THE v4 AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL. D. Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Corresponding eras of the Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, and For eign Member of the Geological Society, of London; Member of the Royal Mineral sinaneet Society of Dresden; of the fraperial Agricultural Society of Mos- cow ; Honorary Member of the Linnean Society of Paris; of the Natural History Society of Belfast; and Member of various Literary ~~ "oa tific Societies in Ameri VOL. XVIL—JULY, 1829. NEW HAVEN: aise gna Sold by HEZEKIAH HOWE and A. H. MALTBY. pes a, BE. LITTELL & BROTHER.—.New York, G. & C. & H. VILL. Boston, HILLIARD, GRAY, LITTLE & WILKINS. PRINTED BY HEZEKIAH HOWE. PREFACE. [Sto ~ Wuen this Journal was first projected, very few believed that it would succeed. Among others, Dr. Dorsey* -wrote to the editor; I predict a short life for you, although I wish, as the Spaniards say, that you may live a thousand years. 'The work has not lived a thou- sand years, but as it has survived more than the hundredth part of that period, no reason is apparent why it may not continue to exist. ‘To the contributors, disinterested and arduous as have been their exertions, the editor’s warmest thanks are due; and they are equally rendered to numerous personal friends for their unwavering support: nor ought those subscribers to be forgotten who, occupied in the common pursuits of life, have aided, by their money, in sustaining the hazardous Novelty of an Ameri- can Journal of Science. A general approbation, sufficiently de- cided to encourage effort, where there was no other reward, has supported the editor ; but he has not been inattentive to the voice of criticism, whether it has reached him in the tones of candor and kindness, or in those of severity. We must not look to our friends for the full picture of our faults. He is un- wise who neglects the maxim— fas est ab hoste doceri, and we may be sure, that those are quite in earnest, whose pleasure it is, to place faults in a strong light and bold relief ; and to throw excellencies into the shadow of total eclipse. * The late lamented professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsyl- iv PREFACE. - Minds, at once elightened and amiable, viewing both in their proper proportions, will however render the equitable verdict ; Non ego paucis offendar maculis.— It is not pretended that this Journal has been faultless; there may be communications in it which had been better omitted, and it is not doubted that the power to command intellectual eflort, by suitable pecuniary reward, would add to its purity, as a record of Science, and to its richness, as a repository of dis- coveries in the Arts. But the editor, even now, offers payment, at the rate adopted by the literary Journals, for able original communications,* con- taining especially important facts, investigations and discoveries in science, and practical inventions in the useful and ornamental As however his means are insuflicient to pay for all the copy, it is earnestly requested, that those gentlemen, who, from other motives, are still willing to write for this Journal, should continue to favor it with their communications. That the period when sat- isfactory compensation can be made to all writers whose pieces are inserted, and to whom payment will be acceptable, is not dis- tant, may perhaps be hoped, from the spontaneous expression of the following opinion, by the distinguished editor of one of our principal literary Journals, whose letter is now before me. “The character of the American Journal is strictly national, and it is the only vehicle of communication in which an inquirer may be sure to find what is most interesting in the wide range of topics, which its design embraces. It has become in short, not more identified with the science than the literature of the country.” It is believed that a strict examination of its contents will prove that its character has been decidedly scientific ; and. the opinion is oo a * Of course, with liberty reserved, to return those which are not adapted te his views, or which are beyond his means, : PREFACE. Vv often expressed to the editor, that in common with the Journals of our Academies, it is a work of reference, mdispensable to him who would examine the progress of American science during the period which it covers. ‘That it might not be too repulsive to the general reader, some miscellaneous pieces have occasionally occupied its pages ; bu tin smaller proportion, than is com- mon with several of the most distinguished British Journals of Science. Still, the editor has been frequently solicited, both in public and private,* to make it more miscellaneous, that it might be more acceptable to the intelligent and well educated man, who does not cultivate science ; but he has never lost sight of his great object, which was to produce and concentrate original American effort in science, and thus he has foregone pecuniary returns, which by pursuing the other course, might have been rendered important. Others would not have him admit any thing that is not strictly and technically scientific; and would make this a journal for mere professors and amateurs ; especial- ly in regard to those numerous details in natural history, which, although important to be registered, (and which, when presented,} have always been recorded} in the American Journal,) can never exclusively occupy the pages of any such work without Peek the majority of readers. _If this is true even in Great Britain, it is still more so in this country ; and our scavans, unless they would be, not only the exclusive admirers, but the sole purchasers of their own works, must permit a little of the graceful drapery of general literature to flow around the cold statues of science. The editor of this Journal, strongly inclined, both from opinion and habit, to gratify * A celebrated. scholar, while himself an editor, advised- me, in a letter, to introduce into this Journal as much ‘‘ readable’? matter as possible: and there was, pretty early, an earnest but respectful recommendation in a Philadelphia 288 r, that —— in imitation of the London Quarterly Journal of Sci- nce, &c. should be in form, inscribed among the titles of this work. t No anes communication oe ee: been thought worthy of admission into this Journal, has ever been re vi PREFACE. the cultivators of science, will still do every thing in his power to promote its high interests, and as he hopes in a better manner than heretofore ; but these respectable gentlemen will have the courtesy, to yield something to the reading literary, as well as scientific public, and will not, we trust, be disgusted, if now and then an Oasis relieves the eye, and a living stream refreshes the traveller. Not being inclined to renew the abortive experiment, to please every body, which has been so long renowned in fable ; the editor will endeavor to pursue, the even tenor of his way ; altogether inclined to be courteous and useful to his fellow trav- ellers, and hoping for their kindness and services in return. ¥ale College, July 1, 1829. The Chemical Text Book for the students of Yale College, and for other students of Chemistry, is now in the press, and may be expected in the month of September. CONTENTS TO VOLUME XVI. —f— NUMBER I. Page. Art. I Prof. e Mitchell, on the Ge olegy of the Gold Re- gion of North Carolin Il. Examination of a phason Sollee Shooting Star ; pe sellor Dr. a of Salzuflen. (‘Trans- a from the Germ Ill. Observations and Expasiies nts on ‘Peravits Bark ; by Grorce W. Carpenter, of Philadelphia, 28 IV. Obicnmaginnon a New preparation of Balsam Co- one by regimes Ww. ned ska of See phi 40 ¥, Notice of the eppentines of Fish and Lizards i in ex- i traordinary megpcer coe “ye H E. Mus 41 VI. Meteorological Observations; by S. P. Huupaemy, 44 VII. Calendar of Vevetation; by A. Ww. Buws 48 VIII. Strictures on the Hypothesis of Mr. ie eph Du gps on Volcanos and Earthquakes; by Bensamin Bri, 1 IX. A Tiapenene on the different views that have been _ tak 4 the Beery of Fluxions ; by Exiz Wri 53 X. Variation’ of the Magnetic Needle. 60 XI. Soss Oxmstev’s Meteorological Report for the year > 70 828, XII. On the variations of leat in the great ‘North foe n Lakes; by Gen. H. A. S. Dearsorn, XIIL. On the observations of Comets ; by P. J. a ee 94 XIV. On the Effect of the Physical Geography of th ott - yes Boundaries of ees itd as . D. &c. Fin : &e. 99 XV. On the ‘Manulatar of Gass by nae N. Fuss, 112 XVI. Polar Fxploratio - 124 XVII. Motion, the Nataral State of Matter, . - 151 XVII. Facts relating to Ohio and Mexic : 154 Vill CONTENTS. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. 1. "The eee tee pores By Col. Trumbull, 2 New book o 3. The ear rio hie most favorite namber ft nature ; E. by A. 4. ge or spiritdous figuors, from wacculent and farinaceous fruits, and herbage of plants ; by A. E. 5. A. A. Saat: on the use of —s aith ” east : eal " pector 8..G, W. Cartier notice a the prannfacture of the chloride of lime, and of some of its veer uses, 1 Jan. 1829, 9. Specimens in Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and Chem- istry, 10. Dr. J. Revere’s improvement in the construction of ships and other vessels, as sATeee gwd metallic hing, 1 fastenings, and sheat 11. Steam Pump, 1 12. Dr. oa on the eflicacy of ammonia in | coanbannct: 1 ing poe 13. 5. Allison, on + tin Atomic Weight of Mercury, - 14, 15. J. C. Keeney on the Novaculite in Georgia—Mr. Finch’s notice of the locality of the Bronzite, or i Sande metalloide ; at ADTs unr ennly, 16. Dr. L. C. ‘Beck’s ‘note on ‘the presence of [ron in the Salt Springs of Salina, N. Y. os 17. Tin in Massachusetts; by Professor Hitche ock, 18. Mr. C he epard’s. mineraiogical and chemical de- scription of the Virginia Aerolite, - P Milo, 20. Proceedings of the Rs doa ~ Natural History of 2 21. Baron de Zach—Liberty of opinion aud the press— Education—Genera} views of oss ope, &c. 22, 23. Literary notice—Obitua 24. Carbonic Acid of the Atmosphere, 2 a5: 26, 27. Autumnal coloration of Leave es— Singular Galvanic trough—On a method of measuring som varieties of Chemical cto, by M. Rabies, 28, 29. Sulphur—Dr. Wollaston 163 — 16 179 ART. L _—_ a CONTENTS, NUMBER I. Page. Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana, and discovery of the Stanniferous Og in ioe oO sachusetts; by C. HEPARD, . Prof. Bessel, on Mr. F. R. Hassler’ s views as toa accurate survey of the coast of the United States. Communicated by Prof. James ae of Colum- bia College, New York, . Prof. Mitchell, on the Effect of” Gnanlily of Matter in Modifying the Force. of Chemical Attraction, Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. Com- municated by Jonn H. Sreer, M. D. % SAeeH et on Agni: Fatuus; by Rev. Jonn Mirca- 2 Hesamiiation e Oxygen i i from apparent death y drown ing, . Lieut. — account of Hasslor’s Repeatiog "The- z odol . Prof, ee on the diasittnes and piiicasion of certain American Rock Formations, . Translations and abstracts from the foecad by Pro . Griscom, Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol, and the pro- ducts which result from it. Translated and abridged from the French, by Prof. Griscom, . Algebraic Solution ; by Mr. C. a of New Slaton o ofa Problem in Elunionts by Prof. ee : Meteorological Table, with: Remarks thy Gen. re : Socculations “with respect to the cause caf the. Au- rora Borealis or Northern Lights, ; oe Instruments and al een ay Prof. Rosert Har os : Patracipes + Like of Fraunhofer, - Cooper’s Rotative Piston, tracts by the Edito Dr. Steel’s Aectiiaite of the ‘High Rock Spring, ee Saratoga, with a drawing, . Real and ‘supposed effects of igneous [attion, B 288 Extrcted from the Jahrbuc h der Chemie und d Physik fur eg S.C. Schweiger Seidel ie as OM ie ee year observed near the | place where the meteor mentioned Col. Graves was supposed to have fillen ; ; we cannot say that the two facts posit eas but it appears proper that the coincidence should oe men- Shooting Stars. 21 presence of inanimate substances in the atmosphere, at least in rain-water ;—and from the narrative, which was several times communicated by a soldier, who had served some cam- paigns in Spain, that m Spain, while standing as centinel during cold nights, he had frequently observed shooting stars, and in the morning, in wet places, in the spots where, according to his opinion, the shooting stars had fallen, b had found white gelatinous masses, which soon dissolved ;— from all these circumstances, as I have stated in my disserta- tion upon rain-water, I was strongly inclined to refer the mass, which was examined by Buchner, to an atmospheric origin. _ Mr. Schwabe, an apothecary of Dessau, has lately pub- lished, in Kastner’s Archives, a dissertation upon this sub- ject, in which he states, that he has had an opportunity to examine a mass, that had been found in a wet meadow, which was gelatinous, and of a green color. Mr, Schwa’ decides this mass to be the real nostoc commune Vauch. (tre- mella nostoc L.) because by his microscopic observations,.he found in it, distinctly to be traced, the structure of the singu- lar nostoc. Not only the exterior form and the locality of this mass agreed with Buchner’s, but the. chemical examina- tion also exhibited a great similarity between both substan- ces. Schwabe consequently believes, that we must necessa- rily consider the substance under. discussion, as the real tre- mella, and that the one examined by Buchner must actually have possessed the same structure, notwithstanding Buch- ner, on account of the peculiar nature or condition of his mass, has denied the possibility of discovering in it an organ- ic structure. — However, when we accurately compare the descriptions, which each of these naturalists gives of his particular speci- men, we find some diversities, besides the organic structure of Schwabe’s specimen, and its absence in Buchner’s. Schwabe’s mass was of a greenish color ; that examined by Buchner was white, resembling the mucilage of gum traga- canth, The substance of Schwabe emitted an odor while it was burning, not of animal matter, but similar to that of burning conferva, rivularia and cat a, and made a shi- ning coal, which retained the external form of the mass ; and being reduced to ashes, he found in them a portion of sili- ceous earth, carbonate, nuriate, and sulphate of potass, to- 22 Shooting Stars. gether with a trace of sulphate of lime and oxyde of iron. uchner’s mass swelled very much upon being heated, evol- ving a strong animal odor, giving off a smoke of an empy- reumatic smell; at last it took fire, andat the end of the’ combustion left behind an ashy coal, which contained car- bonate of soda and phosphate of lime. Though Schwabe considers the mass examined by him as similar to Buchner’s, I yet believe, that the differences here specified, not merely in the color, but also in the chemical results, present many doubts as to the accuracy of his conclusion, and do not au- thorize us to agree to the identity of both substances. n confirmation of these views, I am able to exhibit an in- vestigation of my own, which I had occasion to make dur- ing the last autumn, that may perhaps shed some further light upon the subject. A friend and fellow citizen possesses a low meadow in our vicinity. It is situated at the bottom of one of our salt dales, and by much labor, the construction of drains, &c. though © it was formerly very boggy, it is now much drier; and by od cultivation, manure, the rubbish of stone coal, &c. pro-. uces good grass. In a walk over this ground, my friend found a gelatinous mass, and a laborer informed him that he had frequently seen similar beautiful specimens ; though neither my friend, nor I, in my botanic excursions over this meadow, with my assistants and pupils, had ever before dis- covered them. My friend brought the substance to me, that I might investigate the nature of the mass, the singular ap- pearance of which had excited his curiosity. soon as I saw the substance, I was reminded of Buch- ner’s treatise upon the article called shooting star (stern- schnuppen 3) but by a closer inspection of its beautiful exte- rior, I discovered some diversities from Buchner’s descrip- size of about two cubic inches and a half. Upon minute in- spection, it was found in many places to be enclosed with a very thin white pellicle or membrane, which in the middle parts of it was burst or torn. In these places, the contents, as if they were too large, projected through the covering. The fissures of the enveloping pellicle were, without doubt, Shooting Stars. 23 occasioned by the contents of the mass absorbing moisture from the wet ground of the meadow, and thus becoming so much distended, that the tender membrane could not con- tain the whole substance. Around these fissures, the pellicle was so far crowded away or concealed by the gelatinous mass, that no traces of it could be seen, and here no appearance of organization could be distinguished. But, where the cov- ering was entire, the mass, though soft and glutinous, exhib- ited portions of a vermiform shape, of the size of a goose- quill or larger, the longest of which were extended about three-fourths of an inch. This vermiform conformation, through a slender interlacing network, presented smaller sub- divisions, and had throughout the appearance of a calf’s lungs. Upon the backside of this vermiform structure, there ore si of it, being lost in blackish points. The back part of the mass was pervaded by the vessel, which passed through it much in the same manner as do the vessels of the lungs. art of the mass being put into a dry place, it soon shrivelled, changing its white color to a brownish yellow, was very viscous, so as to draw out in threads like glue; at last, it dried ito a substance like horn. A portion of the original mass being put into a platina crucible, and exposed to a heat sufficient to burn it, at first swelled, then grew black, giving out an animal, empyreu- matic odor ; it left behind greyish white ashes, of one and two-tenths* of the weight of the substance, upon which wa- ter very slowly acted, though after some time it became weakly alkaline. The ashes were completely soluble in ni- tric acid, from which they were precipitated by ammonia. Twenty grains of the substance were dried in a water-bath heat. It was hard and brittle, and its weight was only four grains. Moistened with water, after a short time, it again resumed its former size and white color. Lo oviges One hundred grains were boiled in three ounces. of water. It swelled into a tremulous jelly, which thickened nearly all the water. The whole was then put upon a n, loos linen strainer, and after standing on it a few hours, a little liquid dropped from it, which became turbid by the addition *One tenth, and two tenths of one tenth are evidently meant. 24 Shooting Stars. of oxyd of setae by nitric acid and acetate of lead ; but not by oxalate of lead. ome of the substance was shaken with alcohol, with no perceptible effect. Water being added, it combined with it, notwithstanding the alkohol. As it shrunk or diminished in size, its color changed, Liquid ammonia, whether warm or cold, acted but slightly upon it; on the other hand, A solution of caustic of potass speedily took hold of it; when warm, it produced a perfect solution, from which it might be precipitated by any neutral salt. ulphuric, nitric, and mutiatic acids, act on it cold; when warm, they effect a complete solution. The solution in ni- tric acid, is of rather a yellow color ; in sulphuric, it is brown ; and in muriatic, it remains clear. From these experiments it appears, that the substance can- not be of a nature similar to albumen, but that in its essen- tial properties it accords with gelatine, and resembles what is called spring slime, (quellsch em.) This conclusion is jus- tified by the following proportions of one hundred parts of the mass. | ! Gelatinous substance, . . . . . . 18,8 - Animal substance, [7] a trace. Phosphate of potass and muriate of soda, ) - with organic [? ] acid, wa... 100,0 To what kingdom does this substance belong? or from what source is it derived? The existence of an organiza~- tion, which was clearly manifest, does not admit of the opin- ion that it came from the atmospheric regions, but shows t first made me suspect, that it was [an excretion from] the intestines Of some bird ; but its contents, a clean jelly, the thin pellicle or membrane that inclosed it, somewhat resem- bling the peritoneum, the absence of all ordinary contents of the intestines, dc. notwithstanding the similarity to some of their excretions, were insufficient to justify such a view, after a examination. The resemblance of this substance, as respects its chemical analysis, to the spawn of frogs, sug- Shooting Stars. 25 gested to me the thought, whether this might not be the spawn of some animal. It could not be the spawn of a frog, but it might be the spawn of a snail which frequents such meadows, such as the limax rufus, agrestis, stagnalis, &c. I compared the descriptions which are given.in Cuvier’s Comparative Anatomy, translated by Mekel, in Oken’s Nat- ural History, in the Natural History for Schools, in Gold- fuss’s Manual of Zoology, &c. where I found some light up- on the spawn of snails. Oken in his Natural History for Schools remarks of the limax stagnalis, that “ its spawn is a gelatinous cylinder, an inch long and a line thick, in whicha dozen yellow, small eggs are enclosed ; that this cylinder commonly adheres to aquatic plants ; and within a fortnight or three weeks, the small snails are hatched.” . He further observes in his Introduction to Natural History, article li- maz, that the eggs are first lodged in a cyst or rather a sack, and as it is found in all snails, it probably secretes the jelly for the egg cylinder or ball. “ Its contents are compact, soft like cerate, and reddish brown, on which account they have been considered as purple, which is not the case.” Though the cylinders of the maz are very small, we must still believe, that our substance was derived from the limax rufus, or from some other species, and that the great size of the mass was derived wholly from water ; of which we are persuaded, from the experiments which we made with boil- ing water, showing that the contents of a very small body may be-distended to almost any volume by water alone. his view of mine was further confirmed, after I had put a portion of the substance into a saucer, and placed it before one of the windows of my study ; when after some days, a small naked snail, a fourth of an inch long, was found in it. Hence I believe, Iam able to decide with convincing reasons in favor of the opinion, that the white gelatinous masses which are found in wet meadows, and which are generally considered as the substance of shooting stars, are by no means derived from the celestial regions ; but they are really the spawn of a certain snail, which, though of an insignificant bulk in its natural state, so as scarcely to attract notice, ac- quires its extensive volume from the water of moist places, and assumes a white, gelatinous appearance. Further, it is the nature of this spawn, that it is found only in wet places. ‘Whether the real substance of the meteor called the shoot- ing star ever my have been found, I very much doubt. He, OL. : 4 26 Shooting Stars. whether we can pass any judgment upon the nature of. the shooting star. Indeed, the observation of the before men- tioned North American meteor, appears to be not without some doubt, as to its accuracy ; and it might be still a sub- ject of inquiry, poner the product of a fiery meteor could Our knowledge of shooting stars is very much extended by the valuable researches of Professor Brandes of Breslau ; but what concerns the nature of their substance, appears to me to be, as yet, dark and undiscovered ; at least according to my views, the gelatinous masses which are found in mead- ows, should by no means be-considered as the product of apparently exist between the results of the observations of Messrs. Buchner and Schwabe, and my ownstatement. The care with which they have drawn up both their descriptions, allows us to compare them with sufficient exactness, Both the substances examined by these gentlemen, as I have already suggested, exhibit different properties, which are sufficiently essential to make us look for a different ori- g stars.» 5 SD It now remains for me to consider the differences which mella. As respects Buchner’s mass, it accords exactly with the specimens which 1 examined. The chemical composi- . product. But if we consider the appearance of the ne places where the pellicle was broken, through which the jelly protruded, and all appearance of organic structure ' Shooting Stars. 27 was lost in consequence of the absence of the enclosing membrane, and further, if the substance should be very much distended with water, the grounds of Buchner’s conclusions will be easily understood. I believe, Buchner had before him a mass very grea “nt swelled, which had dislodged all traces of a pellicle, and destroyed the fine vessels ; and that as respects his > sarge the learned siatarllat was paehaet ly accurate, when he could discover no sign of organization in such a distended mass. In his specimen, a hundred parts yielded after drying only four and four tenths of solid matter; whereas in mine, a hundred pare. after the water had been evaporated, left behind twen If there is no longer any doabe of the pie ard of the two substances, I believe, all which I have said upon snail jelly must necessarily show, that the visti of which Buchner has treated must have had the same crigin. I believe also, that the nature of what is called stern-schnupen (shooting star) and sterngallerte (star jelly) is cleared up. And it is gratifying to me, to have examined and to have traced the difference between Buchner’s and Schwabe’s observations, and to have shown, that the dissertations of both these able naturalists are equally accurate, each ha aving had a perfect- ly different substance under examination.* * Note.—The idea, that the shooting star is a gc sae body, is perhaps as prevalent in America as in Germany, though the substance may not have been so frequently supposed to be found, on this side of the Atlantic. There is, how- yards 8 of him. He instantly went to ‘spot, and found a gelatinous mass, = if we recollect right, was still sparkling, and he had kept his eye on it below the bank. It did not, ep eees appear to fall pee ‘the water, like asky rocket it became extinct in the BP olmcpomerip ete statements, if the shooting star, while luminous, ever strikes the earth, it must be a very rare occurrence, in this part of our coun- 28 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. Arr. HiL.-— Observations and Experiments on Peruvia _ Bark; by Georer W. Carrenter, of Philadelphia. Tue cinchona, or as it is more generally denominated, Pe- ruvian Bark, is the product of several species of the genus Cinchona, which in botanical arrangement, belongs to the class Pentandria, order Monogynia, and to the natural or- der Contorta. he descriptions of the species of this genus, from the limited and imperfect nature of the information possessed, have been a so confused and indefinite, as to convey little or no informat Cinchona is found | in various parts of South America, al- ah inhabiting mountainous tracts, where it grows from a w inches in diameter to the thickness of a man’s body. The bark is collected in the dry season, say from September till aE and ater being well dried in the sun , is pack- in skins, forming an is wes se chat y weighing together on their arrival at our markets. The tree has never yet been cultivated by the Spaniards, who procure it by strip- ping the natural trees of their bark, which ultimately must destroy the genus, as they always die after the operation. Most of the varieties of cinchona being highly valuable, and consequently very liable to be adulterated with various sub- stances, it is therefore sa Adega to adhere to a critical ex- amination of all its characters. ‘he accounts of the + inlets of cinchona are very nu merous, ane many fone their easly and itmprobability, try. ‘tn tall has freque ntly called us to ride, in ag aoe of the night, in every season of the xh and in every kind of weather we have never seen eer, = of the kind. ave we ever seen a ei star ina dark and clou 3 consequen ese meteors must usually be in a more y; elevated ee of the atmosphere than the clouds; or they are decom by the clouds; or they are not formed in cloudy weather. We will conclude ' stating, that i in all our riding in the night, during a long course of years, we have nev ing like “5 ignis fatuus ; nor have we a mF orescent appearance, which is sai sometimes upon fences, the arms of soldiers, and pi te slender — bodies ; though ¢ he latter seems to be a well attested fact.—Translat Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark, 29 are no doubt founded in fiction. It has long been esteemed a valuable medicine in Peru, where it is said the natives have adopted its use, from observing that animals esau ae Be ted to proper experiments, its efficacy soon een the groundless clamor which had been too hastily excited. The principle, says Dr. Paris, on which the tonic and febrifuge properties of bark depend, has ever been a fruitful source of controversy: Deschamps attributed it to.cinchon- ate of lime. _Westering considered tannin as the active principle ; wel M. Seguin assigned all the pase to the principle which eo gale acid. Fabroni coneluded from his experiments, that the febrifuge power of the bark did not belong Pi cit Bee essentially to the astringent, bitter, or to any other individual principle; since the quantity of ness sees necessarily be increased by long boiling; whereas the virtues of the bark are notoriously diminished by protracted ebulittien: Perhaps no vegetable substance, underwent so many anal- yses, by the at distinguished chemists of Europe, as the cinchona ; and yet so little positive knowledge —— rare of its true constituents, and such was the ve dition of our information of the active eck of cin of pachone. hen the scrutinizing, critical and successful researc Pelletier and Caventou, detected the existence of two salifi- able bases, i in peculiar states of combination, in the different species of cinchona. The medical profession is therefore indebted to these intelligent and enterprising chemists, one me the most valuable additions ever made to the materia medic Among all the late discoveries in vegetable chemistry, there is none which claims so much attention from extensive usefulness, as that of quinine. This principle contains the tonic and febrifuge properties of Peruvian bark, in their most concentrated state. By the substitution of this prepa- ration for the crude bark, the ss can ogee ad- minister itt ] oe 30 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. and by no means an unpleasant dose, what previously was considered the most nauseous and disagreeable medicine, and frequently, from its bulky nature, (when administered in less than ordinary doses,) was rejected by the stomach. n consequence of the prevailing endemics, ague and re- mittent fevers, which of late years have visited almost every section of our country, the article cinchona has increased very much in practice and demand, and become one of the the loss of time, but also by charging the stomacli, when in a weak and debilitated state, wake i i serious than those for which it was administered as a remedy. ark of commerce, in this country and in England, is generally designated under the limited nomenclature of red, ‘pale and yellow. There are now no less than twenty five t species of cinchona, independent of any additions we prs Na to the zeal of Humboldt and Bonpland, as well as of Mr. A. T. Thompson, who states, that in a large collection Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 31 of dried specimens of the genus cinchona in his possession, collected in 1805, both near Loxa and Santa Fe, he finds many specimens which are not mentioned in the works of any Spanish botanist. r. Paris, in his valuable Pharmacologia, justly remarks, that notwithstanding the labors of the Spanish botani history of this important genus is still involved in considera- ble perplexity; and owing to the mixture of the barks of several species, and their importation into Europe under one common name, it is extremely difficult to reconcile the con- tradictory opinions which exist upon this subject. Under . the trivial name officinalis, Linnzus confounded no less than four distinct species of cinchona; and under the same denomination, the British Pharmacopeeias for a long period placed as varieties, the three barks known in the shops: this error indeed is still maintained in the Dublin Pharmacopeeia, but the London and Edinburgh colleges, have at length adopted the arrangement of Mutis, a celebrated botanist genus cinchona, of not less than twenty five species into three varieties, and leaving it entirely to the discretion of the apothecary, to give him any species, of a color correspondent to that ordered. Independent of the great insufficiency of these terms to distinguish’the numerous species, the color of the powder, is one of the most uncertain and inaccurate 32 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. ey ance therefore of adopting terms more definite to Aekaauiih the several species of Peruvian bark must be obvious, and that the botanical nomenclature of these spe- cies is imperfect and inadequate, is equally so. The qual- tity of Peruvian bark appears to be modified and influenced by locality, produced by difference in soil, altitude of situa- tion, exposure, or some other circumstances peculiar to the location, hence the different provinces of Peru afford bark differing —_ materially in their physical characters and par- ticularly in the activity of their medical qualities, from which circumstances it would appear that a nomenclature derived from the names of the provinces in which the different spe- cies grow, would be a systematic arrangement. The following are some of the most important —— which now occur in commerce which I have submitted t experiments, and have given to each the comparative x portion of quinine and cinchonine which they respectively contain. The names which are given to distinguish these ‘species, are derived from the provinces in which they grow, which at present, (in consequence of the confu- sion in the botanical history and arrangement of cinchona,) is the most direct and certain mode of distinguishing those species of bark which now are found in our shops. Calisaya Bark—Two Varieties. Of sas digi important species there are two varieties in comm "4st. ‘Colsaga arrollenda, (Quill Calisaya.) This variety is in oo ee a from three Laeenters of an inch to an inch and a half from a a gS inches to a foot and a half in lng The thick and may be readily remov- the hark, andl henee you find inthe seroons or cases a oes proportion oe of this inert part. It is generally mported in seroons weighing about one hundred and fifty a and very seldom comes in cases ; it has many deep A fissures running parallel, the fracture is woody interior Ja a som w col- of the peusve principle, nh than. any other bark in com- merce, an d consequently may be justly esteemed the best. Observations and Experiments on Perurman Bark. 33 2nd. Calisaya Plancha, (Flat Calisaya.) This variety con- sists of flat, thick, woody pieces, of a reddish brown colour, deprived of its epidermis, and the interior layer more fibrous than that in the quill. This variety yields from twenty to twenty-five per cent less quinine than the arrollenda, and is conaempently. a less desirable article. Superior Loxa or Crown Bark. Loxa is the name of the province and port, where this bark is obtained and from which it is exported. In. this province cinchona was originally discovered. This bark has been highly esteemed by the royal family, and is that which has been selected for their use ; hence, .the name of Crown Bark. The following are the characters which dis- tinguish this bark. e Loxa bark occurs in small quills, the longitudinal edges folding in upon themselves forming a tube about. the circumference of a goose quill, and from half a foot toa foot and a half in length. It is of a greyish colour on the ex- terior, and covered with small transverse fissures or cracks, the interior surface is smooth and in fresh or good bark of a bright orange red, it is of a compact texture and breaks with a short clear fracture, it is the bark of the cinchona conda- minia and is known at Loxa by the name of cascarilla fina. Yet, notwithstanding this bark appears to have held the de- cided preference to all other species, analysis fully indicates that it is not panne in medicinal strength by at least twenty- five per cent, to that denominated Calisaya; this bark is more nt ess bitter than the calisaya. This species yields from twenty-five to thirty per oan less cinchonine and quinine, than the caylisaya arrollen oe quinine, and the sik doles, of cinchonine is much pi than that of the quinine Caieus Oblongifolia or Red Bark. rior red bark of ee there is a considerable quantity in our Vor. XVIL—No. 5 34 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. market, is no doubt more frequently obtained by colouring low priced yellow bark, than from the product of a distinct species. ise There is but one species of bark in addition to the Ob- longifolia as before stated, producing a red powder which is called Rosea, and as that species is seldom or never known In our commerce there can be little or no powder produced by it, hence, all the inferior kinds of red bark of which there is no small quantity to the discredit of those who sell it, evidently must be either such of the Oblongifolia as has been ren- dered almost inactive, by age, weather, or some other expo- sure, or as before surmised, is inferior yellow bark, colour- number of the latter. The cinchona oblongifolia is the magnifolia of the flora Peruviana, and is known in Spain by the name of Colorada, and is what constitutes the red bark of commerce ; it occurs generally in large thick pieces, being the product of the largest tree of the genus cinchona oblongifolia. There are two varieties. Ist. Colorada Canan, or Quill Red Bark which occurs in quills of various diameters, from one fourth of an inch to two inches in thickness. The epidermis is white or grey, with transversal fissures or warty concretions of a reddish color, the interior is of a brick red color, the cross fracture short and fibrous, the longitudinal fracture compact and shin- ing, the taste not so bitter as that of the calisaya. - 2nd. Colorada Plancha, or Flat Red Bark. This bark is rections. The fracture very fibrous inside, is of a deep brick color, the taste is less bitter than that of the quill, and of course much less so than that of the calisaya. hese two varieties frequently come in the same seroon, and from their appearance are no doubt the product of the same species, or perhaps the same tree; the quill being pro- duced by the branches and the flat thick pieces from the trunk, or the former from young and the latter from older trees. Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 34 portions. This bark when first received, was of a very deep and bright color, and particularly the powder produced by the flat pieces ; after being exposed however, in a dry place for about six months, it faded considerably, insomuch that any one not in possession of the proof of the fact, would have doubted, whether the powder had been produced from the same bark, rom experiments on the above bark, I procured twenty per cent less cinchonine and quinine, taken together, than the amount of quinine produced by the same quantity of calisaya arrollenda bark ; and the proportion of cinchonine, was rath- er more than half of the product of quinine. : _ It will appear therefore, from what has been said, that notwithstanding the great prejudices, both of eminent au- thors and skilful practitioners, which have so long existed in favor of. superiority of the oblongifolia, (red bark,) over other species ; that it is decidedly inferior to the calis- aya, (yellow bark,) as the whole product, as before stated, of its active principles, does not equal that of the calisaya and cinchonine, constituting rather mere than half the pro- duct, which, according to an eminent author, is five times less active than the quinine; this point however, I think is very far from being settled. An interesting paper was read before the Academy of Medicine, at Paris, which is published in the Bulletin des Sciences Medicales, for November, 1825, in which M. Bally states that he has experimented upon the sulphate of cinchonine, with a view to determine its feb- rifuge qualities. He administered this sulphate in twenty seven cases of intermittent fevers, of different types, in doses of two grain pills, giving three or four in the interval of par- = 36 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. oxysms ; by which treatment he cured the disease as effectu- ally and as speedily as with the quinine: of which twenty seven cases, there were sixteen tertian, nine quotidian and two quartan. He remarked further, that the cinchonine has rom the preceding description, the several species o Peruvian bark most commonly met with at the present day, Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 37 From a number of experiments which I have made upon Peruvian bark in different states, I have observed as an une- —— result, that the same species of bark which when fresh is very producti ve of quinine, when old will produce little or none of this active principle, upon which its virtue as a medicine entirely depends It will appear therefore an important duty, critically to ex- amine the state of hark as to age, and it may perhaps be useful in this place, describe the physical characters of ark in this state, a y which it may be readily known. The prominent Genii which characterize old bark, and distinguish it from recent, are the following. Old ba rk has lost nearly all that bitter and astringent taste and peculiar aromatic odor, which are such prominent nthe of the color very frequently passes from a bright orange toa dull brown, as the bark advances in age, particularly if much ex y attention to these few conspicuous characters, taste, smell, specific gravity, fracture and color, no m istake can arise in the selection of good bark, unless tists is a gross deficiency of judgment. Yet notwithstanding the dis- tinguishing characters of Peruvian bark in these two states are so prominent and striking, we regret to say, that gross mistakes have been made Pek in this particular, by men whom we might suppose most capable of appreciating the quality, under the. influence a an incidental circumstance. aris in the six tion of his Pharmacologia, makes the fo lowing remarks under the caficle cinchona. The frauds committed under this head are most extensive ; it is not only mixed with inferior bark, but frequently with genu- ine bark, the active constituents of which have been extract+ ed by decoction with water. In selecting cinchona the following precautions may be useful; it should be dense, heavy and dry, not musty, nor spoiled by moisture ; a decoc- tion made of it should have a reddish color when warm, but when cold it should become paler, and deposit a brownish red sediment. When the bark is of a dark color, between red and yellow, it is either of a bad species or it has not been well preserved. Its taste should be bitter, with a slight acid- ity, but not nauseous nor very astringent; when chewed, it should not appear in threads nor of much length, the odour 38 Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. is not very strong, but when bark is well cured it is always perceptible, and the stronger it is, provided it be pleasant, the better may the bark be considered. In order to give bark the form of quill, the bark gatherers not unfrequently call in the aid of artificial heat, by which its virtues are de- teriorated, the fraud is detected by the colour being much darker, and upon splitting the bark, by the inside exhibiting stripes of a whitish sickly hue. In the form of powder, cin- chona is always found more or less adulterated: This must be recollected as applying to the English market. During a late official inspection of the shops of apothecaries and drug- ists, the censors repeatedly met with powdered cinchona Saene ahard metallic taste, quite foreign to that which characterizes good bark.* The best test of the goodness of bark, is afforded by the quantity of cinchona or quina that may be extracted from it; and the manufacturer should al- ways institute such a trial before he purchases any quantity, taking a certain number of pieces indiscriminately from the bulk. Before concluding, it may not be out of seasen to remark, that the sulphate of quinine, as it is generally termed, is not a perfectly neutral salt, but in the state of a sub-sulphate, and is judicious, since tartaric acid d occasions an insoluble tartrate which is precipitated. 41 Mr. Thompson has suggested the probability of this circumstance having arisen from the admixture of a species of bark, lately introduced into Europe hipaa eae the cinchona floribunda, and which by an anal- ysis of M. Cadet was found to contain iron.—London Disp, Edit. 3, p. 247, + Pharmacologia, Edit. 6, vol. ii, Pp: 163., . Observations and Experiments on Peruvian Bark. 39 With due deference to the exalted judgment of Dr. Paris, I must however, on the following grounds, dissent from his opinions. The cream of tartar is objectional, merely from sulphate of quinine in the above prescription, does produce decomposition as Dr. Paris has observed, but the virtue of the medicine is not in the least affected by it, and the pre- cipitate, instead of being an insoluble tartrate of quinine as he observes, is sulphate of potass ; tartrate of quinine is a very soluble salt, and is held in solution while the water becomes slightly turbid by the precipitation of sulphate of otass, which, however from its extremely minute division is speedily taken up by the water, when you have a trans- parent solution of tartrate of quinine and sulphate of potass, and as the latter answers neither a good nor a bad purpose, it of course can very conveniently be dispensed with, and therefore, as before stated, the tartaric acid should be pre- ferred as having a more speedy and direct action. Piperine has proved a valuable adjunct to quinine ; equal proportions of each will act with much more energy than the whole quantity of quinine or piperine alone. Dr. Chap- man informs us, he has met with much success in the treat- ment of intermittent fevers by employing the following pre- scription. : R Quinine grs X ; Piperine grs X M. ft. Pill Nox One to be taken every hour in the absence of fever. Oil of black pepper is much more active than piperine, one drop being fully equal to three grains of piperine, three drops of oil of black pepper added to ten grains of quinine, will greatly increase the powers of this remedy, oil of black pepper alone is a valuable stimulant in typhus fever, and is a valuable adjunct to many medicines. All the preceding varieties of bark, sulphate of quinine, cinchonine, and all the preparations of bark and quinine, may be procured at Geo. W. Carpenter’s Chemical Ware- house, 301 Market street, Philadelphia. Note.—An alkaline substance somewhat analagous to qui- nine, has recently been discovered in the cornus florida, 40 New preparation of Balsam Copaiva. which has deen denominated cornine, and which has been very carefully and accurately described by Dr. Samuel G. orton in the Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical a From the most respectable sources in the med- ical profession, from various parts of the United Bates where the article has been sent, the most favourable accounts have been received of the unequivocal success of the cornine in the treatment of intermittent fevers in the same doses as the quinine, and the only circumstance which precludes its com- petition with that substance, is the extremely minute compar- ative eeertan of cornine eee by the cornus florida. Art. IV = 0beereatiions on a new preparation of Balsa Copaiva; by Georce W. Carpenter, of Philadel phiag * Batsam Copaiva being a medicine used in the practice of al- most every physician, its characters, effects and uses are con- familiar to them. It is admitted by all, to be one of the most nauseous and. disagreeable iain of the ma- teria medica. Disguised or mixed as it may be, its unpleas- ant nature is still re = little if at t all diminished, highest utility, and even where it is almost indispensible, and other remedies much less efficient are substituted, thus pro- tracting = ure which could have been speedily effected by the copa Since eae of this remedy dowa to the pres- ent period, it has ever been a desideratum to obviate these inconveniences, and it is a circumstance not Jess unfortunate _ * Our distinguished Professor of Practice, in the Ist volume of his Therapeu- tics, page 417, observes, that two circu ing eo frequently interfere with the exhi Notice of the appearance is Fish and Lizards. 41 sea A a0 Hg the critical and scrutinizing chemist, and Saher mac With these premises, I fe el ha appy to inform the medical facalty that havesucceeded in consolidating copaiva 0 a proper consistence, for being formed into pills. e con- waved copaiva is the oil and resin united, and consequent- ly possesses all the properties of the balsam. It may be made into four grain pills, and one or two pills taken three times a day; two pills are equal to thirty drops of the balsam. These pills may be taken without the least inconvenience, neither cep menraany, taste, nor imparting odour to the breath, it is also retained without the least disquietude or uneasiness to the RRS and Li am informed by Dr. Rousseau, that in large doses, it does not purge. This article differs, very essentially, from what is termed extract, or resin copaiva, being not in the least qctonopeiee o ee pF in drau ht, ‘which will subject it to he inconveniences with the fluid rege m, having its disagreeable taste with its unpleasant effect Pad: consolidated copaiva is aamitaceed and sold at o. W. Carpenter’s Chemical Warehouse, No. 301, Market po Philadelphia. t. V.— Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards in extraordinary circumstances; by Joseru E. Muse. Cambridge, E. S., Maryland, Jan. 5, 1829. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Tue late notice in an English paper, of a shower of her- rings witnessed by a noe McKenzie, as he traversed a field Vor. XVI—No. 6 42 Notice of the appearance of Fish and Inzards. on his farm, leads me to communicate to you a most singu- e instance of the sd pb! playful aberrations of nature m those laws, which she had prescribed for herself, and olor whose influence, she most usually, and most wisely operates. In the course of the last summer I Santi a we to be cut of large dimensions, on a line o farm r Cam- bridge : the line was a plane, ten feet ate the level of the neighboring river, and at least one mile from it, at the near~ eit point of the line; a portion of the ditch being done, the work was interrupted by rain for ten or twelve veo ; when the work was resumed, on examining the performance, I dis- covered that the rain water which had filled the. ditch, ~ recently cut, contained hundreds of fish, consisting of tw kinds of perch which are common in our waters the “sun perch,” and the “jack perch ;” the usual size of the former is from six to twelve inches, t the latter varies from ten to fif- teen inches tongs ; those in the ditch were from four to seven es: by what possible means could. thew fish have been transported so far from their native waters? There is no wa- ter communication on the surface, to conduct them there ; the elevation and extent of the plane, in regard to the rivers, utterly prohibit the idea; the eggs, if placed there by a wa- ter-spout, could not have suffered so rapid a transmigration ; no such phenomena had been observed, and the adjacency of the line to the dwelling, would have rendered the occur- rence, impossible, without notice Already has the theory of Descijtin and the pee cal generation of Trembley and Spalanzani encroache B the animal dignity, in propagating it by cuttings fronts = parent stock; yet, that animal life should spring y from a for tuitous concourse of lifeless atoms, assisted by the concur- rent agency of putrefaction, a suitable element, a suitable temperature, or other such circumstances, apparently adap- ted to its nascent existence, is a heterodox opinion which I should be averse to entertain. A similar RerEence a few years ago, | witnessed on the same farm ; in a very large ditch, cut on lower lands, on a line equally ciienuiiécted with any river, pond, or re ar. face-water, there were, under very similar circumsta a perch, which afforded fine angling to my Silden. a diary whie eep, I have entered, that several of rhode frieterired as much as twelve inches in length, and that Notice of the appearance of Fish and Lizards. 43 the time since their arrival there, could not possibly have ex- rae a fortnight. The fall of meteorolites from the heav- has been recorded by the historian, from the earliest ages, and as often discredited, from philosophic vanity. The fre- ment of the warmth and luxuries of the human stomach: ; for these facts, though not personally conversant with them, I have the authority of a medical gentleman of unquestion- able veracity, to vouch for their rigid truth; in reply to my request to be utotese of the habits, food, drink, employment, &c. of the patient, I received the following account. “O; my ‘arrival, I found that she, (the patient,) had puked up two ground puppies and was labouring under a violent sick stom- ach, with pain, and syncope: the first was dead when ejec- ted, the second was alive when I arrived, and ran about the room; they were about three inches long ; ; she informed me, that on the road that morning she had thrown up two others; the case occurred in the summer, and had =< gradual pro- gress, from the first of April, and as she desc peculiar sickness, and frequent sensation of sotmathing mov- ing in her stomach; with slight pain and _ loss of appetite, which increased till her illness. She was about twen enty years of age, and had enjoyed good health; her employment had confined her in the swamp, during the winter and spring, and she had from necessity, constantly drunk swamp water.” The physician administered an emetic in quest of more pup- pies, but being disappointed, he gave an opiate; she was relieved, finally, and has been, since, in health. hese animals have, since, been shown to m : they are not the ground puppy, (gecko,) as they are valgaly called ; they resemble it very much, but are easily disti inguished from it; they belong to the same genus, (lacerta, or lizard,) but are of the species “ salamander ;” their habitudes too, are essen- tially different; the gecko is found in houses and warm places ; the salamander in cold damp places, and shaded swamps, 44 Meteorological Observations. duce about fifty young at a birth. The inference is irresisti- ble, that the patient had, in her frequent draughts of swamp few only survived the shock; but it is matter of astonish- ment, that from the icy element in which they had com menced their being, and for which, they were constituted by nature, they should bear this sudden transportation to a situation so opposite in its character, and grow into vigorous maturity, unannoyed by the active chemical and mechan- ical powers to whose operation they were subjected. Art. VI.—Meteorological Observations. 1. Abstract of aMrteonalogsod! Observations, made at pate Sac! LON» in NV, lat. 39° 25’, W. long. 81° 30’, in the year 1828, by S. P. Hix H. a ter, | ! Depth of S ° \ i} ‘ ‘ fain. | Shao Bet ole & Months. 3 3/\8|& veh op lamlae =| Prevailing winds. o & S|: ra . aa = isles] =] 3) 5) 3) Biseis| s| i ale __|_ See] FS) a) 6) ale January, |41.70/63/10/53| ~ 2 10; 14,17; 4) 04's. w. & w. February, }44.20/70)17/53; 2 13, 15) 14) s..w. &-N w. March, 48.30\83\17\66; 29 23; 8}. 2 s..Ww. N. & nN. Ww. April, 50.00/82|26 23 17; 13, t Ss. w. E. & 8.5. May, 62.75/92/35/57/4& 5 19} 12} 6} 58is. w. wow. & =. une, 2.57)94) 54 26 25} Bl 4) °92ls. s.w. July, 70,90/90/54136| 24 23, 8 08/s. w. & N. w. ugust, 94/53/41) 31 19] 26) 5) 3] 00's. w. & wn. September,|62.5 444 I 11}°16)' 14, 3) -42is. & w. New. tober, 52.1 96) -24)16 &17) 256) 2) 50\s. s. wo & w. November,|45.70|70/24/46 17 a6 3! 42 Nn. &n.w.w.&s.w Decetiber, 39. 1 70\14/56 16w.s.w.& wiw 1242 mal ~ 49! 50 aia temperature for the sire 55:22. es 9 inche Prevaling winds, S. and S.W. Hotest me month, August—coldest month, December. = . “|S thermometer has a northern exposure, in the ab tit a taken at 7 in summer, and at 2 and 9 P.M, Rain, 4 and ;°;°;; being’8 inches and. ;2 more than fell i in the year 1827. 7 A.M. in winter, at 6 A,’ . Meteorological Observations. 45 Observations on the flowering of swe ripening of fruits, gc. in the past yea Ses etee Day so warm that snakes are seen by sev- eral different persons. 6th. Grass as fresh asin May, anda multiflora rose, trained on the north side cf my house, put- ting forth leaves, 7th. Wild geese seen to-day, a circum- stance very uncommon at this season of the year. 9th. Fre- quent and heavy rains caused the Ohio river to rise on the 6th, and by the 9th the water was eight feet deep over the low bottom lands; began to fall on the 10th, doing much damage to the fences, stacks of hay, corn, &c. 12th. Vegeta- tion rapid, peas planted in November two or three inches high—the larva of insects seen in motion in pools of stag- nant water. 25th. Small sheets of floating ice in the Ohio for three days, but none in the Muskingum all winter—steam boat navigation g thro the season. 27th. Hea gale of wind, commencing at 4 P. M. preceded by a rainy night ; continued for ten hours, with violent gusts from the west; clouds, light, white, fleecy cumuli; full moon at 9. The same gale did great damage on Lake Erie, to shipping, property, &c. with the loss of several lives. February.—Iist. Honey bee at work, and returns with its thighs loaded with farina. 4th. Buds of the peach tree nearly swelled. 6th. Peach trees in bloom at Burlington, Lawrence county, being the most southerly bend of the nod river bordering this state. 8th. White maple in bloom. Elm in bloom, on the a of the Ohio; crocus and ried drop in bloom in the ga March,—6th. Somme fi robin heard to-day. 8th. Black- bird seen. 9th. Peewe first heard. 10th. Smart shock of an earthquake felt at half past 10 last night. 11th. Some peach trees in bloom. 12th. Blue damison in ae 13th. Peas planted the 23d of last month, in open ground, now u 17th. cerastium vulg. in full bloom. 18th. duper maple putting forth leaves, quite green ; peach trees in full bloom. 20th. Sambucus opening its leaves, quite green. 2Ist..Crown imperial in bloom, in my garden. 23d. Spee. and June berry in bloom, in the woods. Golden beuré and brown beuré, pear in bloom ; Erythe f Paar or dog’s tooth violet in bloom; dodecatheon, ready to blow. 28th. Cornus florida and red bud, or Judas tree, pars their blossoms. AG Meteorological Observations. April.—2d. Ox-heart cherry in bloom, on the north side of the house, out of the sun’s rays. 3d. Anona glabra and pa- aw in bloom ; apple trees in full bloom for some days. 4th, 5th and 6th. Smart showers of snow—ice half an inch in thickness ; thermometer at 22° on the morning of the 5th, and 28° on the morning of the 6th. Peach blossoms all kilied ; apples and cherries much injured ; snow four inches deep e same destructive frost telt in Georgia and Ala- bama, destroying wheat, corn, fruits, &c. with ice an inch in thickness. 9th. Birth-wort in bloom, 11th. Mayduke cherry in bloom. 17th. Coral honeysuckle in bloom. "25th. Horse chestnut in bloom. 29th. Peasin bloom. 30th. Cur- ory treedo. 22d. Prunus Virginiana in bloom. 24th. Peas fit for the table. 27th. Rye in head. ay was very fine. Indian within the husks, upon the stalks. Potatoes very good. Ap- ples in abundance, but no peaches; cherries and currants scarce. Grapes, of the tender kinds, affected with rust or blight on the leaves, and the fruit turning black and drop- ing off near the time of ripening: the purple and more y kinds fared better. English gooseberries suffered in the same way. Pears and quinces were all killed by the frost of the 5th of May. arietta, Ohio, Jan, 3, 1829. Meteorological Observations. 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Arr. Vil.—Calendar of Vegetation. Germanflatts, Herkimer county, N. Y. July 7, 1828. O THE EDITOR OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. correct. I rs, . W. Bowen. 1826. Common name. | Systematic name. |State of progression. May __ 4. Red Plum, Prunus chicasa, leaves 1-2 inch long 7. Maple, Acer rubrum, r., leaves “© Moose-wood Dirca Ly do. do.3-4inch long « Red berried Elder, |Sambucus pubescens, \leaves exp i n- ant = ‘ i high. © Violet, Viola trifolia, ci ** Mountain Ash, Sorbus americana, {leaves expanded “© Lilack, yringa vul wn 4 inc 19. Currant, Ribes rubrum, in flower. 12. False wake Robin, (Trilium erectum, ee “¢ Swallows, - - - observed ** Striped Maple, Acer striatum, in flower. ** Whip-poor-w : - - heard. 14. Dandelion, Leontedon taraxacum,|in flower. “ Night Hawks, - - - a : 15. Garden Columbine, jAquilegia vul n flower. 16. Swam - Quercus prinus, leaves expanding. “ Apple-tree, alus, inflower. _{houses. 6s ine, Lonicera hirsuta, _[leavesexpandedon the “ Red Plum, Prunus chicasa, jflowers 17. 1 ; inga vulgaris, in flower. 18. Strawberry, (wild,) ria virginiana, do. 22. Flower De Luce. Iris virginica, do. 26.4 -ball, Viburnum opulus, do. 28. Mountain Ash, Sorbus ame’ . do. « Locust, Robinia pseudo-acacia} do. Sune 3. Pina in gardens, - - - do. 5. Spider-wort, T antia virginica’ « Canada Thistle, Cnicus arvensis, 6 inches high. 6. Radi Cochlearia amoracia, jin flower. s Wild Strawberry, ‘ragaria virginiana, jripe. 8. Butter Cup, nunculus acris, in flower 16. Red berried Elder, _|Sambucus pubescens, ripe. s Milk-weed, Asclepias, in flower . Water Lilies; Nymphea lutea, do. 1826 June — 26. 27. 28. July 2, ce 3 Aid ee ia iT 1827. Feb. 15. March 20. of. “ ie 28 B Woodpecker, (red 28. Hemlock, ) Blue- Calendar of Vegetation. i Common name. pe Squevel, Robi “Swamp willow, . Martins, Violets, . Elm, . Soft M ‘ Black berried Elder, ood aple, Blood Root, Viola, (wild) ~ Garden Violets, Root . Bath y s- Adder-tongue, Swallows, Red Plum, Pie-plant, 4. Wild a iy, a Stra icity, Wild-bird Cherry, 9. Tuli Pp; Striped Maple, Garden Columbine, ilack. Mountain Ash, ae Pw “aoe i ob en Hawks, 3 De Luce, . Curran Vor. XVI—No. 1 Conium maculatum, - lEeantodon taraxracum Systematic name. — iia tahadois nsis, Epi! ilobium spicatum, Tillaea glabra, Salix dom ri ‘Ulmus sisinoraila, er rubrum rea p ustris, Prunus schicasa, Ac ‘Sambucus pubescens, | Di 49 State State of progression, a a flower. Peo do. de. lin flower. ripe. 0. in flower. do. d oon appear. 0. opening its buds. seen. Pyrus Streptopus roseus, encores 8 2 Fragatia virginiana, —" aviu cer striatu .quilegia valgaris, yringa - {Tris virginics 'Ribes rabram rubrum, = 3 o F I 50 Calendar of Vegetation. 1827, Common name. | Systematic name. |State of progression. May 31. Hawtho taegus lin flower-severe frost. Ju 1. Snow-ball, Ly eam opulus, do. “ Butter Cup, une ae us acris, do ** Garden Pina, do. AEs sh - - - do, 5. White Clover, ae ** Strawbe Fragaria virginiana . ** Spider-wort, Tradescan avirginica| in flower “2 ust, Robinia otiae seacih do 7. Sugar Maple, Acer saccharrinum, “Rye, . - . pi. ee berry, jRu ubus strigosus, do. * Red eee do. occidentalis, do. ** Blackbe! a do. ** Dog-wood, (Cornns adeno do. * Sage, Salvia officinalis, do. 14. “Asparagus, Since 2: officinalis, | do. 17. Rase, do. 20. Sweet Bria Marrubium valgare, do. si ecaget.” do. ‘* Fox Gieve, Digitalis, (white) do. 24. Peas, do,—frost. — Mullin, ©. do. ~ Se a ene Elder, {Sambucus pubescens, [ripe. = do. canadensis, |in a Aowrer. 4S aA = jas, {tum,| do, 30. John’s-wort, Hypericum perfora-| do. July 1. Indian Corn, Zea mays, tassel in sight. ** Green Peas, - - - fit to cook. « Cw ibes rubrum ripe. 3. Poppy, . {Papaver somnife erum, jin flower. 4. Raspberry, Rubee deaidentatis, ripe. 5. Water Lily, Nymphea lutea, in flower. ‘© Raspberry, Rubus strigosus, ripe. 6. Garden Cherry, $ cerasus Q. 7. Indian Corn Zea mays, jsilks developed. “Cucumber, - - - in flower, 8. Common Thistle, : 2 ze 0. Pix, _ {Linum usutatissimum,| do. 10. Wheat, - - - do, wi 14. Indian Corn, Zea mays, do. 16, i - - - ripe. 17. P ee it, 20. Sua, oe - St in flower. 25. Indian Zea mays, fit to boil. 29. a : = = 3 August 23 and 24, frost ; ears was seen the lusus (nature 2 ee which at this place extended from east to _ touching both horizons, in the form of a brilliant arch of fog; its particles evidently moved from east to west as fast as shai clouds do in a storm. 24. Moose-wood, Blood Root, Soft Maple and Wild Violets, in Strictures on Volcanos and Earthquakes. 51 _ _— appa oA on ae en, of Mr. Joseph Du Comm n Volcanos and Earthquakes ;* by Brnsamin Bett, of ‘Clietiaineidl Mass. TO MR, JOSEPH DU COMMUN, — Sir—In accordance with your opinion, as well as with that of Dr. Franklin, Mr. Perkins and others—I will allow that atmospheric air can be compressed to such a degree as to be heavier than water; and that if forced down by means of a bell lower than twenty five thousand six hundred feet below the surface of the sea, it may stay there, for the present, or may fall to the bottom. We will suppose the lowest depth of the fee water to be found at the precise point of twenty five thou sand six hundred feet from the surface, which, for brevity, I shall call the separating point; and that a stratum of condensed air occupies the space between that point and the liquid Onrgee below, a gallon of which stratum eing heavier than a gallon of sea-water. Atthis point of contact (separating pont) nae air (see page 16, line 30) must e, as you say, “exact the same density with the water.” But what would be the Seas of a bubble of air, if con- veyed by the bell and left one foot above the separating point? As this bubble would have a density tess than the air at the separating point, it must rise to the surface ; it cannot fall, or, as you say, “shower through the water.” If then a bubble of ai r rises, when formed or left one foot above the separating point, it may be fairly asserted that it would rise if Phomey one inch, or even ;1, of an inch above it. To maintain this gaseous stratum then, it is necessary to suppose, that the evolution of gas from the water is made precisely at the separating point, and that air bubbles (i. e. air surrounded by a liquid) are not formed. But what should cause a separation at all? The air held in solution near the separating point ought to be combined with some degree of a. else it would be likely to separ- ate béfore it was carried there. Supposing however, that it arrives down to the point, there is a great objection to its separating at that precise point, in preference to a quarter of an inch above ; for no chemical attraction between the * See Vol. XV. No. 1. Art. iii. of this Journal. 52 Siriciures on Volcanos and Karthquakes. condensed air below, and the air held in solution can be sup- posed ; it being known that the particles of gas, constantly repel each other. The answer given by you to number six and seven, objec- tions of the Editor, does not give me satisfaction: “ That the air should separate from water, saturated and compres- sed” is not as we think supported by analogy, but is contra- ry thereto, as all soda-water preparers may witness. Indeed, Sir, in support of this part of your hypothesis, a few facts or ‘examples are required. re would be the effect of subterraneous heat upon the superin- cumbent mass of fluid? Would not a circulation ensue, ef- ° fecting an exchange between the lower and upper portions, surface of the sea to the extent here indicated has to my knowledge been noticed by any writer. A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. 53 promised to present your readers with some new considera- tions of your priticighe, be pleased to pardon this digression. Bens. Bet. Art. IX.—A Discourse on the different views that have been: taken of the Theory of Fluxions; by Exizur Wricut. any of the vasdoubtedly Seated, on this account, Toes wake any considerable atigtionceppcrt in. this important branch. Although this science may assume @ more elevated rank by means of that sublimity, sehich arises from obscurity, and the ordinary mathematician may loo up to the adept in this department with a kind of enthusias- tic veneration, as having gained an enviable pre-eminence by — abstruse: elements; yet to the proficient him- self it is in a high degree satisfactory to lay the foundation of science in cee = evident principles, and to proceed on in the march of discovery in a path that inspires confidence. The a of a science shou rendered as plain as examination of the different views that have been taken of the theory of fluxions, and a discrimination of the parts designed to be elucidated, will contribute in no small degree towards attaining this object. Sir Isaac New- ton considered the doctrine of fluxions under the idea of quantities, that arise into existence by one uninterrupted in- crement according to the laws of continuity. Quantities, according to this method, are augmented in a manner, that does not admit of distinct separable parts. Although =, ton applied the calculus to quantities both geometrical and numerical, yet he chose to illustrate the theory by pene: cal ones; which by introducing the properties of motion, af- ford a very clear explanation. For —<— to the illustra- tion of Vince, in his first section, §7. page 3.“ Let the line FK be described with an uniform velocity, and AZ with an 4 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. accelerated velocity, and let the increments Gs Pm be gen- erated in the same time; let also: Pv be the increment that would have F G 8 A P described in the same time that Pv and Ps are described, as before mentioned; then it is manifest, that this uniform ve- locity must be between the velocities at P and m, that is, V -++w is greater than V and less than V-+-r, or w is greater than o and less than r. Also, since the spaces described in the same time are as the velocities, V : Vt-w::Pv : Pm. Now in every state of these increments,V ; V--w::Pv : Pm; and by contiually diminishing the time, and consequently the increments, we diminish r and w, but V remains con- stant; it is manifest therefore that the ratio of V : V--w, and consequently that of Pv : Pm, continually approaches towards a ratio of equality, and when ime, and con- sequently the increments, become actually =O, then r=O; consequently w=Q; therefore the limit of the ratio of P v } Pm becomes that of V; V, a ratio of equality. Hence of the ratio of Gs: Pv, or it is Gs: Pv, that ratio being constant.” _ _ From the foregoing reasoning it is manifest, that the limi- ting ratio of the increments expresses accurately the rate of increase in the fluent at any assigned point in its generation. An example in geometrical quantities of two dimensions may be derived from the square, in which the two generating lines constitute the limit, The ultimate ratio, then, expressed by its usual representatives will be 2x : 1, or, combining the A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. 55 fluxional base with the limit 2va- }.z". An example in quan- tities of three dimensions is afforded by the ee. in which © the three generating —_— form the limit ; henee the ulti- mate ratio is 32x: 1, or 3a22"; x. This 1s also called the fluxional ratio. Its latumete use is to illustrate the manner in which fluents are ead ae vs shew their me of in- crease at any point in their prod Leibnitz, in his illustration of “ahii's science, coutetispiteiod numerical, otherwise termed discrete quantities. Here t arable part, called the measuring unit. But to accommodate the genesis to the n ature of variable quantities, he was un- to this method the poe is oii produced nl the regular aggregation —— oe by by which it suc- cessively passes it to the given one, Here it hin oth difficult - CORE how a quantity can arise into existence by the addition of parts that are ee small, and consequently such as w cannot arrive at. t the difficult ty will be removed by re- curring to the sieieee: method of Sir Isaac Newton, in which the principle is exemplified by a body in motion. Should the gee metaphysician ask how a fluent can be generated by the addition of infinitely small elements, we have only to planes before his eyes a body, moving either ‘with an accelera- ted, or a retarded motion, and the proposition is illustrated by a familiar fact. Ina mathematical view, the co-efficient of the fluxion is the limit, towards which the increment ap- proaches, when it is made to vanish, and is in effect equal to the evanescent quantity, which is supposed to exist at the moment when the fluent is completed; and the fluent is the limit of the aggregate of all the preter quantities, which are supposed to arise successively during the time of its gen- eration. The differential calculus illustrates the genesis of variable quantities by the aggregation of infinitely small ele- ments, ee we must conceive to bea process ana to motion, and by contemplating quantities having” n- sions Oa ose of length, breadth, and thickness, the theory bec more extensive. For, instead of being con- general expression x”, extending to any higher The supposing z to represent the increment of 2, ihe: anit of the 56 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxiens. increment of 2" to the increment of x will be na"~1z-En. — 37347" oS a 3z3+&c.3z. Dividing by z —2 B22 heecT,: If z be diminished by an indefinite sbaivson, the increment will approach continually towards nz”"' as its limit. Sup- pose z to be less than any seaicabte quantity, it will then become equal to o, and all the terms, in which it is found, will More Hence the ultimate ratio of the Pigrege is x ' 31, ornz" ‘2°: x. If n=4, then oe , the ratio of the Tockemnents is 4c? 4604222" 42" t : anid the ulti- mate ratio is 42° ? 1, or 42°2° $ a’. Flaxiong Mantis the eory by extension and motion, properties which are singu- larly adapted to explain the nature of those quantities, to which fluxions are applied, and which, when divested of the consideration of matter, are with propriety introduced into pure mathematics. Thus the two illustrious inventors of this science have each taken tenable ground in their mode =e ene it, and have placed this branch of the mathe- cs on a foundation which cannot be shaken, and which ae will never demolish. Each method has its peculiar ex- cellencies ; and if either were wanting, the theory would in some Hie ge be deficient. an illustration of the manner in which fluents are gen- dated: Sed an explanation of the nature of that relation, which fluxions bear to their fluents, are two distinct things, which ought not to be blended together. Whilst the former is accomplished in a satisfactory manner, the latter remains, in my opinion, unexplaine ut some mathematicians have thought differently, and have supposed that the properties of the ratio nx" 'zx- } x are sufficient to develop the nature of this relation. That this is their view, is manifest from their supposing, that ai foundation of fluxions is laid in the tacit acknowledgment, that a circle is a polygon of an infinite siaipbes of ara (Brewster’ s Encyclopeedia, Art. Fluxions.) {t was upon this supposition, that Carnot admitted that an error actually arises from the rejection of the quantity, which is the difference between the increment and the fluxion; but ‘iat this error in the course of the operation, is compensated by an error of a contrary nature, (Tilloch’s Phil. a8. Vol. Sand 9.) By thus applying principles, which are insufficient : a n-1 _ —in it becomes nz” !-++-n.—>— 2” 2z-4n. “= ° A Discourse on the Theory of Fluzions. 57 to explain this part of the theory, HA have involved it in a greater obscurity and mystery, than the nature of the sub- ject renders necessary. That the wititigle of cause and ef- fect in the fluxional ea which considers the fluxion as the cause, an the t as the effect, does not explain the relation, 1 is manifest Pe the fact, that the fluxion is not the tire cause = the reasoning proceeds upon the principle, that every effect is proportional to its cause. But the fluxi ion, which operates at the moment the fluent is completed, is in a great measure different ae that, which operated, when the fluent began to be produc n the constantly varying motion which the fluent is pararey either some part of the generating cause has gone out of existence, or a conge- ries of eis causes has arisen, which did not operate at the commencement. From this consideration it is manifest, that the theory requires some additional principle to be introdu- ced. That it is not embraced in the supposition, that a flux- ion is an elementary part of its fluent, is evident, first, from the consideration that the derivation of the fluent from the diseatetpetiog should arise on this account, a new _assi ign- ment may be made still nearer to the truth: but yet this is found to make no difference in the final result. This con- sideration is a sufficient evidence, that no use is made of this elementary part, but the relation of fluxion and fluent depends upon other principles. In a paper communicated to the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, and published in Vol. XIV. of the Jour- nal of Science, I attempted to supply a few links in the chain of illustration which I judged to be wanting. It may, per- haps, be thought a fruitless undertaking, to] presume to add any thing to the elaborate researches of Ne ewton, Leibnitz, Euler, La Grange, La Place, &c. but when it is considered, that they were urged on by the attractions of a most sublime and beautiful discovery, to make still new advances in the practical part, it — not be — strange, if they have Vor. XVI.—No. 58 A Discourse on the Theory of Fluxions. which each term is a multiple, composed of an invariable factor, and one that is variable consisting of one or more terms, with, or without invariable coefficients. Here the in- variable factors may be of any assignable magnitudes, pro- vided they differ from each other; but the variable factors must be the same, or of equal value. When the invariable factor is not expressed, it is considered as being unity. It will be found on examination, that a fluxion is equal to a mul- tiple, composed of its corresponding fluent, and the quantity From the use which is made of the factor x- in this quantity, it is obvious, that it may be of any finite magni- tude, great or small, that can be assigned. To make use of this equation in explaining the relation under consideration, let Bx" and az” be two functions of the variable quantity x. Their corresponding fluxions nBa"~'z and nax"~1z" m y be considered as two terms, selected from a series of fluxions, constructed in conformity with the foregoing definition ; which selection may always be so made, that one of the terms shall be the fluxional expression, that occurs in the selves. Theorem, II. Any two terms, in a series of fluents, will have their corresponding fluxions in the same ratio with those fluents, ence, nBa”™”' 2° : Bz": inaz*™ 2" + ax". Let the antecedent be represented by A, the consequent by C, and the ratio by r. Then by the definition of a ratio c=". Any two of these being given the other may be ob- A Discourse on the Theory of Fluaions. 59 tained, for A=Cr, and c=*. These equations being ap- plied to the foregoing proportion, we have aars » and A=Cr=ax"X——=naz" x", from whence are derived the rules contained in the direct method of fluxions. Again by multiplying the fluxion by the reciprocal of ~ we have —A snare’ 2 x *.=ax". From this equation the rules r nx pees quantity of a finite magnitude, and may therefore ion stands related, can at any time be brought forth, and their places assigne JN supposed to constitute the third term, and can be detached from it; which is done by the rules in the inverse method of general formula of the ratio~—> by which the fourth term, or the fluent, is obtained. A theory of fluxions is here pre- sented to the public, in which the fundamental principles de- end on finite elements. The relation of quantities, resul- ting from the principal of proportion, is already known to e of very extensive application. If the reasoning, on which the present theory rests, shall be judged to be valid, it will bring into view a chain, by which unknown quantities are connected with those which are known to an almost unlim- ited extent. I have endeavored to give it all the variety of illustration, of which I was capa desire of contribu- ting something towards the entertainment of those, who take a deep interest in mathematical researches, has been m tive in entering upon these investigations. And especially, I 60 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. have had in view the benefit of those, who have but just en- tered the threshold of this important and extensive science. Whether I have succeeded in the attempt, is submitted to the decision of those, who are skilled in mathematical pursuits. Arr. X.