the rushing out of hydrogen gas, sulphuretted or carburetted : these results are the natu- —" fet of these permanent fires, considered in their 18 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. ing; minerals, sand, and stones are melting, vitrifying, and running at the bottom of the cavern in the s shape of lava, of which it forms a permanent lake in fusion, j at as melted iron is collected at the bottom of a casting furnace. These things being in this situation, if asudden vacuum is icles what will ? But I may be stopped here, and be as how can a pects vacuum be produced? [see many cau- why it may, but the most simple and natural, and conse- quently the leas objectionable one, is, that after a certain time, a num ears that cannot be foreseen, for it is not periodical, a See of the coal being burnt, reduced to ashes, the mineral to lava, the ground above, no 2. longer aperits with a- surtac on crumbles down, ‘ she ia a cold ground. is put in in contact. w vapours, and a sudden — is produced ; a vacuum follows: it is sudden, that it communicates a r to the daiettind ground, which is felt as the first shock of an earthqua xe. This vacuum produces in its turn furnace. Then, a reverse effect is aati mage ; water oe or wave ; ‘niet part may be thrown off through the gap- ing ground, and even may issue mixed i with the flames of the mountains. _ In the meanwhile, new shocks are felt, until the weakest point has yielded to ‘the combined powers of the steam and ae actuated by the heat and a pressure of eight bonnes, atmospheres. Generally, the former crater, filled in part with ~ stones, lava, and ashes of the preceding eruption, is the: est point; all is thrown up; a column 3 by the: burning hydrogen, is raised to the clouds; ashes, the result perhaps of twenty years’ combustion, antity to fee: vil in sufficient lages and. cities, and stones all sizes, loosened, are- cted to an immense distance ; and, finally, the lava, swept away by the steam, gases, and air, 1s raised up to the summit of the crater, or runs ea ee ean CR ea Bee Ie Vs RN eee mt On Volcanos and Earthquakes. 19 are exhausted, when the lava has flowed out for some tim athe eruption decreases, and finally is mn ha cause fe column of lava in the crater, being of a density superior to the water of the sea, chokes the A tera and the volcano must then resume its quiet operatio ut, why should I endeavour to describe what must hap: pen? Let us rather ascertain what has happened, and see i the facts recorded agree with the shabey here pre- nted. “One of the first ee who gives an account of Ve- vius, is, I believe, Pliny the younger. e read in his Epist. XX, x ib. vi. fees remarkable words: _ oe mare in se resorberi et tremore terre quasi repelli vide s. Certé processerat littus, multa animalia maris sic- cis arenis ng eer Ab altero latere nubes atra et horrenda ignei spiritds tortis vibratisque discursibus rupta, in longas flam- marum figuras dehiscebat ; fulgoribus ille et similes et majores erant.” The retreat of the sea, and its sudden return by the effect of the elasticity of the Said, seems to be one of the certained facts. Eruption of Fenrvius, 1730, ——— some Phil. Trans. * March 8th. Vesuvius mrs a ik a great smo ke ind etren evening, after eight o *clock, the fire arose to a vast height...... Pumice stones, red hot, of two or more ounces weight, were driven several miles like a shower of hail.” The blazing flame, hollow rumbling, throwing up of smoke, ashes, and st stone, are but Pon natural results already antici- pated. ‘Collection 0 Share ers concerning Earthquakes felt in Eng- a. i afer Phil. Trans, vol. 46. 2 ct ‘The mi gi get was felt preceels.s at Cocpete potent 20 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. agitation in one moment, is such a prodigy, as we would never believe, did we not know, it to be a fact, from our own senses.’ The astonishment of the writer of this peragree® would have ceased, if he had conceived, as ourselves, t at the va- cuum Se T, in a receiver is almost instantaneous in all its parts, whatever be its extent, or is filled as instantaneous- ly, because steam and gases rush into a vacuum at the rate of thirteen hundred and five feet in a second of time, under the pressure of one atmosphere: what then must it be under eight hundred? The following extracts will come again in support of this assertion. Accaat Be: an adtarshquake at Lisbon, Nov. Ist, ites _ Dr. melfal. Phil. Tr. vol. 4 a a “& Soon Sater, the shock, (forty wane past nine,) which "wa near high water, the tide rose forty feet t higher, in an “ete than was ever known, and as suddenly subsided.” The same at Oporto, in ister Nov. 1st, 1755. Phal. Tr. - It feyit about half an shea ae nine....and soon saw the r er in some places open, and throw out a vast deal of wind, which was very terrifying... The same at Cadiz, Nov. 1st, nebigt ee eee wees ar. vol. 4 “Just before ten, the whole fea was shaken with a *vcient times, but with less force each time.” The some in Barbary, Nov. Ist t, 1755. General eee Governor e eg» of Gibraltar. Phil. Tr. vol. 4 At Teta the earthquake began at ten in the morning... At Tangier, “ it began about the same time......the sea came e up ‘to the very walls, a thing never seen before, and went down with the same rapidity." These commotions of the sea were repeated eighteen me es not with the same violence as at the first time...... The foun ains were dried up, so that there was no see to be had till night.” 4 ys At Arzila, «é it happened about the same time.” _ eS ih i Tae ar asl prt th ao ia dll RS Sah tip a Sah ad Peas On Volcanos and Earthquakes. a1 The same in the Island of Madeira, — — —_ Dr. Thomas Heberden. Phil. Tr. “ At half-a an hour past nine o’clock in wate morni ing was s felt shock of an earthquake......In the northern part of the island, the The same at Neufchatel, in as Nov. 1st, 1755. Mr. Pan- “ The dreadful Es as eons perceived even in this untry ; it ye our lake to the height of near two feet above its natural level...... The same at Lyons, in France, Nov. 1st, 1755. Mr. Trembley. Phi ol. 49. ¢¢]t is said that the waters retired for some moments at the end of the lake of Geneva, and that a motion was observed in those of the lake of Zurich...... Agitation of the Waters. om s+ aga John Pringle. Phil. * About ten o’clock of Ze ‘reno, 2 a seaport on the Frith of Forth, about seven miles higher up than Leith, the water was observed to rise very suddenly, sid Bacon again with = same motion; and this continued for three or feor thinutes See then calm; but after the second and third rush of water, always less.” 1atitude to 3 be fiftieth, a is to sa am aie ‘of Africa from Morocco up to Tangier, on the. epiais of Spain and 22 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. Portugal, France, Hamburg, the coast of England, and even to the north of Scotland. However, a fact observed by Captain Affleck, of the Advice man-of-war, then at Antigua, and recorded in the cigars Transactions, vol. 49, surpasses in wonder even all this “ On the first of November last, you had a remarkable flux and reflux of the sea at agen and other parts of the coast, which was agitated in like m Yr, AT THE SAME TIME, on t the coast of America, and all these “islands.” If by the words “same time” is meant the same hour, it is in fact three hours later, on account of the difference of longitude, and the distance between ee of explosion across the Atlantic to the Antilles, being about four thousand miles, and will givea velocity of two thousand and forty feet 2 a. Prcond of time. This velocity cannot be that of a wave water ; it must be, it can be, but a velocity of percussion in an elastic fluid or gas of a greater density than atmosphe- ric air. This fact, and similar ones, will enable us one da to give not only a mathematical decionsiitios of the exist- ence of such a fluid under the sea, but also to calculate ex- actly its density. t us proceed in our investigation. Earthquake in Calabria, 1638, {n Goldsmith’s History of the Earth, is an account of that great convulsion of nature, translated from the celebrated Father Kircher, from which we extract the two following observations : zis The Gulph of Charybdis, which we approached, seemed w rled round in such a manner as to form a yast hollow, verg- gtoa point in the centre.’ “And afterwards : « The sea itself seemed to wear a very unusual appearance. Those who have seen a lake in a violent shower of rain, covered all over with bubbles, will thd some idea of its agitation; my surprise was still increased by the calmness and the weather; not a aes 2 i ite Pe 3 and serenity of "The rushing of the sea into a subterranean mc cannot be better demonstrated than by the first observation, and the ejection of gases through its water, than by the second. * soy Nes agit, ET Sig DL Pali ga alee ae OMNI BE Pe = ‘ mean ‘ Wie tes ores ae a coer Se ee oe ae RMA ene ee ee On Volcanos ano: and Earthqua kes, 93 _ Earthquake in Sicily, 1692. Schenchzer.. Phil. Tr. vol, 33. aint Just at the time of the second shock, the sea retired from the Jand, all along the coast, leaving its bottom dry fora considerable distance, and in a few minutes it returned again with great fury, and overflowed the shores. In many places the earth gaped pro- digiously......Out of all these openings sprung forth a great quan- es, stones and ash inguin in st 138 Calabrias, Messina, &c. 1783. By Sir Wm. milton. Phil. Tr. vol. 73. “ A shock had kas and agitated the sea so Ahir that the wave went furiously three miles inland, and swept off in its re- turn two thousand four hundred te iovete titan of the inhab- itants of Scilla, &c. the moment of the earthquake the river disappeared, and returning soon after, overflowed, &c. “6 The officer who commanded in the citadel (Messina) assured ae that on the fifth of February, and the three following days, sea, about a suarice ¥ #2 a mile frem that fortress, rose and boiled with a most horrid noise, &c : ~The same. 1783. Count Francesco Ippolito. pe the Italian. <¢ Flames were seen to issue from the gr _&e. “ Out of many of these apertures a great quantity of water spouted during several a mi aay one of them, rape ‘a mile from the sea, there cam a large quantity of salt water. Warm — likewise hte: eee the apertures fio in the plain, & Molesce Islands. eg In a letter to Nicholas Wetsen, of Amster- ey Tr. toh ADE 2.3 ~*¢' The moun 2 (—— cast out so many stone, and some near six feet ry t 22 ne Y ecentiee, which has been forty or fifty fathoms deep, is not only filled up there, but become mae fathoms higher than the water.” Eruption of Mount mes Jone 18 “i hea Sir William Ham- os — The classical Pi of the gras of: er which destroyed Herculaneum and Pompei, mee y of the existing printed accounts of its great eruption in 1 631, might pass for an account of the late eruption, by only changing the date, and omit 24 On Volcanos and Earthquakes. ting the circumstance of the retreat of the sea from the shore, Ww Hel Saar in both those great eruptions, and not in this, The water of the sea not retiring from the coast in this eruption seems to be an anomaly. Whether the suction or aspiration was performed too slowly, or too far from the 0 be observed, or whether it did not take place at all from the sea, still we are in no apprehension of seeing an eruption without the presence of water ; for, in the same re- lation, a few lines lower, we read : “ The water at the great omnia. at Torre del Greco esa to decrease some days before the eruption. volt ene = the other wells of the to town and its ne xed SuDeereistl noises were heard at Resina for two days be- fore the eruption. Soon after the beginning of it, ashes fell thick at the foot of the mountain....and though there were not at that time any clouds in the air, the ashes were wet, eo, with large drops of water, which were to the taste very salt...... * After some ae the lava ran in eo Te | rng an nd with incessant reports, like those from a numerous heavy artillery, er anied by a contra hollow statin, like that of the the ocean during a violent storm; and, added to these, was another blowing noise, which brought to my mind that noise which is px roduced by the action of enormous bellows at the fur- ® Carron iron compete: in Scotland, and which it per- ) yet If this last pana had been written with the direct in- tention of supporting our oy: og uld Sir Wm. Hamilton have made use of other expressi -.We will here recapitulate in a ae words the whole of the pothesis. We have endeavored to establish—that the sur pre eed earth, as deep as four miles and seven-eighths, is he domain of water ; that it cannot penetrate deeper, as it On Volcanos and Earthquakes. 45 mediate cause of earthquakes and voleanos that it ceases to be problematical how these fires under ground are not smoth- ered for want of oxygen, and how those under the sea are ose breaking out in a volcanic eruption, &c. &c. But it is high time to close this article, not because the subject is exhausted, for it seems to extend in proportion as we proc but b se the limits granted to a publication are perhaps already outreached. We will hereafter present yur readers ‘new considerations derived from the Joseru Du Commun. Objections to the above Theory.* ist. The experiments of Perkinst prove that air, and those of Mr. Faraday,{ that many gases, and from analogy, (ground- = so many established cases,) we may infer that all gases, under extreme compression, especially when aided by cold, lose their elastic form, and become fluid. is being the fact, all reasonings respecting the con- dition. of air under extreme pressure, must contemplate it as a fluid—(truly such while the pressure exists)—and resumi its elastic character, by diminution or removal of pressure. 3d. Whether it would form a stratum, distinct from wa- ter, must depend upon the existence or absence of affinity * Forwarded to the author in a letter from the Editor. + Jones’ Mechanics’ Mag. IV. 2. ¢ Phil. Transac. London, 1828; Vou. AV.—No. Is 4 a On Volcanos and Earthquakes. between the two fluids, and upon their relative speeifie ravi ath, ‘That any particular effect of pressure upon air may take place, deep in the ocean, must of course depend upon the fact Hat air is conveyed to the region supposed. _ 5th. No cause is obvious, that can produce such an effect; the. Sainte contact of air and water, however often re- peated, can do no more than saturate water with air, at the particular temperature and pressure 6 n this condition, and upon the surface of the globe, the water and the air form, apparently, a homogeneous flu- id, and should this fluid descend to the Taos depth, and be subjected to ever so many mile s of p tis ceived that, the air : - rgo any other chan hin e diminution of v ,as proved by Mr. Perkiae’ experiment on the ity of water, 7th. Could air be forced down through and beneath a su- erincumbent ocean, of the depth supposed, then it would bei ina suitable condition to receive the effect of the pres- sure; but air, eeeay united to water at or near the surface, has already bec a fluid by the union, (or a constituent of a fluid,) and oa probably undergo no other change than a mere fluid undergoe 8th. Is it physically —~ that any aerial body should be subjected to such a pressure, as to acquire as grav- ity greater than that of water, and still retain its aerial form? Would not the supposed Spronmatio’ of its particles neces- sarily cause it to becomea ; and is it not physically ae ele that by increased ae it may become even a solid ? <— — Answer to.the Objections. Novi and 2. Experiments made in Paris, prove that air may bi above the density of water, without losin ng its elastic (OF gaseous xroperties; the point at t_ which it vier a liqui one beyond that density. - No. hy 8h itnot form a stratum under water, its density Belg y iteh oe mb two fluids having combined as far as their affini goes ~ No. 4 and 5. True, toe the air should be conveyed to the st regions of the ocean, is a consequence of its whole mass being saturated with i Ni 0.6 and 7. That the air should separate from water sat- Pee eG er Ses y SS Ys Volcanos. — oF :: . ~ — ie =—— ad MOeasieuss ated and compe is deduced 7 oo from what rn the surface, as is explained in the article itself. - ; e best answer to this last, and perhaps to all the ther objections, is to copy here an extract of the Puizoso- PHICAL TRANSACTIONS, 1826. On Compression of Atmos- pheric Air, by Paka. “In the course of my experiments on the compression of atmospheric air, | observed a curious fact, which induced me to extend the experiment ; viz: that of the air beginning to po at a pressure of five hun- dred atmospheres, evidently by a partial iwetaction, which is indicated by the quicksi ae not se down toa level with its surface. At an increased es of. aie drungeed Le lege the quicksilver was suspended about one-eighth of the volume up the tube or gasometer. At eight hundred siriedephatee it remained about one-third up the tube ; at one thousand atmospheres, two-thirds up the tube, and small globules of liquid began to form about the top of it; at twelve hundred atmospheres the quicksilver remained three- quarters up the tube, and a beautiful transparent liquid was seen on the surface of oe quicksilver, i in quantity about 51,4 part of the column of air. _ From these experiments, it rota as a fact, that under . the t of e hundred a ospheres, two-thirds of the air is still under an aerial + ati although its density is then equal to that of water; and even at twelve hundred, when it is much denser, one-third of it is not liquefied. This is ate tient for us to maintain that under the pressure of the sea : layer of air may produce the effects we have endeavored to describe. . B. We regret that the beautiful experiments of Mr. Perkins on the compressibility of water have not been per- ormed upon water at forty degrees of temperature, its great- est natural condensation, instead of fifty degrees, and upon water entirely deprived of air; this would be a still greater proof that water itself is condensed, and not the air it con- tains, or not that the caloric, which dilates it, is repelled by compression. By similar reasons, the compression of air should have been performed on air perfectly dry, that an not be objected that some water has been a experiment performed also on oxygen a tote separately to show, whether these gases liquefy sad at ae same p. sure when they are not combined as in the a tmospheri 28 Descriptive Arrangement of Volcame Rocks. Art. IV.—Descripiive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks ; 3 by G. Pouterr Scrore, Esq., M. G.S. (Communicated by the ee? to the English Journal of Science, &c. No. 42, - or July, 1826.] Iv the course of a series of investigations of the geology 4 volcanic districts, the writer of this paper has met with grea inconvenience from the. want of a fixed nomenclature ad mineralogical classification of this family of rocks. MM. Cordier and Fileurian de Bellevue, in two well known muse ep eee! a systematic arrangement of agen rocks on minera principles ;_ | however, has not t into. general use, owing perhaps. to som sr sin perfections in t ae ot iran arrangement. — corre . D’Aubuisson followed these writers in classing the py- rogen ous rocks into two main families, co er and basalt ; Sccording: to the. prevalence of felspar or augite in their com- on, and these terms have since been generally adopted on the. continent, ~ But of late great confusion has pose introduced into. the er by the getenniuacien of M. de Beaudant,{ and after of M. de Humboldt,t to-confine the terms Trachyte and Basalt to rocks of a Particular age and position in the geolo- gical series. The attempt has originated in an unfortunate mistake of these distingulehed seclogisie: bo who have been led by their observations to presume, - at r nicks of the mineral character of trachyte never occur super o'their own conglomerates, or to tertiary rats. That notion is false in fact, may be proved by numerous examples from the Mont Dor, Sanat and Italy. - But, had it been true, stil it pss no means allowable to employ the mineralogical title of a tock to designate its place in a geological series. This is the ma Seairan ge in the latter author, because he talks of granites of dif erent ages, of syenites and porphyries of prim- sition formati c.; and because he ever expresses himself in these positive words; “ There are tra- Seton, phonelet basalts, obsidians, and perlites, of di iffer- ent ages, just as there are different formations of granite, : ae Essai s nes de tous les Ages.—Journal Jounal agile. = isurian ran do pi — Journal de Physique, eer Ixxxiv. m. iii. . *} ee Bssai:-Geo eoligique, nt of Volcanic Rocks. 29 neissy, mica-schist, limestone, gre acke, syenite, and por- How then, after this, ei F the pene author 2am © the term trachyte, basalt, and phonolite, to. rocks of a icular epoch, and vaguely unite all the rocks mineralogi- ate ‘tenbeal with them, but bearing appearances of a later date, under the undescriptive, undistinctive term “ Lavas.” How much more simple, after such a confession of the dif- ferent ga of the same rocks, to name them qnologicaly by Po A sandstone, trachytes of the greensand, recent trachytes, so obvious that the determination of the mineral char- antes of a rock must precede any @ artamps to find its place in a geological system, since it is only by these characters that it can be distinguished from the other rocks with which it is associated, that it is difficult to believe any person would er a geolo sification. In fact, such a classification is a Tabular D1 stony. of Rocks, or of the globe’ s surface, an requires a great eal of previous description and comparison of all these rocks. i to their mineral nature. It is also founded on hypothetical views, since it is a mere arpa esis, and perhaps a false one, more pa articulat to the eanietan strata, and, above all, the Bie ee GB ore arrangement of rocks on such a basis must necessarily be dubious, insecure, and often erroneous. Whereas no error can be committed in a nomenclature which is merely de- scriptive, and aed on oryctognostical pupaiples. The character inferred by the name must always be true of the rock to which it has been applied ;_ Recitative ghee as to.age or origin are kept out of view ; ‘at the same time that this arrangement displays Seoetenons ‘rocks known in a clear, concise, and ready manner, for the purpose of any u erior classification upon geognostl tical or geological principles that —_ be preferred.*- “ees te er absurdity of making the pinay only mame a a rock indica- ie ts mineral nature, but its. geological connexions, is instantly seen, tin that this ecole were acted on, not in one or two, but in all a = 30 Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. a view is to offer concise and comprehensive definitions of the principal oryctognostical characters of this family of rocks, e use of which any one of its members may be distinct- ly described by an observer in a manner intelligible to all geologists. The primary characters by which alone the nature of a rock or mineral mass, simple or compound, can be identified, teristics, € primary qualities, that of mineral composi- tion 1s obviously by far the most important towards identify- ing the rock. All the other characteristics are pro ac- cidental modifications determined by the mineral composi- tion, under the influence of external circumstances ; whereas it 1s difficult to conceive this latter character to be’ in any way influenced by the others, under any circumstances. _ Hence the mineral composition of the rocks under review at present has been taken as the basis of their systematic ar- rangement into genera and species ; the sub-species and va- 3; the consequence of which would be, that we should have no names im say that granite k determined by its underlying gneiss ; g by its underlying mica-schist, and by its beari k dso wo [ ursue the most vicious of all cire! eans of nguishing an over fi derlying roe by thei ions of mineral character: these mu Crick Geel peepee ralogi teristics of each roc! jand the mine cs of each rock defined, : without ing some name to it, ore their rela- ns of position can become a question. To force the pri : k arises a gener: > of its mineralogical character. : ; qu name of a roc to denote its supposed place in a ical series, would be as inconvenient irrational as to confine the name of a simple mineral to one found in a par- ieular locality, so that, when met with in new nam in- Vented for it; or to give, for » the name of felspar to this mineral onl Heompany with mica; and refuse it the appellation when associated with it is si Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. 31 rieties being distinguished, according to the remaining pri — 5 means under the separate heels of— { . Tex nternal structure. 9. Mision ‘disposition. 4. Natural division. _. There is, however, one previous distinction which it is in- cumbent to draw between the rocks of the trap family, and which is rather of a geological than mineralogical nature ; Viz, their division into the two classes of lithoidal or mass- ive, and fragmentary rocks ; —* as they are compo- sed of minerals intimately united b by the force of crystalline aggregation ; or merely of separate parcels of matter, =e herent, or enveloped in a cement, whether crystalline earthy, but evidently of later origin than the Fragmetited portion it encloses The second step is to arrange the lithoidal rocks into ge- nera, according to — broad ‘general characters of mineral constitution. _ Now it has been ascertained that all the rocks of this family, with me few exceptions, are —— com- posed of —— and augite in varying proportio -— plac et canis onThe Lets chelate the mate Senet occasionally replaced to a greater or less extent by mica; and this occurs only when the felspar ee peety in excess. The augite is either pyroxene or hornbl = the one seem- ing to replace the other in proportion to the abundance’ of felspar.. Titaniferous iron and. sphene are subordinate but very general ingredients in these rocks; the former is often in considerable quantity, and abounds most in the augitic species. Quartz occurs very rarely in crystals or grains; Eeinet, spinelle, sapphire, and other still rarer minerals can ‘be reckoned as accidents. t is seen then tbat these rocks naturally group themselves into two pri | ers; viz—1. That in which felspar redominates exceotingly.- 2. That in which augite or the ous minerals are in excess ; or at least so abundant as to stamp their character on the rock. 'Thisi is, in fact, the division which has been generally made by the continental geologists, who have called the former order trachyte, the a t the dindés of mineral composition amongst the esd rocks of this family are so varied in nature, and ae 32+ Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. uate so imperceptibly into one another, that two genera alone can hardly be reckoned sufficient. : very numerous tribe of rocks is to be met with, in which the proportions of felspar and augite are such, that it is im- possible to tell which predominates, while, in their general characters, the rocks are so unlike the extremes of either ge- nus, that it is scarcely allowable to rank them together. It s from these reasons expedient to institute an inter- mediate class of rocks, for the reception of those members which cannot, without difficulty, be referred to either of the two extremes. ‘The name which I conceive most appropri- ate to them, as having been applied to such rocks already by Werner and other mineralogists, and as susceptible of lit- tle misconception, is greystone, (graustein,) their color being universally of some tint of grey, generally lead-grey, green- ish, tron, purplish, or slate-grey, with the exception only of their vitrified varieties, some of which have assumed a black color, which, however, passes away under the blowpipe, and is succeeded by the usual grey tint.