. ee eee ee ee ee Pee ee AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. Prof. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll.; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com. ; and For. Mem. Geol. Soc., Tandon ; Mem. ores Soc., "Pucie; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dresden; Nat. Hist. Soc., Ire. ; Phil and Lit. Soc., Bristol, Eng.; Hon. Mem. Roy. Sussex pa Brighton, Eng. ; Lit. i . of various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in America. AIDED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. in the department of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology in Yale College; Sec. of the gpa cae Mem. of the Conn. Acad. ee dison wk: Cor. Mem. of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, &c. VOL. XXXIV.—JULY, 1838. NEW HAVEN: Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. 8. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, G. & C. CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 45 William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.— London, JAMES S. HODSON, No. 112 Fleet St.— Paris, CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon. PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. 2 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV. NUMBER I. ° Page. Art. I. Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, - II. Memoir upon the Temperature of the aiid cathe of the _ Globe, of the Atmosphere, and of those regions of space traversed by the Earth; by M. Portsson. Translated from the French, by R. W. Haskins, 57 » TIL. Miscellaneous Remarks on certain portions fr the Geol- ty ogy of Maine; by Dr. Cartes T. Jackson, - - 69 IV. Popular Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity ; by G. W. iceisine Si additional ne by the Epito - - - 6B V. On the Tides; ; by Daven i eek: . . - &! VI. Equalization of Temperature and supply of air in rooms warmed by furnaces beneath ; re Jas. mick: A te - 84 VII. Description of an iy Pusey of a very apleke construc- tion, which acts both as an exhauster and condenser ; - Prof. Joun JouHnstTon, 86 VIII. Notes respecting certain Indian Ricveods and sedbeaalaal in the form of Animal Effigies, chiefly in the Wisconsin Territory, U. S.; by Ricuarp C. Taytor, Esq. 88 IX. Observations made during an excursion to the White mee in alte. 1837 ; by: Prof. Oriver P. Hus- b= pr penis on ‘Magneto-Electrcity, aa Blectro-Mag- netical Machines, 125 XI. Abstract of a Mésteordlogical Ficiinl, for the year 1837, _ kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprern, - - 132 XII. ia of Upper ene a Prof. CoHartes UpHam SHEPARD, - - 134 iv CONTENTS. XIII. Calstronbarite, a new Mineral — ~~ Prof. Cas. UruHam SHEPARD, XIV. New Magnetic Electrical Machine we pied power, = two parallel horse-shoe magnets, and two straight ro- tating armatures, affording each, in an entire revolution, a constant current in the same direction; by Cuas. G. Pace, M.D. - - - - XV. On the Dry Rot; by re ‘Sidues, - - 169 XVI. Additional Observations on the Shooting Stare of August 9th and 10th, 1837; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - - 180 MISCELLANIES.—-DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. Geology. 1. Renwick’s Outlines of 6 sa - - - - - 183 2. Geological Reports, P: - - - - 185 3. Fossil Fishes, " - 198 4, 5, 6. Fossil Fishes in Virginia Analysis ‘of the walls of the fossil Gavial of Caen, g Fossils found in Louisiana, : 7, 8. Sienitic Granite, near Christiana, ‘Norway—New locality of Tourmaline, - . . ae ap General Physics and Chemistry. 1. Notice of a splendid Aurora of 1789, 2. Transmission of Galvanic Tight rate ania of different conducting powers, - - 3. On a new pyrogenic acid, - 206 4, 5. On the non-existence of a scien of ‘Platinum — Hy- drogen—Sixth satellite of Saturn, 6. ee ~~ for 1836, es at ; Montreal, aepinee Canada, 7, 8. Oil of the Tutui or Candle Nut ispakdvecellaaite - - 209 9. New Magnetical discoveries, - - - - - - 210 Bibliography. L This Journal, . 211 2, gs — Agassiz’ me work on F ossil F sdeamcsliend io - = 212 e Echinoderma 4. eases Tables of ag - “ . » 13 CONTENTS. a 5, 6. Morton’s Crania Americana—Annals of the ss i of Natural History of New York, 214 7. Description of new species of Mo! eee al Shells, eiik re- marks on several Polypi, &c., found in Massachusetts Bay, 216 8, 9, 10. Third American Edition of Bakewell’s Geology —Olm- sted’s Natural tii age oe — of the rapid of Maine, - = Intelligence. he Return of the Bonite froma voyage around the world, 219 Oxzirvuary—The Hon. Nathaniel Bowditch, - 220 : = : . Th ee ae eee is etd - oe A ple ieee Ae oe Te See a - = Ar. I. Description of a Crustaceous Animal, belonging to the genus Caligus—C. Americanus; by Cuartes Picker- inc, M. D. and James D. Dan II. On the Aurora Borealis of Nopaiatbiie 14, 1837; by Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, - 267 III. On the Variation and Dip of the Srazietie Needle i in different parts of the United States; by Prof. Exras Loomis, - - IV. On the Latitude and ‘Lalguiade of Yale College Obser- _ yatory; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, V. Notice of Warwickite, a new istaceal Py eer by Prof. Cuaries Upnam SuHeparp, M. ‘ VI. Considerations upon the Nature of the Voxctdbles that have covered the surface of the Earth, at different epochs of its formation; by Mons. ApoLpue Brone- NIART. Translated from the French, : R. W. Has- KINS, * « SIs VI. Notice of a seed lociiig of Topaz i in » Connsetieal and of the Phenakite in Massachusetts ; ned Prof. CuHarLes Uruam Sueparp, M.D VIII. Chemical Analysis of Mipteosic- eee Seni Claiborne, Clarke County, Alabama; by Cuartes T. Jackson, 332 1X, Table of Greek Correlatives, - ileanaiaade with paises tions; by Prof. Jostan W. Gigss, - vi CONTENTS. Page. X. First Annual Report on the ge a eure? of the 347 State of Ohio, reviewed, - XI. Researches in Magnetic Electricity ea new Sigivetic Electrical Instruments; by Cuartes G. Pact, M.D. 364 MISCELLANIES. 1. Synopsis of a Meteorological Journal kept in the city of New York for the year 1837, including the ie results of the last five years; by W.C. Reprieip,~— - 2, 3, Notice of a Bramah Press attached to the eyes of certain fishes—Maynard’s sia pe of Mathematical and Philoso- phical books, - 4. New Trilobites, - - 5, 6. Substitute for Emery! eaililinesl of the Bac River, 7. Asphaltic Mastic, or Cement of Seyssel, - 8. Rafinesque’s Botanical Works, - - 9. Wonders of Geology, in two Vols. ‘Pao with numerous plates and wood cuts, -. nae 10, 11, 12. Report accompanying the 1 - Cape Cod, Mass.—Prodromus of a Practical Treatise on the Mathematical aha das ar? in a lead pie used as an aqueduct, - 13. Bituminization of saat ie conversion into ana - - 14. Denial of a charge of plagiarism, - ° . 15, 16. Gold in Georgia—Yale Natural History Society, - 17, 18. Meteoric Shower in sp celta ahh acai in et pe es apparatus, - - - 19. Meteorological Bactety of oe - 20. London Electrical Society and Annals of ectricty, Mag- netism and Chemistry, &c., - —_ 387 P Cre ox ve of 395 396 397 400 21, 22. Columbite and tin-ore at at Beverly, Mass. Geological ait 402 other reports, . ERRATA. 7, be Ae fr. top, for Lebois read Seboois.—P. te 1. 5 fr. ne for Kennebunk Sy hak pbba of i 9 fr. top, for Siberian, read Silurian.—In a part of the impression, a prettier p- 206 was acci deanalty inverted. Th " wiitef of the article, “extracted from the gaat si and pub- lished i in the October number of the Journal for 1836, has since discovered several mistakes, which he wishes to correct. On page 1 it is ey that the “ first steam- boat built on the western waters was the Washington’’—he has since ascertaine that a small boat was built some years before at Brownsville, and went down the river, but did not return: the Washington was built at Wheeling, Va. On it is stated, that Cols. Williamson and Crawford were engaged in the massacre of the Christian Indians at Gnadenhutten, which is a mistake as — Col. Craw- ford, and probably arose from the fact of his being engaged with Col. Williamson in the affair at emcee plains in May following, where he a his life. Colonel umane and excellent man, and abhorred that wicked transaction. The “legend of Brady’s hill,” at page 20, he is sorry to say, he fears has been con- founded with some other er adventure, as Capt. Brady’s descendants affirm that was never a prisoner to the Indians Feb. 2, 1838. NOTICE. 4 TO OUR READERS AND FRIENDS. ~ a oe Smxcz the name of my son now appears for the first time, as assistant Editor of this ee I beg leave to mention him in that ( wh ulge a hope ee meee hare Rae PES Seren Sores Mote tt isnot Sor ecemaas a att it remains to be seen, how far he will honor the trust thus reposed in him, in reference to the editorial and asters duties to which he is now devoted. New Haven, April, 1838. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS ‘ AND STRANGERS. Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books and pamphlets which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and insertion, In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns; to excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading the unintermitting pressure of Jabor, and the numerous calls of our fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, with which they presume us to be acquainted. The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made in these pages, which may sometimes be, as now, in part, retrospec- tive. —Eds. DOMESTIC. Remarks of Mr. Calhoun in Senate U. States on the bill author- izing an issue of Treasury Notes, Sept. 19, 1837. From Hon. J.C. Calhoun Speech of Hon. John C. Calhoun on the separation of the Gov- ernment from the Banks, in Senate, October 3, 1837. Hon. J. C. Catalogue of Poughkeepsie — iate School, with a figure of a Trilobite. From G Ge soaks te * : ewett’s Advertiser, , Media res Beeutili, No. 4. Vol. Ill. Oct. 837. From the Edito Introductory Lecture ri the fe of the Lancaster Conserva- mh by and from Rev. otice of the Indian copy of the tes Pentateuch. 2 Letter No. X. to Am. Teachers on the Lyceum System of Edu- cation. Josiah Holbrook. Dr. Barber’s Elocutionist. The Elements of Biblical Interpretation, by Rev. L. A. Sawyer. Memoirs of Miss Mary Lyon. ‘The three last from A. H. Maltby, the publisher. Sn, of the horte of the Linonian Society of Yale Col- lege. ownin The Spirit's Life, a Femi From the Author, Rev. Ray Pal- mer. A Monograph of the ey of the United States, by Amos Bin- ney, M.D., M. B. N. H. Soc. &c. From the Autho Ogdensburgh Meteorological Notice, in a newspaper >of Oct. 17, 1837. Reports and other documents relating to the State Lunatic Asy- lum at Worcester, Mass. with a print, pp. 200; printed by order of vid pai From the Superintendant, Dr. S. B. Woodward. Two ss iietaiiea! Collections of New py gs part 5. From Con- cord, N. H. 1837. From J. B. Moore, Librarian of the Society. Two copies, one for Y. Col. ia Documents relating to an attack by a British Squadron, upon the armed Brig General Armstrong, in the Island of Fayal, Sept. 26, 1814. From her late commander, S. C. Reid. Troy Budget, Oct. 31, 1837. American Association for the supply of Teachers, 1837. From Jos. H. Dulles. Six copies. Report on the Auburn and Rochester Rail Road, by Robert Higham, Engineer. From Henry Tracy, Canandaigua. Scioto Gazette, Oct. 26, 1837, with notice of very large bones ofa Mastodon. J. Hughes, Ticbkoti C. H., Oct. 21, 1837. Courier and Enquirer, of New York, Nov. 13, 1837—State Election Returns —— Times, Nov. 16, 1837—Aurora. . for ee of Useful Knowledge, Pros. for Am. Lib. for Schools ‘and Fam Buffalo Daily ja ‘Gliekins several in Nov., ‘Silda: No- tices of Meteoric Phenomena. From R. W. Has Catalogue of the Golden Branch of Phillips’ Exeter Academy, 1837. From the Socie ety. _ Poughkeepsie Telegraph, Nov. 22, 1837, with notice and draw- ing ofa Trilobite. From G. L. Le Row An Address delivered before the Springfield High School, Ohio, 1837, by and from John shes Jam clttoductory , deliv saad: tetas: ahe Medical Class of the University Maryland, Noy. 1837, by Sam. G, Baker, M. D. From the Author. ee 3 Annual Announcement of the Trustees and Faculty of the Med- ical College of nice Carolina, for the session of 1837-38. From Prof. C. U. She 7 mee from ze ee of the American Bible Society, ov. An Advis delivered before the Mass. Charitable Mechanics’ Association, Sept. 20, 1837, by his Ex. Gov. Ed. Everett. From e Author. Portsmouth (Va.) Times, Dec. 2, 1837—Notice of an Aurora. Hd. Rodriguez. Papers on the Wyoming Claims on the United States Govern- ment. J. W,. i Pennsylvania Intelligencer, Dec. 7, with the Governor’s Mes- © sage. J. W. Robinson. Cheiroptera of the United States, by Wm. Cooper, with a plate, from the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History. From the Author. Journal of the American Temperance Union, Dec. 1837. EP Reon of Princeton Theol. Seminary, for 1837-8. From og Report ‘of ae State Treasurer of Pennsylvania, 1837. From J. W. Robin Catalogue “of ‘Plants near Newbern, N. C.