—Variation of the Magnetic Needle. E are happy to be able to lay before our readers the following important papers, relating to the variation of the needle. The first is from the “ Transactions of the Albany Institute,” published in June, 1828. It contains a very in- teresting document, exhibiting a series of observations on the variation of the needle, made simultaneously at Boston, Falmouth, and Penobscot, during a period of one hundre and twenty cight years, namely, from 1672 to 1800. It is also accompanied by some important remarks, by the Hon. Simeon De Witt; from which it appears that at Albany, and east to west, as observed in the state of New York. In the third paper, we insert a few results obtained by our lamented friend, Professor Fisher, from a series of observa- tions instituted during the years 1819 and 1820. These, ta- en in connexion with those of Dr. Bowditch, indicate that the retrograde movement of the needle, is not general, but that, in this part of the country at least, the needle is still approaching the pole of the earth. L. Table of Variations of the Magnetic Needle, copied from one furnished by the late Gen. Scuvy.er t “D: ITT, Surveyor General,— Presented 27th April, 1825. _ Inow present to the Institute, for the purpose of having if preserved, what I consider an interesting document. It is Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 61 a Table shewing the —_ in the variation of the magnet- ic needle at Boston, Falmouth and Penobscot, from 1672 to Schuyler. The. difference of variation 5 hewn: the two epochs appear to be 5° 53’, giving a little more than two and three quarters of a minute for the mean annual variation or the rate at which the north point of the needle approliche ed the pole from the west, during that period. As long as I can remember, the surveyors in our country, in retracing old lines, have allowed at the rate of three min- utes per year, and acquiesced in the correctness of that rule till the year 1805. Some time after I settled in Albany, which was in 1785, I established a true meridian, on which I occasionally set a observing the variation of the departing from the old rule until 1807 ; when to my surprise I found that a sudden change had taken place in the direc- tion of the needle. And, in | order to ascertain its extent, | examined a number of lines. which had been run before: Among others, the courses of the Great Western and Sche- nectady Turnpike Roads, which in 1805 had been surveyed by Mr. John Randel, junr. then attached to my office. The result was as follows :— 1805, July 30. Great caer Turnpike road, N.6 4 ” my W. 1807, Sept 4. N. 61° — W. 1805, July 30. Sigciecteds Turnpike Road. N. so" 20’ W. 1807, Sept. 4. do. N. 34° 35’ W. Making a difference on each of é Shewing that in about two years and a month, the needle had changed, contrary to its former direction of annual va- riation, about forty-five minutes of a degree. An examina- tion of several other lines confirmed this result. A view along the meridian, which I had fone establish- ed, having for seveal years been obstructed by build ding I made observations, assisted by Mr. Randel, on the Ist, 2 3d, and 4th October, 1817, with a good trail instrument, for the purpose of drawing a meridian line across the pub- lic square in this city ; the porcrclene of which are contain- ed in the 2d part of the 4th volume of the Transactions of the Society for the Promotion 3 ual Arts.—The needle was then found to point 5° 44’ to the west of north. ob- 62 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. servation made on the Ist August, 1818, shewed it to be 5° 45', and on the 24th of the present month of April, (1825) be- tween 9 and 10, A. M. it was exactly 6° 00’; all which shews that there has been since 1817 a retrograde motion of the nee- ' dle of about two minutes per year—whether this is general in the town of Coeymans, not many days ago, which had been run by the late John E. Van Alen, one of the best sur- veyors of our country, in 1798, and the variation was foun to be one degree, as nearly as could be socciteiannt in the same way; that is, from the north to the west. It will be recollected that in 1806, a total eclipse of the sun of uncommon duration, took its range over our country. May I be permitted to escape the charge of advancing in absurdity, in suggesting the possibility that the lunar effluvia conveyed to the earth by the Aap of the sun, on that occa- sion, mi ave had an numer iosing: the phenom- cnon Ihave described.* cig that as it may, SS ..: to be something remarkable in the coincidence of these oc- pc a Memoir which I had the honor of reading before the Institute so: tim: saa ce, on “the Functions of the M ag which will probably appear 4 ome future publication of our Transactions, I have extended my remarks in tos to the probability, = the ey of 1806, had an effect on the polar- of the magnetic nee 63 saeeaeeaaeieeaeeeamaminmmeeiamatiabameaiieeieteeceeeee Needle. ic t Varia Tabie Oo of the Magnet 20ns O oo CUE ‘op 8 ‘°C 8 ‘op OO8T 9} GLLT ‘WSF ES Z1'ee ‘op 8g a ‘op CLLI 9L-0GLT ‘spotiod OL FE ‘op ‘8 be OGLE 0} SZLI oy [Te joureyy | = 6g"8z ‘op eg" : ee SELL OF OOLT SF'0g syunour savok Z-T TT Ul YOIGM SZELLEL9'/Z SI emdieup aan UROUL Of} OOLT 0} ZL9T wor SZISLSLIG'O oules OU} OUles 94}. YB nuh’ 18S NSE oO pikes uo od 1890S [8909 eo" °8 ue seoh set &-1 eT a cl 9 tL’ 4 SD i oe $I FI tL 62° 9 ag 12° 9 cr’ gg" ial tl gk 9 tT cs’ 9 a fe o¢° vas tL tl’ i 9 PE or 9 FE us ; hal ia oe 3 RI $. +P 1 sh &-% - St ay he $-1 tI La tgs 4, bs” yr I tC "$8 ik 6. f cL LY E a r . . &% 8s “ig al i Lr 91 PL’ ae val 14 a ¢ tal ST i” ¢ $-T SI tT ie S-1 et FL’ Sl FI a ¢ 08 og" f 08 0g f 4 cl’ { 2s 64 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. ‘Il. On the Variation of the Magnetical Needle; by Na- thamel Bowditch, L.L. D. The variation or declination of the magnetical needle, in the vicinity of Boston, has decreased since the first observa- tions made in this country, at the rate of a degree in thirty or forty years. For, by the papers published in the first vol- ume of the Memoirs of the American Academy, it was 9° 00’ W in the year 1708; 8° 00’ W in the year 1742; and about 7° W in the year 1782, Within three or four years, it has been m eutoned } in several periodical publications that the variation had ceased to decrease, and was hen rapidly 1 in- ed in the years 1800, 1804, and 1807: in the first interval of four years it had decreased 4’, and in the last interval of three years had increased 15’. A turnpike road, which was laid out by compass in 1805, had varied in its bearing in 1807, 45’, indicating that the variation had in creased by that quantity. These are the chief observations, that I have known to be produced, to prove that a change had taken place in New York; but they by no means warrant the con- clusion that has been drawn from them, since no notice what- ever is taken of the diurnal variation of the needle, which sometimes exceeds any of the changes that have been ob- serve or if we examine Professor Sewall’s observations in the first volume of the Memoirs of the American Acad- emy, we shall find that in an interval of two or three months, ‘idge from 6° 21’ W, to 7° 08'W. varying 47’; and I have obser- ved at Salem, in the year 1810, that the declination varied | 48’ ina short period of time. Either of these diurnal chang- es exceeds the alteration observed at New York; and as there can be no doubt that the diurnal variation is nearly as Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 65 great there as at Cambridge or Salem, it follows that the dif- ferences observed in New York are not too great to be ac- counted for by the diurnal motion alone, without resorting to the hypothesis of an irregular increase in the mean quan- tity of the variation. It may also be observed that the variation found at the same time and place with different in- struments will frequently vary half a degree or a degree; and, by changing the place of the instrument a few feet, the same effect will sometimes be produced. This is more particularly the case in compact places, when the observa- tions are made from the windows or on the top of a building; the nails and other iron used in constructing it, having fre- 1805, 1808, and 1811. The observations in the year 1805 were made at a house in Summer Street, Salem, with a theodolite, furnished with a quadrant of altitude, telescope, &c. graduated to minutes. Atter making the usual adjustments, and fixing as nearly as possible the quadrant of altitude, and the north point of the needle at the commencement of the graduation of their re- spective circles, I estimated the errors of these a ments, ied them respectively to the observed alti- tudes an f the sun, ina similar way to the meth- evening, at the distance of two or three feet from the wall, (or farther when it could be done) in order to avoid as much as possible the effect of the iron in the walls of the building. Having obtained in this way the sun’s true altitude and mag- netic azimuth, the true azimuth was calculated and the va- Vor. XVE.—No. 1. 9 66 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. riation deduced by the usual rules of spherical trigonometry. The observations were as follows. 1805, Nov. 18d. 9h. 15’ A, 4 obs. 5° 58’ W. é Gy 47 4 P. M. 5 19:9 A. M. 6 6 02 2 P. M. 6 5 56 22:2 P. M. 10 6 15 P3 9 A. M. 9 5 56 2: 4002. M. 6 5 45 26 2 P. M. 10 5 51 2i: <8 A. M. 12 5 42 eee P.M. 10 6 Ol 28...9 A. M. 10 5 43 3 P. M. 12 6 06 23; 9 A. M. 3 5 50 30. 9 A. M. 12 6 Oj Mean of 115 obs. 5 57 W. In the year 1808 at a house in Summer Street about an eighth of a mile south of the place where the above obser- vations were made, I observed the variation with another, more highly finished theodolite furnished with a needle of 1808, June 27d. 7h. 1' A. M. 12obs. 5° 11'W. 45 P.M. 20 5» 22 28 6 26 A. M. 20 5 25 29 6 44 A: M. 20 5 08 6.32 Pow. 20 5 26 > July: Bo: 7 + 30 AME: ---20 & °25 Mean of 112 obs. 5 20W. In the year 1810, at a house in the northern part of Mar- ket Street, Salem, about a quarter of a mile east of the ce of observation in 1805, the variation was observed as above by both theodolites, the results are— Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 67 Thedolite used in 1808, o fF " 1810,h. d.! April 1 452 p.m. 20o0bs. 5 43 32w) - Theodolite 39 p.m. 20 5 45 29 used in 37 54 a.m. 20 SSle1? 1805. 432p.m. 20 5 40 31 cy saat 4757 a.m. 20 5 4803 (20 obs. 5 24 13w 419 p.m. 2 5 36.34. |20 4 57 56 8815 p.m. 20 608 50 {20 5 18 06 Mean of 140 obs. 5 47 44. (60 obs. mean 5 13 25w The difficulty of ascertaining the precise value of the va- riation appears evidently from these observations. For at these differences arose in a great degree from the shortness of the needles; and, perhaps in part from the imperfection of the brass of which the instruments were made. To obviate these difficulties I procured a needJe twenty four inches in oO great care, a rue meridian line and then placed the box on it, and observed the differences between the true and mag- netic meridian for every hour, when convenient, from 6 A.M. to 10 P. M, from April 1810, to May 1811. The greatest variation observed during this time was 6° 44’ W. The least W. ‘To ascertain whether the building affected the needle, I fixed a true meridian line on a table in the garden adjoining the house, at thirty feet distance from any building, and nearly five feet from the ground, and by the mean of forty eight observations, I found that the variation in ihe garden by this instrument was less by 3’ 25” than in the house - 68 Variation of the Magnetic Needle. so that it was necessary to subtract this quantity from all the observations to obtain the true variation. The mean varia- tion for each hour of the day, and for each month of the year, as deduced from these observations, and corrected for the error 3’ 25”, are given in the following tables. Mean Varia- Mean Variation Time. tion for the Hour. /from April, 1810, to May, 6h.A.M.| 6° 19 Q1’ 1810, April, ee ait oi" 7 6 19 7 ay, 6 23 36 8 6 19 09 June, G 2s 42 9 6 20 28 J uly, 6° 28 -51 10 Se 2i 1D August, 6 29 “44 11 6°22 46 September, (6 25 21 12 6 24 07 October, O21. 42 IP. MG. ae 40 November, (6 19 11 2 6 27 09 December, 6 12 35 3 27 00 1811, January, S20 “So 4 oC me oF February, (6 21 19 5 6 24 26 March, So. 30° 9 6 a Sa te April, S23 oo 7 o. 21, op May, S 2i* 38 8 21-9 9 6 20 54 10 6 QW ae The whole number of observations was 5125, and the Variation of the Magnetic Needle. 69 The variation observed by Doctor Williams at Rutland, in Vermont, leads to the same result. is observations at that place were 1789 April 17 7° 3) W 1810 May 19 6 4 1811 Sept. 9 6 1 Whence he concludes, that the magnetic variation at Rut- land, for twenty two years past, has been decreasing at the annual rate of 2’ 49’5. III. In May, 1819, the late Professor Fisher of Yale Col- lege, commenced a series of observations on the declination of the needle, which were continued, from time to time, un- til April, 1820. The instrument employed was a variation compass, which had been recently constructed by a skillful artist, and had all the appendages necessary for the nicest az- imuth and altitude observations. From Mr. Fisher’s notes, we collect the following results, being the means of a great number of trials at different hours of the day. Declination of the needle West. 1819, May, . - - 4,.° 26° une, «<< - - - - 4. 28 July, : . s 4, 25 August, - - ~: - 4, 22 September, - - - 4. 30 ] mber - - Se ee 1820, January, ’ : 4, 25.5 February, - - ace. Det March, - - - eg April, - - - a a Oe Mean, - . - - 4.° 25.'42 Remark.—It appears from the foregoing observations, that the declination of the needle at New Haven, in the years 1819 and 1820, was less than had been observed at either of the places mentioned in the first of the above articles. The least declination given by the Hon. Mr. De Witt, was in August 1818, and amounted to 5°. 45’, which is about 1°, 20’ greater than the mean of the observations of Profes- sor Fisher. % 70 Meteorological Report for the year 1828. ArT. = —Meteorological Report for the year 1828 ; by Dentson Otmstep, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy’ in Yale College. From the papers of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Ar the close of the year 1827, I laid before the Academy an abstract of our Meteorologi ical Register, for that year,* in- timating at the same +e a hope and expectation that similar reports would be made from year to year, until we should obtain a series of observations sufficiently extensive, to ena- ble us to ascertain the true character of our climate. In accordance with ‘ch a plan, Libs beg leave now to present to the Academy, the meteorological results obtained during the year 1828, comparing them occasionally with the cor- responding observations of the preceding year. Taste I. Parisien | the mean Maximum and Minimum of the ter —— ery month in the econ, with the corresponding states of the B Be BAROMETER, 827. 1 29. 30.14 | 30.12 03 | 29.98 | 29.84 | 29.81 30 07 | 30.00 | 29.94 | 29.93 29.96 | 29.93 | 29.81 80 Morn. 8% Morn.{ Eve. 29. 29.80 29.63 A 29.8 30.11 | 30,11 | 29.80 | 29.79 29.81 29.68 29.81 29.82 | 30.04 | 30.01 1 29.82 | 29.80 Nore.—For the year 1827, the observations taken at sun rise and at 2 P. M. nd m = — as the minima a axima ; for 1828, a more correct maximum tained by varying the 1 hour of eet -the afternoon from 2 08 Selec, at different seasons of the y Remarxs.—I. Tue Tuermometer, 1. Mean temperature of ihe 960 as doer. 1827, 1828. ced from the foregoing table, 49.29 52.50 Mean minimum for the year, Pi aie 43.03 45.06 Mean maximum, “ eo eae oo bien 69.95 * See Vol. XIV, p. 176 of this Journal. Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 71 2. For the several seasons. Mean temperature of Dec. Jan.and Feb. 28.66 37.32 Ditto of March, April and May, 46.70 48.92 Ditto of June, July and Aug. 62.65 72.03 Ditto of Sept. Oct.and Nov. 51.53 52.78 It appears, therefore, that the year 1828 has been through- out warmer than the year 1827, in the ratio of 52.50 to 49.29, and that the winter months of 1828 give a mean about 9° last, in March, and amounted to 56°; the mercury having, on the 28th of the month, reached the unusual height of 69°, greatest monthly range was 49°. Il. THe BaromMeTer. 1827. 1828. Mean height for the year, : - 30.03 29.81 The observations of morning and evening afford, as they did last year, almost the same result, that of the morning, i - r - excree 229.82 eing, - : - and that of theevening, - — - «. .4o gaa 29. BO For the winter months, - - - - . 29.91 For the spring do. -° - w 2 = ~ 29.85 For the summer do. : - - - 29.73 For the autumnal do. - - - - - 29 75 72 Meteorological Report for the year 1828. Several important inferences are to be drawn from the foregoing facts. First, that the barometer has, during the past year, been remarkably low, the annual mean being to that of 1827, only as 29.81 to 30.03 ; secondly, that the ditfer- ent seasons of the year have varied much from each other, the difference between the winter and the summer months being .18, while in 1827 it was only .03; and, thirdly, that the mean for the summer is the lowest, being only 29.73, while in 1827, it was the highest, being 30.09, that is, higher by .36 of an inch. The greatest height of the barometer occurred in January, and was 30.62.. During the month of July, the maximum was only 29.86, and the mean only 29.62; and during the succeeding months, quite to the end of the year, the mercury but a few times reached the height of 30 inches. The minimum for the year, is 28.96. It occurred on the night of the 22d of November, and was accompanied by high wind and violent rain. In our climate, the barometer seldom falls below 29 inches. The minimum of 1827 was 29.02. The range of the barometer for the two years is nearly the same, and is in both very limited, being only a little more than 14 inches. Ill. Winns. Comprehending all the winds except those which blow ei- ther directly from the east or the west under the heads of northerly and southerly, we arrive at the following result. Taste II. Months. | Northerly. Southerly. § January, - - 27 12 February, - = t 17 i6 March, - . . - 26 10 April, - es rida 24 10 Mays 15 16 June, - - 4 ne 10 19 * = 3 ss = 14 14 August, cn aise 14 18 September, - - - 24 14 ctober, - : - @5 § November, “— = - . 19 8 December, - - - 20 16 Ratio, - = 4.693 40.7 | Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 73 REMARKS. 1. Northerly winds have been more prevalent than south- erly, in the ratio of about 60 to 40. In 1827, the ratio was nearly that of 70 to 30, shewing an increase of southerly winds during the past year of 10 per cent. From May to August, inclusive, southerly winds predominated. 2. In certain parts of the year, the winds have been unu- sually variable. During the month of price the wind re- mained stationary scarcely half a day at a tim Whenever the wind has proceeded disoctly from the east for a few hours together, it has pee accompanied, or immediately followed, by fogs, clouds and rain. Northwest winds, have, as usual, generally eae us ats weather; and when snow storms have occurred, as several have done, with the wind at northwest, they have, invariably, been of short continuance. rv. Waarucn. Taste IIL. ———— the ratios of the different kinds of re which pre- ailed at the time of taking the daily observ MONTHS. Clear. | Broken oo Stormy. January, - - - a 13 9 12 February, - . 12 10 7 9 March, - + - - 13 10 10 5 April, - - - - 16 6 7 5 May, - - - 15 5 10 9 June, - . - 13 7 4 8 July, . - 16 6 5 1l ke = ne =<} 795 4 1 1 ; = = 16 2 7 10 CoS 22 3 4 5 November, 2 - 8 6 11 12 December, - - 24 4 2 3 187 76 te 90 | haga —By broken, is to be understood partly clear and partly ‘cloudy and ae r the head of stormy, are included all those days on which there fell rain, , or REMARKS. Clear days in 1828, 55 st cent. In 1827, 48 per cent. art, 30 Cloudy entire, 22 Falling weather, 27 28 Vou. XVI.—No. 1. 10 74 Meteorological Report for the year 1828. Hence it appears, that the year 1828 has been distinguish- ed for a large proportion of serene weather, the fair days, in- cluding all in which the clear sky was seen, having amount- ed to about three fourths of the whole. V. Rain, &c. January and February,2.74 inches. Winter months, 3.94 March, 3.10 April, 2.30¢ do. Spring do. 11.41 ay, 6.01 June, 3.70 July, -. 11.10¢ do. Summerdo. 15.30 August, 0.50 _ September, 8.90 October, 1.40> do Fall do, - 17.20 November, 6.90 ember, 1.20 Amount, 47.85. eS The average fall of rain at this place for a great number of years, has been 44 inches. ring the year 1827 the a- VI. Review oF THE INDIVIDUAL MONTHS. The first part of the year 1828 was distinguished through out most parts of our country, for mildness. Ac- cording to the Philadelphia National Gazette, the first week in January, pa in that city without frost ; and accounts from the States farther south represented the months of December, and January, as having been very remarkable for warm weather. Green peas were gathered in January, as far north as Newburn in North-Carolina; and at Charles- ton, in South-Carolina, watermelons and _ strawberries ri- pened in January, and the fruit trees were in full bloom. A writer from St. Francisville Lou. on the 8th of Janua- ry represented himself as suffering much inconvenience from Meteorological Report for the year 1828, 75 the heat,—that the perspiration was starting from every pore, and that a pestilential disease was beginning to spread its ravages through the country. Great apprehensions were entertained throughout the southern country, that so warm a winter, would be followed by a sickly summer, and au- tumn. Such, however, as far as we have learned, was not the fact. , At this place, small quantities of snow fell at several times during the month of January, but not enough for sleighing for January has rarely if ever occurred here. Th perature recorded during the month was 53 degrees, ap- proaching a summer heat. February also enjoyed the mild temperature of May, re- sembling the pleasantest winter months of the Carolinas. Its average temperature was about 40, which was 10 degrees above that of February 1827. In one instance, onthe 10th, the thermometer rose to 60; and owing to the influence of same time, the operations of gardening were commenced. Among the anomalies of the season may be mentioned the fact, that violent thunder storms occurred in various places. On the 2nd. of February, a house was struck with lightning in Ontario County, in the State of New York, and much damaged. The blue bird, one of our early harbingers of spring, was first observed on the 17th. — March had nearly the same average temperature as Feb- ruary, although in one instance, (the 28th) the thermometer rose to 69 degrees. Snow occurred in two or three instan- ces, but it remained only a short time; and although the ‘ound had remained during the greater part of winter, des- titute of this warm covering, yet on account of the extra- 76 Meteorological Report for the year 1828. ordinary mildness of the air, it had been generally free from the grass had remained almost uniformly green, nor had grain and other green vegetables on. the injuries which usually result from open winters. e 28th of March (the time already mentioned when the iv a was at — 69) was —— by the frogs, by a concert unusually merry for the seaso Notwithstanding the uncommon warmth of the winter in this state, and in the states south of us, yet according to pees Sota papers, the same period was distinguished at cer- n places north of us, for unusually cold weather. The winter was reported to have been very severe in Nova Sco- tia and at Detroit; and, at Green Bay on the 4th of March, the: ‘mercury was 10 degrees below zero. In April, though weather was mild, yet the progress of vegetation was re- tarded by cool nights. Peach trees began to blossom on the 20th, which was no earlier than the same fact was ob- served in 1827. On the 7th and 8th of one month, the frost returned with — Severity throughout th southern states. At Georgetown in South Carolina, the i ewe an inch thick although on dceoatt of the unusual mildness of the prece- ding months, summer fruits were in great forwardness, and isskivctrien’ were fully ripe. Early in May our fruit trees were in blossom and gave in- dications of unusual abundance,—a promise which was not very well fulfilled. ‘The spots on the sun, which have ap- peared in extraordinary numbers, the greater part of the years were particularly remarkable during this month. On th 22nd, the telescope with a power of 40, revealed eleven spota on the solar disk, consisting chiefly of clusters. One of t spots was very large and was probes by an Pe penumbra. About six inches of rain fell this m nding c _In showers, it eioutriloatid to bring “a tation to a state of great perfection, and our city* was aps never more verdant than in this and the following month. About the 20th of June, commenced a period of uncommonly wet and sultry weather, which lasted until Au- gust. A little previous to this time, the hopes of the hus- bandman were highly elated by the prospect of most abun- dant crops of grass and grain ; but the continual rains which succeeded, prevented his securing either, without great dam- fe es ald public squares, and numerous forest and fruit trees and gardens,— Meteorological Report for the year 1828. 77 ting in a chamber, on the side of the house, that where the lightning entered, had her shoe rent on her twice reached 90 degrees, and the average maximum, be- ing about 82 degrees, — 78 On the supposed Tides in the September was ushered in by a most violent. storm of rain. The rapid descent of the barometer, on the first day of the month, indicated an approaching storm, and during the following night it began to rain, and by the morning of the 5th when it ceased, nearly eight inches had fallen, the greater part of which fell during the preceding night, and produced a sudden and destructive inundation, October was distinguished for fine weather, and the at- mosphere being washed by copious’ showers, exhibited at times, something of the transparency, and deep azure hue, at are so celebrated in the climate of Italy. For several days in the earlier parts of the month, the planet Venus was visible at mid-day. On one occasion being nearly in conjunction with the new moon, the appearance which these planets exhibited through the day, was particularly striking, The months of November and December, have for the most part, uncommonly warm and pleasant. The meter has been unusually low, the mean for November, being only 29.68 inches, and for December, only 29.77 inch- ane one instance namely, on the night of the 23d of. November, it reached the minimum: for the year, as has been already noticed. Art. XII.—On the variations of level in the great North American Lakes, with documents ; communicated for this Journal, by Gen. H. A. S. Dearsorn. Brinley Place, Roxbury, Jan. 9, 1829. TO THE EDITOR, Dear Sir—At an interview with Maj. Samuel A. Storrow, late a judge advocate in the army, in the year 1817, he in- formed me, that he had observed fluctuations in the waters of Lakes Ontario and Michigan, resembling tides ; and that he had alluded to them, in the report of a tour which he had performed, in the north western regions, under the direction of Gen. Brown. This phenomenon appears to have attracted the attention of Fra. Marguette in 1673, of Baron Hontan in 1689, of Charlevoix in 1721, of Capt. Whiting in 1819, and of Henry R. Schoolcraft, Esq. who accompanied Gov. Cass, in his ex- pedition through the lakes to the Mississippi, during the year Great North American Lakes. 79 1820, But none of the last named travellers, appear to have noticed a similar flux and reflux of the water, in any of the lakes, except that of Michigan; and have generally ex- pressed opinions, from the cota data which they had ob- tained, that the effect was produced chiefly, if n# entirely, by the winds, rather than by the influences o the In the autumn of 1826, Capt. Greenleaf Dearberl of the army, informed me, that he had observed a like, but more marked ebb and flow of the waters, in Lake Superior. He had been stationed, for two years, at the Sault de St. Marie, and gave such indisputable evidence, of the existence of a great and regular tide in that immense lake, that I became deeply interested in the subject, and determined to institute an inquiry, which, I was in hopes, would have resulted in the acquisition of more particular and extensive Ps einhgecoed ; and as I had often heard it remarked, that t and fall of the water, of two or Tiree feet, in some of the great lakes, during periods of from three to seven years, I en- deavored, at the same time, to obtain positive data as to this current report. At the close of the year 1826, and early in 1827, letters were written to several gentlemen, who I pre sumed might furnish the results of their rvati or of others who had resided on the bbidiiee of the lakes, oa with whom they had been in habits of intimacy. Very inter- esting answers were kindly returned to the queries submitted, by Maj. Storrow, Doct. Lovell, surgeon general of the army, and Captains — and Dearborn, but so few and limited have been the attempts, to ascertain the character, extent and p e fluctuations of the level of the sess in any of the acs that theoretical speculations, as to the cause, would be premature ; and I have concluded, that I could not better subserve the interests of science, than by transmitting to you, for publication in the American Journal, such infor- mation as I had procured, as it may tend to excite investiga- tion, and Res signin more numerous, accurate and contin- ations, than have hitherto been teat: for the solu- tion of shi problem. It is not sufficiently certain, that tides may not be produced in the great chain of lakes, in the same manner they are in the ocean. e following patie: of the distinguished Doct. Young, which has been sanctioned by the scientific, for more than twenty years, not only presumes the possible existence of such tides, but furnishes the means of demonstrating that such is the fact, in deep and broad lakes. 80 On the supposed Tides in the “If the earth were wholly fluid, and the same part of its surface were always turned towards the moon, the pole of the spheroid being immediately under the moon, the lunar tide would remain stationary, the greatest elevation being at € points nearest to the moon and furthest from her, and the greatest depression in the circle equally distant from these points; the elevation being, however, on account of the smaller surface to which it is confined, twice as great as the depression. The actual height of this elevation, would probably be about forty inches, and the depression twenty, i ether a tide of five feet. If also the waters were c le of assuming, instantly, such a form as the equilibri- um would require, the summit of a spheroid equally elevated would still be directed towards the moon, notwithstanding the earth’s rotation. This may be called the primitive tide of the ocean: but on account of the perpetual change of place, which is required for the accommodation of the sur- ace, to a similar position with respect to the moon, as the earth revolves, the form must be materially different, from that of such aspheroid of equilibrium. The force employed, in producing this accommodation, may be estimated, by con- sidering the actual surface of the sea, as that of a wave, moving on the spheroid of equilibrium, and producing in the water, a sufficient velocity, to preserve the actual form. We may deduce, from this mode of considering the subject, a theory of the tides, which appears to be more simple and satisfactory, than any which has yet been published: and by comparing the tides of narrow seas and lakes, with the mo- tions of pendulums, suspended on vibrating centres, we may extend the theory to all possible cases.” “If the centre of a pendulum be made to vibrate, the vi- brations of the pendulum itself, when they have arrived at a state of permanence, will be per in the same time with those of the centre; but the motion of the pendulum will be either in the same direction with that of the centre, or in a contrary direction, accordingly as the time of this for- Great North American Lakes. 81 as depth of the lake. In the case of a direct tide, the time of the passage of the luminary over the meridian must coin- cide with that of high water, and in the case of an inverted tide, with that of low water. , ist ler that the height of the inverted or remote lunar tides may be five feet, or equal to that of the primitive tides, the depth of the open sea must be six and a half miles; and and if the height is only two feet, which is perhaps not far from the truth, the depth must be three and five-seventh miles. “ The tides of alake, or narrow sea, differ, materially, from those of the open ocean, since the height of the water scarcely undergoes any variation, in the middle of the lake ; it must always be high water at the eastern extremity, when it is low water at the western: and this must happen at the time, when the places of high and low water, with respect to the primitive tides, are equally distant from the middle of the lake. [Figs. 1. 2. and 3. from Plate 38 “The tides may be direct, in a lake, one hundred fathoms deep, and less than 8° wide; but if it be much wider, they must be inverted. ‘“‘ Hitherto we have considered the motion of the water as. Fig. 1. “The dotted ellip- sis shows the section of a sea, if it were always ina state of equilibrium, with the attraction of a distant body ; and the dark ellipsis, the ac- tual form assumed, in conse- oo Vor. 2vi—Ho.-h..” 11 82 On the supposed Tides in the form of the waves here-shown. The dotted straight line shows the mean height, which is a little above the surface in the principal sections of the spheroid, although not uni- versally.”’ ' Fig. 3. “ The nature of the tides of lakes, the surface be- ing regulated by that of the dotted line in Fig. 2. nearly agreeing with it in direction, as at D, when the lake is nar- row and deep; but differing from it, as at E, when shallow.” —Young’s Natural Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 793. The area and depth of a lake being known, Doct. Young has given a theorem, in the second volume, of his Lectures, page 343, by which the maximum rise and fall of the water, and the time of each oscillation, or in which a tide-wave might pass over it, can be ascertained, The same causes may operate to elevate the tide in nar- row parts of lakes, above the level of that, theoretically de- duced for, or actually indicated in, their most expanded por- tions, as in the gulfs, bays, straits and mouths of rivers con- nected with the ocean; and it may also be increased, or di- minished, by the effect of the winds. Thus a very small tide, of only a few inches, on the margins of the lake, at the points of its greatest breadth and profundity, may be swell- ed into one of some feet, in the narrow channels of estuaries, and the prolonged indentations of the coast; for altho “the primitive tide” is only five feet, and upon the shores of the broad and deep ocean rarely exceeding, from extraneous causes, ten; still, when it is impeded in its course, or enters gulfs, which plunge far into the land, with diminishing ex- tremities, it rises to the height of forty, fifty and even an hun- Great North American Lakes. 83 dred feet—as at Chepstow on the Severn, at St. Malo on the coast of France, and at Annapolis in the Bay of Fundy. To obtain full and exact data as to the rise and fall of the water in Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Su- perior, it is requisite that nilometers should be placed at a number of points, on the shores of each, both in their nar- rowest and broadest dimensions, and the changes carefully observed, during a whole year, or at least, for several monthis ; and accurate tables kept, of the times and extent of each flux and reflux, in which, the position, as respects the merid- ian, and the phases of the moon, and also the course of the winds should be noted. This could be most conveniently done by the gentlemen of the army, who are stationed at the various military posts, situated on the lakes. To them we are indebted for nearly all the information, we sess on this interesting subject ; and it is desirable, that they should merit, still higher distinction, and gratitude, by furnishing an ample supply of facts, on all the objects connected with, and calculated to illustrate a phenomenon, so little known, and so imperfectly explained As to the periodical increase and diminution of the whole volume of water in the lakes, I am not in possession of any definite facts, save those contained in Capt. Dearborn’s let- ter, and in the following extract from the New York Mer- cantile Advertiser. “ A gentleman, just returned from a tour to the west, in- Pinel dha editor, that the waters of Lakes Ontario, and Erie, are, at present, nearly two feet higher, whilst those of Superior, are considerably lower, than ever before known.” through Lakes Huron and Michigan, a P accion of the North West and Michigan Territories, during the year “ While at Green Bay I made observations. on the ebb and flow of a lake tide. The existence of tnis phenomenon has been known for nearly a century and a half,* and yet has occasioned no thought nor investigation. Even Volney has allowed it to pass without a theory! At eleven o'clock, * Fra. Marguette mentions this tide in 1673. 84 On the supposed Tides in the same evening it had risen eight inches. During this period the wind was in the same direction, blowing gently against the flow of the tide.”—page 18, Extract from Schoolcraft’s narrative of the expedition un- der Gov. Cass in 1820, “ The junction of this river [Fox,] with Green Bay, affords one of the most favorable positions for witnessing a phenom- enon, which has attracted the attention of travellers from of presenting an outline of those facts, which have been observed by oth ing i i iti “In the year 1689, the Baron La Hontan, on reaching Green Bay, remarks, that where the Fox river is discharged into the Bay, he observed the water of the lake swell three feet high, in the space of twenty-four hours, and decrease as much in the same length of time. He also noticed a con- trariety, and conflict of currents in the narrow strait which connects Lakes Huron and Michigan which” he says, “ are so strong, that they sometimes suck in the fishing nets, al- though they are two or three leagues off. In some seasons, it so falls out, that the currents run three days eastward—two days to the west—one to the south—and four to the noth- ward; sometimes more and sometimes less. The cause of this diversity of currents could never be fathomed, for in a calm, they will run in the space of one day, to all points of the compass, witliout any limitation of time, so that. the de- cision of this matter must be left to the disciples.of Coper- nicus. “In 1721, Charlevoix remarks similar appearances, but treats the subject with unusual brevity, evidently, from the difficulties which occurred to him, in giving any satisfactory explanation. He supposes Lakes Huron and Michi to be alternately discharged into each other through the strait * La Hontan’s yoyages to Canada. — Great North American Lakes. 85 of Michilimackinac, and mentions the fact, that in passing that strait, his canoe was carried with the current against a head wind.” In another place, in speaking of an apparent flux and reflux of the lakes, he supposes that it was “ owin to the springs at the bottom of the lakes, and to the shoc of their currents, with those of the rivers, which fall into them from all sides, and thus produce, those intermitting motions.”’* ‘From all these circumstances there is reason to conclude, that a well conducted series of experiments, will prove, that there are no regular tides in the lakes, at least, that they do not ebb and flow twice in twenty-four hours, like those of the ocean—the oscillating motion of the waters is not attrib- utable to planetary attraction—that it is very variable as to the periods of its flux and reflux, depending upon the levels of the several lakes, their length, depth, direction, and con- formation—upon the prevalent winds and temperatures, and upon other extraneous causes, whic i measure * Charlevoix’s Journal, Vol. 1. p. 314. 86 \ On'the supposed Tides in the rents of the atmosphere, to whose agency we may attribute, at least in. part, the appearances of a tide, which are more striking upon the shores of this, than of any of the other great lakes. The meteorological observations which have been made inthe Trans Alleghanian States, indicate. the winds to prevail, either north or south, through the valley of the Mississippi; but seldom across it, so that the surface of this lake, would be constantly exposed - agitation from the atmosphere. ‘These winds would almost incessantly operate, to drive’the waters through ne narrow mes of Michilimack- ‘inac, either into Lake Huron or Lak e Micbigan; until, by tion; the ara the water, however, being governed by the taaying degrees of the force of the winds.”—pp, 37 Letter from Maj. 8. A. Storrow. Farley, Virginia, Feb. 10, 1827. My dear Sir—An absence of more than three weeks pre- vented the previous receipt and acknowledgment of your fa- vor, which reached my residence at an early part of the last mon ting the subject of your letter—the ebb and flow of a tide in the great lakes, 1 regret that accident has pre- vented me from giving any information, beyond a vague and uncertain remembrance.” I made a series of experiments, embracing the following points; the mouth of the Black river near the outlet of Lake Qntario, Fort Gratiot at ne outlet of Lake Huron, the island of Michilimackinac, For Howard on Green Bay, and Fort Dearborn on the 2 Chicago. The notes and memoranda of these experiments, i was so contained them was destroyed by fire. I thus lost them = ee ever. I can therefore give you nothing sufficiently definite Great North American Lakes. 87 for a place among your data: The slight information con- veyed in the conversation to which you refer, and in the nar- rative in your possession, was furnished by memory. At the dinate cicumstances presented themselves ; the one of them, the wind, the action of which might have forced in or out poured forth at one period was greater than at another, the volume itself accounted for the occasional elevation. ‘If the he apparent increase of its bulk, still the impulse given to the current, in the centre, by the increase of force from ve, 88 On the supposed Tides in the inference of an inward current. I glanced at them, at the time, merely from a desire to explore all causes that might at hand. The first suggested itself from finding, as I slowly coasted the southern shore of Green Bay, a breeze to arise, with great regularity, at a certain hour of the morning, and blow gently from the land. © notes contained exact mention of hours, at which the elevation or ——- was manibes and the state and variation of the have never ceased to regret that it was not in my onaee to exam- ine aa collate them. The positions of Michilimackinac and Fort Dearborn, render them less subject to the circumstances just me A small and sluggish stream empties itself at the latter, but I made the experiment at a distance from the mouth of it, upon the margin of the broad lake. Ido not ——s re- member the result of the trial made at either plac ey aiechanad those made elsewhere, but, if my conilieaeiat serves me, the fact was less distinct] marked: You refer to Charlevoix and La Hontan. I think the ex- istence of such a tide is referred to by Fra. Marguette in 1673. It has suggested itself to me while writing, that some of the medical officers, stationed upon the north western fron- tier, may have made observations upon this phenomenon, and communicated them, with other scientific matter to the head of their Department, our medical friend Lovell. I will pein gach the inquiry of him, and beg that he communicate with you Letter from ied. Joseph Lovell, Surgeon General in the rmy of the United States, Msi April 2d, 1827. My dear Sir—At the request of Mr. Storrow, I enclose you the only document I can find relative to “the supposed tides in the upper lakes. It is an extract from a journ of Capt. Whiting of the army. Several others have noticed the same thing at Fort Howard, though they have differed, both as to the height of the rise, and its frequency. Capt. Smith informs me that while he was there the variation never exceeded six inches. I cannot learn that it has been ob- served at any other place. The general belief of those with I have conversed is, that the change is produced by the winds acting on the waters of Lakes Michigan and Hu- ~~ Great North American Lakes. 89 ron, in consequence of the situation of Green Bay, in rela- tion to the former lake. And this appears probable from several circumstances. For ina very short time a considera- ble rise.is produced from this cause, even in the smaller lakes. Thus the day that the second expedition under Maj. Long, arrived at the southern extremity of Lake Winnepeck, the water rose in a few hours to the height of nearly three feet in the Bay, on which the fort is situated.—Vol. II. p. 85—86. It is also stated that since the erection of the pier at Erie, Penn. by which the entrance of the harbour is rendered nar- row and deep, a wind from the opposite shore causes a strong current through this entrance and a proportional rise within the harbour. In the same manner, in consequence of the west and south west wind, which, agreeably to the journal of Capt. Whiting, prevailed on the 4th of June, the water was driven out of the Bay, and continued low at Fort How- ard until near 7. P.M. By this time, a very considera- ble rise had taken place at the western extremity of Lake Michigan, and the water was of course forced rapidly through the entrance of the Bay, at its north western part, the effect of which would be more sensible at the narrow point, at its head, where the fort is situated. In the same manner a long continued east wind would drive the waters of the Huron through the straits of Michilimackinac, towards the entrance of the Bay, and cause a sensible rise at Fort Howard. As the winds are very variable on these lakes both in di- rection and duration, the irregularity of the rise, both as to its height and period, is satisfactorily accounted for; and hence, on the 5th of June, the rise and fall was frequent, in consequence of the undulations, produced by the wind, on e 4th. This, I believe is the manner, in which the supposed tides have generally been accounted for, by those who have often been on these lakes. Notes on the tide at the head of Green Bay, made by Capt. Henry Whiting of the United States Army, in 1819. Immediately after our arrival at Fort Howard, the phe- nomenon of a visible tide at that place attracted my atten- tion. It was at once perceivable, that there was a daily change in the level of the river, and I determined to make such observations, as the time and place would admit, in or- Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 12 90 On the supposed Tides in the der to ascertain its regularity and succession. The result of these observations, which were necessarily brief, and defec- tive, is annexed ; very little satisfactory inference can be drawn from them, as no correspondent oo were made upon the courses of the moon, without which no cer- tain deductions can be made, as to the naiiiey of that eure et in producing this change. It will be observed, how that during three of the six days, in which the siusii atin were made, there was a flux and reflux, twice, notwithstan- are the wind prevailed, in the same course, during the day, flow were very sudden, and in that respect deviate from the general character of tides. It was seldom more than an hour, in attaining its height, and was generally as rapid in making the descent, though several hours would often inter- vene between the changes. Su a winter to be the most favorable time for making ce observations, when the superincumbent ice would ee destroy the influence of the winds, and shew the unassisted operations of the tide ; vo made inquiries, as to the appearance of it, during that season. One gentleman informed me that no tide was then ‘discernible: Another, ice. This difference of accounts, may, aps, be recon- ciled, by the probable difference in the ft of the ob- servation. Tide at Green Bay. © 1819. June 1. * rs) ‘clock P.M. High tide. % aw P. M. Low tide. et gee > Fs « A.M. High tide, ae “« P.M. High tide "t wind. wast, a 23: No visible change in the height of the wa- ter; winds variable, and often high. ts a 4. ‘Lllo "cloe k A.M. Low tide; wind west. “ o Gy, P.M. Continues low; wind & ST, os ee gh ee 2 ei 4s oy a ee ee 66 “cc se a; Lae A. M. Low tide, wns, — Great North American Lakes. 91 1819. June 5. 20’clock P. M. High tide; wind strong, south west. 4 “« « 6, “* P.M. . Low tide. « «« 10, “ P.M. High tide; calm. 4 « 6, 9, % A.M. High tide; wind north, P Low tide. — . Pe pee 2S. See” P.M. High tide. The course of Green Bay is about S. S. W. The above observations were made by means of a stick, graduated with inches, placed, perpendicularly below low wa- ter mark. Letter from Capt. Henry Whiting of the U. S, Army. Detroit, Sept. 11th, 1827. Dear Sir—I returned a short time since from Green Bay, but my stay there was too brief for any observations upon the waters, even if I had leisure to have made them. Gov. Cass, as you have probably seen by the newspapers, was too busily.engaged while in that country, for other than Indian affairs. J regret you cannot have the benefit of his * marks. I got back the papers, to which I have before alluded, and as I promised, I send you the observations I made in 1819.1 I did not recollect, that they were so meagre, and unsatisfac- ten miles up Devil river, a tributary of the Fox river, near its mouth, is daily stopped by refluent water. Another gen- tleman remarked, that he had frequently noticed im the win- ter, when crossing the river, that the ice was often lifted slightly, in the centre, while the two sides were partially cov- eee * See note, at the close of the letter, + The same as those appended to Doct. Lovell’s letter. $9 On the supposed Tides in the ered weg water ;—again it would be level, and no water aren a erence to some of my notes, it will be seen that the alate aa swelled against the wind. This fact would seem to militate against any theory, assigning the rising to the winds, if it were not known that the outlet of Fox river is very serpentine, forming two or three deep curves in the course of a less number of miles. Hence the wave, heaped up by winds prevailing up the Bay, would be likely still to continue to roll into the river, sometime after the impu ulse ad ceased, and even after the wind had changed Existing facts do not establish either the negative or affirm- ative; though I think it pretty clear, that the Green fi ides, or whatever they may be called, are independent of all celestial influence ; for no one pretends that they ever appeared to acknowledge any fealty to the planets. It is rather the easiled couion here, among those, who have reflected much o} that whatever changes in the level of the eater ie mes Minn winds. That there has been a doubt in fn tie case of Gree Bay, is probably owing to the singular configuration of chat deep inlet, and the sinuous outlet of the Fox river, when the effect is often so tardy, in following the cause, and sometimes, even running counter to it, as to sever all apparent connex- ion between them. Note,—Capt. Whiting having informed me in a letter of the 16th of April, 1827, that Gov. Cass would hold a treaty, at Green Bay, during the summer, I had requested him, to desire the Governor, to make experiments, and to be so kind, as to te to me, the results, which, with his usual liberality, he was so generous as to say he would do; but un- fortunately, his Soke official duties prevented. H. ‘A. S. D. Letter from Capt. Greenleaf Dearborn, of the U. S. Army. Monmouth, Maine, March 5, 1827. My dear Sir—By the last mail, I received your favor of the 26th ult. and hasten to answer it, as far as my knowl- edge extends. About the 15th of May, 1825, while stationed at the Sault de St. Marie, at the outlet of Lake Superior, I obser- ved, for three successive days, a regular ebb and flow of the Great North American Lakes. 93 water of the lake. I was led to the observation at that time, by having charge of a fatigue party, which was em ployed in removing the earth, which was deposited in the bottom of the canal, that conducts the water from the head of the rapid to the saw-mill, situated about three quarters of a mile below. In removing this earth, it became neces- sary to throw up a temporary dam of stones and sods, a the upper end of the canal, to prevent the water from flow- ing in. Just as this was completed, the water which had ris- en considerably while we had been at work, was about break- ing over. I informed the men, it would be necessary to raise attributed the rise of water to its influence. But one of the who had been employed the two preceding summers, in floating mill-logs, out of a small stream which empties in- to Lake Superior, about nine miles above, observed, that it would be unnecessary to raise the dam, for the water was at its height. I was incredulous as to his statement, and asked how he knew the water would not continue to rise. He re- plied, that there were regular tides in Lake Superior; he ad observed them, the two previous summers, both in the stream where he rafted logs, and on the shores of the lake, and that the tide was about two hours and a half in rising, and the same time in falling. In consequence of this infor- mation, I directed the men, to suspend their work on the dam, for a few moments, to ascertain whether it would be verified. We very soon found the water was on the reflux, although the wind continued the same. We marked the shore, as the water receded; and as the bed of the lake, for several rods from the margin, made but a small angle with the horizon, the fall of the water, was perceptible, every moment; it was from two hours and twenty, to two hours and thirty minutes, in its ebb, and the same time in The rise and was about eighteen inches, perpendicular. We observed two ebbs, and two flood tides, during that and the two following days, which were in the same regular man- ner. I mentioned these facts to the commanding officer of the post, and to several other officers;—they all attributed the phenomenon, to the’wind above; but having made per- sonal observations, they concluded it could not be caused by the wind, for it was neither violent, or variable, during the time. After this, I had less opportunity to notice so crit- 34 On the observations of Comets. ically, the flux, and reflux of the water; but I was frequent- ly at the lower end of Lake Superior, and found the water ei- ther ebbing or flowing, except in violent gales, when it could not be so well observed. _ Although Ihave stated only what came under my own observation, still I feel great delicacy, in making the commu- nication, for none of the inhabitants, had made similar ob- servations. They had noticed a rise and fall in the water, but only such as they attributed to the winds. It would seem hardly possible that the lake should ebb and flow regularly, continually, and not have attracted the attention of some of them, a few of whom have been there for many years. The periodical rise of the lower lakes, which takes place in from three to seven years, may possibly, be the effect of the height of water, in Lake Superior, and this caused by an unusual depth of snow on its borders, and tributary Streams, or an uncommon rainy season. I never could observe, at the foot of the rapids of St. Marie, any thing more than a light and sudden rise of water. The - of the water above never caused a corresponding rise ow. I know but little relative to the tides in Lakes Erie, Michi- gen, Huron and Ontario, save vague rumor. In 1814, Lake ntario, was about two feet higher, than in 1813. My situa- tion on that lake, during those years, enabled me to remark this difference. Arr. XIII.—On the observations of Comets; by P. J. Ro- DRIGUEZ. . the other parts of Astronomy have attained. This uncer- On the observations of Comets. 95 the comet of 1695, is known only by observations made at sea by a French missionary: several others also are known e any observatory. It is therefore, highly desirable for the ad- vancement of astronomy, that all lovers of science should make all possible observations whenever a comet appears. The want of proper instruments, is indeed a great im- . pediment; but even without a telescope, the positions of a comet might be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by measuring with a circle of reflection, or a sextant, its distances from two other heavenly bodies aes positions are exactly known. pte method of which He pew s and tronomical instruments could be used only with “liffealt y. lic, the following essay, on the manner of ascertaining the positions of comets from the distances observed. Fig. 1. P Let p (fig. 1,) be the pole of the earth, ¢ the place of a comet, and a and 6 two -aig ed stars. Pe will be the comet’s polar di tance, and the angle cpa the difference og tween its right ascension and the right as- cension of the stara. Measure the distan- @ cesca and cb from the comet to each star, ana mark the time. The distances may be taken simultane- ously when there are two observers ; but when there is only one, the distances from one star must be reduced to the time at which the distances from the other star were taken. A circle of reflection would be the best instrument for these observations; but even with a sextant, the distances may be pads oa great accuracy, by taking the mean between several. The distances will be affected by the z relent: ee may be reduced to true , Letzbe the zenith, e and athe true pla- - S @ apparent places. Making c cz=N, az= c N’, and c'a’=D we hav 96 On the observations of Comets. d D=d N' cos za’'c' +d N cos zea’ ,¢cos N—cos Deos N’ cos N’—cosD cos N aN ( sin D sin N’ )+an (~S ~~ sinDsinN | ) i sN , =dN (=F, D an —cot D cot N ) os N’ +d N Zaae —cot D cot N) ites! vo eel ent laa _aN tenure earest nD and calling a the alates of the comet, r its airesiow. A the altitude of the star, and R its refraction, the preceding for- mula becomes Rsin asec A+rsin A sec a R tan ale tan a dD= sin Hanae corrected the distances, find in the “angle pab } ting P triangle cap, having the sides pa and ca, and the angle pac, the side cp and the angle cpa will be ascertained, and there- fore the declination, and the right ascension of the comet. _ In order to determine the effect produced in the positions of the comet by an error in the distances, let ch=a, ca=b, =c, and cab=z. agit we have cos a—cosb ¢ cos == — sin 6 sinc _ cos a’ —cos b’ cosc cos 2’ = - : b’ sin : and on account of the little difference between sin b and sin 6’, we may suppose cos @—cos a’ if se c sak Sah os a’+(cos b’ —cos b) cos sin 6 sine inz (¢+2"') sin} (zx—2z')= —2sin; sint (ates Bey wee a’)—2 sin} (b’+-5) sini (b’ —b) cose sin 6 sinc making x—ax'=dzx, a—ad =da, and bh’ — age and sup- posing these are equal to their sines, we hav ldzsini(r+2’)= $da sin} (a+a)+4 db sin} (b+) COs € a sin bsinc es da sin a+dbsin 6 cos c nese: ~ gin bsin csin x On the observations of Comets. 97 and supposing da and db of the same sign, this equation becomes dasina - dbsinbcosc snbsincsinz * dasin a db cot c ; ~sinbsincsinz = sinz which shews that the agi Sidiciee the least errors are when cab is a right an In the triangle cap, let. cp=n, cap=z,ca=b, pa=n. Then cos v=cosz sin b sinn-+cos b cos s v'=cos 2’ sin b’ sinn-+cos b’ c cosv —cosv selene sinb —cosz'sinb’) sinn se —cosb’) cosn z— cos z’)sin b sinn-+(cos b — cos 6’) cos n, nearly ; — 2 sin} were) sind (v’ —v')= —2s ng (e+2) ) sin (z—2’) sinb sinn—2 sin} > Po aGsi-— (4-0) sini (b—b) dv sin} (v-+-v') =dz sing y(e-E2) ain b sin yah sin} na Osee )cosn »y=dz sinz sin bsinn+db sinbec 2 =dzrsinz aubainntcad sinbcosn ; sinv (2) sinbsin Let cpa=w, and we have sin w= aie and taking the differentials, /AL piper ‘tor ne py Boe 2: 3 i ee (ev VN ‘ / ret Sho sin v? _ dacosbsinz+ dzcosz sinb = dvsinbsinz sin v cos w ‘ Shier ( As an Seine I shall apply the above to the comet of 1819, of which I made the following bueivaioke with a sextant. 3) 1819. apm Sie to Arcturus. to @ Lyra July 10, = . 9h 39’ 48”) 82° 6’ 30” 90° 32’ 30” Hi, + - - 19 20 37 81 26 26 90 6 34 12, - - 9 29 41 80 46 25 89 37 58 13, > - Cae oo 80 17 00 89 18 00 14, - - 9 23-29 79 45 30 88 57 30 16, - = - 19 33 25 78 49 30 88 25 45 24. - 9 35 34 76 2 00 87 28 30 Vout. XV — have a ett 5, elp, sere 2 gente d vend: Ashes," ~ ~*~ 20. Like: 5. ed, and on several Saw dust, -2. House ashes, 15. accounts ‘it is per- Chip glass, 20. —- «Chip glass, © 25. haps preferable. The sand is thrown into. the calcining oven and igo five or six hours. The house ashes are. su same:treatment. The object is the same in hao burn away sb vegetable matter, drive off the water, and expel the carbonic acid, which the materials may contain. . When this is cectaabelahed. the materials are taken from the oven, ative to cool, and sifted through a mesh pee inch in ameter, * Tf thi it i z pat oS 3 éh water ra Lee vey ; 140 parts should cm. ; * ‘i ; 116 On the Manufacture of Glass. The hme is changed to an hydrate and _ likewise. sifted, The potash is broken into pieces not larger than a walnut. The salt needs no preparation. Kelp.—This term is applied to a salt made from the ashes, collected from under the kettles of the salt works at ate or sub-carbonate of soda, in nearly equal proportions. It would be preferable to potash in the formation. of glass, could we always rely upon its composition ; but this at times varying, Causes occasionally serious loss. » The sulphates of potash and soda, when employed, should be finely. pulverised. . The saw dust is used as being more convenient than charcoal. The effect of either is to decom- gether, and so intimately blended, that the different articles circumstances will permit, it should remain three months in this condition. several articles in market, which of course varies from time ‘time. as : i ~ ‘ f ab "Sometimes, in consequence of the materials. not being sufficiently free from vegetable impurities, the glass will as- tr ga all occasionally used. They all appear to act, by furnishing oxygen, which combining with the carbon, carries it off in the form of carbonic acid gas. _.To get these materials to the bottom of the pots, that they may unite. with the glass, and produce the intended effect, is best accomplished by wrapping them in a wet paper, and On the Manufacture of Glass. 117 thrusting this down by means of an iron rod... In this way, with the black oxid of manganese, I have usually succeeded, perfectly. The effect of the lime, (which enters into ali the mixtures,) is thought to. be, to aid in the-fusion of the mate- rial; and it certainly produces one other effect, that is, it renders the glass a better aacahen of calorie, . so that in tempering, and in the other operations which it undergoes, there is less liability of Joes me ne particularly, when — the action of the diam wood used in the eat far melting and blowing, is from res to three and a half feet in length, split so fine that no stick will measure more than two inches in diameter, and all of itrequires to be kiln dried: Six ovens built in the center of the manufactory, each containing a half a cord of wood, are used for this purpose. The ie when in gare es six’ cords of this wood in tw. he Furnace itself is constructed ether of. artificial stone; sade of the same clay as the pots, or of some natural sandstone, that is: nearly or completely infusible; when ex me d e elevated temperature requisite in the fusion of glas Phe kind generally preferred is that obtained from Hav- erstraw on the North Riv e pots of which ane ate ten, are habe nian on bails side of the furnace, upon benches extending the length of it, raised about twenty inches from the bottom of: the tone, which term is applied to the space in he middle of the: i nace between the pots—opposite each pot, is a ring «stone which a Ax ne ial denominated the ring, of about seven and a half na in diameter, Through this the ma- terials are put into the pots, and the glass taken from them for blowing. They also constitute the only draught to'the furnace, which is regulated by smail clay. stones called: cook- ies, At each end of the furnace, is a fire p lace of sufficient size to admit. the passage of the pots into the tone, with eee it directly communicates, The fire Serie: after the ie the wood—a space is also left at the bottom of ni door ies the admission of air, and the lock stone which forms the bottem. of the fire place is also pages aes for the same fe: pose, * 2. 118 On the Manufacture of Glass. The furnace is supported at the four corners, by pillars of masonry and upon each of these it is usual to build a cal- cining oven, with a flue communicating with the furnace. door where he deposits the other in the same manner ; con- tinuing his travels, he encircles the furnace, and again sup- plies himself with wood. Thus moving at the rate of about three miles an hour, he continues his route supplying regular- ly the furnace with fuel, until he is relieved at the end of six hours, by another stoaker, who is likewise relieved by the first. We usually employ, and always prefer for this business su- annuated blowers, as they are familiar with the manner in which the fire should be regulated, so as to produce the quickest melt, with the least quantity of fuel. Although it appears a very simple operation, yet two hours of time will be gained in every melt, by employing an experienced stoaker. . . _ Melting.—When the furnace has arrived at what is cal- led a white heat, the vitrifiable materials, (or mixing,) are thrown into the pots through the rings, by means of an iron shovel made for the purpose. After the pots are filled, the cookies are replaced, and the fire increased to its max- imum, and regularly continued, until the materials are per- _ fectly fused, during which operation, the superintendant of the furnace or master stoaker as he is termed, occasionally examines the glass with an iron rod, to ascertain the state of the melt, and that it is going on prosperously. The fu- sion of the first laying in being accomplished, the pots are again filled with mixing—and this process is repeated, until the melted metal, is within three inches of the top of the o insure an intimate mixture of the different layers of glee, and form a perfectly homogeneous mass ; it is now stirre : we. _ This is done either by means of a billet of wood or wh: is better a potatoe put on the end of an-iron rod. Thi On the Manufacture of Glass. 119 thrust down to the bottom of the pot, through the melted glass, when the sudden conversion of the contained water into vapour, creates a motion throughout the whole mass, resembling ebullition, raising the glass to the tops of the pots. is soon subsiding, they are next filled with frag- ments of glass, and the cookies again placed in the rings. s the fire is continued, large quantities of air in the form of bubbles rise and burst on the surface, until eventually the fluid mass becomes perfectly clear. When this fact has been ascertained, the furnace is suffer- ed to cool down, for one hour or until the glass stiffens on the tops of the pots. During this time the doors of the fur- nace are opened, to clear out of the tone the slag ashes and coal which may have accumulated during the melt. fire is now gradually increased, until the metal becomes of a proper consistence for blowing. lowers are then called, and the master stoaker delivers the care of the fur- in operation nine months, from September to June, and then to employ the three summer months, in repairing the works. A furnace of ten pots, of the ordinary capacity, will make from seven hundred to one thousand boxes of glass month, according to the good or bad success attending its operatio oe Blowing.—There is one blower and a boy or apprentice, allotted to each pot. The blower commences by first put- ting the end of his pipe into the ring, leaving it until it is near-_ ly red, then putting it into the water, when the oxide flies off, and leaves a metallic surface—it is then dipped into the metal, and by turning it around a quantity adheres to it—this is ta- ken out, and if necessary, fashioned by an iron, termed a strike iron, it is again taken to the pot, and by repeated dip- pings a sufficient quantity is accumulated to form a cylinder —this usually requires three gathermgs as it is technically termed. The workman now puts the ball of glass a short distance within the ring, where he holds it a few moments, (constantly turning it,) that it may acquire the precise tem- perature necessary. Itis then withdrawn, and by means of the strike iron the semi fluid mass is crowded near the end of the pipe, when it is conveyed toa concavity, formed in a 120 On the Manufacture of Glass. preceding process—it is then taken from the fire, and the pipe i lied to th uth, and standing on a bench,the biow- On the ep of Glass. 121 d gra ignition, through the flue 6, while the rear, communicating with this oven, receives heat from it, but in consequence of the arch covering it being much lower than that thrown over the oven, the heat as you proceed from the oven gradually diminishes so that at its entrance, the temperature ts less ing, that the heat should be cautiously applied. This is ef- fectually accomplished, by constructing the rear as above described. Within the rear on its bottom are placed two ban of iron extending its whole length, which is usually about ten feet. When the ovens have been brought to the desired temperature, an iron plate is put over the flue at a, closing it entirely ; some splinters of wood, are then thrown into the oven, to sustain its heat and give light to the work- men. A boy is now employed, to bring the cylinders and ut them in upon the iron bars, in the rear, propelling them nuccesively forward by means of a rod, until the rear is full. anding at the opening D, by means of an iron rod, now Sines the cylinder which was first put in, upon the stone E; here the temperature is such, that a bp being oe is spread outupon the stone. A blo ached to ae other iron rod, is then passed over € Laer me glass into close contact with the stone. The workman now, with i iron, called the cropper, shoves it tidér the partition, upon another stone, F. It is allowed to remain upon he bag until it is sufficiently cool to retain its form. A man at G, then removes it to the back part of the oven, were! his places it upon its edge in nearly a vertical position —thus each successive cylinder is made to pass through these several steps of the process, and they are eventually packed away together in the annealing oven. When the ovenhasbeen filled, the fires are put out and every passage into the ovens is closed with mortar. It is allo ia to remain in this situa- tion, a week in winter, and ten days in summer; at this time isoven % is nee and the glass being sufficiently ¢ al to be handled w othe , Vor. XVL —No.1 16 122 On the Manufacture of Glass. cutting room, where it gradually cools to the temperature of the atmosphere Perhaps sherds is nothing connected with this manufacture, ° that causes so much pleasure and surprise to the spectator, as the facility with which an experienced glass cutter per- forms his work; but in reality, no mere manual art requires more time and patience to acquire the requisite skill than this. There have been several opinions as to the manner in whi the diamond operates, in dividing plates of glass. When » diamond is drawn across a sheet of glass, so as to produce good cut, the line which it makes is scarcely perceptible, oo the fracture extends through the plate. The cutter judges . of the perfection of the cut, yather by the ear than the eye. A peculiar creaking sound is produced when it is perfectly done. If a rough white line is made, accompanied with a tearing sound, you may be sure that the glass is not cut. In this case it would seem, that the fracture, instead of descend- ing vertically from the point of the diamond, extends later- ally from it and returns again to to the surface, y repre. mi- ng dia de prefer those that are fame with triangular rhom- boidal faces, the edges not strait but slightly convex, either octahedrons or dodecahedrons, The peculiar delicacy re- quired in the cutting edge of the diamond, is such, that by constant use, (although so very hard,) it is soon destroyed, ane tee difference is so slight, that to the eye it appears es oe glass as usually met with, is far inferior to crown glass. Some of its imperfections are necessarily connected with the manner in which it is made, and cannot be entire- ly obviated. Others there are remediable, with due care and skill. The inferior lustre or polish, the irregular reflection of light from its surface, and the slight abrasions and scratches, which are perceptible, more or less, upon all specimens of this kind of glass, belong to the class of inevitable evils; most of these SeReteey can be greatly mitigated, by pecsliar management and c The inferior i is occasioned, by the necessity of heat- ing the glass again, in the process at f Sierine Should the temperature be raised no higher than is absolutely necessary to render the glass flexible, the diminution of the lustre would be so slight, as to be scarcely perceptible : but in con- On the Manufacture of Glass. 123 sequence of an increased heat accelerating the operation, the workmen are tempted to employ it. It is probable this increased heat volatilizes the alkali from the immediate sur- face of the glass, and thus the silex deprived of its solvent, causes the dimness. The same effect is produced, as it is well known, by a long exposure of window glass to the weather, and is exhibited in a remarkable degree, upon frag- ments of glass which are left for months in the flattening ovens, which become perfectly opake, resembling pieces of wholly prevent it. The slight scratches are produced by shoving the sheet from one stone to the other. ‘These may be prevented in the following manner. A sheet of glass is made very thick, from one fourth to one third of an inch. This is placed upon the flattening stone, and the cylinder is brought upon it and flattened. Both sheets are then shoved down upon the other stone, the upper sheet is removed, and the thick one which is called a legger, returned to the flat- tening stone to receive another. All the glass which is cal- led imitation crown, is flattened in this manner ; and where | the above precautions are taken, it is nearly equal in quali- ty to crown glass, while it possesses the superior advantage of being thicker. . Imperfect as we commonly find cylinder glass, still its low price, (being but about one half that of crown,) insures for it an immense market, particularly in those parts of our country, where the inhabitants, having cleared their farms, are chang- ing their residence from the rude log cabin, to a more coinfort- able frame dwelling. In the state of New York there are at this time, no less than eight cylinder glass houses, which to- gether throw into the market from sixty to seventy thousand boxes annually. Indeed at the present moment the domestic competition is so great, that it has reduced the price in twelve ears, two thirds. It now bears but about the same value as ent but one establishment in our country, for manufacturing crown glass, and that is at or near Boston. This I under- 124 Polar Explorations. stand has been hitherto conducted profitably, although their fuel costs four times as much as it would in many other parts of the country. Why, considering our national spirit of en- Art. XVI.—Polar Explorations. (Communicated for this Journal.) Tue attempt to obtain a North West posege to the In- dies, has been prosecuted with a zeal far surpassing that which turned the commerce of Europe round the Cape of Good Hope from the wearisome overland journeys through the deserts of Syria and Persia, or from the shifting and dan- gerous navigation of the Levant and Red Sea, by the way of Egypt. - Tbe adventurous spirit awakened by the improvements in posed probable that Sir Martin Frobisher’s attempt to find a No assage, was in consequence of those repre- sentations, although no aid was extended to him by either o those sovereigns. He did not penetrate above 62° N. lat. where he discovered the strait which bears his name. Mr. Thorne’s opinion of the probable success of such an enterprise, was founded upon the great advantage of con- stant daylight for a length of time sufficient to accomplish e voyage, and from a belief that a perpetual sun would warm those regions, so as to give an open sea from the arctic cirele to the pole. + Hackluyt. Polar Explorations. 125 By subsequent voyagers it was imagined, that by crossing the pole, either in a Nort est or a North East direction, the distance to the Indies would be curtailed, thus giving them the precious commodities of those golden regions, with- out the long, and then difficult voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. A North East passage was attempted in 1553 by Sir Hugh Willoughby, who commanded “a fleet of three ships, with pinnaces and boats,” equipped and furnished by the “ Compa- ny of Merchants Adventurers of London.” At North Cape one of the ships left the fleet and returned home. Being separated from the other he proceeded north, until forced by the severity of the weather into a river of Lapland, the ship was frozen up, and he with his ship’s company all perished. The notes of his voyage, and his last will, were found lying before him, by which it appears that they lived until January ; and itis affecting to observe, that three different companies were despatched in various directions, but after four days journey they returned to the ship, “ without finding any peo- ple, or any similitude of a habitation.”’* His consort, the Edward Bonaventure, commanded by Sir Richard Chancelor, pursued a North East course until they found themselves “in a sea where there was no night;” and at length followed some natives in a fishing boat, into a deep bay, to “ St. Michaels, the arncnancet.” On learning that this port belonged to Russia, Sir Richard left the ship and proceeded on sledges to Moscow, where he obtained letters from Czar John Bazilowitz to Edward VI, and procured some important commercial privileges for the English merch- merchants to “‘ attempt a passage by the North Pole to Japan and China.” In this voyage he discovered Spitzbergen, and " * Voyage of Sir Hugh Willoughby, Pinkerton’s Coll. p. 15. 126 Polar Explorations, coasts of Spitzbergen, was unable to proceed beyond 79° 50! e was further employed in 1611, but after surmoun- ting numberless difficulties, lost his ship at Spitzbergen. In 1514, 15, Baffin and Fotherby were equally unsuccessful. he Russians and Dutch had not slumbered upon a sub- ject so interesting to commerce, and among many unavailing attempts during a century, the celebrated Dutch navigator Wm. Barentz succeeded so far as to winter in 1596, in Nova Zembla N. 70° 20’, which had already been visited by Bur- rough, master of a pinnace belonging to Sir Hugh Willough- by’s fleet.* . Several fruitless attempts were made by successive adven- er the Dukes o had. acquired the throne and ti- tle of the Tartar Czars, many enterprising individuals pushed their discoveries to the north and east.f ‘They soon found passable. He ascended the highest, but could perceive noth- ing except interminable ice, and having consumed his pro- visions was compelled to return, which he effected.with diffi- culty, some of his dogs having perished. * Hackluyt, Vol. 1. p. 274. { Ed. New Phil. Mag. Polar Explorations, 127 . In 1744, the British sacegre passed an act to encourage the discove ery of a North West passage, and Capt. Cook proceeded to the North West coast of America, and ascer- tained its proximity to Asia, but adopted the opinions of pre- ceding navigators, that no passage could be effected in that hemisph ad ela he Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. We pass over ma ny private adventures of intense interest, s n 1789, Sir Alexander McKenzie discovered the river which beara his name, and followed its course to the frozen ocean, where it discharges its waters in 69° 30’ N. 135° W. Many bold navigators have expressed the opinion that a North West passage is impracticable ; yet the English coun- cils seem to have been actuated by the spirit of Lord Bacon, who says, “ regarding ee mar I nee it pes a lee are ures science has tasked its power, and art has exercised its most ingenious devices to aid the endeavour—the most da ring spi- rits—the most determined courage—the most patient ae try, fortified by a religious confidence in divine en nee and protection, have been enlisted in this ificent enterprise. Parties by ees: and ships by pea with every thing that could favour their success, bh acer em- ed to push those cae which are aunt to com- the survey of the arctic circle. For this purpose, in 1818 the Isabella and Alexander at- en to penetrate to the west coast of Baffin’s Bay. 128 Polar Explorations. In 1819, two expeditions were ordered, one by land under the direction of Capt. Franklin of the royal navy, and the other by sea under the command of Capt. Parry. Capt. Franklin was instructed to proceed to the mouth of the Cop- permine River (discovered in 1771 by Mr. Hearne) which falls into the arctic sea in 69° N. 110° W. and thence to navigate the coast of that sea east, if possible, until it washes the north eastern shores of America. Capt. Parry was placed in command of two ships, the Hecla and Griper, which were strengthened in every possi- ble way to adapt them to such a perilous service. The number of men amounted to ninety four, including Capt. Sabine, astronomer to the expedition, and the officers of both ships. They were munificently provided with every thing to defend them from the rigors of the climate, with provisions and stores for two years, and a large supply of preserved fresh meats in tin cases, lemon juice, sour krout, and approved anti-scorbutics, They were furnished with philosophical instruments, and numerous nts to such violence, as to threaten the ships, strengthened as they were, with instant destruction. Polar Explorations. 