* The genera of the volcanic, or trap family of rocks, will then consist of—_ I. Trac : Il. Greystone. III. SALT. It may, perhaps, be. objected to the basis of this arran ment, that slinee ubjects fre eal deucres, and hence their constituent minerals are undiscoverable. is, er. the case. There are very few “hest, a microscope, will not discover a granitoidal mixture of the constituent minerals in a crystalline form. The meth- od of hechanical analysis, first proposed by M. Cordier, will det ne thi with i for di nary purposes, examination with a lens will be sufficient, and even the color ae gst aang ly depended on as an accurate criterion, unless the is passing to a resinous or vitreous * Gre tone corresponds in part to the class of volcanic rocks called te- Pliny Bt dol Meter Xt campus he ape fe “it Descriptive Arrangement of Voleanie Rocks. 33 state, onder’ which circumstances the Tightes colored . rocks sometimes assume a blackish h that avery fre per cent.; when thes ‘initials are in less ortion than seventy- Ave per cent., the rock should be ~ elassed as basalt. Another auxiliary test, in which greater confidence may be reposed, is the specific gravity of the substance when re- duced to powder. In fact, the specific gravity of the augitic and ferruginous minerals is so greatly superior to that of fel- spar, that an observation of this nature will indicate the gen- eral proportion of these two classes of minerals in any vol- canic rock. In general, the specific gravity of ‘ trachyte will be found not to exceed 2. 7, that of greystone 3.0, while ba- salt occasionally reaches 3.50, which is much above the spe- cific gravity of augite alone, and caused sf the presence of a quantity of iron in a metallic state. _ A third test consists in the colour of the glass, Bemaisas by fusion of the mineral before the blowpipe. That resulting from trachyte is light coloured, and nearly transparent. 7 glass of greystone is darker, and spotted with numerous green or black specks, often of a green colour, bearing a Basalt melts into a dark green, or black oat Observations which have often been made on these r and w without being insisted on as infallible criteria will yet often assist in distinguishin, ing them, are— 1. That leucite has n rom found to occur in any tra- chyte, only making its mare ated when the proportion of the heavier minerals is considerable; rarely in greystone, - oftener in basalt. : * Appa rently derived from the ae which appears, from chemical anal- Mora Seca ait —~ in this condition of the rock, and which is volatilized on ex- posure to the blowpipe. Vor. XV.—No. 1. 5 34 Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. 2. Olivin never has been met with as yet but in basalt; it appears to replace the felspar, in part or altogether, only when augite is in excess. The specific divisions of these genera should be drawn from minor modifications of mineral constitution: a tabular view of the principal species is subjoined : Genus I.—Tracuyre, characterized as above. Species A. ees trachyte with mica, hornblende, or augite, o somes bet h, and grains of titanife- rous “ _ B. Simple T.. without any visible ingredient | but fel- ~ C. Quartziferous T., when containing numerous crystals of qu uartz, « _ P—. Siliceous T., when there appears to have been introduced a great deal of silex into its com- position, Genus I].—GreysTone. A. Common greystone, TT of felspar, augite, or hornblende and iron B. Leucitie greystone, when leucite pe Sens the t C. Melilitic greystone, when melilite is subiatiteted for that mineral, &c. Genus 1t-B seawy, characters as above, ati A. hae basalt, composed of felspar, augite, and ie Bice B., when leucite pe "sind the felspar. Basalt, with olivin in lieu of fels D. Basalt, with hauyne in lieu of Sclgnait E. Ferruginous basalt, when iron is the predominant feat. B. Augitic foe when n pyroxene or hornblende composes nearly the whole of the rock. “Phe thatacter which ranks next in importance, towards the descriptive qualification of a arent rock, is its texture, Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. 35 and by this —— the sub-species may be, with proprie- vn lithoidal volcanic rocks, with the exception only o those which have partly, or evil, passed by complete a sion into the state of glass, consist a an aggregation ‘of more or less imperfect crystals of one or more mine The average size of these crystals, or ‘itegrant particles, determines the grain of the rock, which is one of the ele- ments of its texture. When the average size of the crystals ~ SO mi as to strike the eye ae its a structure at in granites, the is called granitic ; vies of sacks size as to be aiecormae nif by close inspection, granular ; and when so minute as to require a lens to ascer- tain its crystalline texture, or the assistance of the mechani- cal analysis, compact. When the rock appears to be passing to the state of a glass or enamel, assuming a pearly, waxy, or resinous lustre, its texture is called resinous, or semi-vitre- ous ; and lastly, the finest texture of all is the vitreous, or glassy lane besides the size of the a rere particles, another character influences the texture of the , Viz., their more gi eart compact, producing the Another and still more importa characteristic is, the regu- the whole m rock, and, in fact, forms the onl tion between granite and gneiss, claystone e and ne. Hence, according to the arrangem d here, the ite aly of the volcanic rocks Should be ee by ts significative of their peculiar texture, viz: i 36 Descriptive Arrang gement of Volcanic Rocks. A. Granitic ) | B. Granular “| a Massive, or granitoidal. | Loose «. 5 Mel ne rb Scaly, or foliated. Close 8. ou The texture is also either, 1, Uniform, which needs no ex- planation, or, 2. Varied, when consisting of parts of different texture. Epithets may be also made use of to describe the aon form and disposition of these parts, as, 1. Nodular. 2. Lenticular. 3. Zoned. 4. Brecciated. “These varieties of texture in the same mass are generally connected with, and in all probability owing to, an unequal distribution of the different minerals com the sub- stance, which forms another very characteristic distinction amongst this family of rocks, and may with propriet be as- sumed as the basis of their division nto varieties. The prin- “ modes of eer Simation e— he the flints in chalk. = 5. Lenticular coneretionary, when the Bgure of an segre- ongated in any one dire concr cotar y, when they are stongated still more Veined, w one or more species of minerals appear to have poses ati: in the ro ygdaloidal, when one or =n minerals have occu- Hed vesicular cells j in it. ~ The next head under Which it has been thought right to class the characteristic qualities of these rocks, is their inter- nal structure, which comprehends the following varieties :— . Massive, or compact.” Z E ee font as are all Sota on He a bibalou 3 Cellular, when the cavities are visible to the eye, but ee and angular. . Vesicular, when the cells are more or less spheroidal. * Coxennites when the blisters or air-cells are of a very large size, and very numerous 6. Spumous, when the air-cells are so numerous as to give a lightness and frothy appearance to the rock, as in some varieties of pumice and scoria. 7. Filamentous, when composed of twisted thread-tike fi- bres. The last head to be noticed in the description of this class of rocks is their dwvistonary structure ; by which is meant the figures or the parts into which the rock is divided by seams or natural clefts. Frequently there are no such separations of continuity, and the rock is then pronounced amorphous. The varieties of structure structure may be classed as— e bedd ructure, when divided into massive beds. 2. Stratified, w set beds are less bulky, from the great- = ney of “oe ‘ abular, when the separate divisions are still thinner, a, and of no great longitudinal extent. — . Laminar, when still thinner. side gaan : Schistose, lamellar, or slaty ; a well cow dractire 6. Columnar, when the divisions are regular many-sided prisms of considerable lengt 7. Prismatic, when the form of the prisms is less regular, = the transverse joints more frequen - Rhomboidal, when there exists a double system of par- alle seams, dividing the an $ into portions approaching in figure to cubes o mboi v: ConchSite:priewetie ae the boundaries of these por- tions are curvilinear. 10. The globiform, when the rock is div — into — masses of a large size. These are often subdivided in centric lamine, less frequently into radiating prisms, r ren columns. 11. The globular, when the spherical concretions are very a s ie 38 Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. 12. The angulo-globular, when the rock separates into small angular divisions rudely approaching to a globular form. It resembles the conchoido-prismatic structure on a very small scale. The secondary characters of these rocks are often of ser- vice towards ascertaining with greater precision their prima- ry qualities, and thus accurately defining the rock. They consist chiefly of— 1. The lustre and fracture ; both of which depend upon, and consequently disclose, the texture of the rock. 2. Harilness, which indicates the mineral composition. 3. Solidity, or the coherence of its integrant parts, which depends upon texture. = . 4. Fus , which varies somewhat with the size of the grain; the smallest grain melting most readily ceteris pari- bus ; but it depends chiefly on the mineral composition of the rock, of which it becomes a serviceable test. 5. Colour usually indicates the mineral nature of the rock, Each of the three genera of lithoidal volcanic rocks pos- sesses their conglomerates, which may be referred to any of them, according to the mineral nature of the composing frag- ments. They thus are divided into— ae 1, Trachytic conglomerates. 2. Greystone ditto. 3. Ba- saltic ditto. : '_ The primary characters of these conglomerates, by which they are most distinctly recognized and described, consist & ‘The average size of the fragments; which may be A. rse, when of a considerable size. B, Gravelly, when of a medium size. C. Sandy, or arenaceous. D. Fine. E. Argillaceous. F. Mixed, when fragments of one size or more are imbed- ded in a base or cement of finer materials. The cement is Cc occasionally of crystalline texture | z 39 sia ‘Tho form ofthe fragments ms leche noticed. This - is either, a, angu ular, 8. water-worn, ¥. rolled. 3. The Gagnon should be referred, if possible, to some mineral species of lithoidal rocks, and their varieties, if any, taken notice of; as well as the occurrence of isolated crys- tals, rare minerals, shells, wo c 4, The solidity of the con lomerate rock ; which may be, o incoherent, or earthy, Bind ated, . The divisionary Amani ure, pare occasionally me with in conglomerate as well as in lithoidal rocks, ee ject to the same varieties of form The volcanic rocks, both lithoidal and conglomerate, are sometimes found in-an altered state, from having been expo- sed to the decomposing influence either proximate emanations of Lcoenete vapours charged with sulphuric and muriatic acids ; or, , Of the ordinary atmospheric pai nis. Ta the first case, the alumine and potass of the felspar and augite are taken up by the sulphuric acid, and deposited by the agency of water, as sulphat a alumine (alumstone,) in the cavities aud fissures of the rock, and in neighbouring hol- lows ; leaving the remainder of the rock, composed almost solely of silex, in a canous state, but often filled NP ier other infiltrated matters as well as alum, and stained w rrugi- nous oxides, from the union of its iron with re 202 pons of the acids. In the second case, the decomposition gite and felspar, sometimes of one, at others of both, —_— ces a variety of argillaceous earths or boles, giving to the rock, which is then often called wacke, a more or less argil- laceous aspect, proportionate to the degree of decomposi- tion, and sufficient to render it occasionally difficult to recog- nise its original mineral composition. These boles are some- times conveyed by aqueous infiltrations into the cellular and other cavities = the rock, giving occasion to the amygdaloi- dal compositio The object ono posbtls in the foregoing remarks is to endea- vour to establish a fixed nomenclature for the principal cha- racteristics of the voleanic rocks, so as to enable any obser- ver to define or describe their Mn accurately and distinctly; for the ulterior purposes of geology. Names may be subsequently given by geologists to any of these varie- ties, for the sake of avoiding a redundancy of words, or not, % 40 Descriptive Arrangement of Volcanic Rocks. character, ’ Resinous trachyte is generally by the name of pitch- sibel Ae ciive es stone ; wtreous by that of obsidian; and the same when med into globular concretions, perlite or pearlstone ; and the same vitreous basalt has been called gallinace by the French geologists. NW. Pit of he Late of he Weve At eer, V oa Fepsrt of = ae Wisc. pos on the part of his Britannic Majesty under the sixth and seventh Articles of the Treaty of Ghent : on his Astronomical. Ob- servations for we the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Wood: 4 (Communicated by Prof. Renwick, for insertion in this Journal.) Iv order to explain the operations by which I have endea- voured to ascertain the most borin point of the Lake oft entitle it to the appellation the “ ae: northwestern.” In so doing, I hope I shall not overstep the province of the astron- ~ mer, who is ey itty to be qualified to ae definitions of terms connected with his science. If there should be a dif- ference of opinion on the meaning of the words “ most north- western,” I shall humbly offer that definition which appears to me to be the true one, with due deference to ihe judg: ment of the Honorable Board of Commissioners, in order to lider intel the operations which I have mmnt and the conclusions at which I none arrived, on thi subject. The most northwestern point of a Lake appears to me to be the point which has the following property, viz: that ifa loxodromic line be drawn from it, intersecting ey, an in the direction from southwest to northeast, at an. angle of forty-five, and such loxodromie line be continued, both ways if necessary, to its intersection with the meridian ‘of the extreme eastern and western points of the lake, this line shall touch no other water of the lake. It is wel known, that on reasigeinest $s projection, ee loxodromie li aight solution a Setatormably to the definition here given, baits therefore, more simple by projecting the lake, the most Eetahwestern point of which is to be ascertained, in this manner, on a plain surface. On aes a Balecion that point of the lake from whicha north- east and southwest course can be drawn, wi yuching or intohicthes any other point of the lake, is the most north- western one 5 and in order to ascertain which of two given points is the more northwest, it bio be sufficient to connect Vor. XV.—No. 1 42 N. W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. the two points by a straight line on the map, (projected ac- cording to Mercator.) _ If the angle formed by this line, and one of the parallels of the map, be more than an angle o 45°, the northern point is the more northwest; if less, the southern is the more northwest; if 45° exactly, the two points are equally northwest. It will be easily seen, that if through the southern one of the two points, which are thus to be compared, a parallel of latitude be drawn, and through the northern one a meridian, and those lines be continued until their intersection, a right angled triangle will be form- ed, the hypothenuse of which is the straight line, connecting the two points in question, or the course from the one to the other, and the two cathetes the difference of longitude and the difference of latitude of the two points on the map. The angle formed by the connecting line of the two points with the parallel is exactly 45°, if the difference of longitude on the map is equal to the difference of latitude ; it is — = ; than 45°, if the difference of latitude be ia ns than the difference of longitude, both being measured on a map pro- jected on Mercator’s principles. If therefore the differences of latitude and longitude be expressed in figures, in the same manner, for example in minutes of a degree, on the principle of Mercator’s projection, these numbers will immediately | show which is the more northwestern one of the two points! The degrees of longitude are’ all equal on Mercator’s projec- tion, and may be easily expressed in any manner required. > degrees of latitude increase from the Equator to the Pole: the expression of the length of a meridian from the Equator to’ the latitude L., in minutes of a de. me 191 : es'0 de b gation, under the-head of “meridional parts.” From all this, i appear, that in order to ascertain: which is the more northwestern one of two points, the longitude and lati- press it in minutes of a degree, (which numbers thus express N.W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. 43 by a common. measure the difference of longitude and lati- on Mercator’s projection,) and if the former number is camel than the latter, the } rt ons , point is themore northwestern o The map of ‘the Lake of the Woods, which Mr. ‘Thomp- son has constructed from his eh tno that there are two points on this lake which are more northwest than all other ame of the lake, and so nearly ‘equally ile as to require a more accurate comparison, in order to pro- nounce with certainty which of them is, OAS rd the principles above explained, the most northwesterh point of the Lake of the Woods. These two points are: 5 the most northwest point of a deep bay, on which Mr. Thompson has placed his monument No. 1, (in latitude 46° 23’ nearly. of my astronomical Pre ae. is a “trom that the conclu- sions which have been drawn from the map with regard to the situation of the intermediate points, are perfectly just, ore comparing the situation of those points, I have endeavoured accurately to ascertain their difference of longitude, and their latitude, for which purposes the following observations were m ade. I have used an excellent sextant, of nine inches radius, made by Mr. Troughton, and two pocket chronometers, one made by Arnold, (No. 2111,) and the other by er (No. 201.) most northwest point in the neighbourhood of Mr. Thompson’s monument, No. 1, having no camping ground near it, I thought best to make my o Mbervations at the mon- ument itself, and to connect this point with the other by ac- tual measurement. 44 N. W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. Mr. Tuomeson’s Monument No. 1. Circummeridian Observations o as a 8 Index error — 7” 53 Altitude for determining the Thermometer 75° Time by Arnold)Double “as seed “Time =, ArnoldjDouble ‘erg Sun’s 2 U.L. 2111. «Ase Tuy 2 0h 0 4073) "7 120° 7 30"\July 27. Oh 65872) ‘119° 6 307 1 29 wees be 7.62: 6 35 215 2 50 8 16 2 6 15 4-2-3) % 9 25 10. 27 3 5 15 14 33 4 45 ll 123 4 50 17.12 4 0 50 12 17 4° °5 18 11 3 119 58 40 13 33 3 10 19 64 56 50 Result: Zenith distance of Sun’s panies at pans 30° 10’ oe 70 Refraction less parallax, — - 90 declination, «= += - o- 419 1b 43 00 _. Latitude of Thompson’s Monument No. fs 3 60 - Larrived “ Mr. T.’s er near noon; it was cloudy the -whole aftern and consequently no observations for determin- oon, ing the time were made this day, (July 27.) hot Z ta Ma. ‘Tuompson’s Monument No. 1, Circummeridian Observations of the one error + 2"2 Sun for determining the Latitude. Time bs ee. sb Alt.of Sun’s/Time tA Secnaed Alt.of Sun’s July27.. 23h ar 1199. 37! Ste i re 118° 38 25! 59 38 6 38 50, 59 a 39 ox 38 55 59 57 39 6 46. 38 50 28, 0 1.34 40 7 25.1. 38. 40 : 2 32 ~ 40 8 4) “38. 30 en 313 si. ; 8 32] 38 10 - 9 Bly “4 9.12 37 50 phen: «AP 20 4 ae eh 4 40 ae ) 38 gee pall 20 5: Result : Zenith distance of ee centre at noon, 30° 24’ 45” 80 ; - Refrac saa hate parallax. 28 22 - Sun’s d ation, 18 57 65 22 Latitude of Mr. Patenpatara Monnens N 01, 49 23. 9 24 Mr. cashews —— No. 1. Equal Aliitudes of the Sun for ascertaining the time. ca Double <0 ofTimes before noon., Times after noon. ; By Arnold am. © Sun’s U. L. 96° 0 \July27. 2h 39/ 15’ July 28. 2h 33! 17! 20 40 28 32 5 30 41 8 81 27 97 40 Ad 25 27. 8 50 46 3 26 31 98 0 46 39 25 54 10 AT 17 95 16 364 20 47 53 24 38 a 30 48 31 aa ab 2 ss 40 49°10 wel 2 to a8 50 49 46 22 45 . 99 20 51 40 20 51 30 52 19 20 14 40 52 58 19 35 50 53 35 18 56 wo 0 fz 54 15 is 9 Results: Uncorrected noon by the mean of all ob- servations, - - - Oh 6’ 16” 31 Correction, . - - 8 43 Apparent noon, 0 6 24 74 Mean time at the apparent 0, - 1.6 6 38 Arnold 2111 fast-of the mean time of Mr. T ’s Monument No. 1, on ee = at noon, - 0 18 36 STATION NEAR THE Rat Portace. Altitudes of a — Jor ascertaining Time A Arnold a sh 55-0 of L wats Index. error Yap a” 4 Thermom. 74° Time Po Arnold eg ee of i Sg 145 40” 54 59 1b 55 4 56 29 57 2 82° 41! 55 83 12 0 22. 10 31 30 Faye =0h 57! 39" ie - 30 58 30. 54 25 59 14 8&8 7 30 59 47 17 40 21 © 22 50 Result of the observations of the Sun’s Result ae Sagres 7 of oo Sun’ 's| Uppe : Arnold slow Mean ee of Arnold 2411. Slow of the mean Portage agentes Jaly 29, Lower Limb: Arnold slow 2! 9 52 all Observations. of the Rat - 20h 69 “g ~ sv was cloudy the whole afternoon of the 30th Jay, ea i ob-_ siemte ain corresponding altitudes to a numerous set which I had taken in the morning. altitudes, 46 NN. W. Ponit of the Lake of the Woods. STATION NEAR THE Rat Porrace. Circummeridian Observations of the § Index terror + 2"5 Sun for determining the Latitude. Ther 76° Time a. Arnold(Double Altitude of/Time US Arnold|Double Altitude of Sun’s U. L. Sun’s L. L. J’ly29. Bi 41 WW7° 44! 20'S’ ly29. ahaa a9 2677 | ~~ 116° 50! 40/7 40 5) 46 15 6 1 50 33 16 47 45 58 45 2 20 52 04 49 20 67 22 3 10 53 45 51 0 58 1 3 55 53 4 51 50 59 24 5) 50 30.013 9 52 40 30. 0 0 31 0 14 245 50 40 1 eee! 30 19 23 5) ¢. 4l 0 1 36 oo 40 Vink 2 23 5 40 a “ 4 44 » 50 3 6 2 » 45 7 22 5 20 8 54 5) 20 Dee 0 11 31 30 12 35 ) 15 Result : — distance of the Sun’s ae at =— 31°16’ 0” 97 n less ay rallax Sun’s “‘etlinet tion - - - - 18 29 25 90 Latitude of the station near the Rat Portage, 49 45 56 10 ns Mr. Tromeson’s Monument No. 1. Altitudes of the Sun for ascertaining § Index error + 2” 5 = the Time. — Thermom. 69° Time by Arnold/Double Altitude offTime by Arnold/Double Altitude of 4 11. Sun’s U. L. 5 28 Pie) Sun’s L. L. Tu 58° 36’ 10’July 81. 4h 53’ 17 50° 547 307 . 24 40 53 49 18 50 sf 10 25 54 48 0 20 Sea 67 30 55 50 49 39 30 To See - 20 56 50 5 : 20° 5 Result of the observations of the Sun’s|Result of the observations of the S Sever Limb: Arnold 2111 fast 0! 5/58} Lower Limb: Arnold 2111 fast 0/ 86 rH er Mean Result of all Observations. Arnold 2111 fast of the mean time of Mr. Thompson’s Monu- an 11 Ht of the rs -. . - ro 6" 61 Wr....?. Ei my FF VUE. Equal Altitudes of the Sun for ascertaining the Time. Double Altitude fi ‘Sun’s U. L Times before mid- night 30°. 10! 0 Aug. 1. 5h 56’ 11” wae Times ere mid-| By Arnold 2111. Aug.1. ce iT 317 10 58 10 26 5 DIN HSS SR SARSSS o re re a SnbRsaas ot Result: Uncorrected midnight by fe in mean of al | observations of the U pper Limb, Correction Apparent midnight by Sun’s U. L. Uncorrected midnight by coe mean of all observations of the Low Apparent mainight by ch - = — ——— ws the mean of os Cc ee se ‘Meas Shite at the apparent iidnight, Arnold ae a of the Rat ee mean time on t st of August, 1 * -12h3’ 50” 55 — 18 29 12-3 32 26 12 3 50 13 — 1799 12 3 32 14 12 3 32 26 2 3.32 20 12 5 54 75 2 22 55 Ag WN. W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. StaTIoN NEAR THE Rat Portace. Circummeridian Observations of ‘the Sun for determining the Latitude. Index error + 2” 5 The rmom, 74° Double Altitude of Sun’s L. Time by Arnold ganud Altitude of/ Time ue Arnold; 2111. ’s U. L. Aug.1. 23h 50/115 a yy 200" Aug.1.2 Bh ss . | 16 3 «40 » 50 86 2 2 30 ) 40 56 43 5 52 59 5) f 57 14 E . j See » 57 47 E ) = 30 ete 58 34 Aug.2, 0 2% pe 59 19 ) 55 jAug.2.0 0 6 4 ) ) 123 5 14 ) 30 E ) ) 6 3 650 6 3 635 7 32 & ESS. 7 56 5 j +40 8 30 5 3 9-3 Po Se 9 49 § 3E 10 29 5€ 16 5 20 115° f Bit 3 RR Result: Zenith distance of Sun’s centre at paige ae. 0 2’ 86 Refraction less parallax, - Sun’s declines, . Latitude of the Station near the Rat Portage, = = > erosc¥ S01? - 17 44 23 96 49 45 56 93 in tite 49 Mn. Tsoxrson’s Monowest No. 1. vee Equal Altitudes of the Sun for ascertaining the Time. i ayo ere ee arog Time after By Arnold 2111. * 101? 20’ |Auga. 2h 5075| Auge. Th 59” 56” 30 59 14 4 2 7 58 32 18 0 57 45 5 Double Altitude’ Sun’s L. L. 101° OF 13 59 56 49 10 14 42 56 5 20° 15 26 5 55 22 30 16 10 54 39 Result : tore te ie noon by by mean beg all observation -. Oh 5’ 24” 00 Conectie - - - - Pe Pe AO, Fa Apparen “ns noo 0 5 33 56 Mean time at "the apparent n6Oi, - _0 5 43 12 Arnold slow of the mean time of Mr. Ln te Monument No. 1, Aug. 4th, Oh 5’ 7” M 0 9 56 - Mr. Txomeson’s Monument No. 1. Circummeridian Observations for de-§ Index error + 2"5 termining the Latitude. _ ¢Thermom. = 75°} Time be Arnold {Double —T of, Time a — Double Altitude of Sun’s U. L Sun’s L. L. Aug. : @ = 116° 12! {orl ug. 4. “O81 907% 114° 597 50/7 12. 35 54 50 14 40 6 10 21 2 48 50 15 14 5 0 15 32 4 20 15 58 5 3 50 Result: Toenith dist i Lah Cinta va : ; 39° g’ 38” 93 Refraction see geo <— 30 30 Sun’s declina = “ -. 17.12 63 2 Latitude of Mr. aa Monument No.1. 49 23 2 37 Latitude of the two Stations. From the mean of all observations made at the same station, the following results have been deduced: Latitude of Mr. Thompson’s Monument No.1, 49°23’ 6” 4g Latitude of the Station near the Rat — 49 45 56 54 Vot. XV. pn NO. 1 Mo. Bot. Garden, 1901. 50 NN. W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. Comparisons % oe two Chronometers on the days on which ‘ bservations have been taken. Days of Compari-|Time the Chronometers showed in the son. same instant. : Arnold 2111. Morice 201. July 28> . 5h 0! 0! 5h we Of 29 0 42 0 0 48 16 30 0 35 0 0 36-807 31 5 28 0 5 29 48 Aug. 1 6 8 0 6 10 3 1 18 Ats=0 18 19: 11 5 3 9 53 0 9 55 333 _- 20 10 0 20 12. 38 6 c—— Lae $0: |. 3s 90 40. kode ge SSG Seg gy GPS Seg ag gy From these comparisons, and the differences of Arnold 2111 from the mean time of the two stehons resulting from the preceding observations, the differences of Morice No. 201 from the mean time of the same places, can be easily ‘deduced, and we obtain the following results : Differences of the two Chronometers from the mean time of the two Stations at the moments of observations. Differences from the Mean Time of Mr. Thompson’s Monu- ment No. 1. : Day & fraction.; Arnold 2111. | Daily Rate. | Morice 201. | Daily Rate. July28. sa + 18” 36 | | + 1°20” 63 31. 202) ++ 5 57| — 3” a 153 54; + 10” 29 ba © S 9 56| — 3.98] 231 28)4 9 93 Differences from ie Rte Prone of the Station near the Day & fr & fraction. _Arnold 08 iW. | D Daily Rate. | Morice ie je Rate. July29. 