—with Remarks and Synonyms, by the late H. B. Croom, Esq., posthumous. From the Editor, Prof. John “Tor orrey Twelfth Annual Report Hd the Board of Managers of Prison Dis- cipline Society, Boston, 1837. An Essay on the Veterinary Art, by Peter O. Browne, LL. D. 1837. From the Author Annals of Lyceum of Nat. History, Vol. LV. Nos. 1, 2,3 and 4, Nov. | Catalogue of French ee Mathematical, &c. Books, for sale, Dec. 16, 1837. Bos Report on eS Sirenaih of Materials, by the Franklin Institute. Part II. 183 Hon. J. J. Whittelsey, M. Farmer’s Ragin, Dee. 1, et seq. 1837. Petersburgh, Va. Speech on behalf of the University of Nashville, Oct. 4, 1837, at the public commencement, by President Lindsley Rey. Thomas Smyth’s Sermon on the loss of ie Steam Packet Home, with a Narrative New York Daily Whig. Several Nos Franklin Farmer, Frankfort, Ky. Several Nos. AL ee “ris on the Primary Treatment of Injuries, by Dr. ex Ordnung des Raclichen Morgen Gebetes, &. New Yor Circular of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of the Univ. of New York. 1837. 4 ae Herald and General Register, Vol. I. No. 1 and 2. Jan. 3 and 1 Catalogue “of Catlin’s Indian Gallery of Portraits, Landscapes, Manners and Customs, &c. New York, 1837. From Mr. Catlin. Catalogue of the Western Reserve College, 1836-7 Literary ro si of the American Stationers’ Company, Bos- ton. July, Daily Consent Bulletin of Pittsburgh. Jan. 1838. From Linton Rogers. Tract Magazine. Jan. 1838. From O. Eastman. South Western Journal, Vol. I. No. 1. quarto, 16 pages, et seq. Geological Reconnaissance of the State of oe in 1837, by D. D. Owen, State Geologist. From Prof. Dun Report of the Commissioner of ~piog for 1837. From the Su- perintendent, H. W. Ellswort Prof. Cunningham’s Inaugural Aenea, Easton, Penn. Jan. 1, 1838 om Report on the Medical College of Ohio, Dec. 1837. Dr. J. P. irt! Buffalo Daily Advertiser, Jan. 30, 18388. R. W. Hask Rev. President Day on the Self-determining Power of ai Will and Contingent Volition. From the Author. Four Years in Great Britain, by Rev. Calvin Colton. From the : Author. Report of the Committee on Colleges, Academies and Common Schools, on the Memorial of William G. Griffin and others. From B. D. Silliman, Es Proceedings of the Annual Convention of Professional Teachers ‘and others, Columbus, Ohio, Dec. 1837. From M. G. Williams. 1837, by Prof, a Troost, M. D., Geologist to the State, &c. &e. Notice of the ‘Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1837. p.24. Dr.S.G. Morton. With one for the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc. Penn. Inquirer, Feb. 24, 1838, with the Address of Hon. J. S. Buckingham on Temperance. Buffalo Commercial sgitierny “9 971; Do. No. 55, with no- tice of Falling Stars. R..W. ns. Report to the Legislature of Ohio, Dec. 10, 1837, on Elementary Public Instruction in Europe, by Prof. C. E. Stowe. From the Author Sbeiciderations ona os National Bank, by John L. Sullivan, A. rom the Autho Prospectus of the Missouri tron Company, with the Acts of In- corporation. Rev. Giles Pea Boston Dail Advertiser, hl its Dee ly veriser, Mare 3, 1838, with a Memoir of the 5 Buffalo Newspapers, with a list of Scientific prt, transla- cd from the Proceedings of the French Academy, by R. ins. Week on the recent Duel in Washington, by Rev. Henry are On the same, by Rev. W. B. Sprague, D. D. Albany. An Address on the Utility of Astronomy, delivered pre the Young Men’s Society of Lynchburgh, Va., by Prof. Landon C. Garland, of Randolph Macon College. First Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the Serie. oo Ohio, by W. W. Mather, and the several Assistants. Colum nie Two copies from the corps; one copy from Mr. Serban? ‘Sixth Annual Report of the New England Institution for the Ed- ucation of the Blind. From Dr. Saml. G. Howe. Fifth Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Lunatic Hos- pital at Worcester, Dec. 1837. From the Superintendant, Doctor Samuel B. Woodward Second Report of the Executive eye a Young Men’s Association of the City of Buffalo. R. = ea Messenger, March 8, 1838, with a ions > of the Thunder- ing Sprin ¥ Prospectus of the W. Virginia Iron Mining and Manufacturing Co. Shepherd. Address delivered before the Bellefonte Lyceum, Feb. 1838. Colonization Herald, Vol. I. No. 2. a 14, 1838. Philadel- phia. 5 copies, 1 from Mr. Elliot Cresso Report of the State Geologist to Gov. Mascs of Michigan, on the Geological Survey of that State. Outlines of Geology, siete for the Junior Class in Columbia College, by Prof. Jas. Renwick, LL. Second Annual Report on tes Geological Exploration of the State of Pennsylvania, by Prof. Henry D. Rogers. From Mr. Ritner. Another copy from Prof. H. D. Rogers; another from an unknown hand ; another from E. Miner, Esq. A Discourse on the Traffic in — Liquors, Feb. 1838. By Rev. Leonard Bacon, New Have Statistical Tables of certain iii of Industry in Massachu- setts, for 1837 to Aprill. From John P. Bigelow, Esq., Secretary of th the Commonwealth. Report of the Committee on the Judiciary in the Legislature of New York. March 18, 1838. From B. D. Silliman, Esq. Cleaveland Gazette, March 3, 1838, notice of ice. Wiley and Putnam’s notice of new books. Temperance Circular, March 22, 1838. Prof. White’s and John T. Norton’s Sermon on the occasion of the decease of John Nitchie, Esq. New York, 1838. From the Secretaries of the A. H. M.S. 6 Picture of Young Ladies; from the Society a at Bethle- hem, Penn. From G. Grunewald, by Col. Trumbull. Catalogue of Bacon Academy, 1837. From > M. N. Morris. Dr. Geddings’ Introductory en Medical aoe of South Carolina. Charleston, Nov. 1837. From H. H. Bac Journal of American x ants Union, vol. ii. No, Buffalo Patriot, &c., Jan. 10, 1837, with a Map of fae Island, Niagara River, &c. From G. L. Marvin. Boston Atlas, Aug. 2, 1837 Annual Report of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs for 1837-8. Transmitted at the opening of the a session of the 25th Congress. Washington. From Charles E. M New Hampshire Patriot, &c., fet Medical Examiner, Philadelphia, th “, al. 1. Jan. 3, 1838. J. B. Biddle, M. D. and M. Clymer, M.D. “Seventeenth Annual Report of the Mercantile Library Associa- tion, Clinton Hall, New York, 1837 Extracts from the Correspondence of the American Bible Soci- ety, Nos. 21 and 22. March, 18 First Report on the Agriculture of Massachusetts. By H. Col- man, Commissioner. Bos ston, 1838. The Author Treatise on Bone Manure. By Henry Colman, Commissioner - a Agricultural Survey of Massachusetts. Boston, 1838. The uthor eS, the Culture of Spring Wheat. By the same. From the Au- r. FOREIGN. Liverpool Mercury, Sept. 15, 1837, containing an account of the doings of the British Association for the promotion of Science. From ev. S. Wood. Notice of the Scientific Congress at Metz, Sept. 3, 1837 Circular of Louis and Andre Breton, Mathematical and. Philo- sophical oe Makers, Rue Servandoni, No. 4, pres St, Sul- pice, ings of the British Association for the advancement of Science. ood. T From Rev. S. Wood. The same from Mr. St: Jobn, late a tutor in Yale College. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect to Mineral and Thermal Waters, by and from Prof. Charles Daubeny, of the University of Oxford, England. 1837. action of Light upon Plants, and of Plants upon the At- mosphere. I Aug. 1834. agian: Ezy ae bean a Ree neal See Pari 4 Eiverpool Bash Sept. 15, 1837; with an account of the do- e account of the acpi ‘pean which occurred in Id. 1835. De! 2 a i a. ee eee Se es ee ee ene a ae ae On the quantity and quality of the gases disengaged from the Thermal Spring, which supplies the King’s Bath, in the city of Bath, Id. 1834. Catalogue of Philosophical Apparatus, by Wilkins & Hall. Lon- don, No. 5, Charing Cross. From J. H. Remarks upon the Aristotelian and Platonic Ethics, as a branch of the studies of the University of Oxford, by Frederick Oakley, M. A., Fellow of Baliol College. The study of Morals vindicated and recommended, in a sermon preached before the University of Oxford, Feb. 5, 1837, by Henry Arthur Woodhouse, B. D., Fellow of St. John’s College.» The two preceding from Mr. Charles Fox. List of Works by American authors, on sale by Jas. S. Hodson, 112, Fleet street, London. From J. S. H. Memorial of Oxford, England, No. 39, with Plates. From Prof. Daubeny. Proceedings of the Geological Society of London. Nos. 50 and 51. From the Societ Ws eg of the Partie University, London. John Isaac aw Foreign Scientific Memoirs—notice of a republication of a selec- tion of, by Richard Taylor, F. S. A. Catal ogue of Pash Plants, arranged according to the natural system, &c. &c., by Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow, M. A., of Cam bridge University, Eoghan From the Author. Researches into the Causes of Voltaic Elect, by Mons. Aug. de la Rive, of Geneva. From the Auth Icones Filicum, or Figures and Descriptions of Ferns, principally of such as have been altogether unnoticed by Botanists, or bave not yet been correctly figured. By William Jackson Hooker, LL. D. and Robert Kaye Greville, LL. D. In two volumes folio. Lon- dini, 1831. yses of the parts. By William Jackson Hooker, LL. D. yp aees 1816. Quarto, 88 Plates. usci Exotici, containing figures and descriptions of new or little known Foreign Mosses, and other Cryptogamic subjects. By Will- ~ cong Hooker, F. R. A., LL. D., &c. &c. London, 1818. vols Icones Plantarum, or figures and descriptions of new or rare Plants, selected from the Author’s Herbarium. By Sir William Jac kson Hooker, K. B., LL. D., &c. &c. 3 Parts, octavo, each containing 50 Plates. London, 1836-7. Journal of Botany, by Sir William J. Hooker, LL. D., &c. &c. London, 1834. 4 Parts. 8 oe to the Botanical Magazine. London. Nos. 1 to 20. By Sir W. J. Hooker, LL. D., &c. This and the five preceding it are from the Author. Edinburgh Evening Courant, of Dec. 25, 1837, with a notice of the presentation of a silver vase to John Wood, a Advocate, on account of his exertions in the cause of educatio Sussex Advertiser, England, Jan. 8, 1838. "Bribie Herald, Jan. 20, 1838. Dr. Mantell. British Annual, and Epitome of the Progress of — for 1838. From the Editor, Dr. Robert D. Thompson, Londo Soe of the University of Durham, Eng. From an ‘English ewspaper List of the Geological Society of London. April, 1 Letters from Rev. Samuel Wood on the United Spates Nos. 1 and 2. London, Nov. 1837. From the Author. MINERALS. box, containing ghietly halk fossils, echini, bivalve and uni- valve shells, sharks’ teeth and palates, and other remains of fishes, — sponges, alcyonia, fuci, Bee belemnites, &c. From the Wealden—emys, iguanodon bones, &c. &c. rom the tertiary— bones and teeth of the horse. From the diluvial—bog iron Wood, from the peat bogs of Ireland—the submerged forests coal plants. From Dr. G. Mantel, Brighton, Eng Very perfect and beautiful terebratalites and Sy corals—shore of Lake Erie, fifteen miles from Buffalo. Specimens of marl from New Jersey. Fron re j ML. Ely, Esq., New York. Fossil equisetum, in sandstone—large and distinct, from the ex- cavations for the Walhouding and Mohican Canal, at Roscoe, Ohio. From J. S. Peters, Specimens of bituminous coal, from New Lisbon, Ohio—remark- ably filled with vegetable remains in flattened masses, having a dis- tinctly fibrous structure. From Wm. E. Russell, Esq. ignite of remarkable — from New Jersey. Dr. L. D. Gale, New York University ft ster alse} aie abate canara 0 oth de ig incertae a ae ee i : ts a § om re Bs 4 CONTENTS. Pag Art. I. Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, - If, Memoir upon the Temperature of re solid fins of the Globe, of the Atmosphere, and of those regions of space traversed by the Earth; by M. Poisson. Translated from the French, by R. W. Haskins, Ill. Miscellaneous Remarks on certain pasticlade of the Geol- ogy of Maine; by Dr. Cuaries T. Jackson, - - 1V. Popular Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity ; by G. W. 2 spar additional asa — the EpitTor, V. On the Tides ; by Dives NVowereiee: - VI. Equalization of Temperature and supply of air in rooms warmed by furnaces beneath ; by Jas. perio A. M., M. Vil. Desteintion aoe an Air Pia of a very y teihipte construc- tion, which acts both as an exhauster and condenser ; by Prof. Joun Jounsron, VIII. Notes respecting certain Indian Mounds and ‘Rentnvarez in the form of Animal Effigies, chiefly in the Wisconsin Territory, U. S.; by Ricnarp C. Taytor, Esq. IX. Observations made during an excursion to the White sae in ~~ 1837 ; Lf Prof. Ottver P. Hus- X. Prof Loti on Magneto-Electricity, ind Blectro-Mag. netical Machines, XI. Abstract of a Meteotsiojacl Joatiak for the year 1837, kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitpretn, - = - XII. Geology of Upper Illinois; by Prof. Coartes Urnam SHEPARD, - XIit. Coletronbatité; anew p Mtisieral Species: by Prof. is Upnam SHEPARD, % XIV. New Magnetic Electrical Machine of peat power, with two parallel horse-shoe magnets, and two straight ro- tating armatures, affording each, in an entire revolution, a constant current in the same direction ; — Cuas. G. Pacer, M.D. - - : B 161 163 x CONTENTS. XV. On the Dry Rot; by Puinenas Rainey, ee XVI. Additional Observations on the Shooting Stars of August 9th and 10th, 1837; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - PaaS MISCELLANIES.—DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. Geology. . 1. Renwick’s Outlines of See - - - - - 183 2. Geological Barents. - mE ew «3: = 186 3. Fossil Fishes, “ - 198 4, 5, 6. Fossil nem in ik Asien of ne scales of the fossil Gavial of Caen, in Normeed yea Fossils found in Louisiana, 7, 8. Sienitic Granite, near Christians, ‘N orway—N ew locality of Tourmaline, - - - General Physics and Chemistry. 1. Notice of a splendid Aurora of 1789, 2. Transmission of Galvanic light through st of different conducting powers, . 3. On a new pyrogenic acid, 206 4, 5. On the non-existence of a Sinnound of ‘Platinum sa Hy- -drogen—Sixth satellite of Saturn, 6. Meteorological ae for 1836, aid at Wontseal tour anada, - 7, 8. Oil of the Tutui or Candle M ut Fs SE « - 209 9, New Magnetical discoveries, - + ye Bibliography. 1. This Journal, - - - Q11 2, 3. Prof. Agassiz’ great work on ‘Fossil Fishes—Prof. Ages on the Echinodermata, “ 212 4, Statistical Tables of Mavaclienetis, - - - 23 5, 6. Morton’s Crania Americana—Annals of the a comet of Natural History of New York, 7. Description of new species of Moilusca sid Shells, with re- marks on several Polypi, &c., found in Massachusetts Bay, 216 8, 9, 10. Third American Edition of Bakewell’s Geology —Olm- _ sted’s Natural Philosophy—Second Report of the Geology of oe. = an ee Intelligence. = * Return: vis Deniie tiom-csnylipeiround the world, 219 Osituary—The Hon. — ogee 2 pat + 20 j 3 + eae eS ee eee Se ee aos el eT ERRATA. Page 70, |. 12 fr. top, for Lebois read Seboois.—P. 72, 1.5 fr. bot. for Kennebunk read Kennebeck.—In a part of the impression, the drawing on p. 206 was acciden- tally inverted. The writer of the article, ‘extracted from the Diary of a Naturalist,’ and pub- lished in the October number of the Journal for 1836, has since discovered several mistakes, which he wishes to correct. On page | it is stated, that the “ first steam- boat built on the western waters was the Washington”’ ta has since ascertained that a small boat was built some years before at Brownsville, and went wrth the river, but did not return: the Washington was built at Wheeling, Va. On it is stated, that Cols. Williamson and Crawford were engaged in the massacre a the brietian Indians at Gnadenhutten, which is a mistake as reg we ford, and probably arose from the fact of his being engaged with Col. Williamson in the affair at Sandusky plains in May following, where he lost his life. Colonel ray was a humane and excellent man, and abhorred that wicked transaction. The “Jegend of Brady’s hill,” at page 20, hei is sorry to say, he fears has been con- founded with some other sdventare, as Capt. Brady’s descendants affirm that he was never a prisoner to the Indian Feb. 2, 1838 NOTICE. TO OUR READERS AND FRIENDS. Since the name of my son now appears for the first time, as assistant Editor of this Journal, I beg leave to mention him in that character, while I indulge a hope that he will endeavor, in that relation, as well as all others, to recommend himself to the confi- dence of the wise and good. More it is not necessary to say ; and it remains to be seen, how far he will honor the trust thus reposed in him, in reference to the editorial and professional duties to which he is now devoted. : B. Sivviman. New Haven, April, 1838. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Arr. 1.—Seventh Meeting of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Oat {Concluded from Vor. xxx111. p. 296.] ‘“Waves.—Mr. Russell had made in September, 1836, a serics of observations on the River Dee, below Chester, where that river has a form and dimensions admirably suited to the purpose. It appears, that for more than five miles in length, the banks of the Dee are perfectly straight, quite parallel to one another, while the depth of the channel at low water is nearly uniform throughout the whole of that length. Now, in this river there is a tidal wave of from six to fifteen feet, Linitie, in fact, a tidal canal of large dimensions. On this part of the river the first series of observa- tions was made ; a second was made upon the River Clyde; and a third on the waves at the surface of the sea: and the series has been terminated by a course of experiments made in artificial channels of different forms, for the purpose of determining the nature of the mechanism of the generation and propagation of waves, so as to determine the identity of their nature with the tidal wave. Tt appears that there exists a species of wave different from all the others, and which Mr. Russell calls ‘The Great Primary Wave of "Translation; ” which is generated whenever an addition is made to the volume "ae a quiescent fluid, in such a manner as to affect simultaneously the whole depth of the fluid, and this species of wave is exactly of the same nature as the tide wave. In a rec- tangular channel this primary wave moves with the velocity which Vor, XX XIV.—No. 1. : 2 British Association for the Advancement of Science. { a heavy body would acquire in falling through half the depth of 4 the fluid, so that ‘ In a channel about 4 inches deep, the Mei of the wave y 2 miles an hour. 4 — rh) o o ef me ® oO a=] — SSRSeomaxanew ee Agee toga THE fe geal | = EP SEE Bet El pia It also appears that the breadth of the channel, when the depth 4 is given, does not at all affect the velocity or form of the wave; and Mr. Russell then proceeded to assign a general rule, by means ; of which the velocity of the wave might be assigned a priort for a channel of any form, however irregular. _ _ The manner in which the wave was observed, was by succes- sive reflections from opposite surfaces, so as to make it pass and. repass a given station of observation, the interval being noted by an accurate chronometer ; and it was stated, that in many cases, above sixty transits of the same wave had been observed, so as to a high dearer. of accuracy to the observations. The instant of the wave’s transit had been observed by the reflection of a lu- minous image, thrown down by a series of mirrors, so as to cross micrometer wires with perfect precision. For a mode of deter- mining the length of the wave, Mr. Russell acknowledged him- self indebted to Prof. Stevelly, of Belfast. These observations, having determined the laws of the propa- gation of waves on a small experimental scale, were then extended to the analogous phenomena of the great tidal wave. In his observations on the River Dee, Mr. Russell found that the tide wave followed precisely the same laws as those in his experimen- tal channel; that its velocity was exactly proportioned to the square root of the depth of the fluid, that its form changed inthe same manner, and the existence of the same law was sufficient to “eee be the different rate of propagation of different tides be- tween ti wae of Sfleen oot deep anil ‘ RES ey — % British Association for the Advancement of Science. 3 travel from one place to another at the rate of fifteen miles an ‘hour, while one of ten feet deep would proceed at the rate of only twelve miles an hour; so that if the places were thirty miles apart, the one would receive the former tide two hours later, and the Jatter tide two and a half hours later than the other. The crea- tion of a tidal Bore in some places was also accounted for on the same principles; and it was evident, that the means of improving the navigation of tidal rivers might be satisfactorily deduced from these principles. Similar observations had been made on the tidal wave of the River Clyde, which was found to move in strict conformity with the laws of the great wave of translation, as determined by Mr. Russell’s previous experiments. Maguetical Observatory at Dublin.—The Magnétical Observa- tory now in progress at Dublin, is situated in an open space in the gardens of Trinity College, sant sufficiently remote from all dis- turbing influences. 'The building is forty feet in length, by thirty in depth. It is constructed of the dark-colored argillaceous lime- stone, which abounds in the valley of Dublin, and which has been ascertained to be perfectly devoid of any influence on the needle. This is faced with Portland stone ; and within, the walls are to be studded, to protect from cold and damp. No iron whatever will be used throughout the building. With reference to the materi- als, Prof. Lloyd mentioned, that in the course of the arrangements now making for the erection of a Magnetical Observatory at Green- ie Mr. Airy had. rejected bricks in the construction of the uilding, finding that they were in all cases magnetic, and some- aes even polar. Mr. Lloyd has since confirmed this observation, by the examination of specimens of bricks from various localities ; and though there appeared to be great diversity in the amount of their action on the needle, he met with none entirely free from such influence. The building consists of one principal room, and two smaller rooms,—one of which serves as a vestibule. The principal room is thirty-six feet in length, by sixteen in breadth, and has projec- tions in its longer sides, which increase the breadth of the central part to twenty feet. This room will contain four principal instru- ments, suitably supported on stone pillars: viz. a transit instru- ment, a theodolite, a variation instrument, and a dipping circle. The transit instrument (four feet in focal length, ) will be stationed 4 British Association for the Advancement of Science. close to the southern window of the room. In this position it will serve for the determination of the time; and a small trap-door in the ceiling will enable the observer to adjust it to the meridian. — : The theodolite will be situated toward the other end of the room, -and its centre will be on the meridian line of the transit. The limb of the theodolite is twelve inches in diameter, and is read off by three verniers to ten seconds. Its telescope has a focal length of twenty inches, and is furnished with a micrometer reading to a single second, for the purpose of observing the diurnal variation. The variation instrument will be placed in the magnetic merid- ian, with respect to the theodolite, the distance between these in- struments being about seven feet. The needle is a rectangular bar, twelve inches long, suspended by parallel silk fibres, and inclosed in a box to protect it from the agitation of the air. The magnetic bar is furnished with an achromatic lens at one end, and a cross of wires at the other, after the principle of the collimator. This will be observed with the telescope of the theodolite, in the usual manner; and the deviation of the line of collimation of the collimator from the magnetic axis will be ascertained by reversal. The direction of the magnetic meridian being thus found, that of the true meridian will be given by the transit. It is only neces- sary to turn over the transit telescope, and, using it also as a collimator, to make a similar reading of its central wire, by the ce the theodolite. "The angle read off on the limb of the theodolite is obviously the supplement of the variation. This use of the transit has been suggested by Dr. Robinson ; and it is Pye anticipated that much advantage will result from the circumstance, : that the two extremities of the arc are observed by precisely the same instrumental means. With this apparatus it is intended to make observations of the absolute variation twice each day, as is done in the observatory of Prof. Gauss, at Géttingen,—the course of the diurnal variation, and the hours of maxima and minima, having been ascertained by a series of preliminary observations with the same instrument. A dipping circle constructed by Gambey, will be placed on @ pillar at the remote end of the room; and will be furnished with n hose axis is formed into a knife-edge, for the purpose of observing the diurnal variations of the dip. Gauss’s large ap s will also be set up in the same room, and will be used nally, especially in | At therabenlute:sntencil British Association for the Advancement of oe 6 made according to the method proposed by that losopher. The bars are too large to be shine in conjunction with other magnetical apparatus. It is intended to combine a regular series of meteorological ob- servations, with those on the direction and intensity of the terres- trial magnetic force just spoken of; and every care and precaution has been adopted in the construction of the instruments. In conclusion, Mr. Lloyd said, that he felt it a duty to allude to the liberality and zeal in the cause of science, which had been evinced by the Board of Trinity College on this occasion. The probable expense of the building and instruments is estimated at 10007. ; and that sum was immediately allocated to the purpose, when it appeared that the interests of science were likely to be benefited by the outlay. Mr. Peacock congratulated the Section upon the prospect held out to the scientific world, of having fixed magnetical observato- ries erected in such places as would afford the surest promise of successful co-operation, particularly when they would be placed under the superintendence of gentlemen so eminently qualified for the task as Prof. Lloyd. He informed the Section, that an obser- vatory for magnetical observations had been erected at Greenwich, and that little doubt need be entertained of the rapid advances which the interesting investigations connected with this important science would now receive.