129 On the 29th of July they found themselves in a clear sea, in 73° 51’ N. lat. 67° 47' W. long. and no bottom with three hun- dred and ten fathoms of line. As the wind freshened the ice disappeared, and they seemed to have arrived at the head quarters of the whales, eighty two having been seen in one ay. They made good progress due west in lat. 74° meet- ing with no obstruction from the ice, and were sanguine in the belief that they had found the passage to the polar sea; but on the 6th of August, land was discovered ahead, which proved to be the first of a group of islands, commencing in lat. 74° 39’ N. on the north west side of Baffin’s Bay. were named the North Georgian Islands, by Capt. Parry. Their geognostical character, and their animal and vegeta- ble productions were minutely examined, and their precise latitude and longitude were ascertained, with a due atten- tion to every object interesting to science. On the 4th of September the expedition reached the 110th degree of west longitude, and thus became entitled to > every thing which could conduce to their own and the peo- ple’s comfort. An observatory was erected on the ice, for astronomical purposes, and a snow house for magnetic ob- servations. Divine service was performed upon the sabbath, evening schools were established to instruct the men in read- Vor, XVI—No. 1. 17 130 Polar Explorations. ing, writing and arithmetic, and theatrical amusements to cheer their spirits. The methods adopted for warming and ventilating the dutta ears bis. the rein deer took their jenn over the ice for the caatinietit of America, the birds had long since ships anssrruted the view of an endless ia of snow. The cold was severe, and in storms it was impossible to pass even from one ship to the other. The shale was a scene of indescribable sublimity and grandeur. The darkness and silence, and cold brooding over creation were apt simili- tudes of that primeval state, when the Almighty said “ Let sh ue light.” t. Parry and his associates were in a Situation to se sits ate it with awe and admiration. But to Capt. Fran the season was arrayed in tenfold terrors. No sublime Ain: tions consoled him and his officers. Their people lying ead of famine around them ; themselves reduced by fatigue, and cold, and want, to skeletons ; dizzy and weak ; sleeping on the ground without shelter ; without food or fire, and the snow drifting over them: to them the darkness and desola- tion of the scene were aes with revolting horrors. Capt. Franklin left England accompanied by three eet ae North West companies, to furnish him with Pont : men, canoes, provisions, stores, and every facility for whieh he should make a requisition. The party traversed Polar Explorations. 131 the country between York Factory on the west coast of Hudson’s Bay to Fort Chippewyau, one of the company’s stations in N. lat. 59, W. long. Ba, where ners were obliged ters at For oo in 1820. From this ae they commenced their northern journey, in 1821, with seventeen Canadian voyageurs, two interpreters, and two English at- tendants, twenty eight in all, including officers. Their sup- plies were slender, for provisions were scarce ; but had they been plentiful, the expedition had no means of transporting them, as the only practicable mode of travelling was in bark canoes or on foot, over a difficult country. The _ rivers abounded in dangerous rapids, gs rendered the labor of carrying their panoes and baggage over the portages, intol- erably fa atiguing, and they were Saco compelled to rely upon Indian hu 2 or meat. The party arrived at the mouth of the Coppermine river, a distance of three hundred and thirty-four miles from Fort Enterprise, on the 18th of July, after suffering much from hardships, accidents and want of provisions. The Indian hunters now left them, and Capt. Franklin proceeded to nav- igate the sea east of the Coppermine, with his Canadian Polar Sea; but circumstanced as he was, he was athe to obtain winter quarters if possible among the Esquimaux near the coast, or hasten his return to F ort Enterprise. As they could find no sign of any Esquimaux, they had no al- ternative but to return, as the country was a barren desert, destitute of fuel, and nearly so of animals, for the men could not by their utmost exertions, procure half a supply of meat or fish. Their return to Fort Enterprise, was marked b : series of unparalleled distresses, Several of the people died of want, having often been without food for many days in succession, A little moss scraped. from under the snow was their only dependence, and large tracts occurred, where even that was not to be found. The shocking details of 132 Polar Explorations. The expedition arrived in Repulse Bay in August, hoping to find a passage through that inlet, but after a minute ex- amination the land was found continuous around it, thus set- tling the question which had excited particular interest res- pecting that quarter. Agreeably to their official instrue- tions, the expedition proceeded north, exploring every bend and inlet on the western coast of Hudson’s Bay, by boats and walking parties, and found a continuous coast as far as 66° N. lat. The ice and cold increasing, presented insur- equally intense, being at 55° below zero on the 15th of Feb- ruary. The spring did not commence any earlier, and in the following July they were necessitated to saw a passage to re- lease the ships. "The Esquimaux were more numerous than at Melville Island, as were the wolves, foxes and bears. After leaving winter quarters, the most daring attempts ére made on the line of coast north, to achieve the object of their voyage. The ships were often in the greatest dan- Polar Explorations. 133 ger of being crushed, being beset by immense fields of ice, and once the Fury was near shipwreck. The expedition ersisted in ineffectual efforts, until again compelled to re- tire to winter quarters in September, “ satisfied that no navi- gable passage existed for ships in that quarter.” The whole progress made during the summer of 1822 was only 3° north, and that had been accomplished principally by mere drifting, while the ships were beset by the ice. An arti- ficial harbor was made near the land by sawing the ice, and the ships once more frozen up for the winter. At this date, Capt. Parry remarks that, “ flattering as were our prospects at the commencement of the past summer, little satisfaction remained at the close of the season, but the consciousness 0 e mentioned also, the want of fresh vegetables, the gloom i ily prospect, and the absence cochlearia or scurvy grass, were almost the only vegeta- bles yielded by the sterile soil. Of these, the little ob- tained were of essential service to the indisposed. ere as it was now time to provide for the coming winter, upon weighing these considerations it was determined to re- ‘turn to England. Before coming to this conclusion, Capt. rry observes, that, “as the sun went down, we obtained from the mast head a distinct view in that quarter, and it is impossible to conceive a more hopeless prospect. One vast * Crantz, Greenland. 134 Polar Explorations. expanse of level solid ice occupied the whole extent of sea to the westward, and the eye wearied itself in vain to dis- pone 0 cleared the ice, in 72° W. lon. and 74° N. lat. This extraordinary barrier was fifty a broader than when they passed it in 1819, owing probably to the severe winter, and the tardy summer of 1823 and 1824. They had todread | even ‘he possibility of being frozen up for the winter, in the middle of Baffin’s Bay. It startles one’s imagination, to con- tomplesas two > ships. in the midst of three bundred leagues of the masts; peat floes several miles i in diameter, with smaller pecan of Lhe shoving by the roll of the sea. In this pet the skill ‘of the officers seemed unavailing, and the physical strength of the men impotent, but by the aid of divine protection, they were in this, as in many other instances, in this precarious and perilous cavigiies rendered effectual to their PRRSATeD AM hey had only reached the site proper for the commence- ment of their aperenee men it was again time to secure ~ ~~ ~ rom : ia) zi g 2 we =| = o = “oo Mm rt) a. ° 42 Me fe") Q. - “© “Oo ee QO o —s = ®. = r =e such as “ * sallying,””* sama and rushing ova ships into their winter stations. ee arrangements were even more complete than in preceding years; especially in an improved method of warming and drying the ships. The Sallying” is the running of the men suddenly from one side of the ship to the other to break the new ice by the rocking of the vessel. Polar Explorations. 135 pedi i en ca one hundred and thirty one successive days, was below The latitude of the observatory at Port Bowen is 73° 13’. This winter passed like those which preceded it; the officers vere equally attentive to the regulations established on board ships, and equally diligent in scientific collections and cbservations Their amusements and occupations had not w the merit of Hab but were in some degree analo- odes to the seaso Less of animal life was seen at this station, than at any one visited by the expedition. Capt. Parry observes that “ the presence of man seemed an intrusion on that dreary we which even its native animals had forsaken.” ¢ ui- maux appeared, ay) days together; except! a single seal, or sea horse, no mal was visible on this c After na Wit: m jdhaiael for the release a the ships, they found themselves on the 19th of July, once more at liberty. ‘The remainder of the season was devoted to mi same prs efforts to push their way, as on former summers, but the lentless pppoution of the ice, ended their i catinle of little | e latter part of August the rtd was shipwrecked, and after transferring the men, and as many stores as could be received on board the Fate Capt. Parry found it neces- sary to return to En lan Upon the subject of hd catastrophe, er undaunted com- mander remarks, that it was not an event to excite surprise in the minds of those —— with: ‘thd true nature of this kind of ah oa To any thus qualified to judge, it is plain that an occurrence of this kind, was rather to expected ns otherwise. Our previous exemption from se- rious damage had induced the erroneous notion, that our ships were proof against any pressure from the ice. I con- fess, that thoug ha moment’s reflection would: contradict strength, too nearly approaching to presumption. While we trust that x ts appear that our own endeavours have nev- een wanting to preserve the ships committed to our charge, we sealed feel and acknowledge that it has not been “our own arm” nor “ our own sr ngth” to “ which we have so long owed their preservatio Capt. Parry does not Jenaak e the North West passage, but believes “ it will be ultimately accomplished,” and adds, “T shall be happy if my labours as pioneer shall contribute 136 Polar Explorations. to the success of some more fortunate individual, but most happy should I be, to be selected as that individual.” The uniformly obliging and friendly manners of his associates, ment, to explore his way to the Polar Sea. is party consisted of Capt. Franklin, and three other officers, twenty four Englishmen, two Canadians, and two Esquimaux. The officers went by way of New York to Lake Superior, and about four or five days march from Mathye portage, over- took eis boats and crews, which had left England eight thi denies : proceeded directly to the junction of the Bear Lake river with the McKenzie in 65° N. lat. and 123° W. long. After leaving a sufficient number of men at this place to pre- pare a house (called Fort Franklin,) and other accommoda- tions for the winter, Capt. Franklin with the remainder of the party, in four small boats, proceeded to the sea coast, going down the McKenzie to its mouth, where its numerous branch- es form a large delta of alluvion, enclosing several islands in its various reaches. They discovered an island thirty miles north of the Whale Island of McKenzie, which Capt. Franklin named Garry, in N. Jat. 69° and 135° W. long. On this island were layers of wood , beside a bituminous liquid tricking down the cliffs. It was covered with shrubby plants and thin grasses and mosses, and on the beach were pebbles of granite, quartz, and Lydi- an stone. The fibrous structure and the twisted state of the woody layers were easily traced in the coal, and several im- pressions of seed and ferns were observed. They hastened to rejoin their companions at winter quar- ters, and arrived at Fort Franklin on the 5th of September. This winter although they were straitened for provisions, was still comparatively comfortable. Divine service was regularly attended on Sundays, and the same attention paid to the comfort and improvement of the men, as was practised on board the ships, commanded by Capt. Parry. Capt. Frank- Polar Explorations. 137 lin frequently remarks that “the conduct of the men was a striking exemplification of the character of British seamen, for courage, resolution, patience, obedience, and ambition to achieve their purpose.”* The greatest degree of cold was on the Ist of Jan, 49° below zero. In May the spring began to dawn, swans and obtamed a clear passage. On one of those naked ree they were detained for eight days. They suffered much for want of fresh water, and in one instance were without any Vast floes of ice now came down upon them from the North, with evidences of the rapid approach of winter; and it was with great reluctance that Capt. Franklin relinquished * That no part of the experience of the several expeditions by sea, may be lost in any future attempts of the same kind in either hemisphere, Capt. Parry 18 preparing a book of minute directions, for the entire equipment of ships em- ployed in similar service. ot. XVI.—No. 1. 18 138 : Polar Explorations. his favorite object, that of welcoming — Beechy to - Polar Sea. That officer in command of the Blossom, n ordered to wait for him at Kotzebue’s Inlet, re sing through Bhering’s Strait from the Pacific. e brief summer permitted no further progress, and Capt. Frankie turned his course towards Fort Franklin, after tracing “ three hundred and seventy four miles of coast from the mouth of the McKenzie, without discovering one inlet or harbor, where a ship could find shelter; the most miserab e, dreary and uninteresting coast in any part of the world, The — — violent storms, and met with =a . Esquim imaux several times on their return, but reached Fort Franklin in catety, where the detachment under Dr. Richard- son had previously arrived after a successful voyage of five hundred miles east, to the mouth of the Coppermine river. Although geographical discovery was the primary object of the enterprise, the officers omitted no opportunity to collect materials, and make observations connected with science. An ig of extraordinary scientific devotion occurred in un assistant botanist. This indefatigable en- iHiebiat, voluntarily spent a winter alone in the recesses of the Rocky Mountains s sheltered from the inclemency of the weather only by a hut made of the branches of trees. In this situation he anadiod for subsistence from day to day on an Indian hunter, and being without books he had no means of abating the dreariness of his solitude, except an occasional lonely walk, on wooden shoes, over the untracked deserts of snow, in pursuit of the objects connected with his favorite science. The greatest degree of cold, experienced this winter, was on the 7th of February, when it. was 58° below zero, - lowest temperature which has been at any time observe the Hyperborean regions The painful and dangerous journeys conducted by Capt. Franklin have yielded valuable contributions to science, and enlarged the boundaries of geographical knowledge. The survey of thirteen er miles, being within eleven degrees ai -Cape on the west, and about four hundred and seven- m Melville aasls on the east, with the trending of ~~ coasts towards those points, lead to the belief of a continu- ous land shore on the American continent, stretching from Bhering’s strait to Baffin’s Bay, where there is a probable communication under the ice of those frozen seas between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Polar Explorations. 439 The remarkable enterprise of attempting to travel over the ice to the north pole, was undertaken by Capt. Parry, under the auspices of the Lords of the Admiralty in 1827, He embarked in the Hecla, already famous in the annals of arctic discovery, with a crew and officers accustomed to braving the storms and ice of the north, and proceeded to Spitzbergen, where after encountering many obstructions, and delays from the ice, the Hecla was placed in a secure harbor of that island, On the 21st of June, Capt. Parry left the ship accompa- nied by four officers, in two boats with sufficient crews, and crossed a strip of open sea north east of Spitzbergen, a dis- tance of forty miles, where they commenced their journey over the ice. The boats were fitted with runners to drawn by the men as sledges, or should they meet with open ay 20 of water to be crossed with paddles and oars. hey took provisions for seventy-one days, of the most port- able and nutritious kinds, which with the boats, clothing, utensils, and other necessaries made up a weight equal to 200 Ibs. for each man. The ice proved very “ hummocky” and broken, and wasso covered with sludge, and deep snow, as to make the travelling excessively fatiguing and uncom- fortable : added to these impediments, lanes of water were of frequent occurrence, occasioning the necessity of launch- ing the boats, and again hauling them up six or eight times, and in one instance seventeen times in one day. e sur- face was so rough and deep, that the united strength of offi- cers and men could not in every instance transport the boats gage, but after conveying a part, they were obliged to return for the remainder until the whole was removed. Capt. Parry and Lieut, Ross preceded the rest to select the best routes. The sledges having been conveyed as far as they had explored, they all returned for the residue of bag- gage, generally traversing, for the first fortnight, the same road four and five times over, before they could effect the entire transportation of their boats and stores. The whole journey was performed and completed in boots and stock- ings, thoroughly wet to the knees with snow water. At night, if such it could be called where the sun did not set, the Jarg- est surface of ice was selected—the boats hauled up and piseed alongside, and an awning made of the sails supported y three paddles, and the bamboo masts. Under this shel- ter they exchanged their wet clothes for their fur sleeping 140 Polar Explorations. dresses, dry stockings and fur boots—ate their slender sup- per—prepared for the next day’s journey—the men smoked their pipes and told stories, and the labors of the day were forgotten. A regular watch was set to look out for any mov- ing or breaking up of the ice, and to attend to drying, as far as possible, the wet clothes. They travelled ten hours, al- lowing one hour for dinner, and employed the night, gener- ally, for walking, and the day for sleep, for although the sun was all the time apparent, its effects were very different when it was highest in the heavens. The light was then more dazzling—the sludge and water were deeper on the surface of the ice, while by night the snow was somewhat harder for travelling, although there was not a great varia- tion in the temperature during the twenty-four hours. The day was concluded with prayers, and sleep was obtained with a degree of comfort that could scarcely be believed possible. After sleeping seven hours, the man appointed to prepare the pet “roused them by the sound of the bugle.” The allow —rum, -. Two pints of spirits of wine was the daily allowance of fuel, which placed in a shallow lamp with seven wicks, served to boil the cocea, and warm and dry in a slight degree, the interior, covered by the awnings. They were drenched with rain a considerable part of the time “not having had so much, all taken together, in the whole seven preceding summers.” | e ice became more and more broken as the season ad- vanced, and they proceeded north. From the “highest hum- mocks” they sought for some object to rest their eyes upon beside the sea and sky, but the forlorn waste mocked their expectation—not even a bear, or a sea-bird—not even the dangerous dashing of the waves met their view. The on change from this dazzling desolation, was the fogs, and rains, which obscured the extent of their solitude. Their way lay often among loose pieces of ice, from five to twenty yards asunder giving all the “trouble of launching and hauling up the boats, without making any progress by ater.”’ In narrow openings where it could be effected, a bridge was made of the boats from mass to mass, over which the men and baggage passed. The snow was three feet deep * Meat dried and powdered fine, and packed very closely. Polar Explorations. 141 near the “ hummocks,” and it was difficult to get a footing compensate for this delay”’ says Capt. Parry, “ it would have been the beautiful blne color of these superglacial lakes, which is one of the most pleasing tints in nature.” In defiance of every difficulty, they continued to push for- ward towards the north, but the quantity of rain which fell, ame more and more excessive, and finally, to their utter confusion, they discovered the set of the arctic waters south, drifting them faster from, than their exertions brought them nearer to the pole. On the 15th July, “the rain fell in tor- rents,” and the temperature was warmer than had been known in the arctic regions. The 26th of July, made thirty- five days since they began the journey ; a north wind accel- erated the drift to the south, and Capt. Parry determined to abandon the undertaking. They had reached the 82° 45’ N. latitude, and found they had made only one hundred and seventy-two miles, distant from the Hecla, in a north, 8° east direction. To accomplish this distance, they had travelled six hundred sixty-eight statute miles—nearly sufficient in a direct line to have reached the . eae The party had enjoyed good health up to this period, but it was visible to the officers that the strength of the men had to decline, their allowance of food being insufficient to support men, living constantly in the open air, exposed to wet and cold, and “ seldom enjoying the luxury of a warm meal.” Their return to the ship was more arduous than their out- - ward journey, but on the 11th of August, they began to hear “the swell of the sea under the hollow margin of the ice,” n been upon the ice forty-eight days. They first landed upon arocky islet the most northern jand known upon the globe, where they left some provisions on their outward journey. Leaving this, they were defeated by a storm in an attempt to land on Walden island,* where they ‘also left provisions, * Discovered by Com. Phipps, August 5th, 1773, N. lat. 80° 37’. 142 Poiar Explorations. and came near perishing, having been fifty-six hours without rest, and forty-eight at work in the boats.“ We noticed, says Capt. Parry, that the men had that. wildness in their looks, calle accompanies cold and excessive fatigue, and though as willing as ever to obey orders, seemed destitute of the power to comprehend them Upon the subject of reaching the pole, Capt. Parry is of opinion, that it will be found of more difficult attainment than has been anticipated. He can suggest no improve- ment in the mode of travelling which he adopted, and is of opinion, that dogs and rein deer would have been an incum- brance in many of the passages, when the ingenuity of man, and the powerful exercise of human reason, were more essential than physical strength. The confidence of reaching the Pole in this manner is not diminished in the mind of Mr. Scoresby, the original pro- jector of the plan, who thinks the failure of Capt. Parry and his party was owing to the advanced state of the season, and the meridian upon which they travelled; that ae: a wag estern meridian they would have come upon fast i thus have avoided the drift south, which carried sl ‘eck at nearly the same rate, as that by which they travelled for- ward ; that by leaving Spitzbergen in April, they would the snow hard; the exhalations would not bewilder them in fogs, nor drench them in raius; and that by taking a suita- ble traineaux of dogs or rein-deer, and providing for the greater degree of cold, which would then prevail, he has no doubt of the success of the enterprise. Some who have been conversant with those icy tracts ima- pre them solid and immovable from 84° to the Pole ;* and that e ardor for research, manifested by these bold and per- ore ring explorers, there remains a pledge, that its secrets will yet be revealed. But in considering the laws which reg- ulate the hake of seasons, so far as has been observed by man, it appears feet that in every summer the ice roken, and every where agitated upon the surface of the deep, from 68° to the extreme north, except where it is wedged in straits, or piled up, and screened from the sun’s rays by sheltering coasts, and defended - eddies or capes from the washing and drifting of currents, and the motion of tides. The observations of the late peg under Capt. * New Edin. Phil. Jour. Dec. 1826. p. 88. Polar Explorations. 143 Franklin and Capt. Parry, represent the degree of cold greater at 68° on Bear Lake than at Melville Island, or any of the higher latitudes, and it is reasonable to suppose that it may be within a few degrees of the maximum existing in any part of the frigid zone. The sudden waste of ice oc- curring immediately upon the return of the sun, after four month’s darkness, seems to be a provision of nature to pre- serve the arctic circle from total congelation, and to main- tain the balance of the waters in their circuit round the earth. If these views are correct, the travelling in summer must always be more or less impeded by fogs and rains, and by sludge and moving ice; and it is a question which can be solved only by experiment, whether a degree of cold suffi- cient to prevent these impediments, would not be greater than men could sustain, when travelling in the open air. Capt. Parry observed that when the cold was most intense, if there was any wind, it was nearly impossible to walk even a few yards, without freezing tina and that being the fact, although no breeze should r the keen air, there would be danger of defeat to the enterprise from the cur- rents, which their progress through it would occasion The north coast of Greenland, and one cape on the Asiatic continent, have not been surveyed. If they are united by an isthmus across the pole, a journey on its eastern shores might be undertaken with some prospect of success, pro- vided the cold essential to the continuity of ice, and a ha surface, should not be more severe than could be supported y the travellers. During the absence of the party on the ice, the officers teft in charge of the Fecla were engaged in scientific enqui- ries, and particularly in investigating the natural history of Spitzber rhe | island has occupied a place in the minds of men as being all which is imagined of the Pole. It presents lit- tle to the traveller ra mountains of ice, and vallies cov- _ a esrores w. No tree or bush clings to the iagrer ice orgs cennd in solitary soe no sound ken by wild banuta; ied ’shunned ‘Sage men. in t fee summer, a few bears prowl among the snows, and the = visit it for the mosses, and scanty vegetables whisk 144 Polar Explorations. grow in favored spots, on the margin of the sea. On the eastern side of the island, immense icebergs stand in the ravines like castellated towers, and being of a beautiful green color, diversified by the strata of the cliffs, offer a highly pic- capa copaninaan While the Hecla waited for the party nthe ice, the temperature was milder than it had been found i in the islands of Baffin’s, or the frozen coasts of Hud- son’s Bay. On the western coast there is a remarkable tract of open sea, where the whalers resort long after the waters in the lower latitudes are frozen. This is attributable to the remnants of the gulph stream, as it sweeps aroun at es Cape, before it is lost in the frozen ocean. n many particulars, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the North asap Islands, and all the coasts and lands discovered beyond the latiendss of 68° and 70° north, bear a strong- er resemblance to each other than more southern parallels where genial seasons, and the assiduities of man, modify their aspects. r surfaces are seldom thawed more than four or er almost as soon. The subsoil is almost impenetrably frozen to a great depth, in some instances to fourteen and eighteen feet. The absence of the sun for four months, during which ‘‘ the bear dozes in his icy cave”’ or with all other ale beings retreats to southern —— the cold, and abov ful stillness which cannot be realized, esthout, scm wit- nessed, are ceculeticion common to them all, as are _ fogs, and rains, and Jasrling sunshine of summer. The w ter lasts ten months, leaving but two that can be relied anil for navigating the seas or exploring the coasts. Spitzbergen, according to Com. Phipps, is in 79° 56’ N. lat. The south end of the island is formed of high, barren, black rocks, without the least mark of vegetation, the whole island bristled into high peaks, which are in most parts covered with snow “rising above the clouds.” In this as in Melville island, when the summer commences, the changes are ve- rapid. In aweek from the time when not a drop of water could be obtained for drinking, without melting snow by the fire, torrents were rushing through — pines and the sur- face full of pools, and streams of wate Melville island, whose north coast isin lat. 75° 14’ N. long. 113° W. was traversed i in various y pay ~ Polar Explorations. 145 _ expedition which wintered there in 1819. It differs from Spitzbergen in its extensive snow clad plains, with a few hills of moderate altitude; and although the west and south coasts are bold and precipitous, there is not a mountain on the island. Its north coast is entirely barren, and for many leagues no living animal was seen. On the south shores, a few Musk oxen, and Rein deer were seen and the sunny sides of the ravines, and sheltered vallies were covered with sorrel and mosses, and other arctic productions. T ound no Esquimaux, but some ruinous traces of huts were passed, which seemed to have been long forsaken. It is extremely interesting to observe the gradation of char- acter in the savages, as they recede from the borders of the Arctic Ocean. Esquimaux.who inhabit the north coast of America, Greenland and the islands between Bhering’s strait and the Atlantic—the Lappes—the Samoieds, and the aboriginal Kamschatdales on the European and Asiatic coasts, abating some slight variations, might almost be taken for members of a family, so striking is their resemblance. Their moral elevation is but little above that of the wolves and foxes with whom they divide the scanty spoils of those frozen soli- tudes. Like them they are engaged in taking their prey, or to the few modes which they have for procuring subsistence, and defending th Ives from the cold. The only touch of humane feeling which they appear to possess, is a strong at- kind of complaint, designed to excite compassion, and thus to extract further gifts from their benefactors. A considerable number winter in Hudson’s Bay, living in snow huts, and feed- ing upon seals and walruses taken through the ice. The few who pass the summer at Melvilleisland, forsake it with the deer and other animals in October. They remain in one place until Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 19 146 Polar Explorations. they have consumed or driven away the seals and walruses, when they remove to some other part of the ice, in sledges drawn by wolf dogs, where they stay until compelled by the same cause to seek another station. In summer they obtain fish, rein deer, and a few birds. The tl eat their food y striking pieces of iron pyrites against each other, over a plat of rubbed moss. Their dress made of an mittens for their hands. A large deep hood serves the dou- ble purpose of covering the head, and carrying the children. The Esquimaux seen by Capt. Franklin, on the McKenzie, were hostile and quarrelsome; traits acquired from the neigh- boring Indians, who are always at war with them for the means of subsistence. Those near Hudson’s strait are more depraved than any seen on this continent, their capacity for, mischief and crime, having been rapidly developed by their intercourse with traders and others. e Greenland Esquimaux treat their women with more se- savages, but the similarity which otherwise prevails amon, em, appears to spring from the sameness of their avoca- tions—the dreariness of their country, and the hardships which benumb their faculties. ee The huts of the Esquimaux are superior in ingenuity and neatness to those of the Kamschatdales. The “ balaghans” in which the latter slumber away their existence, are dens, or burrows under ground dark with smoke, and exhibiting the consummation of poverty and wretchedness. The snow hut of the former is constructed with a degree of mechanical skill. The sides are built of blocks of hard snow cut in paral- lelograms, and so adjusted as to form a rotunda with an arch- ed roof. A circular hole in the side filled with a transparent piece of ice, serves for a window, and throws a mild light over the interior, like that seen through ground glass, Upon Polar Explorations. 147 dren—and rejoicing in their smoking kettles of food. At other times their gluttonous practices render them equally n the Finns, who border on the wandering Lappes; it is obvi- ous that they all rise in the intellectual scale, as they ad- vance towards more temperate climates. Their powers of observation are arrested by the greater variety of surro ing objects, and their ingenuity quickened in prov iding them- selves with conveniences and comforts. Their physical ca- pacities, free from the paralyzing effects of perpetual frost, second their activity; their minds expand with various emo- tions ; imagination finds a corner to reside in; an in pro- portion as their scope is enlarged, they also indulge in those wild and cruel passions which darken and deform savage life. Saniit scientific officers and gentlemen attached to the ex- itions were unremitting in making observations upon the ides and currents, iactococlantens “and astronomical phe- nomena, the magnetic force, and the variation of the nee- dle. “ Professor Barlow remarks, that the magnetic exper- ments cannot fail to be highly interesting to those who are \ 148 _ Polar Explorations. and even 7°; ;” and it is their opinion that the changes in amount are due to the influence of the sun, and probably of the moon, on the terrestria] magnetic sphere. The particu- lar law of this influence remains unascertained. It is a ques- tion whether the diminishing intensity of a mesnetized nee- dle in constant use, may not have caused some disturbance but if that were the case, the variations hac have di aie ished in a constant and regular ratio. They therefore im- agine a small revolution of the polar point around its own center, produced by the action of the sun. This theory ap- pears to accord with observations in peculiar and various situations in remote parts of the globe. In no instance w the magnetic influence affected by the Aurora Borealis he ing the three winters of Capt. Parry’s residence within the polar circle. The observations upon the needle were made in a snow house, at a distance from the ships, in order to avoid the effect of their attraction. | C. ranklin remarks that when the Aurora was stream- ing with prismatic colors, it had an obvious effect upon the. magnetic needle, but that when it was of a steady dense light without motion, the needle remai unmoved. H infers that the feebleness of the electric fluid in the higher latitudes, where it was seen by Capt. Parry, is the cause of selfand Capt. Parry. If the cause of the variation of the needle can be ascertained, and the laws which regulate it * Edin. New Phil. Jour. March, 1827. Polar Explorations. 149 settled, it will be a large compensation for the hazards and hardships encountered by the patriotic adventurers, who ave confronted the elements and the savagesin making t acquisition. Professor Barlow is of opinion that the hypoth- esis suggested above, viz. “that of the magnetic pole having a daily motion about its mean orbit, of about 22’ or 3' in ra- dius, serves to explain all the general phenomena of the ob- served daily changes in direction and intensity of the mag- netic needle in different parts of the globe.” The position of the magnetic pole is in 69° 16’ N. lat. and 98° 8’ W. long. as computed by Professor Barlow, from the observations of apt. Franklin, Capt. Parry, and others. The Aurora Borealis was less brilliant in the high lati- tudes, than in the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Bear Lake, but was noticed with particular accuracy, though without arriv- currence. The corruscations were generally of an uniform yellow color, ina low arch of steady light, though some- times in a small degree undulating and streaming, as i lower latitudes.* * In a late No. of the Lond. Mechanie’s Magazine, it is stated that Professor Hansteen, accompanied by a naval Lieutenant, were to set out in May, 1828, upon a scientific expedition through Siberia. At St. Petersburgh, they were to be joined by Dr. Erman of Berlin, who goes with them as astronomer alist. north along the Obis to Bereson, in order to examine the northernmost branch of the Ural chain, and to observe the temperature of that tract. ey hoped to arrive in season, to e winter at Irkoutsk. They intend to go thence north east to Jakoutsk, and onward one thousand and fourteen wersts, (six hun- dred seventy six miles,) to Ochotsk, over a country entirely uninhabited, rovisi the whole journey. The tour it is calculated will oc- carrying cupy two years. ae e grand object of this important expediti bserve the phenomena of magnetism and to ascertain if possible, the situation of the magnetic Encls The British brig Chanticleer, comma: t. Forster, left about the same time, on a voyage to th , for scientific objects. > € Pacific The officers who accompany Capt. Forster, have all been selected on account of their scientific acquirements. They are liniited to three years absence, and to proceed as far towards the South Pole as they can without P timate 427 150 Polar Explorations. Geological researches, were also pursued with an avidity not to be checked by the frost, which bound up s solid stra- ta in ten fold chains, nor by the oe covering of snow and ice upon the surface. all thes newly discovered to other extensive tracts , which have beets examined by na uralists. These facts strengthen the opinion that the sonic features of nature are every where the same; that they have been subjected to the same changes, and that ne =e agen- cles posal in forming the solid mass of the earth. “When t phenomena,” says Prof. Jameso panei “are ex amined in all their relations, and this beautiful and i saterésting department of natural science, is raised to its true rank, pro- ving that its relations connect it with the extensive arrange- ments of the planetary system—it is then that the patient ob- server is rewarded for his toils, and the mind obtains enduring and sublime views of t e deity, in contemplating the frame work of the universe.’ But little now remains to complete the survey of the shores of the frozen ocean, and from the examples of intrepidity, skill and perseverance, exhibited by those who have for the last ten years been engaged in exploring those inhospitable > eee = from the valuable additions thus acquired for oer be hoped that the zeal for discovery will not SESS en; and that those who have proved themselves quali- foe dem contend with the elements—who have so often defied by Capt t Jones, on a voyage of discovery to the the iusto circle. From the character of those officer g Motion, the Natural State of Matter. 151. tlemen selected for the STP, we may aulsipeto impor- tant results, both to commerce and learning, A vast ex- panse of waters, invites the witha of ian to investigate the islands or continents—the fisheries or other treasures, which may be contained within its unknown boundaries; and we hope the liberality of government will make a provision so ample as to ensure, as far as possible, success to the enter- prise; which interests the DPPC # and awakens the pride and ambition of the American Empire Arr. XVII.—Motion, the Natural State of Matter. (Communicated.) Tuer experiments of Mr. Brown, have shown an inherent locomotive power, in the molecules of matter. It is some- w n this country. They certainly deserve the attention of our experimental philosophers, and might subserve more useful s, than exciting the apprehensions of those timid minds, who’ are pleased to see in Bropnet aes a this class, a danger- ous moral tendency. Some get a the horrors, at the idea of our being alive as many eiaase of times, as we have molecules in our corporeal frames, What is it that constitutes life, motion, matter? | We must not look for the secret of the great first cause ; locomotive power. Let uss the phenome tected, are consonant with the shes Diannines na Ae, motion, The states of matter are twofold: Matter in motion, and matter at rest. tpt second i canppisas all bodies at rest. There are certain true existences, inscrutable to human in- tellect, The semper existence of the first cause, and the re- 152 Motion, the Natural State of Maiter. al nature of the parts of our own bodies, and of the parts | of all things objective to st to which the name of matter is giv- en, are amongst thes We come to the kasudalon of matter by resistance. When a body is brought to a certain state of velocity, from a state of rest, it does not attain that velocity co-instanter with the impact of the impelling power. It passes through a the intermediate velocities. The incipience of its motion, scribes some part of space; immeasurable to us, because infinitely small, but it is a part of space. So when matter was created, did it not pass through all the stages of creation? If at its oe or at that vanishing point between noth- ng something which constituted existence, it was sub- jected to ese 5 then all magnitudes and phenomena objec- tive to us, may be the effect of motion. F ora point infinite- ly small, having infinite velocity, and moving in a circle, would appear to be in all parts of the circle at the same ee nd if other points with differing velocities were contained within the circle, and the whole area were filled with diese orbits, the appearance of a solid would be presented. If any other point with an equal op: & or with a lesser one, were directed against it, the points of resistance within the disk, being as it were in all the paris of it at the same time, the disk — never be penetrated. It would have the properties of a solid as far as contact is concerned; and would appear to be so to the eye as far as vision is concern- ed: thus satisfying the two senses by which we judge of eve- ry thing. The wheels formed by fireworks, the points of con- centrated fire having intense velocity, and which pass with such rapidity through the air in long and zigzag lines, as to appear to be in places at the same apparent time, and which we call rhe we Ae are familiar illustrations of this ef- fect of motion. Motion then appears a sufficient means to raise those in- finitely small states of matter to the magnitude and phenom- ena of which Md be apart. The same motive law tha governs the y govern the masses of the universe, and the slanieeaty "bodins be an aggregate of the movements of the infinitely small points, and constituting one grand sim- oo from the infinitely small to the infinitely great. d rebounds at the simple _ eur of such a scheme of creation, when it pauses to consider the instantaneous of all phenomena, which would result from the sus- pension of that ginal motion which omnipotence — Motion, the Natural State of Matter. 153 It has been 96 that we come to the knowledge of mat- ter by —. The mind can conceive of one commen amr point hav- ing infinite velocity, being not only apparently in all the parts of the circumference, but in all ke; se parts of a disk at the same time; but as such a velocity is necessarily always the same, so it is evident that phenomena like those objective to us, could not be thus constituted, for there could be no resistance. One point projected with infinite volocity, and having an exclusive existence, could not resist itself. Its velocity could not overtake itself because all the parts of the line of motion are of the same degree of velocity. o produce erage? there must be more than one body, one moving with one degree of velocity, another moving with a different pales of velocity would constitute a resis- ae when meeting. The greater velocity would repel the less Motién appears to be a necessary ihe gee of both light and heat. Lightis nate from the sun. Heat is projec- ted from calorific bodie ey are both reflected from snr-: faces. The rays of light coming with a velocity of one hun- dred and seventy thousand miles ina second, pass through glass into opaque bodies. Yet being greatly ‘diverged, they do not disintegrate bodies by their velocity. They fall with a mild influence upon surfaces, and must be concentrated be- fore they are destructive. Why is the sensation of heat more intense than the sensation produced by light? Is it because the rays projected from a fire, do not diverge, are concentrated, and act ina mass? In proportion as we recede from the source of the heat: is the force of the se nD If light and heat were attenuated states of ie site pow- er why do we not see a hot iron in a dark room? Is it be- cause the heat or light in the body, 4 in its way to the surface is obstructed, and not coming out in parallel lines cannot be visible? When the calorific quantity is increased, the at- mosphere in contact with the surface being cha rged, the rays come in parallel lines and are visible. If all the rays which fall upon bodies, were reflected back, would -— not be so brilliant that it would be painful to look upon them? Supposing bodies to absorb the greater portion of the light which falls on them, we have thus a source for the maintenance of animal heat, and for the heat which is found latent in ui bodies, Wet becomes of the vast Vor. XVI.—No. 154 Miscellaneous Notices, &c. quantities absorbed by the earth? Do they keep travelling on to the center, and thus become the source of volcanic pow- er, and of the disturbing forces which have effected the ge- ological relations of this planet. When the sun goes down, animals feel an inclination to sleep, when light returns they awake, and have an inclina- tionto move. Is it light which operates thus upon animals, by giving them an additional impulse? Is the inclination to sleep caused by abstraction of the cause of motion? An- imal masses are distinguished from all others, by possessing a principle with the faculty of voluntary motion. ben it determines to move, motion commences; when it determines to stop, motion ceases. : o we gain any thing by asserting that planetary bodies are projected in right lines? Would it not be as reasonable to assert that they have an inherent motive power, directing them in right lines ? Is it unreasonable to suppose motion to be the natural state of matter; and rest to be its opposite state, or the equilibrium of motion produced by gravity? Framanp. Arr, XVIUI.—Facts relating to Ohio and Mexico, I. Miscellaneous Notices of Rocks and Minerals in the State of Ohio; by Dr. S. P. Hitpreta—in a letter to the Editor, dated May 13th, 1828. 1. Bowlder stones of primitive rocks. stead of the mica—Trap in the form of fine grained green- stone—Hornblende slate and crystalized hornblende rock. * See Vol. III, p.49—Vol. XIII, p. 39—Vol. XIV, p- 291. Miscellaneous Notices, g-c. 155 The fragments of such rocks are found in the vicinity of Newark, Ohio, and from thence onward to Lake Erie, scat- tered through the dijuvial and alluvial earth, from the sur- face to the depth of thirty-six or forty feet—The fragments are of all sizes from an ounce to several to . 9 isa granite with red felspar, thei tock is partly de- composed: it is from the hills in Knox a near owl creek, a large branch of the Muskingum No. 10 is a fine leaved mica slate, from the ‘bed of Licking creek in Newark. Whet stones, whose appearance is like this specimen, are sold for sythes in this town, and brought from the waters of the Monongahela, within the primitive range on the Alleghany mountains ; it is called the “crumb cree No. A piece of water lime, found near Newark—it is also found in great abundance, and of an excellent quality, in the:neighborhood of Coshoctou, near the line of the canal. No. 15. A piece of water lime, from Louisville, Ky. No. 17. Sandstone from the narrows of Licking creek, be- low Newark. No. 18. Sandstone.—Feebly agglutinated puddingstone, from the same locality. No. hite, silico-micaceous sandstone, of a rich and beautiful appearance, found in place or beds, on the highest hills'in Licking county, about one thousand and fifty feet above tide water, and four hundred and sixty six feet above the waters in Lake Erie; Newark being two hundred and sixty six feet above Lake ‘Erie, leaving two hundred feet “for the heig the hills. No. 20. Caleareous iron ore, Licking county. This ore with a certain proportion - the argillaceous, is used in the furnaces in the Licking va No. 21, Arenaceous ania composed chiefly of quartz and felspar, from Cedar Narrows, Duck ,» Was aie covered withia a bed of ieciclatstia: A considerable distance es in the bed of the creek, stone coal and limestone are ou nd. 22. Fine sandstone, of the quality used for hearths or beds, at the iron furnaces on Bush creek, Scioto county, near the Ohio river; it stands the fire remarkably well, 156 Miscellaneous Notices, §-c. No. 23. White paneeton. composed chiefly of raerpiaas quartz; it is used in the composition of glass, at the manu- factory in Zanesville, and found in an extensive bed, jase miles apers that town, on the Muskingum bank. No. Three specimens of common sandstone, from the falls in es Muskingum river, at Zanesville—taken twenty feet below the surface of the rock—impressed with the scales of a fossil fish, and containing charcoal. The figure of the fish, was very finely engraved on the face of the rock, between the fissures made in quarrying, but was broken up into small pieces by the workmen; the whole cast was five feet long. The canal round the falls is cut in this rock ; from this canal numerous slips or cuts, are made laterally into the Musking- um, affording sites for mills. In making a cut of this kind last summer, a fossil fish rare found, and a considera- ble bed of char No. 25. A iaitate rock partly decomposed or ae grated, and ‘aka ing much sahlite ; found near Newark, i diluvial soil; but found he on the tops of the highest hills in in Athens county, and in the waters of Federal creek. Nos.-26 and 27. Argillaceous iron, in concentric layers, from the hills, two miles south east from Newar No. 28. Globular, pyritous iron, found in the sandrock at Zanesville. Large quantities of globular, soem iron ore, are found in the alluvial soil of Licking creek, at Newark, from the size of a four pound to that ofa forty eight pound shot; some are very round, others are shape The are sometimes found in digging for iron peony but mostly in searching for limestone, which is obtained in large and small detached masses, from six to ten feet deep, Cov erad with grav- el and earth. The globular iron ore is covered with a coat of rust, one half or three fourths of an inch thick, which easi- ly comes off in scales. I have (says Dr. H. of th — sa aight inches, the other six in — 9. Compact, argillaceous iron ore, very rich; found in settee nodules, through the hills in Wachington county, from one to fifty pounds weight ; sometimes in extensive beds. ed iron stone, the ore being apparently in the mee condition in which it is in the hematite; it occurs ah ° Carbonate of iron, or friable argillaceous ore ; Mieecean in large beds, decomposing on exposure t rain and air, and having the appearance of the rust of iron of the shops, Miscellaneous Notices, &-c. 157 No, 32. Pyrites, imbedded in clay, from Pappaw creek, Washington county ; the bed of the creek for a mile in length, is full of pyrites. Numerous furnaces have been erected in the side of the hill near the creek, in which ore of some kind has been melted; the beds of the furnaces are full of cinders. bottoms of the furnaces were lined with white ei and the sides built up with rough stone like a lime kiln. Several mounds, one of stone, are found on the hills near. The country is very hilly and broken on this stream. These fur- naces have excited much speculation amongst the ignorant and the curious; they were doubtless. made by the Indians. I have partially examined the pyrites, but can obtain nothing but age 3. Pyrite, in rock, from Union township, March run ; bed livin fou to five feet in thickness. No ous or radiated pyrites. It is found in an extensive bed on the Ohio river, some distance hetaw: it is different from any other er hav No. 35. Pyrites, found n perely badeks in Marietta. No. 36. Slaty clay, deinen ferruginous and cab Marietta N 0. 37. a compact and gray, common to this vicinity—free from shells. - No. 38. Miciaegs sandstone ; Zanesville. o. 39. Jaspery iron ore, common on the beach of the M askmgate,’ in bent and contorted pieces, as if moulded when soft. No. 40. Bluish chalcedony, surmounted by crystalized quartz; also, mamillary gray and blue chalcedony on horn- stone; also, smoky quartz, from Flint ridge, fourteen miles west of Zanesville. No. 41. A piece of the cellular hornstone, or buhr-stone. So far as I-can learn this ridge can be traced from fifty to eighty miles, in a N. E. and S. W. direction from Coshoetou county, through Perry, Houkhotkisies and Jackson counties, except where it is interrupt water courses, probably to the Ohio river. I have taken measures to learn more particu- larly its extent and direction. The rock is evidently seconda- * It contains nothing but iron and sulphur.—Ed. 158 Miscellaneous Notices, &c. ry, containing bivalve shells, several of which are in my pos: session, and the “cells,” appear to be made by some aquatic insect. The ridge abounds in different kinds of flint, born- stone, gerne: c&c. No. 42. Three varieties of sandstone, used in buildings, &c. depen No. 43. A beautiful deep red ochre, here called Terra de Sienna, a name frequently given to ochres, as an indication of excellence ; this is said by painters to be good ; from the Yellow springs, Green count No. 44. Yellow ochre, Fearing township, Duck creek, a lar, . bed. 45. Tufa and earth, deposited in vast beds, at the callow springs, Green county Ohio. No. 46. Red ochre, from Little Muskingum creek, Law- rence township. 47, Alum earth, from Wolf creek, township of Wa- tesforid extensive No, 48. White clay, u used for pots in the ar Paarincio: ry at Louisville, from Perry county, a few miles 8S. W. fro Zanesville, and near the * Flint Ridge.’ No. 49. Pyritous sand, Marietta No. 50. Pyrites, found in digging a well on Wolf creek. No. 51, Clay, from the “ deep cut,” Ohio canal, thirty feet below the surface. No, 52. Sulphate of = found in digging a well ; depos ited in the crevices of c act brown clay ; commeneing six feet below the selects gad extending fifteen feet ; sane quite full of it; twenty one feet below the surface a bed of pyrites four feet thick ; then a bed of stone coal three feet thick, and then water; well dug on the hills, or broken up- lands, eight miles East of Marietta, ormation in that part of the country, where I reside, being altogether of Sago pe character, is not ve- ry rich in minerals; iron ore, and the different sulphurets, being — J meet that have yet come to light— I have in my possession a very fine piece of copper that was obtai from pyrites, a few miles from Marietta, on Duck Creek—the bed is said to be extensive; the pyrites were first roasted, then os erized, and melted outin a large crucible by . blackapiiibts fire; I ‘should judge they afforded thirty to fifty per cent of the pure copper; from one crucible, ine ra three or four ounces—should any Miscellaneous Notices, &c. 159 person of capital, and the requisite stock of information, enter into the business of working the bed, I have no doubt it would be profitable. nclosed, is a small paper of a powder, found in Law- rence County, about eighty miles west of Marietta, in a bank of clay, and when first found, is in a liquid state, of the consistence of cream, and nearly of that color; on dry- ing it becomes blue. It is in separate parcels, confined to small cells in the clay, in the manner that native quick-sil- ver is sometimes found. It is said to be found in considera- ble quantities. Ishould be glad of your opinion as to its quality and use. The powder mentioned by Dr. Hildreth, is of a delicate azure, much resembling powder blue, and was not unnatu- rally, thought to be oxid of cobalt; as however it loses its color by the blow pipe, becomes magnetic, by being heated on charcoal and very decidedly so, if grease be added be- fore the heat is applied,, itis probable that is similar to the blue iron earth of mineralogists found in the diluvial coun- try of New Jersey, and elsewhere.— Editor. August 8, 1828. Mexico. ll. Extract of a letter to the Editor, from an American resident in Mexico, dated Halcotal, near Temascaltepec, July 13, 1828, 1. Geological character of the country. chyte and lava, form about ninety nine parts in 4 > of the country yet visited. This country offers extensive a field for voleanic rocks eir debris, as any recent: nor is there any volcano at present in activity; a fact which much surprised me, feeling almost certain, I came to the country, that I should see volcanos in ac: tivity, ‘ 160 Miscellaneous Notices, &c. 2. Amalgamation. upon the common open French furnace; the antique per decensum method is the one resorted to. e amalgam is placed under a large bell of copper which is encased for each operation with unburnt bricks but so as to leave a space sufli- ciently great for the qeanaty of charcoal requisite to produce the heat oo e heat being a lateral one, the mer- cury rises towa rds the mig collects in globules aad falls through a abe and tube placed at the bottom of the bell into a vessel of water beneath the whole; or the whole bell is filled with the vapor of mercury, which is condensed at the lower part. Should you wish a drawing of the furnace, it will give me pleasure to send you one. The furnace has a fanciful appearance, like the tombs of the middle ages: the be 3. Climate of Mexico. This country holds out great advantages to those persons who suffer from those pulmonic affections, which arise from too great action of the lungs on the arterial system, which I gn of ae ee Almost every degree of rarity of the an be obtained in this country, and certain degrees of it can re obtained ckaities: which are almost uniform for tem- perature, from one season to another. In the city of Mex- ico, breathing is attended with unpleasant sensations to ev- * ‘stranger in ascending an elevation, be it great, or even mall. The action of the lungs is a labored one, and the na - strength attendant upon their imperfect function or performance, is very evident. I found there, for the first time in my life, a difficulty of breathing at night, frequently waking with a sense of want of sufficient breat t this place nothing of the latter kind occurs, the elevation fit be- ing greater than about three thousand five hundred feet, but still | cannot climb the hills and mountains here, as I was seat to do in other countries, from deficiency of pulmonic ac- tion. Since I have been here, a period of five months, the greatest degree of heat in my room has been seventy-two Miscellaneous Notices, §-c. 161 and a half degrees of Fahrenheit, and the lowest sixty-six degrees. I arrived in the extreme part of the dry season, the hot one, and this is now the rainy one, and the coldest ; the sun nearing us every day. With this small variation of temperature, in addition to the — arising from the rarity of the air, as mentioned, what can be more favorable than certain parts of Mexico for aaa ies patients, whose dis- ease arises from overaction of the lungs, caused or increased by the dense air of our country? Besides these two advanta- ges, there are others, and those of importance; they are fruits, and other esculents, of all climates, and all seasons, which the extreme variableness of level above the ocean, enables this country to produce, and which are produced in sufficient abundance. 4. Obsidian. From the fragments of obsidian which I every where find in this neighborhood, on land susceptible of cultivation, it is evi- dent that it was pretty extensively use the aborigines of Mexico: it was, so far as I have observed, fashioned in two ways only. The most common of the instruments made of it, presents a parallelogram of about two inches long and an half inch in width, and in thickness two lines, more or less, at the center, from whence it tapers to the longest sides, so as to | — form two cutting edges. They were used for cutting, as is evident from the number I find of them with their edges hacked or notched. ‘The form of the other kind is that of the common arrow or spear head of our country. Many are found here, very small, much more so than any I have seen belonging to the former in- habitants of the United States. The most glassy kind of obsidian was used for the former or cutting instrument: the opaque, or lapideous, being the toughest, for the arrow heads. None are now in use, and I should suppose, from a conversation I had with a Mexican, that their use was now forgotten. They are here called —_ tere a napes.) is however but a local na 5. Geological - etn In your letter you mention a collection of rocks and m rals recently arrived in New York from Europe.* If well cho- —w collection of G. W. Featherstonhaugh, Esq. Vous XVI. —No. 21 162 Miscellaneous Notices, &-c. Tennessee boundaries, it is a well characterized protogine gneiss, resembling Jurine granite of that name; but with the structure of gneiss. ‘To this rock, alternating at the point of contact, is referred the primitive clay slate, which alternates al- so with the transition slate, which in the southern states, is per- fectly analogous with the rocks containing the anthracite of I long ago intended to communicate to the American Journal a paper upon the classification of the prim- itive rocks, as well as the succeeding ones; but I found some facts which tended to a more simple classification than e one mentioned, and whilst seeking for others to direct me to the point where to stop, I found myself preparing to sail for Mexico. I have about one hundred observations of the dip of the gneiss of the southern states, all whic are towards the east; consequently this rock underlies the Intelligence and Miscellanies. 163 granite of that direction, or if the two masses, are sequent as regards order of deposition, it follows that a change of the po- sition of the one took place, before the deposition of the other, a supposition no more to be admitted than the former one. In vain I sought for a point of sub-position of the two masses, to solve the difficulty, and it was equally impossible to ob- tain one, for the clay slate in the range of the granite: this latter rock, appearing occasionally in the range of the slate, (forming also its boundaries east and west, as before indi- cated) like the same rock, with its killas or slate, as repre- sented in the great sections of Cornwall. The difficulty just mentioned, and some facts drawn from mica and other com- mon minerals of the primitive class, drew my mind insensi- bly to the consideration of one map for the class, varying in parts not only from difference of mineral composition, but from the presence and absence of those causes which pro- mote or embarrass that property of matter, to which there is nothing analagous but life, and which, though the cause of many important geological phenomena, has been too much overlooked. It is hardly necessary to say that I mean crys- talization. One effect also, and not the least, of this com- mon property of matter, has been the uplifting of strata, of which none ought to doubt, who favor the igneous origin of the rocks of the primitive class. INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. Domestic anp Foreien. 1. The national historical pictures, by Col. Trumbull.— The four great pictures, painted by order of the General Government, are at length placed securely in their destined situations. This fact and the means used for their preserva- tion, as well as the building and the particular part of it in which they are placed, are worthy of commemoration. We therefore subjoin an extract of a letter to the editor from Col. rumbull—also his report to the government, and a memo- randum of the size and cost of the Capitol, in which the pic- tures are deposited. 1. Extract of a letter from Col. Trumbull. The work which I was ordered to do in the Capitol is com- pleted, I believe, to the satisfaction of the House: the paint- 164 Intelligence and Miscellanies. ings which I found in a state of rapid decay, I trust I have ° left in security; and the great room, which was a perfect nuisance from dampness and cold, is now warm as a green- house, the thermometer being easily kept at or near 60°. enclose to you a copy of the report which I made to the House, which [ will thank you to insert in your Journal of Science, if yon think it deserves a place there. It may important to future artists, to know what has been done, in order that, if time should prove my means effectual, they may be, in future, adopted in similar cases ; or be avoided, if they should be proved by that only sure test, to be unsuc- cessful It is a serious misfortune for their successors, that so few of the ancient artists have left written explanations of the mechanical part of their systems. The Venetian coloring for instance, is proved by the test of three hundred years, to be superior to all other works of equal age, in freshness, bril- liancy and solidity ; but no one now knows what the vehicle was with which they prepared their colors, yet a short me- moir would have explained the system. u. Letter from John Trumbull to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, on the subject of the National Paintings in the Rotundo of the Capitol—December 9, 1828— Read, and laid upon the table To the Hon. the Speaker of the House of Representatives, U. S. Str: On the 30th of May last, I received from the Com- missioner of the Public Buildings a copy of the resolution of the honorable the House of Representatives, dated the 26th of May, authorizing him to take, under my direction, the prop- er measures for securing the paintings in the Rotundo from the effect of dampness. I had always regarded the perpetual admission of damp air into the Rotundo from the crypt below, as the great cause eft in the centre of the floor as an indispensable part of the remedy. [had communicated my opinions on this subject Intelligence and Miscellanies. 165 room, I came on, and proceeded to take the several meas- ures for the preservation of the paintings, as stated in de- tail in the following report, which I beg leave to submit to the House. ist. All the paintings were taken down, removed from their frames, taken off from the pannels over which they are strained, removed to a dry warm room, and their separate- ly and carefully examined. The material which forms the basis of these paintings is a linen cloth, whose strength and texture is very similar to that used in the top-gallant-sails of a ship of war. The substances employed in forming a prop- er surface for the artist, together with the colors, oils, &c. employed by him in his work, form a sufficient protection for the threads of the canvass on this face, but the back re- mains bare, and of course, exposed to the deleterious in- fluence of damp air. The effect of this is first seen in the form of mildew; it was this which I dreaded; and the ex- amination showed that mildew was already commenced, and to an extent which rendered it manifest that the continuance of the same exposure, which they had hitherto undergone, for a very few years longer, would have accomplished the de- composition or rotting of the canvass, and the consequent destruction of the paintings. The first thing to be done ry the canvass perfectly, which was accompli by laying down each picture successively on its face, upon a clean dry carpet, and exposing the back to the influence of the warmth of a dry and well aired room. The next thing was to devise and apply some substance which would act per- manently as a preservative against future possible exposure. I had learned that a few years ago, some of the eminent chemists of France had examined with great care several of the ancient mummies of Egypt, with a view to ascertain ors employed, and still retaining: their vivid brightness, had also been prepared and applied with the same substance. 166 Intelligence and Miscellanies. I also knew that, towards the close of the last century, the Antiquarian Society of England had been permitted to open and examine the stone coffin deposited in one of the vaults of Westminster Abbey, and said to contain the body of King Ed- ward I, who died in July, 1307. On removing the stone lid of the coffin, its contents were found to be closely enveloped ina strong linen cloth, waxed. Within this envelope were found splendid robes of silk, enriched with various ornaments cover- ing the body, which was found to be entire, and to have been wrapped carefully in all its parts, even to each separate fin- ger, in bandages of fine linen, which has been dipped in mel- ted wax ; sud not only was the body not decomposed, but the various parts of the dress, such asa scarlet satin mantle, and a scarlet piece of sarsnet which was placed over the face, were in perfect preservation even to their colors. The knowl- edge of these facts persuaded me that wax, applied to the back of the paintings, would form the best defence, hither- to known to exist, against the destructive effects of damp and stagnant air; and therefore, 2dly. Common beeswax was melted over the fire with an equal quantity (in bulk) of oil of turpentine; and this mix- ture, by the help of large brushes, was applied hot to the ack of each cloth, and was afterwards rubbed in with hot irons, until the cloths were perfectly saturated. . Inthe mean time, the niches in the solid wall, in which the paintings are placed, were carefully plastered with hydrau- lic cement, to prevent any possible exudation of moisture from the wall; and as there isa space from two to eight inches deep between the surface of the wall and the back of the pannels on which the cloths are strained, I caused small open- ings to be cut in the wall, above and under the edge of the frames, and communicating with those vacant spaces, for the purpose of admitting the air of the room behind the pain- tings and thus keeping up a constant ventilation, by means of which the same temperature of air willbe maintained at the back of the paintings as on their face. thly. The cloths were finally strained upon pannels, for the purpose of guarding against injury from careless or inten- tional blows of sticks, canes, &c. or children’s missiles. These pannels are perforated with many holes, to admit the air freely to the back of the cloths; and being perfectly dried, were carefully painted, to prevent the wood from absorbin or transmitting any humidity. The whole were then restored Intelligence and Miscellanies. 167 to their places, and finally cleaned with care, and slightly revarnished, 5thly. As the accumulation of dust arising from sweeping so large a room, and what is much worse, the filth of flies, (the most destructive enemies of painting,) if not carefully guarded against, renders necessary the frequent washing and cleaning of the surface of pictures, every repetition of which is injurious, I have directed curtains to be placed, which can e drawn in front of the whole, whenever the room is to be swept, as well as in the recess of the Legislature during the ummer, when flies are most pernicious. 6thly. As nothing is more obvious than the impossibility of keeping a room warm and dry by means of fire, so long as doors are left open for the admission of the external air, I have further directed self-closing baize doors to be prepar- ed and placed, so that they will unavoidably close behind every one who shall either enter or leave the room. en the doors are kept closed, and fires lighted in the furnaces below, to supply warm air, I find the temperature of this vast apartment is easily maintained at about 63° of Fahrenheit ; and the simple precaution of closed doors be- ing observed, in addition to the others which I have employ- ed I entertain no doubt that these paintings are now per- fectly and permanently secured against the deleterious effects of dampness. I regret that I was not authorized to provide against the danger of damage by violence, whether intended or acci tal. Curiosity naturally leads men to touch, as well as to look at, objects of this kind; and, placed low as they are, not only the gilded frames and curtains, but the surface of the paintings are within the reach of spectators: repeated handling, even by the best intentioned and most careful, will in the course of a few years, produce essential damage. But one of the paintings testifies to the possibility of their being am approached for the very purpose of doing injury: the right foot unless they employed missiles of some force. 168 Intelligence and Miscellanies. I beg leave to commend to the attention of the House this farther precaution All which is most espbttiita submitted to the House, by Jno. TrumButt. 1. Dimensions of the Capitol of the United States, and its Grounds.—The ground within the Iron railing, 223 acres. Length of foot walk, outside of railing, 3 of a mile and 185 -feet.—The building is as follomat Length of front, 352 feet 4 inches. Depth of wings, : - 121 do.6 do. = ale set ae and 1 steps - 65 do. do. - 83 do. Covering re acres, and 1820 feet. Height of nen to top of Balustrade, - -. 70 feet. Height to top of centre dome, -" 145 do. Representatives’ room, greatest length, - 95 do, do. height, - 60 do. do. 0. Senate ‘chamber, Stoniant pent - - - do. 2 do. Great central rotundo, ‘96 feet i in ies. and 96 feet high. The north wing was sarmaieeds in 17 and finished in 1800, ¢ ” $480, 262 57 South wing soeunensed in 1803, and Gnish- ed 1808, cost 308,808 41 Centre building commenced in n 1818, and finished in 1827, cost 957,647 35 $1,746,718 36 2. New book of travels.—We have been permitted to hee read parts of a MS work now in progress, which will, if we mistake not, form a book of a kind somewhat pecu uliar. The author, a man of mental power and liberal education, ' taste and acquirements, accompanied an American squad- ron around the shores of the tie and was absent men, he was, in some sense, a privileged man, was of. course from every kind of naval duty, was at liberty to ob- serve the peculiarities of life and character, of incident, dis- 7 and duty, among the members of the navy, was at- €ntive to marine scenery and natural phenomena, and avail- Intelligence and Miscellames. 109 ed’ himself of opportunities, in which he was liberally indul- ed, of visiting many places in several of the interesting countries that surround the Mediterranean. In observing these regions, the cradle of man; famous alike in song and story, in arts, in commerce and in war; the seats of empire, risen, fallen and gone; the birth place of true and false religion; the theatre of noble struggles for liberty, both ancient and modern, he was not an idle observer, and men and: things were alike embraced in his surve But his leading object seems to have been, to unfold the interior of the American navy, so that this national institu- traveller, We have obtained permission of the author, to insert the following sketch of a night squall. U.S. frigate Constitution, Monday, Sept. 4, 1826. * * * * * * * & had already been lashed up and stowed ; it was lighted up, and the lamps shewed it flooded in its whole extent. re as- Vor. XVI.—No. 1. 170 Intelligence and Miscellanies. thrown by each flash into strong outline, struggling hard to secure the canvass and to maintain their precarious footing: the ship rolled oneetonses And now add the wild uproar of elements, the “ noise of many waters,” the deep and con- stant roar of win es the cries of men aloft, the heavy and rapid tread of those below, the reiterated orders of officers, and the sounds of the trumpet rising above all; and then add to this the heavy rolling of thunder, at times drowning all these sounds. The first lieutenant had the deck ; he had sprung to it at the first alarm, and seizing the trumpet had called for Black, his favorite helmsman. e ship was soon under snug sail, and now dashed onwards at a furious rate, giving to the gale a yet wilder character. All at once when saddenly came a loud shout from the forecastle, “a sail on the starboard bow,” and then another, “a sail close on the larboard bow.” I trembled then; not for ourselves, tor .we should have gone over them and have scarcely felt the shock, but ~ — poor wretches, whom it would have been impossible to The helm was put hard down; we shot by, and [ coms breathed freely, when some one ‘bade me look up to our spars, I did so, and found every upper yard arm and mast head tipped with lightning. Each blaze was twice as large as that of a candle, and thus we flew on with the elements of destruction playing above our heads. In about thirty minutes the wind, which was from the S. W. changed suddenly to the S. E. and became as hot as air from the mouth of an oven: it was the sirocco, and, I was told afterwards by those most above the deck, brought with it a quantity of fine sand. We were then a few miles from Maratimo, sixty six from Cape Bon, the nearest African shore, and three hundred from the nearest land in the direc- tion of the wind. It lasted half an hour, and was a stiff, smacking breeze, but not near so strong as the one that had preceded it. Asimilar electric phenomenon occurred to the ship in which Castor and Pollux sailed, in the Argonautic expedition, only the light appeared on the caps of the two heroes: the storm subsided and they were received as patrons of — Hence the ancient medals represent them each with a star or flame of fire at the apex of his cap. In this way os we may ac- count for the story, that they often appeared to sailors in dis- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 171 tress, and also to the Roman armies, leading them to victory. ta atter was nothing more than the electric fluid on their ears. I recollect hearing Professor Silliman, in one of his locke relate a case nearly similar, of the late Mr. Whitney aven. He was riding on horseback, near East Rock in the vicinity of that town, during a night thun- whip, stirrups, and every prominent a His own person and that of an attendant, were tipped in the same manner. Similar appearances, probably suggested to Virgil, the fic- tion of the flame about Ascanius’ head, the night Troy was ~ sailors call them complaisants, hom Corpo Santo:) I went among them yesterday, to discover whether such ap- quarter-masters: most of them had followed the sea from their youth. [found each had seen them three or four times before, and that they occur most frequently among the West Indi hey tell me, they often appear on the lower yards first, and ascend as the storm abates, “ Well,” I asked, “what do you think they are?” ae shook their heads— it was a hard question. At last one s usly ; “Til tell you sir, what I think hep are: they are foul air that the wind rolls together into a —. it gets a little a0 ning in it and sticks fast on the Es the horizon, appearing to shut us up forever to the treacher- ous element, while a broad heavy mass rolled on, over head, “noctem hiemem mque ferens.” Nothing else could be seen -except the North Carolina, [the flag line of battle ship, an indistinct mass, severa miles distant. She too faded came a misty speck, but the usual at was raised at mizen-top to govern our course. But this pri des p- in her direction, ‘ahed suddenly another light appeared, a mere point in the distance ; it spread and apa — then shot up so as to lighten the whole stern and’ sans. t 172 Intelligence and Miscellanes. sunk and was succeeded by another, and this by another similar one ; then was darkness a moment, and next follow- three successive flashes. We lowered our Jantern; her mizen light again es and all hands were called to . execute the order. This is the first time I have introduced to youa eight signal: we wee two on Saturday night in the midst of the storm: their effect, in rough or calm weather, is always very fine ‘The gale came on soon after ; it brought one complaisant, and this appeared at our mizen royal-mast head: our main- mast has a chain conductor. um “ magno telluris amore.” Yours, &c. 3. The — Jive, the most favorite number of nature.