875 aa me — ai" age. 504} — me PUR si | —srot 51. oByi interpolati between two successive moments at which the difference from the mean time of the one place is known, we can now find the difference from the mean time of that place in the same moment in which the difference of the Chronometer from the mean time of the other place was as- certained yep observation, and thus determine the dif- fenengs of longitude between the two places. In this man- ner we find by the three A, Rica of which the observa- tions ere the following res DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE. * P ‘Tvals|_ Between the two Stations. N TIME OF in mean time. |~Arnold 2111. | Morice 201. Mr. Thom = 8 a 004 ys. ment No. 1, July 28 1.869 Station nea the Rat et 875 ‘ 2! 20! 59 9! 21! OT age, y > a Mr. Thompson’s Monu- 2 go ae ment No. 1, July 31, + MEAN TIME OF Meet Suly.28, 1.329 j +; 's Monu- 1 ee aye te Oe a ee ase y : ~~ "se poe age, Aug. 1 F Piven: : Mr. Thompson's ow 004 — ; __ment No. 5 : Mean ioalk of tin Chronometer, - = ee | ee i | 2 21 64 Mean of all Resu Difference of Longit tude between Mr. Thompson’s Monu- ment t and the Station near the Rat Portage, — 2’ 21” 65 r. Thompson’s Monument No. 1 is not the most north- west ‘poun in that vicinity. The bay on which it is placed extends about a mile farther, and terminates in a sm which is free from rushes, and not fed by any considerable brook. Beyond this point, there is a swamp, which no doubt is part of the lake in the spring and fall of the year; but I have considered as the termination of the lake, in the ote west direction, the extreme northwest point of the pond which we reached by paddling, without any difficulty, in the loaded canoe. 52 N. W. Point of the Lake of the Woods. The courses from Mr. Thompson’s Monument No. 1 are as follow 1, N. 56° W. 15653 feet. 4, N. 27° 10’ W. 595.4 feet. 2. N. 6° W. 8611 feet. 5,. W..5° 10 B. 13224 feet. 3. N.28° W. 615.4 feet. 6. N. 7°45’ W. 493 feet. From these courses and distances I find, supposing the va- riation of the needle to be 12° east, that this point is 0” 90 (time) west and ) of Mr. Thompson’s Mibiiindeiie 48 33 (arc.) north No. 1. The latitude of this point is therefore - 49°23’ 54” 81 And its opens west of ie Hak y oR station, in tim i Ree ade? 55 or 35" 38" 26 se ‘Se’ 6375. “3 Meridional Parts fF eo oe Latitudes, near those of To Sta Latitudes. Meridional Parts. Latitudes. Meridiopal Parts. 49° 22! 50! 3417./019 49° 45/ 40" 3452,/230 23 : ‘ly Seb 50 ae ae oe 3417. 532 46 0 2.7 20 3417. 788 10 3453. 003 30 18, 043 20 453. 40 3418. 300 30 3453. 519 24° 50 3418. AO 3453. 778 0 3418. 812 50 3454. 036 10 3419. 068 47 60 + 20 3419. 324 Meridional Parts of the Latitudes of the Stations.” Mewionsl part for the latitude of Mr. — n’s Mo nt No. n’s Monumen i, = 3417’ 441 ‘Metdional part for the latitude of the most horthwest point of the Lake of the Woods in pele soo of Mr. a s Monu- es = 3418-679 Meridional pit for the oats near a Rat 5 Se Portage $452 656 ‘copia of the detent Stations. Rat Portage Station and Thompson’ s Monument No. 1, Differenc nce of meridional parts, Difference of longitude, N. W. Point of the Laké of the Woods. 53 Rat ofthe Wo Station, and most northwest point of the Lake ge in the vicinity of Mr. Thompson’s Monu- isekteN Difference - meridional parts. Difference of longitude. 3’ 977 ‘63 It is therefore evident, that, acoonsling to the observations, Mr. Thompson’ s Monument No.1, is a little more northwest than the station near. the Rat Por nee but the most north- to the Principles explained in this report, the most "norihvaee ern point of-the Lake of the Wood /ith regard to the accuracy ‘of the observations, I beg to remark—1, That the angles by which the latitudes are de- termined are all read off on the same, or nearly the same, divisions of the sextant, and that, consequently, all errors, which the sextant may have, are common to both ne a and do not affect the difference of latitude on which the sult chietiy depends. 2. The difference of longitude bag correct, ‘require an error of more than one min ute in one vi the. latitudes, or an error of more than thirty seconds and of contrary sign in sage to change the result derived from the observations. 3. The agreement of the two. corcnociiaa shows, the differents of longitude be far from the truth. 4. If there should be any doubt: res- pecting the beanie for time dependin ng on single alti- tudes, on account of the possible errors of the instrument, it is to be observed that these errors would be too small to af. fect the result, and that nearly the same difference of longi- tude may be derived from the oes altitudes only which are not liable to the same objecti The sun’s eros and thé equation of time, have been calculated from the manack, on the supposition 94° 39! west of the tue 0 ests, at Greenwich, whic _Note.—Mr. Tiarks made oath in New-York, Noy. 18th, 1825, before Judge oe to the trnth and correctness (to the best of his knowledge) of the — 54 Ou the Vitality of Matter. Art. VI.—On the Vitality of Matter. (Communicated for this Journal.) Tue mystery of life, or the cause of sensation and volunta- ty motion, has been a subject of the deepest interest in all ages of the world. The curious and the learned have insti- tuted the most diligent inquiries to discover whether the hid- den principle is an emanation from the divinity, or a super- natural gift; or whether it resides in the organized structure, by some particular disposition and consent of parts; or whether each particle possesses inherent powers of life in its separate state, and thus spontaneously amons: from decaying orms to en, in new scenes of activity. Within a ious from some investigations with the mi- croscope, a th : which maintains that this mys- terious principle is inherent i in the et forms of mat- ter, and that they assume new s s, and revive in their primitive activity, whenever death ad es their as ‘These doctrines, adopted in their full extent, eaters: the dogmas of the metempsychosis, and the chances of Demoe- ritus, and, by vulgar induction, end in atheism. Without the dignity of that system of which Epicurus, Lucretius Pliny and Lucian were disciples, they fall into the matoriniaie of Leibnitz, who considers “ each monad or atom — of perception and appetite. This appetency produces ternal principle of alteration—hence abe sympathies at af. finities, the combinations and the of bodies.” he Epicurean theory, although it deaonad matter eternal and insensate, and that its particles, by jostling forever, had at length adhered in masses, ultimately forming the world inhabited by animals, and clothed with Pe ; vet, it peesht that it was operated upon by an immaterial oe! ~~ was imparted by a divine invisible pow- > er, who tu In near times, "Sir Isaac N tee built a noble superstruc- ture upon the p b assert a osaic account of the creation—that all things we tite by an omnipotent, im- material, intelligent being; thet he established those immu- laws by which the universe is regulated and governed ; that he imparted animation to creatures by bestowing upon them the breath of life, ~ ee . M. Edwards, an English physician in Paris, and Dumas, Dutrochet, Prevost and others, have ascertained to - their own satisfaction pene Jaborate discoveries with tl ‘that * ‘elem ma oi ea = = tg eet as a sonar! is built of bricks,” geries of countless millions of organized units, “ ane ca pablo of living in a separate state, and ie erha ture ; by another areangerhellt spring up in the glowing colours and ‘varieties of vegetable life, and that when death passes upon them, and decomposition separates the parts, elements which were before parts of some animal, become vegetables, or if it so may chance, vegetable atoms ‘awake to life as animals. ae inferences rest on the following experiments. Dr. Edwards examined a piece of animal substance mace- rated in water, and immediately perceived a number of white vesicles moving about with great rapidity. ‘These he con- sidered to be animalcules of the tribe monades. He observ- ed that these monads lost all power of motion when the wa- ter evaporated, “If water were added immediately after the cessation of motion, they again began to move, but if allow- ed to remain dry for a short time, they never reco faculty of locomotion.”’ . He also observed, that “ whenever they adhered to the sides of the glass, they exhibited every appearance of vegetable life.” T experimenter i eee a leaf of the horse- chesnut, and “as soon as the particles became detached from me margin of the leaf, they were seen to put themselves in motion ;”” thus showing that when the tissue of plants is decomposed in water, its —. pene parts possess independent life, and spon moti Another example, though not Feseladed ; in those mentioned by Dr. Edwards, is stil] more surprising, as it would st that the degree of heat which destroys life in visible had the effect, while life was in its invisible state, to aa it in its development. ‘A potatoe was boiled in water until it re, : Westminster Review, No. 13, Jan. 1827. 56 On the Vitality of Matter. became of a mealy consistence. It was closely covered ina glass vessel, and a drop of the water was examine twenty- our hours after, when it exhibited innumerable animalcules in great activity.” rom these examples, they conclude that sensation and voluntary motion reside in matter; that however minutely the parts are dissociated, they still possess a principle of vi- tality ; “that death does not destroy their susceptibility ; and that life and matter are coexistent, and from everlasting to everlasting.” These data, and the inferences deduced from them, being at variance with those visible facts, and those unerring, in- variably recurring rules called the laws of nature, an inquiry respecting them is justiied— == ss I. Whether there is not a fallacy in those appearances which a imed as first principles ? II. Whether life exists in brute matter? And ‘III. Whether inert matter, or particles specifically animal or vegetable, can spring to life, in natures remote from, and opposite to, their own origin? I. Is there not a fallacy in those appearances which are assumed as first principles ? with the microscope, render it of doubtful validity. As it would be unfortunate to build a principle in physiology upon an optical illusion, those appearances which have been ad duced should be received with great caution, because, if the first point is wrong, every succeeding step must be errone- nD, WM ; senses with the ap- pearance of animation. While the motions accompanying On the Vitality of Matter. 57 nice aE are visible to our unassisted fale oe the opete nn A piece of sugar rises and falls 4 water, Phabbles agitate the mass with motions si ap- pear to be inherent, but these phenomena are not suspected of bearing any relation to life. The motions of the eye stone ina plate of vinegar have been attributed to animal life, but as it is a calcareous stone, the motions are obviously re- ferable to the action of the acid upon it, which disengaging a gas, impels it mechanically from side to si u neree disengaged or acquired at the precise point of ~ when those macerated materials were under Spon ry 0g moving impulse upon them, aided b ara tion of the water, and the minuteness of the norte might roduce a resemblance to life, although by no meansa demon- stration that they possess vitality. Further proof is unattain- able, as the subject eludes further inspection. We are therefore warranted in doubting the correctness oh the inference, that the motions discovered by the micro- cope were attributable to animal life: and we are justified in in believing that the senses were deluded by appearances re- ing life which were not life; inasmuch as the circum- iden under which they were detected, render the evidence senses imp $ as conclusions drawn from the — are unsupported by analogy throughout the visi- e cre But 1 no rieaee rested upon the fidelity or capacity of the human senses in this inquiry, and if it were —— that man with rs excellent perfections, and the oak wi duration andeur, are composed of the identical meee which form tlie ignoble reptile, and the poisonous weed; yet we are assailed at this point of the inquiry with the _IL’d question, Whether life exists in brute matter ? If animation were inherent in matter, and the presence of water were to awaken the principle, why should it leave the monads as soon as it is withdrawn? and why do they not révive on its reapplication? Mr. Edwards expressly states that “they never recover the faculty of locomotion, the water, after evaporation, is immediately r La ae is a contradiction to say, that life is inherent in matter, when, by changing its cireumstances, it becomes deprived of it, and cannot regain it. What is that but - in its common Vor. X Nb. i 58 On the Vitality of Matter. of England were discovered a few years since, a having been interred two hundred years. They were foun in their natural state, so far as to be readily identified, and exhibited every appearance of inert matter, resolved and resolving into elementary dust. ; _ The microscopic theorists having conducted us to the low- est gradation of existence, remark that ** physiologists can carry analysis no farther, except to convert the substance into gases by distillation.” [fs » Ww i it inci then? Can distillation extinguish that principle which re- weed death and all the i iti A eee _ 5 . g,” it is absurd to say that distillation, or any other On the Vitality of Matter. 59 material agency, can separate them, or destroy that life; and there appears no other alternative but to presume it to be still " . 8 But our later philosophers are not as courteous as Pytha- geras and Ovid, nor as pious as Plato and Epicurus. ‘They make us descend to the most degraded state, and from the decomposing remains of our animal nature they see clouds of loathsome insect i i i changed into seraphs, fairies, and heroes ; trees, flowers, and fountains: or with the latter, that the gift of life was be- leaving its transitory abode in this wor n assuming that “life and matter are coexistent,” identi- fied, indivisible, and eternal, it is ro aeonty “that it is erpetually living, dying, reviving, recombining in new SMapek ant duces of. atten If so, then is not the boast of the atheist established, and accountability and moral ob- ligation destroyed ? . Based upon this hypothesis is the theory of the Gordius Aquaticus, or horse hair snake ; and as this is the boldest ex- ample, in illustration of this system of physiology, it is select- ed as a test for the ion * Pythagoras, + Ovid. # Mason Good. go 60 On the Vitality of Matter. - -HI.’d inquiry, Whether inert particles of matter spring to itfe in forms and natures remote from, and opposite to, their own previous state of existence ? It is imagined that myriads of monads congregate upon a hair immersed in water; that having in itself a vital princi- ple, it assimilates with these extraneous visitants, and they with each other, until this admixture of fortuitous materials becomes a living being; that gradually “ a complete animal is developed, the root of the hair assuming the shape and character of the head, with eyes and mouth.” — It is not diffi- cult to conceive that a hair, by being placed in water, an element where millions of ephemera occasionally reside, should be covered with as to! and that from its elasticity their motions should impart sinu- osity through its whole length, and that it should be found writhing and turning like an organized, animated being, al- though no more endowe in d with animal life than the limb of a a Water serpent. ir ce snakes, another may ; and, if snakes, metamorphosis of the gord ius aquaticus, The. as wee * parallel one. The butterfly preserves its identity On the Vitality of Matter. 61 Petes through all its changes; it is the same specific and entire being ; and its race is continued subject to the same invari- able laws. It is not a casual association of atoms, at one time part of a horse, at another, part of a serpent. If the then the case would be parallel to the horse-hair snake. It is further stated, as will be kept in mind, that vegeta- oO the sides of the glass, became vegetables, with appropriate forms and colours: and finally, that a drop of water in which a vegetable (potatoe) had been boiled, discovered innume- rable atoms in great activity. This is an anomaly in the experience of the whole world, boiling heat being destruc- tive of life ; but in this instance the vital principle is stated to have triumphed over its vegetable origin—over death—over the destruction of fire—and, surpassing even the fabled Phe- nix, to have awaked to life and animation. _ The examination of this subject has been extended far beyond my original design; but on a review of the whole argument it appears that the following are undeniable posi- Ist. That life is not inherent in matter, because it is in proof that the material elements of animal and vegetable remains continue insensate for ages after death—that the presumed fact of their revivification rests upon the slender evidence of microscopic observations—that the phenomena adduced to establish it were probably optical illusions, occa- sioned by chemical action and disturbance—or were owing to some other cause than material innate vitality. ‘2d. That the order which prevails throughout the visible creation proves that all things are governed by immutable whi ve been the same from the beginning, and which forbid the revolting idea that inert matter springs to 62 On the Zodiacal Light. ** Man himself might spring from ocean, e down the skies the bellowing herds might bound, Or from promiscuous earth the finny race and feathery tribes ascend.”* If these inferences are correct, it follows, that in all the complicated series of existence, and in all the changes which chemical and other agents produce upon matter, the hidden principle of life has never been revealed. - Even galvanism, which has almost imposed upon the cre- leave the body an example of the inettieney of matter to revivify itself, or to furnish any clue to the mystery of its animation. ife is equally hidden from human sight. grain of sand canno vi Art. VII.—On the Zodiacal Light. ane in (Communicated by David Leslie, New-York, March, 1828.) went hg _ Tae Zodiacal light, generally ascribed to the sun’s atmos- _is nothing more than those beams of light, seen a ae from the sun through the interstices of dense phere, times to. 2 ROG 4 * Lucretius. * The author appears not ea adverted to the fact that innumerable an- y s¢roscope in and upon almost eve ing, animation of inert matter may arise fen a ~ eee ce, Whee agie sic ia shough singular processes of life,—Ead. ongin is doubtless by the regular al- 63 at luminary is near = be horizon, and are cal- seamen, shrouds. an d backstays, from. their resem- to 5 oe Spratlessaee of i with abe a considerable number of pairs of stars from first to the sixth magnitude, in which the two stars are ele “sacl other from one t0-fifteen minutes; as be- ee ee ee eae ms ips! ee ynging to-a aystem of stars, stars really double, visible to eye; and which are consequently, the more at and the Saree tous. Such ase. g. Nos. 16 6 and 1 and the two » in the Dragon, Nos. 4 and 5 in the Lyre, the two « of the Balance, ¢ of the Great Bear, and the well known star d’alcor r, &e. e find a remarkable confirma- tion of this opinion in the circumstance already observed by Bessel that some of these pairs have a common and peculiar movement; such for example, are No. 36 of the Serpent and 30 of the Scorpion, and the two stars above mentioned in the tail of the Great Bear. It is also well worthy of re- mark that it frequently happens that sometimes one stars of these couples, sometimes, yas are themselves double in the wextet acceptation of the w Am dred and eighty-six stars of the first to the fifth magnitude which are in the charts of Harding, the cases in which there would be three within a circle of one degree in diameter are ony one fourth of a time, that is, not at all, while it does in nebule before unkno [The a a Re world will doubtless review with interest and gratitude the remar beating sab ormance, the general re- of which are given in the receding report. Every one may appreciate the toil which tthe execution of this task, in a climate so Berg as that of Livonia, must have cost its indefatigable author; and must cherish the desire that M ruve may continue: for a long time to pursue his im- portant eed: with the fine instrument which he em- ber 831 with so much Ka ga }—A. Gautier, Bib, Univ. t. 84 Dr. Duncan on the Foot-marks of Animals Art. XI.—Account of the Tracks of Foot-Marks of Animals found impressed in Sandstone in the Quarry of Corncockle Muir, Dumfries-shire ;*. by the Rev. Henry Duncan, D. Minister at Ruthwell. Communicated by the Author. Tue sandstone quarry of Corncockle Muir is situated be- tween the rivers Annan and the Kinnel, about a mile an d sandstone. Its texture is friable, and its strata of very unequal thickness. It lies in the direction of the greater urt of the sandstone of the district, which is from west north-west to east south-east, with its dip southerly, inclining at an angle of 38.° . The remarkable phenomenon I am about to describe, as existing in this quarry, is that of numerous impressions, fre quently distinct and well-defined, of the foot-prints of quad- rupeds, which have been found y the workmen on the sur- been removed in the process of quarrying. ‘This fact; so ex- paw to that of the hoof of a pony, I shall give some account of one ren e track impressed on a slab, formerly in the possession of Mr. Carruthers of Dormont, (who procured it from the quarry some years ago,) and now forming part of the wall of a Seemtershouse in the garden belonging to the manse of Ruthwell. On this slab, which is five feet two : : * The Editor has been indebted to Dr. Duncan for this abridgement of his ve- '¥ interesting and valuable paper, which was read at the Royal Society of Ed- January i i i in oe last, and which will Bead > now the press, found in Corncockle Muir, Dumfries-shire.- 85 ifiches in length, there are twenty-four impressions, which make twelve of the right feet, cae as iain of the left, be- ‘ing of course six repetitions of the mark of each foot. “The marks of the fore feet are a little more than two inches in di- ameter, both from claw to heel and across, and those made by the hind feet are of much the same size, but somewhat differently shaped. The appearance of five claws is discern- ible in each fore paw, the three in front being particularly dis- tinct. The three front claws of the hind paws may also be plainly traced, and are placed nearer to each other than those of the fore feet. There has obviously been no divis- ion in the sole of the foot, as is the case in the canine and feline species; but a gentle concavity of surface may be observed, especially in the fore paws, occasioned partly per- haps by the act of sinking in the wet sand. The depth of the strongest impressions is about half an inch; and it is observable that the fore feet have made somewhat deeper marks than those behind,—a fact which may either indicate a considerable length in the animal’s neck, or the more than ordinary weight of its head and shoulders; for, had it not been for one or other of these circumstances, the chief pres- sure would have been thrown on its hinder paws, as is the ease in some other specimens, because the surface up which as moving, was of considerable steepness. The distance from the claw of the hind foot, to the heel of nearest impres- sion of the fore foot on the same side, varies from an ine! to an inch and ahalf. This, however, merely marks the sition of the two feet when the hinder one was brought for- ward in moving; and if we would ascertain the animal’s step—or rather the distance between the hind and fore paw, when the former was thrown back and the latter advanced— we must measure from the hind foot forward, to the second impression of the fore foot on same side. Now, this ives a distance of between thirteen and fourteen inches, which is considerably more, however, than would have been the case if the animal had not been moving. If we com- pare this with the distance between the line of the right'‘and left feet (which is, as to the fore-paws, nearly 61 inches, and - This description may be considered as applying, in its general features, to a considerable number of the impres- &6 Dr. Duncan on the Foot-marks of Animals sions—I. mean those of animals in the act. of ascending. Not many tracks, however, have been found, of which the prints are so well defined, and several of them belong evi- But there is another class of impressions which must be referred to the tracks of animals in. the act of decending the steep face of the stratum. . These are not less numerous than by the heels of their fore paws, and sometimes also a slight mark of their hind paws, which must have rested lightly on the surface, while the animals were sliding their fore paws alternately downward, and sinking them in the sand to secure Of both of those kinds of impressions, traces may at this moment be observed in the uncovered strata of the quarry, though there are none of a very striking character which have not been removed. The best specimins I have seen are in the summer-house at Ruthwell. si __ With regard to the species of animals whose tracks have been so wonderfully preserved, I am happy that as to three of them I can give the conjectures of a much more compe- tent judge than myself, one of the first. geologists trofessor Buckland, with whom I have been in correspon- bject, be ee possession, Sines ate cad aniaae of this spe- _ belong. cag Sere ~ “ith regard to the sliding impres- maruicular, he says that he fully adopts my theory 87 wet — oe made “ almost peo i one sions.” There are some curious facts connected with this Sine enon which have not yet been mentioned, and which the lim- its I must paesaeitie to myself will not allow me to do more than enumerate :— ist, In most instances the counter i impressions are distinct. ly marked in relief on the under surface of the layer cover- ing the foot prints, these projections corresponding to the cavities below as exactly as a cast to its mould, The impressions never occur but on what the wo call a clay face, by which is meant a stratum, the outer coat of which has a slight admixture of clay, rendering it harder than the rest of the rock, accompanied sometimes with a thin layer of soft clay in the seam between the under and up- per stratum. 3d, All the tracks are constantly in a direction either up or down, sometimes inclining a very little either to the right or left, but never running across the slope in any great de- “Ath, In aie of the impressions there are wae of the matter being displaced by the foot-marks, and wherever such an appearance occurs, the matter is ag to have ated earried directly downwards, with re the present inclination of the quarry. These two last circumstances, as well as that of the sii. ding tracks, prove that the strata must have been very much inclined, while in a soft state, and while in the act of form- ing though this is eisai to the received opinion as to the ation of sandstone. -» 6th, The sand must have possessed very considerable tena- city, and have even been sometimes skinned over with a stiff coat, for in one of the specimens preserved at Ruthwell, the claws of the animal had evidently broken through om outer coat at every step, and in two others, where the have rested on the matter just displaced by the for paws, their pressure, instead of obliterating the appearance of su- sero t —_ has “merely caused an indentation of the part rested 6th, There ai dre “continuous strata of sandstone testi ing 0 soda in which the impressions are found, for the distance of not less than a quarter of a mile, all of which must have been 8s 7 Dr, Duncan on the Foot-Marks of Animals deposited subsequently to the period in which the tracks were left on the surface of the sand. . 