—Mr. Ettrick conceived, that bricks would be a very improper material for the construction of a mag- netical observatory. He considered the use of metals in any part of the building as highly objectionable ; even copper, as fasten- ings, or hinges to doors, would not be free from injurious effect. He made some inquiries as to the mode of reading off, proposed by Prof. Lloyd.—Prof. Stevelly said, that Mr. Ettrick was tionably right in the objection urged against the use of bricks, but Prof. Lloyd had distinctly stated, that bricks were not to be used, and that experiments had been made to ascertain the precise mag- netical influence, if any there was, of the kind of stone which it was proposed to use. It was well, however, that Mr. Ettrick’s ob- servations should go abroad, for the guidance of persons not con- versant with these subjects. Bricks, when built into large edifices, Sal as the chimneys of factories, were well known to have ac- nuired magnetic polarity: the material from which they were wie must be largely impregnated with iron: the mud of rivers 6 British Association for the Advancement of Science. was the detritus from hills, whose rocks were often highly mag- netic. The engineers employed on the trigonometrical survey of Ireland, had erected a mound of stones composed of basalt, to sustain the signal-staff which they had erected on the highest hill, near Belfast: the effect of that heap of stones on the magnetic needle was so great, that in walking round it, the needle would veer round to every point of the compass. Electro-Magnetic Currents.—M. de la Rive then read a paper ‘On the Interference of the Electro-magnetic Currents.’ This distinguished. foreigner addressed the Section in the French lan- ter a brief résumé of the known properties of electro- magnetic currents, he adverted to some new results at which he had arrived in studying them. He remarked, that in chemical decomposition effected by these currents, the individual force of each Was greater the more rapidly they mnnatad each other ; so that, to decompose a given quantity of water, it becomes neces- sary to have a number of these currents, so much the greater as the succession is less rapid. There is, however, a limit, beyond which the force of the currents is not augmented by any further augmentation of the rapidity of the suécession.— When plates of platina are employed, instead of wires, in the deco of water, the decomposition ceases to take place when the surface of contact of the metal with the liquid surpasses a certain limit. Nevertheless, the current, far from diminishing in intensity, be- comes, on the contrary, more intense,—as is shown by the indica- tions of a metallic thermometer,—the helix of which, placed in the current, furnishes a measure of its calorific energy. As soon as the surfaces of contact are of such magnitude that decomposi- tion is no longer effected, the thermometer reaches a maximum, which it does not pass, even when the surfaces of contact are atig- mented, This fact seems to prove, that chemical decomposition produced by electrical currents takes place only when these cur- rents undergo a certain resistance in their passage from the metal into the liquid; and that, when this resistance does not exist, de- composition ceases. When we employ wires of platina to trans- mit the magneto-electric currents into a solution of any kind, whether acid, saline, or alkaline, we, at first, observe an abundant evolution of gas; then this dininuageincts diminishes, and at the end of fifteen or twenty minutes it altogether disappears. When we examine these metallic wires, we find them covered with & ee ae aoe eerie? British Association for the Advancement of Science. 7 very fine powder, composed of platina in the metallic state, but extremely divided. The same phenomenon takes place with gold, palladium, silver, &c. All these metals are covered, in the same manner, with a very fine coating of the metal itself, in a state of extreme subdivision. The author has assured himself that this powder was composed of the metal itself, and not an oxide ora suboxide. He inquired whether this effect is the result of the mechanical shocks that the molecules of the metal undergo by the action of these currents, which are discontinuous, and alternately in opposite directions ; and whether it would not be augmented by the succession of oxidations and deoxidations, which would occur on the surface of the wires. He concluded by stating, that he had observed that the armatures of soft iron (about which the metallic wires are coiled, in which the currents are developed by ~ induction,) « cease to be attracted by the poles of the magnets, be- fore which they pass when the two ends of the wire in which the current is developed are united by one good metallic conductor ; a fact which would seem to prove that Magnetism and Dynamical Electricity are, in these cases, but two different forms of the same force, one of which disappears when the other becomes apparent ; and he insisted on the advantage that we might derive from this property in the production of motion by electro-magnets. Clearness of the Air.—Prof. Lloyd said that the distinctness and vividness with which distant objects were seen in some states atmosphere was quite astonishing : on one occasion he had seen from the neighborhood of Dublin the Welsh hills from their very bases, and brought so near, apparently, that he could abso- lutely see the larger inequalities of the surface upon the sides of the mountains. ‘That the atmosphere was at the time very much loaded with vapor in a highly transparent state, was obvious from the fact, that immediately after a very heavy fall of rain took place, and mae for a considerable time.—Prof. Stevelly wished to hat had fallen from Prof. Lloyd and M. de la Rive by stating am whenever the Scotch hills appeared with peculiar vividness and distinctness, from the Lough of Belfast, the fishermen always looked “upon itasa sure precursor of heavy rain had noticed this appearance while standing on the beach at Holly- wood, and pointed it out to an old fisherman ; the old man imme- diately gave notice to all his friends to atic he had access, who 8 British Association for the Advancement of Science. instantly set about drawing up their boats and placing their ‘small craft in more secure places ; early the next morning a violent storm came on, which did much damage upon the coast, to those who had not been similarly forewarned. It might perhaps be accounted for by supposing that on these occasions the intervening air be- came actually converted into a large magnifying lens. Magnetie Intensity.—Determinations of the value of the ter- restrial intensity have been obtained at between forty and fifty widely scattered stations, principally in the southern hemisphere, where such determinations had been previously a great desider- atum. The iuatabot of separate Seteroaidurioas collected in this Report exceeds six hundred, and the number of stations falls a little short of five hundred. ‘They are the work of twenty-one observers, and of these the observations of seven have been hitherto unpub- lished. Beer.—Mr. Black communicated a paper ‘ On the Influence of Electricity on the processes of Brewing.’ According to his state- ments, a thunder-storm not only checks the fermentation of worts, but even raises the gravity of the saccharine fluid, and developes in itan acid. This effect is witnessed principally when the fer- menting tun is sunk in moist earth, and may be obviated by pla- cing it upon baked wooden bearers, resting upon dry bricks or wooden piers, so as to effect its insulation. Mr. Black also stated, that during the prevalence of highly-electrified clouds, the fabri- cation of cast iron does not succeed so well as in other states of the atmosphere. Electrical Relations. —Dr. Faraday cautioned chemists against considering electrical relations as affording, in every instance, con- clusive proofs of what is a base and what is an acid. Electrical Protection.—A \etter was next read, addressed by Mr. Locke to Mr. W. W. Currie, of Liverpool, in which the latter was requested to propose as a question, to the philosophers assem- bled, whether, in the case of a monument one hundred and forty feet in height, erected on the summit of a mountain fourteen hun- dred feet high, augmented safety or danger would be the conse- quence of attaching to it a conductor or paratonnerre. "The col- umn is sandstone, the mountain conglomerate, and in the vicinity of the latter there is a mountain of still greater elevation. It was resolved, that this letter should be, pro formé, i Se hands British Association for the Advancement of Science. 9 of Mr. Snow Harris, though no doubt whatever was felt as to the answer which it would be proper to give to such an inquiry. The eflicacy of the protectors of Franklin in every possible situation, provided they be constructed upon proper principles, and mounted in a suitable manner, is now universally admitted. Mining.—Mr. Tarlor; jun., stated, that, in the course of his experience in practical mining, he had observed certain conditions necessary for the profitable working of metals. In the oldest, or scar limestone, he had observed that the miner was not remuner- ated ; but in newer lead measures he had a better chance of suc- cess, as in grits and shales. ‘The best chance was in altered rocks. In Cardiganshire he had observed a remarkable case ina slaty rock: where very schistose, the workings were poor; but where the rock was diced, as the workmen call it, they were certain to be rich: the strike of the altered rock being N. and S., and that of the veins E. and W. He had seen vainipicatid-caneie i the mechanical theory in North Carolina, especially in the rich veins of iron ore in that country. Mr. Sedgwick remarked, that fissures eaused by crystallization were, in general, very small; and that joints seldom coincided with rents ;—that in districts where gran- ite approaches slate rocks, we may be certain of finding the rich- est metalliferous deposits. Catastrophe in a Mine.—Mr. Sedgwick requested the attention of the meeting to an account, which he was about to submit, of the late unfortunate accident at the Workington Colleries. He pointed out, on the geological map, the rocks which occur in that neighborhood, and stated some of the phenomena of the stratifi- cation of the coal measures, which are there very much disturbed. There is an anticlinal line, on, the opposite sides of which the strata dip differently, so that, in one place, very important beds of coal crop out under the sea. Workings, quite submarine, have ac- cordingly been carried on for some time: in the Isabella pit, a depth of one hundred and thirty-five fathoms under high water has been reached. A culpable want of caution has been shown by the managers of late, as they have caused the workings to reach too near the sea—even within fourteen fathoms of it ; and the pillars and roof of the older works had been taken away, by which the danger was greatly increased. There had been re- peated warnings from the shrinking of the ground, and from an old work having become filled with water ;—also in the new Vor. XXXIV.—No. 1. 