— Pror. Eat Aihough Hies and many other plants have the organs of fructification in sixes, also some in threes, others in Late and the ponex-oalle of bees have sides in nats ke. y ture’s favorite number appears to be five. At least, the half of all known aaaae have the parts of "pega in fives, or ina number which is the product o On examining the radiated division. of eile, we find the sea star-and medusa’s head (asterias aculeata and ca- put medusz) have their medullary processes incased in five rays. The genus actinia has its rays in fives or in a num- ber produced by some product of five. Every species of the coral rock, called madrepora, also the spongia, flustra, salutary, sextalaris: encrinus, &c. have rays of similar num ‘Throughout Cuvier’s whole vertebral division, five is the leading number. For example we have five fingers to the hand, and a toes to the foot, in-common with most of the mamm cael ia, Hence our numbers five, twice five, (ten,) twen- ty times five, (one hundred,) &c. We have five principles, constituting the highest order of vertebral animals, man— to wit. 1, imert matter, 2, the attractive principle, 3, the living principle, 4, the sentient principle, 5, the ntellestual principle. In roof of this we observe them disappearing in an inverted order at death. I will state a case, which has recently passed under my immediate inspection. A.near and dear relative died of the pulmonary consump- tion, His intellectual faculties were never more brilliant, than at 11 o’clock in the evening of Noy. 13th, (1828.) In Intelligence and Miscellanies. 173 an instant his intellectual faculties disappeared. His sentient faculties seemed to continue; for groans, and other eviden- ces of pain did not cease. At midnight his body became in- sensible to pain. His groans ceased, and the mere simple liv- ing principle seemed to be all that remained. At one o’clock, on the 14th, the living principle was suspended. Death then becoming triumphant, -his body was given over to the laws of chemical ‘attraction. Could matter be divested of this last power, (attraction,) mere inert matter would remain. Hence I would infer, that the most perfect being which comes from the hand of the Creator, consists of five princi- les. 1, Inert matter—2, the attractive principle—3, the liv- ing principle, (so far even plants may go,) 4, the sentient principle (so far the lower orders of animals go,)—5, the in- tellectual principle, peculiar to man; being the immortal soul. ot add any remarks upon our five senses—seeing —hearing—smelling—tasting—feeling. No one has over- looked this ‘fact. 4. Alcohol, or spiritous liquors, from succulent | iti farinaceous fruits, and herbage of plants.—Pror. Eaton. propose for a medical dissertation the following.query. — 5. On the use of alumi ith pigments de presen nd’. let.—In preparing his paints, by levigating pigments withou, the Attias ja often perplexed, by the diversities which they ex- 174 Intelligence and Miscellanies. hibit after this operation. Some pigments present a chem- ical combination with the oil, while others can be suspended in it only by considerable labor, and soon separate when left at rest. These differences can be rendered of trifling impor- tance, by employing such a substance as will retain those com- pounds which possess no attraction for the oil, in a state of a small portion of alumina. The artist has it in his power thus, to increase or diminish the fluidity of his paints and to render them uniform. Some pigments becom valuable as glazing colors, as the Prussiate of copper, (Hatch- ette’s Brown.) Vermillion and Naples Yellow, acquire new properties. or printing from blocks, as in the manufacture of orna- mental floor-cloths, it is often desirable to increase the fluid- ity of the paint, so as to prevent the dropping of small thread-like parts on the work, without causing it to spread. i accomplished, by adding a small quantity of whiting to the pigment while grinding ; the artisan can then load his blocks with paint and consequently give a thick coat- ing to the print. A. A. Haves, Roxbury Laboratory. 6. On a fine scarlet pigment for the pallet.—While prose- a some experiments on the pigments employed by art- ists, | prepared a quantity of the biiodide of mereury and gave it to Mr. R. Peale, requesting him to make some ex- — periments on its working properties and permanency. This distinguished artist, obligingly commenced them, but they were not finished, at the time he left thiscountry. He found at it readily mixed with oil; combined with other colors Intelligence and Miscellanies. 175 it gave delicate and beautiful shades and exposed for weeks to the direct rays of a midsummer sun, it remained unchang- ed. These properties induce me to recommend it as an ad- dition to the number of pigments among which the artist can make a choice. An economical process for preparing this salt, consists in boiling a mixture of one hundred and twenty five parts of Io- dine, and two hundred and fifty parts of clean fine iron filings, with one thousand parts of rain water, in an oil flask. When the brown color of the liquid, is succeeded by a light green, the clear fluid is decanted and the residue washed with warm remote angle, if a group of crystals be the subject of exper- iment. This change of color is accompanied by a sensible 176 Intelligence and Miscellames. 7. Use of iodine in gout and angina pectoris ; extract of a letter to the Editor from Dr. B. L. Oliver, dated Salem, Mass. Feb. 4, 1829.—You have kindly inquired concerning my health. I have now the pleasure of stating to you, that the alarming symptoms of angina pectoris, which I have had for several years past, and which were relieved and kept at n ministration of iodine, in angina pectoris, until my trial of it. The circumstance which induced me to try it was, that [ha that a physician m Europe e same agent, cured sev- atients suffering under the above malady. It thought it not improbable, that when angi ctoris occur- require the taking of medicines, or putting themselves under medical care.t * The solution of corrosive sublimate in this disease, was first recommended * by Dr. Fisher, of Beverly, (Mass.) who has cured several patients with it. t Besides my own case, I know of two other cases which have been relieved, the disease at suspended by the iodine. 1 am not re A Intelligence and Miscellanies. 177 Perhaps sir, if you could find a place in your Journal for the above article on iodine, it might be the none of some lives, or at.any rate, it would give a new peg to hang a hope upon, and thus tend to relieve the patient from that constant dread of impending death, which places him in a situation like that of the person at the feast of the tyrant of Syracuse, who found himself sitting under a sword suspended by a hair. 8. Notice of the manufacture of the chloride of lime, and of some of its leading uses, in a letter from Mr. G. W. Car- penter to.the Editor, dated Philadelphia, Jan. 1829.—The chioride of lime is manufactured on a very large scale, at the Maryland chemical works at Baltimore. A large chamber lined with lead is made use of, and about 5000 Ib. of hydrate of lime is placed thinly on moveable shelves, the chlorine gas is then introduced into the chamber and is absorbed by the lime, the top shelves are saturated first, the lime is then stirred and the shelves reversed, the top placed at the bot- tom and the bottom at the top, and so on through the whole, introducmg additional quantities of chlorine as the shelves are transposed and the gas absorbed or united. The chlo- ride thus made is considered fully equal to the best bleaching salt — can be imported. It is onerally:< rk tains in solution bo paws is made int the proportion of four ounces to one pint of water, and as only about one half of the lime is dissolved, it will es necessary to fil- ter, in order to obtain the clear solution. Dilute one part of the liquid with 40 parts of water, a pint with five gallons, ora a wine glass full to three quarts of water, stir the mixture and it is then fit for use. It is the most powerful, disinfecting agent hitherto discovered, and an instantaneous destro: every bad smell. It is an infallible destroyer of all efiluvia, arising tas animal, and vegetable decomposition, and effect- ually prevents their deleterious influence, hence, it is particu- arly recommended to the attention of ‘those residing in ep- idemic districts, as there is reason to expect, that the mix- ture sprinkled shee apanigse s would prevent the access Vor. XVI.—No. 23 178 Intelligence and Miscellanies. of contagion to a certain extent around. Its value will be appreciated by the faculty in examinations for inquests, dis- sections and anatomical preparations. For all these desira- ble purposes, it is only necessary to sprinkle the diluted liquid in the apartment, or on the object requiring purification The effluvia from drains, sewers, and other receptacles of the same nature, will be destroyed by pouring into them a quart of the mixture, added to a pailful of water, and re- peating the operation until it is completely removed. Tainted meat, and animal food ss — kind, eed be — dered sweet by sprinkling them w mi Wat in cisterns may be purified, and all secudicale chidiensjath ree putting into it a small quantity of the pure liquid, say about half a pint to one hundred and twenty gallons of water, and —ee it is highly valuable on board ships. isances arising from disagreeable and unhealthy a dataiiaal may be equally obviated by the mere sprinkling of the chloride of dae: and the health of the workmen ve- ry materially rved in such deleterious processes as the preparation of an colors. It destroys the smell of paints so effectually, that a room painted in the day may be slept in at night, without any smell of paint being perceived, if it be sprinkle ed some hours before with the mixture. Smelters of lead, glue and size makers, tallow and soa manufacturers, skin dressers, &c. may deprive their premises of all offensive smell, by the same —— The close and confined air of hospitals, prisons, ships, &c. will be almost instantaneously purified by sprinkling tthe diluted chloride of lime in small quantities from a watering pot. The stains from fruit, doc. &&c. may be removed from table linen, we. by di the article stained in water, applying the chloride of ime until the stain is removed, and then rinsing well in cold water —— to being w ars oride of soda has lately been most beneficially in- cokuoal into the materia medica. The chlorides have the heatartie te effect of arresting animal and vegetable de- mposition, more especially, when generated in certain pu- trid disorders. It appears evident, that chlorine acts chem- ically upon the pernicious matter, and resolves it into innoc- uous principles ; the application of the chloride of soda is re limited only by animal and vegetable decay, and the cause of its action in the following instances, extracted from M. Labarraque, will be peauily perceived, viz. carbun- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 179 Re eae | cle hospital gancrene.ill gang = bod sa Ps 2 . . 4 of the worst description; the fetid discharge of cancer, herpes ulceratia, porigo favosi, atonic ulcers, ulcers of the uterus, mortification, d&c. &c used in all the foregoing cases; as a gargle in ulcerated sore throat, ptyalism, and tumours. Diseases of animals of a similar nature will be cured by the same means.* 9. Specimens in Materia Medica, Pharmacy, and. Chem- istry.—We are informed that Mr. George W. Carpenter, No. Pi =e \ ee nite . ly useful in public lectures, and are in fact, almost indis- pensable in a course of instruction. We understand that Dr. Carpenter has furnished collections for the medical colleges of Pennsylvania, New York, North and South Carolina, and Virginia, to the entire satisfaction of their respective prot sors, and that a similar collection has been ordered by Prof. Ives, for the Medical Institution of Yale College. The spe- cimens are neatly put up in square bottles, handsomely label- led and fully described at 40 cts. a specimen; a complete suite consists of about one hundred and twenty specimens. _ * The chlorides of lime and soda may be rocured from Carpenter’s Chem- ical Warehouse, 301, Market St. Philadelphi , by the small quantity, 25 cents per Ib. 180 Intelligence and Miscellanies. ships, steamboats and other vessels and boats as respects metals with a view to their application to the useful arts, es- pecially ship building. After adverting to the different sub- t that have been em] or the fastenings and sheath- ing of vessels, and the advantages and disadvantages of each, he pointed out the great superiority of iron for the fasten- ings of that stupendous, moveable fabric, a modern ship, in every respect, except its liability to oxidate in sea water, es- pecially when the vessel is sheathed with copper. He re- marked that with this exception, iron combines for this pur- pose all the valuable properties of all the other metals. It is most abundant; its malleability is sufficient for all useful purposes ; in strength or tenacity it surpasses them all, being in this respect to copper as five hundred and forty nine to three hundred and two, and it possesses the property of be- ing welded, which is peculiar to it and platinum. Having pointed out the cause of the rapid oxidation of the iron fas- tenings of vessels when sheathed with copper, which was first suggested by Fabroni, viz. a galvanic influence; and having spoken particularly of the admirable researches of Sir H. Davy on preserving the copper sheathing of ships, he ob- served that since it was so desirable an object to use iron fastenings, and inasmuch as the cause of the rapid decay of the iron fastenings in copper-sheathed vessels was understood, it seemed to him surprising that no one had attempted to cor- rect this defect by means founded on this knowledge. In the autumn of 1826, he formed the resolution of undertaking sO employing iron sheets for sheathing. He added that he now thought himself authorized to announce to the Society Intelligence and Miscellanies. 181 that he had demonstrated the practicability of accomplish- ing both these objects, by electro-chemical agency. He then exhibited to the Society two iron spikes which after being filed bright, had been driven into a block of wood, and kept immersed in sea water since June 14th, 1827. A part of one of the spikes had been accidentally exposed in chipping the block in consequence of a knot in the wood and the parts of the spike exposed were bright as at first, and without the slightest appearance of corrosion. He also placed betore the Society a small iron plate which had been scoured bright and fastened with iron nails to a piece of board his had been likewise immersed in sea water since June 14th, 1827—the iron plate exhibited its metallic lustre without having undergone the slightest oxidation. Dr. R. posed at a future period to publish an elaborate account of this investigation. He invited the Society to examine his ex- periments made on a larger scale, and among others a boat sheathed with iron, and placed at the Navy Yard at Brooklyn. 11. Steam Pump. West Point, Feb. 15, 1829. Sir—I take the liberty of laying before you the result of some experiments made with the steam pump, an invention described in this Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 169. The experiments were made at the West Point foundry, where a machine has been constructed of cast iron. boiler used is fifty inches in length and fifteen in diameter ; giving a surface exposed to the fire of about ten square feet, or sufficient for a one horse engine of the usual kind. The cylinders or receivers are each of about three cubic feet or operation of the machine was to make five strokes per min- ute, or to fill and discharge one receiver three times and the 182 Intelligence and Miscellanies. other twice ina minute. Now after making the greatest deductions for incomplete strokes that can emanded, there will remain, for the actual performance of the machine, at least eighty gallons of water, raised fifteen feet. I[t is to be observed that, as the steam is used in precisely the same manner, whether the receivers are twenty feet or but one foot high, there will be the same quantity of steam used in the above machine, as though it were to work at its great- est eight, or about twenty eight feet. The maximum effect tha Rh the steam that would move a one horse engine, applied to work the above machine, will be to raise Sight gallons ats ‘walet twenty eight feet per minute. e work rse of the average strength, is found, when spe - _ raising of water, Riticiys st to raise seventy gallons, twenty five feet per minute, one fifth less than the above performance But let it be supposed that the work of this machine is the same, or something less, than the power of the same steam, as pommenly applied : : itis obvious, that for many would be beneficial to use it as a mechanical power ; for Sonn where fuel is peaks and the required power will not be sufficient for an expensive engine. The witha oom proposed by this invention, is to af- ford a cheap method for raising water, where it is required to be raised in See quantities, to heights less than twenty eight or twenty nine feet. It will be seen that the expense o all working machinery will be saved by this invention, as ell as the force lost by keeping it in motion, two very mate- ea points in the use of machinery. It is believed that this mashich could be used to great ad- vantage in dry docks, and ms all other purposes where water is required to be raised in a similar manner. These are the objects of the invention, fe should any farther explanations be aie necessary, they will be pitiapdly wesley de anne aoe ammonia in counteracting poison ; extract op a ee “pe Austin Church to the Editor, dated Coop- eetiows N. Y. Feb.6,1829.—A young man in this place had entally overset a hive of bees, and before he could es- a. they had settled, in great numbers, on different parts of Se Sg and limbs and stung him very severely. It was about ‘an hour after the accident happened, when he came to Intelligence and Miscellanies. 183 office in great agony, and he had scarcely time to give an account of it before he fainted. I immediately applied the ammonia to the parts that had been stung, his legs, arms and breast. He directly recovered from his ‘faintness, and experienced no pain or other inconvenience afterwards. It is several years since I first used the aqua ammoniz, to counteract the effect of the bites of insects and stin, es, and it has invariably produced — relief—generally complete. Ihave often seen children crying in excessive pain from the sting of a bee, and on the application of the or they would immediately cease complaining and from the ceamamens effect it was said to have in counter- acting the —— of prussic acid. In the second num- ber of the American Journal of ponerse erga (Phila- delphia,) for fai year, it will be see t Dr. Moore, of labama, used it with great success in ae cure of bites of venomous serpents. From his account, it is probable that the pure tnessbonated aqua ammoni is most —— being sometimes carbonated and at others esha 13. Atomic Weem sks Mereury. In a recent examination of th me seme supposed to to protoxide of mercury, my attention was int to the os ject of the atomic weight of mercury, and upon applying to some of its combinations, the generally scar theory, that binary compounds are more difficult of decomposition than ternary, I have been led to the conclusion, that its equiva- lent number has been mis stated by chemical writers, The protosulphuret and protochloride, are both more ea- sily decomposed than the compounds containing double the proportion of their respective electro ——- The only cyanide of mercury is now considered ontaining two at- oms of cyanogen. — protoxide I belied exists only in ds. I have very frequently decomposed several of the proto- salts of mercury with alkalies, and the resulting powder has uniformly contained metallic globules, either visible to the ~ 184 Intelligence and Miscellanies. naked eye, or easily rendered so by a slight degree of fric- tion with my finger; the pressure attending which could only have brought already existing uncombined particles within the sphere of each otier’s attraction, When calome (protochloride of mercury) is decomposed by an alkaline so- lution, if the latter be cautiously dropped upon it, a reddis owder is at first apparent. his fact and the subsequent evidence of the existence of metallic mercury in the powder, may serve to explain each other. A muriaie of the alkali is formed at the expense of a portion of water, and the oxy gen being left to the free exercise of its affinity, forms with half peracetate. I do not know that more conclusive evidence of an error in the atomic weight of any body could be adduced. An- nexed is a table of the corrected atomic weights of a few of the mercurial combinations. Samuet Axuinson, Jun. Philadelphia, 11mo. 11th, 1828. : Proportions by| Atomic Atomic Fr analysis. roportions. | Weights. Suboxide, - - - - |100M+40z7)2M+10z} 208 dayalte 4 0oM+s8sO0z|iM+10Ozr; 108 Oxide, - Sons: - + = = |100M+18ch|2M-+-1ch | 236 Y - - = = $100 36ch\1M+1ch 136 ubiodide, - - - - |100M+62I |2M+1I j 324 Tr) — ST) ~~ Ws © ide, oe a OD 1241} !1M-+1I 224 subsulphuret,- - - - |100M+8s |iM+1s 216 Sulphuret, - - - - |100M+16s |{M+lIs 116 Cyanide, - - - = |100M+26c jiM-+1c 126 protonitrate of mer h muriai ch was repeat h with warm distilled water, with solution of muriate of ammon with warm = pped a small quanti t h powder was very distinctly observabl hen sufficient alkali was added to decompose pee ee # wa 1 color, and when dry contain- ad Vi globules of metal. is shows the fallacy of one of the reputed tests for the purity of calome!. . ! \ Intelligence and Miscellanies. 185 i4, Novaculite in Georgia.—Extract of a letter to the Ed- itor, from Mr. J. Cc. frees dated, “ Sparta Female cademy,” Jan. 16th, | “T take the liberty of se ee you relative to a mineral which I have been examining, and pronounced novaculite, Sonne * identical, if not with the ‘Turkey oil stone, with that found in N, Caroli ina, and described, I think, in the thir- teenth za of the American apn nal of Science and Arts. “ Sin came to this conclusion, I polished a specimen of it, and prepared it by ont in oil, after the manner of a Turkey oil stones, and put it into the hands of a carpen- r, who, after trial, pronounced it ‘a Turkey oil stone of a superior quality.’ his mineral is found in Lincoln and Oglethorpe coun- teh Georgia... [have recently visited the locality in Lin- It is situated on a low hill, about two miles from Lin- eanten court-house. It is seen projecting above the surface. of the earth, through four or five acres of ground, and is therefore probably quite extensive. It is found very much inclined, or nearly in a vertical Drei There are several the earth, is mostly of a greenish alae a fair specimen of which I now send you abit D. Ceneted to. whom we have exhibited the above med specimen, a o, from his familiarity with the ex- ene beds of novaculit a North Carolina, is well qualified to judge, agrees in opinion with Mr. Keeney ; and if it were of any Sater thae: we could add our own assent.— Notice of the locality of the Bronzite, Jameson; or Dialiaee uM muah Hany an Se ck, at Amity, Or- ine, — vary in size, from minute scales, scarcely two lines Lt. XVI.—No. 1. 24 186 Intelligence and Miscellanies. in diameter, to large plates, eight or ten inches in length, and six or seven inches wide ; sometimes, though rarely, it is found in thin hexahedral tables. The laminz vary from one tenth part of a line to two lines in thickness ; they are usually parallel to each other, but are sometimes divergent, and at no very uniform epi: they are generally straight, but sometimes curved, and are occasion- ally separated from each other by thin plates of dateay sits spar. They are traversed by seams dividing the whole surface into very minute rhombic tables, which are also cross- ed by other lines, that pass through them obliquely or di- verge from a centre. The plates will usually break, in a direction perpendic- ular to their surface, without separating any of the lamine which adhere together with such tenacity as to require a considerable degree of force to si a them. Cross frac- ture of the plates uneven and splintery. The surface of the laminz, exhibits a constant and bril- liant metallic lustre, so strong as to reflect very distinctly the images presented to it. Color, deep brownish red, verymg occasionally in some specimens to a copper color; ‘the e pow der, after it has been acted upon by acids to free it from the carbonate of lime, is of a beautiful orange re It is — ae exposed to the action of the blowpipe, but loses its c The thin becnata: are usually translucent, sometimes trans- parent; the foliz are opaque or but slightly translucent on their edges. It marks glass with difficulty. Specific gravity, 2.86; but as the specimen which was ex- perimented upon contained some calcareous spar, it is prob- able that pure specimens would be 3.0 or even 3.10, which magn § perhaps be regarded as a near approximation. es wide in calcareous rocks in a field about two hundred yards from the church at Amit It is associated with brown and red brucite or condrodite, xanthite, tale and ee crystalized magnesian carbonate of lime and spin Intelligence and Miscellanies. 187 16. Note on the presence of Iron in the Salt Springs of Salina, N. Y. by Lewis C. Beck, M. D.—The question whether the Salina waters contain iron has been frequent- ly discussed. Drs. Benjamin Dewitt and McNevin, and r. Chilton, in their analyses do not mention it as an ingre- dient; and the only affirmative statement is by Dr. Noyes, who conducted his researches in iron kettles, and whose tes- timony on this point is therefore open to objection. In the. paper which I published upon these waters, I stated the rea- sons which induced me to believe that they did not con- tain iron. These were that the ferrocyanate of potash and nutgalls, did not produce the changes of color to be expect- ed from the presence of any of the known salts of that met change from limpid transparency to a purple color, which sob beceens green and finally of a reddish brown; and af- ter standing two or three weeks, there was a dark brown case, offered by a combination of galls and iron. The only change occuring under these circumstances Is from that of or of the precipitate when it is exposed for any length of time to the air. e : The facts stated by Mr. Smith may, I think —— torily accounted for without the necessity of referring them to the presence of iron. The Salina waters are known a contain lime in various states of combination. Gallic acid, one of the constituents of the gallnut, is also known to com- 188 Intelligence and Miscellanies. bine with lime and to afford an insoluble precipitate of a brownish color. The following experiment which I have often performed, and which may be easily repeated will show the fallacy which attends Mr. Smith’s conclusion on this point. To some perfectly limpid lime water, previously ascertain- ed by the ferrocyanate of potash, to be free from iron, add a few drops of infusion of galls. The whole immediately as- sumed a purplish color, and in a short time there is deposit- ed at the bottom of the vessels a greenish brown precipitate. It may not be amiss to refer to higher somceri According to Dr. Thomson, gallic acid when dropped into barytes wa- ter, strontian water, or limewater gives them a bluish red col- or and occasions a flaky ey eee of the acid Sombined with the earth. (Vol. 2 8 Amer. Ed.) The same fact is mentioned by Thenard foo Brande, the latter of whom states the precipitate sc Mss of a et Tae color. This acid also decomposes the earthy carbonate Again “ when barytes, serciitin ¢ or lime water is pie 3 in- to the infusion of galls, an olive colored precipitate falls, which consists not only of tan nnin, but also of the extract “ most of the = acid combined with the earth.” (Tho ‘son Vol, 2 But I need fee! occupy time with other quotations, I may however remark, that the difficulty which attends the detec- tion of iron has been sufficiently shown by Mr. Richard ’ Phillips in his “analysis of the Bath Water; where it will be seen that other processes, besides mere precipitation, are necessary to prove its existence. 17. Tin in Massachusetts. “ Amnerst, March 10th, 1829. To the Editer of the American Journal of Science. Sirn—I am happy in being able to send you herewith a specimen of genuine New England Tin. I can indeed spare you but a very small quantity—only a single globule, reduced before the compound blowpipe: yet, as it is well -characterized, and the first, if I mistake not, that has been ‘found in the United States, I trust that it will prove ac- le. It occurs at Goshen, Massachusetts; at the well known locality of spodumene, ‘limpid and rose beryl, rose mica, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 189 green tourmaline, indicolite, and siliceous feldspar, three miles north west from the center of the town, on the farm of Mr. Stearns. I have found only a single crystal, which I ob- tained several years ago, in the granite containing the above minerals: but [ did not examine it till lately. A recent visit interesting metal: For in Cornwall “it is generally in the vicinity of a vein of tin ore, that disseminated grains of tin- stone are found in the rock. he specimen which I found consists of a single crystal, weighing about fifty grains: or rather of a portion of one large crystal, with parts of several smaller ones, projecting from it hemi-tropically. e form is evidently an octahe- dron, with a square base; but its angles, as measured with a common goniometer, differ several degrees from the meas- urements of the primary form of tinstone, as given by W. Phillips. His results (making use of Brooke’s notation) are, P2183° 36 Pon P” 67*52 That from Goshen gives P on P' 125° Whence this discrepancy arises I am unable to say. would suggest, however, that it is not impossible, that I have mistaken the true form of the crystal; as only a few of its faces are exhibited in perfection. sto the external characters of this mineral, it will be suf- ficient to say, in general, that they correspond almost exactly with the oxide of tin from Cornwall and Bohemia. Its: spe- cific gravity is 7.14. n charcoal it was readily reduced before the oxy-hydro- gen blow pipe, without decrepitation; and after reduction, it burnt with the brilliant white light of tin. Tinstone from Bohemia was not reduced so easily. n order to ascertain whether the reduced globule would - give the crackling sound, so striking in metallic tin, I placed 190 Intelligence and Miscellames. it between my teeth; and upon pressing it between them, [ was surprised at the distinctness with which this property could be perceived, The quantity reduced was so smail, and the balance I used . 80 poor, that I could not ascertain very accurately the spe- cific gravity of the metal. It appeared however to be not far from 7. In color, hardness, and malleability, it corresponds exactly with common “ In muriatic acid, with a gentle heat, it was entirely dis- solved, Hence I infer its comparative freedom from those alloys which eae as a black powder when common tin is dissolved in this acid. While the solution thus obtained was in the state ae a pro- tomuriate, the following tests of tin were applied. com- parative experiments, a piece of common block tin was dis- solved in muriatic acid, and the same tests applied. Jn every case the results were exactly alike. 1. Muriate of platinum gave a deep orange precipitate. 5 Muriate of gold, a purple do. 3. Ferrocyanate of potassa, a white do. slight- ly tinged with blue *4. Perchloride of mercury, a W do. 5. Exetognlpenie of iron soon oe the reddish hue of the persulphate e following a. wees ned to ascertain whether the saetal under examination not cadmium. They are given by Joyce in his Prastical ' Chemical Mineralogy, page 225. Here too comparative experiments were made with the solution of block tin, and the results corresponded pre- cisely with those on Fp metal from Goshen 1. Pure caustic potassa gave a lieth precipitate, of a white color. Aqua ammonia, " sei do. not so- eter in excess of amm 3. Hydrosulphuret of aac, an orange do. ineclin- to brown. he second experiment would seem, according to ~ to indicate that the metal under examination is not cadmi “Joyce in his Practical Chemical Mineralogy, sates at this test gives @ black precipitate with tin: but this is obviously a mi Intelligence and Miscellanies. 191° Upon oe Passo there seems no reason to doubt that it is genuine t Respectfully yours, &c. Epwarp Hrrcncock. ing their nature, as might have been e axpacted. has bee greatly augmented ; and although we _may still be far from solving the curious problem of the origin of these singular bodies, we are nevertheless certain, that a minute observa- tion of all the facts connected with the subject, affords the only rational promise of our ultimately attaining so desira- ble an object. In giving a description of the Virginia aerolite, I shall in the first place consider the specimen before me in relation to its compound character, or, so to speak, as a rock ; and af- terwards I shall attempt to point out = nature of the indi- vidual substances of which it is com The weight of the fragment is a little short of two ate’ which is about half that, as we are informed, of the from which it was detached. That portion of the ex there a surface which remains in the specimen, sadieaten that the en- tire piece was vos ova in its figure than is usual in these stones. Besides this difference in general shape, the surface exhibits hollows ad circular cavities, some of which are half an inch in diameter and about the same in depth ; and is in- vested with the black coating which always accompanies such bodies, although this is interrupted in a few places, and no where appears to have resulted from a very perfect fusion. Its interior, at first glance, reminds one very forcibly of certain voleanic rocks. Its color is a bluish ash grey, inter- spersed with a sprinkling of ‘ehits and here and there with specks of brownish rust. It contains numerous ovoidal, ir- regular shaped cavities, varying. in size from one tenth to half an inch in diameter, which are lined in many instances with brilliant metallic crystals. Its compound character be- * Which ven miles from Richmond, Virg. June 4, 1828—for the | par- ticulars, see vo 15, pa. 195 sore this Journal. £192 Intelligence and Miscellanies. comes sufficiently obvious on bringing it near the eye, when it appears to be composed Prncipaly of a bluish grey SUDSt BRS in globular masses, from the size of a mustard seed to t a pea, and a white, ede cohering mineral: the formas in much the largest proportion. ter these, on closer inspec- tion, are visible minute hook shaped, and sometimes slightly flattened globular masses of a metallic nature, whic ten partially coated by rust, and minute steel grey grains — and crystals, which for the most part occupy the cavities be- fore mentioned, and are sometimes arranged so as to resem- e the characters used in the paren languages. Besides peony by the aid of a microscope, we discover occasionally a greenish transparent Saranated substan, and more rarely lites, Like these, the two substances of which it is chiefly omposed are in masses sufficiently large to appear quite dis- bint to the naked eye, although from the description already given, it will be perceived that it differs considerably even from them, by its numerous cavities and their crystallized cantons, _ It differs wey essentiaily from the Maryland of the Virginian stone is superior to that of ei- arc thee: aa mentioned, except perhaps those of |’ Aigle, it requiring a pretty smart blow of the hammer to produce a acture, and the small masses ta to separate by the mere strength of the fingers.. Its specific gravity, as determined in two fragments, one weighing 82°3 grs. and the other 38-5 was 3°29, and 3°31. After these observations upon the general character of the specimen under examinat ‘ion, I proceed to the separate de- scription of the minerals it contains. 1. Chrysolite. ae gen shaped bodies which compose the chief ‘part of the Virginia aerolite are thus denominated, because in their eaaralrancal characters, they approach very clos ely our species crysolite. I offer the following description of its haracters. c Intelligence and Miscellanies. 193 External shape spheroidal, or sub-angular. Structure lamellar, cleaving in two directions; at right an- les to each other, or as nearly so, as the perfection of the planes will allow us to observe. One of these cleavages is effected with greater ease than the other, and presents im- perfect horizontal. striz. The lamellar structure is often in- terrupted by a sub-conchoidal fracture. Lustre vitreous, and splendent in the most perfectly cleav- able masses, but glimmering only, on the conchoidal surfaces. Color grey, often with a tinge of blue, and rarely, olive green. Translucent onthe edges, andin a few instances, transparent. Hardness equal to that of crystallized adularia: the one impressing the other, only when great mechanical violence is exerted. It scratches the crystallized pyroxene of Mussa. i hich o pieces, weighed 6:1 grs.; the entire mass gave 3°3. and the largest fragment 3°38. Anothermass weighing 3°4 grs. gave a specific gravity of 3°90. The mean of the three experiments is 3°259 Chemical Examination. Before the blow pipe, in small fragments, with the most intense heat that could be urged, it fused with ebullition up- on its thinnest edges into a shining black glass, and the frag- ment became immediately attractable by the magnet. With the ead commenced. The ratus was disengaged as soon as it was perceived by the smell (through the means of Vou. XVI.—N 25 194 Intelligence and Miscellanies. a glass tube coming from the flask, upon which the finger was placed, and which was used as a safety tabe to prevent .the contents of the vial from rushing over into the flask) that the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen had ceased. Floc- culi of silex were seen floating through the ae, thus in- dicating that the integrity of the substance was partially overcome. It was separated from the insoluble residue by the page and a stream of chlorine gas passed through it, to bring n it was supposed to contain, to the maximum of ox- ‘davis 2A portion | of the solution (1.) was decomposed by am monia. ‘The precipitate was of a deep reddish brown Silor, - the supernatant — remained perfectly colorless. The colorless liquid (2.) was evaporated to dryness in a Slaton capsule, over an Boohelic lamp. As it approached to dryness, a smart decrepitation was noticed. The residue was heated to redness, after which, water was boiled uponit for a few momen agin reo ution separa ated from the i inso- luble part by the filte: 4, To a portion a of this solution LAS. ) oxalate of ammonia was added, which occasioned no c 5. To another Bette was added es of silver: a pre- cipitate immediately made its appear 6. Another pe mee contracted no atouidiaiens from muriate of platina or ohn cid. . A portion of the solution (3.) was now evaporated nearly to apnea and set aside to crystallize by spontane- ous evaporation. After the liquid was entirely evaporated, small nog crystals were seen by the aid of a magnifier. resi idue, (3.) not soluble in water, was treated with muriatic “geht in which it was immediately taken up. To the solution was added carbonate of p no precipitate made its Loa eee = after the ebullition of the hquid, dys a Copious one e Vides sitgns: by ammonia (2.) was dissolved in mu- ‘atte acid, and to the liquid, rendered neutral by evapora- tion, was added a few drops of chloride of lime: no red flocks made their appearance “10. A part of the shieinet ges solution was decom- posed by potash in excess, and after being boiled for some time was separated from the eos ae To . was added muriate of ammonia, which occasioned no te ness. 11. The portion of the stone (1.) whic reftassd to dis- solve in muriatic acid, was treated with “iouble its weight of Intelligence and Miscellanies. 195 potash, and heated to redness. for half am hour in a silver crucible. The mineral entered into perfect fusion, and the mass assumed an intense green color. By the ae of warm water, it was transferred to a wedgewood capsule, and on the addition of nitric acid, a clear yellow: ish Ediniice was obtaine 12. The nitric pate (11.) was evaporated to perfect dryness, in, order to decompose the nitrate of iron an rate the silex. Warm water was added to the residue, and a solution of a Len color was formed, leaving behind the oxide of iron and s 13. To the sallow settee (12.) was added proto-nitrate of mercury, which occasioned an orange colored precipi- tate: this when dried and heated assumed a grass green tinge, and communicated to. borax while in.a state of fusion a deep greencolor, but in cooling, it, faded to a pale yellow, _ The conclusions which these trials enable us to form, with and 4. that. of eos ba i 5, exhibits the ae al kali, which 6. and. 7. prove to be soda, No. 8. shows. the existence of magnesia; 9. and 10. the absence of manga- nese oe alumine: and 13. the presence of chrome. Be- sides the above mentioned ingredients, silex and oxide of iron are to. be added, whose axeiennel ina te proportion “Ann, de Chim. t, xx, p- 334 a 196 Intelligence and Miscellanies. In two trials also, which I made, one upon 14 grs. and the other upon 20 grs. of the mineral, to learn if possible the ex- act proportion of chrome it contained, (in one eee sepa- rating it from its acid combination with potash, by the addi- tion of muriate of ba arytes, and in the other by the Spreitil Nitrate of mercury,) I became satisfied from the smallness of its proportion, which was such as to prevent my estimating it by weight, that it did not fst an essential ingredient in the composition of the mineral. After these preliminary experiments, I entered upon the following ANALYSIS, A. 17.8 grs. reduced to powder, were mingled with double their weight of potash and 10 grs. of nitrate of potas mixture was kept at a red heat in a silver crucible for one hour. The calcined mass which had evidently undergone fusion, presented a yellowish green color, which it cominu- nicated to its solution in water. On the addition of nitric acid, the fused mineral became perfect] soluble, wi exception of a few white floceuli of silex, which were seen floating through the solution, B. The nitric a was evaporated to dryness, in a = stals of ees salt. ). The insoluble oxide of iron and silex (B.) was heated to rec in a close platina crucible over an alcoholic lamp, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 197 after which they weighed 11.62 grs. The mixture was now digested with muriatic acid until the oxide of iron was whol- ly dissolved ; the silica remained behind in white flocks, and was separated by the double filter, washed, dried and ig- nited. Its weight was 7.53 grs. This amount, deducted it probably exists in the mineral, mony 3.68 grs The Pee ne of this mineral therefore appeared to be, in this instance aaa F ; f : % : 1.53: Magnesi i é : : 5.50, Protoxide of i iron, j : 3.68. Oxide of chrome, é : . 1.09, Sulphur and loss, emma 17.80. Or per hundred, Silex, 42.30. containing oxigen, 21.27. Magnesia, 31.46. : : : 12.17 Protoxide of iron, 20.67. : ; ; 4.59. Soda, Oxide of chrome, 5.57. Sulphur and loss, 00, Considering the soda and oxide of chrome as accidental, the preceding analysis, it will be observed, agrees very w well with the supposition that the present variety of chrysolite is a compound of one atom praitins: of iron, with three atoms silicate of magnesia; and its neidence with the miner- alogical formula J: $2 +3 3MS. will be still more striking, if we suppose the oxigen of the iron is estimated a little too high, in consequence of the probable union of a small por- tion of that metal with sulphur, to form the proto-sulphuret of iron,—a substance whose mechanical admixture, in aslight degree, with this mineral was sufficiently evinced by our first experiments. T am aware that —! difference in composition between the specimens jus mined, and those of the chrysolite analyzed by Klapiboth ee Stromeyer* may seem op t oe € specimens examined by Klaproth came the formu- la of whose composition is f s-}- 4MS. For Siommniers yee d of meteoric chrysolite, see Vol. 13, p. 184, this Journal. 198 © Intelligence and Miscellames. the idea of their specific identity: perhaps it might really be so ina chemical system; but their strong affinity in nat- ural properties, certainly proves them to belong to the same mineralogical eaten —the only Siflerenea between the com- in the Virginia stone, ts not fall ae two thirds of its she bulk, I find it al- so constitutes the principal ingredient in the Weston a ites, and is occasionally seen in those from Marylan endeavoring to ascertain if the small black grains cecal ted through the Stannern meteoric stones might not be this substance, I was led to conjecture from) their, see fusibil- ity before the blowpipe, that they were pyroxene; a mineral, from the. researches of G. Rose, well ascertained to’ exist in aerolites.* 2 Feldspar. Under this name I allude to one of the most common in- gredients of meteorites, although in the present specimen it forms somewhat less than one quarter of the mass. It is every where dispersed through the stone, filling up little in- terstices and investing the chrysolite in thin coatings. Mineralogical description, External see prvi 23 minute grains, possessed’ of feeble d of e and appeeus g like powder to the naked ae no visible only with a mic crosco Hardness 7 as not to allow of its impression with the point of a Lustre vitidotiae _— white, rarely with a faint tinge of green: translucen oe characters. It’ was with some difficulty that pure pieces of sufficient "Size could be obtained for blowpipe trials. A thin scale in 0 oes = 2 * Ann. de Chimie et de Pheisas ts XXXL, p. 81. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 199 the most powerful heat of this instrument, melted down into a pearly. white translucent glass, or enamel. ith micro- cosmic salt it appeared to dissolve, with the greatest reluc- tance, into a transparent colorless glass, leaving behind small skeleton-like masses of silex. With borax, it dissolved with difficulty and without effervescence, into a transparent, and colorless glass The present mineral appears to correspond with that _— ded to b Rose 2 in the memoir before mentioned, and w he found to compose nearly half of the Juvénas nhetotieitia He ascertained that - contained 0°60. p. c. of soda: a quan- tity so small, that he suggests unless it be a new mineral, it belongs to his species, labradorite—a substance better known generally under the name of labrador feldspar. Its general aspect, however, as it appears in the Virginia stone, would render it more. proba se that it belonged to the varie- ty albite, than to the labradori orms a large proporebl in the Maryland and Stan- nern aerolite, and exists in the stones of ’Aigle and Weston, sah in the last, in but very issal proportion. 3, hf MONS af Jame. ahi in a few points. When a fragment of the stone is bro- ken down, however, we rarely fail to — a few grains which are at once recognized by their color Mineralogical description. External shape, globular — reniform. Structure lamel- lar. Brittle: fracture conchoi Lustre vitreous. Color honey cellanes transparent. Hard- ness such as to scratch crystalized arragonite e from lies but not asparagus stone: is scratched itself by the knif Chemical characters. Before the blowpipe upon charcoal it phosphoresces with great distinctness, and becomes rounded the edg with- out andergoing any perceptible ebullition, et without loss of trans ith microcosmic salt, it forms a trans- ency parent he at first with a tinge of yellow, but becoming 200 Intelligence and Miscellanies. colorless when cold. Comparative experiments were made with the asparagus stone attended by similar results. Several small angular fragments were put into a flask, to which colorless nitric acid was added; and a slight heat ap- plied for nearly an hour, when their complete solution was eftiected. farther experiments, by means of which, my conclusion con- cerning its nature might have been rendered quite certain. 4. Meteoric Iron. This hitherto nearly invariable ingredient of meteoric stones is not wanting in the prevent instance. Its propor- tion however is very small, as may be judged of from the fact, that I did not find above eight grains in breaking down near- ly half a pound of the stone. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 201 portion of the precipitate by ammonia (2.) was min- gled with nitrate of potash and ignited. To a watery solu- tion of the mass was added proto nitrate of mercury, without occasiong any precipitate, from which the absence of chrome was inferred. : 5. Another portion of the precipitate by ammonia (2.) was dissolved in muriatic acid, and rendered neutral by evap- oration. The addition of chloride of lime produced no red flocks indicative of the presence of manganese. _- ANALYSIS. atic acid. The solution was perfect, with the exception of 0.05 gr. earthy matter, which remained undissolved. Am- monia was added, and the liquid heated for a few moments. The precipitate, separated, washed, dried and ignited, amounted to 3.96 grs. equal to 2.77 metallic iron; thus, leaving by deduction, 0.18 gr. nickel, in 2.95 grs. of the al- loy, or per hundred, Iron, - - - 93.90 Nickel, - - - 6.10 100.00 5. Proto-sulphuret of Iron. This is the only remaining constituent of the Virginia ae- rolite, I have to describe.* Although every where dissemi- *I must not however, omit to mention a green capillary fibre, which I no- ticed oceupying a cavity, and two other fi itn the same substance, engaged in the stone, all of which I had the misfortune to loose, in separating them Vor. XVI.—No. 1. a ils ae 202 Intelligence and Misceilanies. nated through the stone, and almost completely lining its cavities in little grains and semifused crystals, yet such is their minuteness, that it scarcely forms a more considerable ingredient than the meteoric iron. regular six-sided prism being known to be the fundamental form of the species. M, on M’,-. - = = + 120° c. ° =] ~~ ' ‘ ‘ i ' — Gr » oo S Cy on a, wi * 7 i 4 117.30. » Structure: cleavage imperfect. Brittle. Lustre steel like and splendent. Color stee] grey upon the erystalline fa- ces; copper yellow on fractured surfaces. Extremely sub- ject to tarnish, of which the steel blue and red form the most —— colors. ardness : not impressible by steel. flask was fitted with a tube dipping into a solution of ace- from their gangue, for the purpose of submitting them to trial before the blowpipe. Their intense green color reminded ats of malachite. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 203 tate of lead. An action immediately commenced, on slight- ly warming the fluid, and a copious precipitate of sulphuret of lead ensue The difference in magnetic properties between the mete- oric proto-sulphuret of iron and the same mineral belonging to our globe, led M. Rose to examine the former for nickel ; conceiving that as the sulphuret of nickel of Johann Geor- genstadt is not magnetic, a portion of this metal combined with our mineral, might perhaps be the cause of its not af- fecting the needle. He was unable, however, to detect the smallest trace of nickel in the pyrites of the Stannern stone. Nevertheless, as the common magnetic pyrites possesses but feeble and very variable degrees of magnetism, the slight dis- crepancy here observed between the two substances in ques- tion, does not — in any force with the idea of their specific agreemen Yale College, ose 20, 1829. 19. Native Soda Alum, in Milo. Mr. George Jones, at present, a tutor in Yale College, and recently returned from the Mediterranean, brought with him among many other valuable minerals, a rich case of alum sp cimens from the ancient locality of Milo aaa which he has. ad the kindness to present to the cabinet of this ONES: The following is a memorandum of the circumstances which it occurs as observed by himself, and with which be has favored me to be inserted in this place, in connexion with remarks I have to offer concerning its nature. alum comes from two places in the island of Milo. One of fie is upon the south west side of the island, called by the natives Calamo, where it occurs near to the shore in a cave, above which rises a steep hill consisting of a decom- posing lava of various colors, and strongly imprognates with suinhur. The cave is about twelve feet deep and five feet high, and is completely lined upon its ee with The bottom of the cave is composed of a loose earth th which is constantly rising heated Shana air, which dur- ing its passage through the crevices precipitates the most brilliant nee of oe is In front of the cave is a hot spring, and near by, are other caves, in none of w ich, how- ever, the fermation of eae) is at present taking place. 204 Intelligence and Miscellanies. “The other a age 5 is called Stipsy by the inhab- itants. It is near the e of the island, and was well known to the ancients, beige spoken of by Pliny, as afford- ing an alum, held next in estimation to that procured from Egypt. This is a cave sacle and at the bottom ofa hill. I entrance is low and narrow, but it forms a chamber one hun- dred and twenty feet in length. Its atmosphere preserves a heat of 90°, and in some — of 100° Fah. The rock forming the roof and sides is of a = consistence, and every where inflated into sara coalle 0 It is in these cells that we find the alum, which lines them all around with the most riracire a. or frost work. Towards the entrance of the cave occur masses of branchy gypsum, and within delicate acicular seyals of the same substance.” As soon as I saw the Milo alum, I was struck with its was immediately led to think of the native soda ay of South America, recently analyzed and made known by Dr. Thomson.* T accordingly made use of the following pro- = to render my conjecture concerning its nature, certain. A portion of it was dissolved in water, to which was ad- ded in excess, carbonate of ammonia, to precipitate the alu- mine and other earths, as well as any metallic oxides which might be present. The residual liquid was evaporated to dryness and heated to redness in a platina crucible to dissi- pate the ammoniacal salts. The residue was dissolved in water, in which it proved highly soluble. By its taste it was pan to sulphate o — — BPs solution was set aside for spontaneous lr n. It shot into short pris- matic crystals, which o aaa ‘tightly heated underwent the watery fast: n the course of a few days, the entire mass became covered with a white efflorescence. There- fore, there can remain no reasonable doubt concerning the nature of the substance in question he specimen examined was from the: cave first mention- ed, between which and the specimens from the other, there is a slight difference in appearance ; they are both however the same in all important respects. The former consists of _ parallel straight fibres not very closely aggregated, from one * Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, Vol. III, p. 19. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 205 to two inches in length, none of which are composed of con- tinuous masses, but are often interrupted by fissures and oc- casionally corroded or broken off. ‘They are white of a vi- treous lustre ahd transparent except at their termination up- on the surface, where they are opaque from the loss of water of crystallization. The specimens from the latter spot, on the other hand, present a botryoidal surface like prehnite, from which radiate perpendicularly, perfectly straight and almost inconceivable minute crystals, much resembling, ex- cept that the fibres are shorter, some of the most delicate Zeolites from the Giant’s Causeway. ‘The fineness of the fibres which form these tufts communicates to them a degree of silkiness like the native alum of Hurlet, near Paisley, in Scotland, but they differ strikingly from this last in never being curved, and in rarely being closely aggregated. Dr. Thomson finds the composition of the native soda alum to be, 3 atoms sulphate of alumine, ee 21.75. 1 atom sulphate of soda - - - 9,00. 20 atoms water, - - - - 22.50. 53.25, and the only difference between it and the artificial soda alum is, that the former contains 20 atoms of water, while the latter contains 25 atoms. To this circumstance he at- tributes their difference in crystallization,—the artificial soda alum assuming the octohedron, whereas the native affects, apparently, a quadrangular prism. Cuarces Urnam SHEPARD. Y¥. C. March 22d. 20. Proceedings of the sitet of Natural History of New ork, (Continued from Vol. XV. page 360.) systems.—Dr. Mitchill submitted specimens of plants occa- sionally sold in the shops for Digitalis. Mr. Halsey, to whom it was referred for examination, reported it to be the 206 Inielligence and Miscellanies. Stachys germanica.—Dr. Dekay, read a paper on two fossil Ammonites from the Red river and Cahawba, (Alabama.) —Prof. Buckland of Oxford, in the place of Dewit Cliuton deceased, and Prof. Thomson of Glasgow, in the place of Sir James Eionrd Smith, deceased, were elected honorary members. H. Brevoort and Rev. T. C. Levins, were elect- ed resident members. Aveust.— Wr. Featherstonhaugh presented a specimen of transition limestone charged with organic remains, occur- ring in thin layers in greywacke at Duanesburgh, (N. Y.) per- fectly identical in arrangement, composition and fossil con- tents with the Dudley Niieetont of England.— Dr. Dekay read an amended desea ss of the Amia calva of Linneus, from a specimen sent by H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq. from the Sault de Ste Marie, (Michigan.) The specimen was nearly two and a half feet in length, mottled, highly prized as an article of food, and ts the first known example of this ——— inhabiting the western —— Mr. Featherstonhaugh pre sented specimens of a root highly prized by the Indians as an article of food. It is the earliest food used by them in the spring of the year, and} is called Itapineeg by the Chip- peways. It is the Dentaria diphylla.—At the request of the secretary of the navy, instructions were ordered to be drawn up for the use of the naturalists, to be attached to the con- templated voyage of discovery in the South Seas, and com- mittees were nis ache “ that purpose. Joseph C. Hart elected a resident mem Serremper.— Mr. ea reported upon the specimens presented at a former meeting by Dr. Swift, of he They consisted of well defined oolite, os ments of echini, flint, white chert, &c. &c. from Florida an Cu Of these it was remarked, that the white chert is said by Withuins, (View of Florida,) to abound in the chalky rock (oolite) at Tampa, but of this chalky rock we have no speci- mens. But as we have well defined specimens of the Key West oolite with the cherty matter ; it is a proper deduction t the same oolitic formation underlies all that region com- prehending the south and west coasts of Florida, as well as bos island of Cuba.—A valuable collection of animals was ed from See onding members, Drs. James and Picker, of the U. S. army, collected by them on the north 1:—The president deposited in the cabinet of Intelligence and Miscellanies. 207 ihe Lyceum, a mass of pure native copper, the property - H. R. Schoolcraft, Esq. This mass weighs 47 lbs. and wa obtained at the month of the Ontonagon river. It is not . be confounded with the erence ~_ lying higher up the river, and which is composed in ae of serpentine disseminated through it in veins.—Dr. "Dek ; cea a description of a new species of reptile from Paza, labtaeiee to the genus Lepos- ternon of Spix. It was thus characterized. L. oxyrhinchus. L. flavido-albidum ; sulcis a longitudinalibus dorso late- ribusque. . Rostro acuminato non mucronato.—Dr. Torrey read an extract of a letter trots Prof. Thomson of Glasgow, containing analyses of several American mimerals, That of Sillimanite corresponds in the main with vst a Mr. Bowen, but contains 18 pr. ct. of zircon. Cummingtonite is un- doubtedly a new mineral species allied to Karpholite. Prof, as also made a partial analysis of Dislu:te. It is not an aluminous mineral, but a new species allied to spinelle.— Dr, Torrey announced that he had received from Mr. Nuttall, a mineral from Nova Scotia, which he is inclined to believe will prove to be Nepheline, a new mineral species for this country. It is the same mineral ie has been considered as a new species and termed Lederit . Hosack pre- sented the hydrophytologia of ‘Lanpebyes with other valua- pe works; also a rich collection of marine plants from t oast of Sweden, evans the work of Lynge wt beer Mitchill read a portion of a paper entitled “a notice of oc currences in natural bears and the sciences connected with it, for the last few years in the U, S.—_Mr. Henry Carey was elected a resident mem Octoser.—Mr. Reynolds read a communication contain- ing the result of his enquiries among the whalers and sealers, and the observations and discoveries made by this class of citizens in the Southern Seas. About 10,000 whales are supposed zs be annually destroyed. Mr. 'R. has collected and e a mass of evidence sufficient to show the pro- bable ga ea of nearly two bundred islands, recks and reefs not laid down in pee char t.—Specimens of phy llite from Lanéaster, (Mass.) described in vol. 3d, of the halk and crystals detached and aionkadl of the American topaz om Monroe, (Con.) were presented by Dr. Torrey.—Dr. Dekay read a paper entitled, “ description of a ‘hesh water fish of the Snes genus Gadus, from Lake Superior.” —Mr. 208 Intelligence and Miscellanies. C. T. Jackson of Boston, presented a box of minerals col- lected by himself, illustrating the geology and mineralogy o Nova Scotia, and a part of Massachusetts. The collection consisted of upwards of seventy choice and well selected specimens, among which the following were more particu- Jarly | noticed. Laumonite, Thomsonite, and radiated Meso- Peta purple Scapolite, white Heulandite, yellow Chabzsie, Petal, Biases variety,) with crystals of ferruginous oxide of c. &c. eile ee Cooper and Cozzens, who have re- cently returned from an extensive tour through the western states, presented a mass of tertiary rock from the shore of the Potomac, sixty miles below Washington. It contained casts of Turitella, Arca, Calyptrea, Pectonculis, Ampulla- ria, &c. and was considered as precisely similar in fossil contents with the clay of the London basin.—A letter was received from the secretary of the navy, returning thanks to the L. oir the interest they had taken in the proposed ve of discovery, and for the oe instructions with he had been furnished by the Lyceum.—Dr. Mitchill at a continuation of his paper on the progress of fhe nat- ural sciences in the United States.—Dr. Torrey presented phantoides recently discovered in the “stoves of Ava.—The president delivered a discourse founded upon the recent de- cease of a member, Mr. D. H. Barnes.— Messrs. Cooper Mer = ——, he Sa _ formations in the nei, entucky,) with tw illustrating the geology of th They ales exhibited an extensive series rst of the teeth and bone the mastodon of various ages, and the elephant.—They ‘io pose to give a detailed description of these specimens at some future meeting.—Mr. Louis Ianin of Paris, was elected a corresponding, = ong I. Brinkerhoff, and Mr. Isaac 8. Hone, resident membe Decemper.—. Torrey stated that bevee treated a por- tion of a fossil za from Kentucky, (probably that of a mas- todon,) with dilute muriatic acid, the animal matter still re- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 209 mained, though somewhat modified.—Mr. I. L. Williams of Florida, a corresponding member, presented a box of spe- cimens illustrative of the geology of that region.—Col. Tot- ten, of the U. S. engineers, a corresponding member, pre- sented a large collection of fossil plants from the slate for- mation of Rhode Island, among them were casts of doubt- ful fossils which were referred for examination and report,— essrs. T. G. Cary and G. C. Peterson, were admitted resi- dent members. 21. Baron de Zach—Liberty of opinion and of the press— Education—General views of Europe, &c. Extract of a letter from an American gentleman, to the Editor, dated, tradiction with the decrees of the church! It is almost in- credible that such darkness should prevail in the midst of light, as one finds in Italy, and even in some parts of Swit- - Itis painful to an American to find even on politi- cal subjects so much of the illiberal spirit of past ages, in this land, which boasts so much of its freedom. The press is in racy. The Jesuits, driven out of France, have taken post in Switzerland, and promise to involve its catholic cantons in Srosser darkness than ever. Indeed the promises an tutions to which the princes of Europe have been driven by the force of public opinion, are but a cloak under which, in most states, views as tyrannical, and measures as illiberal, as €ver are concealed. gam E “Still the efforts of individuals, and of individual states in urope, are doing immense service to the cause of education Vou. XVIL—No. 1. 210 Intelligence and Miscellanies. idence permit, I shall return to c servations and inquiries which my state of health has scarcely allowed me to commence until the present summer shall deem my- e season is thus far very mild, and it is singular that at the height of one thousand seven hundred feet above the level of the sea, we have had scarcely any severe cold, while in most of the adjacent countries the winter is long since set in, and even in Turkey, the Russians have almost realized the sufferings of the French at Moscow. I find that the most liberal men here rather rejoice that the proud steps of the northern colossus are somewhat arrested, and that Russian despotism is kept at bay by the Mahomedan, to the greater security of the rest of the world. The great objects which hu- manity had to desire, the independence of Greece, and the repose necessary to build up its ruins, and the better protec- tion of Wallachia and Moldavia seem to be secured; and if the success of the Russians had been complete, who can an- swer for the ambition of Nicolas, or the passions of his semi- were destitute both of doors and windows. ‘There nough wealth remaining to replant the desolated vineyards se and olive yards. The price of two or three crops will pur- chase the land. Candiais at present the scene of the same Intelligence and Miscellanies. 211 sanguinary contest which has desolated the Morea, but the ambassadors have interfered, with the hope of checking it. am surprised to find how much interest our presidential controversy excites in Europe, and to hear and see the names of Jackson and Adams in every language. God grant that the issue, whatever it be, may be overruled for good, and that the storm of evil passions it appears to have excited, maysub- side. This seems tome a more alarming circumstance than the character of any individual could be in reference to our prospects and institutions. 22. Literary Notice.—Mr. H. Howe, Bookseller, of this city, has just published in one octavo volume, a neat edition of “ Bakewell’s Introduction to Geology,” the first Ameri- can, from the third London edition, which came from the hands of the author the past year, entirely recomposed and greatly enlarged, and illustrated with new plates. This is probably the most attractive and intelligible book on Geology in the English language. To this edition is added “an Outline of the Course of Geological Lectures given in Yale College.” 23. Osituary. Died, on the 26th of January, in the 67th year of his age, Natuan Surtu, M. D. Prof. of the Theory and Practice of le and Surgery, in the Medical Institution of Yale Col- ege. “ti interesting eulogium, pronounced by Professor Knight, one of the colleagues of the deceased, exhibits a very just delineation of his character. Dr. Smith was born at Reho- both, in Mass. Sept. 30, 1762: he was furnished in early life, with only the common elements of knowledge, usually taught in the New England schools. His father, having removed At the age of 24, he was accidentall present at a surgi- eal operation, performed by Dr. Josiah Goodhue. This cir- cumstance kindled in his mind an ardent desire to know a aa ct This venerable man has survived his early and favorite pupil, and now, in honorable old age, lives at Hadley, Mass. 12 Intelligence and Miscellanies. something more of the structure of the human frame. ew Hampshire, a resorted sci n to Harvard, to attend the courses of Medical and Phijosophical lectures, under the eminent professors, who adorned that institution, among — was the elder Dr. Warren. Dr. Smith received a with. Dartmouth college, at Hanover, N. H. This light was raised in a region, where the darkness was before palpable, and its rays shone with such lustre as to attract the eyes of multitudes even at a distance. Professor Smith’s school soon became eminent, and it was esteemed both an honor and an advantage to have been his pupil. In the earlier years of this institution, Dr. Smith discharged the ge a es all the departments, and at the same time attended t extensive medical and shad practice, which led him, often night, almost always on horseback, and in every vicissi- tude of the seasons and weather, over the rugged mountains fect his knowledge, Dr. Smith left his practice and his school, and resorted to Edinburgh, where and in London place, he accepted, in-1813, an invitation to a professorship in the newly tated medical department of Yale College, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 213 which station he occupied, with the most distinguished honor and usefulness, till his deat r. Smith possessed a powerful and active intellect. He lov- ed knowledge in every form, and gave the whole of his influ- ence to promote its progress. His industry was unwearied, and his mind was always employed, even when he was en- gazed in his active duties. As a practical surgeon he had few equals, and his’ opera- tlons—numerous, various, and often dangerous—were re- markably successful. As a practitioner of medicine, he was devoted ; full of re- source, and so absorbed in the case before him that he rarely despaired while life continued. : Ithough not indifferent to the rewards of his profession, they seem never to have been his primary object. The writer of this brief notice speaks from personal knowl- edge, when he states, that Dr. Smith was equally prompt to leave his repose at midnight in a winter’s tempest, to resort to the bed side of a suffering African, who could give him no reward, as to that of the most wealthy and munificent patient. With him, duty was discharged as much from impulse as from principle ; and both conspired to produce prompt, vig- orous and unremitting effort. he kindness of his temper was inexhaustible ; the suffering infant was watched with as valued adult ; and in anxi versation—holding the female character in hig a- tion, and uniting assiduity with purity—he was the favorite of a wider circle of personal acquaintances ’ than (as his respected eulogist observes) any other man probably ever enjoyed in New England. _ He did more than any other man ever did to extend med- ical and surgical knowledge in the northern states; and the 214 Intelligence and Miscellanies. beneficial effect of his exertions and example will remain to distant generations.* Foreign extracts, by Prof. J. Griscom.: 24, Carbonic Acid of the Atmosphere.—A memoir on this subject, by Theodore De Saussure, read before the Helvetic society, in June, 1828, contains some interesting facts. e author determined the amount of carbonic acid in a given portion of air at any one time, by enclosing barytic water in a large glass balloon, full of the air to be examined, and as- certaining the weight of the carbonate formed. ‘The por- tion of carbonic acid, he observes, is undergoing almost con- tinual changes. The mean quantity as determined by ex- periments commenced in June, 1816, and continued to 1828, in a meadow at Chambeisy, near Geneva, is, at mid-day 4.9 parts in 10,000 of air. The maximum was 6.2; the mini- * Fs The mean quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere is eater in summer than in winter. The author finds that the relative proportions are as 100 to 77. ere are occasional exceptions to this difference. In the month of January, 1828, which was extraordinary for the mildness of its temperature, the quantity of carbonic acid rose to 5.1. In the month of August following,t remarka- ble for its being singularly cold and rainy, the quantity at mid-day, the mean of four observations, was only 4.45. The author finds that there is an increase of carbonic acid during the night. The mean of 9 results, obtained at mid- _ day, is 5.04, and of corresponding observations at 11 in the evening, 5.76. A comparison of the air over the middle of Lake Leman, with that at 200 yards from the shore, showed a slight differ- ence. The quantity over the land being to that over the water, as 100 to 98.5 The air of Geneva was found to con- tain more than that of the country, in proportion of 100 to 92, by simultaneous observations in the two places. __ "For a just and affectionate notice of Dr. Smith’s character, see the Chris- tian Spectator for March, 1829; some traits of character not : uliarl priate to this Journal, are there noticed. 2 fie Be t These ercrteents were made after the reading of the memoir before the society . Intelligence and Miscellanies, 215. The author designs to publish a more circumstantial ac- count of his observations.—Annales de Chimie et de Physi- que, Aout, 1828. 25. Autumnal coloration of Leaves.—A memoir on this subject, by M. Macaise-Princep, read before the Societé de Physique et D’histoire naturelle de Geneve, concludes as fol- ws: 1. Ali the colored parts of vegetables appear to contain a particular substance, (which the author, in conjunction with Prof. DeCandolle, agrees to call Chromule,) suscepti- ble of a change of color by slight modifications. 2. It is to the fixation of oxygen, and to a sort of acidifi- cation of the chromule, that we are to ascribe the autumnal change in the color of leaves—Idem. 26. Singular Galvanic trough.—M. Watkins, philosophi- cal instrument maker of London, has constructed a Voltaic pile, with a single metal and without any liquid. It consists of from 60 to 80 plates of zinc, four inches square, fixed in a wooden trough at a short distance from each other, having only a thin plate of air between them. One side of each polished faces are all turned in one direction. If one ex- tremity of the pile be made to communicate with the ground, and the other with an electroscope, the latter immediately indicates one or other of the two electricities, according : the pole with which it isin contact. The humidity of the air favors the action of the pile, which may be consid a kind of dry pile in which air is substituted for paper, and the 27. On a method of measuring some varieties of Chemical action, by M. Babinet—In producing the disengagement of a gas in close vessels, the chemical action ceases when the gas acquires a sufficient elastic force ; and this action Is sus- pended until the compressed gas is liberated, the force of 216 Intelligence and Miscellanies. which, by some means, = an equilibrium to the chemi- eal action which disenga n producing gas in an sete AES similar to Papin’s diges- ter, abet a by a little copper ball closed by a stop cock, the was unscrewed ‘and opened under a graduated bell scbiy: in order to measure the volume of gas which it con- tained, when it was ascertained that hydrogen disengaged from water by zinc and sulphuric acid, possessed an elastic orce of more than 33 Atiiecepheves, at 25° c.—Ferussac’s Bulletin, Juin, 1828. 28. Sulphur.—The manner in which this substance is affected by heat and by sudden cooling, has often claimed the attention of chemists. The following detail of some ex- periments on this — is given by J. Dumas.— Annales de Chimie, Sep. 18 Temperature. Sulphur. Cydonia, sued et ba. immersion be Cent. very liquit, elk ‘bis Tio yellow. very , common 140° low. very friable, common zou 170° thick, orange yellow. peas common color. "190° . soft and yA regain at first, but ais more: thiek; orange. soon friable, common color. 299° viscid. reddish soft and pinks sparent, amber 2 color. 230 to 260° Jess viscid, reddish | very soft, transparent, reddish brown. brown. 30. Dr. Wollaston.—The death of this eminent phitoecyfie is announced in the London Journals. We hope to insert a pain of him in the next number. He has had few equals, coveries have been numerous, and every thing he did was finished. Of him it may be truly said, nihil tetigit quod non ‘We regret that the pressure of domestic — although we have added a sheet, has obliged us to omit a copious tion of foreign intelligence, which shall appre in 5 our next. POSTSCRIPT. Iodine in Saratoga mineral water. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. New York, Grand street, 3mo. 25, 1829. My dear friend—My young friend William Usher, a stu- dent of Rutgers Medical College, has just given me an occu- . Griscom. ERRATA. Page 53, line 13 from top, for principal read principle. : , * 10 from bottom, do. do. « 94, © 19 from top, for light read slight. THE | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. —>>—. Art, L—Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana, and discovery of the Stanniferous Columbite in Massachusetts ; by Cuartes UrHam Sueparp, Assistant to the Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, §c. in Yale College. Tue circumstances relating to the occurrence and natural properties of the Louisiana iron, as well as the detection of nickel in its composition by Prof. Silliman, have, for several years, been before the public;* but no extended examination with a view to determine the presence or absence of other metals, or to ascertain the relative proportions of the iron and nickel, so far as I am informed, has hitherto been at- ts tno git Its entire solution was eo witholtt the aid of heat, and the liquid assumed a reddish brown color. 2. To a part of the solution, was added muriate of ba- rytes ; no prea took place, from which the absence of oo was inferred e remainder of (1.) was decomposed by ammonia in excess; and the liquid after being warmed for a few moments * See Vol. VIII, p. 218 of this Journal. + The m cific gravity of eee ee mronmere © whose gre’ one tenth of a a eral was 7°543. eee ‘telk ‘ta robtained by Dr. Bruce, who places it at 7 an os vs an ao differ- ent trials any be expected, however, notwith aomelty of the mass; since the fragments examined, will rly Leeann wad yt same density, owing to the different deg f effect their sepa- ration. Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 1 218 Analysis of the Meteoric [ron of Louisiana. upon its precipitate, was separated by the filter. It present- ed very distinctly, a blue tinge ; which on evaporation grew more intense, and passed to a shade of green. lhe ammoniacal solution, (3.) was transferred to a pla- tina capsule, in which it was evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness for the purpose of expelling the muriate of ammonia. A greenish gray powder incrusted the capsule after its ignition. : Li Bue ced with its solution on paper, which failed to become visible, on being warmed. Cobalt was theréfore inferred, not to exist in the iron under examination. 6. The muriatic solution, (5.) from its peculiar green col- or, and from its affording, with prussiate of potash, a green- ish white precipitate, was recognized as containing nickel. . A pa the ferruginous precipitate, (3.) was heate in a platina crucible along with nitrate of potash ; and to the residue, water was added, and the excess of potash neutral- ized by nitric acid. The colorless solution was not affected, either by the proto-nitrate of mercury, or by nitrate of silver. Accordingly the absence of chrome was inferred 8. Another portion of the precipitate by ammonia, (3.) was dissolved in muriatic acid; and the solution, after being rendered neutral, was decomposed by the succinate of ammo- nia. The supernatant liquid, on being boiled with carbonate of soda, afforded no precipitate; by which, the absence of manganese was proved. Satisfied by these preliminary experiments, that the Lou- isiana iron was alloyed only by nickel, I proceeded as follows. to ascertain the proportion in which it was present. Analysis. A. 50 grs. of the meteoric iron, were dissolved as usual and decomposed by ammonia in excess. After a slight sim- tained decomposed by potash. The evaporation was con- tinued to dryness, in order to expel every portion of ammo- Analysis of the Meteoric Iron of Louisiana. 