7th, As far down as the quarry has yet been worked, which is not less than forty-five feet perpendicularly from the top of the rock, similar impressions have been found, and these equally distinct and well defined with such as are nearer the surface, 8th, The impressions are not confined to a single stratum, but have been found on many successive strata. Since the foot-marks were first discovered, about forty yards of sand- stone have been removed in a direction perpendicular to the line of strata, and throughout the whole of that extent, im- pressions have, at frequently recurring intervals, been uncov- ered, particularly in one part of the quarry, and still contin- ue to be uncovered. _ Hence it must be inferred that the process, whatever it may have been, by which the impressions were buried in the sand, that of drifting by storms for instance, has not been oc- casioned by any sudden or isolated convulsion of nature but has been carried on through many successive years or rather ages. Nor has it been the result of tides on the shore of the sea, which can scarcely be supposed to have flowed to the height of between forty and fitty feet; and even if they done so, would certainly have swept away or filled up period of rainy ften and diffuse were to traverse a hill thus for uld be either altogether obliterated, or partially filled up, of which med, their tracks wo Page ee eae eee 50 po A gt ze gear =e — ft OCsstt Li ; 2 mong fs me . BAT RAE ata, ot ore ec een when the surface had begun to dry, the foot-marks impresse it would remain a considerable time quite disti t and on it well defined. Now, supposing the stormy monsoon again imprinted on it. Let the monsoon be now supposed to con- tinue during the whole course of a dry summer: Fresh lay- ers of sand would be drifted, pure at first, but mingled again poe siti? ages, what was originally sand would be converted, where such incontrovertible proofs, would at last, by the submersion of the universal deluge, be buried under its pres- ent covering of soil— Dr. Brewster’s Jour. for April, 1828. The following jeu d’esprit from Newton’s Journal for April 1828, may amuse our réaders, without invalidating the very interesting discovery to which it alludes.—Ed. of this Journal. Fossil Remains.—It will be temembered that the Rev. Mr. Buckland distinguished himself a few years ago, by dis- covering a cave at Kirkdale, which he proved to be the din- ing room of antediluvian hyenas, that had in this retreat feasted upon elephants and water-rats, and left nothing but the teeth of these tit-bits, just as records of their good living, and bones of contention for future naturalists and cosmo- gonists. The same ingenious gentleman has lately had the Vor. XV.—No. 1. 12 90 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. gnod fortune to find a piece of red sand stone, ReNaNE on it the traces of an antediluvian doriowe s foot step he whole geological world has been in raptures of as discove- ry; and in order to make sure of the act, tae the steps tra- ced in the stone were the steps of a tortoise, a meeting of the Society was held, and some soft chalk was prepared, on which a modern tortoise might make his mark, and thus.au- thenticate as it were, the signature of his ancestor. Ev very thing being ready for the sonnei and the interest of the scientific company wound up to the highest pitch, the tortoise was placed on the chalk, and, first of all, he flatly refused to stir a step, The members, this very prop- erly waxed | tmapatients got ina rage, and nnd began kicking and banging him about, and. ting an extremely moving manner. "Ehey had much better, Pa have re- frai : ese stimulants, for when the tortoise was at last pee on to. walk, he insisted on walking as straight as ee arrow ; _Wwhereas the peer tortoise’s march was aram’s horn. The Society were aghatt at ero caret ae > one manner in rivate, ano! or scientific chalk on P Ans. X “ae i— Observations concerning Fossil, Organic. Re- : Doornix, M. Di &c. .Communicated Joumal, es U.S the rhe in French MS. and: trans- ri euis’s dian of explaining the im- ’ portance: =: ll in geology - ‘ ant Tar study of hie 3 ea is, without ih one of the uaded exeuse the spn “Sibices that, ves rie i oe * they - ly whe 0 the philosophers, Cavier, hen Pus, vol. edit. 18251, ae?. 29. - means in the pafanaton = of the e most important phenomena connected with the natural history of our earth. It is, there- fore of the utmost importance that we should be familiar with the whole series of organic remains, before we form our ideas upon the subject in its full extent, and before we allow ourselves to undertake an explanation of the apparent fab rinth. scceete my — of the great utility of a wledge of organic remains, as connected with ‘and pad to which they belong; the a speaks of the high importance of ogee remains. * Why—do we not perceive, that to “fossil remains alone, is due the origin of the theory of the earth; and, that without them, we should ibly have never dreamed, that there ad been in the formation of the globe, successive epochs, and a series of different operations ?” aaa truly, a position which allows of infinitely more les than zeal of the theory of the earth re roe then every other consideration for such a theory is excl a to the position of M. Cuvier, there exists but one cause from which the theory of the earth has taken its origin ; and that is, the study of fossil bones Such a position it seems to me proves too much, and there- fore nothing, decidedly. After having read and meditated much upon it, Ttake the liberty to ask M. Cuvier if the knowledge we possess concern- re a various rock | format tions,—the manifest differences in succession, alternation and reg- alae: recurrence of shew strata; that relating also, to the obvi- ous order which reigns in the superposition of rocks, and the sotking instances of conformity, of indentity, of equivalence and nets cornet in —_ superpos! speapeeP? ie the re- theory of the earth—and whether we should not add to it whatever may be derived from the study of fossil remains, 92 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. so that they may mutually assist each other, and become _ Therefore I maintain, that the origin of the theory of the earth cannot be attributed, exclusively, to organic remains. . The arguments which [ have cited, prove, if I mistake not, that we, already, had collected many materials for the com- mencement of a theory of the earth, previous to any pro- gress in the study of fossil remains, and their scientific clas- sification, founded upon comparative anatomy ; for which, we are indebted to M. Cuvier as the original author. I take it for granted that M. Cuvier in advancing this po- sition forgot for the moment, that he was accusing the great Werner of not having given sufficient attention to the study of organic remains. Nevertheless, Werner had erect- ed a geological system, which has rendered the name of this distinguished i ; to the opinion of M. Cuvier, he did not sufficiently occu y imself with what he maintains to have been, and to be, ihe enly foundation for a theory of the earth. Every one will aaintain with me, I think, that Werner has laid the founda- tion of Geology... His labors have brought to light materials, which are, and must always remain of the highest. value in . mations called primitive, transi- gathered from their conform 9 & * US : , and mutual re re Ons—iniorn "that our knowledge w was confi > wha s been observe rd concerning the summits of mountains ; their planes and bases ; concerning lakes and valleys; and to the removal of immense masses of rock, to great distances; is it probable that there could be a philosopher found, who would maintain that this amount of knowledge does not, or could nok. contribute to furnish the materials for a theory of the h? Lean net bahiave it, or ever persuade myself that M. Gunes ara meant to maintain such a pro ag ce, His vast erudition in eet thing which relates t Physica, ence, forbids my believing it ; and I choose to thin that the the passages which have been cited are, so to speak, slips of the lively pen, of this justly rlehnater author A little farther on we read, “It is only by analogy that we have extended to Sate formations the conclusion, out fossil remains, no one co have maintained that these formations had not been minbansens” Here | must commence with the same remark that i have doing. I all above quotation, where he says “ ee if there ° ues exis- ted formations without fossil re = must then acknowledge that it owes every thing to our mation of chalk aah, at of the caleaire grossier, if depriv- ed of the aid of their imbedded fossils, when there exists 94 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. the formation of plastic clay, of molasse and conglomerates of various kinds, mtermediate between these strata? In eve- ry formation, from the lowest to that which is uppermost, we perceive a repetition of rocks and strata, whose chemical sly remarkable, A niviing character of the sranaition for? mation, and which separates it from the primitive and secon- dary (more properly “ tertiary”) is seen in the alternation of a series of rocks, in w there is a regular recurrence of similar beds, rendering perfectly obvious, likewise, the limits of this extensive class of rocks. Another characteristic of t 1e three great formations which hold near rly the same rank in different parts of the globe ; They are, 1st, taleose granular limestone, hee with anthracite and mica slate; 2dly, syenite and porp with crystals of hornblende, and occasionally quartz ; Cale clay- ate, graywacke and black limestone e mica slate with anthracite and clay slate serves as the connecting points of the transition with the primitive ; whilst on the other hand, the fine grained graywackes and por- phyries, abounding in the crystals of quartz cause it to ap- proximate to the secondar The different ages of thas formations are likewise indica- ted by their position. For example, the of Guan- axuato repose upon a bituminous clay-slate, zee of Hun- gary upon a transition mica slate, whilst those of the Andes, ae Quito are situated n primitive rocks; large masses ore ¢ y uniform er decidedly crys- . rocks; when we view this in the aeemnnitiony still less in Germany,) nine of the upper formations, viz. the tr ansition limestone, a a ania the red sandstone, the a with bituminous shale, the muriatiferous gypsum, the oolitic limestone, the gypsum in clay, the muschelkalk, the white sandstone, and the quadersandstein, have been disting uished from each other without the aid of zoological Seerenee kd M. Cuvier in his theory of the earth after having done jus- He to the high reputation of Werner observes, that neither M. Werner or M. de Saussure—the geological historian of the Alps, have described the species of the organic remains an each of the strata, with that accuracy which has now be- come necessary, since the number of animals already known 18 so grea It is true Werner was not so well versed in comparative anatomy as M. Cuvier, who in this branch surpasses all his predecessors, — Attar his contemporaries also; yet I will venture to to M. Cuvier, that it appears to me he is not ssipneiniod witht the merits of Werner in contributing to the promotion of the natural history of organic remains, om confining hi to the mere science of mineralo- gy, in forming his theory of the earth, Werner from the first occupied himself with the study of the different relations of all the classes of organic remains. A genius like his must naturally have pork = that a complete know. t relations was absolutely necessary to a geologist, and ac- cordingly, with such a conviction, he informed himself of all that was known of petrifactions. During his lectures, he often called the attention of his auditors to the importance of forming collections, which besides a complete series of rocks and minerals, to illustrate the formation of our globe, he insisted, ought also to embrace an extensive collection of organic remains, both of vegetables and animals. Neitler did he neglect, at the same time, to make mention of the nu- merous researches and discoveries, relating to those caverns which contained large quantities of animal remains. * Werner also insisted much upon the observation, made, if I mistake not, by M. Lister, more than one hundred and fifty years ago, that the different formations were capable of be- mg distinguished by means of the fossil remains they con- * See Humboldt on the superposition of rocks. 96 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. _ It was, when pursuing these investigations, and engaged in the study of the genera and species of organic remains, that, with his customary sagacity, he remarked, how widely those species differ which are the products of more ancient importance tion that many fossil species are limited to particular rocks, ile others, on the contrary, possess a wider distribution ; ese last appearing to have enjoyed an organization which enabled them to live during a variety of changes, which ex- terminated those found only in particular rocks.* | My profound veneration for the high merits of Werner has occasioned the foregoing remarks, and which, I trust, have been made with propriety. Geological question proposed by M. Brongniart. (Deserip. geolog. des environs de Paris, p. 92.) — ae? “When we have in two formations remote from each oth- er, a difference of structure, but the same organic remains - of geol certain the particular strata which were formed at these eek page x may be fi ment, not on in ent arts of the ane bait even in rile same ee fig ‘e cannot deny a conclusion drawn from facts ae ee under our eyes ; for whatever takes place upon the sur- face of the globe, belongs to the same geological epoch, and which commenced at the moment when our continents took their actual form: and although this epoch may have a character of stability or repose, in the geological phenomena it presents, which does not permit, oxnept ina oat cases, the formation of new rocks; nevertheless, it produces still a few of these for our observation ; for example, the hae of Ve- suvius and other volcanos, ‘the calcareous tufas formed in many of our streams, and the siliceous sinters in those of Ice- land; all of which, are, mineralogically, quite distinct from each other; but the organic remains they enclose have all the common character of belonging to a creation formed since the commencement of this epoch. To desire a great- er number of examples, and of course, proofs of a similar truth, would ALS bom unnecessarily, an argument already somewhat ¢ extended. they res ie is true, destroyed instant ; ; buta et time is requisite to create the ow, in re that they he esent the num the wencteh of development me they now exhibit. This development requires a of ages; or at least of years, which establishes a true nae gical epoch ; during which, all organized beings which in- habit, either the whole surface of the globe, or at least a very large part of it, have assumed a peculiar character of family or of epoch, which, though it cannot be defined, can- not be mistaken. “1 consider then, those characters relating to the epochs of formations, which are taken from organic remains, as of the first value in geology, and as superior to all others, how- ever yay they may appear: ih even when characters m the nature of the rocks, (and these are very weak,) ask, as the Lage t of the strata, the hollowing out of —_ likewise the inclination and contrasted oa ;—are found in opposition with such as are furnished us by organic remains, I shall allow to the lat- ter the preponderance: for all these effects may be the result of a ails ig orofa ae formation, w does. Vor. X 1 98 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. not form in geology a special epoch. Without delaying to prove this principle by tarther arguments, it shall suffice me to cite asingle fact. The strata at Calabria have been these thirty-eight years, the scene of the most frightful disorder ; horizonta beds have become vertical; entire strata have witness Ae the Alps ; whilst, five or six thousand years have not given rise to any appreciable di es in the forms, oil other characters of orga 7 do not however mean to assert that dheilracte rs staken from the saanire situation of strata, (but not from their evident superposition,) from their very nature, ought not to be em- ployed with confidence by the geologist i in the determination of the different epochs of formations. Alone, or united'to those we draw from the nature of fos sil remains, they are of the highest value ; ‘but I merely contend, and I think I have given reasons sufficiently weighty for my belief, that when these characters are in opposition to those we obtain from the presence of organic remains, the last ought to have the precedence. “ Nor do I conceal that it is necessary to bring the greatest circumspection to the use of these characters ; I am aware that it is necessary to know how to distinguish and calculate the influence of distance and of climate upon the different species; that it is — to be able to appreciate the ap- rent ‘and sometimes real resemblances which occur in r ev pany yeas distinct, and to recognize some species. which have enjoyed the rare privilege of poe tion of their contemporaries, and of ¢ m ining the same, amidst all those catedecelili wae wore — pap eed. them a causes J pierre teat narod into 0 geology t 10s uncertainties which we find in all the sciences, and which 1 re- quire of the geologist, constant attention and labor, in order to select those species from which he ought to draw his char- acters, and to attach to them their due importance.’ Remarks upon this reply. Upon the reply of M. Brongniart to the question proposed by himeelf I eheotes e in general ; and in the first place, that it appears to me he does not make a distinction between the words period and epoch; yet the difference between the ideas which tee two words ‘imply i is too great to be confounded. Epoch, in my opinion, is distinguished from period under the relation of duration of a greater - less extent, and also that of consequences which flow from eriod is a progressive succession for a given time, salen which many acts succeed each other, or many developments take place at different times and remote from one another. In consequence of this distinction, we say that some facts though very different from each other, asregards their nature and their m existence, have taken place in the same —s but we sem not say or maintain that these different facts at the same time: they have occurred progressively, at vigerent times, though in the same period ; or in other words, they have taken place at different epochs i in the same By neglecting this logical distinction, we make events con- temporaneous, which have occurred at epochs quite distinct, and therefore introduce a degree of confusion into the sci- enc which i is calculated to impair the accuracy of our obser- We can say that various formations may have been form- ed in the same period, but we cannot say that these same formations were formed at the same epoch: such an error would undermine the foundations of the science as relates to the superposition of rocks; a vena which has been so elegantly elucidated by M. de "Humbo “ But we will admit that strata wey differing from each other, may be formed at the same moment, not only Jin differ- 100 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. can be formed at the same time and in the same place. Ge- ology has made us acquainted with a series of formations of quite a different nature, and whose characters are sufficient- ly — - prove to us that they belong to epochs decided- ly differe . _ The 2 Ga the alpine limestone, the ani with ite are rocks whose nature is very different, and I cannot believe that any one would wish to defend the idea that ‘hts rocks could have been formed in the same moment and in the same place, whilst every thing announces to us, that they belong not only to epochs but to periods widely remote. Truly, by paigrtar fi such a doctrine, we run the hazard of confoun omena in such a manner, as, that ial we see lose ot tgs which alone can conduct that in which the earth was, when it recovered itself after the last great catastrophe: a period continues, but this period is divisible into many epochs which are truly distinct from each other. It is true that the organic remains contained in the newer formations, possess all those characters which are common to the tribes now occupying the face of the earth; but it does not follow from thence, that since the srgeme re- mains possess a similar character, ‘that different strata t rded as belo to be regai to the same ep: rmation. I allow they may belong to the same period, but not to the same active volcanos, belong t sh. M o the pe in which we live, but not to the epoch; and that they do not, is. obvious from their ejected matters. For it is ascertained that lavas of the same volcanos, differ at different epochs ; pieced Froth conceive that volcanic products, evolved | of thousands of years would differ from each otlven aa i that they ae evince by this difference, the dis- tance of the = which separate them. The differences, then among v: olcanic products, are so many proofs that they tiara oo — epochs. Organic remains may aaa. of ‘different “eee tes art chs. widely remote. Since the peed, successive to the last great catastrophes tive have not interfered with the existence of genera of me oe epochs, organic remains, that bear the common character 6 the period. That which is true of the period, in which we exist, may not be true of the preceding periods; and totally different formations, belonging to periods widely separated, together with differences among fossil remains, which relate both to their genera and species, prove abundantly, that the opinion of M. Brongniart, is not correct. All that we can safely infer with regard to the past, is, that events have trans- i serve them taking place now. That is to say, that species of animals have continued to exist, notwithstand- ing those great changes which the earth has undergone ; and that therefore, we find similar organic remains, in strata be- longing to different formations, and to different epochs. But we shall continually fall into error, if we admit, from the similarity of these remains, that the rocks which contain aces mu ground of the similarity in fossil remains will justify. I cannot therefore, with M. Brongniart consider those char- acters connected with the epochs of formations which are derived from the agreement of organic remains as of the soever they ee be. : Se Well marked differences, both in different formations and out introducing perplexity into the science, and neglecting its true iples. t _ “Thus then” (he continues) “ when the characters taken 102 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. ec duce (according to.the established principles of geology) from to so small a portion of the earth, could not compare with those great changes which have taken place at different pes riods and upon an infinitely larger scale. vation, concerning the conformity of position amo i epee “There may exist an identity of structure, (that is to say of 1 dicative of conformity, or of non i of mineralog- ee sportion : but : Sapnot enable us to cr eae to the identity of the fossils. It is.sufficiently prob t the deposits ¢ and 4 situated at great horizontal the words “identical formations,” “partial formations,” as aand y thes ame organic remains, and posse Dsi- tion; it is not on that pan seniall vrobabie aa epochs of their formation are very distant from each other, when the fossils = dissimilar. "We conceive that in the same zone, in a country of small extent that the generations of animals have fecicidal each other, and characterized as it were, by peculiar types the epochs of — mes ; ut beings of various forms at great horizontal di may have occupied at the same time, in different climates, the itive of the globe, or the basin of the sea. We may observe farther, that the position of 3 between a and ves that it is anterior to the formation y and rpg = heag of a; but there is nothing which, enables to measure the interval of time which ela aps sed batlesdie a diiponitiod of the strata; one. the different isolated deposits of 8 may not be simultan I have pile my last remarks from the essay of the cele- brated M. de Humboldt a the oe of rocks, be- —_ they a peared to me to be connected with those ob- ich I have partes the liberty to offer M. sti art. eae that respectful consideration, which I entertain for the merits of so distinguished a philoso her. Observations upon the situation in which Orsaise. Remains e fo Among the observations which have been made upon the position of organic remains, this certainly is a highly im- portant one ; that different strata belonging to distinct rock formations, or to the same formation, as is sometimes the case, are distinguishable by means of "vegetable and animal remains, which appear to be peculiar to these strata, or at least, are but rarely noticed in others. Thus we find in the reat coal formation, a large number of vegetable fossils pe- culiar to this formation, and very unlike existing p. y are referable to the arundinacexe, of which, some ap- the cortical _part, w which is covered entirely with ‘regular i im- pressions arising from the petioles of the leaves. This dis- eription of plants is supposed to have an affinity to the or- 104 Observations Concerning, Fossil Organic Remains. animal remains, belonging to the Testaceous tribe. We find in it, no remains of animals belonging to a higher order, mpanied by others, which are indubitably 1 reason, that they exist in too great abundance, and too stantly in the same strata, to have been fluviatile, and acc dentally introduced. Now some of these Unios, so cakes which are also found in the oolite, and the lias, are also founs in the coal formation; and as it is so probable that the shells of the oolite are marine, we have, I think, very slender grounds for calling those found in the coal formation, fluviatile, e formation of chalk is characterized by the amily of Lichinites.. The quantity of fossil remains of this family alone, is certainly equal to that of all the other species found in it. ‘Thus also the Ostrea deltoidea is the most characteristic shell in the oolite formation ; whilst in the red marl, we nev- er find a single fossil remain, and, whilst the gypsum, Je pse G ossemens, in the vicinity of Paris, owes its name to the quantity of organic remains it contains. I might multi- ply examples, if I did not suppose, I had already cited a suf- ficient number. We will then turn our attention to another question which I deem of considerable importance. Is there any constant connexion between the antiquity of strata, and the similarity or dissimilarity of their contained fossils, compared with existin imals ? The more ancient are any strata, that is, the more ancient the formation with which they are connected, the greater will be the AO of the fossil remains they contain, t the earth. : The primitive formation of the Granite ; not yet alter- nating with gneiss; complete in its constituent parts; un- stratified ; abounding in quartz; fine grained; destitute of minerals which are foreign to its primitive comp tion ; without subordinate beds of primitive limestone ;—the prim- Sie ea liately succeeding the a a neissoid granite, granite intermediary between gneiss an it slate; mica slate, clay slate, &c, forming along with Vou. XV.