2 10 = British Assocation for the Advancement of Science. workings—although the pumping brought up one thousand gal- lons per minute, the miners were in such danger of being drown- ed, that several left the employment. In the latter end of July, the sea at length broke in, filling the mine in all its parts, in little more than two hours, and destroying twenty miles of railway.. On one side of the Camperdown dyke, which ranges through the mine, not a soul was saved, but several escaped from other parts ; and one individual, an Irishman, called Brennagh, had not only a re- markable escape himself, but saved three others by his intrepidity. Prof. Sedgwick related to the Section this man’s story, which was so singular, and told with such a mixture of the serious and ludi- crous—often in the language of the man himself—that it is im- possible to convey to the reader an idea of the effect produced on the audience. A remarkable fact in the escape of one of the in- dividuals rescued by Brennagh was, that he was actually blown up the last open shaft of the mine by the enormous force of the air, the noise of which was heard at a considerable distance in the country. The first notice to Brennagh of the accident, was an unusual undulation of air in the galleries, which made him sus-. pect that all was not right, and he took the precaution of moving near to an air passage in the dyke, which he had been permitted to use: he was thus enabled to save himself and his companions. At the suggestion of the Professor, a subscription was made in the Section for Brennagh, which amounted to 34/. Intestinal Worms.—Dr. Richardson communicated a paper from Dr. Bellingham, on the frequency of the occurrence of Tri- chocephalus dispar in the alimentary canal. The author alluded to the difficulty of accounting for the origin of animalcule in the human body. To say that they were secreted or not secreted by the tissues of the body, was premature, as we knew so little of secretion itself. Although in some instances parasitic animals produced injurious consequences to the animal they infested, yet. in many others no injury was experienced. The 'Trichocephalus was found in the majority of human beings, but produced no ill consequences. The genus belonged to the division Nematoidea of Rudolphi, and contained eight species. The Trichocephalus dispar was mostly found in the cecum, but sometimes oceupied the colon and small intestines. It had been found at Géttingen in those who died of fever, and at Naples in those who died of | cholera; at nd. was there supposed to be the cause of that cane * 4 ees hehe rae tenis ae di British Association for the Advancement of Science. 11 disease. Baillie and Bostock had stated it to be rare, whilst French and German anatomists had pronounced it frequent in the generality of the human species. 'The author states, from his own experience, that out of twenty-eight individuals he had opened, who had died of various diseases, and varied in age and sex—the youngest being fourteen—he had found the T'richoce- phalus dispar in twenty-five. Dr. Richardson added, that in the lower mammalia and in fish, the ceca were frequently found filled, in some literally crammed with Botryocephali, ranging from a yard to a yard and a half in length ; and what was remarkable, the animals appeared to be as healthy and vigorous as if they were not infested. Plants growing under G‘lass.—In April last, Dr. Daubeny in- troduced into globular glass vessels, their aperture being covered with bladders, three several sets of plants. In the first were ee dum, Lobelia, &c.; in the second, Primula, Alchemilla, &c. ; the third, Armeria, Sempervivum, &c. At the end of ten eh the plants were healthy, and had grown. The air in the jars was examined, when it was found that the first had four per cent. more oxygen than the atmosphere, the second also four per cent. more, and the third one per cent. more. This was the result of examination during the day, but at night the excess of oxygen had disappeared. On the eleventh day, the first jar contained two per cent., the second and third one per cent. excess of oxy- gen. At night there was less oxygen than in the atmosphere. On the 20th of June the following results were obtained : in first jar, two and a half per cent., in second jar, three and a quarter per cent:, and in third jar, four per cent. less oxygen than in atmos- pheric air. Some experiments were then made to determine the rate of access of air to the plants through the bladder, and it was found that when the jars were filled with oxygen, the avérage rate at which it escaped till the internal air was like that of the atmosphere, was eleven per cent. daily. Prof. Lindley then read a paper by Mr. Ward on the same sub- ject. The Professor observed, that Mr. Ward, of Wellclose Square, London, had made many experiments on the subject of keeping plants in unventilated vessels, and was the original proposer of the plan for preserving plants in this manner. The discovery of their being able to be thus preserved, was of great practical importance, as it enabled us to bring plants from foreign climates, that could _ 12 British Association for the Advancement of Science. in no other way be introduced into this country. ‘The paper commenced, “Consider the lilies how they grow.” The atten- tion of the author was first directed to this point by accident. He had placed under an inverted jar a chrysalis, and on looking at it some time after, he found a fern and a blade or two of grass had grown under the jar, the sides of which appeared to be cov- ered with moisture. Taking the hint, he introduced some plants of Hymenophyllum under a jar, which grew and flourished in this situation. The Messrs. Loddige then enabled him to per- form some experiments on a larger scale. ‘The plants were en- closed in glass cases, or small green-houses, made tight with paint and putty, but, of course, not hermetically sealed, and were wa- tered once in five or six weeks. From his experiments, the au- thor came to the following conclusions :—First, that confining the air secured a mere equable temperature fer plants, as its expan- sion and contraction by change of external temperature, by its re- lation to heat in those states, prevented any great or sudden change. This was remarkably exemplified in some plants that were brought from India, which were in the course of three months success- ively exposed to 20°, 120°, and 40° of Fahrenheit. The enclo- sed plants were very frequently found surrounded by a tempera- ture higher than the external atmosphere. Secondly, that vaseu- lar plants required to be grown in a greater quantity of air than eellular. Thirdly, that light must be freely admitted. Fourthly, that the enclosed air must be kept humid. This can be done by oceasional watering, provided any means of escape for the water is allowed, but is not necessary where the water has no means of escape. Besides the advantage of enabling us to bring plants from abroad, it would also furnish to the physiological botanist the means of observing those operations of nature in his study, for which, before, he had been obliged to resort to the forest and the plain. Asan instance, the author had been enabled to observe the rapid growth of a Phallus fetidus, by merely devoting to it a few hours of the night. The writer concluded by suggesting that this mode of preserving tropical productions might ne ex- gees from the vegetable to the animal kingdom. _ Prof. Lindley also read a letter from the Messrs. Loddige to Mr. Ward, stating that in every case in which his instructions tat tritinhn:$ foesige Seg ate a inert - y Cs tks British Association for the Advancement of Science. 13 The Rev. J. Yates read a paper on the same subject. Wish- ing, he observed, to make an experiment, on a large scale, which might be exhibited at the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, a green-house, nine feet by eighteen in dimensions, and with a southern aspect, had been erected in the yard of the Mechanics’ Institute, in Mount-street. It was stocked with for- eign plants of all kinds, to the number of about eighty species. A list of the plants, and observations on their condition and pro- gress, accompanied the report. The general result of the exper- iment was, that the plants had flourished perfectly well, being in a vigorous and healthy state, without any extraordinary growth. Many of them had flowered, and Canna and some Ferns had ri- pened seed. The green-house had no flue, and no provision for any artificial heat. It was judged best to construct it without a flue, both as least expensive, and for the purpose of trying, by a fair experiment, to what extent plants might in this state be kept alive, even during the severity of winter, which would certainly die if fresh air were more freely admitted. It was also to be ob- served, that nothing had been done to prevent the water from es- caping through the yellow sandstone rock, on which the green- house was erected, and hence it had been necessary to give the plants occasionally a fresh supply of water. Mr. Yates further stated, that he had also grown plants under glass in London, where no plant could be made to flourish without such a protection. Nearly a year ago he planted Lycopodium denticulatum in a chem- ical preparation glass, with a ground stopper. During that time the bottle has never been opened ; yet the Lycopodium continues perfectly healthy, and has grown very much, although, for want of space, the form of the plant is distorted. Seeds which hap- pened to be in the soil have germinated, and Marchantia has grown of itself within the glass. He also obtained a hollow glass globe of eighteen inches diameter, and with an aperture sufficient to admit the hand for planting the specimens. A variety of Ferns and Lycopodiums were then set in the soil, which was properly moistened with water. This having been done, the aperture was covered with sheet India-rubber, its attachment to the glass being made perfectly air-tight. Nochange of air could take place, except by percolation through the India-rubber, which was every day forced either outwards, as the air within the glass was heated and expanded, or inwards in the reverse circumstance ; these Ferns 14. British Association for the Advancement of Science. grew probably as well as they would have done in a green-house or hot-house. 'They were all foreign, and some of them requir- ing a great heat. Several had ripened seed. Mr. Gray stated, that he had grown Droseras under glass jars ; one circumstance with regard to them he thought worthy of re- mark, their leaves did not turn red, as is usual when exposed to the atmosphere. Prof. Graham observed, that although in Mr. Ward’s experiments atmospheric air had been admitted, he did not think it essential to the welfare of the plant. Plants grown in this manner only required a glass large enough to contain a sufficient quantity of air, to permit of the absorption of oxygen without deteriorating the air of the vessel to such an extent as to injure the plant. The want of red in the leaves of Drosera, he thought, depended on the presence of moisture. A singular point was, that plants growing naturally in arid soils and climates, flour- ished in the humid and confined atmosphere of the closed jars. He had placed under jars completely closed some plants of Cacti, which had flourished more than those not so situated. He did not think that animals could be sustained in the same manner, as they consumed all the oxygen which they inspired.—Dr. 'Tra- vers remarked, that he had seen common mould, which was a species of fungus, in a tube which had been heated and hermeti- ~~ sealed for two years.—Mr. Bowman had observed at the 2 of Devonshire’s, Chatsworth, that Droseras did not under aie jars change the color of their leaves as in open air. He wished to know of Dr. Graham, how long his Cacti had lived in a moist atmosphere; they were naturally at certain seasons of the year exposed to heavy rains. He thought it was very possible for plants and animals to live together.—Mr. Duncan inquired if plants were healthy, and fit to be transplanted to the open aif when treated in this manner.—Professor Graham stated, that the Cacti had lived without access to air eighteen months. He believed that plants and animals might live together, provided the vessel in which they were inclosed was sufficiently large to enable the plants to absorb the carbonic acid gas expired by the animals. This would be a representation in miniature of what takes place in our own world.—Prof. Lindley, in reply to Mr- Bowman’s question, stated, that plants suffered little when con- rie = sear From improper treatment they may become debi he had seen them arrive from for- 2 =. : Og ete Pe rea ee ee British Association for the Advancement of Science. 15 eign countries, when treated in this manner, in the most perfect state of health. Want of skill in the management of those brought from abroad was the most frequent cause of injury. Too much water was frequently given to plants when just packed. They had better be placed in too dry, than in too moist an atmos- phere. He had seen this illustrated in plants from India; plants exposed to too much moisture rotted very soon. He thought the change of color in the leaves of plants depended on their free ex- posure to light ; the Droseras mentioned had not been exposed to the free access of light ; this was certainly the case with the Dro- seras at Chatsworth and of Mr. Gray. The discovery of Mr. Ward was not only important in enabling us to import foreign plants, but it also rendered the ventilation of green-houses less necessary, and would enable gardeners to manage the artificiak climate of their hot-houses with less difficulty. The fact that cellular plants grow best under this mode of treatment, was well established.