219 © nia. ‘I'o the residue was added warm water, which dissolv- ed the salts of potash, and left the oxide of nickel floating in the solution, in the form of a flocculent, apple green pre- cipitate. Separated by the filter, dried, ignited and weigh- ed, it amounted to 5:8 grs.; which being in the condition of the protoxide, equals 4-837 grs. of the metal.* . To another portion of the meteoric iron, wei hing 10grs. bia "plating Veubel over an alcoholic lamp. It weighed 12°89 grs.: which in the metallic condition would be 9°002 grs. We have, therefore, in the meteoric iron of Louisiana, a ae ige ea eer ee og PICEU oh i Re Pe of STS, 99°694. EAM APSO. BR epee ere ew ee 100000. The similarity which was before peor to exist, between ihe meteoric iron of Louisiana and San a Rosa, in | South America, as r ituation and egarded tl general properties, boighiened as it now appears to be by their close agreement in composition,! seems shoe to lead to the sarily that they were derived from one and the same meteorite, which traversed the atmosphere of our plan- et in a direction, lengthwise of the American continent. * Since the method for separating t the nickel here adopted had been objected e ground, the precipitated iron, I examined that precipitate by sage me ‘without ova ing any indication that such had been the fact in not ‘: that this is not always the case, the experience mf vee Roggersti may pry 7 ioned, who in his examination of the itburg met ric iron, abe manner, unable to detect an any remaining oxide of nickel i — the precipitate by ammonia.— Journal fur Chemie und Physick. B. an t Pre “mabbeoeie Hon of Fin Rosa, omposed saber? 91-41. and nickel 8°59.— Ann. de Chimie et de Pigniee;t rag XXV, 220 Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass. CoLuMBITE. In May, 1828, while on a visit to the remarkable deposit of tourmalines in Chesterfield, Mass., my attention was calle to a loose rock in the foundation of a stone fence, by the large and delicate folia of yellow mica it contained. bore signs of having had fragments detached from it before; but the wall being now displaced for the purpose of affording a passage to cattle, | was enabled with the aid of a hammer, to reduce it completely to fragments. ‘Towards its centre, I found imbedded, a number of black metallic crystals, whose form and weight led me at once to think of Columbite. They were situated within a few inches of each other; sometimes engaged in feldspar, at others in beryl, and occasionally, between the folia of the mica. They presented much di- versity in their dimensions; the smallest of them not weigh- ing above 15.grs., and the largest a little above 400 grs. he weight of all the crystals and fragments obtained, as near as I can estimate them at present, did not exceed 12 or 1400 grs. Not having unti] very lately, been able com- pletely to verify my conjecture, concerning their nature, I have withheld until the present moment all notice of the lo- eality; which I now take much pleasure in making public, together with a minute account of the steps followed in ar- riving at the conclusions here announced, Mmeralogical Description. quent modification observed among these crystals. Their angles are determined, by the common goniometer, ad. ; . . 90 ,00 2 2 gee rs 133 ,00 Mona . - 116 00 Tono. . 156 ,00 Discovery of Columbite in Chesterfield, Mass. 221 Cleavage, parallel with M, quite perfect; in other. direc- tions uneven. Lateral “= vertically streaked. Lustre, shining, sub-metallic., .Color,.iron black 'Par- nished upon the cleavage ote month blue. Pesci ish black; powder, chocolate brown : Hardness. Scratches nas Brittle. ti — gravity, 6-00, sibel axs Chemical Brstinansoik ee = Alone before the blowpipe, in very, thin fragments,, it be- comes rounded upon the edges, and assumes a. glossy black color; but is not taken up by the magnet, even, when redu- ced to powder, When pulverized, it enters into fusion along with borax, to which it communicates a faint bottle green rain aie enon ye of ammonia 5 BGO it.also dissolves, — yellow glass, which PR EOMRB becomes fades to a cream col lee a in the state of 9 an impalpable powder, vith nitro- puree acid, it offered no signs of decompositio « After having tried to effect its ieoiioanman ha ignit- oe it alone, first with potash and then with carbonate of seda, neither, of which succeeded perfectly, I employed a. mixture of five parts of carbonate of Agta mes oe of.calcined borax. This process proved nearly effectual; and-by.the sediston-of two parts of nitrate a potash to the same proportions, iocompond trial, the whole of the mineral employe was con dein e fused mass indicated manganese. b — ~s which it communicated to the wae, nde io effect its separation from the crucible, With muriatic acid the green color passed to a red, and finally toa rich lem- on yellow; at the same time, occasioning an abundant white ak ins Oe . The muriatic solution, (2.) separated from its insoluble ee was digested with nitric acid; and a part of ip racic osed by ei in Bop. 220 the sulution beilest Senge pearance, diately settled to the bottom. The pr pba rin mas collected on a filter, dried, and exposed upon charcoal to the intense 222 Discovery of Columbite in‘ Chesterfield, Mass. heat of the seta when globules of metallic tin made their appearance. © another portion of. the muriatic solution, (2. ) ren- pad neutral by ammionia, was added oxalate of ammonia: ight cloudiness was pérceptible, and aRer several days a final precipitate collected at the acts of the solut 10n ; —- we indicating the presence of lim . The remainder of the but having paid some attention to the relative bulks of the pre- cipitates in one or two instances, I was led to conjecture, that the columbic acid does not form léss than two thirds of the mineral, and that the “it is presént in a proportion, little inferior, either to the iron or the manganese ; while t lime exists only as a trace. B oncluding this account, I would remark, that I am not without hope, that a further supply of this desirable min- eral, may be found in Chesterfield } although all search which has been made, since the discovery of my apenas, has oes ineffectual. The fact, that the loose mass which af- orded them, was situated, at a little distance from the south end of the tourmaline led and that it corres- ponded so very remarkably in its = etn structure with that part of the rock, seems to indicate that this was its original deposit ; and. holds out, I think, sufficient inducement to the collector te seoreh for it, in this direction. t lso appear worthy of notice, as it seems to indi- cate that colamote | is probably a mote widely diffused sub- stance, nhgtd has been supposed, Sagic = possess minute masses of it from two places in Goshen e, from the farm of Mr, Weeks: eotlbe other, four miles itant, from the first discov- ered locality of spodumene. In both of these instances, they are engaged in the spodumene, in the form of imperfectly tabular ctystals. I have also noticed the same substance, in very distinct, though minute crystals in Middletown; (Conn.) upon on Sok, the high granite hills, about half a mile north east of the tourmaline deposit. It occurred in a loose frag- man of Granite, consisting chiefly of beryl. t on Rost famous throughout the edlieie bateel world, for its beautiful parti- _ colored tourmalines. - t When at Haddam, about a year since, one of the € quarry men, showed me a black crystal nearly an inch in diameter ; which he informed me, had been considered coltumbite. It was black lie; but the summits of. two of its opposite pyramids being wanting, i was not able. is fact, not as doubting at all the existence of columbite at Haddam. for this is established upon the au ity; but e collector, w t spot, on his guard, lest he should be cr aa hay in the specimens him, since both the tances occu r in the chrysoberyl rock and ed. The spin aoe lle; ot thn, the col a an opinion of Se ryrtr mane which may aus Be formed the fact, that I never have met =< of it, among th mie africa bo b fa blasts of this roc “ae Eee} “28 at different times. . Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. 225 Art. II.—Translation from Mr. seo me essa s irate Phi Se pile ere Nachrichten,) Hamburgh, No. 7 e plans, arrangements and eiethods, Yee pee used by Mr. F. R. Hassler, with a view to an accu- rate survey of the coast of the United States, by the Chev- alier F, W. Bessel, Professor in the University of Ko- nigsberg. Communicated by Pror, James Renwick, of Columbia College, New York In 1807, Mr. Hassler then in Philadelphia, was rodueuthd: on the part of the government of the United States, to fur- nish a plan for the survey of the whole coast of that coun- his was done in a letter to Mr. Gallatin, which proves pee insight into the nature of such operations. mA is eVi- nt from it, that the survey was to have been a work of ayeat extent, and such as should satisfy the recite both of geography and of navigation. In consequence of this plan, Mr. H. went to England to & procure the necessary instruments, &c. A most complete apparatus was brought boperbets consisting printapatiy: of instruments constructed u K he year 1816, the St ee itself began. It appears to have been interrupted i after, and therefore not to have given the expected resu * ba Mr. H. dencribel his arrangements and methods in paper which has also been printed, as an extract from the Philosophical Transactions of Philadelphia, which contains many new views in relation to instruments, that I believe I shall make an agreeable communication to the readers of this journal by an extract from this paper, which has proba- bly not become very extensively known (in Germany.) Mr. H. appears by it as a man, who would rather think "ioe him- Uni- * The suspension of the operations for the survey of the coast of the r. Hassler, may be conside ted States, begun in so admirab ne sie cel eines a the asa national misfortune. It is such in truth, not so m - vA defe < oa fu m the fact, seathons noi , and some of tually used by Mr. a a = —— of the science of Europe at the period. As these princ hedges i require hest proficiency i in mathematical and physic: spplicdion to en 20 originally in the United States, would have redounded to the national honor. Vor XVI.—No. 2. 2 i 226 Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. self, than imitate others, and whose arrangements therefore, always bear an independent character. It is to be lamented that circumstances should have oc- curred, which hmdered the complete execution of the work. To judge from the contents of the publication, not only com- plete success, in reaching the intended object would have been obtained, but also many other useful results.* According to Mr. H’s plan, two observatories were to be established, one in Washington, and one in New Orleans,} ee most modern observatories ; in its special arrangements this observatory often agrees with the most modern one in Ger- many, that of Altona.t The instruments are, a transit, of five feet of Troughton ; a clock of Hardy, an eighteen inch repeating circle ; there were also to be placed in it finally a zenith sector and a meridian (mural) circle, &c. I cannot describe the building in detail, but I will remark that it was to be surrounded by a ditch in order the better to avoid the oscillations of the ground, by the passage of waggons, &c. The pillars of the instruments were to be placed upon solid bases six feet thick, standing in a cellar of five feet depth, and to pass through the floor of the observatory, which was * The opinion thus expressed by Mr. Bessel, is praise of the highest deserip- tion, for no man has ever stood higher as an astronomer, than that distinguis ed professor. ; { According to Mr. Hassler’s original , one of have been established in the State of Maine, near the north eastern frontier. the other in Louisiana near the south western boundary of the United States. the Circumstances led to hoice of Washington for one, the exact place of ai although it must have been near New Orleans was not decided e m 2 5 L + 41 af 4 t.. LT. pian prop y Mr. Hassle servatory at Washington, and that erected under the superintendence of Schuh- macher at Altona is very remarkable. This last is unquestionably the best in Europe, as well as the most modern to ilitude, each without any knowledge Pe the other’s project is prior in point of date by several years Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh, 227 the usual vertical screw is notin the arrangement; instead of this, the piece bearing the Ys, is formed like an arch, the mid- e of which is supported by a screw, the higher or lower position of which, elevates or depresses it by the different degree of tension of the metal which is produced by the action of the screw and its own elasticity. This method in the centre, but by a zone of a sphere of eight ameter, to which the two parts of the telescope tube are screwed ; this arrangement is made with a view to greater bases are three inches, and ends one and a half inches in di- ameter. Upon these arms the two feet horizontal circle is made fast; three of these cones are longer; these contain manner * The transit of the ob tory at Greenwich is adjusted i thi , and as it is ten feet in length, the doubt whether the plan be applicable to large in- struments is settled by actual experience. 228 Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. at their ends the screw work for the stands by which the in- strument rests upon three vertical cones of brass, fastened to the wooden stand of the instrument ; between this and the six horizontal conical arms there is room for the verifi- meter screw. The illumination is made through the axis of the telescope, the one side of which is perforated, the other has an altitude circle of six inches diameter. The axis is about twelve inches long, which is more than the interval between the columns. Its supports are therefore set upon pieces of brass, elevated above the columns, and extending outwards; they have the same kind of vertical adjustment as the large transit described above. In relation to the observations with this instrument, Mr. H. roperly remarks: that the eccentricity is equally corrected y means of three equidistant readings, as by two, four, or so on; he also shews, that when the vertical axis is not per- pendicular to the plane of the horizontal circle the errors of the angle will be corrected if the position of the instru- ment’s place is alternately changed to the three truncated cones of the stand, so as to give the three regularly succeed- ing positions of a fullrevolution. These three observations, each made in the two diametrically opposite positions of the telescope, and by a half revolution of the instrument, give a mean which is free from eccentricity, from any error arising from the inclination of the circle towards the axis, or from an inequality in the supports of the axis, the readings being be- Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. 229 sides made upon twelve different parts of the division. This two feet theodolite is very properly considered as the main instrument for the survey. For the other observations, re- peating circles of eighteen inches, repeating theodolites of twelve inches, and repeating reflecting circles of ten inches diameter, smaller theodolites, needles, planetables, &c. are provided. To the most of these instruments Mr. H. has giv- given a peculiar construction, but it would be too long, and erhaps without figures not sufficiently intelligible, to give a it seems therefore, that the use of these signals might rathep be recommended in particular cases than generally. How- 230 Translation fromthe Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. ever Mr. H. says, that even without the direct light of the sun, they also rendered good service, and were visible at great distances.* Mr. H. has also communicated his metheds for the com- parison of the standard ena of length, and the results of their application ; we gain by this a new comparison o the French and Englis seocnanaleds which I shall quote more in particular. There were three meters present. One 0 iron, which was one of those made the committee of weights and measures in Paris 1799, and distributed as au- thentic among the foreign deputies; the two others, the one brass, the other iron, were of Lenoir, but not compared rectly with the original, they therefore were not sohacened as principal in the results of comparison. These meters were compared with a scale of Troughton, of eighty two inches in length, diviciad upon silver to tenths of inches, to which is added, a micrometric apparatus to take off measures from the scale. Instead of the usual method in comparing a meter a bouts with one 4 traits, to place butting pieces with lines drawn near to the end of them, the distances of which, the same thickness as the meters, and obtained, by the juxtaposition of both, a line, aes presented itself like : division line of the scale. By means of several experiments, (reduced to 32° Fah. and sidsoting the expansion of the iron and the brass, as Mr. H. determined it by his own exper- iments, namely between the point of melting ice and the boiling heat of water ;) * To use the heliotrope, two con the attendance of an assistant at each signal station ages to roe ~omoatl and its actual il- jumination by the rays of thesun. Had Mr. Hassler’s opera ration been intended to include no more than a net work of great triangles, the heliotrope might tee more we hoe ti d have been observed But the survey being necoesarity co noe - with a view to its eenaiiets 3 a yarograph ichal panedies ve been ne- cessary ery the signals to elses 3 it basen as Cy sible to employ so many separate attendants. Mr. Hassler’s si also answer well even ina cloudy state of the atmosphere, if the other iy i geaterce be ve frequently happens. The objection that two signals could rarely have shewn an an equally well defined image of the sn, doos not hold eo Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh, 231 iron=0,0012534363 brass=0,0018916254 the length of the meter was determined to be 39,381022708 inches of the scale, which, as the standard temperature of the English measure is 62° Fah, gives the length of the me- ter in English inches 39,38 1022708 ; . =7,00031 59709 99236861 inches English. The two copies of meters give less, (0,001 inch,) but these were compared with both: the scale of Troughton in Amer- ica, and that which this artist himself uses in London, and had upon both very nearly the same length; whence it may be concluded, that both English scales agreed very nearly. Thus according to Mr. H.’s comparison the meter is 39,36861 English inches: according to the comparison of two other copies by Kater =39,37079. According to Vol. III. of Base du Systeme Metrique, page 369, the meter of platinum was =39,382755; that of iron =39,382649: both measur- ed upon the brass scale of Mr. Pictet, reduced to the tem- perature of melting ice; at a mean =39,3827, which, ac- ence. The authentic meter of Mr. H. appears, however, really to be shorter, though it could be brought nearer to the others by accepting other proportions for the expansion of metals.* This, however, appears not to be allowable, when the results of different comparisons are to be collected ; for the determination of the expansion is as important as the comparison itself; therefore, each observer must remain an- swerable for that one which he adopts. I think it should be enquired whether two metals of the same chemical compo- sition, have always the same proportion of expansion ; or if * The meter used by Mr. Hassler in his comparisons, and which the Cheva- lier Bessel suspects to have been too short, was an original issued by the French e ission, and is therefore far more authentic than the copies used by Kater. We are happy, however, to be able to state, that peepee has recently been engaged at Washington in further comparisons, ae bly make his seme babe ina short time. They are said fully to confirm his former experiments. 232 Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. at the temperature of melting ice, this toise measures 76,74192710 inches of the scale of Troughton. By the normal temperature of both, 1,0002036843 So =76,741 927107 o603 159709 = /6:73336 English inches. As the meter is = 443,296 lines of the toise, (Base metrique, tome ili, page 433,) the proportion between the English and French feet, according to Mr. H. will be by the | 39,36861 | og meter, = 443,296 12 =1,0657063, " 76,73336 toise, se Se =1,0656411, be the ten millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, was lost. If certain copies of these measures do not agree together, it shews only that the law is not exactly fulfilled by them ; and ‘as it is much more difficult to transfer to another metallic bar 443,296 lines of the toise than the whole length of the toise, the comparison of the meter is a circuitous and unprofitable * . . Copies of the meter have been made of platinum, but it will be obvious from these remarks of Bessel, that it is by no means a fit substance for such purposes, inasmuch as it is both difficult to work and to free from adventitious Translation from the Astronomical Jour. of Hamburgh. 233 way, as long as the toise itself is yet obtaimable as easily as it was at the time of the construction of the meter. he apparatus which Mr. H. had constructed for the meas- urement of the base line, differs essentially from all that are known to me; therefore I will describe it somewhat more particularly. The ends of the bars are not planes, but cut out, so that viewed from above they present the form 3, over this middle excavation the hair of a spider’s web is stretched, which therefore indicates the end of the bar: over each of the ends a compound microscope is placed, which stands upon a separate support, and therefore does not change its place when the bar is moved or taken away. hen this microscope is placed over the spider’s web, the place of the end of the bar is determined by it; the bar can then be taken away, and the other end of it can be made to coincide with the point where the first had been before seen to coincide with the cross strokes of the microscope, which in the mean time has retained its position independently. the st being first properly placed, the microscope is brought to that held together by iron clamps: the inclination of this bar to the horizon is measured by a sector, nearly as in Delambre’s apparatus, When the work is interrupted during the night, or, XVI.—No. 2. 3 234 On the Effect of Quantity of Matter im the last position of the bar and the porragens remain un- disturbed in their position until] morning. The arrangement of the boxes in which the bars are contained and the mechan- ism of the movements appear to me very well planne America, has not been applied according to its inseio io and by its author. (Signed,) F. W. Besse Art. II].—On the Effect of Quantity of Matter in Modify- ing ths Force of Chemical Attraction; by Exrsna Mitcu- ELL, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology, in the University of North Carolina. In my present communication to the Journal, I do not pro- ose to bring forward any new fact or argument. Wit reference to the subject of which it treats, both have already been sufficiently multiplied. My object is merely to call the attention of chemists, to some facts that appear to have been unacconntably neglected, and to correct mistakes respecting rs, which have found their way into books of the greatest authority. It is stated, in substance, in our. treatises of chemistry, that the force of chemical attraction is modified by the quantity of matter by which it is exerted, and in some of them, the opinion is advanced, that quantity of matter may in some com e for a weaker aflinit ty. But ibe ang wir all us in sats a way, and accom pans qualifications and expressions of doubt fis heathen: that it appears like a reluctant admission of a commecete. truth rather than a free and willing enunciation of a law nature. The following extract from one of the best of ani elementary books, may serve for illustration. Though this mode of determining the relative forces of affinity, cannot be admitted, it is possible that quantity of matter, may some how oro ther, compensate for a weaker af- fei ond Berthollet attempts to prove it by auperinent On boiling the sulphate of baryta, with an equal weight of pure potash, the alkali is found to have deprived the baryta. —— the Te of Chemical Attraction. 235 satncion ‘to return. In the mean tim , we may remark that e influence of quantity of matter in modifying the force of chemical attraction, in some particular cases, is universally mitted. 1. In the case of solution. It is well oat and acknowl- edged, that a given weight of any salt thrown into so much water as is barely sufficient to effect its wohatiots, will not >etlle appear as poem as when the quantity of water is cise bi . ser te those cases where an element A. enters into combi- nation with another element B, in two, three or more differ- ent proportions; each additional dose of A, appears to op- pose a feebler resistance to any force that may be employed ’ to separate it from B. A familiar example is furnished by the black oxide of manganese, which from a tr core is con- verted into a deutoxide, by the application of a low red heat, whilst no elevation of temperature to which it pa be sub- jected, pre a perfect decomposition and the separation of all the —See also, Davy’s Hlemeals of Chem. Philo- Turner’s Chemistry, 1p StS y’ ont py. i ig oe 8—18. Paris’s Med 237. Ure’s Dietary, srclon Brande has re en this aes while he has 236 On the Effect of the Quantity of Matter in a regular and uniform flow of the gas—and that the process is stopped when the gas-bottle is heated to whiteness, and the gas still continues to come over, though but slowly.* The carbonate of lime affords corresponding results. A low red heat drives off the carbonic acid but for its entire sepa- ration, a violent heat is required, even when the carbonate has been procured from the muriate, by means of a carbo- nated alkali, and is therefore in the state of an impalpable proportions are fe d, so as to exert an influence u atoms between which there is no proper chemical combina- tion, and ena arge nu 0 compensate by the * Lorsque Poxide sera prés de la chaleur rouge il commencera se degaget du gaz oxigéne. Vous urrez regarder lopération comme faite lorsque le fourneau étant plein de feu il ne se dégagera presque plus de gaz.— Thenard. Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction, 237 exerted by each. This hypothesis admits of the following illustration. aR. Oe a oe ee Oe The letters (a) represent atoms of lime ; the letters (e) at- oms of carbonic acid, and all of them together, a quantity of carbonate of lime, which has experienced the decomposing agency of heat. The double letters (@) represent atoms of carbonate of lime undecomposed; upon the carbonic acid (e) of which a force is exerted by the surrounding particles of uncombined lime (a) to prevent its escape. force exerted by each uncombined (a) upon the (e) of the carbo- nate, is very small when compared with that exerted by the (a) in proper chemical union; and capable of being overcome by the weak affinity of water or other agent—a e. united force of all the uncombined (a’s) though amounting cases, and its existence in most, is here fully admitted. But passing by this, which is merely an hypothesis, desti- tute of proof and incapable of it, we return to the principal subject of this paper: That it is a law of extensive ica- tion, that the quantity of matter modifies the force of chemi- cal attraction, and compensates for a weak affinity. The recollection of every practical chemist, will est to him other examples analogous to the above, and poimting to the same conclusion, but perhaps no facts are more to our pur- pose than those collected by Berthollet, and laid by him asa foundation on which to build his theory of chemical affinity, if once the mistakes and misapprehensions prevailing re- strating its correctness, besides calling into view some im- portant facts with which chemists had long been familiar. 238 On the Effect of the Quantity of Matter in But Berthollet was not content with the establishment of this law. He drew the additional conclusion that exeept where the existence of definite proportions is determined by the forces of cohesion, elasticity, etc. chemical agents combine in all proportions indiscriminately. As this was altogether at Spee with the views which chemists were presently en- gaged (with a zeal hardly commensurate to its vast impor- tance) in establishing, respecting chemical _combination, their favorite ‘abides. “Pwo of his “axpergant were attacked by Sir Humphrey Davy, who in the Elements of Chemical Philosophy, supposed himself, and was supposed by others, to have “pointed out several sources of fallacy, which had escaped the observation Me Berthollet.”* The confidence of men of science in the accuracy of the French chemist, #9 thus shaken and his eee and opinions alike hele d yet Berthollet was by no means that inaccurate and short-sighted being he has sometimes ‘been represented to be —and | think it will appear on a careful examination of his SEpPmOR ice ies 3 ate fallacy was on the side of his critics acid: the same served for the following experiments. operation was performed in a retort, and consequently not im communication with the air; ren ~ was continued until the mixture was desiccated; the res ue was washed with al- cohol, soe: dissolved the potash, an after that with water, solution yielded crystals ae all the characters and yy of the Ls * Paris’s Med. Chemistry. Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction, 239 ‘‘Berthollet has asserted, indeed, that a large quantity of potassa, is capable of separating a a small quantity of sulphur- ic acid from the sulphate of barytes; but his experiments were made in contact with the atmosphere in which carbon- ic acid is always flying about; but it 1s well known that the carbonate of potassa and sulphate of baryta, mutually decom- pose each other.”*—Davy’s Elements of Chemical Philoso- ph — appears therefore, that “ the sources of fallacy” ae not * escape the observation of Berthollet,” and tha he suppo- sed himself to have obviated them, He knew ver a well that carbonate of potassa and sulphate of baama mutually Saepmapone each other and that carbonic acid is absorbed ry potassa, when it is boiled in contact with the atmosphere. e took care therefore, to employ such potassa as “ contain- ed no carbonic.) aid. and then carried on the process in @ acid that could have entered by the beak and travelled along the neck of the retort to the materials, must have been in- quantity of pa ies of potassa chan could be crys ‘ It is obvious nO eric that Berthollet’s experiment did not differ from the common process, 7 vented by him, for procur ing pure potassa, orca that the retort was filled with the vapor of water instead of the vapor of alcohol.t * As I have no English copy of the Chemical Philosophy to refer nites I sub- join so much of Van ons’ French translation, as is so gr “M. Berthollet a posé en fait qu’une grande qu uantité de potasse peu Cecpaer une petite quantité d’acide sulphurique eis af = sulfate de fe baryte ; Mais ses e must evidently be, if the case be as I have supposed, it is quite natural: but that sir Seeneheey Davy should a build an argument, to overturn the theory of 240 Onthe Effect of the Quantity of Matter in statement in substance, respecting the second as well as the first ;* and where we find these marks of scrupulous caution in two cases, it is but a piece of common justice, to suppose they were not wanting in the others, and that the mention of these was omitted, merely because it was supposed to be unnecessary. : The language of Davy, in the objections he has framed to the seventh, or last and least valuable of Berthollet’s ex- periments, shows that he did not recur to the writings of that chemist, to see what the experiments really were; and though it is barely possible, there might be something like the play of affinities supposed by him: the view of the a distinguished chemist, solely on his own misconceptions of the experiments by which that theory is supported, and the error be propagated frien on book to another for years, is lamentable. “Le sulfate de potasse ayant été soumis & la méme épreuve avec poids | de chaux,” etc. Modifying the force of Chemical Attraction. 241 to follow in the track of observation and experiment, it ap- ears to me that we must admit it to be a law of extensive Jfinity: and having admitted it, apply it in the explanation he principal obstacle to the general reception of these views, seems to have been found in their supposed inconsist- tion,) that there are in the boiling liquid, four different sub- stances, sulphate of baryta, sulphate of potassa, baryta and potassa ; the influence of the uncombined baryta, being ex- erted to prevent the decomposition of the sulphate of baryta from proceding any farther, and that of the uncombined a tassa to maintain in existence the sulphate of potassa that has been already formed. I will, in closing, only call the attention of any reader of the Journal, who may have had the patience to accompany me thus far, to the following extract from the preface to Thomson’s First Principles of Chemistry. — “ But it is much more difficult to obtain substances ina state of complete purity, than chemists in general are aware ; Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 4 242 = Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. it was in reducing the different salts which I employed, to the greatest possible degree of purity, that the greatest part oO i ted. Ihave in all cases, in which it was in my power, deduced the atomic weights of bodies from the rigid analysis of the neutral salts into which they enter, be- cause it is much easier to obtain neutral salts pure, than any of the metallic bodies which constitute their bases. Indeed, not a few of the metals have never yet been exhibited in a °9 Art. 1V.—Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. — Communicated for the Journal of. Science, by Joun H. se a M. D. of Saratoga Springs, in the State of New- ork. Tue Mineral waters of Saratoga, which have become so celebrated for their Medicinal qualities, are situated in a low marshy valley, along the termination of a ridge of seconda- ry limestone ; they discover themselves in a bed of blue marl, which covers the valley throughout its whole extent, and to an unknown depth. On digging into this marl, to any con- siderable distance, in almost any direction, we are sure to find a mineral water; in some places, at the depth of six or eight feet, it is discovered issuing from a fissure or seam in the underlying limestone, while at other places, it seems to roceed from a thin stratum of quicksand, whichis found to alternate with the marl at distances of from ten to forty feet ; at this last depth, the marl is interrupted by a layer of bowl- lers of a considerable size, beyond which no researches have yet bee fodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. 243 All the mineral fountains that have yet been examined in this valley, and there are more than twenty, are found to pos- sess uniformly, the same qualities, differing only in what is usually termed their strength, or, in other words, in the quan- tities of the articles which the water of each is found to hold in-solution. They belong to a class which may with propri- ety be styled the acidulous saline chalybeate. Th st analyses agree in demonstrating that they contain the follow- ing ingredients, viz. arbonic aci a, and Carbonate of iron, together with a very minute quantity of Silica and alumina. The great efficacy of these waters in a variety of stru- mous affections, for which their known properties did not very satisfactorily account, gave origin to the conjecture, that they might contain Jodine, and the fact of that substance having been recently discovered in some of the mineral springs of urope, gave confidence to the opinion which led to an in- vestigation ; as soon, therefore, as leisure would permit, an examination was commenced, with a view to that particular point, and the result of the following experiments will, I trust, be considered as sufficiently conclusive on the subject. Having procured a quantity of the salts of one of th fountains, soluble in distilled water, I dissolved thirty grains of them in a weak solution of starch in cold water, and then let fall into the solution a drop or two of sulphuric acid; is produced a slight effervescence and the liquor immedi- ately assumed a deep purple tinge,—on suffering this to stand at rest a short time, the color was precipitated with the starch giving it the well known characteristic blue tinge. The clear, liquor was now turned off and the colored starch placed upon the surface of a warm stove, when the color Was immediately disp e : : Having thus caceeciiaa the fact of the existence of Iodine in these salts, it became important to acquire a knowledge of the manner in which it is combined and retained in the Ww . oe Saline may exist in a mineral water in the state of todic or hydriodic acid combined with either of the alkalies, potassa 244 = Todine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. or soda, forming the iodate or hydriodate of the alkali, witli: which they are united. As the presence of potassa, in any of its combinations, in these waters, has not been indicated by any of the appropriate tests used for the purpose, it fol- lows that soda is the alkaline base, which retains the acid in question, forming the iodate or hydriodate of soda. To as- certain which of these acids forms the salt in question, I pour- ed over a quantity of the dry soluble salts of the water, an ounce of very pure alcohol, which, after standing a short time, was filtered off; this was found to contain the whole of the matter, which indicated the presence of iodine, and as todate of soda is not soluble in alcohol, I infer that the sub- stance taken up by the alcohol is the hydriodate of soda. ith a view to illustrate the position still further, and to arrive at the proportion of this salt, contained in a given quantity of the water, I evaporated one gallon of water in a porcelain basin placed in a sand bath, which was kept at the temperature of about 150°, and the evaporation was con- tinued until crystals of muriate of soda began to form on the ' sides of the basin; it was now removed from the bath, and when cold the whole contents of the basin were thrown on a filter and the residuum, being well washed with recently distilled water, was removed and the filtered liquor again placed on the sand bath in a small basin, and suffered to evaporate to dryness, in a temperature of 150° A duum weighed, while warm, a trifle over three grains. It consisted principally of the hydriodate of soda, with a very minute quantity of common salt, which the small quantity of water in the alcohol used, and, possibly, the imperfectly dry state of the salts, before the alcohol was added, contrib- uted to render soluble in that menstruum. I now dissolved the salts thus obtained in a small quantity, of starch and water and having placed the solution in a Flor- ence flask, over a spirit lamp, added to it a few drops of sulphuric acid; as it bec rm, the blue color of the ’ Iodine in the Mineral Waters of Saratoga. 245 Nearly all the mineral springs at this place have been carefully examined and found, uniformly, to agree in afford- ing indications of the presence of iodine. The waters of Baliston, have not yet been examined, with a view to this particular object, but, from the striking similarity of the waters in the two places in other respects, there can be but little doubt of their agreeing in this. I had expected to have discovered it in the brine springs of Onondaga, but a bottle of that water, procured through the politeness of Dr. Kirk- patrick, afforded no indications of it. subjoin the result of an analysis of the Hamilton Spring, with a view to illustrate the relative quantities of the various saline ingredients contained in its water This fountain is situated in the low ground immediately behind the Congress Hall; it was discovered and named by Mr. Gideon Putnam, one of the early settlers of the place, not long after the discovery of the Congress Spring. It was cleared out to the depth of only a few feet, and the water secured by a small wooden curb, and in this situation it re- mained for a number of years, its water being devoted most- ly to the supply of a bathing establishment, erected in its immediate vicinity. After the decease of Mr. Putnam, the property passed into other hands, and the well has been re- The water, when first dipped from the fountain, is remark- . ably clear and sparkling, but on standing exposed to the at- mosphere, soon becomes turbid. It is saline, and acidulous to the taste, and when taken to the quantity of five or six half pints, is usually, powerfully cathartic and diuretic. The temperature at the bottem of the well is uniformly at 50°; and its specific gravity, at the temperature of 60°. Barometer at thirty inches, is* ee The analysis was conducted upon the most approved prin- ciples of modern analytic chemistry, and affords conclusive * As there was evidently an error in copying the number in the MS. we leave the specific gravity blank, rather than hazard the filling of the space erroneously.—EpiTor. od * 246 Observations on Ignis Fatuus. evidence of the correctness of the results here given; the details I am —_—, to omit, as they would, obviously, extend this communication to too great a len One alin: or 231 cubic inches, of this water, when first taken from the well, contains Muriate of soda, - grains 297.3 Hydriodate of soda, =: Hie RES ai SST Ss . Carbonate of soda, = - - - - 19.21 Carbonate of lime, - - - 92.4 Carbonate of magnesia, - - - 23.1 Oxide of iron, - - - - 5.39 grains 440.4 together with a minute quantity of silica and alumina, probably 0.6 of a — making the solid contents of a gallon amount to A441 gra Gehivie ante gas, oil ssi 316 cubic inches. Atmospheric air, wilaeretee cette 4 Gaseous contents in’a gallon, 0 cubic inches. It may be proper to observe, that the se was extricated from the water, by the application of heat, but was kept in the poet at the temperature of 60°, and under a pressure of the atmosphere, — by the mercury in the barome- ter emia at 29.5 es. A part of the atmospheric air was undoubtedly Shinined from the tube used to conduct the gas to the receiver. Art. V.—Observations on Ignis Fatuus; by Rev. Joun MitTcHELL, Tose luminous appearances, which are —. called “ Will-o’the-wisp” and * Jack-a-lantern,” have bee alike the object of vulgar superstition and philosophical curiosity ; i and notwithstanding all attempts to apprehend and subjec them to examination, they are not much more the raabjetls of knowledge now than t they were centuries ago. They are still but an ignis fatuus to the philosopher, and a thing of s the credulous. “Twas myself, ee familiar with these appearances ; oo of frequent occurrence near my father’s residence, owing, probably, to the proximity of extensive wet grounds, over which they are usually seen. The house stood upon @ Observations on Ignis Fatuus. 247 ridge, which sloped down on three sides to the beautiful dows which form the margin of the Connecticut, and of its tributary creeks, and which, owing to their own luxuri- = ? feet from the edge of the causeway. He stopped some time to look at it; and was strongly tempted, notwithstanding the miriness of the place, to get nearer to it, for the purpose of closer examination. It was evidently a vapor, [phosphuret- ted hydrogen ?] issuing from the mud, and becoming ignited, or at least luminous, in contact with the air. It exhibited a flickering appearance, like that of a candle expiring in its socket; alternately burning with a large flame and then sink- to a small taper; and occasionally, for a moment, be- coming quite extinct. Jt constantly appeared over the same Spot. 248 Observations on Ignis Fatuus. With the phenomena exhibited in this instance, I have been accustomed to compare those exhibited in other in- stances, whether observed by myself or others ; and general- y, making due allowance for the illusion of the senses and the credulity of the imagination in a dark and misty night, (for it is on such nights that they usually appear,) I have found these phenomena sufficient for the explanation of all the fantastic tricks which are reported of these phantoms. They are supposed to be endowed with a locomotive pow- er. They appear to recede from the spectator, or to advance towards him. But this may be explained without locomo- tion—by their variation in respect to quantity of flame. As the light dwindles away, it will seem to move from you, and with a velocity proportioned to the rapidity of its diminution. Again as it grows larger, it will appear to approach you. If it expires, by several flickerings or flashes, it will seem to skip from you u, and when it reappears you will easily imagine that it has assumed a new position. This reasoning accounts for ther apparent motion, either to or from the spectator ; and I never could ascertain that they moved in any other direction, that is, in a line oblique Sr porpendiealar to that in which they first appeared. In one instance, indeed, thought this was the fact, and what struck me as more sin- guiar, the light appeared to move, with great rapidity, di- rectly against a very strong wind. But after looking some time, I reflected that I had not changed the direction of m eye at all, whereas if the apparent motion had been re I ought to have turned half round. The deception was oc- casioned by the motion of the wind itself—as a stake stand- ing ina rapid stream will appear to move against the current. a common notion that the ignis fatuus cannot be ap- roached, but will move off as rapidly as you advance. This characteristic is mentioned in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia. It is doubtless a mistake. Persons attempting to approach them, have been deceived perhaps as to their distance, and finding them farther off than they imagined, have proceeded a atte way and given over, under the impression that pursuit An acquaintance of mines plain man, told me he ae stole up close to one, and caught it in his hat, as he t;—‘“‘and what was it?” I asked. “It was’nt nothin.”* On looking into his hat for the “ shining jelly,” it elias: aT T ee te ey 42 fat 1 cnr 2 OR ee Fad. S bs r a Observations on Ignis Fatuus. 249 had wholly disappeared. His motions had dissipated the vapor, or perhaps his foot had closed the orifice from which itissued. To this instance another may be added. A young man and woman, walking home from an evening visit, ap- proached a light which they took for a lantern carried by some neighbor, but which on actually passing it, they found to be borne by no visible being ; and taking themselves to flight, burst into the nearest house, with such precipitation as to overturn the furniture, and impart no small share of their fright to the family. The circumstance that these lights usually appear over marshy grounds, explains another popular notion respecting them; namely, that they possess the power of Sag Sa persons into swamps and fens. To this superstition Parnell alludes in his Fairy Tale, in which he makes Will-o’the-wisp one of his dancing fairies ; * Then Will who bears the wispy fire, To trail the swains among the mire,” &c. In a misty night, they are easily mistaken for the light of a neighboring house, and the deceived traveller, directing his course towards it, meets with fences, ditches, and other ob- towards it. A bush or a bog, might have led to the same place, if he had happened to take it for his chimney top. Vor, XVIL—No. 2. 5 ty Maen, ‘ os aes 250 Resuscitation from apparent death by drowning. Art. Vi.—Resuscitation by Oxygen Gas, from apparent death by drowning. Letter I. TO THE EDITOR, Cambridge, Md. March 31, 1829. Dear Sir—At the close of my chemical amusements of this winter, an accident occurred, which gave rise to an ex- eriment, whose result deserves, I think, to be classed among the subjects of your invaluable Journal; it is one, upon the efficacy of oxygen Gas, in an extreme case of Asphyxia. A favorite young beagle hound had fallen into a neigh- bor’s cellar, full of water, and was drowned; how long he lay there, (which is a prominent point in the case,) can be only conjectured, from the following facts; he was heard flouncing and yelping in the water; and the family believ- ing he was a mad dog, did not venture in, to his relief, until their negro man returned from a ride of two miles, on which be had been sent, shortly before the accident; when they supposed he had. got out, as he had been long silent; but on searching, he found him lying dead under the water, and dragged him out; finding it was my dog, he informed m servant, who obtained a wheel barrow, and brought him home, and then went in quest of me; when I arrived, with some gentlemen, who accompanied me, to witness the ex- periment, which I proposed,—we found the dog’s body and limbs, so cold, hard and inflexible, that, taking him by the was turned over, as a block with four pegs attached to it Having at hand some jars of gases, and fortunately, one of oxygen, which I had recently prepared for a similar experi- ment, with smaller animals, to be placed under asphyxia, om carbonic acid gas, but not having executed my design, ; I filled a large bladder with the oxygen, not diluted with any portion of nitrogen, because I wished to produce the great- est possible excitement, in a case so desperate ; I attached to the bladder, a small brass stop-cock, with a long beak, and infused into his lungs, by a violent pressure of the bladder, @ copious dose of the gas; upon which, he instantly made a convulsive and solitary yelp, to the full pitch of his usual and Resuscitation from apparent death by drowning. 251 shrill voice in the chase; the dose was repeated with the same effect, until the gas was consumed; he was placed by the fire, in warm blankets, friction constantly applied, and a strong dose of diluted volatile ammonia, forced into his stom- ach; his body and limbs became relaxed; his respiration short and rapid, with subsultus tendinum his experiment commenced at one o ’clock, and at eleven that night, he raised himself on his feet, and made a few fee- ble steps ; the next morning, he left his bed, in the kitchen, and walked to his kennel, a distance of fifty yards; but du- ring the second, and also the third day, he suffered under a total anorexy ; I ordered an enema of sulphate of magne- sia, and the following night, tinct. opii 11 drachms. Ont fourth day he took a small portion of meat; on the fifth aid sixth days, he shows the marks of excessive atrophy ; ; in fact, his vital functions are restored, but I am candid to say, t those of the animal will (I fear) never be fully regained. ave been minute with this case, not from a belief, that it is the first instance of the revival from asphyxia, by oxygen gas, for I have read of one, and one only; and that arose from carbonic acid as, inhaled for axnaneasi by a Prof. Higgins, in Europe; but I have never Pathe with a case of re- covery from a parent death by drowning, and if any exist, they are rare; it is certainly a subject worthy of attentive pros- ecution, I have the honor to be yours very es tfully. JosepH E. Muse. In answer to a request, that the history of the case might be continued, the editor received the following :— Letter IT. Cambridge, Md. April 24, 1829, Dear Sir—In reply to your pian Tam crates to be gan to improve diy and his appetite, repletion and viva- city, now ee a thorough renovation of the animal func- “One other incident may be worthy of notice,—that his voice, which was naturally sharp and shrill, has astonishingly altered into the full and coarse ; though his cough, resulting 252 Hassler’s Repeating Theodolite. from the accident, has, with every other symptom of disease, wholly disappeared. Allow me to acknowledge my obligations, for the re- spectful sentiments, you have done me the honor to express, in AYOUF last iis Ana:G on for rmer occasions ; which, in truth, camaane man, a monume ent imperishal am, dear Sir, truly and meepeetey yours, u E. Muse. Art. VIl._—Hassler’s Repeating Theodolite. Notice of this instrument, in a letter to the Editor, dated New York, May8, 1829. .. Sir—Permit me to make known, through your useful Jour- nal, an improved repeatin a = Mr. Hassler, who is so well known both in untry and in Europe, for his improvements on repeating aid fetlectig Sirol and theo- dolites. This instrument has just been constructed, for the first time, by Mr. Richard Patten, instrument maker of this city, for the exploring expedition, and will be found on exam- ination as near perfection in principle, as it is possible to arrive at ; compensating not only the faults of workmanship, but the errors of observation. Its adjustments are those of the re- peating circle and eect so well and fully described by the inventor, in his paper “aed coast survey. An inspec- fittle fob and makin. king the atroent’ suscept tible of any number of repetitions. I should be doing great injustice to * Alluding to the letter to which this is an answer: I sh pest have been willing to allow the above paragraph, (of certainly too = mane — to'remain, had it not been for the present posture of afar’, ¢ as regards he prosperity of this Jou etal Hassler’s Repeating Theodolite. 258 Mr. Patten, if 1 omitted to bear testimony to the seeeeoer his work, not only in the construction of this, but a other instruments for the expedition. The beauty a ac- curacy of the division, (an operation hitherto deemed by many impossible in this country,) would not pcan in com- parison with that of- European artists. He c t be too highly recommended “dl the patronage of the public. ur obedient servant, Cuartes WILKE Professor Silliman. Lieutenant U.S. Navy. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the instrument. Fig. 2. The horizontal circle with its alhidades, &c. &c. rg. 3, The vertical circle with its alhidades, &, . 4, A section of the whole instrument. The letters < me perspective “ae answer to those of the sectional par a, a, a, are hice horizontal radii of six inches radius, in the ends of which are simple ier) ae which fit in sockets on similar radii, 4, 4,4, screwed to the top of a three legged stand, which serves as ‘the cn of the eget rertcn in the field. ’b, , is the horizontal or azimuth circle, of nin inches diameter, with a silver arch attached to the middle conical sete y, divid and re ad off, by means of verniers, o fifteen seconds. c, c, is the lower or standing at attacked’ to 5 ttie outer cenit: x, having four arms, three be dade, attached to the inner ates! centre, z, having four eh three of which bear verniers, the fourth a ‘clamping and tangent screw, for slow motion, on two of these arms are placed the hollow conical pillars, e, e, of an inch and a quar- ter diameter at their basis; to the top of Assit is fixed t Y’s, for the axis - the telescope, having vertical adjust- ment in one of th Sf, f; is the seine of twelve inches in length, with its eeibal hollow arms, g, 8; the pillars, e, e, are of sufficient height to allow the telescope to have a free motion through the vertical ; on one of the arms is fitted the vertical circle, h, h, of six inches diameter, with a silver arch — i etal collar, and read off by means of ver- niers to fifteen seconds, having two alhidades similar in every respect to the horizontal circle. 2, 7, is the imner alhidade, attached to and moving with the ialescoye; having four arms. 254 Remarks on American Rock Formations. three bearing verniers, the fourth the clamping and tangent screw. k,k, is the outer alhidade, having also four arms, three bearing verniers, the fourth a clamping and tangent screw, for slow motion to the circle, the fourth is extended downward to a projecting piece, m, m, from the pillars, e, é, and furnished with a clamping and tangent screw, for the adjustment of the level, 1, fixed to the outer alhidade. On the upper horizontal alhidade is placed a compass, n, n, for the magnetic bearings, and two small levels, 0, 0, for adjust- ing the instrument more readily. p, p, is a larger level for the adjustment of the axis of the telescope, which passes through the arms of the vertical circle and its alhidades, and rests on the axis of the telescope, as shown in fig. 4; it Is removed after adjustment, An illumination is effected through one of the conical arms, g, g, by means of a small lamp, r, fastened to a support, s, s, that is attached to the three legged stand, by which it is detached entirely from the instrument, and of course can have no influence on its ad- justments, Art. VIIL— Remarks on the characters and classification of certain American Rock Formations; by Larpner Va- nuxem, late Professor of Chemistry, &c. in the College of South Carolina, in a letter to Professor Cleaveland.* In American Geology, there are, in my opinion, many al- terations to be made, and which would have long since been made, if observers, of different schools, had examined the regions, to which my assertions have reference. The allu- vial of Mr. Maclure, (as I made known in a paper left with the Academy of Nat. Sci. of Phil.) contains not only well char- acterized alluvion, but products of the tertiary and secondary classes. Littoral shells, similar to those of the English and Pa- ris basins, and pelagic shells, similar to those of the chalk de- position or latest secondary, abound in it. These two kinds of shells are not mixed with each other; they occur in different matter, and, in the southern states particularly, are at different levels. The incoherency or earthiness of the ‘Spade _*Towhom the communication was originally made, in reference to the Reiroming new edition of his Mineralogy, and it is now published by the consent of the author and of his correspondent. Remarks on American Rock Formations. 255 mass, and our former ignorance of the true Poweins of the shells, have been the sources of our erroneous views. The second error of American geology, is the extending or covering of the western country, and the back and upper parts of New Yo rk, with secondary rocks. It was taken for sranted that all horizontal rocks are secondary, and as the rocks of these parts of the United States are horizontal in their position, so they were supposed to be secondary; and as such are copied by every writer I am acquainted a With those writers, who do not admit a transition or inter- mediate class, the generalization of inclination, and no in- cUnAsOn is admissible ; but is not so, when a transition class orms a part of the system. This class, (the transition,) is uplifting or downfalling force, or both, have existed ; but it is ne certain that either or both these forces have acted i in ized, as has been done by Mr. Maclure. Innumerable are the facts, which have fallen under my observation, which show the fallacy of adopting inelination for the character of a class, and the geological boundaries of the two classes in question, in the United States, abound in such facts. Those rocks are highly inclined, whose proto- types are horizontal towards the west, or otherwise removed from the mountain range. The analogy or identity of rocks I determine by their fossils in the first instance, and their position and mineralogical characters in the second or last instance. One observ: ation, and then shall terminate this ist as mountain or level es, those Pat which are S not nearer than the bituminous waa depositions resting upon them, are usually more or less inclined ; but if the primitive be far removed from such rocks, no rule can be given; they may be horizontal or inclined. Also, the greater the extent 256 Remarks on American Rock Formations. of such rocks, (old rocks with mechanical products,) and the nearer they are to the level of the ocean, the more likely they are to be horizontal. This rule is the result of observation, and of a theory, which I may, hereafter, give to the world. In the states of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee, the oldest rocks, or those lowest in position, I found to be characterized by the same shells and fossils found at Trenton Falls in York, which are similar to the shells and fossils, which char- acterize the transition rocks of Europe, namely, the orthocera- tite, trilobite, productus spirifer, and others of the new genera of Sowerby. ese may be added the many species of favosi, and the isotelus of De Kay, which | found in this, at Frankfort in Kentucky, and at Nashville in Tennessee. All these products I observed were below the bituminous shale ; for where it commenced these products disappeared, the encrinie taking their place along with terebratula. Above the coal shale were terebratula, and that species of Linnewan madrepora now the genus stylena, Those formed the characteristic of the most modern rocks I met with. It is worthy of remark, that all the barrens I crossed over, consisted of the rocks above the shale; and the finest lands of the three states I visited, had their soil underlaid’ with the rocks below the shale. In these latter, little or no siliceous particles are observable, whilst, in the rocks above the shale, they abound ; they form nodules, irregular masses, &c. All the stylena, which are very numerous, are replaced with silex. It is to these siliceous masses, that the barren nature of the country is owing; for drought being frequent, and they being good conductors of heat and bad absorbers and retainers of moisture, vegetation does not find the con- itions for vigorous life, as is found where they are absent. Most of the French geologists I studied with, assigned to the transition the bituminous coal deposition, making it the last member of that class; so with those, who are governed by authority, I presume, this will have weight. With myself it is sufficient to know, that the shells and fossils mentioned, are of the same genera with the transition rocks of Europe— our types; that, as in our country, they abound in such rocks, and if found in more modern rocks, they occur but occasionally ; that such rocks in the western country cqntain no coal; ali the coal there, is in rocks posterior to them. Translations and abstracts from the French. 257 Art. IX.—Translations and abstracts from the French ; by RoFEssor Griscom. Perchloride of Cyanogen and Cyanic acid. Specific gravity as a minerological character. Effects connected with Magnetism. Effects connected with Galvanism. Maximum density of water. A Pee ot . Perchloride of Cyanogen and Cyanic Acid.—A com- pound of chlorine and cyanogen, not before described, has been discovered by M. Serulas. Its formation and properties well corked, is exposed to the light for several days. A sol- id substance forms on the sides, which is to be removed, (af- ter blowing out with a bellows the remaining gas,) by pouring in a little water and a number of fragments of glass, whic. by agitation loosens the solid particles. These after being separated from the glass, are to be washed on a filter until the water no longer reddens litmus paper, nor forms a precipitate with nitrate of silver. 'The washed substance is then pressed and slightly warmed, between folds of blotting paper, until perfectly dry. It must next be distilled from a small retort, in the neck of which, or in the receiver, (which must be kept cold,) it crystallizes in needles of*a dazzling whiteness. Its odor is so pungent as to excite tears, especially when warm- ed, and has some resemblance to chlorine, but its analogy to the odor of mice is very striking. It is but slightly soluble n in cold water ; but much more so in hot, and is then soo 268 Translations and abstracts from the French. The action of the perchloride of cyanogen on the animal economy, is very deleterious; a grain dissolved in alcohol and introduced into the esophagus of a rabbit killed it in- stantly. An ounce of water in which another grain had been agitated, and filtered so as to separate the greater portion which remained undissolved, killed in twenty five minutes another rabbit which had been made to swallow it. The experiments of M. Serulas, to ascertain the composition of the chloride of cyanogen, results as follows :-— Chlorine, . - - .7346=2 atoms. Cyanogen, - - - .2654=1 atom. Cyanic Acid.—This is also a new compound, evidently differing in some important particulars, from either of the two substances described as cyanic acid—the one by Wéh- ler who did not succeed in isolating it—and the other by Liebig and Gay Lussac, who ascertained the existence of a eran acid in the fulminating compounds of mercury and silver. : . __M. Serulas has shown that among the most remarkable characteristic properties of perchloride of cyanogen, is that as tartrates, oxalates, phosphates, iodates,&c. This con- .. The cyanic acid is solid, very Translations and abstracts from the French. 259 It dissolves in both nitric and sulphuric acid, sont heat, but undergoes no change of properties even if those acids are boiled down upon it. Neither nitrous nor sulphurous acid gases are disengaged, and the cyanic acid remains without the least race perfectly crystallized, in plates of the purest whiteness. ‘These are remarkable evidences of its stabilit With potassium it combines, forming potash and a cyanu- ret of potassium, ie oe a blue color with the sul- phate of iron and an It unites with base gor oducing salts, some of which are perfectly shetatachell wh er crystalline forms, and by in teresting chemical proper It appears to have no decided effect on the animal econ- patie acid is obtained, by submitting to slight ebullition, perchloride of cyanogen in much water. As a portion goes off with the vapor of the water, before it is converted into hydro-chloric and fe acids, it is best to use at first a bal- chloric. "Tt t isto be washed on a ites with’ a little cold water to remove the last sicirtisie of the hydro-chloric acid, til the washings give only a slight precipitate with nitrate of he soluble in nitric acid, and insoluble in ammonia, not | n excess, which, on the contrary increases the precipitate. it must be fedissolved 3 in hot water, filtered and evaporated to a certain point, and on cooling the cyanic acid separates in small rhomboidal crystals, transparent and very pure. The analysis of this substance has rigorously confirmed the composition presumed from that of the perchloride of cyanogen, — gives rise to it. It is forme Srunogie: 2 eee Se 0.61897 atom, Oxigen, - - - - 0.3811 =2 atoms. 35 260 Translations and abstracts from the French. It is evident from the preceding statement, that chlorine combined with cyanogen, exerts an action upon water anal- ogous to that of other chlorides, iodides and bromides ; that this combination is transformed, by the decomposition of water into hydro-chloric. and cyanic acid; that the latter being more fixed and very stable, may be separated, by evaporation, from the ike which is very volatile. The discovery of the perchloride of cyanogen, indepen- dently of the interest which it presents in itself, becomes more important by the discovery of cyanic acid, which re- sults from it, pace whe latter creates a class of salts before unknown to chemistry. . Serulas nar combined the acid with several oxides, but as the Seanaies may be numerous, he reserves them for the subject of another memoir.—Annales de Chimie et - Phys- igue, Aout, 1828. sulphate of zinc, and obtained a colorless anid, which pre- served its qualities three years and a half: u dro ops were sufficient to kill a large dog.—Ann. de Chime. A ee Phys. 2. Specific gravity considered as a mineralogical charac: ter.—The statement given in treatises of mineralogy, of the specific ae of different ‘varicties of the same substance, shews so much discordance among these varieties, as to pre- vent specifi vba Bowl from being worthy of any reliance as a character. ads dant, apeDeCN that this difference has liye from the presence of foreign substances in them, has Ces pains to ascertain what atigal agreement there is, in the specific SE of the same substance in @ pure state in its differen The specific gravity of carbonate of lime, varies accord- ing to the books, from 2.324 to 3.672. M. Beudant, in limit- ing himself strictly to those istietiss which were identical in chemical composition, so as to avoid the influence of mix- tures, finds indeed in different varios some difference of specific gravity, but far more limited in its extent than ap- Translations and abstracts from the French. 26% pears to have been noticed by others. Carbonate of lime pact and stalactitic spar, varied in the extremes, from 2.7041 “ 2.7234. Pure arragonite, crystallized, fibrous and fibro- compact, varied from 2.9467 to 2,9053; coralloid trans- lucid, 2.8321; opake, 2.7647. Malachite, pure, from 3.5907 3.3496, Carbonate of lead, from 6.7293 to 6.7102. Sul- phate of lime, from 2.3257, in ‘small crystals, to 2.2615, nivi- form. Sulphate of strontian, from 3.9593 to 3.9297, Sul- phate of lead, from 7.7593 to 7.7398. Quartz, pure, from 2.6541 to 2.6354. It results from the researches of M. Beu- dant, that small crystals always have the greatest specific gravity, and hence it follows that itis in small crystals we are to look for the greatest homogeneity, as ha has been long known, the greatest perfection in form. The lowest specific gravity is always end in the fibréus or epigene varieties. Hence it appears that the difference of specific gravity in the same substance, depends on the manner in which the rudimental crystals are aggregated to form masses more or less considerable, and M. Beudant has accordingly found that when reduced to powder, all the varieties of the same a out woe —_ _ ise specific gravity of the substance be seth a minera- ogical character, i reducing it to powder, and allowing it 3 eee the liquid which serves as a common measure. When thus treated, the following is given as the specific gravity of the eight following substances, which is constant in all the gegen and which may serve to distinguish them when pur Carbonate of ligre--rhomboidel, - 2.7231 Arragonite, i 2.9466 + chite - - - 3.5904 Carbonate of lead, - i toe - 6.7290 Sulphate of lime, dois! ti: se Sulphate of pores . - - 2.9592 Sulphuret of flead, eieecd ty gee SISOS Quartz, - it ey ee - 2.6540 Idem. 262 Translations and abstracts from ihe French. 3. Influence of Magnetism. (a) On chemical action in general.—The Abbe Rendu, professor of chemistry at Chamberry, communicated to M. Biot the following experiment. A tube bent in the form of the letter V was filled with the tincture of red cabbage. An iron wire was plunged in eac branch, and one of them was supported by the north pole and the other by the south pole of a horse shoe magnet. Ina quar- ter of an hour the color of the tincture became of a beautt- ful green. It was the same in both branches of the tube. The same change was effected, though in much longer time, (two days,) when the wires in two small tubes closed at the extremities, which were plunged in the liquid. he discoloration was not the effect of a spontaneous change, for the fluid, of itself, becomes red and not green. as found, by Ritter, that a magnetized iron wire, com- bined with another not magnetized, produced a galvanic palpitation in frogs. Ritter placed a magnetized iron wire i of glass, in an earthen plate, and poured over it weak nitric acid: the north pole was more rapidly attacked than the south pole, and was much sooner surrounded with a deposition of oxide. When three small flasks were filled with water, either pure or slightly acidified, and in the first, the north magnetized wire was placed, in the second, a wire not mag- netized, and in the third, the south pole of a magnetized wire; the oxidation began with the south pole, and was considerably advanced in that, and sensibly with the non magnetized wire, before it was perceived in that with the north pole. In this experiment it was necessary to cover the water with fresh oil of almonds, to prevent oxidation from the air, and to avoid all difference of exposure to solar lights. —Annales de Chim. et de Phys. Juin, 1828. sity of Christiana, and has since been confirmed, by Prof. V, about half . - has a quantity of clean Mercury poured into it, but not suffi- _ cient to close the communication between the two branches. Translations and abstracts from the French. 263 A eeletow 83 — o ee with excess of acid, is then poured in so as ne o fill the tube. When. this tps is placed ina plane, a rer with that of the magnetic meri-, dian, the precipitation of the silver and the pcneen of the arbor diane, is abundantly more rapid than when the tube is placed at right angles to the meridian, and it is more rapid in the north branch than in the south, and the crystals at the same time are more brilliant and more perfectly needleform. After the crystallization had become very manifest in the north and south tube, and while little or no change had ap- peared in that placed east and west, two artificial magnets were placed opposite to the mercury in the latter tube, one with its north pole adjacent and the other with * oe pole. The sive then began to appear in the usual ma ive the silver greater freedom to extend itself during pronipaation, in a certain direction, small squares of glass were procured, on which were described circles with tallow ; within these a solution of silver was poured, and in the center was placed a round piece of zinc. The silver pean 2! began to form in circular zones ; but in such a manner that the circles extended much more towards the sensi ei to- wards the other point of the globe. The zinc and its oxide was in this case observed to incline towards the south. lass plates were afterwards placed at twe inches 4. Galvanic protection by the contact © heterogeneous tals—A communication of A. Mee Beck, of Utrecht, in oa influence. . I placed in a vase filled with sea water, a plate of cop- ee the metal was promptly oxidized, and the water acquir- ed i = a ara time a deep ae color. . A plate of copper, Pp ced under the same circumstan- col “butt . which I had ated a small plate of iron, tin or 264 ‘Translations and abstracts from the French. zine, was completely preserved. The copper retained its brightness, while the iron, tin or zinc were strongly oxidated. 3. A simple plate of very thin mica placed between the copper and the iron of the preceding experiment, promptly destroyed the preserving effect of the iron: the copper was oxidated. r 4, A platina wire was placed so as to unite the copper and the iron, the immediate contact of which had been broken by the mica: the copper was again perfectly preserved, and not an atom of oxide of copper appeared in the fluid. ‘This phenomenon of the preserving effect of iron, even when it is not in immediate contact with the copper, and when con- nected with it onl a conducting wire of another metal was perfectly demonstrated by the following experiment. 5. A plate of copper was connected by a platina wire with a plate of iron, and the plates were placed separately in two vases filled with sea water, while the fluids themselves were connected by moistened cotton or by a syphon filled with the same fluid. ‘Fhe copper was completely preserved—the water retaining its perfect transparency—while the iron in piece of copper, which was oxidized within the first day- 'The water therefore had lost none of its power and the phe- nomenon admits of no explanation on that ground. Neither had the copper lost the property of being oxidiza- ble by sea water, for the same piece, placed in another ves- of sea water was quickly attacked. It would scem then that the electric seme: action which iron and sea water exert upon copper, prolonged during a certain period, produ- ces between the elements of the coppee and those of the fluid Translations and abstracts from the French. 265 a certain continued electric tension, — invincibly opposes the combination of oxygen with the metal, none that ac- tion is so strongly manifested on ae occasions. I assured myself that a certain duration of achat of the metal is necessary to effect this state of things, for when I interrupted the contact in a similar apparatus, which had een in operation but a few days, the copper was speedily oxidated. Iam engaged in new researches to ascertain the limit of time necessary to effect - this preserving power, and also the limits of the iecetiog | tself.* 1e copper of the apparatus whose contact was inter- rupted after forty seven days, still continues, (now more than twenty days,) perfectly Art and no jadice ons of OXi- dation appear in the vess the etnkeoe, has been made by G. rmann, Jr his question, the author observes, depends necessarily and exclusively on the solution of another, that is whether the water of the sea, like fresh water, attains its maximum of density before it arrives at the aes of congelation. our methods of trial were pursued. 1, By taking the specific cael of the some at different temperatures by an excellent hydrostatic balanc -7 Nicholson’s areometer . By the method of Dr. Hope, in determining the tem- raters * prs i and descending currents ‘ mple and elegant method su ggested by the other, viz. 2 determination of the intervals of time in the cooling of the water under examination, through every suc- cessive half degree, from 15° or 20° I’. above, to the freez- &P * My eee tee eh led me to perceive that Sir H. Davy, in the Bake- rian Lectu ot ig tae mitted a serious error in recommending the use of zine or tn tion lers in which sea water is used I have tound pew th that tin, far from preserving iron, is on contrary aa boiler, instead of preserved a 8 it. Hence a piece of tin introduced into diminishing the danger of ee by preserving the boiler, would power- full ee to its des t. XVI.—No. "2. 7 266 Translations and abstracts from the French. The author sac that agreeably to this wat method, he placed a Reaumur’s thermometer in a glass vessel full of fresh water, one ors and a half high and an eat in ae ter, so that the ball was about a line from the botto On exposing it to a cold atmosphere, the intervals of sla were as follows, Temperature. Intervals of time. +6.6 - - - - - - 50" ess | - - - - - > 55 5.0 - - - - - - 50 5.0 - - - - Pe 50 4.5 = . - - . - 65 4.0 - : - - - - 198 b, - - - - - - 60 Sea - - - - - - 70 The eee of a maximum density is abundantly mani- fest in this: experiment. The sudden retardation of coolin between 4° and 3° would be inexplicable oan a previous knowledge of the anomalous dilatation of w ; But in salt water the effect is different. The resale of the several series of experiments is 1. That salt water, specific gravity 1.027, has no maxi- mum density while it remains liquid ; and even when ice has begun to form, the part which remains fluid, increases con- stantly and considerably in density. 2. Salt water at 1.020 attains no maximum density ; or at least none while it is sensibly distant from the freezing tem- aoe 1295; 3. Salt water at 1.010 acquires a maximum density, but at a temperature inferior to that of the greatest quantity of fresh water, viz. +- 19.5. It thus appears that a mixture of marine salt lowers the maximum temperature, and, mm proportion to its orohebls metallic mixture of Rose, ‘would probably be met with in other bodies, if their changes of volumes in the vicinity of ee point were carefully examined.—Bib. Univ. Oct. Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. 267 Art. X.