—No. 1. 14 106 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. the primitive granite, the great frame-work of the earth ieaiei " at that period,—are destitute of every trace of fossil re- mains. This is the distinguishing trait of the rocks of this origin néarly atthe same epoch. "7 As constant as is the relation between the antiquity of “strata, and the similarity and dissimilarity of fossil remains “with living beings, so much the less, or not at all, does there “exist @ six ity of climate, between these fossils and those of the living beings which they most resemble. Those which ‘show this resemblance to existing animals, among the her- ~biferous pachydermata, are the elephants, the rhinoceroses, the ippopotamuses, dic. ; and among the carnivorous, t “hyenas ; all of which exist at present in warm climates. We are then embarrassed. a singular phenomenon, since the “Temains of these animals are so widely dispersed, both in et and in the new world. Their great number, and a which they are found, seem to indicate clearly, that they m woe in the tices where their remains are depoaiet ge: ae, directly opposed to what we see at the presen ay; for noone of these animals lives in the northern hentieghdebe but on the contrary, in the midst of the torrid zone. It seems therefore, that all connexion with climate, is ng Soca to our present subject, Nor are we able to escape the > gt rarer of 5 u have been able to exist in the diffe wing couditiias where we have found their remains, is compels us to suppose that during the og: of a animals upon the earth, there was a climate very different from ours; more uniform, in which ‘hey cold live aiid ‘propagate as other animals in their native country. In admitting this as the most probable reason, it follows as a necessary eat anatan that we are not obliged in or- der to explain the occurrence of these remains in the north- te hemisphere, to suppose that the ae transported hpi y great currents of water; nor oc ee the epochs of their oes from ita ence it follows also, we have no farther occasion to go in pursuit of proofs of epochs, draw n from the strata, which, it s been supposed, contain the revadedit of them. Whatever is true in relation to animal remains, must be so likewise with regard to vegetables, of which similar gene- ra live at present, only in warm climates. Such a proposition, which appears to =A very probable, gives a new aspect to the notions whic e been formed, respecting this carl period, and invites us se enquire into the most most probable ses, which might have operated to bring about t hé phéliohiens, to which we have just recalled the attention “of geologists. More extended researches, and more complete discoveries will place us in a condita to form a comparative fossil physiology, to be added Pe the fore much to be desired that another Cuvier should ap- pear to fulfil’a task so important in the natural history of the earth. 108 Observations Concerning Fossil Organic Remains. Desiderata in Geology. That some geologist will prepare with care, a systematic description, by means of which we can determine the gene- a and species to which fossil remains, both vegetable and animal, belong. The materials for such a work exist; but are distributed through a great variety of works; as those of Cuvier and Brongniart, of Parkinson, of Sternberg, of Steinhauer, of Schlottheim and others. As far as I am ac- e diluvial deposits, to those of the alluvion: he would be in a condi ondition to demonstrate whether these types succeed each other in the order which has been adopted in the sYS- 109 gitaiacs sates in fine, he would be able to classify its different beings according to their structure, which would become a more difficult task, as other systems of organs were added to those already observed. Such researches, directed by a skillful hand, by a philoso- phical mind, anda judgment quick, clear and correct, would lead toa solution of the great problem, whether the distribu- tion of. organic remains in diffe rent rath: of the different formations separated by periods, indicates a progressive de- velopment of vegetable and animal life upon our globe. I also hope that such an undertaking may not omit also, the attempt to explain the subject of climates, their relative distribution, in particular, before the catastrophe of t € ; ge. ust moreover, that the two following questions may be aetinitel resolved. t we to separate a formation, the unity of which has tase acknowledged from the relative position, and iden- tity of the bem which are interposed equally through the superior and inferior strata, for the single reason, that the former contain Crepes fresh water shells, and the latter salt water shells ? son for regarding these masses as distinct ig aaa where other geological facts do not justify this separation? _ : Arr. XIIl—Analysis of an “ Essai sur la temperature de l'interieur de la Terre, par M. Cordier, 4to, pp. 84. Lua PAcademie des _ Sciences, Firin, et 9 et 13 Juillet, 1827 ;”’ With observations ; Tuomas Coorer, M. D. &c., President of the College of ‘South Carolina. THE supposition of a central fire is of long standing: it is found in the ancient mythological notions of Pyroplegeton and Hephastos: No wonder. In the early times of the sent surface of the earth, volcanos, eruptions of lava, earth quakes, eataclysms, debacles, sings were events of fre- quent occurrence; more so than in our days, when near two hundred volcanos, in a state “ at 6’. A hole was bored in the coal, ina corner of the gallery, 65 centimetres deep, and 4 in diameter, with an inclination of 15°. It took six minutes to make the hole. The thermometer was inserted, and the hole stopped with paper. After an hour, it in- dicate 19 5’. The temperature of a well, 11,5 metres (37 3-4 T : 3 was inserted, was 192 metres Sos feet) from the surface. Hence, 192 metres jess 11,5 == 180 metres produced an accession of heat of 6° 35: about one degtae for mene metres in depth. In rays for by the experiments of M. de Saussure they take six months to become sensible at ten metres (thirty-two feet) deep. Voya- ges dans les Alps § 1423. Annales de Chim. et de Phys. tom. 30, 396, by M. Arago. In ihe cave under the observatory at Pa- ~ twenty- eight metres deep, (91,86 English feet,) the ther- meter never — during the whole year, more than one-= thirty-third of a deg “In three other midusliacasl made at the coal mine of Decise, one gave one degree of the Cent. thermometer for 15,16 me- tres; another one degree for 15,52 metres; and another one de- gree for 14,81 metres. At oes rts accession a ane t appeared to be one degree for 19,28 metres, At Carmeaux, Cordier made ten experiments; at Lit as many; and at Decise the same number. The average accession of heat, was one degree for thirty-six metres at armeaux : one degree for nineteen metres at Littry: one ogree fifteen metres at Decise. , va one degree for nty-thre .one-third metres dee aris observat one degree for twenty-eight metres, J ~ M. Cordier, after these details, proceeds to draw the gen- eral conclusions which he thinks. they suggest. But io this stage of our analysis of this ni paper, we think it : fi to make two or three bservations, including a notice the —— ces whic i in our opinion he has not —_ 1, These experiments “some conducted, those of Mt Cordier poreins the least ‘e ble, all lead to the conclusion of the tem mperature ine in proportion as we descend into the interior of the earth. But it is a prodigious leap, from these experiments in a small way, to the igneous liquidity of the central mass. 'Tempe- rature increases one degree for each twenty-eight metres; readily admit, the igneous fusion of our planet: but Cordier’s experiments on the wien fine of mines are not of them- selves sufficient to prov etter proofs exist, in ‘the bier of our globe at re poles, which the latest experiments seem to fix at 51,5: result requiring Thauidity. But the most decisive, and in abr opinion incontestible proof, is, that glassy obsidian and Pua: ice, half fused cinders, and trachytes, pearl stone are actually ejected from volcanos in a state of abeolute fusion in some instances, | high incandescence in others: that these fused and isa hot = Sa and not owing to coal _ set on fire, as Wern supposed, but are situated far below the coal fanatietsin in ibe granitic crust ; “of which, fr ents are often ejected. The reser = which these igneous and 3. No allowance is ieide for the calotie given out at great depie in proportion as the lower part of the column of at- mospheric air is condensed by the weight and pressure of 118 Analysis,.g-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the the superincumbent column. Would not this account for. much of the caloric extricated at great depths? “ On the conclusions deducible from the preceding experiments. “1. The earth possesses within itself a source of heat, not de- pendant on the rays of the sun: A heat which increases rapidly as we descend deeper. “2. The law of this increase of heat is not the same every where. It may be double or triple at one place, what it is at another. ** 3. Nor do these differences depend on latitude or longitude. “4. The increase of temperature is more rapid than was sus- “¢1. All the phenomena agree with the mathematical theory of heat ; and with a high temperature belonging to the earth it- t earth is ten thousand times greater than the liquids, the original liquidity of our globe must have been owing to caloric, and not o water. © 2. Suppose an increase of one degree for each twenty-five leagues at Decise 1-55 of the mean radius of our planet. ari “4. It is probable, therefore, that our earth is a star partially cooled, as Des Cartes and Leibnitz thought: and that the centre li preserves its original fluidity. §. Ifwe consider on one hand the generality which the ob- servations of Dolomiew on the situation of the eruptive fires, (Rapports sur ses voy s Journ. des Mines, tom. 7, p. 385,) a our own (Cordier’s) €xperiments on the composition of lavas, rises to one hundred degrees of Pa eet ee See ae of the r of the earth, 119 -t ii bona ellis’ earth, (deducting th relsipasdtian ‘ 4 . pellicle called seconda poe ) being formed by coulliggas follows that consolidation takes place from the outside toward the inside: of consequence the primitive strata, nearest to the surface, are the most aes In other words, the primordial ~ formations are so much the more rceut: as they belong to a deeper level; which is in eppenition to the notions of modern geology.” Not so: those who admit the igneous fusion of the mass side the crust of the earth, cannot bu ut admit that consoli- consideration that geology has already contemplated, and must at once be allowed ; for the formation of granite be shooting ri the gneiss and other superincumbent rocks, ca no otherwise be accounted for. So, dykes must be gia recent than the disrupted rocks, eT Me sone (Remarques generales sur les temperatures rs Sateen ae et d et ee planetaires. Aunales de Chim. et de 27 ann. 1824, p. 326. Et resumé theorique:d es pro- pret ae = Stealer rayonnante par le meme: meme tome * Sy nside the distribution of subterranean heat at ae ehh s, the temperature of the poles, and the fact: of radiation —_ planetary space, has demonstrated that the earth continues to cool. This cooling is not sensible at the surface, because it is opinchenalt almost completely by the heat en gated gradually from within toward the outside ; and which and theory are fully competent to explain. The loss of 5 etalon has no influence but at very great depths; whence it results that the crust of the earth continues to increase interior- ly by newly formed solid layers. | The formation of primitive strata is constantly going on; and will only cease at some very remote period, when the operation of cooling has attained its limit.” _ These observations will enable us to account for seis bones, and fossil plants, seemingly the growth of warm cli- mates, found in Siberia, and other northern regions. Per- haps it. may. incline us to doubt whether the charming letters of M. Bailly Sur PAtlantide, are not something more than a philosophical romance. 120 =- Analysis, G-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the “ 8. If the crust of the earth has really been thus formed, the primitive strata, known to us, ought to be disposed nearly in the order of their fusibility.. I say nearly, for it ought to have some effect on the rapid action with which the process of cooling took place at its commmgarament and of the action also of chemical affinities operating. on uch immense masses “© 9, Hence, the mean thickness of the crust of the earth does not exceed twenty leagues of five thousand metres, (about sixty- two miles En glish.) 1 would even say, Sage according to some fature occasion return, the mean ee is muc earth. It would be but the four-bundsestth ae ht the ascertain- ed length of a meridian.” Pallas somewhere Caicaitad the mich dd of the e prim- itive formations at twenty-one miles. In travelling along the main rom Richmond to. Charlottesville, in Firginis the reviewer of this paper and Mr. Vanuxem noted, as well as we could, the distances at which the strata changed; from the granite at Richmond, to the disappearance of the primi- tive ; and we thought t the primitive strata, thus passed over, could not be less in thickness than forty miles, cain the usual allowance in calculation. “ 10. It is probable that the thickness of the crust of the earth is very unequal. This seems to follow from the increase of sub- terranean temperature from one country to another. Differ- ence of conducting power, is not alone sufficient to account for the fact. Several ee data tend also to the same conclu- disengaged, being the. fandamental element of the cli- mate neh that locality (?)—and .as in our tit epiaton; M ier’s) between ‘one country and another, we may conceive how, ceteris’ paribus, countries in the same latitude may have different. cli- mates; and how Mairan, Lambert, Mayer, and other philoso- Pp have o- obitelbienies ere a new caus narnae addition which occasion the singular inflexions exhibited by iother- Sinaia + Soe Me See eee Se Oh, eee ae f f J OF Of the earth. _ 121 oot to 12. Whatever may be the nature of the forces, or the astro- pomical apneg which have anciently of continents, and produced that general dislocation and overturn- ing which, the crust of the earth exhibits, we may easily imagine that all the parts of this crust floating ona fluid mass, and infi- nitely subdivided by stratification, and above all by the innume- rable c ne sas. ae which cooling has produced in each i may have been dislocated and overturned as we actually se Aare 2 the case. These effects are inexplicable on the ion! ouppons tion of the Biiaras. strata of the penile having been last solidated, and the globe being solid to its e. n considering the probable fluidity of the central mass, the phenoniens of earthquakes, the trifling thickness of the con- solidated crust,* and, above all, the innumerable solutions of con- tinuity which divide ‘the crust of the earth, and which result ei- ther from stratification, or from the contraction which takes place during progressive cooling, or from the overturnings which the veloped the elements of this singular property: but that memoir had the misfortune to be presented at a moment when the public ‘mind was not sufficiently prepared to attend to these kinds of on. This ibility becomes now more probable than e may D now conceive moreover. , in consequence of the of the central mass on which this crust reposes, how ibe dexititiey may be affected without our being sensible of it. fact, to bring about a change of figure in the spheroid mio of elevating the equator one metre, it would be sufficient in re- lation to the plane of the equator that each of the innumerable solutions of continuity which intersect transversely the solid erust, and which I shall suppose to be five metres separated from a “14. The shane ‘tevibility of the crust of the earth is ac- tually confirmed by two principal causes: the one general and continual; the other local andtransitory. This last cause, con- sidered during the last thirty centuries which have elapsed, spared no region of the earth. Sometimes it has shaken -at the same moment the twentieth part of the continents; or else it has produced an undulation in ean equal to the sixth or seventh part of a meridian. I allude to earthquakes. ‘Since About the one-one-hundredth part of the a of the globe, as- oe the primitive to be forty miles deep.— t. &V.—WNo. 1. 16 122 = Analysis, ¢-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the ihe (brief) period when history commences,” (and when the a minution in the number of earthquakes at lengih permitted the earth to be habitable,) “ we may count six hundred earthquakes remarkable for violence or extent. The second. cause depends upon this, that the permanent diminution of the heat of the earth, no longer produces any sensible contraction in the subterranea regions near to the surface, while its effects still oe piace in the interior ; either augmenting the distance between the mass- es which have undergone the first effects of splenctiony or pro- ducing new solutions of continuity in the masses. We may add, that the slow formation of new strata in the interior must be sub- ordinate to the general law, by which liquids contract in bulk on es soli -ac 152:'The iy mn less flexible portions of the earth’s crust, are those he nearest the surface; for the transverse solutions of continuity in them have Jong ago acquired and lost their maximum of separa- ion. It isevident that the central forces. tend to b a together the elementary masses of the surface, in proportion as i ntracts more and more the bulk of the interior. T -yeos ch would act uniformly if the layers of the idated crust were concentric ; and if all the transverse so- lutions of continuity were found in planes perpendicular to the surface. But it is not so. The state of overthrow of the pri- mordial crust is such, that, considered in its full extent, I can only describe it as a mass ‘of fragments pressing sideways against = other, whose layers are all either vertical or much inclined, Sine this state of things took place, the obliquity of solutions of con- tinuity out of number, some ~ a of prodigious extent, for- ~bids such an approach of elementary masses as shall be uniform, an SRE nate to the ce aired aameiction This appr oat has ‘been re ed by a a of level, slight indeed, but sufficient to affect. poietiin surfaces of great extent. Many geological ‘facts agree with this hy pothesis, We may take for granted that the effect still arpa although insensibly. If the “secular rise of the basin 0 e Baltic is constant, it may be explained; upon our | i c e See s de San anciens)- ee vrage : Egypte 5 Aczordig, to our notions, all that. part of the conti- nent of Africa experiences a depr ession ate to two or three : “centimetres every century,” other facts of oceanic retrocession ecileadlt: in the book enti itled | a a dia and gleswhere, aay be eal ea 2 Bon enor as ee, Le gern tke i * ‘yy ae "eye “pur ae pee eee SER. 123 itt atic Mide ja Place, 1 tk ical facts ol jn the time of finapctckery: as = Seca exact to concludes the duration of a day has not diminished 1-300 of a cent al second in two thousand years, thought, that the contraction ac- tuaily produced by the secular cooling of the globe 0 ficient to increase the velocity of its rotation. This pinta a" gests an useful limit to the actual effect of general cooling. But if we consider the effects of contraction from the mmencement of the coolin sett we must admit that some salietiee in this last respect has actually been exerted. the one hand, the duration of the day ‘has very slightly been dimin- ishe sufficient to endure this alteration of figure; which we admit. poles greater than at the first origin of things. If these data be conceded, the two effects just mentioned are still going on: -It intensity; which is not impossible, as we shall see by and bye. - & 18. Another OT i RP not less probable or staan to which we are led by the th eory of the incandescence and igneous fluidity of the central is this. If the flexibility of the mass, “18 earth’s crust be such as we have su * phenomena of tides take pl z) earth We shall not surprised at this effect, very feeble though it be, if we pay atten- tion to the fact that it certainly did tak at ess than four or five metres. e secular refiguration, continually increasing the thickness of the earth’s crust, gives — to ingu ire, a, the ces does not accompany tte peo : m this being i im- this first material cause in a gaseous state, notwithstanding - influence of immense ony at the depth we are now consid- ering. The capricious phenomena, ea cthanadilig may depend also on the great inequality rol the interior surface of the crust of the e “4 20. These ort oe to a new explanation of volcanic phe- nomena, which, to very few persons who have a just notion ef the eleménts of this joestieis may appear more satisfactory 124 Analysis, §-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the than any heretofore ieee gar These phenomena appear to a plain and natural consequence of the cooling of the interior of the globe—a mere thermometric effect. — internal fluid mass sible in their gradual oper to On the one hand, the. solid crust of the outs contracis more and more as its temperature diminishes,” (from radiation on the outside, and molecular com- munication internally. is contraction is necessarily great- er than the central mass sceciiass at the same time. On the other hand, this ew glene in cuameeriecs of the insensible ac- aie fluid set Sate - compell bait o flow outward in ‘ies form. of lavas by the process which we term volcanic, and with a precedent production of gaseous matters produced inter- nally during eruptions. Let no one be surprised at this hypoth- esis: I can render it probable by a very simple calculation. -% At Teneriffe, in the year 1803, I took as near as possible the cubic. dimensions of the ejected matters of 1705 and 1798. 1-did the same by two eruptions more perfectly insulated in the inte- rior of France ; in 1806 those of the volcano of Murol in Au- > CUbIe K. vo canic ejections. This is yery small, compared to. the. whole ges Spread over its surface, it would not be one hundredth of a millimetre in thickness. In exact terms, suppose’ Raye sulle to produce an eruption.” “Proceeding from these data, if we suppose that contraction will suffic produce the phenomena, and that five erup- take place over the whole surface of the earth. ese the contraction of the consolida- of t mass but one millimetre in ac tury. If there be b iene annually, the same shorteni oe 7 erup- ed will take Slack di in eee centu- ‘ a. cog Rilometre Lae yards English in length. A ot kilometre is about a metre ,03937 eubic * et Rae eae = ey ; 647 migege y ati temperature oj " of the ear 125 sie aa hal ‘cle hatin cases, a very 1 ace produce the phenomena. "thtigdey xe: “elt t wi iwi ee antued that this seteuss if it be. real, is necessa- rily connected with the whole contraction which the globe un- dergoes from the effect of secular ne It furnis ee a basis for calculating the very weak influence which this fate contrac- tion exercises in accelerating the velocity of rotatio “ Nothing less than this enormous power which; I have de- scribed, is required to raise laya. In the agente cr where lavas come from a Lineee of twenty leagues, it is ity, that they would be pres with equal to renty tight abel atmospheres. We know a force oniees that they overflow after an eruption of oe amet mometric, which I propose in explanation of volcanic phenom- ena; and to shew how well it applies to all their details, It will centers, ancient and arte point out the thinnest and least re- sisting portions of this cru “In my preceding Bir I have left uncalculated the e gase- ous matters which are produced at each eruption; for supposing them reduced to their primitive state of liquidity while in the mixture from whence they have been disengaged, oho fees occupy, but little bulk; and the oaalent I have adopted, of bic mere teesh is much ‘beyond the actual volume of peced lava.” The neppanitions of M. Cordier in this paragraph seem too Bor oF s. We have as ye nothing that ail to ite heres the gneiss int, a reposes,) beat fom ty “2 sixty miles thick, No accurate measure of their edges and a lava should require ‘for its ejec ction the force o twenty- eee thousand ergeahegs: is neither probable from any ~ 126 Analysis, §-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the facts known at present, or likely to beomade so. There is no proof that the crust .of the earth admits of no vacuities between itself and the fused mass. There is no proof of its being every where in contact with the fused mass. The phenomena of earthquakes and volcanos indicate continu- ous cavities of prodigious extent. The earthquake of Lis- on, 1755, which shook all Europe and part of Africa, took a fortnight to travel across the Atlantic, and four hours between Philadelphia and Boston, as appears by the letter of Cadwallader Colden, in Phil. Trans. for 1756. There is no accounting for this, but by means of continuous cavities between the consolidated internal crust, and the fluid mass beneath it. The, rumbling noise under ground, attending earthquakes, indicates hollow places. _ There is no sufficient- _ ly probable evidence, beyond Cordier’s peculiar notion, that the slight ‘contraction of the consolidating crust can act steam, and the explosion of the gases of decomposed wa- “21. The greater part of the substances which mineral and thermal waters contain, being analogous to the exhalations from craters during and after their eruptions, or from lava-currents during crystallization, or from solfaterras, it is reasonable to conclude that they proceed from a common source. The emis- sions from these waters, lessen continually the interior charge of gaseous matter. This loss, continually repaired by new subter- ranean products, takes place in consequence of a prodigious ex- Pansive force, and by means of very narrow fissures. The wa- pers is supplied from above, as springs usually are. The altera- stitution of nation, we reco nearly invariable temperature, and the singular nature of their Mn. p: certain principles by others. In this system of expla- ‘ecognize easi observations apply to many of the warm springs in which Fait eaieees: and sulpt Sued hy- a te > fe England, ‘2 ee ici iti ida —) oe two or wniotaee re ee, ee “99. If we judge from the lavas, the Auidity 0 of the gis. scent matter which constitutes the interior of the earth would ty the whole globe.” JAE & he ae will no donht, bein a cer- tain degree “ These two data are not in opposition to the influence which we must allow m easily compressed ; that this compressibility must have a limit; d t excessive heat may counterbalance its effec ore- that of primitive rocks in general: whence we may conclude, independently of any other Sowmignraiien, that the density of the central substances depends more their nature, than on the compression they undergo. They ee been arranged originally in the order of their specific gravities. The existence of gold and platinum proves that matters of very great specific gravity may. be found at the center of the earth.” Binders. the ene pei tg ossess a greater iP cific gravity than the average of he cae ive lavas, containing a notable proportion of iron, do. We a the center of the earth in particular. Gold and silver are found mostly in the primitive and early transition rocks. So are tin, titanium, scheelin, and metallic iron, fess could not hav ve been deeply placed in the central mas There is some likelihood in the hypothesis of M. Ha alley, Tee _which ascribes magnetic actions to the existence of an irregular mass chiefly composed of metallic iron, and having a ‘pecoliar re- abundantly into the composition of sb dew masses ‘The mass of Siberian iron, that in the Lyceum at New York, the mass said to exist near the Mandan village, the 128 Analysis, §c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the masses in the Pampas between Buenos Ayres and Chili, may be cited in addition. But what shall we say of the numer- ous masses of metallic copper in the talcose district of Lake Superior, which are partly described by Mr. Schoolcraft ? Are they not also meteoric? If they be, Cordier’s argument may prove too much. eti virtue. On the other hand, we must not forget that an excessive compression of the metal is likely to retard the limit where the magnetic virtue is thus destroyed. 