—In answer to a question from Prof. Lindley, Mr. Gray and Mr. Yates stated, that plants had both flowered and fruited under this plan of treatment.—Prof. Graham stated that the order in which he had found plants to grow best, was, 1. Ly- copodiums ; 2. Grasses; and 3. Begonias. Railway Tron.—Mr. ‘Mushet made some hocrmationss on Rail- way Iron, founded on experiments carried on for forty years. He expressed himself much surprised, that hitherto, in contracts for iron for railway purposes, fibre and hardness were not stipulated for, but were left to the chapter of accidents. Both these quali- ties might be attained by his method, the principal characteristic of which consisted in doing away with the refining process now in general practice, and the preventing the severe decarbonization — to which the iron was at present exposed. Several specimens of iron, of extremely fine fibre and hardness, were laid before the Section, and afterwards removed to the Model Room. The great object of his process was, to obviate the evil of lamination. On some railroads they had been obliged to lay the iron two or three times ; but he had little doubt, that it would soon be possible to obfaiss a solid rail without any exfoliation. Mr. Cottam mentioned, that he had known a piece of i iron six inches thick, and considerably bent, to be quite straightened by blows, but, at the same time, to be greatly weakened; and that he attributed this to some of its constituent crystals being driven 16 ~—sC British Association for the Advancement of Science. into it, by the force of the blows, like so many wedges, thereby weakening the strength of the iron. Electricity.—Prof. Henry then made a communication respect- ing the Lateral Discharge in common Electricity. The primary object of these investigations was to detect, if possible, an inductive action in common electricity, analogous to that discovered in a current of galvanism. For this purpose an analysis was instituted, of the phenomena known in ordinary electricity by the name of the lateral discharge. Prof. Henry “was induced to commence with this from some remarks by Dr. Roget on the subject. The method of studying the lateral spark consisted in catching it on the knob of a small Leyden phial, and presenting this to an electrometer. The result of the analyses ‘Was in accordance with an opinion of Biot, that the lateral dis- charge is due only to the escape of the small quantity of redun- dant electricity which always exists on one or the other side ofa jar, and not to the whole discharge. ‘The Professor then stated — several consequences which would flow from this; namely, that — we could increase or diminish the lateral action, by the several means which would affect the quantity of redundant, or as it may be called, free electricity, such as an increase of the thick- — ness of the glass, or by substituting for the small knob of the jar _ a large ball. But the arrangement which produces the greatest effect, is that of a long fine copper wire insulated, parallel to the — horizon, and terminated at each end by a small ball. When — sparks are thrown on this from a globe of about a foot in diame- ter, the wire, at each discharge, becomes beautifwly luminous from one end to the other, even if it be a hundred feet long ; rays are given off on all sides perpendicular to the axis of the wire. — , In this arrangement the electricity of the globe may be consid- ered nearly all as free electricity ; and as the insulated wire com> ’ tains its natural quantity, the whole spark is thrown off in the form of a lateral discharge. But to explain this phenomenon more fully, Prof. Henry remarked, that it appeared necessary t0 add an additional postulate to our theory of the principle of ele¢- tricity,—namely, a kind of momentum, or inertia, without weight} _ by this he would only be understood to express the classification — _,or generalization of a number of facts, which would otherwise — be insulated. — To illustrate this, he stated that the same quantity of e city could be made to remain on the wire if gradually Ee Bs British Association for the Advancement of Science. 17 communicated ; but when thrown on in the form of a spark, it is dissipated as before described. Other facts of the same kind were mentioned ; and also, that we could take advantage of the princi- ple to produce a greater effect in the decomposition of water by ordinary electricity. The fact of a wire becoming luminous by a spark, was noticed by the celebrated Van Marum more than fifty years ago, but he ascribed it to the immense power of the great Haarlem machine. The effect, however, can be produced, as be- fore described, by a cylinder of Nairn’s construction, of seven inches in diameter, a globe of a foot in diameter being placed in connexion with the prime conductor to increase its capacity. Some experiments were next described, in refer- ence to the induction of the lateral action of dif- ferent discharges. on each other. When the long ? lines, by bending the wire, “the outer side of each wire only becomes luminous; when formed into : ) three parallel lines by a Souble bend, the middle portion of the wire does not become luminous, the outer sides only of the outer lines of wire exhibit the rays. When the wire is formed into a flat spiral, the outer spiral alone exhibits the lateral discharge, but the light in this case is very brilliant ; the inner spirals appear to increase the effect by induction. Prof. Henry then stated, that a metallic conductor, intimately connected with the earth at one end, does not silently conduct the electricity, thrown in sparks, on the other end. In one ex- periment described, a copper wire, $th of an inch in diameter, was plunged at its lower end into the water of a deep well, so as to form as perfect a connexion with the earth as possible; a small ball being attached to the upper end, and sparks passed on to this - the globe before mentioned, a lateral spark could be drawn any part of the wire, and a pistol of Volta fired, even near ReS aes of the water. This effect was rendered still more striking, by attaching a ball to the middle of the perpendicular part of a lightning rod, put up according to the directions given by Gay-Lussac, when sparks of about an inch and a half in length were thrown on the ball; corresponding lateral sparks could be drawn not only from the parts of the rod between the ground and the ball, but, from the part above, even to the top of the rod, Vor. XXXIV.—No. 1. 3 18 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Some remarks were then made on the theory of thunder-storms, as given by the French writers, in which the cloud is considered as analogous in action to one coating of a charged glass, the earth the other coating, and the air between as the non-conducting lass. One very material circumstance has been overlooked in this theory,—namely, the great thickness of the intervening stra- tum, and the consequent great quantity of free or redundant elec- tricity in the cloud. This must modify the nature of the dis- charge from the thunder-cloud, and lead to doubt, if it be per- fectly analogous to the discharge from an ordinary Leyden jar, since the great quantity of redundant electricity must produce a comparatively greater lateral action ; and hence, possibly, the ram- ifications of the flash, and other similar phenomena, may be but cases of the lateral discharge. Some facts were then mentioned, on the phenomena of the spark from a long wire charged with common or atmospheric electricity. It is well known that the spark in this case is very pungent, resembling a shock from a Leyden jar. The effect does not appear to be produced, as is generally supposed, by the high intensity of the electricity at the ends of the wire by mere distri- bution, since this is incompatible with the shortness of the spark. In one experiment, fifteen persons joining hands received a severe shock, while standing on the grass, from a long wire, one of the number only touched the conductor; the spark in this case was not more than a quarter of an inch long. Mr. Sturgeon was confident a seclicconstructed thunder rod would never be struck by lightning, as, upon the approach of an electrical cloud, it would silently discharge it into the earth.— Mr. Stevelly said, that unquestionably when the discharge was made directly upon the thunder rod, if well constructed, it would perform its office silently; but if a lateral discharge took place near it, the effect, as Prof. Henry showed, might be flashes of light and heat from the entire length of it, capable, when on a great scale, of setting fire to buildings, firing gunpowder, and other effects hitherto unexpected.—Mr. Snow Harris expressed his regret, that he had not been in the room during the early part of Prof. Henry’s communication. In his opinion, the pressure the F was an element in the phenomena not sufficiently attended 1ceC | beantiful illuminating effects by discharg- a wire | in an ed glass re- ewes & British Association for the Advancement of Science. 19 ceiver—Mr. Adams confirmed the statements made by Prof. Henry as to the illuminating effects of the lateral discharge ; he had once seen upon the discharge of a large electrical battery, a wire splendidly illuminated by the lateral discharge, and exhibit- ing the coruscations spoken of by Prof. Henry. Aurora in Summer.—Prof. Christie then made a communica- tion ‘on the occurrence of the Aurora Borealis in summer.’ The occurrence of an aurora borealis in England, in the middle of summer, was, he believed, a phenomenon hitherto unrecorded. He then gave an account of several very striking exhibitions of this phenomenon, which he had observed during the last summer. One, on the 19th of May, 1837, presenting two bands of arches, radiating from the magnetic west, and extending nearly to the opposite horizon, was unaccompanied by streamers. Another, on the 24th June, exhibited the usual appearance of coruscation from the northern horizon, but no arches were visible. This aurora, which was the most singular from being observed in the very middle of summer, lasted from 11h. 46m. until 12h. 20m. P. M. Other auroras were observed on the Ist, 2nd, and 7th of July, and 25th of August. On the last occasion, the author noticed a sin- gular phenomenon, which he had, on one occasion many years previous, observed, namely, that the darkness usually attending an aurora appeared to break into the light above it. He noticed that, on the former occasion, he observed the darkness to rush _ through, and finally break up, two well-defined arches of white light ; and recalled to the Section, that Capt. Back had described a very striking exhibition of a similar phenomenon, which he witnessed during his wintering at Fort Reliance. He particularly called attention to these and other phenomena, of the darkness exhibited in the aurora borealis, in connexion with the arches of light and the more brilliant coruscations. After recurring to other auroras which he had observed during the last summer, he inferred that it was probable that the aurora borealis was as frequently in activity in summer as during other seasons, though it might be ‘Jess frequently visible. ‘The author further stated, that during the last twelve months, no period of a month had elapsed without the exhibition, in the south of England, of one or more auroras ; and pointed out the importance of inquiring into the cause af the now so frequent occurrence of a phenomenon, which some years back had been very rare. He concluded by expressing a 20 British Association for the Advancement of Science. hope, that observations of the highly interesting phenomena of the aurora would be entered upon by members of the British As- sociation, who might have more time at their command than his own avocations allowed him for such observations. Mr. Stevelly stated, that the dark cloudy appearance during the aurora was so characteristic, that on one or two occasions, having seen, just before sunset, these scattered black clouds, he was led to anticipate that an aurora would ensue, which accordingly man- ifested itself when it grew dark; and a friend, since he came to Liverpool, had boasted that he could unfailingly predict an au- rora on the evening of the night on which it was to occur. He — had mentioned this to Prof. Christie, who said that his.own ex- perience had been precisely similar.—Sir David Brewster said, that, by an analysis of the light of the aurora borealis, he had proved that it was direct light, and had never suffered either re- flection or refraction.—Sir. W. Hamilton inquired, whether Mr. Christie had taken any notice of the very remarkable aurora which cecurred on the 18th of last February.