—A memoir on the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alz cohol, and the products which result fromit. Read before the French Academy; by M. Servtuas, on the 15th and 22d of September, 1828. Translated and abridged by Prof. Griscom, Iv this valuable memoir, the author states that the sub- stance called sweet oil of wine, results from the decomposi- tion of the yellow liquid formed of sulphuric acid and car- buretted hydrogen: a decomposition produced either by its prolonged contact with the colorless liquid which distils with it, or by the operations to which it is subjected in order to separate and depurate it. . Serullas calls this substance neutral sulphate of carbu- retted hydrogen, or, sulphate of ether. Although it has been seen and handled by all those who have prepared sulphuric ether, it is no less true, that its real nature remains unknown, To obtain it pure the author directs that a mixture of 2! parts of sulphuric acid and | part of alcohol at 36 should be dis- tilled as for the preparation of ether. After a little ether has come over, the oily liquid, more or less yellow, will make its appearance, sometimes sinking below and at others floating above another colorless liquid which comes over at the same time. In the former case, it is mixed with more sulphurous acid and less ether than the colorless liquor, and in the latter, the acid is mingled in greater quantity with the colorless liquid. and transparent, but the vacuum must be continued in order to free it from water. In the course of twenty four hours the sulphate of carbonated hydrogen is of a beautiful deep green, after having passed through the successive shades of clear green, bluish green and emerald blue. 268 Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. In this state it < ob and if kept in a closed bottle, it undergoes no altera M. Sear je conclnes that the green color is owing to the absence of air. It has a peculiar, penetrating, aromatic odor, a fresh, ha taste, somone bitter, resembling mint ; its specific gravity is 1.133; it is slightly soluble in water, alcohol and ether dissolve it easily, and from these solutions it can again be abstracted. aced under water, at the end of a certain time, it is transformed into a light oil, (sweet oil) which rises to the surface, and into an ve sulphat e of carbonated hydrogen which remains in solut he light oil is en ; left at rest it deposits crystals of the same nature as itse This separation of the neutral sulphate, into an acid sul- _ phate and sweet oil, may be hastened by oe it with water. In this case a few minutes are suflicie The most remarkable property of this ead sulphate of carbonated hydrogen is that of being transformed by ebulli- pve into sulphuric acid and alcohol, without any disengage- ent of sulphurous acid or gas of any kind. o This acid sulphate of carbonated hydrogen has been hith- erto considered as a sulpho-vinic or hypo-sulphuric acid, uni- ted to some vegetable matter us, my analyses of the neutral sulphate, incline me to regard it as a double sulphate of ether and carbonated hy- drogen. When treated with bases, it abandons, as with water, the sweet oil, and forms with them, salts which have been called sulpho-vinates, but which must be considered, as Faraday = Hennell first advanced, only as salts with a double base, ne of which is the carbonated hydrogen. his oil, observed i in the decomposition of re seth the nature of which no one has hitherto pointed out, other than the neutral sulphate of carbonated ydbouent ab = aie in such cases in large quantity ; so that | may recom- d this as a method to be employed in the preparation of the neutral sulphate and consequently of the sweet oil. - For this purpose, we may heat for a few moments, without dis- tillation, equal parts of alcohol at 38° and sulphuric acid ; if mass is considerable, the elevation oe Bi giv serrb ee on mixing will be sufficient, for even in the obtain a certain quantity: Saturate with clear ee water (bouillie Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. 269 claire de chaux eteinte) and filter. After concentrating it a little by a gentle evaporation, cool it, filter again and allow it to evaporate inastove. It crystallizes slowly but perfectly, and we have thus a large quantity of sulpho-vinate, very pure. . This sulpho-vinate of lime, being dried with great care, and heated ina retort, the principal product collected is the neu- tral sulphate of carbonated hydrogen. e sweet oil of wine obtained in the best manner, by treating the neutral sulphate of carbonated hydrogen with water and heat, is slightly yellow like olive oil, has an aro- matic odor, density .921, greases paper like oils, thickens by cold without losing its transparency, and at 35°is solid. When perfectly deprived of water it is a non conductor of electri- city; and may be taken as a type of non conducting oily uids, The author infers from his analyses that it consists of 6 parts of carbon and one of hydrogen. The crystalline matter which separates from it has the same com tion. The inferences which M. Serullas draws from his investi- gation, are on the whole, as follows. 1, That in the action of sulphuric acid on alcohol, there is not formed, as has been believed, hypo-sulphuric acid, united to vegetable matter, (sulpho-vinic acid. . That there is produced, on this occasion, a combination of sulphuric acid in excess, carbonated hydrogen, and ele- ments of water in proportions which constitute ether (bi-sul- phate,) which abandons successively, by ebullition the ether which it contains; consequently the sulphuric acid has taken from the alcohol, an atom of water. 3. That the bi-sulphate of ether, in the reaction observed at a later stage, in the same operation, loses the part of sul- phuric acid which rendered it acid, or rather becomes satu- rated with carbonated hydrogen, and forms then a neutral sulphate of ether, or a double sulphate of ether and carbon- ated hydrogen, one part of which distils, while another is de- composed and gives rise to all the products which are known to appear at the same time. : 4. That the neutral sulphate of ether, which must now be ranked among well characterised chemical compounds, and which may be assimilated with ethers of the third kind, is susceptible by its exsiccation, and remaining in a vacuum of acquiring a fine green color; that it passes by prolonged 270 Action of Sulphuric Acid on Alcohol. contact with water, at common temperatures, to the state of bi-sulphate, by abandoning the portion of carbonated hy- drogen which rendered it a neuter or double sulphate, which . carbonated hydrogen having experienced during combina- tion, a condensation of its elements, preserves that form, even after its separation from the compound of which it constitu- ted a part, forming liquid carbonated hydrogen, (sweet oil of wine,) and solid crystallised carbonated hydrogen. 5. That the bi-sulphate of ether (sulpho-vinic acid,) is transformed by ebullition in water, into sulphuric acid and water, without any disengagement of gas. 6. That the compounds which the bi-sulphate of ether is susceptible of forming with bases, which in this case, replaces carbonated hydrogen, compounds which have been called sulpho-vinates, are double salts, which, also by ebullition in water, are entirely transformed into alcohol and a sulphate of the base with excess of acid. 7. That the sweet oil of wine, and the crystalline matter which it abandons by repose are formed, as M. Hennell has stated, of hydrogen and carbon in the same proportions as that in which these two bodies exist in bi-carbonated hy- drogen. 8. That the sulphuric ether, from the first period of its dis- tillation contains bi-sulphate of ether, and at a later stage, a greater or less quantity of neutral sulphate of bi-carbona- ted hydrogen, products which are quickly isolated by the evaporation of the ether. 9. Finally—that a means of obtaining the neutral sul- phate of carbonated hydrogen, and consequently, of sweet oil of wine, is to decompose the sulpho-vinate of lime, as the most economical mode of preparation, by heating it in a re- tort, after having dried it, and collecting the product.—Ar- nales de Chim. et de Phys, Oct. 1828. Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 271 Art. XI.—Algebraic Solution ; by Mr. C. Wixper, of New Orleans. Remarks on the determination of y, in y"+-ay"—'! +-by"-? +cy"—3+dy"—* ... +ky+l=0. (A) By’ and then deter- mine S,, so that (B) may be a Sebi of (A), independently of x, we shall have z?+8, If we assume the Gnedonc Po age 2-9? wey by writing y+-z for ye it is changed to ek 5 =e w+y+z which gives to (A) the form of eRe eae *+ay Now if we make (B)=0, we ‘atiall-o mn have Ea) sabe hence, y comparison, » (1), z4 epee (2), these two equations together with rt+y+2=0, (8), are sufficient to deter- mine y; for from hs pag d (2), a? - and from (1) and (B), y= =5 a which is the co aaciaes In like manner, — the function at+8,7°+8, (C) x?+yz+p (Dy we shall have, when (D) i ue factor of ios oe of x, : — 3py)x* MR GE writing yte for y, and it is changed to x® +(y* +3zy ESS ey ee te v2 -+-Yyr+p Now when (D)=0, we also have (C)=0, and we may there- fore, after dividing se by x*, compare it with the equation ay? -+by-+-c= which gives 3z=a, (1) 32? ek (2) 272 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 3 xri+z3— sp2+4; =c, (3). These three equations son to x«?-+(y+z)e+p=0, (D), are sufficient to determ For Srevity ‘tsk z=0, then (2) p=-% and (2)and(3) z?= 5 Van =¢(bc) 2 forthen. (D) y=-— “tte mena 2 ) becomes _@tp) which is the rule of Cardan. . 4 2 Ss, So also the function ane — ee = st ’ a , be- comes, on Sn is a factor of (B) indgpendentiy of z, . aa a yx? +-pxr writing (2ny+2z) fr Ys aad (aetys Tet 2z2—p) for p, and . 4 change tigre. says y*+16n°® a z*— 4n*p)y? + +(2ny +2z)a? + (16nz* — 8npz —4nq)y +424 — 4pz* +p? sere mee (2n2y? +4nzy +22? —p)x r dividing by 4n‘*z?, the a (E)=0, and — comparing with y* y > + by? +-cy-+-d= =o ed we shall have or ey (1) ~(62*p)=b, (2) 1 seca (3) 1 xr BY oats 7" pore A +2z'—p 1224 gz Lym, (4). These equations joined to 22+ (2ny-+2z)0% H(2n?y? +4nz Aan peli He ee are sufficient to determine y. =0 and n=!, =a xe +2bxt+(b? —4d)z? Atoms each; is a ainaae of Des Cartes. When z=0 and n=1, we have ‘Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 273 b ee eee ; eee %° ort ++ (2 —7)? —Gqg=9, which reduced is given in most books of algebra. o24+S, a x3,, (G) a per” (Hy which becomes, = (H) is a factor of (G) independently of x, ea ly*—4py? +4qy+2p?)zx® LF -+yx? +prt+q (p* — Aud *p+2q7y?)v*—q*, Again, let us assume oo +pxr+q (H1)=0 and of course (@)= 0, we have by comparison with y* +by? rey +d=0, after having divided (G) by x? spt mb, (1) In? va: de a=, (2) 4G 992 2 Ps a a2) sted, (3): ee x-* from (1 sa (2) by the process indicated 2p? (1) +4 (2), we have sp?+4q?+2bp? —cq=0. This eqnslion is satisfied by making 4p+-b=0, (4), and 4g—c=0, e three equations, (3), ) and (3) pas to (H), are sufficient to determine eB os 3) w x'24(d—2p?)x*+(p*+ 15tyeegs ea then we obtain by the second example, x* =elbed), and from si ee oe Gite Sine 22 we orideatly wey Agqyp? we y*sa*; identically nothing, otherwise, there would be a relation between a, 6 and c, which is not the case. G) Let us write in oe Qy for y, and 2y2—p for p, which changes this function to 212-+-8y4—8py? “8qy-_2p2)x*+(16y° —32py °-32qy> +24 p?y* x 24 -+-2yxz? +32pqy* + (169? — 8p*)y? — Sp*qy +p* +4pq? )e* —@" +(2y*—p)a+q and then we have, by a comparison with the function - y® tay® +by® +cy! +dy*+ey? tfy+e=0, Vor. XVI—No. 2. 274 Wiider’s Algebraic Solution. 2p=—a, (1) 2q=b, (2) x4 -+3p2 =2e, (3) q=4, (4) = Se ‘6 4 = +167 Fs i624 ©? (7); or better, 2'* —2p2x°+-p* —4q*p — —q'=0: eliminating «* from (3), (5) and (7) by the process indicated, and we have metal p?+q'=pcte, (8) q(3)— (6) pa=a+f, (9) p(6)—4(5) q=ge—f- (10). _ The equations (8), (9) and (10) are satisfied by making p? =¢ and g?=e, f being equal to nothing. This changes the given equation, by writing —2p for a, and —2q for —b, into y? —2py*—2qy> +p*y! +2pqy? +9°y? +3 =0, or better, ne ee ae Se which shows that. the reduced is nothing but the rule of Des Cartes, applied to the above equation. Since the given is parted into two factors, (y* —py? —qy+V g)y' —py* qd —Vg¢)=0, the rule ap- plied to y* —py? — qy+/V g=0, gives for the reduced | (a), 294 2pxt +p?x? —p?=—AV £5 changing the signs of the second and fourth term of the first number, we have (b), x* — 2px* px? -+q? = —4vV ¢ These two equations give x212—2p?x'+(p*+4pq?)2*—q'=168; which is (7). It is easily seen that we have another equa tion, (e*—p*)y*—py? — qy=(e*—p*) g, which is the same as the given equation. a £2 XG ; - We might have treated the function m otherwise by writing it thus, x1# +(8y* — Spy? —8qy ~ 2p?) at a ee aya Ci = peg (Gay*— 4py?—4qytp*—4pq")x'—g* G, 8 4 Qyx? +(2y? —p)a+q . a’ and when(e)=9, we have by transposition, and extracting the square root, and Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. Q75 making the absolute term equal to W &.y* —py? —qy +p? 4 4-V 4pq?x' — x"? mi Bee —8qy — 2p*)x*+q* _, reducing «1*-++-(8y* — Spy? = Sae > 2p? je? (pay hig *p)x*—g*?=0, but By! —S8py* —8qy=8V 2; hence, our re i #14 — (ap? —8V g)2"4(p?—4V g —4g2p)xt —q' = which is the product of the factors no and (6)= 0, re- sulting from the transposition of —4 rom the foregoing examples, one ould be led to think the method pursued here was applicable to all rational al- gebraic equations; but let us, before we attempt to follow the analogy, recall, and demonstrate the following proposi- tions. HMO VAS, 2M IAS | MO DLS. em™n—a) L) Lyg2 +pxs +qx"~* First, let » FSco—2 yt” + Seni ym_ a - pir+-u be a function in which 2. DyY; Ss etc. are independent functions of any number of other quantities whatever, then I sa Sm, Sams Sam etc. can tly al es (B) shall functions o of etc. independently of x, so that a a OHA: for for, continue the operation indicated till the index of zx in the remainder is n—2, and then make the poms equal to zero independently of Li which can always be done, since the whole number of unknowns, Sm, Som, Sam, ete., and the whole number of éonatiGas ism—1; and itis ‘evident that they are of the first degree, relative to Sins Se amsote. It is plain that the function (A’) may be decomposed in (n—1) factors, ea ) Pp ee ("+7") (2" +0") etc. ; rat +h +7 if we put Fey ese G4 ay

, for we either have (xy'pq ete.) 0 o(xry'pq etc.) 0 : ee aey’pq te.) 0% Fi sap ete )~0% 204 if the division does not take place independently of y’, or what is the same, ¥> we shall have a relation between 2, p, q, etc., which is contra- ty to the hypothesis. We either have therefore o(rypq etc.), factor of ¢(xypq etc.), or *(rypg etc.), a factor of o(zyPd 9. yet nothing divisible by some- ete.), according as 9’ > or< Wilder's Algebraic Solution. ger a! Proposition fourth. Let o(xypq ete.) be a factor of 9’ (xypq ete.) +0" (xypq etc.), independently of x, y, p, ete.;_ then I say that if ¢” (xypq ete.) written for y, eee viene etc.) =0, it, will also make 9 (xypq ete.)=0, and sieves etc.) = bt) = writing y'=9'" (apyete. ‘% we shall have ny'pq ere.) + 9"(xy'pgq ete.) _ WW, Pq etc.) ete or better ox Hele fi ie.) 0 ; since therefore 9(xy'pq ete.) di- vides the whole vey Pq ete.)-+e" (xy'pq ete.), and the part e(xy'pq etc.), it must also divide the remainder 9’ («y’pq etc.) ; ge (ay'pq ete.) o(xy'pq ete. ) ory Pd te.) © o(xy'pg ete.)=0; but o(ry’pgq ete. ak a fates of 9!(xy ‘pq etc.), therefore, 9'(«y'pq etc.) =0. Further, it may not be amiss to observe, that a function is equal to the continued product of all its factors ; and if a is a root of (z" +1)=0, different from unity, then the roots of this equation are, 1 consequently; + Let us now return to the second example, ol continue to denote by x3, ¢(bc), we have then, sotto) ? “2=ay TP a es sapocotiad i _ (aa =p) _(ate 242) ; thus (c) admits of but. three simple ice. The continued product (y= 2? ) otf yy ar? + ate) ought to reproduce. ©: 3 and accordingly we have is 3 Sa a = 2 on hat | ay | r&-Lps ye ata +p ta") + yee = = (by having [ee serie) | atx? 278 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. ; 3 regardtol a a?,)toy® — spy +0? 455 the function we parted from. We may further es the function, —+5, becomes, when the (»—; a +042) Se 3) + Eee LIS is a factor of i numerator, independently of 2, _ Yi t3zy? eos —3p)y+ (x?-(y? +-3zy? +(327—3p)y +2? — sp: )* ae -(y°+ 4 z°.—3pz)* demas 2 ree S2y? +(3z? — Sp)y+z* — spz)* +p hence, when z=0, we have the following equations, 3p b, (=°-+p*)*=e, (x img taletcad! peels from which y is known. y? +pytq)*—«* The oe y? -bay-+b cubics; for if we make ety ays Ay +By-+-C, and determine A, B, and C, Sao the denominator is a factor of the numert- ator, we shall have, » is also proper to reduce Ch=q? +x? or Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 279 A=3p, (1), =3q+3Sp? — 4d, (2), C= 6pq+p* — 3ap,(3), 3aq-+3p? aoe -aphinhae 4+: 3p3q 4), 6apq+p*a—3pa? —2ab+ ee be =3pq?, (5) 2? +-9*=6pqb—3pab—b?, If we malsiall (4) by p, and subtract it seat (5), we shall have (3q —2a)p* ray. A ieee ne 2a)b=0. ‘his equa- tion is satisfied by ma 2 Writing 5 q @ for q, in on and (6,) and we have, ap? +3bp——- =0; an8 =bp® +-abp —b?— em ; from whence we have y ; oe when y?-+ay+b=0, we have y?+py+q —x*=0; and we have already p, q and 2, in functions a and b. This is the rule of Tschirnaus. We may still vary the calculation, by assuming the function, (3 +0? + (a+p)a+b+9+a)(8°+8? + ey (72+7? +(a+p)y+b+q+2) ; for, making the coefficients of x and x?, equal to nothing, and eliminating the symmetrical function «+-8-+-y, «7+? +y?, etc. by means of aand b, we obtain, Se: es ap! + 3bp —> =0, and =bp?--abp—b? —5=-° now, if we ae y?+ay+b=0, we aan have y? +py+4¢ =0, 2s whence y is known, y standing for one “Of e let- ters a, ry. Let as sat recall the function, xt —(y* — 4py* +-4py +2p*)x* +(p* — 4ayp* + Aq’ pt eek alk ack ©, 2q7y?)x*-+-q' : (G) (H) 280 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. x nr ; here, writing ys EEE for y in (G), we have (ps tay'p* + 9ip ogy ce y'* — 4py'? +-Aqy' 2p? 4 T _ 540, x And since p, g and x are independent, we may make any three hypotheses we choose ; accordingly, comparing 4 4 2. 4 y!*—Apy'? -4qy!+2p2@—* - TP+T — 28, with a function y/* ++by’? +cy'’+d=0, y’' being the same in both functions, we have 4p=-6 : 4q=c and ve} 2(d—2p?)x*+-(p4 +4q2p)x4 —q'=0, the same as obtained before. The fourth proposition gives the same result, perhaps more satisfactorily. Continuing to denote by « the function (bcd), we shall then have, = y= —(22°-+pt+q)s wom Saag y= —(a8x*+apt+q), ev en’ y'=—(a°x?+a*prtq), a*x? hos ate 3 4 hace easnecrg) ; let us transpose the a°a second members, and it requires no great skill to see that the continued product of the four factors will be, y'*—Apy’? +4qy' + 2p? — (ps — Aay'p? +4q°p +24°y"") “7 | + - «4=0; but by the hypothesis, *+4q? 4 yincapy hg ate et tl, conse- — oe A mp2 i) 25,/2 quently, —Awp 4 _Y” =0; hence, the product of the four factors is y’* +by’*-+-cy’+d=0, j Let us now take y* +-by?+cy? +dy+-e=0, for the ara | equation. Heren=5, andif we make m=5, the function (B) will be proper to resolve this equation. Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. 281 it would be useless to repeat the calculation by which we have determined the functions, 8,,8,,,5,,3 it 1s sufficient to say that (A’) will be, ps —sqyp? +y° ] +5ry*p? +p: | — 5py* — Srp* — d5prq* +5qy? § +5q?p? +5r?4q? x*°+4 5py pre? v19 — Sp? r2gq rip ; — dry — d5qry* —5r*q — Spq —5q*y —d5pr°y +5p7y? —10r?p +5q?r J and B’, 24+-+-yx*+pa0?+qa+r. Let us now suppose that such a function o(apgr) is written for y, as renders «2 °(y* — 5py? +5qy? + 5p?y — dry — 5pq)x'* +-(ps — Spe oe p? —10r2p+-5q?r)x'°+(q> — 5prq* +op* rq —5r°q)c*+r>=0, we may then compare it with y* +by* +-cy? +dy+e=0, after dividing the first equa- tion by «5; Hero done we have, =—b, 1 ae we (2), = (3); ais 7. ms § at spe kg? E = 10rtp = set (q oprapt—50'0) 5 a 4), or bat x? ile, spayeteG 78 bp th5q? ‘p? —10r?p — 5q?r)x'°+ (q° — 5prq?-+5p*r2q —5r*q)z*+q° =0. These four equations, joined to sph Set EE are sufficient to determine y. It is very evident, pat it is a matter of indifference, which ofthe letters y, p, q, or r, we treat as the pBkngwe+ for they re all of five di naire in the function before u This remark is applicable to other cases ; as, ea example, ia 8 Br 2 aac 2 ; here, ma- _2?+yr+p : 5 the function (D)’ which is Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 282 Wilder’s Algebraic Solution. king (D)=0, then (C)=0; treating p as unknown, and com- paring with p?+-bp+c=0; we have 3 v3y=—b, (1), w P08 FC, (2), p=—(«?+yz), (D). ; From (1) and (2) we have «12 —cr®— 55 =0; b . (ae from (1) then y=— 375 3 these two equations joined to (D), determine p. Let us take for the last example y° +by* +ey? dy? +cy-+f=0. | There are several functions, resulting from different values of m, equally proper to resolve this equation. The one, in which the function is most easily calculated, is that in which m==2. ‘Our function is then, oe! 490° +S ,2°+8,21+8,27+S8, , (A’). eo --yet+prt+qr?+re+s “aeB') ¥ =P a for Caleulating S,,S,, ete., and afterwards writing as 6 or q, p, and ° we shall have, —y® 9 B Brit —y qy +6py? | 1 —9p2y* | 1 +sy> Ut a? — px? + 8qy (aur tery" 36° + Spsy gts? (4) ney —12pqy +298 = ite +24r J — 72sy wn 4g? | —3pr J =) Se a yee Mine sgl SSeS 6 0), +ra+s (B) _ Now, if we make (B’)=0, (A’) will also be equal to noth- ing; and the five independents 2, p,r, q, and s, allowing as many separate hypotheses ; we therefore make y, being the es 6 same in (Ry: and y°+-by* +-cy? +-dy? +ey+f=0, 6p=—b, (1), 4q= —C¢, (2), Op? — 36r=d, (3), 12pq+-72s=e, (4), 1 1 a? — px’ 7 (p? +8r)x* —5(288f-++q? +-9pr)x* — 1 gir? +2qs)z? —s?=0, (5). These five equations, joined to (B’)=0, are sufficient to de- termine y. We evidently have, at the same time, 1 1 g (Spy? +4qy)x° + 3(sy* + 3psy)x* =0 5 or better, , (3py +4q)x? +2sy? +6ps=0, an indentical equation. Art. XII.—Solution of a Problem in Fluxions; by Prof. THEODORE Strona. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New Brunswick, June 8, 1829. Dear Sir—Should you consider the following solution of a well known problem of sufficient importance, you will oblige me by giving it a place in the Journal. shakin oases that a particle of matter, projected from a given point, in a given direction, with a given veloci- ty, is deflected from its rectilineal course into a curve line ; It is required to determine the equations of its motion. Solution.—Let its motion be defined by the three rec- tangular axes (x, y, z,) Z=P. COs. 9 COS. v, Y=F. COS. # Sin. v, y x z=r.sin. 9, .!. r?=02? +y2 +2? (1), 7 tan. v (2), > ==COs. v cot. 6 (3), * =sin. v cot.9 (4). Let t denote the time, (or the independent quantity, which varies as the time, increas- equal elements dt, in equal elements of the time.) _ he question requires that 2x, y, z, r, 9, v, found in y, &e. are to be considered as functions of t. Put X= —7,5+ 284 Solution of a Problem in Fluxvons. d?y dz xd? x --yd*y+-2d?z ge Ben gr PO ge rx dt? ree ly —yd zde —ad. (a —_)= aE”, -(¢} 5 tos. vxd(—G vactarb ie ) sin. v Say yee a zd d xd( aE : 7 —)= —F” (d); s= the portion of the curve de- dt scribed, (in the time ¢,) its concavity being supposed to be turned towards the origin of the co- ordinates ; ; it is evident that r= the distance of the particle from the origin of (x, ¥; z); let de= the elementary angle contained by r and r+dr; then rd@ and dr are the legs of a right angled triangle, whose hypothenuse is ds; .° . ds? —dr? =r2dp?, (e); but rdg is the hypethenuse of ariother tight angled triangle, whose legs are r cos. 9 dv and rdé .". r2d92 =r2cos, 29dvu2 +-r2do*, (f). The second differential of ( it) eens tof ¥ joes dt as con- — dx? sa ia ne BBE yd? yted?z — stant,) gives = di? (g¢); but it is evident that dx? dg? = =ds?, .’. by substi- dr 24 rd?r ds? tution in (g) of ds? and by (6), I have —j5-—=7ia— rF, rd*r ds? —dr? Fas =— ga ~— TF; or by (e) and (f) I heve r cos, *6dv* +rdo? — d*r : are is (A). Multiply the differential r? COS. 20d it of (z), (taken relatively to z,) by 22, and I have —~- ais ak the differential of this gives d =H Nac ee “, As qtr arias (B), by (9. Multiply the differen- zd. dd tials of (3) and iy), by z*, and there results ane dz _— cos. — sin. D COS. 9 SIN. 7 zdy — ~ydz_ : sin. vd6 sae mi a dt ar r? Cos. v Cos. 6 sin. 6 | : rE at > multiply the differential of the first of Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. 285 these by cos. v, and that of the second by sin. v, then add the products, and by (d) I have d (Gr) = —— as dt (C). The equations (A), (B), (C), are those which I pur- posed to find. e solution of the question is now reduced to the integral calculus, and the integrals of (A), (B), (C), z er a*y @% manifestly depend on the values of — ade? aa Ge their equals, X, Y, Z, which are involved in F, F’, F”, as 2 y given by (6), (c), (d), respectively. The quantities — “aa d?y d? ~ dt? dt ment of the motion, or at some determinate point of the described curve, and to vary according to some given law; which means their general forms of expression (or X, Y, Z) become known. In the language of dynamics, X, Y, Z, tap gh d?z z *. 3? are supposed to be given at the commence- are the forces which cause the changes —F> — qm ae np oGbirdy Gt 35 i= in the velocities of the particle 7 4 a’ in the direction of be given; that is, if the unit is (1) second, t denotes sec- onds.) Also, F, as given by (6) is the expression which would result by decomposing X, Y, Z, in the ares of r, v 3 the usua! rules of decomposing forces, and F’, F’”’, res 286 Solution of a Problem in Fluxions. dv? —d*r ha F(A’) and (B) be- - not exist ; also (A) becomes comes d (Gr =I", (B’). These results can readily be dt found from the equations r?=#*?-++y? . . ‘= tan. v, by the same method as before. Again, if a =0, I have r?dv=c'dt c ; (G), (c’= const.), hence dv?= —{—5 substitute this in esr (A’), and there results —=-— aaa (D), multiply by dr, and - — sail to r, and reduce, and there results c'dr == 5 aa feoning ns Oe eee ‘2 —9r?SFdr (E), which agrees with Laplace’s result, (Mec. Cel. Vol. 1. p- 113,) and is same as that of Newton, (Principia, Vol. I. ioe Vill. prop. 41.) The equation (D) may be put under the form =" r* yp? aie oe a) =F’, substitute for dt? its value ar andit ~ Bade becomes 73-9 4 (Fie a) =F (H), which agrees with (4) of Laplace, at the slabs before cited; (H) can also be 42 t.? put under the form; ~Z-d = rn) =F (1), (¥ being the angle at which the radius vector r petits the curve and — 7 its cotangent. By substituting in (A’) for dt? its value as rdv? —d?r given by (G), I have (2)" =F (K), or F varies as rdv? —d?r = ae (since for a given centre of force in a givel curve, c’, is constant) which agrees with Newton’s result, eee tat, sec. second, prop. 6. cor. Ist. his QR being the Solution of a Problem in Fluzions. 287 dv? — d? same as oS and SP? xQT?=r‘dv?,). The use of tap om (E) is to determine the curve when the force s given, and it is obvious that it requires ie to be a func- cuts the curve at the same angle, .:. by H— erga) 2 :.F varies as => ; for different points of the curve, (which agrees with SFO: 9th, sec. second, Prin.), if }= a right an- Bie the cosec. }=1, and the spiral becomes a circle, and —- =F=const. for the same circle, and for different cir- r3 neg du*r* cles a for c’? its value —7,~’ it becomes = =F, b eeaV nithiegel an J=> = y putting “ae de =V =the ve ocity,(which aS with Prin. sec. second, Ae 4th, cor. Ist.) esr by ashing the finite agin of (D), relatively to c’? and 12 regarding r and oa as constant, I have —,—=DF,(D be- ing the characteristic of finite differences.) ‘f De’? is consid- ered as constant, DF varies as75 ; (which in prop. 44th, sec. 9th, Prin.) I shall here leave Fes subject, as I suppose I have said enough and pea too much already. CORRECTIONS. P age 284, 6th line from bottom, dele (z) and insert ns eS oe LOM ee, insert dv sae sin. G3 in tor thus, sin. 6dr. Some smaller corrections, not deemed important, have been omitied.— Ed. 288 Meteorological Table, &c. 2% “syeosog eiomy|™ | =~ |? | PRR eels = 4 ‘ za ‘ “skep Jo ‘ON jeoman mere | | | jane 2Sq |5\‘sopunyy pue Sumpysry] 77 a3 ° 9 = | OM 00 1291 1S Se [z| Weapue sous jo soyoug) | | | | | 15 | 8839/8 ae, 3 “qjuom tS % ae erty Foy ht 8 Est Bf \yore tajem jo yetoisay)h TSN 10% te, ’ 3 ASR IDH OS 3 228 72) -3y5ia ye prey pue mous SE dicie fd d c a 3 os 5 cures UI 49}8M Jo soyouy| TIS AV im S tan Ken aiilen buy Mon OO EA DOSOV+ ar OD Lae e 2: our Aep ay [yeq pure MoUs |S Oe Se ee le im 2s “aler UI 1938M jo soyouy|? 7 ON % ies Zz 5% aaisae ASST OSCR SHS Lama ——- = s. re a Se aD B ° a Sis z Aaa e a ~_ rue se =— ~ BE |TSa__ aap aos TTI TIS TP ees ae alas ‘huey © RE Te The [AS Bis s| toy SSR ee EPS Pie 2p (Eee Among ORT ARR eg i 5 5 oS) —-) co ge (Fes MURSARSASASSRA 8 22 : ; t a: at Ti as ek l Ss 222 “IQ}9MIOULIY J, JO 93 QA S 19} ‘= £+s : | = 823 | [Ss] -casdop womor/(BGASIRsoge og | es ep2 a5 ; et ¢ ~S Sa ie si : = = SSS ees SSS Se ts 3 wp & E s| angles BSS * 'g & SES £s HHH wo oorrnreos 5 ry OD Al ew - wo — 3 s<3 | 23 Meg WSasesane? ie = —" 5 “= By ey ets 3 2 Z le ap @ 4 SEe3 2. 4 tk SD S i a OD 1G =) aoa Ss 2 oe ae | 28 Ascczsresees| & 6.80 1s Es “ano S =e & a6 RANANENARAMN > to ite Oo + = $a see Soro EY Sekdedad Ba 1 | ~ errant! 5 i Ko a OAD OH Ih HID ON = 2 gee TE Hig 2 ie hs So li a 38 e S| “yjuour qove ainy ° cnawe ls | 12 |2l mo vow jo ndasayiSbSeseees2na's _ . = a i Qaeeoerroocan ols > - “ma ‘ 2.0 S fet CRs hee fe s Se c= eed Lot eormsanass|a ~ 83 6 7 aNjrieduis; uvaW| A BSSEAARAAAS|S] ge rt Ss | <= ener PHIM MWNOMaArOSRS | ‘ SP. gwomposoduy wesW\S EL SSEARAASS |e cag Bw a toe Hae -astiuns Sek sat a nl Re at 2 oolt ase ye oinjesoduray cea GS SSSPRARS°AaS|S BEE . ‘i Buss 5 2 Peewee es eae Els - a nN i SOs Set 5 g a Tete | we SSE SR OS Sos Sle Meteorological Fable, §-c.— Remarks. 289 REMARKS, From the foregoing table, it appears, that the mean tem- perature of the last twelve months was 44.2, which was about 1° colder than the twelve se preeeway, e temperature of the summer months w : winter — do. - - : eB, ifference, - - - 47.9 That August was 2° warmer than the other summer months, and February about 2° colder than the other winter months, That March was 3° colder than December, and June warm- er than July. The highest temperature was 90°, and was ary, and was 22° below zero. But it fell below zero eigh- teen nights within the months of iraty and February. e had lightning and thunder on forty five days; Aurora Rireslie was seen on ten evenings only. The quantity of water which fell in rain, hail and snow, was 73.3 inches, which is believed to be beyond a parallel in the recollection of any man living. The whole quantity of snow was 100 noe oe is only 3 inches more than fell in the winter of 1826 On the 2d, 3d and 4th dye of Sept, there fell 9.7 inches of rain, which produced a most destructive freshet, through- out Vermont and New eeregents the ravages of which will probably be ‘visible for half a century. For many years, since I have pen ee in Vermont, I have been of opinion, that much more water falls annually i in rain, hail and snow, upon the Green Mountains, aa in most oth- er parts of the United States; and from three years’ accu- rate observation, I am confirmed in the belief, In the win- ter months it is a common occurrence that there are storms upon the mountains, when ten or fifteen inches of snow fall, and at the same time, only a few miles distant, at the foot of the mountains, on the west side, they have very little or no storm of wd kind. So in the summer, the clouds are often see mulate over the mountains, and there exhaust themselves, in violent sac ware, and their extension is limited w miles. It appears by Dr. Hildreth’s observations, made at Mari- sp Ohio, for three * a eae panlenes in the Journal of p. XVIL—No. 290 Lhe Aurora Borealis or Northern Lighis. Science, Vol. xvi, No 1,)that the whole quantity of rain which fell, within that time, was 132.6 inches ; and from my obser- vations made in Vermont, for the last three years, the quan- tity of water, which has fallen is 189.9 inches—difference, 57.3 inches. I believe, however, so great a difference would not be found by a long series of observations, made at both places, for the seasons have been unusually humid in Ver- mont, during the three years above mentioned. From thirty years’ observation, I am confident that light- ning, thunder, and hail, in summer, are far less severe in the tricts, situated in the same degrees of latitude. The eleva- ted peaks, probably, serve as conductors, which convey the electricity from the clouds without shocks; and almost uni- versally, when the lightning strikes the earth, it occurs in vallies, or on the sides of mountains, far below their highest points, ~ In conclusion, I would remark, that notwithstanding the = quantity of rain, which fell during the last summer, in ermont, some of our crops were abundant. The grass and hay crop, perhaps were never better. Indian corn, potatoes and some garden vegetables were light. Spring wheat, rye and oats suffered severely by blight. Fayetteville, Vt. May 1, 1829. Art. XIV.—Speculations with respect to the cause of the urora Borealis or Northern Lights. Various have been the attempts to account for this phe- nomenon ; as yet no satisfactory theory has been offered to the public, most of the essays on the subject, being destitute of a sufficient number of facts on which to erect any lasting hypothesis. : f the positions herein taken as true, are, as they are be- lieved to be, founded on admitted facts, some progress will, erhaps, have been made in explanation of a subject hitherto so obscure. The first question that presents itself is, what reali , reads the heavens, assimilates it in this appearance, to no thee wuls pea | The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights. 291 At some remarkable periods when it has assumed its most terrific forms, something strongly resembling the electric chain of the thunder cloud has been observed: If we add to these facts, the late discoveries of the French philosophers, of the effects of those lights on the magnetic needle, there can be little doubt as to the nature of the agent that produces the northern lights. The next question; How comes there c thern pole, and by what means does it ascend to produce the alleged effect—is an enquiry of vastly more difficult solution, and on the correct and clear explanation of the causes pro- ducing these effects, depends the whole of this hypothesis. efore I proceed farther in developing the theory, I would remark, that the different kinds of minerals, although found combined with others, in various forms, and scattered by the convulsions of nature, over the whole globe, still abound (whether agreeably to some established law, I will not pre- tend to decide,) in particular regions, and are in a great meas- ure absent from other regions. For instance, gold, silver, pla- tina and quick silver, although found in other zones, are partic- ularly abundant in the tropical regoins ; copper, lead and tin. occupy the latitudes next north; iron, fetes meteoric,) is the native product of the northern regions. In the- I cussion of this subject, I shall assume as historically true, the ollowing mineralogical! facts. First, that south of the equa- tor, there are not to be found any considerable masses of iron under any form; our knowledge as to the mineralogy of a portion of those regions, is admitted to be extremely limited. So far as those regions on this continent have been explored by Humboldt and other modern travellers, no masses of this mineral have been discovered, nor as far as our knowledge extends, have we any reason to believe, that any such mass- es are to be found on the eastern continent. The next fact assumed is, that no great masses of iron, are to be found within 32° north of the equator; that near that point the iron region commences and era northerly as far as es of north latitude. As to all purposes of this discus- sion, this iron region may be considered, as a world by itself, and the centre of electrical attraction, in other words, the theory is this, that the electric fluid is gradually drawn off from the clouds and incumbent atmosphere by the peaks of £7 oe 292 The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights. the high mountains, and the iron region generally. The power of iron gradually and noiselessly to disarm the clouds, is strikingly exemplified by the following simple experiment, Take and insulate an iron rod through the roof of your house; bring it down to your chamber, and when the thunder storm comes within two miles of the rod, sparks of electricity may be drawn from the rod; connect the rod by a chain with the ground and the effect ceases, as the fluid passes impercepti- bly tothe earth. Now if such are the extensive eflects of a small rod in disarming the clouds and atmosphere of the elec- tric fluid, what must be the effect of those immense masses from the following well known facts, to wit; that south of the equator, the thunder storms are much more frequent and pole there is an open sea, at all seasons of the year. Without ployed in the whale fishery. And more particularly to the latter, who have penetrated still farther to the north than northerly, until it reaches the open sea near the pole where it rises in the vapor that constantly ascends from the watez im that region. That electricity ascends as well as descends. we Chemical fistruments and Operations. " 993 those immense masses of ice from the polar regions; no city. No other cause that we are acquainted with, is suffi- ciently powerful to separate those frost bound masses and set them afloat. It is a well known fact, that those floating continents of ice are much larger, at some periods, than at others; and that they have greatly increased within the pe- riod that the northern lights have been observed to increase, is certainly true; but to decide whether the former have fol- lowed so soon as to be coupled as cause and effect, requires a knowledge of facts beyond my observation and_ research. Many facts in confirmation of these views, might indeed be added, but they would introduce other subjects vastly more important, which I am not prepared now to discuss: and perhaps enough has been offered to determine whether the discussion is worth pursuing. Ss. Whitesborough, Oneida county, N. Y. Feb. 16, 1829. Ant. XV.—Chemical Instruments and Operations ; by Ros- ert Hare, M. D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. A modification of the process for ascertaining the specific gravity of the gases. The principal difficulty in weighing the gases accurately, arises from the small proportion which the weight of any 294 Chemical Instruments and Operations. gas, can have, to that of any receiver, capable of sustaining the unbalanced atmospheric pressure, consequent to ex- haustion. It has been already mentioned that the accession - ean produced in an exhausted glass globe by filling it eae cannot be ascertained by an ordinary bal- ance. This led me to adopt another mode of manipula- tion, which I shail proceed to describe and explain. The weight’ of a bladder is exactly the same, however large or small the quantity of atmospheric air which it may include, provided the air which may be within it, be under no greater Sree than that without. Hence, if by means of a volumeter, we introduce a known quantity of any other gas, one hundred cubic inches for instance, whatever the bladder gains or loses in weight, will be the difference be- tween the weight of the gas introduced, and that of a like volume of air. If the gas be lighter, we must deduct the weight necessary to restore the equilibrium from 30.5 grains, which is the weight of one hundred cubic inches of air. The remainder will be the weight of one hundred cubic inches of the gas. A varnished silk bag might be preferable to a bladder. The accuracy of this process may always be subjected to trial, by ascertaining whether the weight of the bag or blad- der employed, is the same when nearly void, as when con- taining a volume of atmospheric air, equal to the volume of gas, which it is intended to weigh. When a bladder is used, it must be dry ; as otherwise the loss of moisture, during the experiment, may influence the result. _ It must be evident that this process is oe upon the idea, that the gravity of atmospheric air, has been already ermined with a sufficient degree of womans. As there is no na by which a bag, or bladder, can be “Sears air, so that a po ortion will not remain between ht be’ 7 and ‘hte, expelled as a mean of get- ting rid of oxygen Chemical Instruments and Operations... 295 Another process suggested. I will take this opportunity of Ee ie suggesting, that the comparative <@) gravities of the gases might be : found, by means of two bodies, counterpoised, as represented in proportion to its bulk; an larger should be of glass, as thin as would be competent to sustain -the requisite changes of pressure; since | know of no body, equally | firm, and impervious, which would be as light in proportion to its bulk. ‘The changes of density being effected by the air-pump or condenser, might be measured by means of a barometer gage. Protoxide of nitrogen or nitrous oxide. This substance does not exist in nature. When artificial- ly obtained, it is gaseous; yet the experiments of Mr. Fara- day have taught us that under great pressure, It may be con- . verted into-a liquid. Means of obtaining nitrous oxide. It may be obtained by the action of dilute nitric acid upon zinc: by exposing nitric oxide gas to iron filings, sulphites, or other stibstances, attractive of oxygen. It is best procur- ed by exposing nitrate of ammonia to heat, and receiving the product in an apparatus described in the following article. Ma S- Se SE S Seen) PSE Chemical Instruments and Operations. 297 Apparatus for evolving and preserving nitrous oxide gas. A, represents a copper vessel of about eighteen inches in height, and nine inches in diameter, which is represented as being divided longitudinally in order to show the inside. The pipe, B, proceeds from it obliquely, as nearly from the bottom as possible. Above that part of the cylinder from which the pipe pro- ceeds, there is a diaphragm of copper, perforated like a cul- lender. A bell glass is surmounted by a brass cock, C, sup- porting a tube and hollow ball, from which proceed on op- ags, F F. fifty gallons, the smaller one, about fifteen gallons. The beak of the retort must be long enough to enter the retort so long, as to convey the gas into the water, without touching the metal; otherwise, the acid vapor will soon cor- rode the copper of the pipe, B, so as to enable the gas to escape. But while a small quantity of water is necessary, a large quantity is productive of waste, as it absorbs its own bulk of the gas. On this account, I contrived this appara- tus, in preference to using gasometers or air holders, which require larger quantities of water. E f the bags are closed by means of rivets, agreeably to the plan of Messrs. Sellers & Pennock for fire hose. The furnace is so contrived, that the coals, being situated in a drawer, G, may be partially, or wholly removed, in an instant. Hence the operator is enabled, without diffi- culty, to regulate the duration or the degree of the heat. This control over the fire, is especially desirable in decom- Vor. O.. 2. 11 298 Chemical Instruments and Operations. posing the nitrate of ammonia, as the action otherwise may suddenly become so violent, as to burst the retort. The over, consisting of the air previously in the retort, are to be allowed to escape through the cock, H. As soon as the ni- trous oxide is evolved, it may be detected by allowing a jet from this cock, to act upon the flame of a taper. To obtain good nitrous oxide gas, it is not necessary that the nitrate of ammonia should be erystallized ; nor does the presence of a minute quantity of muriatic acid, interfere with the result. I have employed advantageously in the production of this gas, the concrete mass formed by satura- ting strong nitric acid, with carbonate of ammonia. The saturation may be effected in a retort, and the de- composition accomplished by exposing the compound thus formed, to heat, without further preparation. Rationale.—Of the production of nitrous oxide, by the de- structive distillation of nitrate of ammonia. Nitrate of ammonia, consists of nitric acid and ammonia. Nitric acid consists of five atoms of oxygen, and one of nitro- gen; ammonia, of one atom of nitrogen, with three atoms of hydrogen. In all five atoms of oxygen, three of hydro- gen, and two of nitrogen are present, in one atom of the salt. It must be evident, that if, in consequence of the heat, each atom of hydrogen takes one of oxygen, there will be but one atom of oxygen left for each atom of nitrogen. Hence, the whole of the salt is resolved into water, and pro- toxide of nitrogen, or nitrous oxide. Properties and composition of nitrous oxide. It is a permanent gas. One hundred cubic inches weigh about fifty grains. It supports the combustion of a candle flame vividly ; though nitric oxide gas, containing twice as ‘ much oxygen, does not. Phosphorus is difficult to inflame in it, but burns with rapidity, when once on fire. The habi- tudes of sulphur are, in this respect, analogous to those of hosph n iron wire burns in it nearly as well as in oxygen gas. Nitrous oxide may be exploded with hydrogen, forming water, and sometimes nitric acid. It has no attri- Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal. 299 bute of acidity. It press mteote and then destroys life. Its effects on the human system are analogous to a transient, peculiar, various, sie generally very vivacious ebriety. It is much more rapidly and extensively soluble in water, than ox Mr. § Faraday has shown that nitrous ree may be lique- fied under great pressure. en nitrate of ammonia was heated at one end of a sealed recurved ake, nitrous oxide was condensed into a liquid at the other end. One volume, or one atom of nitrogen = - 75 And half a volume, or one atom of oxygen = - i: Condensed into one volume, constitate « one atom a nitrous oxide, equivalent to - - - 2:75 Ant. XVL—Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal ; by Prof. Amos E TO PROF. SILLIMAN. AppirionaL geological surveys, having been directed by Mr. Van Rensselaer, the regular course of the report, com- menced in your Journal, will be interrupted for a few months. In the mean time, I hope that a few isolated facts may not be unacceptable.* I shall not, at present, discuss the question whether we have a primitive and a transition argillite, or a transition argil- lite only ; but shall briefly state a few facts now established by careful observation. The glazed or japan-varnished variety of argillite, extends from Baker’ s Falls, near Sandy Hill, Washington county, Y. to the Highlands, on Hudson river, a distance of one hun: dred and forty miles. Throughout its whole extent, it em- braces in small quantities, anthracite coal, passing into a mixture of anthracite and plumbago. Talc and argillite are mumiicent ‘contributions in aid of science, a dire ed Prof. 5 em Mr. C n Rensselaer, to ee tend the geol cpus = developed by the, Erie Canal nese to all parts of the me of New York, and the adjoin- ing parts w ew sey ser oe dlgres Th te tle- men have already of inations, for obtaining the ne- ec terials for completing the work. The result of their labors may be expected in this Journal in due time.—Edit 300 Argillite, embracing Anthracite Coal. also often intermixed, and grains of quartz frequently enclos- ed. anthracite is always between the layers of argillite, and these layers are considerably inclined, dipping at their south eastern edges. On traversing these layers in a south easterly direction, they are found to pass into talcose slate, sooner or later—generally at the distance of about twenty miles from the Hudson, In some localities of the glazed argil- lite, on the banks of the Hudson, we find remains of bivalve, moluscous animals and chambered univalves, which are in some cases, intermixed with the anthracite. Troy and W aier- ford, in N. Y. afford the best localities yet discovered. beds of anthracite have hitherto been discovered in the argil- lite on the Hudson, of sufficient extent to promise a reason- able reward to the miner. etween two and four miles west of Bellow’s falls, on the Connecticut river, in the town of Rockingham, Vt., there is oC at its eastern side. But it has not yet been thoroughly ex- amined, and no anthracite has been found in it, in the state of Vermont. Its extent north and south, is not precisely known; but it has been traced about one hundred. miles. Anthracite has been found near Hadley falls, in Southamp- ton, Mass. which may have some connection with it. This last range is nearly parallel to the first, at the average dist- ance of forty miles, east of it, in a straight line. : Another range ofvargillite, in all its characters, precisely like that along the Hudson, runs in a direction parallel to the other two, about forty miles east of the last mentioned; but the dip of its edges, is in the contrary direction. It pass- es ont Worcester in Mass., two miles east of the vil- portis situated. Its northern extent is not ascertained. Like the two other ranges, it passes into talcose slate every where on the eastern side. Like the Connecticut river range, its breadth is very limited. Larger beds of anthracite have been discovered in this range than in either of the others. One bed is now wrought in Worcester, which is five feet wide, sixty feet deep, and five hundred fect long. About one hundred ind sixty tons of anthracite coal have been already taken from it. It often contains asbestus, plumbago, and grains & Telescopes—Lafe of Fraunhofer. 301 of quartz. A well has been sunk into it at Providence, but nothing is yet known of its extent there. At Newport, large quantities of anthracite have been taken from the same range, and the beds are still extensively wrought. A fourth range of argillite crosses the stage road at Cam- bridge, about three miles west of Boston, Mass. It is about forty miles east of the Worcester range, Its extent north and south has not been ascertained. I believe no anthracite has yet been discovered in it, but as it agrees with the other three ranges ‘in all its characters, it is probable that it con- tains anthracite. It is a remarkable fact that these four ranges of argillite, are nearly parallel to each other, and about equidistant, leav- ing the intervals occupied with primitive rocks of very simi- lar character. Granite, hornblende rock, and talco-mica- ceous rocks, are present in all the intervening ranges, Gran- ular limestone and quartz, occur in some, and mica slate in others. : Having myself made an examination of all the localities to which [ have referred, I speak from personal knowledge ; excepting as to quantities of coals taken from the beds, an as to a few other facts, for which, it will be seen, that 1 must rely upon information given by others. In these cases, I was particular to collect unquestionable testimony. William N. Greeve, Esq. of Worcester, was with us, at that bed, on the - 2d of June, and gave me the information which I could not obtain from inspection. =, : Finally, I am willing to stand pledged to the scientific pub- lic, for the foregoing statement of facts. I am thus particu- lar, because it appears to me that here are facts enough to answer the great question—Have we such a rock as primitive argillite ? OS EATON, June 9, 1829. nid Arr. XVUI.—Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. REMARK. : Tue subjoined extracts from a letter to the editor, written by Dr. B. Lynde Oliver, dated May 21, contaming impor- yes join the memoir of the life of Fraunhofer, mentioned by Dr, Oliver, being willing that an article of such high interest should be made more extensively known in this country. 302 Lelescopes—Lafe of Fraunhofer. Letter from Dr. Oliver. TO THE EDITOR, ments does not rest on the artist’s word, but on the report of a committee of the National Institute, composed of M. for the observatory of Dorpat, magnified with its greatest and fourteen inches in diameter. There are also, two very good artists besides, that make good flint-glass for telescopes. * Dated Paris, Dec. 12, 1828. vs __t Dr. Oliver alludes to a telescope presented to Yale College, by a private , of whom more particular mention may be made when the instrument al which we trust will shortly be the fact, and we indulge the hope that it may prove that the British artist, Mr. Dollond, is not far behind his conti- i n.— or. $ Tne price of such an instrument is eight hundred dollars, and several of them are placed in the Royal chosrvelory Ue Paris. Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. ° 303 I hope to see a specimen of Lerebours’ telescopes, as a person belonging to Salem, has, by my advice, sent out for one that will cost two hundred dollars ; this is the price of a small instrument, but still it will show the skill of the artist. An eminent philosopher in Great Britain, in a letter to m remarks, that the continental achromatic telescopes surpass them all; [the different telescopes lately made in England, ] and he rebukes the negligence of the British government. I wrote to Europe, with the special view of obtaining infor- mation which might be useful to all our scientific institutions. But it was so long before it arrived, that I do not wonder your college should have engaged an English artist; although am now sorry for it. You have, sir, no doubt, read the beautiful memoir of the life of Fraunhofer, published in Brewster’s Journal, 1827, page 1. How feelingly the wri- ter expresses himself on the death of this truly great and ng artist and philosopher, and how indignant he seems to be at the neglect of the English government to Dollond, the iat of the achromatic telescope. ermit me sir, to inquire of you, if you ints repeated the experiments of the French chemists on the making of dia- onds?* It is a very remarkable circumstance that the dia- mond, should unite a very high refractive with a low lisper- sive power. I do not recollect any other instance of it. Rapport du Jury Central Exposition, 1823. M. Lerebours, ser a Paris, place du Pont-Neuf, qui recut en 1819 une médaille d’or, a exposé plusieurs instru- ments d’optique en sont tous trés digits de la réputation dont i] jouit dans le monde savant. Deux de ses lunettes, dont une a neuf pouces et demi d’ouverture, ont fixé l’at- tention du jury. Rien de a n’est certainement sorti des ateliers d’aucun optic Le jury décerne une nouvelle mmiéctaille d’or a M. Lerebours. * The materials mentioned 28 eed 2 acinadt Soni namely, ri a “4 carbon and phosphorus, were the facts w nounced, in February, as r requ the result, it cannot be ex xpected ears th It is Said that the phosphorus oper- ates by detaching the sulphur from the sulphuret of carbon, and that thus the carbon is gradually Se to ee so as to uce diamond, in small this n n puted 1 in some of the most vedi of the French chem 304 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. Life of Fraunhofer—from Dr. Brewster’s Journal, No. Xi. h blight of early genius that has put forth its buds of promise, or the stroke which severs from us the hoary sage when he has ceased to instruct and adorn his ration, are events which are felt with a moderated grief, and throughout a nar- row range of sympathy ; but the blow which strikes down the man of genius in his prime, and in the very heart of his gigantic conceptions, is felt with all the bitterness of sorrow, and is propagated far beyond the circle on which it falls. When a pillar is torn from the temple of science, it must heeds convulse the whole of its fabric, and draw the voice of sorrow from its inmost recesses. To those who have not studied the writings, or used the instruments of the illustrious subject of this memoir, these observations may seem extray- agant and inapplicable; but there is not a philosopher in Europe who will not acknowledge their truth, as well as their application; and there is not a practical astronomer within its widest boundaries, that has not felt the tide of grief for the loss of Fraunhofer flowing within his own circle. Joseph Fraunhofer was born at Straubing, in Bavaria, on the 6th March, 1787, His occupations in the workshop of his father prevented him from giving a regular attendance at the public schools. At the early age of eleven he was de- prived of both his parents, and the person to whose charge he was entrusted destined him for the profession of a turner ; but his weak frame being ill suited to such an occupation, alla * These are the words in the Edinburgh Journal. Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. — BOS he was apprenticed to M. Weichselberger, manufacturer = polisher of glass at Munich. Being too poor to pay any thing to his master, he was taken on the condition that he should work for him six years without any wages At Munich Fraunhofer frequented the Sunday school, but as his attendance was irregular, it _ a long time before learned to write or to count. In 1801, in the second year of his apprenticeship, an accidental icsiune gave a new turn to his fortune. ‘Two houses having tumbled down sud- denly, Fraunhofer, who lived in one of them, was buried un- der its ruins; but while others perished, he fortunately occu- pied a position to which it was considered practicable to open a passage. While this excav ce was going on, the King Maximilian often came to the spot to encourage the workmen and the young prisoner ; and it was not till after a labor of four hours that they were able to extricate him from his perilous situation. His majesty gave directions that his wounds should be carefully attended to, and as soon as he had recovered, he was sent for to the palace to give an ac- count of the peculiarities of his situation during the accident, and of the feelings with which he was actuated. On this occasion his sovereign presented him with b spies ducats, and promised to befriend him in case of n r. Counsellor Utzschneider, ahexwards t his partner in the great ‘optical establishment at ph np took him also under his protection, and occasionally saw him. eine 2g fer, full of joy, showed him the king’s rein t, and c nicated to him = plans, and the way in which he aroncaa to spend the money. He ordered a tikehiee to be made for ‘polishing glass, a: he employed himself on Sundays in grind- and finishing optical lenses. He was, however, often baffled i in his schemes, as he had no theoretical and mathe- matical knowledge. In this situation M, Utzschneider gave him the mathematical treatises of Klemm sha Tenger, and pointed out to him several books on optics. Fraunhofer soon saw, that, without some knowledge of pure mathemat- ics, it was difficult to make great progress in optics, and he therefore made them one of the branches of his studies. When his master saw him occupied with ook: he peehie> ited him from using them, and other persons whom he con- sulted did not encourage him to undertake the study of aie ematics and optics without assistance, and at a time when “Was scarcely re to write. These agora how- Vou. XVI.—No. 2 12 506 Telescopes—Iafe of Fraunhofer. ever, served only to redouble the efforts of our author ; and though he had no window in his sleeping chamber, and was prohibited from using a light, yet he acquired a considerable knowledge of mathematics and optics, and endeavored to apply them to his own schemes. : In order to obtain more leisure, he employed the remain- der of the royal present in buying up the last six months o Mr. Utzschneider was at this time seldom at Munich, and could do nothing for our young artist ; but he recommended him to a professor of the name of Schiegg, well versed in mathematics and natural philosophy, who paid frequent visits to Fraunhofer. About this time was formed the celebrated establishment at Benedictbauern, near Munich, by MM. Reichenbach, Utzsehneider, and Liebherr, and in August 1804, they be- gan the manufacture of optical and mathematical instru- ments, which were divided by the new machine of Reichen- bach and Liebherr. The whole of the apparatus was made but to form an optician within its own bosom. ‘l'hroug Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 307 1805, M. Utzschneider constructed furnaces for carrying on the experiments upon a well organized plan. The first attempt created much expense, on account of the repeat- ed experiments which it required, but it nevertheless fur- nished several good pieces of both kinds of glass optician, Riggl, polished the first lenses in 1806 and 1807, At this period Fraunhofer found himself in a very critical situation. Professor Schiegg always encouraged him to go to M. Utzschneider, but Fraunhofer was long in resolving to do this, believing that the latter had forgotten him, and knowing that he was well satisfied with his own optician. M. Utzschneider received Fraunhofer in a very friendly instruments of the observatory of Buda. It was afterwards agreed to transfer all the optical part of the establishment to Benedictbauern, and to give the complete direction of it to Fraunhofer. Our philosopher had already studied catop- trics, and had even written a Memoir on the aberration which takes place without the axis in reflecting telescopes. He showed that hyperbolic mirrors are preferable to para- bolic ones, and he also communicated the invention of a machine for polishing piperbone surfaces. He now, howev- er, resolved to give up this branch of the subject, as his time also the advantage of making the result independent of the skill of the workman. n examining the glass which he used in reference to the undulations and striz which it contains, he found that, in the flint glass manufactured at Benedictbauern, there was 308 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. perhaps more common in the English and French flint glass. After obtaining these results, Fraanhofer reconstructed the furnaces, procured the necessary instruments, and took the direction of all the meltings. e had learned from experience, that flint glass could be made so that a piece at the bottom of the pot had exactly the same refractive power as a piece from the top; but his success was of short duration, for the succeeding meltings showed that this was merely accidental. Undaunted, how- ever, by failure, he recommenced his experiments, in which he always meJted four quintals at once, and after long and severe labors, he discovered the numerous causés Which oc- casioned his want of success, As the English crown glass had many undulations and im- purities, Fraunhofer resolved to manufacture it also. Diffi- culties of a new kind here presented themselves, so that he did not partly succeed till after a whole year’s labor. He found also, that with whatever degree of accuracy he follow- ed the theory in the construction of achromatie object-glas- ses, his expectations were never realized. . On the one hand, he was convinced that it was wrong to neglect certain quan- tities, such as the thickness of the lens and the higher pow- ers of the apertures, merely to obtain commodious formule ; and on the other hand, there was no exact method for détér- minimum in his object-glasses, In this consists principally the difference between his glasses and those made in Eng- and. The difficulty hitherto experienced in determining the re- fractive and dispersive powers of bodies, arises chiefly from the circumstance that the spectrum has no definite termina- tion, and that the passage from one color to another was so gradual, and indistincily marked, that in large spectra the an- es could not be measured with a greater accuracy than from ten to fifteen minutes. In order to avoid this inconven- rence, Fraunhofer suceeded, by a very ingenious contrivance, _ in obtaining homogeneous light of each color in the spec- = Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 309 trum. In these experiments, he discovered in the orange compartment of the spectrum, produced by the light of the fire, a bright line, which he afterwards found to exist in all spectra, and by means of which he was enabled to determine the refractive powers of the bodies which produced them. By using prisms entirely exempt from veins,—by carefully excludmg all extraneous light, and even stopping those rays which formed the colored spaces that he wished to examine, he discovered that the spectrum was intersected by a great nuiiber of black lines ‘parallel to one another, and perpen- dicular to its length.* In the spectra formed by ail solid and fluid bodies, he not only discovered the same lines, (of which he has reckoned five hundred and ninety in all,) but he found that they had fixed positions, and that the distances between them in different spectra afforded precise measures of the action of the prism on the rays which formed the correspon- ditig colored spaces. The valuable Memoir in which these discoveries are consigned, was published in the fifth volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Munich for 1814 and 1815, and also in a separate pamphlet entitled Bestimmung des Brechungs, und Farbenzerstreuungs, Vernogens ver- schiedener Glasarten. The writer of this notice had the satisfaction of first translating this memoir into English, and of publishing an abstract of its results in the article Optics in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. — ' Bi. About this time, in 1817, Fraunhofer was elected a mem- ber of the Academy of Bavaria, of which he was an active supporter. i ne ees ce ue In speculating on the cause of the dark lines of the spec- trum, our author was led to consider them as arising from the interference of the rays, and he was induced to make a complete series of experiments on the inflexion of light. These experiments he published in the eighth volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Munich, under the title of Neue Modefikation des Lichtes durch gegenseilige Hinwirkung und Beugung der Strahlen und gesetze derselben. In these éxperiments, of which we have given.a full account in the article Optics in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, Fraunhofer employed a heliostate for giving a fixed direction to the solar ray, and he examined all the phenomena through a telescope _* Above twenty years ago, lines were discovered in the spectrum by Dr. Wollaston. See Phil. Trans. 1802. : 310 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. mounted upon a large theodolite, by means of which he measured the deviation of the inflected light. The object- glass was twenty lines in diameter ; its focal length was 16.9 inches, and its magnifying power from 30 to 110. The he- liostate was placed thirty eight feet seven and a half inches French measure from the centre of the theodolite. The di- the subsequent number of tiis Journal. M. Fraunhofer likewise applied himself to the study of va- rious atmospheric phenomena, such as halos, parhelia, &c. which he published in Professor Shumacher’s Astronomische Abhandlungen, and of which we have given a notice in the last number of this Journal, p. 348. Such is a brief sketch of the scientific researches of Fraun- hofer, but, valuable though they be, they are in no respect to be compared with bis practical labors as an optician, His strument was L. 950. Its aperture is nine inches, and its fo- cal length 134 feet. His next great work was another achro- matic telescope, ordered by the King of Bavaria, and which has an object-glass twelve inches in diameter, and eight feet in focal length, but it is not yet completed. Although en- Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. 311 third as a spare one in case M. Bessel’s object-glass should meet with any accident in the bisection; and, fortunately for science, these object-glasses are all complete a degree, that fifty workmen are at present employed. In 1823 M. Fraunhofer was appointed keeper of the phys- ical cabinet of the academy of Munich, a situation to which a pension was attached. In 1824 after the public exhibition of thé great telescope of Dorpat, the King of Bavaria hon- ored him with the rank of -a chevalier of the order of Civil Merit. He was also elected a member of several foreign so- cieties, among which we may mention the Society of Arts in our own city. The university of Erlangen also conferred upon him the title of Doctor in Philosophy. Thus honored and respected both at home and abroad, Fraunhofer was enjoying all the happiness which character and reputation and a moderate independence never fail to yield, His mind was occupied with great views of scientific ambition which he could not have failed to realize, and such was the perfection to which he had brought his art, that he was willing to undertake an achromatic telescope, with an ob- ject-glass eighteen inches in aperture, and we have now be- fore us a letter in which he fixes even the price of this stu- pendous instrument. But he was not destined to accomplish SO great an undertaking. In October 1825 he was attacked 312 Telescopes—Life of Fraunhofer. with a pulmonary complaint, from which he never recovered, The injury which he sustained by the fall of bis house seems to have left some effects behind it, and for several years he Cooper’s Rotative Piston. 313 shelter in a more hospitable land, and that the pre-eminence which England has so long enjoyed in the manufacture of the achromatic telescope should be transferred to a foreign country. ‘The loss of Fraunhofer holds out to us an oppor- tunity of recovering what we have lost, and we earnestly hope that the Royal Society of London and the Board of Longitude will not allow it to pass. Great Britain has hith- erto left the sciences and the arts to the care of individual enterprise, and to the patronage of commercial speculation; but now, when all Europe has become our rivals, when eve- our patent laws, will be regarded as the Colbert of his age, and willsecure to himself a more glorious renown than he could ever obtain from the highest achievements in legislation or in politics. Art. XVIIIl.—Cooper’s Rotative Piston. Communicated for this Journal, by the Inventor and Proprietors. : REMARKS. As we have had good opportunities of seeing, in full ope- ration, the engines described in the following papers, and ave been much impressed with a conviction of their supe- in common use, we publish the following account, designedly left imperfect, as regards the construc- ar to us not to have overrated their engines. Ata future time, after they have secured their invention abroad, as well as at home, a more detailed account may be given.— Ed. Tuis invention originated with John Milton Cooper* of Ftc * A young man of a vi lect, and strong inventive p who (liv- ing until that time, in the forest,) by a happy thought, hit upon this fine in- vention; before he had ever seen or heard the word Aydraulics, or knew that there was such a thing as atmospheric or hydrostatic pressure.— Ed, Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 13 314 Cooper’s Rotate Piston. 4h tont LHe pateit. As this principle and one similar to it are applicable to steam b detailed description of the principle, and explanatory plates will be delayed for a succeeding number. late 1 represents the engine of size No. 7, worked by SIX- teen men in three positions—a is a side view with the suc- tion hose upon the carriage, and without the cranks—b shows the rear of the engine and the situation of the cranks when in the working position; c the front of the engine with the cranks reversed, as when the engine is moved from place to place. Plate 2 represents the engine of size No. 3, worked by eight men. This number has but one pair of cranks as will be seen by the side view in a. The three positions are rep- resented as in The result of several experiments is given, to enable the reader to make a comparison with the engines of the old construction. An engine on the rotative principle, of the size marked No. 11, worked by sixteen men, with eleven inches lever, dis- charged through a four inch pipe, more water than three eight inch cylinders, with nine inches stroke and fifteen inch- es lever worked by thirty four men—and as much water as four six and a half inch cylinders, nine inches stroke, worked by thirty six men with twenty four inches lever. This exper- iment was made at the corporation yard, in the city of New York, in September 1827. e same engine with twelve men, eleven inches lever, threw more water than two engines (New York and Hydrau- lion,) in the city of Boston, worked by thirty six men wit twenty four inches lever. This experiment was made in State street, Boston, in September, 1827. _. No 7, rotative engine, with twenty men exerting an esti- mated power of thirty five pounds per man, with seven inch- es lever, threw from an inch pipe one hundred and fifty six feet horizontal, and one hundred and nine feet in hei ht. ; he ——— was at the temperature of 42° and sieckeeh y calm. Cooper's Rotative Piston. 315 No. 2, rotative engine with eight men, exerting an estinia- ted power of fifty pounds per man, threw from a half inch pipe, one hundred and forty eight feet horizontal, and one hundred and three feet in height. The atmosphere was nearly calm and the thermometer at 53°. The two last men- tioned engines were made to discharge a large quantity, with- out particular reference to power. One constructed for power alone, would probably much exceed either of the above. The quantity of water discharged by a No, 11 engine is five hundred and twenty five gallons for each hundred revo- olutions. By a No 7, three hundred and four gallons, each hundred revolutions. a No 3, one hundred and twenty eight gallons, each hundred revolutions, In o. 11 engine, the revolving cylinder is thirteen inches long, and eight inches in diameter, and the surface acting upon the water is forty square inches. In No. 7, the revolving cylinder is twelve inches long, six and a half inch- es in diameter, and it has a surface of thirty square inches. The rotative piston is applicable to a variety of purposes, in some of which, particularly steam, the experiments have been very satisfactory. 2 e * 316 Cooper’s Rotative Pistor can be thrown with simple power. But with this advantage there is a disadvantage, in as much as the stream being ope- rated upon directly by the power, gives, in its motion, an ex- act representation of the mode of its application; conse- quently the stream is as unequal as the force applied, and, at every change of the piston, stops. To remedy this defect, a vessel filled with air is placed in the vicinity of the piston cylinder, and the water, ere its fina! discharge, is forced into he f this vessel and then allowed to escape. As the pipe, through which the water makes its final escape, 1s generally much smaller than the piston cylinder, consequert- ly the motion of the piston will produce compression on the water at every stroke, while the air, in the air chamber, be- comes compressed in like manner. The advantage, then, of the air chamber is, that this compressed air operates upon the water as a spring, and exerts its power during the suspen- Cooper’s Rotative Piston. 317 sion of the other power, while changing the brakes. The engines in New-York are all of this construction, and are so made as to allow the brakes to run the whole length of the engine on each side. The leverage is generally twenty four inches, and the number of men required to work them about twenty. The engines, manufactured in Philadelphia and Boston, likewise work with pistons, but the levers are differ- ently constructed, there being generally one long lever run- ning the whole length, having its fulcrum in the centre, while the brakes are placed at each end. Some of the Philadel- phia engines are of great power, allowing from thirty to for- ty men to work at once, and have from two to four feet lev- ers. Another mode of making engines has been tried with success, which is to place a small cylinder within a large hol- low one, and attach a wing or. arm to the small cylinder, and make it sufficiently long to fill the space between the two: a stop is then placed on the opposite side of the small cylin- der, fitted at the end next to the inner cylinder, so as to allow it to play on that end, while the other is attached firmly to the outer cylinder. Heads are put upon the outer cylinder, secured to it by flanches, and the gudgeons of the inner cyl- inder are secured by stuffing boxes; levers are put int ends of the gudgeons of the inner cylinder, to which the brakes are attached. Two sets of valves are made use of, one between the outer cylinder and pipe, the other between the cylinder and air chamber. An engine of this kind is now used by the Sun Fire Insurance Com London, and one of nearly the same construction, by the name of the Cat- aract, has been in Boston for several years, and is still in use. In many of our‘ cities the organization of the fire depart- ments is excellent; and particularly in New-York, Philadel- phia and Boston, the vigilance and success of the firemen have inspired a confidence which does honor to them, and te the cities to which they belong. The engines, in these pla- ces, are always found in excellent order, and at first sight, it would seem that human skill and ingenuity-had been exhaust- ed in rendering them perfect; but, upon myestigation, many defects will appear, which should be remedied as far as prac- ticable. The first of these defects is the expense necessary, not only to construct, but to work them and keep them in repair, The best New-York engines cost from seven to cight hundred dollars, including suctron hose, and throw through their pipes (3-4 inch) from eighty to one hundred gallons per 3138 Cooper's Rotative Piston. minute, and require twenty men to work them. ‘The price and power of the other engines do not materially vary from the New-York engines. Another defect, or objection, is the pair is not inconsiderable. Aware of the disadvantages of the engines now in use, and desirous of benefitting others, while advancing our own interest, we have devoted considerable time and attention in constructing fire engines on a principle entirely new. This principle was invented by Mr. Cooper, a partner in our con- cern, and we have made a number of engines, all of which h jualled tsangul pectations, and placed their utility beyond the shadow of a doubt. Simple in construc- ion, and comparatively light, the expense bears but a sma proportion to that of those now in use. Our general rule is to them for about one half the price which equal sizes of the old ones are sold for; and although our profits at this price are not large, we hold it to be the duty of proprietors of a patent, where the invention is of great public utility, to fix such prices as will enable all to purchase. The following is a summary of the advantages claimed by the inventors and proprietors for their engine. The simplicity of its construction, its rotary motion, its admirable compactness and unquestioned durability, are ad- vantages, of no slight importance, over those on the old prin- ciple, which this machine possesses. Independently of these advantages there are others of still greater magnitude. It will raise and discharge double the quantity of water, in a given time; or, in other words, it requires the application of only one half the power, to produce the same effect. It dis- charges a more dense column. It is as little affected by the frosts of a northern winter as by the heat of summer: an it can be made for one half the expense. It will raise double the quantity of water. The fact is self-evident, that in working the old engines, to discharge the chamber or cylinder once, the piston must pass twice through it: an ascending stroke to create a va- cuum, and a descending one to force the water. Half the time is consequently lost. In the rotative, on the contrary, it is equally evident, that a continued vacuum is created, and Cooper’s Rotative Piston. 319 a ere discharge effected, by one and the same opera- tion, Asa further illustration of the point in question, it may be shearead a can be oo owe one naff. the power. hi 1s csapecsiiadl proof against frost. Those acquainted with the old engines, know, by sad ex- perience, the evils of frozen valves rae obstructed pistons, and that it is necessary to resort to me: hawing out the machine, or to suffer it to remain meloace? even at times of. fire. But a single revolution of the rotative, discharges the ice that may have collected on the surface exposed, and an ef- oe operation is not retarded for a moment. It discharges a more condensed column. It is apparent to the man of chemical science, if not to the common observer, that water, in the form of spray, and, instead of diminishing, increases its fury. The advantage of the rotative herein, as before observed, consists in dispensing with the air vessel. In the old machine it is indispensable, Yet, notwithstanding its use and importance to them, it con- stantly i imparts a portion of air to the water discharged, and thus far produces the evil complained of. * Giving its oxygen to the carbon, to increase its ignition, and its hydrogen to augment the volume of flame.—Editor 320 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. Hence it is evident, that the following are among the most material advantages of seat s Rotative Fire Engine, over all others hitherto invented, v They are more simple in heir SORENSON more durable, and less liable to get out of ord The number of hands necessary to work them does not ex- ceed one half. They are proof, with proper care, against the effects of rost. . The column of water is more condensed, and consequently strikes with mor And last, sheng oh not least in the estimation of the wise and prudent, is can be furnished for half the expense. Prices—No. 1. Discharging one barrel per minute, fifty feet high, oe. feet distant or through the hose, each one penapee at dt bar plain, an a plain m ounting, four men, $ extra finish, No. 2. Discharging from two to three bes per minute, sty feet bees pinaty fe avs distant; or through the hose, each one hundred re olutions, four els; ight men; plain, = id plain mounting ‘0. 3. Dieharying about one h roa pathonn fe per minute, ae feet high, 6 and Git peri ms — ndred revolutions, about one hundred and Pte a ain mounting, $250. No. 4. With Tae of the size o No.8. 