25. In fine, in adopting this hypothesis, we shall be justified in examining some very feeble effects, secular, and not hitherto perceived, which the various positions and irregular figure of an ‘interior solid mass, possessing a peculiar motion, and partly com- ten of metallic iron, might occasion. For instance, we should e led to doubt the perfect and absolute invariability, which we have hitherto ascribed to a plummet line in every place : this doubt would extend to countries situated far from the bands or uator. midst of questions of the highest importance to geology. It would be easy to extend these inductions ; and to explain for instance in a satisfactory r the formation of primordial, unstratified ks, those of the intermediate (transition) districts, veins, gyp- Seous, sulphurous, saline, calcareous an jan s of the secondary class. The fecundity of application is remarkable ; and t to prove the probability of the theory. This would oid, inert, and formed throughout of aqueous de-. “ This system has remained barren; andno part of it will now ‘ xamination. ow re to narrow lim- its, to the explanation of those superficial layers formed of con- “solidated sediment, conglomerated fragments, and organic re- mains, which form, almost entirely, the very thin covering which | called the ary set of | i is called the second tions. Had not the author- iy the scientific men who | ought this Neptunian system into dan illusion, it long ago have been a ee ge eee ey ee lS owe a J 7 arth, 129 to fl simple proof which it could not have er sai tr r aoniee of the masses of water with the | fluid as you please, Sinlanpedi ossible make ate mme of water dissolve fifty thousand sit easter of earthy and metallic matter. “We must be permitted to say, that we have not been brought back to the theory of a central fire by any spirit of system, but in opposition to system, and in spite of prejudices: The force of fact has produced this change of opinion; it results from con- siderations carefully ee on, and from phenomena of a very different order. Above all. we cannot believe that it is by mere accident that natural philosiaitiy, astronomy, and geology have arrived at the same point such different routes. We may real and fundamental principle ; and we may expect it will, by and by, have as happy an influence on the theory of the e as the great principle of, gravitation has had on the theory of lane otions. P ry m & a this point of our bowled it shoald seem that the Acad- : ht not to remain 0 so fp s0-reat a eatin, Pechay it is now time to ioe * Up a 28th November, 1825, by M. de la Place. * Pe Perhaps it tWoakd fae er also to engage the codperation of all our scavans by dis- tributing the elements of the question as subjects for prize. Pai Ac wo was pe sie during the whole century in determ the figure of the earth, An investigation of the brindple: that b belonging to it, is mate sie worthy of the efforts of the ademy, nor beneath the means at her disposal. The end pro- posed is certainly am among the cxguinsiel upon which hnman inge- nuity can exercise itself; and success would be eager to the whole of science. If the t mass which it has long been supposed to be, if the iacaemial of in- ertia be solely satribabie to the slow development of the phe- * The proposal was, to name a committee of six —— Messrs. La y Gay Lu and Du! p & pro- me of experiments to be executed : so that the Academy might determine by exact experiments—l. The state of the maghetioe tism of the earth. 2. The ressure and composition of the atmosphere. 3. The heat of the globe, at aif- ferent depths Vou. XV. —No. 1 1s 7 130 Analysis, §-c. of Cordier’s Essay upon the nomena, and the weakness of intensity in their progress ; if every thing in the interior is at work, as every thing is on the surface, we arrive at a most important result; since the remark is. also things; which alters and displaces them, insensibly and without return; and which forces them along with it through an immen- or new purposes which the human understanding is incompetent to fathom, but of. which it may feel proud to have exhibited the necessity.” Such is the substance of M. Cordier’s most interesting paper. The Neptunian hypothesis was in articulo mortis before he wrote; it is now consigned to the resting place “of all the Capulets,” never to be revived. ' Many difficulties remain, on Cordier’s hypothesis, which he will have to account for. If the cooling of the mass be- n with the sienites, next to the transition series, thence to the limestone and talcose rocks, then to the c ay slate, mica schist, and gneiss, why are not these rocks found composing — with the sienite nearest the transition. The period of the conversion of steam into oceans and_rivers, the average depth of the ocean hardly yet settled by astronomers, the probability of earthquakes being either the effect of the explosion of oxygen an ydrogen from decom- Water, and other circumstances, yet remain to be uned. When I have leisure to compare the notions of M. Cordier with those of Mr. Scrope, you may perhaps hear again from _ Your obedient servant, - a Tuomas Cooper. ns ‘The ancients entertained an opinion that all things were in a perpetuat = * = Ea apa =: Sg aoe Se ee ce a | rape eg 3 : ni ‘Tt eae pi go atti . Sea Bs ea ee” aint elgg 131 REMARKS. _ A correspondent inquires, is it not possible that Cordier may have deduced untenable conclusions from his own ex- periments? By numerous trials, he seems to have shewn, that if a point be assumed at the greatest depth to which solar influence penetrates, the heat increases upwards and downwards from that point. He assumes the increase of heat to the depth of a few thousand feet as the ratio of in- crease to the centre of the earth. By this *principle of cal- culation, he infers that all the interior of the earth is in a state of fusion, at a depth considerably less than one hundr miles. But if the earth was, at the beginning, highly heated throughout, would it cool in that uniform ratio assumed by Cordier; so that the remaining heat may be represented by a four-sided pyramid whose sides are isosceles triangles? sided pyramid whose sides are the areas of Gothic arches with sides nearly parallel towards the base? The latter would certainly be the true figure for representing the re- maining heat of a red hot cannon ball, after it had been sus- pended by a chain, until its superficial heat should be so far reduced that it could be borne by the hand. According to this method of calculation, the increased temperature de- monstrated by Cordier’s experiments, would not require the greatest heat, even at the centre of the earth, to be above the red heat of iron. NOTICE. Before closing this article, we deem it proper to mention, that a translation of the entire essay of M. er, (i form of a neat pocket volume,) has just been handed to us. It is from the Junior Class at the College of Amherst, who, under the direction of the able and active Professor of Che- mistry, Mineralogy, &c. in that institution, have favored the American public with the whole of this singular and interest- ing production. As far as we have been able to observe, the translation is executed with fidelity and in good taste, and will, we trust, command the attention of those who are disposed to inquire into the physical condition of the in- o planet.—Eb. terior of our 132 Mineralogy and Geology of apart of Nova Scotia. Art. XIV.—A Description of the Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia; by Cuantes T. Jackson and RANCIS ALGER. (Continued from Vol. XIV, p, 330.) Berore deseribing the capes and islands of trap rocks which project into the Basin.of Mines, or are scattered along its northern coast, forming the outskirts of the North Mountain range} and the limits of this interesting formation, it will be necessary to give a brief account of the situation and extent of this sheet of water.. The Basin of Mines is a scalene triangular shape, and its longest side being formed by the township of Parsborough and the district of Colches- ter on the north is sixty miles in length. The next side, which is forty five miles long, is formed by the county of Hants ; and its shortest by the county of Kings, for the distance of twenty five miles. The greatest breadth of this basin is from Wind- sor to Parsborough thirty miles. It communicates with the Bay of Fundy by a narrow, but deep strait called the + Gut,” which passes between the majestic walls of Cape Split and Cape D’Or. ay be exposed, and beautiful productions of the mineral kingdom. The ive of wide ilure of wind ; for, besides the difficulty of transporting nens ee pag i bein pe J oe ~*~ x Mine ‘OF and Gee ology of a part of f Nova Scotia 133 Br area Fe a caught, honest the insurmountable precipices, the rapid Woes of ibe tudes: An accident = ny hap pened to ourselves in examining the geology of Cape "or where we were under the necessity of makin : by clambering upa mural precipice three hundred feet high, which was effected with great risk of falling with the detach- ed columns on which we depen or support, we think it our duty to warn our successors of such hazards, and to re- commend a boat as the ark of safety in such emergencies, The trap rocks form the extremities ‘ie ‘Cape Chiznecto, Cape D’Or, Cape Sharp and most of t along the northern coast of the Basin of M Toone ica pA ee of these places exhibits some interesting geological phenomena, and furnishes many specimens of minerals of remarkable beau- ty, we shall describe them in order, beginning at the mouth of the basin and proceeding eastwardly along its northern shore Cape Chignecto, although it is not situated within the ba- sin, can be more conveniently deseribed here than elsewhere, It is connected with Cape D’Or and projects to the west from friend Dr. Benjamin Lincoln, who has kindly communicated to: us mere facts relating to the geology of the county of Cumberlan The trap erie the extremity of Cape Chignecto, which is the southeastern limit of the county of Cumberland, ex- tends back into the county nearly to Apple River, where it meets the sandstone hereatter to be described, and termin- — abruptly; the sandstone to contact with the trap, and not dipping by beneath ita itas usually happens. The strata of this rock are ‘horizontal, and Dr. L. suggests mine if this be true, as it must have an important bearing on the theory of the origin of trap rocks, and would lead to the opinion that the weight of this superincumbent rock had caused the fragile sandstone to yield to its pressure me thus accomplished the dislocation of the strata. 134 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. low the surface of the water, and running down beneath the waves, is left exposed only by remarkably low tides. This tr: composed tuff is a breccia of angular and irregularly cupied by irregular masses of native copper, which generally are indented by the surrounding matrix. arborescent, and never distinctly crystallized. Where expo- sed to the action of the waves, the copper is always bright, and may be seen for some distance beneath the water ; but, amygdaloidal trap and never occurs: i n the superinew columnar rock ; hence the absurdity of excavated pits into the soil, crowning the summit of the precipice — ed by these rocks: in search of this metal, since it exists near- ly three hundred feet beneath ; this was done by the miners gta ng axeibred at this eae nd as it occurs chiefly below the level of high water, the shafts would be liable to be filled at the periodical influx of the tide, if indeed the works were not entirely demolished by the violence of the cur- rents. The sanguine expectations excited by the appearance of this metal, in a state of purity, must then be disappointed. Masses of calcareous spar, and crystals of a ting- ed green by the carbonate of copper, and having slender filaments of copper enclosed in cpr! in the cavities of the amygdaloid which rests on the tr On the eastern side of Cape D’Or, = precipice as- sumes a concave form, and has eouival the characteristic appellation of Horse Shoe Cove. — the pong in the stilbite. "The specimens are very prepossessing in appear- ance, and would, from that resemblance, be mistaken for the psa aac ain of sugar, which adorn the shops of our con- fectione The stilbite occurs, also, in radiating groups of crystals, forming beautiful stelle, which are distributed through the eloping masses of ar. Many other minerals occur at Cape D’Or, but as they are such as we have already noticed as occurring at other places, 136 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. we shall not here repeat the notice of them, as it is our object to describe only those which are peculiar to the place, or which possess singular beauty, or present remarkable phe- nomena. Grey oxide of manganese is said to have been found =— and it is mentioned in Cleaveland’s Mineralogy, p. 673, the authority of Mr. Thayer. e were however unable t0 + aig this substance, or any. sips asco he of its pres- colakiga trap, and adds much to the scerwieset scenery of this region, though it presents no objects of natural history worthy of a description. The altitude of this island consider- ably exceeds the diameter of its base, and standing alone, like a tower in the midst of the waters, it breaks in a ‘degree the violence of the surge, witntely rolls into the Basin of i from the Bay of Fun Proceeding along ‘the coast ‘tia the east, up the basin we pass the more tame scenery of the s andstone and shale districts to be described hereafter, a do not observe any greenstone trap, until we arrive at Cape Sharp, which is fif- teen miles from Cape D’Or. =~ © promontory of this cape is composed of the amorphous trap which searcely exhibits any traces of columnar arra nti The trap forms a cipice or “ bluff”? which exhibits a remarkable contrast to the low sandstone hills with which it is connected; and stand- aE twern them and the sea, serves to protect them fron» its ravages. e Plate I.) ~ This cape will pt furnish the collector with any mineral mens of interest ; but as this was the first place. where e junction of lit aecstone, shale and trap were observed, it deserves honorable mention on account sk “~ geological larly described hereafter, are seen at this ste to dip be- neath the trap, at an angle of twenty or thirty degrees, and in their passage, a observed to become singularly altered in appearance. strata af these substances, before regu- ae Sie Pendletons E hog. CAPE SHAH: From Partridge Llama bearing North West 7 Miles. 1. Sttuta F Sandstone & shale dipping beneath the truj. 2 Junction. 2 Colzmnar trap from n@lure by C. T Jacks ou at Mineralogy and Geology of apart of Nova Scotia. 137 and lying confusedly in various directions ; the sands has cha oe to a dark red color, is more patie ipee become intimately blended with the shale, so that the e ye with difficulty distinguishes the substance peculiar to ar The sharp angular fragments of the trap are next observed, whole becomes a distinct breccia, growing more compact as it pe. Dene beneath the apap roc inion, combined with the trap, and produced amygdaloid by their ion. The numerous instances in which this occurred, as it did in fact at every junction of these rocks in Nova Scotia, and the absence of trap tuff and amygdaloid in places where this did not happen, or where, although the sandstone, &c. were not visible, it could fairly be inferred to exist beneath, led us irresistibly to this conclusion. That this process was attended by heat is inferred from numerous circumstances, a few of which can be mentioned here, and others in treating of the ack great divisions of the country which remain to be described. The occurrence of native copper in the trap tui and amnygdaloid, may be regarded as evidence in ot. this ; conversion of. claystone into fine red j asper, as entered the superincumbent trap ; the cylindrical cayities in the asopacelely at St. Croix Cove ; and even the existence vacant spheroidal cavities may be "considered as internal ev- idence in favor of this theory. The change of color in the sandstone from grey to red, and the compactness of the strata as it approached the trap; the absence of organic re- mains, and the charred state of the vegetable remains in the aciebbesing strata, give sufficient evidence, that, during the formation of the secondary trap in Nova Scotia, there was considerable heat. The sharp fragments of the breccia, and the breaking up of the strata, also shew, that the produc- tion of this rock, or rather its non-conformable position 2 ‘the sandstone strata was effected suddenly. Whether it w ejected from the inaccessible depths of the Basin of ed or was thrown directly up through the strata of sandstone, we cannot determine; but the occurrence of the trap only on the borders of the basin which it almost surrounds, would iced us to the belief that this cavity was the crater, if it may be so called, from which, in former times, the trap rocks issu- ed. The same rege will apply | to the whole North Moun- OL. 138 Mineralogy and Geology of apart of Nova Scotia. tain range, except that they probably originated from the unfathomable depths of the Bay of Fu undys which is com- pletely skirted, on face side, with trap roc d in favor of any theory oft the earth, when exploring these erinatioes, it was for that of Werner ; ; and ecoming satisfied of the insufficiency of the Neptunian method in accounting for the phenomena observed in the North Mountains, and the appearances assumed by the neighboring strata, we were induced to allow the superiority of the igneous theory, as taught by Hutton, Playfair, and Dauben In treating of the South Mountains, we shall perceive the necessity of an amalgamation of both gaara to explain the relations of that range to the North Mounta fi ntal Island, situated near the village of Parsborough, six miles from Cape Sharp, is the te place - - de- scri itary ‘In crossing the Basin of Min ter passing the majestic Blomidon, this island is the first ‘aerated Sbjeet that meets the eye. It consists of amygdaloid and columnar ‘greenstone e, which, on its south-west side, presents a precipt- tous and overhanging front of about two hundred and fifty feet, rendering precarious < situation of those who may — beneath its brow. Stationed near the ice of this pre- “ant soil, from which spring up a few scattered hemlocks and es . ‘unde rbrush, which nearly obscures the face of the rat hyo at the same time furnishes the sea bird a safe re- nea s the scapgeiiens objects above him. The towers. vest prac si seem more oe than be- fore ; and, in addition to the wildness and -_ uresque ea ty of the scene, the naturalist will find before him a fie! ‘tichly stocked with interesting minerals that he will delight ‘to remain on the spot and gather these objects ofa science. (See plate II.) es Rey a % Pendietons Lua. trom naire by CT Jackson PARTRIDGE ISLAN D Detached Masses cf trap rocks, South West extreri Wy . , : —— Geology of apart of Nova Scotia. 139 _ Before to these minerals, we would observe that the compact trap (fag the highest parts of this island is arely in masses which may strictly be called columnar, al- hour they have a tendency to that form, and in a few in- stances, affect the pentagonal shape of basalt. We were unable, however, to discover among them any appearance of articulation in their columnar arrangement. It contains but a small proportion of iron: and consequently the exposed eursocgt of the rock are very slightly altered by the oxyda- tion = this eae which in other places is more seasibly ob- serve Of th any interesting minerals to be found at this place, bari aasbcinted with calcareous spar is the most abund- mineral, forming numerous veins in the amygda- loid near the base of the precipice, presents, in the open in- terstices of the rock, beautiful projecting masses composed of long fasciculated crystals of a flesh red, and sometimes straw yellow co color. When crystallized, it is in elongated pes ed fontainled prisms, terminated by tetrahedral py- rami “The calcareous spar is curiously scattered over the surfa- ces of stilbite i in acute rhomboids, which are often hemitro- horizontal di a uncommon magnit beauty. These crystals, usually colorless and transparent, are in a few instances of a renifoseawiet ap amids of the stilbite © on which a are siened were iously deposited subsequently to the formation of that minéral. Chabasie in rhombic crystals, transparent and colorless, also of a beautiful orange yellow color, occurs at this place in the fissures of the amygdaloid. The crystals present bril- liant gl: faces, ety: are very large, frequently measuring an inch across each thombic - plane. gates of various aes jasper and chalcedony, also bo- tryoidal cacholong, exist in the columnar rock above the accessible base of Hoag precipice: they may be picked up in 140 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. inperfectly polished fragments among the rolled masses on the shore. A vein of magnetic oxide of iron about a foot wide was also observed entering the superincumbent trap. But the substance for which this island has long been known by the inhabitants of the country is amethyst ; which, occurring plentifully in crystals of fascinating beauty, draws hither the passing traveller, who seldom departs without something ornamental to his parlor shelf, or useful to science. - Pursuing the northern shore of the Basin of Mines, east- wardly, the next place deserving of notice is the vicinity of the Two Islands, about six miles from Partridge Island. The intermediate cuast, being composed of rocks of a different character from those which it is our object at present to de- scribe, we shall leave, to notice it more particularly when we treat of that formation. .— The Two Islands consist of amygdaloid and columnar reenstone rising on all sides abruptly from the sea, and be- ing accessible at their bases only at low water will not afford the visitor many interesting specimens. On the main land near Swan’s Creek, and opposite to these islands, he will be favored with a locality of uncommon interest. At this place also we have a second, and perhaps better developed exam- ple of the conversion of shale, red sandstone, and compact trap, first into a coarse breccia, consisting of loosely united masses of these rocks, then into a more compact breccia, consisting of similar masses more closely united, though distinguishable from each other, and finally, by consecu- tive gradations, into a genuine, well characterized amy daloid, in which the most critical eye would fail to distingui separately its component ingredients, We have in our pos- session specimens from this place, which illustrate perfectly the changes of which we speak, and which present these three rocks tending to the production of amygdaloid. The color of this amygdaloid is obviously governed by the rela- tive quantity of the ingredients composing it; for if the sand- stone and red slate predominate, the color is then nearly of a brick red, as the appearance of the rock itself abundantly peoens but when it assumes a greenish or greyish black co- or, we infer that the slate and sandstone form a compara tavely small proportion of the mass. j ~ Having thus adverted to the character of this rock in pat- fcular, we shall notice more generally the appearance of the . Mineral y and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. 141 rocks at this place, and then describe the minerals before al- luded to as occurring in them. The shore is fronted. by a steep bank of about one hundred feet high, from the base of which a slope of débris, detached by the frost, inclines down into the sea. One half of this bank consists of trap and the ether of red sandstone, intermixed with red shale. Upon it rests a ridge of columnar greenstone. These two rocks come f the primary obtuse rhomboid, sometimes so m ified, as to assume the lenticular hemitropic form represented in Phillips’ Mineralogy, p. 138. At other times, from the 6 analcime, the heulandite is thickly implanted m small, but extremely brilliant pearly white crystals, which are transparent or translucent, and usually in the primary form, sometimes sli modified. The calcareous is. crystallized m very acute rhom- boids, of which scarcely two can be found possessing similar 142 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. angles. The crystals are also so modified, as to assume the form of the dodecahedron composed of two scalene six sided pyramids, applied base to base. They are greatly elongated, and grouped in delicate stellae, occupying the cavities of the amygdaloid. Delicate prismatic crystals, but not of sufficient size to de- termine their form, resembling the Brewsterite from Scot- land, occur scattered through the cavities of the trap tuff and associated with perfect and distinct crystals of analcime, con- stituting interesting specimens. , The last of the minerals which we shall mention as occur- ring at this locality is silicoius sinter. This mineral is usually One or two geodes of this substance were found in breccia, which, on being broken, presented internally a bright coating of amethystine sinter with numerous crystals of wine yellow chabasie implanted in, and beautifully contrasted with it. _ The next places to be noticed along the northern shore of the Basin of Mines are the Five Islands, and an eminence lect many specimens worthy of his visit. ‘The remaining two are composed of sandstone a iting 1 some places, the passage of these rocks into a reddish amyg- daloid, vesicular, and zeolitic. In other places, an intermix- Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. 