—Prof. Christie said he had observed it. The object, however, of his present communication, was to turn attention to the occurrence of the aurora in summer.—Mr. Snow Harris trusted that a wide line of distinction would be drawn between electrified luminous clouds and the true aurora. He also wished attention to be turned to the. difference between magnetic needles when suspended in uo and in the open air. He had exhausted a very tall glass — receiver, and by electrifying it, caused a very brilliant display re- sembling the aurora. This notably affected a needle suspended near it in the open air; but a needle suspended in vacuo was not at all effected.—Mr. Absent had no doubt whatever, but that the aurora was a magneto-electrical effect ; and described an areas tus which he had contrived in order * illustrate this. Mean temperature at Plymouth, England.—The mean tem- — perature of two years, from 17,520 observations, is 52.90; that of five years, from 43,800 chocwvationsi: is 52.45. New property of Light.—Sir David Brewster then gave an ac- count of a new property of light discovered by him. He ob- served, that his attention had lately been drawn to a very curi- is, and, to him, entirely inexplicable property of light. While a eae es eee o British Association for the Advancement of Science. 2% plate of glass before his eye, in such a manner as to intercept and retard one half of the pencil, which was entering his eye, by placing it before one half of the pupil. He was then surprised to find, that when the edge of the retarding glass plate was turned towards the red end of the spectrum, intensely black lines made their appearance, as might be expected, at such regular intervals, as to represent the most exact micrometrical arrangement of wires; but upon turning the plate of glass half round, (still keeping its plane perpendicular to the axis of the eye,) so as to present the edge, past which the rays entered the eye, to the violet end of the spectrum, every one of those dark bands entirely disappeared. In the intermediate positions of that edge they appeared more or less distinct, according as the edge was more presented to the red, or to the violet end of the spectrum. are of any wali to the thus be saved from injury, their introduction on this E Wi: I am quite sure, from considerable observation among anc mines, that such suggestions are too Tittle regarded. : Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. 79 thickly around us, and disclosed the immense bosoms of the val- leys and the green forests that opened among this wild ocean of mountains; the trees on their sides, appeared minute and deli- cate as geraniums, while the deep and wide chasms produced by vast slides, presented horrid features of devastation, attesting the ravages of alpine floods, bearing down before them forest, soil, and rocks, with every movable thing, and thus gashing the solid frame work of the everlasting hills with the deep wounds of the olden and the modern time. Quite at the feet of the mountains, and along the opening vales and plains, ran in full view, silver streams, among cultivated fields, gracefully bordering the works of man—his houses, farms, and villages. Again, the clouds of flying ice, resembling tufts of cotton, closed thickly around, and hung an impenetrable veil between us and the world below; a wintry tempest now raged around, and with great difficulty we mounted the last rocks, and saw that there was nothing higher than ourselves. Here the wind blew a furious gale, and the strongest man among us céuld not keep his stand- ing without holding fast by the rocks, while those who neglected this precaution were instantly prostrated by the storm, which, as if in exultation, roared and howled with a truly savage grandeur, over this wild alpine solitude. ‘The cold was so severe and the pelting of the storm so violent, that a few minutes at a time was all that we could give to the mountain peak. We were glad to step under a covert, where the rocks afforded a partial shelter from the tempest, and here we finished our little remaining store of refreshments. For science there was little to survey. The piles we trod on were the ruins of the stupendous granite mountains, elevated in ancient time, lashed by the storms, cracked by frost, and mutilated for untold ages by the sure, although slow agencies of nature. The very peak of the mountain is mica slate supported by granite. There could be no doubt, that the immense masses of loose rocks, of every size, which we saw around us, were once united in a connected summit, and that these ruins are only evidence of the mighty work of demolition, which is always going on with a real although imperceptible progress. As to organic remains, it were vain to look for them in this primitive region, and almost equally vain is it to expect to find any living animal in these wild and bar- ren solitudes. It is, however, a satisfaction to have trod on the 80 Notices of Mount Washington and the vicinity. highest peak of New England, the most elevated of the United States, and of North America, until we reach the Rocky Moun- tains and the table land of Mexico. The arduous circumstances of our ascent and the absence of instruments prevented any ac- curate observations; but the height of this peak is generally sta- ted to be between six thousand and seven thousand feet, probably six thousand five hundred above the level of the sea. It nearly penetrates the region of perpetual cold—therefore winter relaxes his dominion but for a very short period, a few weeks at most, in the hottest season of the world below, and summer never smiles upon the summit of Mount Washington. On the succeeding day as we travelled, we saw this mountain quite white, from its peak a long way down and around, on every side that was within our view. The descent was of course more fapid than the ascent; it was much less fatiguing to the lungs, but very trying to the limbs, especially to the larger muscles and to the patella, which seemed as if it would part with the strain. Great caution was requisite also, to avoid falling into the innumerable holes among the rocks, and to prevent slipping from their smooth and glazed surfaces. Arrived once more at the camp where the horses, become rest- less with hunger and now eager for their stables, remained fast bound to the trees—we quickly mounted, and twilight begin- ning to set in, we hastened through the pilgrimage of the muddy , till having arrived in the open ground, all dashed forward with cavalry speed, and the poorest rider on the hardest horse fares ill in a race, which he is neither able nor much disposed to resist or avoid. All hurry onward, as if from the route of disas- trous battle, and glad is the edvoniuane to find himself once more safe in the truly comfortable hotel, where he is regaled not only with all necessary refreshments, but with wonderfully fine echoes produced from the neighboring mountains by a long shrill hor, blown at the door of the hotel, after evening has closed in, by the discharge of artillery, whose explosion is returned in deep and solemn reverberations from the winding hills. The ascent of Mount Washington is certainly worth the toil and trouble, although probably few appreciate it justly, before they have made the trial. cane Pedestrian ascent occupied two and a half hours, and - about ten hours, of strenuous and connie * On the Tides. 81 Art. V.—On the Tides ; by Davin Tomttnson. Schenectady, Aug. ist, 1837. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dear Sir,—I wave read with much pleasure, several ingenious strictures on storms of wind, by W. C. Redfield, as published in former numbers of your useful Journal of Science. In your No. II, for July, 1837, in his remarks on this supposed connection of the Gulf stream, ‘“ with opposite currents on the coast of the United States,” he says, “the Gulf stream, in its course from Florida to the banks of Newfoundland, is for the most part ¢mbedded or stratified upon a current which is setting in the opposite direction in its progress from ‘the polar region— that their opposite courses on the coast while in contact with each other, are no more surprising or inexplicable than the case of two . currents of the atmosphere, and the latter are often known to maintain opposite courses for a long period, and at high velo- cities, while thus superimposed one upon the other.” The different currents of the atmosphere are often rendered visible, by the courses of fleecy clouds; but, that contrary and rapid currents, of so dense a fluid as water, should be “imbed- ded,” one in the other, appears to contradict the laws of friction, impulse, and motion. I am aware it has been said, that, at the straits of Gibral- tar, where from the Atlantic ocean a strong and regular current always flows into the Mediterranean sea, this current is or balanced by an under or contra one at the bottom, aniing equally swift outward into the ocean; and that this has been proved to be true by the wreck of a vessel known to have been lost in the Mediterranean sea, having been seen in the Atlantic ‘ocean ; but a single instance is not conclusive; for, if it were the same wreck, a strong east wind might have driven it out. I know the danger of suggesting any thing in opposition to es- seblished opinions of preat and learned men; for instance, in op- position to the opinion, that the moon is the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the tides. That the attraction of the moon regu- lates _ times of the tides caused by the Gulf stream, after their eC ‘into existence and being set in- motion, is evident ; but that the flowing and ebbing is wholly caused by the riibon, Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 82 On the Tides. appears to be contradicted by strong evidence. That the Gulf stream gives the peculiar character to the tides on the coast of North America, appears certain. Where it leaves the Gulf of Mexico, the rise and fall of the tides is said to be two or three feet only. The tides increase with that current to the east, till it rises more than twenty-five feet in Nova Scotia and Newfound- land; where that wave is wafted across the ocean to the Irish and British channels, and the Bay of Biscay, of about a similar height. But at St. Ubes it rises only one to two feet, and in the Mediterranean sea there is no rise and fall of tides. If the moon were the sole cause of the rise of tides, why is it not more evident in the south Atlantic, West Indies, and coast of South America, where her influence ought to be the greatest, in the greatest expanse of ocean? And yet the tides there are so so small they are scarcely noticed. It is said that the Gulf stream is caused by the effect of the trade wind on the Caribbean sea, by pressing the water westward, and causes the outlet at the Gulf of Mexico. That may produce some effect ; but can it be the sole. cause of the Gulf stream ? Although that stream may be ourse (like a cable in a stream) both north and south, by long and violent seinds, (as has been seen,) yet it resumes its wonted place and preserves its regular course so exactly, that in approaching it in fair and moderate weather in day light, by ascending the shrouds of a vessel, it may be seen at a great distance, and when passing it, the edge of the stream may be discerned as plainly as land from water. It appears as blue as indigo, while the adjoining water is of the usual green hue. The division is so exact, that it may be noticed as plainly as the crack between the planks in a house floor ; and yet, if you dip a bucket of water from the stream, it is of similar clear and white appearance as the common ocean or other water, but warmer. Why does the ocean always run swiftly into the Mediterranean sea, as do the immense Danube, Nile, and other large rivers? No doubt to keep up the subterranean stream which passes out of the Bay of Mexico, called the Gulf stream. This sustains the usual circulation and its warm temperature and throws off an immense evaporation, as it runs towards the colder Tegion, where it is condensed to furnish materials for watering the Atlantic coasts by se rains, without which, fe would be 0 rare, and: t the land | d by d “ey TE On the Tides. 