3, ut oT etih ta pan mos raphe and ing, $278 throats, wing more water; twelve men; plain, and plain mount- ing, nae Equ ual in power to the — used by the Corporation of the city of New York, and discharging the same quantity, $400. No. 11. Dise harging double the quantity of the best engines in the city of — — three times the quantity of the best engines now in cy s 1 the i Gael Sak $1000. a net ntermediate numbers, not named, in the same proportion. Force-pumps, for the supply of wn villages and mannfaetories, will be charged at about above. Suctions for Nos 152s oat a, will be charged at $100 poner No. 7, g125——for No. 11, $150-_for No. 20. $200, Remarks and extracts by the Editor. Tue intellectual history of this country is becoming more more interesting ; its science and its literature are a with rapid steps, and it is no longer true, as be- Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 321 fore the plehutte that our authors could be found only here and Rari nantes in gurgite vasto. The« country is so eminently free, that its more active and intelligent spirits turn remy es every way, in pursuit of ealth has hitherto had the ascendant, but honor sounds her trumpet loud, and the number of those who enlist under her banner, is constantly i increasing. The do not all take the political field; the many will continue bd throng there, but literature and science have votaries ; and if their honors are not so easily obtained, they are more enviable and durable. The man who has written va book; will be remembered and revered, when the vulgar ib ets of courts and cabinets have passed into oblivion. mental character of this country will take its hue, in a de- , from our institutions: the people, supreme in our laws aad policy, will cause their sway to be felt, at least as far as is roper, in our intellectual productions. Attractive, readable, and above all, practical books, whose useful tendency is im- mediately perceived, will continue to acquire the public favor. Antiquities we have few ee, extensive ov the Euro- literature.* *" But, the materials which we have, we are tf. ing to good account ; — in no form perhaps more interest- ing than in that of trave We are a nation of croton: Our people are not onl intelligent but inquisitive ; fond of looking into the concerns of other countries; pleased with useful matter, done up in an attractive form, and as we are a young peOb its making the experiment of a new kind of government, and therefore capable of profiting by the errors of others, we have in our hands the means of establishing or destroying our own insti- tutions; The writings of intelligent travellers, Seine = us, other systems in operation : other c ustoms Orpam or ite Naa the species ; other preps in the full tide ‘ot 55 bhess sae neppared is a late exception, equally honorable to the author and his coun’ Von. XVI. —No. 2. . 4A 322 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. us. To Americans, there is a voice in every thing from other nations, and such books are the medium through which it e As the bee extracts the sweets of every flower and brings them to the common hive, so the traveller accumu- lates and deposits, for common use, the stores of knowledge which he has obtained. A traveller should be vigilant, in- quisitive, industrious, candid and honest. He should, have enlarged and comprehensive views of men and things; he should be both a scholar and a man of the world; he should unite keen perception and a cool judgment; and he should be actuated by pure and elevated moral feeling, quickened by a healthful sensibility, and a chastened taste, which will make him equally accessible, to the beauties of nature and the productions of art. He should attend not only to what is ‘awfully vast” but that which is “elegantly little ;” he should be bold and firm, yet modest and unpresuming, for only such men will succeed well in a strange land. e ‘all, as an American, (for such we suppose him to be,) he should give all his observations a practical character ; he should bring every thing to bear on his own country, and blend the warm patriot, with the man of information and feeling. With all this he should have a ready pen; he should be able to describe well; to seize on our feelings and: make us sharers in the pleasures of the journey, while he ex- cuses us from its fatigues; seizing the striking points of view, whether of men or of nature, he should place before us, a graphic representation of events and things; and ina word should make us see as he saw, and feel as he felt. It is giving our opinion of the volumes of Mr. Jones, when we say, in a word, that if this beau ideal of a traveller is rarely seen, he has come nearer to it, than most of those who publish their observations in the form of travels. _In our last number, page 168, we gave an extract from the MS of Mr. Jones’? work, and many have since, not only throug our own pages, but though those of our newspapers, enjoy the pleasure, which we experienced from seeing the ship, her spars tipped with fire balls, and her canvass emblazoned by lightning, reeling in the night squall, while we contemplated the uproar, from the snug harbor of our own safe tenement, on land. ~ We have already mentioned, that the author’s prominent Object is to display the police and characier of our navy, es- pecially as they struck a landsman ;—a civilian, as he chooses ah Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 393 whom, chiefly, the book is intended. As our men of war present the singular spectacle, of a thorough monarchy, sheltered under the wings of republicanism. I well recol- lect, too the pleasure, with which I saw our navy, slowly but surely building up a fair character for our nation abroad, and my first wish, after enjoying these things myself, was to have people at home enjoy them too, and hence the copious jour- nals from which the materials for these letters have been sketches of a sailor’s life.” We look at the progress of our navy, as we do at every thing connected with the country, with pleasure and sur- prise. In October, 1775, a committee was appointed by Congress, to provide two fast sailing vessels, one of ten guns, the other of fourteen. We have now our men of war in every sea; they are spoken of with admiration wherever they appear; we are founding navy yards and docks ; amass- ing stores and filling magazines; ar shall soon launch the largest ship in the world ; efficient in a tremendous degree, but, after all, probably a pageant of national vanity; and a pageant may she always remain ! Such a rapid increase has necessarily been attended, as in the case of every sudden growth, with imperfections and errors, and as each minute of the present Is doubly valuable, from its necessary influence on the future, he merits the thanks of his country, who will place before us these imper- fections and errors with their remedy. Naval men are, of course, best qualified to do this, but from them it must not be expected ; the strictness of naval discipline will not suffer it; he who should venture to point out an error would fall under the charge of censuring his superiors, and subject him- self to arrest. Still this subject, like most others, is capable of deriving benefit from candid investigation. The volumes before us open the way. The author seems to have felt 324 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. that a “civilian” is not the best judge of such matters, and he has contented himself, as most citizens would have done, with barely narrating facts, leaving to others the business of making deductions or suggesting improvements. Still in the complicated machin of a man of war, there are many things that belong a science as well as seamanship, and on these he has dwelt more at length... We have an instance of this in Vol, II. p. 220, where the arrival of the Delaware, American line of battle ship, at Port Mahon, is‘mentioned ; her crew had been in a sickly Sonitares and several deaths had pounired on her passage. ' “¢'T'wo causes” says the author “are assigned for it: ie ship was fitted out in winter, and the inner coat of paint, it is said, was not well dried before the others were put on: another, and probably a more powerful cause, is the quantity of salt among her timbers. It is thought to preserve the wood ; ‘aigeeed with some truth, but in the Delaware, has been laid on in such qua tities, as. to stream down her sides, I understand, in ase aie, and send up the se noxious exhalations : their passage too has been a rough on and the ports could seldom be opened. One can hardly iiheigine any thing more horrible than to be shut up many hundred miles from shore, in such a vessel: to see the . paint darkening around you, and the beams sweating; and all ~ rom an atmosphere you are constantly breathing, and fro which there is no escape.’ Our ships in the West Indies, phved the African coast, and on the Brazil station, are constantly expo- on relief was, whether there were any dead to be buried, and how many. In the ene sent to the African coast, they tell me, it is net uncommon to.see a man carry up his ha mmock in the morning hale and stout, a at noon he is sewed up in it and thrown overboard. Irefer you to Niles’ Register for Novomber of 1823, for a distressing pie of sickness in the Macedonian, while on the West India re “Ships are all m lesa xposed to miasmata. Our own hold, although this veatat is kept in remarkably good order, fre- og! sends up the most noxious effluvia. I have seen the _ water is always Seca ating. e use every me and I believe el are seldom found with an atmosphere even as pure as that we breathe. Lime is scattered largely through the hold; the sublet whitewashed, and wind-sails are let down into it, as Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 325 well as into other parts of the ship. they are an excellent con- trivance ; but are not adequate tothe evil.* “ Chloride of lime has been found a most useful agent in such cases, and | have little doubt, would succeed in ships. I wonder the experiment has never been made. It is not an expensive ar- ticle; it is portable as lime itself; it may be procured at the manufactories at home, or be easily made abroad, and for all purposes of convenience, is equal to the simple lime, the article now universally empioyed. Allow me to refer to an article, by Professor Silliman, on the properties of this agent.” |—Vol. II. pp. 120—2. We would add by way of confirmation, of what Mr. Jones has stated, that in our opinion the chloride of lime, in large quantities, ought to be a regular part of the outfit of every ship, and especially of every man’of war. It stands unri- valled among those agents that counteract morbid tenden- cies, and that correct the smell and destroy the power of three quarts of water, it will remove every foul odor an ar- rest contagious influence, if occasionally sprinkled about the apartment and even on the patient, and it is found to be very effectual in curing many diseases, The navy board, we pre- sume, will'not permit so important an article to be any longer omitted in the fitting out of our ships of war, and our mer- very responsible men, and of course, ought to possess high qualifications: the following portraits are from our author, Vol. I. p. 40. * Capt. Elliott, on his late return from the Brazil station, I am informed, paged leathern hose te the bottom of the hold: a pump was attached to the upper part of this, and the foul air pumped out. It is said to have had an ex- cellent effect. ; + See the Journal of Science, for October, 1826, and for April, 1829. 326 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. “The captain is an officer, so high in tignity and rank, ot he ought not even to show himsel! often to vulgar eyes ; those, it is said, who succeed best, confine themselves tidal to their cabins. He, consequently, seldom interferes with the ac- tive duties of the ship: his orders are given, generally, to the first lieutenant, or through a midshipman, to the officer of the deck; and, though Near a a close scrutiny over every part, it ei without appearing to do * Such is this officer, in the abi: but he has other, and much higher duties; and these should never be lost sight of, in eed our estimate of his character. The other officers feel them other ships; between his own nation and other nations. In ofh- cial aes ih abroad, he, of course, appears, and his character gives a tone to all such proceedings. ‘To fit him for this, re- quires an saideitiblabis of >a at seldom ‘fo und in one man—a i nde a come now to the cother: ers. The first aeeinanot has the actual superintendence of the ship. "He is the oldest* lieu- tenant on board, and on his character, that of the ship very nines n but murmurs, if any, are silent ones. He can even thwart the captain, and ‘often does so, while his actions have the semblance of obedience. He ought to be a man, ready and prudent; not apr but decisive ; and above all, well skilled in all the duties of aship. In times ‘of danger, he takes the trumpet; as he does also in getting under way and coming to anchor; but, in all other rights: gives permission to leave the ship, when for the day only: signs od sy on nthe store rooms; and, when the captain is absent, is commander of the ship. “% To a frigate of this class, there are five more lieutenants, each taking rank according to his date.” We will venture to add, that besides such a share of Jite- rature, as shall give to his common intercourse, and especial- ly to his official returns, the lustre of perspicuity, correctness aad ae taste, he ought to possess a share of science. No * In official age. Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 327 reflection is intended upon those able and patriotic men, who, in the earlier periods of our navy, rose from obscure situ- ations, or from common. pursuits, to usefulness, rank and hownes but, the state of things is now changed, and, till a regular school for the navy, under the direction of the gov- ernment, shall supply the means, the goments of science ought to be sought by naval men, in the seminaries of our country, and from highly qualified sidecalusts Natural Philosophy, Astronomy and Chemistry are fruitful in rm and principles with which the naval c daily conversant, and there can be no ious, that an ac- quaintance with them must be of great advantage in the practice of the profession, and in giving success to efforts to advance its interests. The British navy is adorned b sone men of this character, and Capt. Basil Hall, eiaiice to be meritioned among the most conspicuous of the em, both for his real merits in this way, and for the eclat which he has imparted to the naval character naval men are acquainted with the outlines of the most important branches of natural history, they will enjoy many opportunities of making interesting and useful observations, and of selecting specimens of value; this portion of science although highly ornamental, is however, no ay part of naval Byes ot like the important sciences first named. author’s twenty second letter in which he Ai an aoeeene tof grog serving and its effects, is eeserT Og of an at- tentive perusal, and were it proper to occupy our pages, to such an extent with this topic, (which is however, physical as well as moral,) we would copy the whole lette No one can read Mr. Jones’s pathetic and eset t appeal on this subject, fraught as it is with every just sentiment, with- out regretting, that the respectable author has conceded, however reluctantly, that “to banish grog from our ships of War would be a fatal experiment.” The difficulty is no doubt great, but is it insuperable ; this cannot be known until it is tried, and has the experiment been made in the navy of this or of any country? If so, the report of it has never come to our ears. It has been completely successful on board of a considerable number of merchant ships, and one, as we are assured, has just sailed from New York for China, with no ar- dent spirits on board, no not even in the medicine chest! But how ! will not the crew mutiny ? for they were not con- sulted. This will be known in due time; but the better pro- 328 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. are so effectual on other occasions. o can decide, that a war ship, on whose colors was inscribed, no grog, but more comfort and better pay, would not enlist a crew of contented sober men, who. in battle would be sustained by cool moral courage, and who, on coming into port, would not disgrace their country’s flag, by immoralities which our author, else- where, so feelingly laments, and:so justly attributes to strong drink. In accordance with the spirit of this work, we may be al- lowed to add, with respect to the physical effects of stimulus ; at it creates no power, it only acts on power already exist- ing, and excites to effort ; a wasting effort of course, if often repeated, under the influence of stimulus. The spur quickens the generous courser to leap the ditch, or to scale the fence 5 but, both the stimulus and the effort tend to impair the ani- mal energy, which canbe renewed only by repose and food. It would, perhaps, be hard to say, that there is no possible contingency, in which it may be proper to prompt buman ef- that such cases are few, and far between. The continued use of the stimulus of ardent spirits creates local disease in the organs; and ultimately in the system; and as in its pure state, it is decidedly and powerfully a poison, operating with pid and fatal energy ; so in its more diluted forms, it works the same way, and produces a sure although a more tardy catastrophe. Mr. Jones’s travels contain a number of notices of natural, or other objects connected with science. In the harbor of Mahon, where the squadron passed so much time, he found many interesting things, He says, ‘¢ As I sauntered along its shores, my attention was drawn to @ beautiful flower, at the bottom, where th was near a e wate fathom in depth. It grew on a stalk about three eighths of an inch in diameter, and about ten inches in Jength; was, in shape, Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 329 like an inverted cone about five inches in diameter; and was va- riegated with brilliant colors, red, yellow and purple*. It was a —— beautiful thing, and di Ide but I could not dis- cover the flower. = After a vain search, fi 1. Stalk... 3. The animal with partof moved: it is attach- 2. Flower. the flower attached. ed . This forms a tube, in which is an animal, about seven inches long, with two rows of feet in its whole length: at its upper end is the head, , we here insert the wood cut of this re- By permission of the publisher Ellis, on * markable zoophyte, which appears to be, substantially described in corallines, a 92, under the name of a tubular coralline, from Malta Vou. XVI.—No. 2. 15 330 Notices of Sketches of Naval Life. and rising from the latter, the flower, I have spoken of. This is formed by a vast number of very delicate fibres, each with an exceedingly fine and variegated fringe, placed like that of a feather: they do not form a single cup, but several; and their the animal’s mouth. ‘They have a strong sensitive power, and, as soon as touched, are dragged by the animal into the stalk. aye a few minutes, it ascends again, and the flower spreads out before: doubtless they are intended for taking ge A touch will spoil them, so Leahey are they formed: I cut off the flow- er, and pass a paper under it, in water: then, = iaylag it ona board, and pouring owacie on, spread it out as I wish it: when dried, it looks like a yery fine painting. They are of the coral- line species, and are called water pinks by the natives. I can. take you too, to parts of the harbor, where the bottom is cover- ed with tufts of grass; some green; some dark colored; some i plain tufts, and others with a star in the middle: this grass tad; is all animal, and if you touch it, will disappear in the ground. There is a large quantity of it, just North of hospital island. I find abundant ‘amusement in the harbor : — is an old fisher- at atch at his operations. rinkles oil on the water, to smooth its Paaiect and can the distinguish objects at agreat depth. He isnow mostly Biployen in procuring date fish. This is a curious shell fish, so called from its shape, which has a strong resemblance to.a date. It is pro- cured only here, at Malta, at Trieste, and at another place, pete name I have forgotten. It is always found in the rocks, generally approaching within an inch of their surice, with which it deihidiinteati by a small orifice. This hole is formed, proba- bly, by some corrosive fluid thrown out by the ‘isin as it is smooth and shaped exactly to the shell, which is attached to the rock, at one end, by some very small fibres : the shell is bivalve, thin and delicate, usually three inches and a half in length, and one inch in its greatest diameter. hey procure them, by chi snag off fragments of the rock, with a long iron chisel; these re drawn up, and when the boat is filled, are carried ashore to oe broken up. They export them in the rock, to the neighbor- ing Spanish coasts. The rock is a soft free-stone, prevailing also, all over the island) The need = a peculiar taste, and is considered a great delicacy: it is most abundant at the depth of two or three fathoms. There is ater shell fish; the largest, two feet in length, and about four inches thick at ‘the thickest oa te a a rere often manufactured, by the n atives, Notice of Sketches of Naval Li 2. 331 is red; the lower, white and pearly : pearls are — found in them, sometimes of large size, but colored: I hav. e some, however, that approach ie true pearl, in color. The sea-horse that of a horse: it has no fins: but has the power of coiling up the lower eo of the aa and, I suppose, mo ves by throwing able roe 'N autilus, pets or Argo,) a beautiful thing, is also found here. The natives work vad smaller shells into handsome mantle ornaments: I have seen Neptune in his car, with trident and sea-horses, and they are now making for me, two urns, with flowers ; all of marine substances.’’—Vol. I. pp. 80—3. The aataeombs of the island of Milo are interesting if for no other reason, on account of their containing lachry- matories wade of glass “ The catacombs are mostly single chambers, cut in the soft a paved with large flags, and under these flags, in a rectangular cavity, just large enough to contain a fuil grown person, the bod was deposited. Some consist of a succession of chambers, like this. There are no inscriptions; but among the decayed bones, re found coins, ornaments of gold and precious way for the ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases, with uantities of glass, and copper vessels — ing, at sta seasons, to weep over the dead: the lachrymatories (long slen- der vessels,) it is ry wares: ere used a times, to catch their tears. One of the first visitors we had on board our ship, the discoveries in. Pompeii: this is the first I have heard of, among the Greeks. The vessels discovered are generally flat at the bottom, and four inches over: they rise one inch, of this 332 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. diameter, and then suddenly narrowing into the diameter of ar inch, anda half pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches . their shape is, consequently, much like that of a candlestick. ut I have several of other forms, running through a considera- ble variety; and among them, a set of patere found together, consisting of three dishes, very much like those brought on our tabies with sweetmeats. The glass is, sometimes, like the com- mon glass of our country; and in this case, the vessels are very thin. Others are thick, and composed of a curious matter it has a pearly lustre, and in every position, presents beautiful green and purple hues, on the surface. This last has suffered from the e damps, and the exterior scales off; the lustre I spoke of, however, is in the glass, with ehiek some metal appears to have been fused ; it is very brittle. * Some of the Commodore’s men cate been digging here; but have found only an earthen jar, containing the bones of a child.” ol. 0. Milo contains interesting minerals. “ Tournefort calls it a natural laboratory : and i In man y places chemical operations are still going on; in mall Aiton their results are deposited in the ange abundance ; the com- ‘mon rock of the island is a tufa: way up to Castro leads over hills of baked and whitened a> filled with round masses of obsidian: but the most interesting parts of the island, are on the South and South Western sides. In the latter is a place cailed Calamo, which we visited yesterday. They first took us to a bill of considerable elevation : its summit was covered with burnt rocks, of ragged surface, tossed confusedly on one another: among them are crevices, through which hot sulphurous vapors end, and deposite round, large quantities of crystallized or sublimated sulphur. Proceeding South from this, three fourths of a mile, you com e to the locality of the plumous or feathered alum: it is in a cave, on the sea shore: above it is a steep hill, _— — gies red, and sae =< of —— The compact, but not frm mass: sprinkle this with handsome green and yellow colors, and you have an idea of the cave as it ap- ‘Otel _* By permission of the Ongena we insert, on the-opposite page the wood cut of | lachrymatorie je 8. Glass, from Milo: in color, like No. 9. Glass, from : qualities, like tiie ase es 3. 10. Glass, from Milo: color, a very dark gre . Glass, from Milo: qualities, as = No. 8: ‘itis a beautiful little thing. 11. Glass, from Milo: qu 12. Lachrymatory of terra cotta, re common. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18. Vessels of ponte sth, from Milo. though greatly rusted. 19, 20. Lamps, from Milo. 21. A copper vessel, from Milo: a beautiful articie, 334 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. pears above.* The bottom is an earth, from which pufls up hot air: this is strongly impregnated w with egy and deposits about each crevice, beautiful small crystals of the mineral: in front of the cave is a hot spring; and at its sides are other Caney that have ceased to act. “There is another one, called by the natives, the Stipsy or alum cave. It is near the centre of the island, and was worked y the ancients: the alum, as vm & = us, being the best, — that of Egypt, that could be procured. ‘Towards the bot- m of a high reddish hill, we Gerad a ale on all fours ; and eerie our way backward awhile; and then a more erect, through a narrow passage, came to a e chamber, one hundred and twenty feet long, and with an atmosphere that makes the thermometer rise to ninety, in some places to one renheit. ear with specks of alum, and blown into the consistency of baker’s bread, to compare large things with small. The cells, oftena foot in length, aré lined on the upper side with crystals of alum; some small, but clean and pure, sometimes with a slight green nD tinge: othe delicate white down. Among them are spots, from which are suspended sda 3 of ees gypsum, each crystal distinct, and falling at the slightest touch. The entrance is lined with branchy gypsum ; and ict is scattered over the rocks with- out. Advancin ‘from this to the harbour, you come to a cave, called Loutra, about ninety feet deep ; ; at the end of which is a ng with cons medical hoe and pe ccer y use itasa a as well as the waters on the shores just below: there are several hot springs there, in the sand ; and a still larger mumber, a few _ rods in the water: the the rmometer rises to 128° in the spring and in the sand, to 135° of Fahrenheit.—Vol. I. pp. 137— * This very = Aged fos been examined by Mr. Charles U. Shepard, of Yale College to be the e soda alum, anew species in mine ately cae a ty Dr. Weipdin See American Journal of — Science, ol. X : Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 335 Mr. Jones visited the long celebrated grotto in the island. of Antiparos, and the fo ollowing passages are cited from his account of the excursion. “ Antiparos is about seven gees in length, —— and sepa- rated from Paros by a channel, one mile in its narrowest part.’ “ The grotto is on the eubeu side of "the Island, tole the South-West: our approach was from the North Eas stward : we crossed the ridge of a high, bare eminence ; then descending a little, and turning, had the entrance before — “A la a yawned, with the giant, an immense stalagmite ; and the whol nearly as the book tells us. This is fifteen ria high, forty feet wide, and thirty deep: but this is not the grotto: it is only the vestibule. At the back part of this cavern, we descended a little, and then nesses before a hole, dark and silent, down which we re t end. Whi which théy charge: but the former is weak, and we were cau- tioned against trusting ourselves to it, as near a dozen would have to cling to it at a time. saben made ours fast to a stalag- mite at the entrance, and passing in, we saw no more them; was 80 we lighted our tapers, and clinging to the rope with our right hand, the descent. No one thought of danger; for directly BY aay entering, one of the grandest sights opened up seat eyes have ever seen. At first we heard hammering, et at oices within, without being able to ‘ell whence they proceeded: but soon a cave of vast dimensions presented itself, its a cover- ed with stalactites, and its sides glittering with s from the North Carolina was below, and as they ae ead in every direction, and every one hada light, we were able to see at one view the whole extent of this immense chamber: spar, in many places, had been injured by visitors, but it is still ex weswoesa secmgeect Its purity is without a speck or shade : it is very clear, and its fracture of dazzling brightness: those parts that on » protected from the air, are covered with shining 336 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. crystals, and in many parts, it has formed itself _ are seen nodules, and other grotesque forms. Some of them our officers I had anticipated It is difficult to judge amid such Ae but | should think it not more than one hundred and fifty fe long; about seventy in breadth, and of equal height: but ne shape is very irregular. ‘The shelving descent on our right, leads, doubtless to other grottos: part of the way down’is a ch imagination, indeed, could Gnd abundant employment in the fan- tastic shapes, into which many of the spars have formed them- selves; and might easily discover in them human forms, beasts, and flowers. The handsomest parts, however, are fast disap- pearing ; for as each traveller considers its beauties as a lawful prey, and selects his pieces, w without caring oe the aes motif done in erent. g 4 > much is carried off, and more destro ing ; and is still greater, as the whole stands isolated in the chamber, with a neat litile area in front. A number of large stalactites descend from the vault above: the droppings from them have caused numberless smaller columns to ascend; some plain and straight, others irregular, and forming altogether a very good imitation of a Roman Catholic altar, “with its tapers and fanciful decorations.”—Vol. I. pp. 141—44. * oe the centre of the mend “ a a oot se I a cers had last year, cath one “oF them from its is a small chamber, neatly partitioned off by the spar . “ The brilliancy of this article forms the characteristic of the cave. Nearly the whole Island is sa rock of marble, equal brilliant imaginable: when it is well lighted up, the scene must be a splendid one. Commodore Rodgers, in a visit last year, had “ mea with blue lights, I understand with ad- mirable e e spot where we finished our descent ; sip- Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 337 7. fresh air in the light of the clear day. “* Some of our officers spent the day in rambling over Paros, and took the Marpesus quarries in their way. They are not far from the road between Aiisa and Parechia, and extend to a great depth in the mountain: the cuttings were all rectangular, and such are the numerous blocks still lying about the entrance. There are two quarries: over the entrance of the smaller, is a large bas-relief, with an inscription. I forgot to say that there are also Greek inscriptions, in the euter grotto of Anti-Paros ; but they are defaced, and of doubtful import. From the Mar- c the ped a little of its hard waters, and soon after was breathing 9 Belvidere Apollo, and the Antinous: the Arundelian marbles, you know, are also from this Island. “ Our ships spent some days, last year, at Aiisa; where they watered from a fine clear stream, running through the town: but the water was so highly impregnated with lime, as to bring on the dysentery throughout the squadron.”—Vol. I. pp. 145—6. To minds as inquisitive as those of our countrymen, the in- then caught a glimpse of the skilful evolutions on board; we have passed along their decks and have admired the neatness thus enabled to gaze on scenes seldom accessible to lands- men; and we lay the book down, surprised to find ourselves possessed, after a few hours reading, of an experience of three years among scenes, characters and events, possessing In so high a degree, the charm of novelty. It seems to have been the original intention of the author, to confine himself to events and scenes in the navy, and to take only such no- tices of countries visited, as to keep up. the connexion be- tween the parts. He found himself however, on classic ground; the spirit of antiquity seized on his feelings, and Vor, XVI.—No. 2. 16 338 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. carried him forward with a power which he seems to have been as little disposed as able to resist. We do not wonder at it, for who could speak of, much more who could see and tread the ground of Salamis, and Argos, and Athens, and Corinth, and Constantinople, and old Rome, without having a strong impulse imparted to his eas If this Journal were exclusively literary, we should intro- duce various passages illustrating the author’s manner of writing on the principal te that came under his obser- vation, We shall however, limit our additional quotations to a few scenes, relating irieiptlly to the manceuvres, that in- volve movements depending on the principles of mechanics. The following passage describes the unfurling of the sails. “ We will suppose, then, a fine morning, after a wet day; and chake are ad such ‘days here, I find. _ Suppose yourself once, a few little flags a run a at the stern of the Commo- dore’s ship, as if by magic; for no one is seen to produce this effect. Soon after, a single one ascends, in like manner, to the mast head of each of the other ships; and then all pass down again. A shrill whistle and a cry are now heard; but still there is no motion; and no sign of any; except a hat, here and there, ap- pearing just above the bulwarks. So it remains a few minutes ; e all is silence again. Another sound; and the rigging is ‘again darkened with men, new sets passing up, and those in the tops ascending to the highest spars: they “throw themselves out upon: the yards, and a busy scene ensues; but all settles again into in- activity. And then, at the words “ ‘let fall,” the ships simultane- ously, and in a moment, drop their thousand folds of canvass ; the ensign is run up, and the pendant throws itself open to the breeze. What I have eae: is loosing sails to > an rae: The sailing of the squadron from the port of Mahon, is thus described : were all stowed away; every rope was in its place, and Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. 339 every eye was fixed in expectations: - the Flag ship. At eight al, t nmoo w the din of whistles and calls, and oft repeated orde earnestly, I could place the whole scene before you; and give you, too, a heart light as we had, to enjoy it. The little Por- poise first dropped her white sails; glided gs the harbor ; rounded a high point and disappeared. The flag ship came she rested there a moment; her shrouds first, and then, simultaneous motion, her long yards were covered with men; the trumpet thundered ; she dropped her huge sails, that shook themselves a moment, rejoicing “ like a giant to run his course,” and then spreading out to the breeze, and throwing back the bright morning rays, gave motion to the dark proud mass below. You could almost think she had sensibility ; so & raceful, yet their actions. She swept by the point; but her upper sails, with the broad Seiten and its stars, were still seen far above it. he Ontario followed; and next came our own ship, with music and happy hearts. As we neared the Holland, a Dutc seventy-four, in port, her band struck up, “ Hail Columbia :” we protege with their national air: she gave us Yankee Doo- die, and we again replied. They also sent their boats to tow us, if ne should be occasion.—Vol I. pp. 110—11 lacking depends on a nice adjustment of forces between wind and water, and is beautifully illustrated in the following passage, describing the tacking of the ship in the midst of the Turkish fleet. “¢ You may suppose our ship gliding on in quiet among them. She is close hauled to the wind: it isa light breeze, and all her sails are spread out, sada aloft sdiniale to a point. Thus she speeds on, when all at once her head begins to come gracefully round; the sails lose thelr fulness, and tasteful curve; shake in the breeze, and then swell back against the masts - thus t ey re- main a few moments; and then, on asudden, and by simultaneous motion, the two hinder sets, from skysail down, whirl speedily round, and again ey out to the breeze: thus again we resta n the head sails all take a similar motion, and the aes mass seat starts forward in its course: and in all this, sca a man is seen. You will recognize, in this, the apatite Z tacking ship: it was, to-day, a beautifal operation, 340 Notice of Sketches of Naval Life. as the sea was smooth; but I have seen it done in seas, where one would think the ship would sink instantly, without the use of her sails to steady her; and where her bow is acted on by waves that produce a convulsive quivering throughout, at every blow. They sometimes throw the vessel back again: it is called missing stays, and often produces dangerous Our aa, on a lee shore, it is nearly certain destruction.”—Vol. I. p. 1 Anchoring in the straits of Salamis is thus described : “ There are nine men of war, English, French, and onedeer around us, watching the course of events. I wish you could have seen our ship as she anchored noe them this peaaiven: Coming to anchor is always an interesting operation, and always greatly enjoyed; for hearts then beat high, with the hope of ipl again ; and, generally, we have new scenes close around it is in a frequented place, the men are always ordered to clean themselves and dress; mats are taken from the rigging ; every rope is carefully adjusted, and the ship is made to look as neat as possible. The character of a vessel, and of her officers, gives a touch of the resigns at least, gives a deep interest to the occasion. The shi ms to swell out in her dimensions; every event takes cancel and, landsman as I am, | have learnt to be a critic, and detect the least epeootioia at such times. en, no one dares shew himself: if the men stoop to peep through’ a port, they are driven aw = ; if an officer steps on a gun carriage, he first gets across look, and then a message to come down. So we glide on in deep silence, bugle oe at intervals, by the lead-men’s cries—* by t-h-e m-a-r-k, tén ;” “ be t-h-e d-é-é reply. T Ser ase ae a lower part of the shrouds, the ees with — a feet on the ladder, ready for a spring; and at ‘ re men. all do his work soonest and best, and where this is wanting, the boatswain’s colt supplies the lack.”— Vol. £. pp. 272—3. Description of the High Rock Spring. 341 Where we find so much to commend, we cannot be strong- ly disposed to censure, and the light faults of style, if such they are, seem hardly worthy of notice. To a man, who in a cheerful and engaging manner, is con- stantly imparting to us valuable and interesting information, we feel little disposed to say ; sir, your style, delightful as it is, is sometimes a little careless, abrupt and elliptical. It is ev- idently not intended by the author, to march in stately grav- ity, although on subjects of a grave and moral cast, he is con- siderate and judicious, and never leaves us in doubt as to his good principles. e freedom of the author’s style, make us more and more, parties to his adventures, and we feel that had we been with im, we should have talked, (or wished to talk) in the same animated and free style in which he has written, Art. XX.—Description of the High Rock Spring, at Sar- atoga Springs, in the County of Saratoga, and State of ew York, with a drawing, communicated for the Journal of Science, by Joun N. Street, M. D. is, unquestionably, entitled to a conspicuous place in the scientific journals of the day; and, although it has edition of his “ Dissertation on the mineral waters of Sara- toga,” published in 1809, gave a very imperfect drawing of the rock, which, I believe, is the only one ever pu lished.— In remarking upon it, the venerable Dr. very justly observes : “ The more we reflect upon it, the more we must be convin- ced of the important place this rock ought to hold among the wonderful works of nature. Had it stood upon the bor- ders of the Lago d’ Agnano, the noted Grotto del Cani which burdens almost every book which treats upon the carbonic acid gas, since the peculiar properties of that air have been known, would never have been heard of beyond the environs 342 Description of the High Rock Spring. of Naples, while this fountain, in its place, would have been deservedly celebrated in story, and spread upon canvas, to the admiration of the world, as one of its greatest curiosities. e valley, in which all the mineral springs at this place are situated, is terminated, on both sides, by steep banks which rise from twenty to forty feet above the level of the little stream, which passes between them. On the eastern ? : in it in so great abundance as in its associate limestone.— The whole of this formation seems to terminate here, and nearly in a perpendicular direction, as none of it is discover- able on the opposite side of the valley. All the rock forma- tion found in that direction belongs to the transition class.— he mineral springs occupy stations which warrant the belief that they have their origin, or pass up from a greater depth, at, or near the junction of these two formations, trans- Description of the High Rock Spring. 343 may, at any time, make the experiment of its deleterious ef- fects on animal life. he following dimensions of this singular production of nature, are taken from actual measurement: Perpendicular height, four feet ; circumference at the base, twenty six feet, eight inches ; length of a line drawn over the rock from north to south, eleven feet, seven inches ; length of the same from east to west,ten feet, nine inches ; from the top of the rock to the surface of the water, two feet four inches; depih of water in the cavity of the rock, seven feet eight inches ; the hole is nearly circular, and measures ten inches across, is rock, very properly, belongs to that species of lime- stone termed calcareous tufa, being evidently the product of the water. Itis composed of the carbonate of lime, magne- sia, and the oxide of iron, together with a proportion of sand and clay. It likewise exhibits, when broken, the impressions of leaves and twigs of trees. It is somewhat undulated on its surface, and, about the top, compact and indurated, while near its base it is of a more spongy and friable character, but every where sufficiently compact to render it impervious to water. t flow upon its surface, is not quite so obvious ; the most prob- able conjecture is, that the basis of this mass was commenced beneath the surface of the earth, that the water, thus confi- ned within the limits of its own sediment, continued to rise, and as it escaped over the sides of its prison, constantly ad- ded to the dimensions of its walls. In this manner it would continue to rise, until the column of water in the rock balan- ced the power that forced it up,in which case it would be- come stationary, and it is but just to infer, that, in process o time, the power so propelling the water might be diminish- ed in its force, when the water in the spring would of course sink in exact proportion to the loss of that power. There was an opinion prevailing among the early settlers, that the rock had been fractured by the fall of a tree, and to this accident they imputed the failure of the water to run over its top, believing that it escaped through a fissure, which, al- though invisible, they still imagined must exist. This conjec- ture however, does not appear to be well founded ; the spring 344 Description of the High Rock Spring. was visited as early as the year 1767, and no appearances to justify such an opinion then presented itself, although the wa- ter did not reach the top of the rock by several inches Loran Tarbel, an aged chief of the St. Regis tribe of In- dians, told the present Chancellor Walworth, that oe visit- ed this spring, when a boy, and that he was told dians, that it once ran over the top, but owing to some of their women* bathing init, the water sunk into the rock, and ae afterwards § awed itself. conspicuous appearance which this rock aes must care introduced itself to the notice of the natives at a we early period, and, although it was probably ose and sited by individu als whose business called them into the bo it does not appear to have attracted much attention from the white population of the country, until about the year 1767,when it was visited by SirWm.Johnson,who then resided at sohnaiowes about thirty miles to the west of the Springs, in the capacit y of Indian Agent. From this period, “ the pring,” as the place was then termed, came more rapidly into notice, and, for some years, was the o nly one to which much consequence was attached. The extravagant stories, told by the first settlers, of its astonishing effects in the cure of almost every species of disease, are still remembered and repeated by their too credulous descendants, which, in con- junction with the mysterious character of this rock, continue to attach an importance to the character of this water, in the eyes of the vulgar, which no other fountain will probably ev- er arrive at. rom a recent analysis made with a view to the strictest accuracy, the details of which will ere long be laid before the public, = water is found to contain ihe following ingredi- ents in one gallon, or 231 cubic inches Muriate ofsoda, — - - - = + 189,18 grains Carbonate of soda, - - - - 12.464 Hydriodate of soda, —- - - - 2.5 Carbonate of lime - - - - 69.29 Carbonate of magnesia, BER aS et ee: SESS Oxide of iron - . . - - 3.85 317.709 * Ky Axa@apoia oyres. Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 345 Silica and alumine, in very smell bia dias Carbonic acid gas, 304 cubic inches Atmospheric air, = - - - - a Gaseous contents in a gallon 309 pecific gravity of the water at the temperature of 60° is 1006.85, pure water being 1000,* and its temperature at the bottom of the rock is uniformly 48° Fahr. Art. XXI,—Real and supposed effects of igneous action. [.—Letters from the Sandwich Islands ; by Jostrn Goopricn, If.—A letter from Mexico ; by Wituiam Macuore. I. Mr. Goopricn’s Lerrers. Remarks. Iw a note to an account of the volcanic character of the island of Hawaii, published in Vol. XI. of this Journal, men- tion is made of a box of minerals destined for the Editor.— that creat alterations are taking place at the bottom; it is filling up gradually, and slight bets of earthquakes oceur here frequentl The acdc that are at the upper part of the cask, I col- lected upon the summit of Mouna Kea. Some of them appear to me to be fragments of the granite rock. The shells that are with them, the largest is from the Gulf of California ; the remainder are from this island. The volcanic specimens in gh of the Hamilton rtee Fa water (left blank, p- 245) is, as we * The since lesen j water being 1 + Which is sppblished in in Vol. XI. p. “ “tA magnificent pearl oyster. . XVI.—No. 17° Vor Me ~ 346 Real and supposed effects of igneous action. more resemble a sponge,) they are much lighter than any of the kind that I have heretofore seen. These light materials are very abundant about the crater, being driven about by the winds in every direction, The remainder of the miner- als are almost all from the inside of the crater, some from the bottom ; others from the sides and from various places with- in the crater. Such as they are, I forward them for your in- spection, and [ should like to receive your remarks upon the Should any of them be worth notice, I should be hap- py to forward more hereafter. If there are any researches that you would like have made, (as you will think of many things that do not occur tome) be so kind as to inform me what they are, and I will attend to them with pleasure, and send you the result by the first opportunity. The second letter is dated Oahu, June 12, 1828. Mr. words, such as names of places, &c. I gave you in my let- ter of April 25, 1825, a short account of my ‘tour through the interior of theisland, from Kailua tothe volcano, and from to the traveller the same dreary mass of java, that is to be seen in most parts of the island. Mouna Roa appears to be of the coarsest kind ; the particles varying in size from that of fine sand to that of massy rocks, the angles of which ap- ave been worn off by attrition. Some of the strata of Java are horizontal ; others vary in their position from that to an elevation of eighty degrees. They are in every shape that one can imagine possible ; nor can J adequately des- eribe the appearance of lava, so that you can form any cor- rect apprehensions of the picture it presents. The horizon- Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 347 tal strata vary from a few inches to hundreds of feet in thick- ness ; next above one of these strata is seen a space from one to ten feet wide, or high, that appears to have been in a state of fusion long after the mass above and below had be- come consolidated, in which forms it may be seen alternate- ly for hundreds of feet high, shewing caverns and fissures of all forms and sizes; some not unlike a common oven exter- nally, but much more spacious within, many of which were formerly used as repositories for the dead, especially when they were difficult of access. The volcano, of which I have made frequent mention, was measured by a surveyor of lord Byron’s, and estimated to be nine hundred and thirty-two feet down to the black ledge, and four hundred more down to the bottom; in all, thirteen hundred and thirty-two feet, so that you may form some judgment of the dimensions of the crater; the depth of a place that we supposed, on our first visit there, to be four hundred feet, is found, by meas- urement, to be nine hundred and thirty-two. Many times have I wished that you could accompany me to that won- derful scene.” Remarks on the specimens transmitted by Mr. Goodrich. They contain most of the usual volcanic products, and are remarkably interesting. 1. Sulphur, of all the shades between white and yellow ; lelicat i tioned as being in the cocoa- the more ; g nut shells, are pieces of sulphur. In the collection are nu- merous crystals of sulphur, more remarkable for delicacy and richness of color, and finish of form, than for size. phur is found also investing or penetrating the proper lava. 2. Siliceous sinter, white, porous, light, tasteless, harsh to the touch, readily scratches glass—resembles that of Ireland and the Azores. Mr. Goodrich remarks, that the white spe- cimens are from the bottom of the crater ; if he means these, as he probably does, may we not presume that the silex, dis- solved in water, probably containing alkali, and heated in- tensely under great pressure, was liberated when the wa- ter was rapidly evaporated, and thus the silex was deposited in a spongy form, as the steam and gases made their way through it. 348 Real and supposed effects of igneous action. : g rocks, consist of quartz, glas- sy feldspar, augite, hornblende, mica, and olivine, more or less blended, and mutually adherent, so as to form solid mas- ses. It is impossible to say whether they are the products of re-crystallization after fusion, or whether they are ejected fragments thrown out from the primitive rocks, lying be- neath the bed of the Pacific. They have a strong resem- blance to some of the masses ejected by Vesuvius, and per- haps it is most probable that they are types of the rocks, in which these subterranous and submarine fires of Kirauea are fed and sustained. os The fragments ? esemblin fo, 4, Among the solid masses are some that very nearly re- semble varieties of the Trap Rocks, basalt, and green stone, §-c. and if there had been no mistake in associating them wit the lava, and other decided volcanic products of these Isl- ands, they would go decidedly to sustain the igneous origin of the trap rocks. . - ..Mr. Goodrich has expressed this opinion very clear in his letter, Vol. XI. p. 2. 5. Obsidian, very brilliant, black and heavy. It is rarely quite free from incipient vesicular cavities, which, on the one hand, graduate into those that are palpable and large, and in the other, becomes evanescent in the solid substance, or are discovered only by the microscope. 6. Olivine, imbedded in large and small masses ; when viewed with a magnifier, it is-brilliant and beautiful, with a delicate wine yellow color, resembling, in this respect, the Saxon topaz ; it appears to be very abundant in the lava of Hwauea. 7. Augite is probably still more abundant, for the melted materials often exhibit decisive proof, in the black color, and great weight and firmness, of having resulted extensively from the fusion of this mineral and hornblende, and there appears to have been a large proportion of iron present. 8. Scorie in vast variety, and in every state of inflation, from those pieces that are just beginning to pass from the condition of obsidian, and compact lava, into the vesicular Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 349 form, to those that are blown up into innumerable cavities, scarcely connected by the thinnest partitions, like the mem- branes between the air cells and blood vessels of the lungs, and having vastly more pore and space than solid matter.— In many pieces, the cavities are so large, that the thumb is easily introduced, and we perfectly understand how to .con- ceive of those voleanic caverns described by Mr. Goodrich and the other Missionaries, and which are occasionally large enough to be used as ceméteries, or as refuges from hostile pursuit, or as habitations, Similar caverns in lava are nu- merous, as is well known, in the Azores, and in Iceland, and other distinguished voleanic regions. Among the cavities in the vesicular lava of Kirauea, there is the most beautiful exhibition of colors that can be imagin- ed. The surface is glossy, as if covered with the most per- fect enamel or varnish, and the iris and columbine hues are richly displayed by every change of position. This splendid effect is undoubtedly due, chiefly, to the large dose of iron, and the very perfect manner in which the intense heat has blended its oxides with the other materials, 9. Fine spun volcanic glass.—This exists sometimes in masses which are scarcely coherent, and seem like what they evidently were originally, congealed froth and foam, the float- ing scum of igneous fluidity. Their color is like that of olivin. <9 cases, concerned. it 1s this filar giasst c Mr. Goodrich in his letter, (Vol. XI. pa. 2.) as being blown away by the winds and carried to the distance of many miles from the volcanos. 350 Real and supposed effects of igneous action. It very strongly resembles some of the capillary products of the great iron furnaces. I have some which I obtained from those of Salisbury in Connecticut, which could scarce- ly be distinguished from this volcanic glass. 10. Igneous stalactites—These, which the missionaries have so well described, as falling from the currents of lava and congealing either in the caverns, or on the lips of pro- jecting precipices, are perfectly intelligible from inspecting those transmitted by Mr. Goodrich. They are sometimes tolerably regular cones; at other times, twisted, protuber- ant and convoluted in various fantastic forms, and exhibit in their black glassy surfaces, most legible records of the ef- fect of fire.* It is obvious on inspecting the lavas and various products of this, the most stupendous and magnificent volcano on our globe,t that its products have undergone the most powerful effects of voleanic heat ; every fragment (those alone, resem- bling the primitive rocks, being perhaps excepted,) being re- plete with the records of fire. ndeed how can it be otherwise! Kirauea is evidently only the chimney of that vast furnace of fire, which is in ceaseless activity beneath the bed of the Pacific ocean, and whose seat is many miles below the crater. These subma- rine volcanos have, probably by accumulation, raised many of the Pacific islands from the bottom of the ocean: the same tremendous agent may hereafter blow some of them to atoms, and scatter their fragments among the trade winds ; and other islands may, and probably will hereafter rise, where navies now plough the ocean, without encountering ava of a bronze color. ripti XII. of this Journal, especially that of the Real and supposed effects of igneous action. 351 Il. Mr. Macture’s Letter. Remarks on the igneous theory of the earth, in a letter to the editor aloe Ss Maclure, dated Jalapa, Mexico, February 8, 18 Dear Sir—Although M. Cordier sent me his essay upon the temperature of the interior of the earth, being at Har- mony when it arrived at Philadelphia, I had not seen it, until Tread the analysis of it in your Journal of October last. As in the pendulum, motion proceeds from one extreme to the. other, so it seems that our. moral faculties, as well as our takes appetites, must be stimulated by something extra, o afford pleasure, or satisfy curiosity ; sy having lately at- tended to the process of fire against water, I was a little sur- prised at the magnitude and saepentaiany of the proofs of the existence of this immense reservoir of melted. matter, occupying the earth’s centre, with all the operations of the molecules of heat perpetually radiating from it; my limited experience in the chopping of rocks, having almost convinced me that the two agents, fire and water, had been alternately at work, in covering the primitive, as I thought I could dis- cover rocks, with the volcanic. characters, alternating with the transition, secondary and alluvial. Perhaps, when any phenomenon can be‘accounted for by visible causes, subject to the evidence of all our senses, the inv of mysteri- ous and hidden agents to account for them, rather augments than removes the ans mee in which nature has veiled all her actions. The mon opinion of mankind, that the sun is the evident cause setok the heat of the earth, seems to agree with all experiments made by Perone, Seog and others, on the temperature of the ocean; (as you may see y some memoirs read before the French Paints by Perone, to be found in the Journal de Physique,) proving that heat ae creased in the exact ratio of the distance from the surface, un- til even under or near the equator, the thermometer descend- ed to two degrees above freezing, which, if I recollect well, corresponded with some experiments made on the waters of the lake of Geneva, and had induced me at one time to at- tempt experiments on our lake Ontario, but which | never had an opportunity of trying. At the time those theories 452 Real and supposed effects of igneous action. were pushed so far as to lead philosophers to suppose the ocean to be frozen at a certain depth, which perhaps would account for the vast masses of ice, of all figures and dimen- sions, that the currents bring from the north, along the coast of Newfoundland, during the end of February, and the month of March, at least three months before - breaking up of the winter it those latitudes, for which I could not as- sign any feasible cause. The diameter of the ath at the poles being less than at the equator, brings the imagined central mass of melted metal nearer to the poles, with its perpetual radiation of molecules of heat, which would pre- vent the freezing of the earth to the depths, as experienced by Hearne and other travellers, who found it difficult, even in summer, to prevent water from the earth being frozen at the depth beyond the sun’s influence ; how could this ema- nation of heated minerals proceed all in the direction of the equator, and avoid the nearer surface for escape at the poles 5 certainly not on the principle of radiation. _ Voleanic eruptions aeltted out of such a fluid mass, re- volving and mixing up all rts for such a great period of time, ought to Shee pega its constant motion, some homogeneity in its composition, which is con- tradicted by the variety of materials thrown out; no two eruptions being exactly alike, and the eruptions of water and ers being so easily accounted for, on the supposition: of the diminution of combu stibles, and of course of heat, and in- crease of water in the cavities, made by the ejection of lava; where in this vortex of melted metal could either water or ations, which although they take an extensive range, yet cam- ~ go beyond ideas procured through the medium of our ; itis probable that nature has many ways of acting that our short lived experience has not yet brought us ac- quainted with, for it is only yesterday that we were capable either of observing or registering the natural phenomena, tobe examin much as vag have lately done, an immensity remains yet to be examin Intelligence and Miscellanies. 353 INTELLIGENCE AND MISCELLANIES. Domestic anp Foreren. 1. Report of a committee appointed by the Lyceum of Nat- ural History af New York to examine the splendid work of Mr. Audubon upon the Birds of North America, May, 1829. It is almost five years since our associate Mr. Audubon exhibited his rich port-folio of nearly four hundred original drawings of American Birds, at a meeting of this Lyceum— Having afterwards carried his collection to Europe, the pub- lication of them has been commenced in London, and the | first volume, embracing forty nine species, is now submitted to the inspection of our society; and it will hardly be denied that it forms the most magnificent work of its kind ever exe- cuted in any country. Every species is represented of the natural size, the Wild Turkey and the largest Eagles appearing in their full dimen- sions, the size of these regulating that of all the other plates. When the birds are too small to occupy so large a sheet, it is filled up either by giving several figures of the same spe- cies of different sex or age, or by introducing the plants on which the bird is usually found, and in most instances by both these embellishments. In others are represented Quad- 354 Intelligence and Miscellames. ployment, procuring food, rearing or nursing its young, at- tacking or avoiding its enemies, enjoying its prey, or prepar- ments of Natural History. Many things there so well de- picted have often come under the observation of members of this Society, who are thus enabled to judge, from the un- questioned truth of these, of the fidelity of others which they have had no opportunity of personally verifying. We see contrasted the luxuriant vegetation of our Southern and Western States in the splendid Magnolias, Hibiscus, Gelsemt- num, and even in the grasses of those regions, with the rela- ted species, but of stinted growth, of our more northern climes. The work will require about fourteen years to complete it, and will then form a collection of figures such as will leave nothing to be wished for in American Ornithology. The letter press will be comprised in three 4tc. volumes ; two on the Land Birds, and the third on the Water Birds, now prepar- ing for publication, and which will be delivered to subscri- bers without additional expense. Although the costly nature of this work precludes its being in the possession of many individuals, yet it is hoped that all public institutions whose object is the encouragement of science or the liberal arts, may be induced to patronize it: and your committee beg leave to conclude with the recom- mendation, that if it be deemed advisable in the present sit- uation of the affairs of this society, its title be placed on the list of subscribers to Mr. Audubon’s work. 2. Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History of New-York. - Continued from page 209. January, 1829 —The President offered some observations ‘on the doubtful fossil from the coal slate of Rhode Island, of which a cast was presented at the last meeting by Col. Totten. He considered it to be closely allied, if not identi- eal, with the Thrinar parviflora, a specimen of which he pre- sented from the coal pits of Somerset, (England.) A valu- . ‘able collection of fossil invertebrated animals from the Intelligence and Miscelianies, 355 neighborhood of the Ohio Falls, was presented by Messrs. Cozzens Cooper. Dr. Eights of Albany presented spe- cimens of a singular variety of quartz crystal, from Palatine, N.Y. One end was a regular hexahedral pyramid, while the other was globular and ‘smooth as if ane It is noticed in Emmon’s a of Mineralogy under the name of globu- lar quartz. Messrs. Cooper 4 Cozzens exhibited a part of a second voliagnaaa: of fossils from the Big Bone Lick, (Ky.) consisting of teeth and bones of the Megalonyx, Elephant, and Mastodon. The public Lectures tor the season were arran- and and Mr. Duncan, Curator of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, (England.) Fresrvary.—The committee appointed at a former meet- ing reported the draught of a memorial to the Legislature of the State of New York, requesting an efficient examination of the mineral formations of this State, more particularly for bituminous coal. The Report was accepted, and accom- panied by the formal approbation of the Common Fp ce of the city, was forwarded to the Legislature. At the niver- sary meeting, held Sning this month, the following cite: men were elected for the ensuing year. Joseru Dexarietp, Presiden ApranamM Hatsey, Ist Vice President. J. E. DeKay, 2d Vice President Jer. Van RenssEvaer, Confonpeninn Secretary. Joun. J, Graves, Recording Secretary. Wn. Cooper, Treasurer. J. E. DeKay, Librarian. Joun Revere, Anniversary Orato The Annual Reports of the Carrespondhig Secretary, Li- brarian, Treasurer, and Committee of Publication, exhibited a gratifying view of the present state and future prospects of the Lyceum. Drs. Eights, of Albany, and H. Gates, of Whitesborough, were elected Corresponding, and Messrs. H. Parish and O. M. Lownds, Resident Members. Marcu.—Specimens of the Fringilla linaria or lesser red- poll, or a large flocks are noticed in the city, were laid on the table. Messrs. Cooper and Cozzens presented a spe- 356 Intelligence and Miscellanies. cimen of that rare and remarkable reptile, the Menopoma Al- leghaniensis from the river Ohio. Dr. Revere read a paper on the electro-chemical relations oi iron and some other metals with a view to their application in the useful arts, more particularly in ship building. Specimens of native copper from the neighborhood of Two Rivers between Green Bay and Chivay, were presented by Mr. McCleary, of Mi- chigan. Three papers were presented through Dr. Wag- staff from Dr. Graham of Glasgow. One, on the absorption of vapor by liquids, another on the formation of alcoates, and a third on the influence of the air in determining the crystal- lization of saline solutions. Specimens were laid upon the table of scoriae from an iron smelting furnace in New Jer. marle beds (so called) in Monmouth Co. New Jersey. Dr. Orville pines and Mr. dugustus Fleming, were elected Resi- dent Member De Pitcher, of the U. S. A., a corresponding member, presented a collection of reptiles and other zo- ological objects made by himself, at Fort Brady, on our North-western frontier. A number of books were received a logical Cabinet. Thos. Graham, Esq., of Edinburgh was elected a corresponding, and Misere H. McCrackan and J. Cromwell, Resident Members May.— Mr. Cooper read a report on several mammalia and reptiles sent from the N. W.Territory, by Messrs. Schoolcraft, James, and Pitcher. Mr. Cooper also read a paper on the Ame- rican species of the genus Sorex with a description of a species supposed to be new, under the name of Sorex exiguus. Prof. Torrey presented a new and remarkable variety of fibrous quartz from the Rhode Island anthracite. Mr. J.L. Williams, a corresponding member, transmitted a communication upon the supposed “chalk formation of Florida. An extensive suite of geological specimens from the North and South shores of Lake Supetior was received from Dr. Pitcher, and a large and valuable collection of animals from Messrs. H. R. School- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 357 craft and Geo. Johnson, from the same region. Among them were Falco furcatus, F. cooperu, Corvus pica, Tetruo albus, Ardea exilis, Testudo serpentina. Dr. Darlington, of West hester, Penn., a corresponding member, communicated a paper entitled “ Description of the Prunus Americana,” with a drawing illustrating the same. Mr. Cooper, from the spe- cial Committee made a report on the magnificent work of Audubon upon the Birds of North America, which was exhibit- ed at a former meeting. The President announced that he had received from Prof. Zipzer of Neusohl, Hungary, and arranged in the cabinet, one hundred geological specimens. They con- sist of a great variety of porphyries, trachytes, and other vol- canic rocks, as well as fossils, illustrating the geology of a very interesting part of Hungary. The Corresponding Secretary read a letter from Mr. Schoolcraft, announcing his intention of visiting the Upper Mississippi, as far possibly as the Porcupine Mountains, and offering to make any inquiries the Lyceum may suggest. Information was also received of a proposed private expedition up the Rio del Norte, Mexico. The of rocks, having an invariable N. N. W. and §S. 8S. E. direc- tion, and supposed to have been caused by the agency of an overwhelming current. The writer indicated several locali- ty ounces of silver to the ton—Ji. John L Glover was elect- ed a Resident Member. 358 Intelligence and Miscellantes. 3. Memorial—The following memorial to the Legislature of the State of New-York was presented at the last session. A Bill was introduced in accordance with the memorial, but owing to the pressure of business it was not acted upon. Geological surveys similar to that proposed in this memorial have been authorized by the Legislatures of North and South Carolina, and of Virginia, and have developed, in no small degree, the mineral riches and resources of these States. It is to be hoped that their example will be followed by oth- er States, and in the mean time we think the following me- morial, as embodying a variety of useful facts, worthy of be- ing more extensively circulated. To the Honorable the Legislature of the State of New-York, in General Assembly convened. The Members of the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of New-York respecttully represent— That the object for which their Society was originally in- corporated is the advancement of Natural Science ; in the which pursuit they have steadily persevered, unaid gislative patronage, and contributing from their imdividual resources, the means requisite for the establishment of a scientific library, and an extensive collection of objects in every branch of Natural History, which is open at all times gratuitously for the gratification and information of their fellow citizens and of strangers. our memorialists have especially turned their attention to the investigation of the mineral riches of the State, and to this effect have cultivated geological knowledge with much assiduity. They would respectfully. state, that they have been long satisfied of the probable existence of bitu- minous coal in the State of New-York in situations in quantities offering the strongest inducement for instituting Intelligence and Micellanies. 359 ant beds within the reach of a skilful and a research. Your memorialists are free to declare, that such is their eon- fidence in the numerous indications which are Pe and tigations by a set of careful borings in the appropriate strata and otherwise, they would not hesitate to employ them, but as has been before stated, they possess no funds to apply to so valuable a purpose. That it is of the utmost value, it would be superfluous on this occasion to attempt to: prove. The new branches of industry that would ensue upon the opening of coal mines in the western part of the State; the arrestation of the rapid destruction of wood fuel; the abund- ance and cheapness of the finest qualities of coal for domestic and manufacturing purposes; the augmentation of canal revenue for its transportation; the stoppage of the present supply from abroad and the exportation of it from our own State; all these circumstances are of obvious and immedi- ate application to the reasonableness of the proposition, that no eins time should a lost in commencing the investi- on ee pase to the present supply from abroad, your som ome alists conceive that they would not do justice to the if the following statements, which they are enabled to feels from what they deem sufficient a were withheld. uring the seven years preceding the year 1828, and in- cluding the years 1821 and 1898, five million seven hun- dred and ninety-four thousand one hundred and sixteen bushels of bituminous coal were imported into hie United States, the whole of which might as well have been furnish- ed from the coal districts of this State and supplied by the coasting trade from the port of New-York. But this great amount is inconsiderable when we look at the consumption which an increased population and a reduction of the price in a very short time effect. It is estimated that about eight hundred million bushels of bituminous coal are raised annually for general purposes in Great Britain. As to the present annual consumption of coal in this city, the Blowing approximation may be considered as not far he truth. Engh and Scotch bituminous coal, chaldrons, 20,000 20,000 Lehigh cad Schuylkill Anthracite. 16,000 360 Intelligence and Miscellanies, The average price in the New-York market is $8,53 per chaldron of thirty-six bushels, making a gross sum of aint - 000 per annum paid out of the State for coal in the pres ‘amount of population. The quantity of Rhode Island aad consumed cannot be accurately ascertained; but it is thought not to exceed 4000 chaldrons at an average of $6,50 per chaldron. The annual consumption of wood fuel in this city may be considered as amounting to 280,000 cords, and it is stated in a publication recently made, that the steam vessels which ply from New-York consume annually more than 200,000 cords beside. Valuing the whole 480,000 at $5 per cord, we ave a gross amount of two millions _ four hundred thou- sand dollars annually expended for w uel. It is univers- ally known that this article is beteteitig scarce, and with a population seine eaves upon us, the substitution of coal is y measure that can save us from the inconvenience of a acapelty, of mye g these apenas facts and general views before orialists ha State for bitumino nd ear memorialists will ever pray. Signed Jos. Devariexp, Pres't. &e. Lyceum of Nat. History of New-York, February 2, 1829. Gold mines of North Carolina.—This remarkable local- ity “of the most precious of the metals, continues to attractan increasing share of public attention ; and the territory of the * Gold Country,” has within three or four years been greatly enlarged. Until within a short period, these pace were Intelligence and Miscellanies. 361 fessor Olmsted,* at only one thousand square miles. Since that time, successive discoveries have extended it over ‘he counties of Guilford, Chatham, Rowan, Davidson, and over the adjacent counties of South Carolina. Indeed, very re- cent observations have carried it westward more than one hundred miles fromthe original mine of Cabarras, to the very base, and even among the valleys of the Blue Ridge. nes Petia: cee from D. Reinhardt, Esq. of Lincoln- n part of North Carolina, addressed to Professor Olmsted, ‘of Yale College, contains the most recent accounts we have seen of the new discoveries of gold in that Sane * Lincolnton, N. C. June 4, 1829. ked the mines ‘in Cabarras, found some small parcels of el in Rutherford county, between First snd Second Broad ivers. In the month of March last, near the same place, discowertalicwe were made in rapid succession, near the South Mountains, and on each side of them, in the counties of Ruth- erford and Burke.t So well were those d who search- ed for gold, that in a short time, all the common laborers were engaged in digging for it; and one dollar's worth of gold to the hand per day, was thought to beo nly to tolera ble business.t Companies were soon formed, and lands that * See this Journal, Vol. IX f At the base of the Blue Ridge, on the east, lie the counties of Rutherford, Burke, and Wilkes, = each of which the face of the country is bat! Paint ae and interesting outline. All the foregoing counties lie reste of the Catawba river, font por which it was not sup until recent- ly, thatthe gold country e u This a acadiet is fe by merely collecting the earth in small parcels, and ves it by tNo ae 9 ee 19 362 Inteliigence and Miscellanies. would not bring one dollar per acre, were sold as high as thir- eds dollars. * The gold is got out of the small streams, and is called “ Branch gold. ” estoy: is generally commenced at the bed of the streams, and continued on each side to the adjacent hills. After the top Sait and sand are removed, round flint rocks (quartz oe are See such as usually occur in the bed of streams.* ¢ this earth and sand, the gold is found in particles dite a iat small size, to masses of two penny weights. I understand it was thought that no gold was to be found below this deposit of pebble and flint sant 3; but lately. afier penétrating the Se Sl of flint stones and pebbles, the miners came to a bed of very fine sand, varying in thick- ness from six to twelve na s, and below this another depos- it of round flint stone and pebbles, which is more abundant in gold than the former. * The quantity of the preston metal collected since the first of March, cannot be accurately ascertained ; but two weeks ago, sfontit one aan 2 Hie were at work, avera- ging each a dollar per day. |New discoveries of gold are daily making in this county, (Lincoln,) but our mines have not as yet proved so rich as those ef Rutherford and Burke before mentioned, “ Quicksilver has been found connected with the gold. 1 ae doubted this fact, though it had been repeatedly assert- ; but this day,a man who can be relied on, and has wor- ked at one of the mines in Burke,shewed me a small quantity of quicksilver, which he asserted that he obtained at that mine. * Many exaggerated reports are put in Scola respect- ing the value of the gold mines, with the view of enhancing the price of land ene that region ; bat so fair are the real motives for enterprize, that man of our most prudent and wealthy citizens are seme arrangements to enter largely in- to the business, So eager are people to find large pieces of gold, that they harry raid the process of washing in a * That is, probably, exhibiting the appearance of having been worn by at- trition—shewing that this peculiarity marks the deposit of gold here, as well as a from and not merely, (as Professor Mitchill has maintained in a late = of | this wor' an) the result of a decomposition of the associated rocks, —O, “ was not of native origin. —O, SHE Ba + Intelligence and Miscellanies. 363 very wasteful manner. It is even thought that the earth which has already passed through their hands, would, by care- ful management, yield another product as greatas that which they obtained in the first instance. Very little of the dust is collected, nor is the business reduced to any system e have great need of a few ingenious —— to invent Jabor- saving and economical machines for u 5. Pettengill’s Stellarota—The Rev. Amos Penttengill of Salem, Coun., has contrived a very ingenious instrument for the use students of alae pen to which he has given the name of rue sTELLAROTA. It is in fact.a moveable plan- isphere, and afhatie me a very chea ic wrate,* many of the fa- cilities for studying the heavenly bodies, usually supplied only by — globes. elestial maps are apt to produce much confusion in the mind of the young learner; and since the appearance of the heavenly bodies, which they oe does not correspond to their actual position at any given time, - _— in studying the constellations is Tittle aided by t On the contrary, the celestial globe is capable of sia an adjust- ment, as to bring the stars, as delineated on its surface, to correspond with the actual appearance of the concave, at the very moment when he is viewing it. Various astronom- ical problems also of the most instructive kind can, as is well known, be performed on the celestial globe, which cannot be wrought on the common maps or planispheres. But the stellarota is capable of being adjusted to the time and place in the same manner as the globe, and affords the means of solving nearly all the problems that can be wrought on the latter. This instrument consists of a disk or circular card seven and a half inches in diameter, fixed into a circular opening - the ere eeesisions; cut in a thin epee 7 slab of take their respective stations around it. In order t gander. stand the manner in which these are sev erally laid down, let us take an orange, and mark on its rind circles representing ge seme ee * The price of the instrument ‘neatly framed, does not exceed two dollars. 