143 or less proportion, as an essential ingredient of the. rock. The lt or trap tuff, which is a constant sites of the amen produced by the union of the sandstone, &c. which seems as-an intermediate form necessary to ‘the ational of the latter, is here observed, as in all oth- er A args of similar character, superincumbent on the amyg- "The Island most noted among these is that, which standing in advance of the others, is a conspicuous object to meet the eye of the mariner, in his progress up the Basin. It is com- of amorphous or indistinctly columnar trap, which see ing on a Softer basis of amygdaloid, presents, from the un- dermining action of the surges, the curious phenomena of a leaning tower, and, casting a. dark, broad shade beneath it, seems as if ready to tumble into the sea from the over- hanging weight of its summit. On the southern front of Tower Hill is a preeipice of this spaces sad discover a single crys wal belonging co that fam ily of m ; y This is tl is ihe last place on the shore of iiss Baas at peas trap rocks are known to occur. Still farther east, si ean space, a field alike e nsive for tee and co senaaaoh: and Fapician with numerous objects of natural _his- a finished our account of the trap rocks forming the North Mountains and their outskirts, which comprise a com- plete Seep ene of that formation, with the more important and curious mineral productions which they include, and hav- ing suggested, aoe ‘appears to us the most obvious theory of their origin, which, derived from remarkable peculiarities of color, structure, and other appearances of contiguous 144 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. strata, appears to account for those phenomena in a more | satisfactory manner than any other, we shall now pass to the neighboring strata of dnieditdee and shale, forming the moderately elevated and rounded hills of the county Cumberland, and part of the —— of Hants, and part of the districts of Colchester and Pict It becomes necessary to pay “the formation before speaking of the South Mountains on account of its intimate connexions with the trap which we have previously alluded to, in describing the capes which project into the Basin of ines, The sandstone, constituting so large a portion of the prov- ince of a Scotia, is of various appearance, differing t different places. In the immediate vicinity of > se za at Cape Chignecto, einige and Swan’s Creek it is of a dork brick red color, onsists of irregu- ment, containing a oa om ai of oe of iron. Where in connexion with the trap as before observed, the sandstone passes inscaaihly into the shale, or rather, the two form a compound in which the eye can distinguish no line of division, so completely are they blended. The shale va- ries greatly i in color, and Series like the sandstone, be- comes red in the presence of the trap rocks, it as- sumes a bright tile red color, and when exposed to the ac- tion of the waves, it becomes polished on the raiggets — rock consists of thin folia of argillaceous slate, including a little = and is savally ri pe aoe iron. Comparatively remote des rom the trap, the shale as- sumes a grey, brown, “ bluish black color: more rarely it eee with green. Riieeice River, the shale is ene black, and ap- Tirge oes colored by carburet of ir It here includes a oes Pisa OF Seaipact limestone, a prs of which has encroachments of the waters of the Ba- sin vate y Mine A little b be pond Fox River towards pe Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. 145 Portions of ensiform leaves resembling those of the Iris, or blue flag, were here observed, lying between, and included within the strata of sandstone. . The whole northern coast of the Basin of Mines, with the exception of the capes and islands of trap before des- cribed, is composed of strata of sandstone and shale, alter- nating with each other, and presenting to the sea, the edges of their strata, which are finely exhibited by this natural sec- tion. They do not attain a great elevation, rarely exceeding one hundred feet, and where exposed to the waves, the strata have suffered much from their violence, and the shale is al- ways worn away, exhibiting the bold ridges of sandstone strata, contrasted with the deep furrows occasioned by its decay. The strata of these rocks are from a foot to four feet in thickness, and are alternately stratified with each oth- er in great regularity: no limit being found to this alterna- tion, we are unable to say which rock is finally subordinate to the other. Near the village of Parsborough, the red shale appears to predominate, and constitutes a bed more than one hundred yards thick, which is beautifully spotted with green, and contains occasionally scattered crystals of yellow iron pyrites. East! of this bed the sandstone appears n more powerful strata, and more than compensates for the thickness of the shaie just mentioned. It es: a junction beds and veins of gypsum, which is of the laminated and fibrous kind. It is occasionally of a delicate flesh color, and appen to more friable crystalline varieties. At Tower Hill, the trap, which forms but a small part of the precipitous summit, and has no amygdaloid in connexion with it. ‘ united sandstone and shale however, exhibit a most singular 146 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. Passing beneath the trap in its immediate vicinity, it abounds with compressed and flattened mene s cavities, which, instead of the zeolites, are, when occupied, fille with rounded masses of gypsum, the mineral which usually occurs in this rock. These facts obviously tend to establish our theory of the origin of trap tuff and ainygdaloid, and render probable the explanation of these phenomena: that _ the quantity of trap present was inadequate to complete of = at this locality. s of gypsum, of practical worth, occur near the head of ie Basin of Mines, in the vicinity of the Subenacadie Riv yer, where also occurs a large bed of limestone, contain- ing the an and impressions of marine Pres ells, Itis of an ash grey color, and not very compact. one imen, 2 few Sen sqettte of galena vere ane Sameie a This gypsum is of a bluish oe and is highly valued in the United States as a manure, although in its native country it does not appear to contribute in the least to. the fertility of the soil; in fact, the hills entirely composed of were not clothed with so luxuriant a crop of vegetation as those where this mineral was peal aig wien in. the soil. The trap rocks by their decay furnish a far more productive soil, as exhibited in t the township of Co Moats is, justly enti- tled, the “ Garden of Acadia,” a the whole extent of the base of the North Mountains. The gypsum in the vicinity of Windsor, abounds in those onieal or inverted funnel shaped cavities, supposed to have ongeeneatts: solution of rock salt, (muriate of soda,) which hae ates : d once to have occupied those spa- 9 ces. , or traces of its existence, were dis- Saeovihaane ts any exists it is unknown to the inhabitants. In one of ra caverns Soin ten or fifteen years since, the bones of a human — Eeppoees from the relics of arrows found with them, been those of one of the a " soe ‘were e discovered | in opening a on mnaat course. It is extensively wrought, and furnishes more than any other locality in Nova Scotia. The sandstone in which the Newport gypsum occurs, is not of so dark a color as that on the opposite shore of the Basin, in the vicinity of the trap. It is greyish, and some of it almost white, composed princi- pally of quartz, with a small proportion of argillaceous sub- stance for a cement. On the banks of a small but cements stream which em ties itself into the St. Croix, called Montague River, a re- markably beautiful precipice of siliceous breccia passing into ists 0} sixty feet high, and rises from a base of the same rock form- ing the bed of the stream, which has excavated numerous cep holes into the bottom forming beautiful reservows of rushes, and | produces an agreeable effect. This place, adorned with overshadowing trees, is a favorite resort for the visitors of the ontague House, and has tempted the pencil of a noble lady to portray its beauties. ets! G also occurs abundantly in the county of Cumber- land, at the-head of Chignecto Bay. The most extensive bed is on the banks of the Maran River, where the gypsum ce. is of a bluish color and equal to any in the provin 148 Mineralogy and Geology of apart of Nova Scotia. We shall now advert to the porwr of Cumberland, and describe the quarries of — tones and the coal district of this region. The san re wide it emerges from beneath the trap at Cape D°Or, aa where it comes in contact with it at Cape Chignecto, exhibits the red color noticed at other places in the vicinity of this rock, is more compact, and desti- tute of organic remains. Leaving its Plutonic neighbor fur- ther up Cumberland Bay, it assumes a grey cee It alter- nates with, and passes into a coarse conglome ple River and the South Joggin it is quarried for grindstones and as a building material. The sandstone passes into the province of New aS and Sewn the extensive grind- stone quarries of Meringuin and Grindstone Island; but eon Bhp are heyond our Setitiy and we shall content our- with a of the quarries at the South Jog- quently meet with hard rounded no odules which they call ‘bulls eyes,” and which always condemn the stones as use- less. They differ from the surrounding matrix only in poet more compact and having less of the Be balls basis, and breaking with a conchoidal fracture. The bulls eyes differ in size from one to ten inches in diameter. clude a smaller spheroid as a nucleus within the larger. ’ es Near the mouth of a River, Sepenones are also eer ae es of mica and ena of felspar interspersed through the mass. The grains are usually Brigutdy and not often exceeding the size of a mus- _ tardse hey are united by an argillaceous cement, which ' mio proportion to the whole. This rock contains remains of culmiferous plants, which lie uch compressed. They do — are m Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia. 149 the — unless many occur in the mass, which seldom happens, as they are mostly scattered diffusely through the strata. The fossils which occur in this sandstone, stamp it as a secondary rock, although it is evidently older than the trap rocks recumbent on it along the margin of the Basin of Mines. A few miles south west from the grindstone quarries at the South Joggin, a bed of bituminous coal exists in the sand- stone, accompanied by shale. The bed is about five or six feet thick, and has been wrought to a small extent, but is now Seiaioad, and the shaft is filled with earth and rubbish. coal contains an abundance of pyrites, which injures its lity as an article of fuel. In the vicinity of this bed oc- cur several smaller beds, one of which is covered by a stra- tum of bluish compact limestone, in the upper surface of which Dr. Lincoln observed fragments of shells resembling those of the common muscle. (Mytilus edulis?) Many of the vegetable fossils so common in the rocks of the coal series in other countries are found in great abundance here, imbed- ded in the sandstone, which dips at an angle of thirty degrees from the horizon, and includes the coal. Specimens of the phytolithus verrucosus were found by Dr. Lincoln, which ex- actly resemble those repr rawings accompa- nying Mr. Steinhauer’s article on 1 these fossils in the Ameri- n Philosophical Transactions, New Vol. I. Pl. IV. fig. T. 2. and 4. spr, estan Pee oS fossil it ed in Parkinson’s Organic Remains, Vol. I. Pl. I . fig. : bling bamboos and rushes are likewise abundant. Some of the reeds are three or four inches i in diameter and as many cipal coal bed, Dr. Lincoln saw one segment of a trunk two feet long and twenty five inches in diameter, and : about one foot cine and eighteen or twenty inc’ Galante: ter. The external appearance of this petrifaction had led the grindstone evasion to believe it to feo been a hemlock tree (Pinus Canadensis.) They say that a few*years “se a large part of the trunk was sprees erect in the cliff, with some of its branches attached to it. 150 Mineralogy and Geology of a part of Nova Scotia, Lignites are very abundant. Some specimens appear to have been trunks of trees or succulent piants of an enormous size, and they are found, not traversing the strata of the — like the stony casts of the reeds, but lying between em The Isthmus connecting Nova Scotia with New Bruns- wick, situated between Cumberland Basin and Bay Verte, is but twelve or fourteen miles wide from one shore to the other, and being composed of a friable decomposed sandstone, op- poses a feeble resistance to the rushing waves of Cumberland Bay, where the tides rise to the height of sixty feet; while on the shores of Bay Verte they scarcely sino the elevation of eight or ten feet. One would suppose such frail barriers would give way before the seshbine and Bi of the con- flicting tides. It is, however, a remarkable fact, that the same waves which cause so much devastation along the rock-bound coast of the Bay of Fundy, undermining and tumbling in confusion the lofty trap rocks, roll harmless these shores, Sneed by the bold promootories of ‘ape Chignecto and Meringuin, depositing their spoils taken from the opposing rocks, quietly on the shores of Cumberland asin, and thus fortifying the isthmus in its weakest point. The inhabitants assist the process, securing by dykes the soil deposited on their lands, and profitably use the tenting naeped at their doors by the tumultuous sea. m the shores of Chignecto Bay the sandstone and Ris ee: the county of Cumberland, extend to the wa- ters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the north, pie gee stretch- ing eastwardly towards the county of Sidney, “regina part of the districts of Colchester and Pictou. The int of Cumberland county was not eos by ner than either of its other ingredients. “ Of all’ spurs substances used by the ancient artists,” says Dr. Clarke, “ Parian marble, when without ‘veins, and ‘therefore’ free from extraneous bodies, seems to have best resisted the’ various attacks made upon Grecian sculpture. It is found’ unaltered, when granite, and even porphyry, coeval as to’ ial state, have suffered Aaabh poate: —Ed. _ Foreign Literature and Science. —-—«*169 7. On the Iron in the Cruor or red part of the Blood.— Bnechar of nine from as senate “ee Pee Rese: con- red color. of the c f the blood is. ow- ere ee iron, seit this opinion ic fe controverted by Brande, Vauquelin and others.. He found, when the cruor is deprived of its iron, that it becomes colourless. The iron is separated from the cruor by means of chlorine, a method much superior to those at present in use,—d, Phil. Jour. 8. Saints of Paper from Marine Plants.—It is said, that tried with success in Holland, to man- ufacture fark ere aati algae. We have not. seen this pa- per, and are unable to say any thing, with certainty u the subject, but we entertain no doubts, regarding the suc- cess of such an undertaking, provided it were conducted b proper hands. The tenacious texture, and the nature of these plants, seems to render them well adapted for this pur- pose.— Ed. Phil. Jour. 9. nes ure of a —— which has the propert vof r from ay- ing dried a certain cuantiy of pu pumice stone among live coals, and reduced it to pow wder, a it with . linseed oil thin enough to o be laid u upon paper wit a pencil. © "To give this layer, a yellow, black, or aes ee color, the mass is mixed, before applying it to the paper, with a little ochre, English red, or lamp black. Care must be taken to lay the substance on as oasalld as possible, and to dry it in the air. When the first coat thus applied to the paper is dry, anoth- er is to be Jaid on in like manner. Those who manufacture it for sale, pass the paper thus prepared under a cylinder, to render it smooth. It is further to be observed, that the mass must and that it must be stirred about before ap- plying it to the paper. —Ea. Phil. Jour. 10. On the Poisoning: of Plants.—Plants are liable (as Carraderi has seen) to lose their power of se action of distilled oleander water; thus this water, or n better, the volatile oil of oleanden, extinguishes a ree power of contraction of the capsule of momoidaca = terium, and of balsamina ian Vo. 22 . XV.—No. 1. #70 Foreign Literature and Science. radori concludes, that plants have contractable muscular fibres. Mr. Marcet has thought that vegetables also pos- sess something analogous to a nervous system, since the first of these poisons acts on contraction, the second on the sen- sibility in animals.—Jour. de Pharm. Ann. of Phil. lately been found in Brazil a tree, the young branches of which drop water, which falls almost hke a shower. This tree to which Leander has given the name of cubea pluwiosa, is transferred by M. Decandolle to the genus cesalpinia 8 plants, the vine, and other twigs, at the season of sap, weep abundantly, particularly when they are cut.—Jour. de Phar. Ann. Phil. north of Germany ; the light is visible at the extremities of the plants, especially when it is broken. This phosphores- cence disappears in hydrogen gas, oxide of carbon, and chlo- n So boldt is on the point of opening in this place, (Berlin,) a = ot u ersons who have inscribed their names as attendants upon is lessons is so great that the Hall is found insufficient to receive all the auditors.. M. De Humboldt, who is acquaint- Foreign Literature and Science. 171 ed with the fine establishment in Paris, called the G regrets that there is not in Berlin one of the same kind. would enable him to exhibit to the audience ona chart of vast dimensions the different voyages of discovery, and give a sort of instruction of the terrestrial globe, considered at one view both in its locality and in its details. Comparative geography is, like comparative anatomy, a new science, em- inently calculated to advance the geographical sciences.— Rev. Encyc. Oct. 1827. - 14, Homage rendered by power to genius.—A short time ince the town of Weimar, presented to the literati of Eu- e ascene extremely touching. The patriarch of German literature, the illustrious GorTHe, received the homage of a monarch, a true friend of the arts and sciences, who is him- self one of the most enlightened men of Germany, and who omits no occasion of manifesting the noble enthusiasm which animates him on behalf of generous principles. The kin of Bavaria having learned that the anniversary of the birth of GorTHE was : a, about to be celebrated, went to Weimar, unexpectedly to the poet, pressed him in his arms, and hung around his neck the grand cordon of the order of Bavaria 15. Marseilles, (France.)—The Society of christian mor- als, established at Marseilles, about fifteen months since, has, even in this short space of time, by its untiring charity, rendered important services to suffering humanity. A stran- ger to all party spirit, indifferent to all national rivalships, en- quiring into no man’s religious opinions, it advances silently to the practice of well-doing, intent only upon the means of obtaining some amelioration, moral or hysical in the lot of i This society aspires only after a single object— the happiness of men; and its generous intentions, which embrace at once, the warrior and the man of letters, the la- 172 Foreign Literature and Science, borer as well as the pibesphtee the Jew as well as the chris- tian, are so well known, and so evident, that no anne person can entertain the least doniet with respect toi his declaration of the principles which govern che socie- ty, renewed by M. Chasson, one of its secretaries, at the meeting of the 27th of September, 1827, was followed by a, report upon the situation of the society ‘and the results a ready obtained. Afflicted by the fury with which so many persons yield to an excess of gambling, and the misery ocea- sioned by this detestable passion, the society ordained a prize for the best work. against this shameful vice... The number of competitors was considerable ; but the prize was adjudg- ed, and the society seen: its value for the next year, It will be three hundred fran: ieee ociety ociety had « conceived | the project of forming, i in Prov- i meine a home and without resources ; but circumstan- ces, which could not be foreseen, occasioned. the postpone- ment of this interesting project; but the hope is cherished Bae resuming it next year. In the mean time, the society has, extended its care to the young orphan Greeks, and it is esti- mated that a-capital of one hundred and forty-four thousand francs will be necessary for this charitable. purpose, within the year. But this sum is very small compared with the the society of Marseilles invites the other inhabitants. of rance to unite in this work of mercy.—Rev. ce 1827. 16. Figure of the Earth—M. Biot cond a memoir on this subject, before the Institute, on the 3d of November see His own observations, confirming the results at which many others have arrived, have induced him to admit that the ac- tion of ‘gravity is no ot the same at all points on the same par- alle 1, cand eer * is not a uniform variation on the same thereafter to ceccd ohgentakions. on oi ad of she lum, to render them as useful as possible. Every i ted observation, will in his opinion, be hereafter of little con- sequence, unless, by a chance on which it would be unsafe to rely, it should happen to be made at a point where the action of a would be a maximum or aminimum. In general ers should hereafter endeavor to repeat their Dbesrea: tions, ponte along the same parallels, or on the same merid- ian, inorder to ascertain the laws (if any such exist) which regulate the diversity _— can now no longer be contested. The author concludes his memoir in observing that the Eng- = Bane erred in taking the length of the m as the their metrical system, as this Jengt may vary from eo na sis are quite independent of mere topographical position, and which may not remain constant at the same place during a course of ages. On this account, the basis of the French measure is not liable to the same inconvenience to the same extent.—Jdem. - 2000 ieotiow “si a cheap and eas a mode of preserving ice for domestic purposes. 1500 francs for a Rasp, which will peace ts hundred Kilogretimes (one thousand six hundred pounds ur of beet roots to a pulp, with the force of four men. And 2000 francs for the best press, which will extract seventy- _ to seventy-five per cent of juice from the pulp. 000 francs for the perfection of the method of producing hye 6000 francs for an economical process of making solid of ultramarine, equal to that which is obtained from fp Jazuli. 5000 francs for a process for drying meat, which will se- cure it oe it rca putrefaction or taint in long southern voyages. A portion of meat has been exposed during ten years, in the mint at Paris, in a Leroy in which it is not prote tected either from dust or atmospheric changes, and-w after being washed and osékell is still savoury andgood. It was diate preserved bye M. Vilaris, an apothecary of perneanx, sais secret died wi th him.— Programmes des pris. &c. 174 Foreign Literature and Science. 18. Action of the Moon on the Atmosphere——The Bib. Univ. for Dec. 1827, contains a valuable memoir on this sub- ject by M. FLavcEraues, ite at Viviers in France. The author observes that ma cael have been engaged in researches on Bi action of the n upon the barometer, but that their labors have not been invented with very oe navies results. Nor have the labors of meteorolo- gists been much more ee cessful, The observations of some of these are contradictory and irreconcilable with each oth- er. Several have zaterrel that the barometer is higher du- ring the time the moon is in perigee than when she is in apo- gee; and others, that the mean height is greater in the sy- zygies than in the quadratures; but other observers, have drawn opposite conclusions. The results of different years dg not correspond. The fault may in many cases have lain n the instruments, which for want of proper care and man- apetiiont are liable to deteriorate. Considering also the ma- irregularities, which attend the moon’s motion, it is only by a long series of observations, that correct and satisfacto- ry deductions can be formed. The author describes at which he observed to ensure accuracy in his observations. He extended his researches throughout a whole Saros or lu- nar cycle, and sums up the result as follows :— Table of the mean foahs at noon, of the barometer, at the observatory FA odbe Ny in the aan of the Moon, in oe ei ah a Peri, nie 4 of th that nary, of nineteen years, (otk Oct. 5806 eek Oct. 18a s Number} Mean LUNAR POINTS. alt Fos te or aie: ae |. tion eter tres. pou. lig. | m. m. Mean general height, - =. + . = | 6915 | 27 11.29 | 755.44 Conjunction, or ne MOM, at eS 234 | 27 11.27 | 755.39 First Octant, _ = 2 « - 234 27 11.26: | 755.37 First 3 eee 234 | 27 11.26 | 755.37 Secon 2 —. . «| 6 | OY ODE) 964s Opposition, or full Moon, - > ‘ 234 | 27 11.20 | 755.23 Third Octant, - + 6 92. = + | 984°] 97 11.47 | 758.70 qjusdrature;: =e a fos, 234 | 27 11.68 } 756.32 ourth Octant, - - = = . .{| 9235 | 27 11.81 | 756.4 ai pe MES sos | - a5 | 9711-49 | 786.98 ‘ - . «| 258 | 27 11.28 | 755.42 252 27 10.97 | 754.72 252 | 27 11.46 | 755.82 Foreign Literature and Science. ibs at evidently appears from this t Si. ist. That in a synodical Ba a of the moon, 1 te be rometer rises regularly from the second octant, when it is the lowest, to the second quadrature, when it is the highest ; and then descends to the second octant to commence again its rise, &c. 2d. The varying declination of the moon also modifies her influence upon atmospheric pressure. It is greatest (at least in the latitude of Viviers,) when the moon’s declina- tion is south ; whence it evidently results that the barometer is higher in the northern rag than in the southern. This observation is contrary to what M. de Laplace had conclu- ded from his theory, viz. “ pe the sign (signe) of the veal clination of the two luminaries (sun and moon) has no s sible influence on the modifications of the atmosphere.”* d. Lastly, the action of the moon, in diminishing the pete of the atmosphere, varies with its distance from the e mean height of the barometer is less when the ree is in perigee than in apogee, whence we may infer that her action m diminishing pressure, is greater in the for- mer than in the latter Bin There exists. betw: the. phases of the moon and the days of rain which aelieda with these phases, a constant relation which would a eEpent very singular, if what we = observed with respect to the barometer did n immediate erilenston, Agreeably to the extract which I have made from my meteorological journal of the rainy days which coincide with the days of the moon’s phases and with those of the perigee and apogee during the period of nine- teen Fons, I have found the number of those days as follows. ae OF THE MOON. | Bek al cas éjieiitae: ole BO hoon: ie. Perigee | Apogee No. ofrainv days ys) coincident with | © 77- | ~ 82 79 60 93 78 the days of the f days. | days. | days. | days. | days..| days Moon’s phases. iia We perceive by this table that the number of rainy days which coincide with the days of the phases, &c. follows the same march with the mean heights of the barometer corres- * Mécanique celeste, t. ii, p. 298. 176 Foreign Literature and Science. ponding with these phases, but in an inverse order: thus the number of days of new moon on which it has rained, is less than the rainy days of the full moon, and the mean height of the barometer on the days of conjunction is greater than that of the days of opposition; in like manner the rainy days of the first quarter greatly exceed those of the last quarter, pondent chan We ma a conclude that the diminution of the et i" ae atmos nett caused by the attraction of the o be rec among the causes which deter- re the al of rain.—Viers, 19 eta ASehsaliib: Univ. eC. : 19. Helwetic Society a Nenoat Samy. iieta at Gurick mn the 20th, 21st, and 22d of August, 1827.—M. Debur, of Geneva, furnished a table of meteorological observations of his get exhibiting the years remarkable for heat from 1768 to 1800. Maximam of of the age Maximum of ow! thermom- ra —F. Trt; Tuly 25; — 792; Tuly TO; 903° = sd 26, 923 1793, June 30, 901° 1780, July 30, 203 sdots July 18, me 8 14 ; 95 3 66. ee abs 1781, May 31, 83? ite Boot 7 aoe ge oo pt ; 1797, July 19, 901 4778,- Aug. 4, 911 +4 9 6s oe 8 1800, Aug. 14, 922 e 95 1780. The he vintage took place the end of Reptauet and the wine was @ Superior quality. : 178, Wine of same superior qualit 79 - The harvests all suffered by drcaght except that “18 , 0 "The grass withered on the mountains. An examination of the intervals which separate the yea remarkable for great heat, shows that their return is subje to no regular law; sometimes the intervals are very long, sometimes very short: thus in the last thirty years, they are nine, seven, four, two, one and six yeas. Bib. Univ. Dec. 1827, ; 20. Neer y.—The following’ are the epochs of the death of the philosophers whose names are mentioned. — a Schubert, ries - - 2. = = | 98d December, 1825, - Reichenback, tits 12th May, 1826. Frauenhofer, a 7th June, 1826 @." < - - - 25d November, 1826. Laplace, pine lt 5th March, 1827. Volta, the same day with Laplace. Chladni - - 4th April, 1827. Ramond, : - : 14th May, 1827. Fresnel, ie 14th July 5 Iuee Ferrussac’s Bul. Juillet, 1827. 91. Sideroscope-—An instrument has been invented in France to which the above name has been given, provision- ally from the extreme facility and delicacy with whielr it te dicates the smallest portion of iron in any substance, min- eral, vegetable, or animal. It consists, briefly of a small straw, nine inches long, sev 1 4 of < . half, in the same manner. This instrument is magnetised ! suspended inside of a glass case, by a single untwisted fibre of raw silk, twelve inches long; substances to be examined, gre introduced into the case, by a lateral opening. The whole instrument weighs but four grains, and the utmost care is observed to exclude from the frame or table of w which supports it, the smallest particle of iron, and to avoid the disturbing effects of a current of air, and even of the breath.—The substances to be presented for trial, are pasted to a small strip of card or pasteboard, to avoid the heat of the hand or fingers. Vor. XV.—No. 1. 23 178 Foreign Literature and Science. Almost every piece of money, French or foreign, ancient or modern, gold, silver or copper, but especially the. silver, coins of Italy, attracts the sideroscope with greater or less activity: it is the same with all substances, mineral, vegeta- ble or animal, which contain the least atom of iron, nickel or cobalt. Platina exercises a decided action, notwithstan- ding al} the chemical ee necessary to bring it to a soft state Small 1 masses of any of the following substances, weigh- ing at most, eight or. ten grains, affect this delicate. instru- ment. All kinds of ashes, compacted by a little gum water ; blood simply dried or. swelled ; chocolate; bottle glass ; tour- malines, green and, black, not rubbed or warmed ; granite ; thomboidal quartz; yellow topaz; green talc ; sul hate of iron ; all vatoane et ea ; oh | metals not chemica pure ; brass —- the fine or ye en tomologintssYarious orns of °c: The most satprisithe effect of the Sideroscope is ie re- pulsion of the needle by bismuth and antimony.—Idem oo, y of Tin.—M. Oehngern undertook, in 1822, the mayer of the various kinds of tin employed in the man- ufacture at Closter of sheet tin (fer-blanc) in order, to dis- cover the cause of the superiority of certain kinds. He dis- covered that the English grain tin, which gives the. finest tin- ned suringe contains no foreign body. inman, who has rendered great service to the Closter. fabric, eat e engaged in the examination of the saline rasdeain obtnned4 in the purification of common tin in order fo render it fit for tinning. He finds} in the 100 Rarts; Tin, .3000 “—€opper, — - . . tart ieaa7e ~ fron ae SC : - . - -3300 6712 cludes that to the, arsenit; and especially, to the copper, ought to be attributed. the prope rty which impure. tin ne “of. ~< its. lustre when used in_tinning other 93, P sian Blue _M. Gautier in his theoretical re- -searc hes in au ie formation of cyanogen has been led to the. conclusions, First, calcined animal m atter. will eee seem dlone gi e very Tittle cyanogen. Second, it sitet more with the but the prussiate is not ferruginous, hird, ammonia “4 then produced in great quantity. Four, the sub- stitution of nitre for potash and the addition of clippings or scales, (vattitures) increase the production of cyanogen, and give a ferro-prussiate. The author has practised this pro- cess for two years in the neighborhood of Paris. His meth- od as he describes it is as follo aan Blood, supposed dry, —- ~ 3 parts. - Nitrate of snail shih lig Part. of the blood. After Hist édapratat dal the Blood it in a ae copper ket- tle the serum is pressed out and the clot returned to the ket- tle, with the nitre and the’iron. The hu umidity of the blood is sufficient to liquefy the salt, so that the mixture becomes uniform. It is then’ removed to an air y loft, where the de- siccation is completed. The pateeaann of the blood is prevented by the nitrate of potash. When completely dry it is put into cast iron cylinders, ‘arranged in a reverberatory furnace similar to those used for ivory black. The i Rae Fy are heated to dull red, or until smoke ceases to be dise filtered nroueh a cloth and evaporated ¢ to the thirty-second egree of Baumé’s areometer. On cooling, a considerable quantity of the bicarbonate of Bash is produced, in well formed crystals. The author has not been able to satisfy himself with respect to the manner in which this Ma hte pei is formed at so high a temperature, since a portion appears to be decomposed during the evaporation of the lel, at first, but little alkaline, uae oe ch becomes vety sensibly so, by a prolonged eva -The same prodait is s not obtained when the potash of commerce is used. It is probable that the elements of the othe acid act an ftapohtant and necessary part in this . Operat The iohution which has furnished these crystals, contains a little sub eg ash and much cyanuret of ferru- retted potassium. aa din “ contracted to 34. placed in wooden vousets sibs with le In the course of a few days a greenish crystalline aie is obtained: these crystals are re-dissolved in a fresh quantity of pure ag which evaporated to 32 or 33, yield crystal anew.—Lbid. . 180 Foreign Literature and Science. 24. Saltpetre.—It is stated by Henri Braconnot, that the stem and leaves of the common Beet when dried and burn- ed, yield ashes so rich in alkali, that it melts easily by heat, and surpasses many of the commercial varieties of potash. Beets which grow in a soil highly manured contain much ni- e; those which grow in thin and sandy soils, very little. The leaves of the former when tied in bundles, and hung up to dry in places slightly moist, warm, and rather dark, will have their leaf stalks entirely penetrated and covered with an innumerable multitude of small crystals of saltpetre. The nitric acid, in this case must have entirely displaced the oxalic and malic acid, Js this acid formed under the influ- ence of the animalised substance contained in the petioles, or is it produced exclusively by the elements of the atmos- phere? The author tried in Conjunction with a friend, to manufacture saltpetre from the residue of the beets used in a sugar factory but was not successful.—Ann, de Chimie, et de Physique, Juillet, 1827, : 25. Evaporation of water from hot surfaces.—It was as- certained by Lerpenrrosr, in 1756, that between the_boil- ing point and that at which iron becomes white hot, water evaporates from its surface less easily the greater the heat. Klaproth repeated these experiments and relates the result as follows. let fall another, and then a third, fourth, &c. the spoon cool. g the whole time. ~The first drop continued 40 seconds, the’second == =. «90 third = Ronee . a fourth = 4, & th — I ~ Having let fall seven drops in a spoon heated to the prop- *t point, they united in a ee mass which began to turn is with rapidity. It afterwards separated at the top, i : give = Fostien Literdtuve and Scien: 181 a spot of white foam appeared, the borders being in- dented. This curious phenomenon contin hundred and fifty seconds. Ten drops formed a globule with like re- sults, except that it lasted two hundred seconds, and went off orgy: t evaporation properly speaking, the spoon being very h Atter these trials he used a capsule of pure silver and an- other of platina, which were heated on coals to whiteness. omena were phair the same. With he silver capsule, in the first experi the first drop continued 72 seconds, he second third - - i # fourth - - is" In the second experim the first drop continued es seconds, the secon third - - a es fourth - - 4 : When there were ibete oe, the united ball continued two hundred and forty seconds, and the evaporation was af- terwards instantaneous. With the platina capsule, the first drop continued fifty sec onds, and a bubble of of three drops ninety seconds.—Jbid. 26. Contents of rain water.—M. Lizsie, professor of chemistry at Geissen, found on an examination of seventy- seven specimens of rain water, seventeen of which were ured during storms, that the latter all contained nitric asi in very different quantities, combined either with lime or ammonia. Among the other ay ee he found but two which contained a tra The same chemist examined the cana of. fifty other va- _ rieties of rain water, collected by the late M. Zimmerman, “in 1821, 1822, and 1823; among them twelve contained ni- trates. It thus appears, that during storms the azote and oxygen of the atmosphere, combine and form nitric acid—a fact b no means surprising, after the experimental results of Caven- dish and Hence when nitrates are found in materials which contain neither animal nor vegetable matters, the acid is probably formed by the electricity of the atmosphere. 132 Foreign Literature and Science. A memoir of Luiscius, (Rotterdam, 1798,) on the putre- faction of vegetable and animal substances, states, 1st, that these substances, in contact with water, are entirely decom- posed, if the air have free access; 2d, that the decomposi- tion is singularly accelerated by air ; 3d, that under — circumstances, (air and water having free access,) much n tric acid is produced, and a little ammonia ; 4th, that thibse substances putrefy in different times in the following order ; urea, gluten, animal gelatine, muscular fibre, starch, white of eggs, gum, sugar, vegetable fibre, &c.— Ibid. ate oe of ammonia in argillaceous minerals.—It is the TE Se M. Bouts, of Perpignan, from his experi- ents and enel ton: that the argillaceous Fd of miner- als} is owing to the presence of ammonia. — s found it in pipe clay, impure gypeum of vario ais forsatone: steatitic earths, anterior to the presence of 0 organised bodies, &c. When these substances are moistened with a solution of ar. potash, the argillaceous odor is generally increased, in that ¢ =i a glass wet with hydro-chloric acid occa- rote white vapors when held near them. Litmus paper, slightly re Ricced, and placed over these earths, thus moist- ened, has its blue color restored, Argillaceous odor has been gen oral s ascribed to the ox- ide of iron, but it is difficult to conceive how this substance can render inert substances odorous. The presence of am- monia in these minerals may account for the odor sd) The he ammonia becomes. the vehicle of the peculiar a materi An analogous ctncidiieast occurs in musk, tobacco, &c. which when perfectly dry, are almost inodorous but when moistened with a weak solution of ammonia, give out their characteristic odor.— Ibid. 28. Magaciieis.- Scebeck, in making new researches on the property w which the metals have of diminishing the number "af oscillations of the magnetised needle, determined the different degrees of this force in each met etal. He used -a.needle two and one eighth inches long, suspended by a fibre of silk, at the that et of three lines over -metalli one = een the two amplitudes of 45° and Foreign Literati Sivhitienn Cli, 183 per bt enciiintione above a plate of m marble. 2 112 over a stratum. an MOSSES. = lines thick. rae sp over a plate of Bismuth, = * *Jatina, - a - “6 . 90 > ae” +) ROY, a 89 be: q, Lead, = By 8 hong SReie 1 050.9 « ~Gold, - - 2,9 * “ Bil oie - i ee “ SEE xs lB aise pad om & eee - - Brame, ~ iy AAD Ao canals 62. - - ~~ Copper, x-5 odo 4, fen 5. ne nears ot a se The author sscartenan by. experiment, “hal the metallic nature of the m ggoded pidge had the same. influence on b the metals, which, like 1 0m, witkel 2 nd cobalt, are magnetic, with others, w ich, ntimony, diminish. the magnetic force,—c —compounds are formed, which have no: influence on He. thus found suitable for compasses, and that that of | copper ed nickel deserves, the preference, get th iebene the most malleable. —Ferrussac’s Bull, Aout, 1 29, Artificial Spider’s web for micrometers-—Dissolve, to a convenient extent very thin caoutchouc in very pure spiri of turpentine. By drawing out the solution, extremely fine and smooth threads are onaieas whieh when dried, are ve- ry goad for micrometers.—. 30. Analysis of Potteries. _M. e Berthier has examined the composition of several kinds of pottery ware. He dis- ishes them into three sorts—Ist, porcelains, 2d, potte- ries, 3d, Fucibles: : 184 Foreign Literature and Science. PORCELAIN. Sevres. |England Piedmonts. Tournay. 0.753 : - =) | 0.596 | 0.970 0.600 7 3 a z 086 0 0.082 - : = pap ONS | — } 0.059 : ‘ 6.024 | 0.012 0.016 0.100 : 5 2 0.070 0.15: - The paste of Sévres is composed of -633 of kaolin of Limoges, washed ; -105 of quartzose sand from the mound of Aumont ; got of chalk from Bongiv 210 of fine sand extracted friti the kaolin by washing ; this sand is a mixture of quartz and Sees Sévres is known of an excellent The por quality, and as refractory as any in Euro The glazing is made of a rock composed of quartz and feldspath, es toa fora we Dah It is composed of ilica, Alumine, - - - “ 768 Potash, - - - ete 0.982 Wa w é ter It melts into a perfectly transparent and colorless ck vape _— Annales des Mines. T. I. 4 31. On the measure o o the intensity o Vode .—The most general method is to place an opake ree a iitte card or pastebord, in front of the two li hts to be examined, to remove the latter ‘from the screen until they produce ray sari over PDE teoen gu ae uildist tant from each shadow, tee will, if viewer ial eel Be i in photometrical observations, screens should be used which are not very smooth, and the shadows should be brought near each other ; ‘and even so = to allow their borders to touch. —Ferrusac’s Bull. Oct. 1827. 32. Im urity of rain. water.—In eae thirty ounces of rain water every month, which at the end of the an amounted to: three hundred and sixty ounces, M. Bran obtained a-total residuum of 2.75 grains. It was com me of resin, pyrrhin, (a vegeto-animal substance,) mucus, hydro- chlorate, sulphate and carbonate of magnesia, hy lo- rate of soda, sulphate and carbonate of lime, hydro-chlorate of potash, oxide of iron and manganese, and an ammoniacal id. salt.— 33. Sulphur in vom sim —In reer assafcetida with caustic potash, and adding an acid to the solution, efferves- cence is produced, anda gas disengaged ileal colors paper of acetate of lead like shipharetted hydrogen. alcoholic solution of assafcetida be evaporated, and the residuum be treated with aqua regia, a liquid is eee which contains sulphuric acid. - oe burning the volatile ‘ol of aséafettida in a pure state, a strong odor of sulphurous acid is This oil, heated to redness with potash, ogo a mixture of chase coal and sulphuret of potash. M. Zeise presumes that his ulterior researches will enable os to icin r sulphur in a great number of organic substan t may be remember- ed also that M. Planche has already ‘detected the presence of suiphar:s in the umbellifera.—Jbi 34. Incompatible salts—M. Brandes has demonstrated b means of an artificial mineral water, that the waters of has bonate of lime; because if these latter salts co-exist, even in a large quantity of water, a material decomposition takes place. e.—Ibid. 35. Steam Engines. in Great Britain.—It is confidently asserted that there are now in Great Britain, fifteen thousand steamyengines. Some of them are of prodigious size. In the county of Cornwall for nag? there are some of the Vor. XV.—No. 186 Foreign Literaiure and Science. power of six hundred horses. Sees that on an average, they are equal to twenty five horses each, the total strength of these engines would amount to that of three hundred: sev- enty five thousand horses. Now, agreeably to the estimate of Mr. Watt, a horse is equal to five anda halfmen. England, therefore, possesses in these engines, a force of about two means of steam ‘engines, seven hundred: and ny thousand acres more at their ve Se than if the same labor were exe- euted by horses.—ZJbid. 36. Crystal Bed.—The public have been hastening to the palace de Tameda, to see a bed of massive crystal, destined to be sent as a present to the shah of Persia by the emperor of Russia. This magnificent bed, the only one of the kind perhaps in the world, is resplendent with silver, ornamented with columns of erystal, and ascended by steps of blue glass; It is constructed in such a manner that there can be made to issue from it, on each side, jets of odoriferous water, whose murmuring sounds may excite an agreeable slumber, It res flects by the light of flambeaux a dazzling splender resem- bling myriads of diamonds, There is no doubt: that this piece of furniture will astonish even eastern luxury and mag- nificence. It was madé in the Imperial manufactory of St. Reta ranighie Anum patriotiques, Oct. 1825,—Ibid. 7. Compressibility we water, by Prof: Oerstéds. nike a far as the strength of my apparatus allowed me to urge the compression of water, (viz. toseventy atmospheres,) Thave found the compressibility. proportionate to the com- pressing force. The compression: produced ‘by a single at- on already discovered by Canton, is about forty-five: - milhonths of the whole volume. Mr, Perkins has: obtained: by a pressure of:one hundred atmospheres, a compression of one hundredth of the entire volume, which is much mere than can be inferred from my experiments. Calculating from the results I have obtained with pressures below seven- ty atmospheres, I obtain for one hundred atmospheres only aon. osu that my results differed so widely from the: 18) anician’s who preceded me, I have: re- : : experiments ith: the greatest care, and they-are- 50 > sit ‘hat I can entertain no doubt of their correctness. Foreign Literature and Science, 187 . 2. As far as T have been able to determine the tempera. ture of compressed water, and I have done so. to the extent of forty eight atmospheres, I have found no heat disengaged by compression, __ ‘ 3, The compression of mercury is but little more than a millionth of its volume for one atmosphere. 4. The, compressibility of sulphuric xther is about triple that of alcohol, double that of sulphuret of carbon, but equal only toa third of that of water, aa compressibility of water, holding salts, alkalies and. acids in solution, is less than that of pure water, _ 6. fhe compressibility of glass is excessively smal], and far below that of mercury.—Jbid. 38. Probability of Life. Comparative results deduced from Registers kept at Geneva, and calculations made by Dr. Odier.—It appears from these registers that the proba- and that children are now preserved in a very remarkable proportion. These successive improvements will be obvious from the following table. Probability, _ | Proportion, _ Average life. Proportion. Yrs. Months, Yrs. Months. 16th century, 4.2 100 16° <3 100 17th do. .. a0 1662 aera ; aa the ps eee sides CDBA in fig. 2. and AKMP in fig. 6. are elevated. The sides ABFE in fig. 2. and PMON in fig. 6. front the reader. ‘The sides GCAE in fig. 2. will notice that the position of the cube in fig. 6. is , different from that in fig. 2. as is denoted by the ran “That the little me cube in fig. 6. may be brought into view, the original cu turned about, so that the side ABFE, ree n fig. 2. fronts reader, in fig 6. falls on the left hand sid 6: Errore eorvected in Dr. Robinson's Sa of Minerals.— The localities mentioned in this manual, are, in many cases, is mentioned,, but not the particular spot in which the min- cary in a fruitless search after it. Perhaps this marked defi- was unavoidable. The compiler copied most of his lo- calities from the public journals, where the same defect exists, me must have been observed by all who attentively read them. here is another fault tobe noticed. It is common e cat- 4 the whole, to his own cabinet, and then, c Fampp eluted as the subdomces is not to be found in that region. Localities of ‘aincsal ‘should never be named in our public journals, without a statement of the va green This precaution would save much exertion, now thrown away. The catalogue contains a number of errors, which are now making their appearance and MI Heel in other works, our country. --'Fwo. or three these mis-statements, inean with which my name is ebiplnd ot will point out; and you, Sir, will do me a favor, by giving this papera place in your 198 Intelligence and Miscellanies. Journal. “Coccolite green and red,” the catalogue informs us, is found in Charlotte, Vermont, and Professor Cleaveland is “ibid for authority. if any one ‘ill take the trouble to turn to the article, in Cleaveland’s valuable system of mineralogy, he will find, that reference is made to me. Indeed, the error must be charged to my account. It occurred i in this manner. A uzzy, who at a Vt. the Monkton porcelain earth, into China wa re, gave me, in 1810, a mineral, which, he stated, came from Charlotte. I seit a part of it to Prof. Cleaveland, to be named. He called it Coccolite. I also published a brief notice of it in the tere ary — Philoso- elan taken. Soon after this, Mr. Muzzy died. I made roan enqui- ion on the subject. ve since been a number of times in Charlotte, and. esliatisted myself to fe it, but siwae failed of I now state, a 1 o know 04. ss 5 an ence of Coatdlite, in - town Dr. Comst as found in abundance, ste of various colors,” in Chariot tte, and no information Pespeoting the quantity found. ayes tit may be asked, ‘“‘ whence came the specimen, affirmed vein is not Coccolite;’’ nor was the specimen in question. ‘It was colophonite. I have myself ake hundreds of s from the vein, precisely like the one transmitted to Prof. C. - This is the simple history of the error. I hope it will now be Guiitevated from the works in which it is published, and no more ied. weusilite—red, brown and black—is very abundant, near Ro- cat argillaceous siate quarried, at the place called horse- heaven. A very limited quantity has been quarried, for grave stones, and al for other uses, half a mile or more, bela, Be “Horastone” Cornwall Con. * on the fete J atte Matthews’ 2 Intelligence and Miscellanies. 199 ” Here is an error, committed by the compiler. The locality exists in Cornwall, Vt. but not in Cornwall, in Conn. “ Hornstone, Bridgeport,” Con. “ Hall.” This should be Brid- There a e many other errors of asimilar nature, which I have not time at pte / to look up. F. Haw 7. Awrora Borealis—Magnetic Needle, §c.—Communicated by L. D. Gale.—I noted in my private journal, some remarkable phenomena of the Aurora Borealis, during the 28th, 29th, and 3ist of August, 1827, which I intended at that time to communi- cate for your J ournal ; but thinking that others more capable than myself, would better describe the same, I neglected to com- municate my observations. Seeing, however, no observations on the magnetic needle, in the numerous notices in your Journal, except that of M. Arago, who states, that “‘ The Aurora Borealis announced itself as early as 8 P.M. Tuesday 25th, by a ver. ieee er disturbance of the eer needle’s diurnal varia- on ay, which latter must have been the time referred to MQ... my. side of the house, anda dipping pedals ibént ten feet distant in another window n examination, I found that neither would come to a state of rest.. The mean of the extremes in the hori- zontal needle, was at least 5° west of the magnetic meridian. After marking the extremes ona paper card, fixed in the win- dow for the purpose, | left it. The dipping needle which oscil- lated from 64° to 75° was in pene agitation and very irregu- lar in its motions; sometimes rising to nearly 60° and remaining for a moment with a tremulous motion, and then sinking back to 75° or 76°, having a mean dip of 69 1-2°, which is, i believe, according to the best needles | have scen, 2 1-2° above the true = of this latitude. e greatest variation of the needles was at 10 P. M. when I first placed them in the window, and it constantly decreased. The brilliancy of the Aurora increased till 10 o’clock 30 min- utes, when it gradually ascended towards the ss and at the same time diminished in brilliancy until 11 o’clock 30 minutes when its luminousness had entirely ‘ieacheaieed though there was a bright Aurora in the northern horizon. 200 Intelligence and, Miscellanies. On examining the horizontal needle, I found it coomiantly in # tremulous motion, though it did not oscillate more than 2° or pov somewhat less. The dipping needle was very quiet at n setting it to at however, a second time, it sie to resi at 71°; ; the same was repesien, with the same re- sult, viz. 71°; whereas its pedi ary dip is luminous appearances of the a aa 3ist, were less brilliant; and though I examined the needles to see if any effect d, ; = 5 ° nat E& 5 g9 ey iv) = © a mS % o 8 _o ey S wn i") $9 s + © Qu on i= 8 5 99 _—s ~ oO Po o 4 3 nary in coming to rest. New ‘York, pril 21st, 1828. Carpenter’s Chemeeal Warehouse —We are pleased to an- Geo. Car has opened a Drug and Chemical Warehouse, at No. 301, Mar- ket street, Philadel onnected with his establis| ment, a laboratory for manufacture of some of the most im- portant articles, such as quinine, piperine, denarcotized opium, denarcotized are: and acidulous tincture and extract of de- narcotized opium c.; and as these articles are manufactur- ed by himself, or ier his Mupedieie Sciacca their quality may be depended upon.—Ebrr 9. Writ for the Medical eT ay of 1830.—Inserted by re- quest of Dr. Mitchill—Whereas the Convention that was held at the city of Washington, in vs a of January, 1820, for form- ing a Pharmacopeeia for our United States of America, did eee that the President of that Convention should, on the Ist day of n ‘ the ist day of iw 1830, = the purpose of revising the American Pharmacopeeia ; and whereas the several Institutions, as aforesaid, se by the same authority, requested to forward to the President, on or before the first day of nasil 1829, the names of the three persons so chosen; with s other provis- ions contained inthe historical introduction to ms work, to which Ll reader is refe : » Samuel L. Mitchill, by waiye: of the power _ me, ri the Convention of 1820, do hereby give notice, to 0 at the incorporated Medical Societies, a of Physicians and a Surgeons, M edical + Gaeeitics ties of Univ. eon to represent them other authorized ed Bodies, that choose - revenes them whe the General Convention to January, 1830 Give eo my Hand. this first ef of of January, 1828, of os City of New ae © Mirren . President: THE sarees JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS, PROFESSOR: a SILLIMAN, AS OF VALE. COLLEGE. - ose AGENTS. LVANTA MAI ~PENNSY j HALLoweELy, Goole, Glazier & Co. Pineecken: Luke Loomis. fONT. MARYL BRaATTLEXORO’, Folinook & Fessenden:||Ba tris ; See OF J. Coale. MASSACHUSETTS. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Newsvnyronr; rh & pepsi a i ae ee foes ic: WINA oF Nomrntancerow, s. ae tek. aiseonoe. Prof] r. Mitchell oi. Provipencr, Hutchins & Cory. -. SOUTH C AROLINA e CTICUT. |Conumsta, «Ad. Pisut Hartrronp, H. & F. J. Hunti ston, Ebenezer Thayer. Litenrreco, S$, 8. Smith. - a EORGIA. 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