364 Intelligence and Miscellames. those of the sphere, namely, the meridians, the equator, the ecliptic, &c., and let us inscribe in their respective places the leading consiellations. Let us now cut off the end of the orange next to the south pole, for the space of forty degrees from it, and making the necessary incisions, (as is usual in peeling an orange,) let us double back the respective por- tions of the peel, so as to form them into a circle surrounding the north pole asa centre. The various circles and constel- would seem to require its own horizon to be represented on projected into straight lines, this horizon would of course be astraight line cutting the meridian of the place at right an- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 365 gles. The horizon of the pole being the equator itself, it is a circle coinciding with that which represents the equator. The horizon of the parallel of 45 degrees, being oblique to the plane of projection, would be projected into an ellipse, which would come nearer to a circle as the place to which it belonged approached the pole, and nearer to a straight line as the place approached the equator. The inventor has adopted a very ingenious contrivance to represent truly all these different positions of the horizon. The method how- ever, cannot be rendered very intelligible without the aid of a drawing, or without reference to the instrument itself. It consists, substantially, of a small brass wire, coincident with the equator when the horizon of the pole is represented, but moveable southward for any other place, at the same time being made by compression to assume an elliptical figure, and thus including, in every situation, the part of the heavens which is visible at each place respectively. We cordially re- commend this little instrument to the attention of preceptors of academies, who are not already furnished with a celestial globe, and especially to private learners, who wi find in it a most useful guide and auxiliary ; and it is with the view of rendering its construction and principles intelligible to such of our readers as may procure it for their own use, that we have been thus particular in our description of it.— 6. Of the precipitation of morphia from laudanum by am- a spontaneous deposition of narcotin; by R. Hare, M.D. Professor of Chemistry in the University of acetic acid, again precipitated by ammonia, and afterwar collected and dried upon a filter, the morphia will be obtain- ed nearly white, and may be rendered perfectly so, by repeat- ing the solution by acetic acid, and precipitation by ammo- nia. I have by these means obtained thirty grams of mor- phia from an ounce of opium. Instead of alcohol impregnated with ammoniacal gas, a mixture in equal parts of strong aqua ammonia and common alcoho! will answer. ~~ i Narcotin is I find sometimes spontaneously precipitated in a crystalline form from a solution of opium in proof spirit. 366 Intelligence and Miscellanies. ‘The circumstances under which I procured it are nearly these. A quarter of a pound of opium was boiled in a quart of proof spirit, and strained while warm through a coarse cotton cloth. he solution, thus obtained, being allowed to stand for about twenty four hours, crystals were observed to be spontaneously deposited on the sides of the contamng glass jar. These being dissolved in acetic acid, on the ad- dition of ammonia a precipitate took place which was col- lected by a filter, and dried. Narcotin was thus obtained in the form of white, beautiful silky crystals, which were readily soluble in sulphuric ether. en we consider how often opium has been dissolved in proof spirit by chemists and pharmacopists, it is surprising that crystalline principles so easily evolved, as are morphia and narcotin, by the process above described, should have escaped observation until lately, when Sertuerner by a much less obvious route had the honor of discovering them. 7. An account of an extraordinary explosion, arismg from nitric acid with phosphorus ; by the author of the preceding article.—In the winter of 1827-8, having made some unusually strong nitric acid, (above 1.5 in specific grav- ity,) | proceeded, with more than usual caution, to arrange the apparatus for exhibiting to my class the reaction between it and phosphorus. A tube, about seven eighths of an inch in diameter, closed at one end, was placed within a stout hollow glass cylinder, of about three inches diameter, of which the lass was nearly three eighths of an inch thick. The whole was situated about four feet in the rear of my table. About five grains of phosphorus, in two or three lumps, was thrown into about as much of the acid, as occupied the tube an inch and a half in height. Very soon afterwards there was a flash, followed by an explosion, like that of gunpowder, and the fragments of the glass cylinder as well as o the lave : combustion of phosphorus in nitric acid, and I have, on dif- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 367 ferent occasions, known the phenomena to vary much in ac- tivity ; having in some instances seen the phosphorus thrown up against the ceiling of my laboratory. It was therefore . known to me, and | presume tt is generally known to chem- ists, that the reaction of the substances employed in the case above mentioned is liable to become explosive. According- ly in giving pe ibivaorse for making phosphoric acid by means of nitric , the necessity of a very cautious and gradual addition of th phosphorus is usually mentioned, but that an explosion so violent as that which I have described, could arise, under the circumstances in question, I was not led to apprehend, either from my reading or experience. [ascribe the result to the extraordinary strength of the acid employed, probably caused by using in the evolution of it from nitre, one half more of sulphuric ‘acid than the equiv- alent proportion, with a view of rendering the residuum less difficult to remove from the retort. The presence of an ex- cess of sulphuric acid, reduces the water in the nitric acid to. a minimum, REMARKS BY THE EDITOR. I am pleased that the above facts and cautions have been communicated by Dr. Hare to the public; and it may pert haps, add to their effect, if. I state, that I saw a similar plosion at a public lecture of Dr. Woodhouse i in Philadel. phia, in 1803 or 4, and also at one of Dr. Pearson aaehobaiat, in 1805: the burning ehosnless _ thrown en the occurrence was unexpected to both h gentlemen, thay apologised to their hearers for the yee I will here give an oxtings from the MS. of my Chemica! Text Book, now in the pres “ Phosphorus is oneetel: ‘into phosphoric acid by the ac- tion of the nitric acid: if weak, it merely boils, with red fumes of nitrous acid ; if very strong ,and especially if warm, it burns * This circumstance has happened so often, in my own experience, with ni- ws _ distille d from very pure nitre, a anges any water in the receiver, I cannot but repeat the caution tha rator should be much on his pei With a stick of phosphorus as se as a finger, dropped into two or 368 Intelligence and Miscellanes. 8. Collections in Natural History. the Arkansas. Dr. G. has collected a considerable number of plants and animals, in the neighborhood of New Orleans, and remitted them to New-York. ‘There is every prospect of his succeeding to the utmost of our wishes, in the object of his mission. We needa few more subscribers to our funds, and, perhaps, by inserting our Circular in your Journal, we might receive some additional names. It would be desirable to retain the present collector in the interesting regions to which he has been sent, for a longer term than a single year, and if sufficient encouragement Is given to our project, we to extend our contract with him for the spring and summer of 1830. Persons desiring to take shares, can address Mr. William Cooper, Capt. Le Conte, or myself, on the subject. Intelligence and Miscellanies, — 369 CIRCULARS <3 New-York, March 2, 1829. Sir—Several gentlemen in this city have formed an Asso- ciation for the purpose of sending a suitable person to collect objects in Natural History in some of the more remote parts of the United States ;+to which you are invited to contribute: provided the plan meets your approbation. The route to be taken is the following :—From N ew-York, y sea, to New Orleans; thence to Red River; remain at Natchitoches until July ; then proceed to the Arkansas Ter- ritory, and if the country should be healthy, proceed up the Arkansas River as far as possible ; shoul any time remain before the setting in of cold weather, examine the country between that River and the Missouri. At the beginning of Collections are to be made in the department of Botany, (dried plants, roots, and seeds,) animals of all kinds, (except those common in the Atlantic states,) particularly birds, in- sects, and shells; and geological and mineralogical specimens, e collections, when received, will be divided by the sub- scribers, or their proxies, into as many parcels as there are ares subscribed for, with the addition of two shares for the Collector, all the parcels being made equal in value, and dis- tinguished by a number, Lots will then be drawn for them. n case any subscriber who wishes plants only should draw animals, or vice versa, he can exchange the one with the oth- er with some other subscriber. 9. *Carpenter’s Saratoga Powders, for making Congress Spring or Saratoga Waters.—There is perhaps scarcely an : * Inserted by request. Vor. XVI.—No. 2. 20 370 Intelligence and Miscellanies. individual in the United States who is not acquainted, either by experience or report, with the salutary effects df the Con- gress Spring Water at Saratoga. From thirty to fifty thou- sand persons annually visit these springs, many from the re- motest sections of the United States, and some from the joy what is so conducive to general health in the hot weather of our summer months, From these circumstances, George W. Carpenter is pleased to announce the preparation of the above powders, containing all the essential substances with which these celebrated Springs are impregnated, and from which the waters of the Congress Springs at Saratoga are precisely and effectually imitated. ith a view to accom- modate the public, and to bring into general use so con- venient and valuable a substitute for these waters, he has been induced to go very extensively into the manufacture of them, and to put them ata price to be within the reach of most persons. For the accommodation of the public, agents will be appointed in all the cities and principal inland towns to give a general circulation to so useful an article through- out the country. The public are recommended to make trial of these powders, as he finds by experience, and from the opinion of the most eminent of the faculty, that the water made from them possesses the same medicinal qualities, is as effectual in its operations, and precise in taste, as that im- mediately taken from the Springs. These powders are there- fore recommended as a valuable remedy in all cases where the Saratoga Waters are prescribed. Persons on sea voyages, or residing at a distance from the Springs, and in warm climates, will at once perceive the great advantage of making use of these powders, which be- sides being more portable, and less expensive than the bot- tled water, will keep without injury for any length of time ; and as they are equal in medical effect to that taken fresh from the Springs, they are certainly much preferable from the many advantages they possess. a No. 301, Market street, Philadelphia, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 371 own, Conn. Messrs, Hedge &- Co. of that place, have just commenced the manufacture of Wollaston’s Scales. The one before us, says a writer in the American Sentinel, is the most finished specimen of workmanship of the kind we have ever yet seen; and the first attempt in box wood, to our knowledge, in this country. The scale is 21 inches in length, by 3 and 2-10ths in breadth, The graduation is done by machinery, and is executed with a degree of beauty and accuracy we have never seen equal- | led by any thing of the kind. Those who are acquainted with the use of rules, know how difficult it is to obtain such as are accurate. Mr. Hedge, by means of his machinery, is enabled to make the best rules in this country, and they are, in consequence, highly esteem- ed by all competent judges, Great care has been taken in the plan of arrangement of the chemical substances. The elementary bodies, metals, and metallic oxides, are arranged on one side of the slide, by themselves—the names of the metals are printed in larger type, which adds not only to the beauty of the scale, but renders it much easier to find their respective places. With regard to the representative numbers of the chemi- cal substances, the greatest care has been taken in consult- ing the latest tables of Drs. Henry, Thomson, and others so as to correct the errors of former tables. : The scale, thus improved, was made at the suggestion and under the superintendence of Doct. J. Barratt. Uniformity in the scales can be depended upon because the graduation of the line of numbers on the slide, is done by machinery. € names are printed upon the scale with moveable steel types, and therefore advantage can be taken of any improvements ; or any list of names can be printed, to suit the particular wishes of chemists. e may remark farther, that Messrs. Hedge & Co. have been engaged some time past in the manufacture of gun- ter’s scales and carpenter’s rules, of every description. The apparatus for effecting the graduations, is of a novel and 4 aa 372 Intelligence and Miscellanes. ingenious kind, and is the invention of Mr. Hedge. So su- perior are the scales made at this establishment, that they are fast gaining, if they have not already acquired, the entire ascendancy in the market. There are none manufactured in this country or elsewhere, that can compare with them, either in cheapness, in style o finish, in the number of subdivisions, or in accuracy of grad- uations. We speak with more confidence of the superior accuracy of these scales, as we have thoroughly tested them in practice, and we know that the method of execution is such as to insure the greatest uniformity in all that are con- structed.—( Communicated.) 11. Notice of a projected improvement in the method of blasting rocks, making tunnels through mountains, &c. with the result of some preliminary experiments—in a letter to the editor from a correspondent, dated New York, June 2, 1829.—The projector conceives that a block of several tons might be separated from a large mass, at once, by making five or six blasts, tending like radii, towards the center of the block ; all the charges being fired at the same instant; but, as this cannot be accomplished by trains, he proposes to mix detonating silver with the gunpowder, and to apply it in the following manner. The holes being bored, he places a cork u explosion of the whole. He has tried this method in wood, by boring augur holes, one in cach of five logs, and it an- swers his expectations. By leave of the corporation, a trial has been made at Black- well’s island, where they are blasting rocks for the new Pen- itentiary. Five holes, each three feet deep, were made by the prisoners, at the distance of seven feet from each other, Intelligence and Miscellanies. 373 J\ je Yy pa Y Yj dd MMM forming a line. The extreme wire, A, connected with the inside of the jar, and the other extreme, B, with the out- side, show the circuitous route of the influence after the knob of the jar was touched. The report was simultaneous, but owing to the wires of two of the interior holes crossing and touching each other, they did not explode. e roc was cracked but the portion was not thrown off. The gen- tleman thinks that if these two holes had exploded, the full as it would shrink on cooling, and uld b loose cork, having little hold of the rock. I advised him to fill up with sand, in Jessop’s manner, and, from a trial made to-day, it promises to answer. The iron wire, being a much better conductor than sand, the latter did not seem to divert the influence at all: He has gone to the island to prepare a more magnificent experiment, the result of which I shali hasten to communicate to you. 12. Mode of decoying wild pigeons in New England.—The flight and stool pigeons, as they are called, are prepared by passing a thread through the edges of both their eyelids whick are thus closed—their legs are booted, and the flights, being fastened to long strings, are thrown into the air and fly as far as they are permitted, while the stool pigeon is tied to a narrow board, which, at the end where the bird is fixed, rises and falls, and both kinds of decoy, by the flapping of their wings, draw the attention of the passing flocks of wild pig- eons, which are thus made to alight, on prepared ground, within reach of the concealed spring-net, or on a long pole, . zg can but recommend extreme caution, in using detonating silver, especially in such quantity as toform one tenth of the charge.— Editor. 374 Intelligence and Miscellanies. — a Pipe from the horizontal line, so as to give the great- t effect to the discharge of the gun from the bush-house which cpieai the sportsman e net, concealed by cut grass, is sprung by a rope which is pulled at the moment after the pigeons alight upon the pre- pared ground. 13, Ohio oil stone.—In this useful mineral this country ap- pears to be well furnished. Professor Olmat ed first directed the oil stone is found in Rocking county, Ohio: specimens have been presented to the Lancaster Mechanics Beneficial Society, and stated to possess a fine and uniform grain. Spe- cimens were presented to the society by John P. Melfen- stein, Esq. » scribed ‘a Mr. Carpenter in this Journal, and the distinguish- ed President of the cabinet, has favored this Journal with val- uable communications, The s ociety which is formmg a cab- inet in Chester county, as appears by its second report, re- commends itself to public favor by its zeal and activity, which, with the aid of its friends and correspondents, has, al- ready enabled it to accumulate a considerable museum, in the principal departments of natural history. This institu- tion appears well worthy of encouragement, and the friends of natural history throughout the United States cannot bet- ter dispose of a part of their duplicate specimens, than by see them to this institution. that part of their report which relates to birds, they ginte from Dr. Tinton’s preface to Linné’s System of Nature, the following interesting passage, relating to the instinctive wisdom of the Loxia Phillippina, a native of the Philippine “Tt constructs a curious nest with the long fibres of plants a grass, and suspends it by a kind of cord, nearly half an ¢ Il long, from the end of a slender branch of a tree, that it y be inaccessible to snakes, and safe from the prying intru- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 375 sion of the numerous monkies which inhabit those regions : at the end of this cord is a gourd-shaped nest, divided into three apartments, the first of which is occupie the male, the second by the female, and the third pla ee the young; and in the first apartment, where the eeps watch while the female is batching, is placed on one ge a little tough clay, and on the top of this clay is fixed a glow-worm to af- ford s Bite ith light in the night time.” lar fact is familiarly known with respect to the hang- ing bird of this country. Its nest, formed like a purse, is pendulous from the high and slender branches of the trees, and is scarcely accessible in any way to invasion. 15. Chalcedony. TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. New York, January 9th, 1829. Dear Sir—Mr. John C. Thomson, of Brooklyn, has hand- ed to'me a specimen of chalcedony, to be forwarded to you, for your nett aes cabinet. t came into his possession a few years since, from the bal- last of a pana He does not recollect what port she arrived from, and of course cannot assign to the stone a geographic- al location. —_ Yours, very respectfully, J. M. Ety. The above remarkable specimen is a geode, of eee six to eight inches in diameter, lined with blue, white, chalcedony, in mamillary, and botryoidal, and sialnetivest concretions, It is indistinctly agatized, and altogether presents a remarkable appearance. It has evidently been animbedded specimen, and we should not hesitate to say, that it was robably derived from a trap rock, (the most usual repository of chalcedony,) were it not that there is no portion of this kind of rock adhering to its outside; but, on the contrary, it seems to have been enclosed in madrepore coral, with which a good deal of the exterior surface is thinly covered. This makes us the more regret that its locality is ouknowd, as such an association, if not novel, is singular. Perhaps it may have proceeded oneainlly from a trap rock near the sea, whose decomposition may have allowed it to fall into the water, where coralline animals may bave constructed their cells around it, and it may have been again detached by de- 376 Intelligence and Miscellanies. composition or violence, and thus obtained for a ballast stone, The surface of the chalcedony is somewhat clouded, as it has been long subjected to-the action of sea water. 16. Uniform nomenclature in Botany.—A correspondent who writes from Georgia,, under date of February 26, sug- gests, that a Convention be called of one person or more, from each State Medical School, or Botanical Society, in the United States, to some central place ; and that they adopt, after the manner of the United States’ Pharmacopeia, a no- menclature of known plants, which shall be uniform. Our correspondent adds—The proceeds of such a work might defray the contingent expenses, and the societies might pay that of their own delegates ; and to this convention may be united all literary gentlemen friendly to the cause. It is supposed that it would “ throw much light” on the science, by convening members from the different parts of the Union, who may be requested to bring all rare specimens or drawings of plants with which they are acquainted, and a liberal intercourse on the interests of science might be cultivated. ‘ Il. Hydrogenia, - ILL. Nitrogenia, IV. Oxygenia, V. Hydroxygenia—oxygen and hydrogen being in them in the proportion to form water. onwell has added a number of new vegetable alka- line principles, among which are Quassa, Serpentara, Uo- ia, Gentia, Gallia, Angusturia, Quercia, gc. It would appear that Dr. Conwell has very materially simplified the processes by which such principles are obtained, and his re- searches tend to confirm the opinion, that the active powers of medicinal and poisonous plants, generally reside in some principle which is capable of being isolated, and which is in many instances so far alkaline, that it is capable of combin- ing with acids and forming peculiar saline compounds. Intelligence and Miscellanies, 377 18. Group f crystals of common salt.—Mr. Henry Silli- man, of New York, has forwarded to us, a mass of crystals of common salt of uncommon size and beauty, It is from the island of Curracoa, and was formed around a branch of wood, suspended in the cistern from which the salt water was evaporated ; the cavity left by the branch is very dis- tinct, and is two inches deep and three fourths of an inch wide e mass of crystals is from six to seven inches in diamlence ; it is of a snowy whiteness, with considerable lus- tre, and presents about fifty distinct cubes, the largest of which are three and a half inches long. They are grouped, with salient and seater angles, and the assemblage of crystals has an appearance not unlike that of the large groups of the (so called) crystallized sandstone of Fontain- eau, or, more still, like the richest masses of crystals of fluor spar. The increments and decrements of crystalliza- tion are singularly distinct, and the whole forms a specimen well worthy of a place in a cabinet of crystals. 19. Fibrous gypsum of Onondago County, New York.— Some specimens of gypsum, recently transmitted to the edi- tor, by an unknown hand, are thus labelled: “ Found in dig- ging a salt well, in Liverpool, Onondago County, N. Y. twelve feet below the surface, in na of black mud, inter- mixed with slate stone: both above and below the strata, was found soft red rock or indurated clay, full of seams, through which the salt water passes.’ “hese specimens are fibrous, foliated and crystallized, blended more or less. The fibrous has evidently formed thin strata or veins between layers of loose incoherent slate or slaty clay. In one of the specimens these layers alter- nate, in their natural connexion with the eypsum, which be- ing white and brilliant forms a pleasing contra “One ne spec imen, ofa foliated structure, is ended: and still, Vor. XVI —No. 378 Intelligence and Miscellanies. The association of gypsum and salt is an established geo- logical fact, and this adds only another instance. are indebted to Lockport, and other places in the state of New York, for splendid specimens of gypsum and selenite, in most of the forms found in other countries. 20. Conchology of the United States.—The transactions of the American Philosophical Society for 1827, contain a valuable article upon the family of the Naiades by Mr. Isaac Lea of Philadelphia; in which are described eleven new Paxyodon of Schumacher, whose species he thinks, when they shall be found perfect, will turn out to be connate shells. 21. Nutural History in Canada.—-It affords us much pleasure to announce to such of our readers as may be un- acquainted with the fact, of the existence of two very flour- ishing societies in Lower Canada, whose object is, mainly, the promotion of natural history ; both of which were foun- ded under the patronage of his excellency, the Earl of Dal- housie, late governor of the British provinces in North Amer- ica. One of these, “the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec,” has already commenced the publication of its transactions, which, so far as they have come under our ob- servation, appear both interesting and valuable in the eluci- dations they afford of the mineralogy and geology of those regions. The other, called, “the Natural History Society of Montreal,” from a printed report of their progress for one ar, in forming collections in the different departments of natural history, promises to contribute eventually, no less for the cause of science in Canada, than its sister society. 22. Swainson’s new zoological illustrations.—The fourth number of this beautiful and highly finished work on natural Intelligence and Miscellanies. 379 history, has just made its appearance in this country, the first series consisting of 3 vols. royal, 8vo, is well known to the scientific world, and in the present series the alle emnes has profited by his experience in the previous volun The object of Mr. Swainson is to Tete and describe “ new, beautiful, or interesting aeare rranged acco ng to their natural affini ity.” As the cae has already bee embellished with some of the ate of this country, and it being the intention of the author to devote a still greater space to them, the work must become peculiarly interesting to American naturalists. ‘The admirers of natural history will find in this work the most beautiful specimens of birds, shells, insects, and fish, executed by the accomplished author himself, i ina style superior to any thing of the kind which has been published in England. We sincerely wish him success in this arduous and enterprising undertaking. _ 23, Cabinet o of the late William Phillips —We hav ceived a pamphlet of 82 pages 8vo, of which the following is the title :—* Catalogue of a rich and valuable cabinet of MINERALS ; and, also, of a select cRYySTALLOGRAPHICAL CAB- INET, containing a great variety of sca crystals, to the extent of some thousand specimens, with drawings and measurements annexed ;—the aroperty of the late Wirtiam PHILLIPS, F.R. S L. S., F. G. s., author of the “ Introduc- tion to Minera #logy : - and (jointly with the Rev. W. D. Co- nybeare) of the “ Geology of England and Wales:”—now to be disposed of by private contract.” “ Further particulars may be had, by application to G. B. Sowersy, No. 156, Regent street, Fongshs to whom communications on the sub- ject may bea he * Notice” prefixed to the catalogue contains the fol- lowing information “The collection of minerals, which forms the subject of the following catalogue, was in part made by a Cornish gen- tleman many years ago, and under very S yori circum- stances: it isindebted for the remaining part, to the care and judgment of the late William Phillips, whose devotion to the science of mineralogy, during a period of many years is well known. “ This collection, consisting of select specimens, embraces nearly all the mineral substances now known, as well as ve many of their almost endless varieties, It is particularly 380 Intelligence and Miscellanies. rich in crystalline forms; and, with few exceptions, furnish- ed its late proprietor. with the numerous varieties of crystals, which are figured in the last edition of his mineralogy, as well as the plates accompanying his papers on the oxide of tin, red oxide of copper, &c. published in the Transactions of the Geological Society. “Of British, and more especially of Cornish, minerals, the cabinet contains a large number of rare and valuable spe- cimens; amongst which may be particularly enumerated the fluates of lime, the native and red oxide of copper, the ar- seniates and phosphates of copper, the oxide of tin, and ma- ny others; it contains, likewise, many very valuable foreign specimens—as a reference to the catalogue will show. “The collection is now offered to the public, just as it was left at the decease of its late proprietor; and, together with iderable erystallographical cabinet, will be sold entire.” The contents of this uncommonly fine and rare cabinet are contained, as we perceive by the catalogue, in one hun- dred drawers. The specimens referred to and figured in the authors excellent work ineralogy, have numbers attach- ed tothem corresponding with the figures. Such a cabinet, having such a relation to one of the best standard works on the science of which it treats, will doubtless claim the atten- tion of scientific institutions and amateurs of natural history. . Canada.—We are informed, that under the direction of Col. Bouchette, of Quebec, so well known as the author of a splendid geographical and statistical work and map, ments of the colony, preceded by a general map of the Brit- ish North American provinces, This work is to be entirely of a public nature, and so cal- culated, from the scale of its construction, and the mode of its engraving, as to admit of future correction and ameliora- tion. e growth of a new country is naturally rapid, and the map, which to-day portrays it, with all possible detail, must, in ten years hence, be deficient of that information which might then be sought for. With a view to this object, refore, has the plan of the proposed topographical maps been formed: a plan which will, at once, be Sound compre- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 381 hensive and explanatory, admitting of the most elaborate detail, and in the mean time conveying all the collective in- formation at present desirable The whole work to consi ist of First, A geographical map of the Canadas, New Bruns- wick, and part of Nova Scotia, and a large section of the United States of America, compiled with ‘the greatest care and precision from the latest surveys, and adjusted from the most recent and approved astronomical observations, form- ing a map of six feet by four feet. “Second, A topographical map of the district of Montreal, on a scale of two and three fourth miles to an inch, extending westward to Fort Coulogne on the Ottawa River; and com- prehending part of that section of Upper Canada traversed by the Rideau Canal. The map to be seven feet two inches by three feet eight inches. Third, A topographical — of the districts of Quebec and Three Rivers, on the e scale, forming a map of seven feet three inches by four feet three inches. Fourth, A map of the district of Gaspé, on a scale of eight miles to one inch. Length, two feet six inches by one foot six inches. ach map will be executed with all possible topographical mieimnmiglacsa indicating rivers, —— —- bridges, villa- ges, settlements, churches, mills, The maps to be accompanied “a a beimcieaaes work, in three volumes, royal 8vo “The ist volume to contain a ba eat oy ay Aeson pare and brief description of the British can provinces, and summaries of the statistical tables of Fewer Canada, &c. he 2d volume to be a topographical and statistical des- cription of the district of Montreal, tables, &c. embellished with several landscapes The 3d volume a topographical and statistical description _ the districts of Quebec, Three Rivers and Gaspé, with es, &c, also embellis hed by several landscapes. =e each of the volumes will also be contained tables of distances, post-routes, &c. &c. and a variety of other useful information relative to each district. The whole to be pub- lished under the immediate patronage of the local governor and the legislature, and to be dedicated to the kin The maps to be engraved by the most eminent English artists, 382 Intelligence and Miscellanies. Price of the whole work, maps, &c. seven guineas. That of the geographical map, the Ist volume of the work, the district of Montreal, and the volume descriptive thereof, five guineas he ge ographical map, the 1st volume of the work, the districts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Gaspé, and the vol- ume duals mes five guineas and one fourth. 25. Remains of the Mammoth.—On Saturday, two tusks of the Mammoth, brought home by Captain Beechy, were exhibited, and described to _ Wernerian Society, by Professor. Jameson. The n fine preservation, and not bent in one direction, but Sete spirally, like the horns of some species of cows. The smallest, which is quite en- tire, is nine feet nine inches in ane ; ‘the largest, which wants a small part of the point, must have measured ori- ginally twelve feet. Judging from analogy, Professor Jame- son stated, that the mammoth to which the largest be- longed, ot have been fifteen or sixteen feet high, and con- sequently larger than the elephant, which is an animal of the same spacies ey were found on the west coast of America, near Beering’s Straits, at Escholz Bay, latitude 66, in a very remarkable bluff, which has been described by Kotzebue. The bluff has a covering of earth and grass, but Kotzebue, while encamped on it, having cut through the surface for € purpose, was surprised to find, that what he took for a portion of terra firma, was in reality a mountain ofice, a hun- dred feet in height above the level of the water, but attach- ed to the land, as such icebergs old are. This discov- ery led to another still more interestin It was found that this mass of ice had imbedded in it a vast number of the tusks, teeth, and bones of the mammoth, of which the objects we have described, are a part. ese remains must have been enclosed in the ice by the same catastrophe that buried the mammoth, which was found entire in a singular envelope on the banks of the Lena, thirty years ago ; and that catastro- phe, beyond a doubt, was no other than ‘the general deluge, which extinguished the race of animals to which these remains belonged. The bones, tusks, &c. were numerous, and some = of thé ice near the place where they were ae d a smell of decayed animal matter, arising, no doubt, e decomposition of the flesh. The tusks are in their Intelligence and Miscellanies. 383 natural state, but of two teeth which accompanied them, one seems to be nies having doubtless been in contact with — stone. The mammoth seems to have been an inhabitant of nearly the whole northern hemisphere, its teeth or bones hav- ing been found on both sides of North America, in Siberia, in England, Scotland, Italy, and other European countries. he remains, however, found in Ayrshire, and in various parts of England, belong toa smaller species than that which furnished these tusks. The Edi inburgh Museum is indebted for these valuable relics, to Lord Melville, who has never been unmindful of its interests, when his official station enabled him to do it a service.—Scotsman, Nov. 14. Foreign extracts, by Prof. J. Griscom. 26. Two kinds of Sulphate of Manganese—When black ox- ide of manganese is treated with sulphuric acid (as in prepa- ring oxygen gas) and the mother water is evaporated, two kinds of sulphates are obtained, distinct in their physical as well as chemical characters. One of these sulphates crys- tallizes in long prisms with four faces, perfectly white, trans- parent, and truncated obliquely at their extremities ;—the other is in the form of rhomboids and of a rose col Th first contains a greater proportion of oxide than the sect ond, and is ¢ eiaeuet ok water 28, pe acid 28.66, and ox- ide of manganese 43.34. The second is formed of water 44, of sulphuric acid 32, oxide of manganese 24. In the latter, the sub. carb. of potash produces no change. In the first it gives rise to a precipitate which appears to be a car- bonated oxide of manganese, and which speedily becomes brown by the action of the- air—Ferussac’s Bulletin, Sept. 27. Preparation of Hydriodic Acid; by M. W. Braxpes.— Dissolve 60 grains of iodine in a sufficient quantity of alcohol, and add to it drop by drop, four ounces of water, in a has been stirred an ounce of starch finely pulverised. the ioduret of starch has subsided, decant a portion of the supernatant fluid: Into the remainder, pass a current of sul- phuretted hydrogen; this gas soon produces an orange yellow color, occasioned by the formation of See of iodine—the color afterwards becomes a pure yellow, and finally disap- pears entirely, the starch again becoming white. The liquid 384 Intelligence and Miscellanies. is then to be filtered ; the starch which remains on the filter is washed with small quantities of water, and this being added to the former liquid, the whole is gently heated, in order that the hydro-sulphuric acid may be expelled. It may be evapo- rated to the spec. gray. of 1.5, and the hydriodic acid is thus obtained. pure.—Idem. 28. Pluranium.—Two new metals have been discovered in the platina of Oural in Russia, by M. Osanna, to which he has ay the name of pluranium, (formed from the initials of pla- tina and Ural,) and Ruthenium. (Ruthena, Russia.) e process for obtaining the first has been published, and the correctness of the inferences which determine the existence of a new metal, has been confirmed by Berzelius.—Idem. 29. Bichromate of Potash.—The solution e this salt, which is used extensively in dyeing at the manufactory of Borrow- field near Glasgow, was found to produce ulcerations upon of the workmen, which without extending much had so remar on the depth, Wak’ ia ‘one case it perforated the hand from side to side. Some individuals were found to be much more easily affected by it than others. Not only were the hands ulcera- ted, but swelling of the face and inflammation of the eyes were produced. Even the simple handling of the stuff, after it came from the vat, was sufficient in the more a cases, to produce eruptions. Other solutions employe dyeing, occasion sometimes inflammations and various affec- tions of the parts exposed. Thus, the solution of chloride of lime softens and sometimes destroys the nails and causes painful excoriations. Guided by these observations, Dr. Cumin employed a sat- urated solution of bichromate of potash in the treatment of warts and sy ic excrescences. In some instances they “elas aed a female of an immense number of warty erup- tions, _— _— resisted all other niece of treatment.—Idem Sa wise =e Tatelligence and Miscellanies. 385 30. A solid compound of cyanogen and sulphur, in definite proportions, has been obtaine M. Lassaigne. His pro- cess isto put into asmall glass balloon some crystallized cy- anuret of mercury in fine powder, and pour upon it half its weight of bichloride of sulphur. In the course of twelve or fifteen days, in a diffuse light, it sublimes in the neck of the lass, which is kept shut, and forms small crystals—white, transparent, or of a rhomboidal shape and highly refractive. These crystals when sublimed, have a strong, penetrating odor, exciting tears. A small fragment, placed on the tongue, occasions a most pungent sensation, and the spot which has been touched soon becomes red and painful. One of their characters is to produce, with the per salts of iron, a red color altogether similar to that produced by the sulpho-cyanic acid: Agreeably to the author's analysis, this compound is formed of four atoms of cyanogen and one atom of sulphur.—/dem. 31. Citric Acid from Gooseberries—M. Tilloy, of Dijon, has obtained from about 6200 lbs. of gooseberries, about 47 lbs. of citric acid, and 48 gallons of alcohol at 20. The cost of the gooseberries and other materials, labor, &c. was 227 francs; and the value of the alcohol was 91 francs. The balance 136 francs, brought the cost of the citric acid to about 3 franes per lb. whereas its value in the market is 12 francs per lb. The juice of the gooseberries is fermented and distilled,— the materials of the still are then pressed and strained, and while the fluid is warm it Is saturated with chalk, and the citrate of lime, being well washed, pressed, and diluted with water so as to bring it to a clear creamy-mass, it is decom- posed by sulphuric acid, diluted with twice its weight of wa- ter, and by the aid of heat. The liquid acid thus resulting, is again saturated with carbonate of lime, the precipitate strained and well washed is again decomposed, and bein deprived of its color by animal charcoal is finally evaporated. The crystals being colored and clarified by claying as in re- fining sugar. They are redissolved and again crystallized. — Idem. 32. Medical uses of Gold.—Preparations of this metal, as a substitute for those of mercury, in the treatment of ven- ereal diseases, were introduced, or at least, more exten- Vor. XVI.—No. 2 22 386 Intelligence and Miscellames. sively employed, some years since, in consequence of the re- mmendation of Dr. Chrestien of Montpelier. Contradict- ory statements of its value have been since published by phy- sicians in different parts of Europe and America. Magendie, in the latter editions of his formulary is unfriendly to the uses of gold, as a remedy in syphilis, but it does not appear that he judges of it by his own experience. Dr. Le Grand, of Amiens, in an octavo volume, published in 1828, main- tains the opinion that the employment of gold is the most efficacious and least dangerous means of combating syphi- lis. ‘The volume contains a mass of near 400 observations, all favorable to its en:ployment. r. Chrestien, has also addressed, within the past year, a letter to Magendie, on the different modes of preparing and administering gold, 8vo. 79 pp. 2 fr. “This pamphlet,” says the reviewer, “written with the dignity worthy of a practitioner, almost a septuagenarian, written to a brother professor, placed in so elevated a sphere, is of such a nature as to induce the honorable academician, to modify the opinion which he may hereafter give of aurif- erous preparations. We have no doubt that if he will make trial of it, he will become one of its partisans and most zeal- ‘ous defenders.” —Rev. Ency. Nov. 1828. 33. A Congress of Savans, assembled on the 18th of Sep- tember, 1828, at Berlin, under the favor and patronage of the King of Prussia. The whole number assembled on the occasion was four hundred and sixty-seven, of whom three hundred and twenty-four were Prussians, one hundred and nine Germans, and thirty-four were from different States of Europe, including France, England, Holland, and Russia. The session was opened by a discourse from Alexander De Humboldt, President, in which he stated the object of the convocation, and pointed out the advantages of such a union of the friends of science, from different parts of the world, and its influence on the discovery and propagation of useful truths. were appointed on Astronomy, Geography, Chemistry, Min- eralogy, Botany, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, and Medi- Intelligence and Miscellanies, 387 the character of the vegetable kingdom in the Indian Archi- ago. : The session was closed by a speech of the President’s, and it was decided that the Congress see tai Pods convoked the next year at Heidelburg.—Rev. Enc. Nov. 34. On the detection of Potash by the oxide of Nickel— As the method of Harkorts for the detection of potash is but little known to chemists, and as it promises great advan- tages, especially in sae gy, we think it right to state erzelius says of it in the new edition of his treatise on the blow pipe, about i: appear. According to this che- mist, the method of Harkorts has answered perfectly to the trials to which he had subjected it, to ascertain its correct- ness. It is sufficient to dissolve the oxide of Nickel in bo- rax, and to add to the vitreous matter a little nitre, feldspar, or any potassuretted substance, to obtain immediately a glass of a very distinct blue color. The presence of soda does not prevent this reaction. Among the preparations of Nickel, we may employ the nitrate or oxalate of this metal. It must not however contain cobalt, as that phen the glass a brown color,—Ferrusac’s Bull. Juillet, 1828. 35. Description of a very simple Apparatus for saturating ny liquid with gas and without loss of the flud, by M. Hes- oo —The gas is to be enclosed in a bladder, which is to be connected by a hollow cylinder with an elastic tube, (a gut, or something of that kind.) This tube is to be adapted to a bottle containing the fluid to be impregnated, and which is not to be quite full of the liquid. In the neck of the bottle adjust a cork pierced with two holes, into one of which fas- ten a tube, which shall pass downward — the fluid, and over ex hole place a valve opening upw the bladder is pressed, the gas ance through the tube into the fluid, and rising to the top, it ascends through the valve to be again pressed downwards into the fluid, until the absorption is complete.—Jbid. Memoir on the Chloride of Lime, by M. Morin, Ann de Chimie and de Phys. Fev. 1828. —The author, in saturating hydrate of lime by gaseous chlorine, has found the followmg results, 388 Intelligence and Miscellanes. Hydrates formed of 2 lime and 1 water, absorb = aoe 2 2 2 3 wa 2 4 1 do. The second only of these chlorides should therefore be em- ployed in the arts, as pointed out before by Wetter. The au- thor has further observed that when the action takes place in the cold, the chlorine remains entirely in the state of chloride of oxide, but with heat, one third or more of chlo- rine cease to react as chloride of oxide; and if we after- gto apply heat to — solution, the two remaining thirds the chlorine cease also to be in the condition of chloride of lime, by deeming an equal volume of oxygen. All the chlorine of the chloride of lime prepared in the cold, un- dergoes a like modification, by disengaging the half of its volume of oxygen, and by transforming itself into chloride of calcium, and chlorate of lime.—Ide 37. Alcohol._—By distilling alcohol of 98 1-2 per cent. by ntle heat, and receiving the ucts of the distillation successively in small flasks, numbered and of equal size, it was found that Density. The ist portion which passed had 0.7972 or 97.86 per cent. 2d e! u 0.7970 3d S 35 0.7969 Ath e ds 0.7966 5th zi oy 0.7965 6th. os : 0.7964 7th 2 < 0.7962 Sth : " 0. cogs Mea Tt thus clearly ies that absolute sed arbors is se volte than that which contains a portion of water, and that when the degree of 97 per cent. is passed, the weakest alcohol goes off first, and the strongest last, consequently the vol- atility of alcohol is not in eon to its specific levity or its nee condition.—ldem 8. Rapidily of the Circulation of ithe Blood.—A solution of Terruretted hydrocyanate of Potash, introduced into the vein of the horse, entered the circulation and arrived Intelligence and Miscellanies. 389 0 drocyanic acid. Thinking that some mistake had been made in the preparation, he renewed it and obtained the same result . Blei, apothecary at Pemberg, has also Lastly, M. Mentzel has just proved the presence of iodine in an ore of zinc from Upper Silesia. —Fer. Bull. Nov. 1828. 41. Size of the grains of native platina—The cabinets of Europe scarcely contained any grains of native platina larger than a line in diameter until M. Humboldt brought one from South America weighing 1088 grains. This was the largest known until 1822, when the Museum of Madrid was enriched with a native specimen two inches and four mines of Demidoff, in Oural, proved by Professor Lubarsky of St. Petersburgh, in 1823, to be native platina, contaming an alloy of iridium and osmium. It weighs four thousand 390 Intelligence and Miscellanies. three hundred and twenty + elec about nine and a half ae avoirdupois,— . Observations on the evaporation of ice, by M. Schueb- ey a results from these observations that the evaporation of ice is much more considerable than is generally imagin- ed, and that under certain circumstances, it may surpass that of water. Ina dry cold air on the 9th of January, the evaporation from ice in twenty four hours, was twice as great as from an equal surface of water in ne middle of February, during mild and cloudy weather. may perceive from this the manner in which snow ae gradually by long exposure to a cold atmosphere.—ZJbid, 43. Swiftness of Sound.—At the temperature of melting ice, the experiments 0 Parry and Foster give 333.15 metres Moll and Van Beck 332.05 Stampfer and Myrbach 333.25 Arago, Matthieu, and Biot 331.05 Benzenberg 333.70 Mean, 332.64 Idem. 44. On the colored flame of Alcohol, by Prof. Vogel of Mu- ich.—After mentioning the experiments of Brewster, Pal- lot; Herschell, Blackadder, &c., the Prileodir entertained the assembly with the yellow, red, and green flames of Alco- hol. The yellow was produced by kindling alcohol on salts with bases of ammonia, soda, —— iron, mercury, platina, gold, nickel, cobalt, and bismu A red flame was obtained from salts with bases of _ strontian, lithia or magnesia. On the salts of copper, or alumine, the flame is green. The salts should ‘all =] soluble in alco- hol. A green flame is also produced in burning the solution of boracie acid and alcohol, or from weak hydrochloric ether. The oxid of copper, according to M. Vogel, is: re- duced, by burning alcohol, into protoxide and metallic cop- — the i flame itself containing copper.—Ferrusac's Nov. 1 AS. Bleciciy of the Tourmaline—We have announced that, according to M. Becqueret, the fragments of the tour- Intelligence and Miscellanies. 391 maline are more electric by heat than the entire tourmaline, and that when the latter is very long, it cannot acquire the pyro-electric virtue. We were then ignorant that M. Brews- ter had made analagous experiments under date of Aug. 2d 1824. The following are the expressions of the Scotch phi- losopher: “In examining the electricity of the tourmaline. I have found that it is much more easily observed with a small placed on a glass and heated to a boiling temperature, the fragment adheres to the glass with so much force that on in- verting it, the fragment remains suspended during six or eight hours. In this manner, pieces of considerable thick- ness and surface are capable of supporting their own weight. He adds further, that the dust of the enurhathie adheres in a mass when heated on a glass, and stirred with a dry substance.—Ferussac’s Bulletin, Nov. 1828. 46. New method of preserving Crystallized Salts; by M. Deuchar.—Agreeably to the statement of the author, salts may be prevented from efflorescing or burning liquid, by charging the air of the vessel in which they are kept with the vapor of the spirits of turpentine. It is sufficient for this purpose to + i a very small quantity on the bottom of the vessel.—Ibi 47, Conversion of potatoe flour into nutritious bread— Darcet proposes, in order to render the bread of potatoe flour as palatable and nutritious as that of wheat, that some animal substance should be added to the mixtures, and this he finds may be gelatine, or caseous matter. In 1821 he proposed to add gelatine to wheat flour for the purpose of making a more nutritious biscuit for the use of the navy, and some of these were prepared under — Spetbamti on} a voyage of circumnavigation now under the command of M. De Durville. The wheat flour — by the beckons bins Paris, Hatin a Water, - ean.’ - - : - os Stare - - - - 73 eich cries ma after, BS é Bg Gummo-glutinous matters; oe CAS 3 392 Intelligence and Miscelianies. Potatoes, obtained in the market, contain per hundred weight, Water, - - - : 72 Ligneous fibre, - : - - 2 S - - - 26 100 To bring potatoes to a near equality with wheat flour, in relation to bread, there must therefore be added to 100 parts of potatoe flour, 4.63 of animal, and 1.53 of saccharine mat- ter. In mixing these three substances, we should evidently obtain a flour as nutritive, and as easy to be converted into bread, as the flour of grain. o prepare 100 kilogrammes of animalized potatoe flour, take 264 kilogrammes of potatoes, worth - 4.95 francs. Coal for dressing these potatoes by steam, 66 12 kilogrammes of gelatine, - - - 12,00 4 kilogrammes of grape, or other sugar, - 2.00 Manual labor in cooking and mixing materials, - . - - 4,00 Add one tenth for all other expenses, - 2.36 : | 25.97 or 26 fr. This mixture rises like wheat flour, and makes good bread. The cost of 100 kilog. of good wheat bread at Paris, is 60 franks, and it appears that the same quantity of animalized potatoe bread can be made for. less than one half that sum. e shall give in the next number of our Journal, a note explanatory of the process employed by M. Darcet, in ex- tracting gelatine from bones with facility and economy. I’ Industriel Fev, 1829. 48. Means of detecting the purity of chromate of potash. Add to the sample to be tried, a great excess of tartaric acid. The chromate is immediately decomposed, and the liquid acquires, in the course of ten minutes, a deep amethystine color, and then no longer forms a precipitate with nitrate of barytes, or nitrate of silver, when the chromate of potash is pure ; while these reagents will indicate the slightest traces of sulphate or hydro-chlorate contained in the liquid. A ne- cessary precaution is to have the solution of the chromate sufficiently diluted not to precipitate tartrate of potash, which it will do if not diluted with sixty parts of water at least ; and the solution cannot be assayed until the amethystine hue is llestablished, otherwise the d ition is not complete. aN t Intelligence and Miscellanies, 393 49. Decoloring action of Charcoal.—An elaborate me~ moir on this subject, by Mr. Bussy, which obtained the prize proposed by the Society of Pharmacy, of Paris, contains the a results : . That the decoloring property inherent in charcoal, siaiieate itself only when ‘the charcoal is in certain physical conditions, among which, porosity and division hold the first rank, 2. That the azote is devoid of effects ; that the foreign sukaidone: which the charcoal contains exert no decoloring action, with the — of ee hydrogen, and the m only: if the foreign mat- ters appear to have an influence in the decoloration, it is oc- casioned by the development of surface merely in conse- ig of the mixture at no charcoal can discolor when it has been heated ; that all its varieties on the e contrary enjoy this property, when they are sufficient- ly divided,—not by mechanical action, but by the interposi- — some substance which opposes their aggregation. . That the superiority of animal charcoal, such as that of blood, or gelatine, arises from its great porosity ; ; which may be considerably increased by the effect of matter with which it is calcined, such as 5. That potash is not limited in its effect of increasing the porosity of the charcoal, by the abstraction of the for- eign substances it may contain, but it acts on the char- coal itself, in attenuating its molecules, and that by calcining vegetable substances with potas ash, a decoloring charcoal may be obtained ; add also by the calcination of en) or an- ima] matters, with phosphate of lime or c 6. at the decoloring force of different charcoals, ascer- tained with respect to one substance, generally follows the same order in all others ; but that the difference betwoenthiete diminishes in proportion to the difficulty of decoloration in the different — on which they are tried. T rcoal acts upon coloring — by combi- ning with them with alumine would do, and that, in some cases the color can be ‘ade alternately to i and disa sappear. he the following are the relative numerical forces of the ceemerns etek of the pee employed, first, upon V 394 Intelligence and Miscelianies. a test solution of indigo, and secondly, es a test of dilu- t asses. go. Molasses. Biood calcined with potash, - - 50 20 Blood calcined with chalk, - 18 11 Blood calcined with phosphate of lime, 12 10 Gelatine calcined with potash, - 36 15.5 Albumen calcined with staal - 34 15.5 Fecula calcined with potash, - - 10.6 8.8 Charcoal of acetate of potash, - 5.6 4.4 Charcoal obtained by the aascmnnanen of sub-carbonate of soda by Phonpharity: 1Qiisr Go BB aepblacls calcined, - 4 3.3 do. calcined with potash, = - AB 10.6 Charcoal of bones einieions wun: anaes acid and ‘ 20. Charcoal of 1 witl iati id, 1.87 1.6 Vegetable or toed ol calcined wile phos: ate of lime, - 9. 1.9 Charcoal of eA - - 1. le Idem. 0: Monufabtory of diamonds.—Several accounts of 34 eqannaation of pure carbon by artificial means an consequent formation of diamonds possessing the erica transparency and refractive power of that most valuable o' all the gems, have been published in the shite and have attracted public attention. But on the 24th of Nov. last M. Thenard stated to the academy of sciences, that in con- junction with Dumas and Cagniard de la Tour, he had care- fully analysed these crystals, and had aicenitied that they were only silicates and not artificial diamond.—Ann, de - Chim. Nov. 1828. 51. Leeches.—In a journal entitled he Westphalian Indi- cator, a physician states a case in which leeches that had been employed on a person affected with syphilis, were af- terwards used on a child and communicated to the infant the same disease. Hence, when leeches are used a secon Saat care should be taken with respect to the nature of the of the person on whom they are at first employed.*— Fer. “Bul. Jan.. 1828. aa = ~ * Dr. Salle tainbleu, proposes as a means of economising leeches, to eut them in bet while t in = act of suction. The animal, en ahty ts continues to ting on the adhering part sane salt or tobacco. Intelligence and Miscellanies. 395 Chloride of lime in psora. nies Derheims proposes de following sees as a cure - ite of lim "3 ounces. Distilled wate: : - 1 pint. Dissolve and filter, and use it asa lotion on the thighs, legs and arms, two or three times a day. From six to ten days treatment will be sufficient.—Jdem. 53. Tron furnaces in England and Scotland.—The num- ber of high furnaces in 1740 was but fifty nine. This num- ber has been increased as follows, 74 urnaces producing 17.000 tons. 1788, ~ 7 68.0 £796, 121: * = 125.000 “ 1806, “ “ 250.000 * 1820, “ “ 400,000 “ 1827, 284 oa 690.000 ‘* Of the two hundred eighty four furnaces last mentioned, ninety five are in Staffordshire, and ninety in South Wales. 54, New process for obtaining gallic acid, by M. Le Roger.—Exhaust_ the me matter from the gall nut by repeated decoctions: ad e concentrated decoctions a solution of — which papas the tannin; filter ; add very pure animal carbon—boil during eight or ten min- utes; filter aga as and then by evaporation and cooling, crystals of gallic acid will be obtained, of a silky texture and perfectly white. Gall nuts of the first quality furnish by this method, the fourth of their weight of acid; whereas, by the process ‘of Braconnot, they yield only a fifth —Mem. de Phys. de Geneva. 23, p. 79. 55. Action of iodine on protochloride of mercury, by Planche and Soubeiran.— When iodine and protochlonde of mercury are triturated together with water, decomposition _ and there are ase: a and ioduret of cury.—Jour. de Pharm 56. ee on a new method of preparing the deutoxide of barium, by M. Quesneville, fils. F perng obtained, in a sim- ple manner, ‘the deutoxide of barium, a think it right to _ make known the process, because being less expensive than that which is followed, it will enable chemists to procure at 396 Intelligence and Miscellanies. a cheaper rate, the ee water; the employment of which will then become m The method which I follows is a thie I take nitrate of ba- rytes, which I put into a porcelain retort, to which I lute a Welter’s tube, and extend the latter under an inverted jar of water. I then gradually heat the retort, and maintain it at a red heat, as Jong as any nitrous acid and azotic gases are disengaged, which indicates that a portion of nitrate of barytes remains to be decomposed; but from the moment that the oxygen gas passes perfectly pure, I remove the fire and let the retort cool. The product of this decomposition is a deutoxide of barium, which possesses all its known prop- erties, among which is that of slacking with water without being heated, of disengaging oxygen, when boiled in that fluid, and of being brought to the state of protoxide by a strong heat. Its purity is easily proved by treating it with sulphuric acid, for no disengagement of nitric acid ensues. ure nitric acid does not di isengage deutoxide of azo We may thus obtain a deutoxide of barium, as well ated with oxygen, and as pure, as that which is procured by the other process. Its formation is, in fact, very senanehs the protox- ide of barium, finding itself in contact with a great-quantity of oxygen gas in the nascent state, combines with it and re- tains it, if the heat be not too pret aioenente to disengage it— Annales de Chimie, Gc. Sept. 1 57. Pre ecipitation of albumen by phosphoric acid.—Ber- zelius and Engelhart have discovered that phosphoric acid, prepared by os phosphorus in nitric acid, evaporating the solution in a platina vessel and heating it to redness, would, whew gfe eee in water, .precipitate both vegetable and animal albumen very abundant. = that the power of y. The cause of this nomenon, (Berzelins hana’ it was impossible to discover.—Idem Intelligence and Miscellanies. 397 58. Ne ew fulminating powder.—Two parts of nitrate. pot- ash, two of the neutral carbonate of potash, one of sul minating mixture of great energy, the explosive force of which has the peculiar property of being continually directed downward !—Ferrussac’s Bulletin, Aout 1828. 59. New compounds of silica and potash, by M. Fuchs.— The best method of obtaining this combination is the fol- lowing. Melt together 10 parts of carbonate of potash, 15 of pure quartz and 1 of carbon. The melted mass after having been reduced to powder i is subjected to the action of of a viscid, opaline liquid, which by further evaporation ei- ther spontaneously or by heat, is converted into a solid vi- treous transparent mass, fixed in the air, and perfectly simi- lar to glass, neg that it is less hard. cohol precipitates the aqueous solution. Acids decompose ijtin the same manner as the liquor of flints; many salts form with it insoluble precipitates. This new — of and other objects, to preserve them from ree or as a substi- tute for lute in the laboratory.— Idem. . Marine salt.—If a concentrated solution be exposed ep a “Auman of 8° or 9° Reaumur, fine crystals may be obtained, which are often an inch or more in length. cold atmosphere they effloresce,—but with heat jad liquify im their water of oe pying Sense a “spit nat and then add 5 per cent 398 intelligence and Miscellanies. stant the ebullition. Then add to the solution still warm, ammonia till there is an excess. Stop the bottle and wait until the precipitate is entirely formed. Then decant the li- quid by means of a glass tube, wash the precipitate with wa- ter previously boiled, and lastly, fill the bottle with warm alcohol. When this protoxide is used, a small spoonful of it is to be rapidly withdrawn, and put into a vessel filled with water, deprived of its air by boiling. Into this vessel the gas to be examined must be passed. If it contain one part of oxygen in a thousand, its presence will be indicated by the ochreous color assumed by the reagents.—/dem. 62. Optical amusements.—Pierce a card with a small hole, and holding it before a window or white wall, a pin being held between the eye and the card will be seen on the other side of the orifice inverted and enlarged. The reason of is the lower part of the window or wall, while that which is stopped by the lower end of the pin comes from the upper part, the image must necessarily appear inverted relatively to the object. he phenomena of the mirage may be completely imita- ted, as Dr. Wollaston has shown, by directing one’s observa- tion to a distant object along an iron bar heated to redness, or through a saline or saccharine solution, covered with al- eye being nearer the smooth surface of the glass, three beautiful halos of light will appear, at different distances from the luminous body. The interior halo, which is the whitest, is formed by the im refracted by two of the surfaces of the crystals, but little in- clined to each other. The second halo, whose colors are finer, is formed by two faces more inclined ; and the third, which is very large, and higbly colored, is formed by two fa- ees still more inclined. The same effects may be obtained Intelligence and Miscellanies. 399 with other crystals, aud each halo will be either double when’ the refraction is considerable, or modified by various colors, when the refraction is wea e effects may be varied ina curious manner, by crystallizing on the same piece of glass, salts of a determinate color. this means, halos white and colored succeed each other.—Bulletin technilogique Aout, 1828. . Corroswe Sublimate.—At the common temperature, — parts of ether dissolve one part of corrosive sublimate ; but by taking equal parts of camphor and aye it re- quires but three parts of ether for solution. By increasing the proportion of the camphor, we have the following results: 4 parts of ether wi ith 4 8 “ : oe 4 oe “ : os os “ 16 as oe 8 os 6s 3 parts alcohol, common temperature, dissolve 1 part of sub- limate ; in addin ng to the latter, only the half of its weight of camphor, one and a half an of alcohol is sufficient for the solution.—Fev. Bul. Mars. 1 * * * * * * 4, On the Gossamer Spider, by Mr. Bowman,—Severa In a few —— ges they were seen ee ace ong, without any apparent effort ; their legs contracted together, cad lee perfectly quiet on pie: backs, suspended from their silken parachutes, and presenting to the lover of na- ture a far more interesting spectacle than the balloon of the philosopher. ‘“ One of these natural aéronauts I followed,” says Mr. Bowman, “ which, sailing in the sunbeams, had two 400 Intelligence and Miscellanies. distinct and widely diverging fasciculi of webs ; and their position in the air was such, that a line uniting them would have been at right angles with the direction of the breeze. —Magazine of Natural History. 65. ORITUARY OF DR. JOHN GORHAM. Continued life, and long life, are met ts desired by most men, although with the inevitable condition, that we must see our friends fall around us; and if we siiais to old age, only here and there one of our early associates will remain. Happy indeed are we, if, by the time, when our shadows be- gins to lengthen towards the east, we do not find, that most of the friends of our youth have gone before us, and left us solitary mourners. These reflections, replete with interest, as to the present and the future, have been painfully forced up- on the writer, by the death of an eminent early associate and friend, Dr. John Gorham, M. D. of Boston. Distinguished asa yhysician, as an author, and as a professor of science ;—as man, lovely and beloved, even far beyond the limits of his en but just passing its meridian ; and we can only submit in-si- lence, where we cannot understand, and must not repire.— I may perhaps be permitted to add, that among the succes- sive periods of my earlier years, few are remembered with so much satisfaction, as that passed at Edinburgh, in 1805 and 1806, in intimate domestic association with the lamented est, for a ous notice of him, bes the pen of the accom- plished gentleman, ites. on the funeral occasion, pronounc- ed his merited eulogy * The Rev Codman, now of Dorchester ; a ms Dr, Codman and the writer ~——_ the apartments of one hou: assembled at the same meme and that, (according to the rte x (Eatabargh,) exclusively their own; were associates more harm INDEX TO VOL. XVI. —>—- Aerolite of Virginia, description of, ity, influence of quantity of Sater upon, 234 —— precipitation of, by phosphoric acid, 396 Alcohol, 388 action Pe et sag acid upon, 267 colore ———— from aoa ‘and farinaceous plants, 173 Algebraic eolation Allinson S. on pd hag weight of mercury, 183 Alum soda, of Milo, 203 a its “a se pigme ha LA Ammonia, effect of, in cas es of p Analysis vot eh st in the Virginia sorolié, 196 ——— of meteoric iron of Louisiana, 217 (eidiiitelplite of, 336 Avatite ite embracing anthracite, 299 rtificial diamonds, 394 Atmosphere saseaie a ra borealis, sot wer wti upon, 290 m copaiva, new peaueey of, 40 Betton: ecaiecion of, n e of ae 395 Beck, L. C. Dr. Bell, B. iaahaeionas ra on Mr. Du Combidnts hypothesis, 51 i mate of potash, 3 f of N. America, Audubon’s work upon, 353 Blestiog rocks, improvement in, apid circulation > 388 Blood, tany, uniform nomenclature i in, 376 aes: Dr. on ma 20 Bronzite, locality of, 185 Cabinet of ge mone Penge 379 Calendar of v a istry in, 378 Carbonic acid of the Siohcdpneit i Carp . on balsam omeive 40 me on wee ~ lime, sik * peru Scoromcare ae oa Charco: icalidues action of, 393 Chemical instruments, new ones, 293 ———— ae measurement of, 215 Chester county cabinet of Natural History, 374 Chloride of lime, 38 Chloride of lime, ae of, 177 Chloride mie ee in psora. Chrom ash, seat pure, 392 Chrysolite t in Virginia ae aerolite, 192 Church, Dr. on ammonia in cases of poison, 182 Citric acid in in gooseberries, 385 Collections in natural history, 368 Vor. XVI.—No. 24 402 INDEX. Columbite, discovery of, in Massachusetts, 220 Co Commun, J. Du, o i ypiehiate of i ees 51 Conchology of the United. States, 378 Congress of Savans, ‘ooper’s rotative lomag 313 Corrosive sublim Crystallized alts, ae Saeed, 391 Cyanic acid, Cyanogen and sulphur, 38: ———— perchloride of, 257 Dearborn, H. A. S. oe on the North American men 78 Diamonds, artificial Eaton, _— oy the number five, 17: —————— 0n alcohol fro: a= fe plants, 173 Electricity of the tourmaline, Expeditions, polar, history of, 1 Fenn on the rege psa of glass, 112 Fib m, 377 Field Finch, J. on ves Fish and Lizards in y circum Five, the favorite pong on in aaa re Fluxions, a borg upon —_ solution re - problem in, 283 Fraunhofer, life of, 3 Fulminating etc a new kind of, 397 Gallic acid, new mode of obtaining, 39: Galvani i by different sestals, 268 >» hew one, 215 Geography, pi physica, effects of, 99 on, in North Carolina, } prased Acie on the m: manulactory of "12 Gold, medical uses of, Griscom, Prof. translations by, 257 Hare, R. Prof. new — instruments by, 293 Hassler’ 8 Larsen: R. plan we Fe an y of the at the United States by, 225 Hayes, A. ‘ke - fan od — pigments, 173 —— on a scarlet pigment Hydriodic elt: mode of preparing, 388 rock of Saratoga, th, S. P. potennlagiesi observations by, 44 Hitchcock, Prof., discovery of tin in Massachusetts by, 188 INDEX. 403 Ice, evaporation of, 390 Igneous a effects mae 2 Ignis fatuus, remarks upon, Todine, action ttn Pa sete of mercury, 395 Todine in ores of zinc, 389 Tron furnaces in Englan en, Ritiooric, in Viegas sro, 200 —— of Iron i in salt springs, Keeney, J. C. on novaculite in lene: 185 Lakes, of North America, on the level of, 78 Leaves, autumnal coloration of, 215 Leeches, 394 Liquids, how saturated with Lyceum of Nat. History of fen¥. ew York, procedings of, 205, 354 Maclure, W. Mr. 1 letters from, el, anganese sulphate of, two kinds of, 383 Marine salt, 3: Materia nahies specimens in, 179 Medical compound, 389 mpoun' re atomie weight of, 183 ie ron, analysis of 217 Metsmnsianienh observations, 44 eepert = 1828, 70 ee tite ree facts conce ru erals from toe Bendich 1 Islands, 347 Maat E. Prof. on ity, 234 ——_—_—__. ays region of North Carolina, 1 Mitchell, J. Rev.o , 246 Motion, the Pacing soa of matter, 151 Muse, J. E. Drak suscitation, on fish, &e. in extraordinary situations, 41 N Natural history in Canada, 378 aval Leow hasan: of, Ba Nickel a te: Nitric acid as phosphorus, wider geen from, 366 Finite tot wgalt fegenee ng, 295 0 aro) region Northern Solby ages remarks Spee, 290 Novaculi Georgia, 185 Obituary =! isk N. Smith, 211 : cerning, 154 - Oilstone 27 . Oeics 374 Gliver, RL. T Dr. on use of iodine in gout, 17 Olmsted, Prof. meteorological report by, for 1928, 70 Optical amusements, 398 Oxigen gas, seine in a case of resuscitation from drowning, 250 _—— 397 404 INDEX. Peruvian bark, ae oa upon, 28 ; cabinet of 379 Phosphoric acid, a S 4 albumen by, 396 Pigeons, ecoying, 3 i 74 Potash, detected by nickel, 387 Proto-sulphuret of iron n Virginia aerolite, 207 sora, use of chloride of lime in, 395 : Pp ey steam, 181 Q Quantity of matter, effect of on affinity, 234~ mr. ete Prof. translation from the Astronomical Journal of bey 900° 225 ting theodolite, oe eport upon Resuscitatio on from drow ing, evere, J. Dr. on idanath ing for page 180 al Life Review of re sey of Nav e, 320 Rock formations in America, 254 Rodriguez, P. J. on the observations of comets, 94 Rotative Piston, 313 Ru eeraeds a new metal, 384 Ss Saratoga soe gid ————— iodine in the mine Shepard, Charles U. Mr. analysis ge pike a 217 assachusetts — 220 examination of Virginia aerolite, 191 a alum Sond Ships, a, and Seathings for, 1 Shootin: Sa pedis w compounds of, 397 Siltimanite, 2 vde$ in, bom Smith, br. obituary of, 211 Soda. +e of Milo, 203 Soun peed: fins % cific gravity, as used in min : Spider, rossamer, 399 Sunieseee eokaatbite in M asc 220 Steam igi 181 Steel, J. H. Dr. on the Saratoga waters m the High Kock Sprin ng, 34 Strong, Th hone: “Prof. solution of a a: in fluxions Lp Spe’ Sulphuric acid, action of on alcohol, 26 Swainson’s new zoological aaoteetbota 378 ur a tee 301 Theodolite, -_- i er 252 in Massachusetts, 188 Tra "168 pvcahall, Col. on the national caravan 163 United States, plan for the survey of its coast, 225, Vanuxem, L. Prof. on American rock formations, 254 Variation of the magnetic needie, 60 Vegetable chemistry, 376 Virginia aerolite, examination of, 191 Water, maximum cae oad Wilder’s algebraic oclalis 271 Wollaston, Dr. on _ aoe " | AE c mi equivalents, 371 — Wright, on the theory of fluxions, 53 Zach, Baron de, 209 Zinc containing iodine, 389 APPENDIX. ——— certificates and correspondence respecting the invention of the temporary rudder, described in this Journal, Vol. XIII, p- 371. REMARKS, Ir bh be perceived, ay! the dates of the subsequent letters, — this cor- has been, some time, in my hands. I had hoped to about a ina ing betwee n the parties » without ca calling the public atten tion to the eo at most, t lt in th With this view, in my answer to ica Rawson’s first letter, I caclnek an open “ese = > Captain Marshall, requesting that the gentlemen would, in a friendly meeting, discuss and settle their respective claims, and communicate e ? pow dscns of com plaint, 7 have conad the ip roriabgiadeate ce, (of | which. nana ee i came separately, and appended to the Journal without forming a = sf the vol Rea Haven, June 18, 1829. ” New York, October 14, 1828. ° TO THE EDITOR, Dear Siry—In looking over your Journal for January 1828, I was not a little surprised at seeing a pian of a temporary rudder, communicated to you by ptain ; ey ; aioe of veotine ie borrowed it, you will oblige me by giving the. ‘allowing state- ment an insertion in your Journa On the 26th of eee, 1826, on my hip Georg Liverpool to New- York, in Lat. 42 30, Long. 45 10, in the Ship Clinton ; in a violent el my er, e hs of Purnell which id not answer in steering the ship, I then made one ay e plan which Cap- tain municated to you, which was the first of the kind, I be- lieve, that was ever made. arrival in New York, Captain Marshall, with many gentlemen, examined it, and I explained to plan of it. wntve months after, when Captain Marshall gong in lanl York after his disaster, I called on board the Britannia to and observed to him, that it was on the same plan as mine. which he ane. i ii APPENDIX, edged. I had no further conversation with him on the subject, and, — should not have recurred to it again, but for his communication to ra I send you the certiiceibe of Captains Dickerson of the ship 2 ol and SS of the ship — tan, and the first and second o se: of the rge — » which, I Ass esume,- will be sufficient to satisfy you of the correct- not” ay: absence from New York, eiving left the very ap of the date of Captain Marshall’s communication to you,) has prevented e from noticing it before this. Yours ee, ARD B. Rawson. CERTIFICATES. NO I. I hereby certify, that I have examined a plate in the orate Journal January, 1828, purporting to be the Pegs of a plan of a temporary Ru teat to the ship Britannia, and that it is a fac simile of a Rudder ages by aptain Edward B. Rawson, first fitted to the ship George Clinton, on a pas- ae from Liverpool, in September, 1826, more than twelve pantie before the Britannia lost her rudder, and some months before the = ue a was built. ae oO a) NDER ; cine first officer of George Clinton, at od time the September 20, 1828. udder was first peemnins NO. If. hereby a that on ves — of the Britannia in New York, in No- ‘vember, 1827, amine porary Rudder, then fitted to ties and it "the same e eve ie spect, with a te r invented by Captai = ‘i ~ te tted to ship ones Clinton, in September, 1826, in Long. 45, Lat. 42 3 and f also esi that [ assisted in hanging the last JameEs B. CoRNWELL, d ond officer, New York, Oct. 2d, 1828. Ship George Clinton. NO. Ill. Carrain Rawson. c the two Rudders, as I examined them both, w n they were fitted to both ‘ships Yours Bat respect ully, ges a. Drcx1 ha eee 3d, 1828. aster of Ship Rom SL APPENDEX. : Ti NO IV. This is to certify, that on the 26th of October, 1828, I examined a temporary Rudder made and fitted to the George Clinton, by Captai es on his turn passage from Liverpool, that and the preceding mo: ath, and found it the same in every r t as one which Captain crshall claims as sof his own invention, and which was made more than twelve months rf me made y n Rawson. I also examined the Rudder fitted to the Britannia, when she arrived in New York, in Nov. 1827, and the difference in_ construc — so little, that they appeared to have been made by on Fecmee ra same per- Jos Geter 2d, 1828. Master of t the Ship "Spartan. New York, December 14, 1828. B. SILLIMAN, ESQ. sige doing, it has been don 2 Veiitiont the slightest sees of arrogating to syallt the least credit as re os itsinvention. I have a perfect recollection that the one in question varies very materially from ha i) escription of, — by Cai Rawson, I ams that I admitted to Captain Hall and rs, and to Captain Rawson himself, who was at y arrival on the e spot all that part resembling his. Captain Rawson is not here a ee ail again in the course of a day or two, it is entirely unce rtain “A ae meet. I have no great disposition to conte with him on tina sot my only motive for giving a description of it, was dames to give publicity what i consider the best thing ever adopted for the purpose, and that sagt may be benefited by it; and hacer invented by me or him, or both, is to me of very little consequence “ and not worth contending about. But why ae ae me reat iets pre ge It is certainly due to me that he should furnish you with a drawing an of the one he actually fitted sgt then it may be wee wherein it v sak The Rudder in question also ats e, and perhaps — — to one that I had had a description of, fitted by some person ou oe ie wr St cer a8 it was admitted at the time, by all who saw it, to bots ae any one that was ever brought into notice before ; however, I shall. leave this subject to your own good judgment, to dispose o' of as you may think proper Respectfully and si Your obedi ua’s H. Mars renal P. S. I presume, could I have a personal interview with Captain Rawso on the subject, it would be an advantageous one to both pa’ New York, February 23, 1829. MR. BENJAMIN SILLIMAN. —When your favor of se cm 3 9th reached New York, I was Dear Sir. absent on a voyage to Europe, and nd whom I had requested to tend te to any communication from you, was soon after I left. also called away; your iv _ APPENDIX, letter would otherwise have been noticed efore. The letter Peoted | a Captain Marshall, was — him on his al here, yet I are any communica ion from him on diag probaly to which it: refer deceived. I shall be happy to hear from m you soon, as J shall fost this bert by 4th March. Please direct, care Sam’ Hicks and Sons. Yours respectfully, FE. B. Rawson. End view of the Flaiteny Ovens. waa Srde view of the/umnace. Front view of the Wood. Ovens. : t Cutting Room > A CYLINDER GLASS HOUSE. | 7 " § COOPER'S ROTATIVE FIRE ENGINE. PI. 1. Ceate Mydiatire aia ATENT. Pendtletons Lrth