83 McKenzie found a tide of about fifteen feet, when he reached the ocean, on his travels to the N. W. coast of America, near Behr- ings’ strait. It is said there is a great tide at Calcutta; yet, if we may believe the navigators, it is small at the Gaulwich Is- lands, rising only one or two feet, the highest flood always at meridian, and being thus totally disobedient to the rising and setting of the moon in that immense expanse of ocean, where her influence ought to be greatest. L here quote from the American Quarterly Review, No. xxxix, for September, 1836, p. 10. Art. I. Report made to the Senate of the United States, on the subject of an exploring expedition to the Pacific ocean and the South seas, by Mr. Southard, chairman of the committee, March 21st, 1836. “ We shall detain the reader but a moment longer on this branch of our subject, to mention a in; fact in relation to the tides in the Pacific ocean, and we do this, in order to draw the attention both of practical navigators and philosophical observers.” _ “It is stated by the intelligent Mr. Ellis, the missionary who resided several years in Tahiti (Otaheite) and the Sandwich Is- lands, that the rising and falling of the tides, (in the South sea islands, ) if influenced at all by the moon, appears to be only so in a very small degree. The height, says he, to which the tide rises, varies but a few inches during the whole year; and at no time is it elevated more than a foot or a foot and a half. The sea, however, often rises to an unusual height; but this appears to be the effect of a strong wind blowing for some time from one quarter, or the heavy swells of the sea, which flow from different directions and prevail equally during the time of high and low water. During the year, whatever be the age or situation of the moon, the water is lowest at six in the morning and the same hour in the evening, and highest at noon and midnight. This is so well established, that the time of night is marked by the ebb- -ing and flowing of the tide; and in all the islands the time of hints wuterend fos widnight is the same. The same thing is stated by Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet, in their journal of voy- but irregular inundations of the sea, that the tides throughout the Pacific ocean do not appear to obey the infiuence of the moon in the slightest degree. It is always high water about twelve, and 84 Equalization of Temperature, §c. low about six o’clock, day and night. The fact has also been noticed by a few British navigators. Capt. Beechy, after descri- bing the harbor of Papiete and of some other places on the north side of Otaheite, says, it is generally high water at half an hour after noon every day, and low water at six in the morning; at the same time he observes, in language which might mislead the reader if not understood with some qualifications, that the tides in all these harbors (of Otaheite) are very irregular. These irreg- ularities are, doubtless, what Messrs. Tyerman and Bennet call ‘ irregular inundations” of the sea, which according to Mr. Ellis, are occasioned by the strong winds blowing for some time from one quarter, or the heavy swells of the sea coming from various directions. The fact is also confirmed by an intelligent corres- pondent, Mr. John Ball, of Troy, N. Y.,* who states, that during his three weeks’ stay at Tahiti, the tide was observed to rise about one foot, and always highest at twelve o’clock, noon and midnight ; and he adds, I was informed that this is always the case. Another writer, ‘nie remarks are published in the Journal, (from that of the Franklin Tnstitate adds to the testimony on this point the ving,—that Prof. Whewell states, that Lieut. Malden, who accompanied Lord Byron on his voyage to the Sandwich Islands in the British ship Blonde, in 1824-25, gives a similar account of the tides at Owyhee. But the language of Lieut. Malden is, that the tide was observed to rise about four feet, and to be high water at sunset, and low water at day light, being influenced by the sea and land breezes.” Arr. VI._—Equalization of Temperature and supply of air in rooms warmed by furnaces beneath ; in a letter to the editor, from James Borron, A. M., M. D. dated Fredericksburgh, Dee. 25, 1837 Dear Sir,—Havine amused many of my leisure hours with investigations into the best modes of applying heat to the warm- ing of houses, I send you the following as the most important re- sults which I obtained. Our own dwelt was warmed by an hot air “Bnsncte and to it I found the following objec: Equalization of Temperature, §c. 85 tions. The air was admitted into the air chamber of the furnace from the basement rooms and hall where it was placed, and this air ascended into the parlors loaded with coal dust and other im- purities. This evil was entirely corrected by obtaining all the air for the supply of the air chamber from without the house. A large eight inch pipe was led from the bottom of this chamber through one of the walls of the house to the open air. This, besides obviating the difficulty above stated, ventilated our rooms with a constant supply of fresh air. The next objection was, that persons sitting in our rooms complaifed of cold feet, while in every other respect they felt comfortable. On examining the temperature of the air in the room at different heights, I found a variation of a degree for every foot. That is, at the height of six feet from the floor the thermometer stood six degrees higher than at the floor itself. This, then, was a very serious objection, and I set about immediately endeavoring to remove it. On re- flection, it occurred to me, that as our rooms were very tightly closed, having double sashes to our windows, the flues of the chimneys closely stopped, and the doors (made to fit tightly) gen- erally closed, that there was no way of escape for the air already in the room, when the furnace was set in Operation, so that it could not readily receive the addition of heated air, and none for the exit of the air after it had given out to the room its share of caloric received from the furnace. This cold air settled to the floor and there Jay almost stagnant. Here, then, was the root of the difficulty. ‘T'o remove it I adopted the following expedient, which proved entirely effectual. I led a pipe from the floor of each room to the bottom of the air chamber, and cut off all other supplies of air. The process of heating the air, then, was as fol- lows. That already in the chamber was heated and ascended to tee rooms above; to supply its place the cold air of the rooms s by the pipes which I had introduced and was in its turn heated and ascended ; thus keeping up a constant circulation of airin the rooms. I sfexswartl introduced a two inch pipe to supply fresh air to the chamber from without the house. This pipe had a valve, so that I could regulate the amount of air sup- plied by it. The effects of this improvement were, that there was a difference in temperature of only a degree and a half in six feet instead of six degrees as formerly, and we were no longer troubled with cold feet while sitting in these rooms. 86 Description of an Air Pump. After testing the utility of these improvements for about five years, being desirous that all using furnaces might avail them- selves of them, I have sent this communication for insertion in your interesting record of the daily improvements going on in ae arts and sciences. Art. Vil—Description of an Air Pump of a very simple con- struction, which acts both as an erhauster and condenser ; by OHN Jeusisto x, A. M., Professor of Natural Science in the Wesleyan University, Middletown. Tue last No. of this Journal* contains a description of a very ingenious air pump invented by Dr. Hare, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania, which is capable of perform- ing on a much larger scale precisely the same operations as the one I am about to describe, but in quite a different manner. The “next day San I had aastrieted with Messrs. Brown & Francis, in New York, for this air pump, which is now in possession of the Wesleyan ‘Univeiity: I had the pleasure of viewing = She in his laboratory in Philadelphia. : This pump, as will be seen by the figure, has two bitiele in which the pistons are worked precisely as in those in common use, and, in general, it is constructed in a similar manner. The pistons, however, are solid, and at the base of each barrel are two valves, one opening upward and the other downward. In the center of the firm piece of mahogany, which forms the base of the instrument, are two brass tubes, which are seen in the figure at A and B, by the removal of the plate of brass D. Of these tubes, A communicates with the valves—one in each barrel—that opens upward, and B with the valves that open downward. Now when either of the pistons descends, the air in the barrel below it will of course pass out through the downward opening valve and tube B connected with it; and when it is again raised, the air will pass in through the tiibe A and the upward opening valve. At the center of the disc I’, is an aperture, as in common aif ee into which a tube may be screwed, and directly be: beneath ees _* Vol. xxiii, page 237. Description of an Air Pump. 87 it is another aperture communicating with the tube G: and the part EC is constructed in such a manner, that when E is upward, a passage is opened between the aperture F and tube A, and also between the tubes Band G. If the pump he now worked, it is evident the air will pass in at F' and out at G, that is, it exhausts at F and condenses at G._ If, however, we give EC a quarter of a revolution, and bring C upward, the jassages from A to F, and from B to G, are closed, and others opened from B to F’, and from A to G; and by working the pump the air will now be made to pass in at G, and out at F’, or in the reverse direction from that just described. This pump, therefore, like the one described by Dr. Hare, when worked is constantly exhausting and condensing. The uses to which this air pump may be applied, obviously include all those of a common air pump and condenser ; and also enables the operator to transfer any gas that will not corrode the metals from one vessel to another, (as does that of Dr. Hare.) To do this, it is only necessary to attach tubes at F' and G lead- 88 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. ing to the different gasometers or other vessels between which the transfer is to be made ; and by means of the part EC the gas be made to pass in either direction at pleasure. 1 ought to remark before closing, that previous to my applica- tion to Messrs. Brown & Francis, they had manufactured several air pumps of this description, with the exception of the tube G, which was added at my suggestion ; and which adapts it in a pe- culiar manner for use in a chemical laboratory. Messrs. Brown & Francis also manufacture a much smaller air pump, with a — barrel of the same construction. Art. VIII.— Notes respecting certain Indian Mounds and Earth- works, in the form of Animal E’figies, chiefly in the Wisconsin. Territory, U. S.; by Ricnarp C. Tayzor, Esq. Donixe the past year, whilst traversing, in the society of some friends, that portion of Wisconsin Territory which is bounded by Illinois to the south, and the beautiful Wisconsin River to the north, we frequently found our attention attracted by the singularly formed Indian mounds, of which the elevated prairies, as well as the rich valleys and the borders of the lakes and rivers of this region, afford such numerous specimens. The existence of abundant traces, apparently monumental, of an ancient and now probably extinct nation, within the country under our present recognizance, was known long ago to its early explorers, of which the French were doubtless the first, in the seventeenth century, and has been mentioned by some of the travellers who have subsequently written concerning this country. But I was unprepared to discover in the forms of these remains, whose origin is so obscure, other than the usual simple tumuli ; such as abound on the bordete of the Ohio, and throughout the great valley of the Mississippi, and upon the green plains and rich bottoms of the Missouri; which tumuli do closely resemble those which are so profusely scattered over the plains of Europe, and are especially abundant on the chalky downs of England. : Rumors of the remains of an ancient city, discovered within the past year, in the eastern part of this territory, wherein the ground plans of supposed buildings and fortifications may still be Indian Mounds and Earthworks. | 89 traced, had been lately circulating in the United States, and con- tributed to lead our attention towards those singular memorials which daily presented themselves on the route through this inter- esting region. Respecting the so called city of Aztalan,* I was prevented, unfortunately, when within a day’s journey, from reaching its site; and regret my inability to speak from personal knowledge on this subject. Information of a more detailed and scientific character than we now possess is much needed. As relates to a great number of other positions, it was discov- ered that the configurations of the earthworks, or moundsas they are usually termed, which at first sight appeared decidedly to re- semble the sites, or ground plan, and foundation lines of former buildings, were really designed as rude representations and out- lines of certain animals, and even of the human figure ; ; in addi- tion to those tumuli which had been constructed in the usual circular, quadrangular, and oblong shapes. The circular tumuli of the Wisconsin prairies, are commonly about fifty feet in diameter, and are not elevated, in general, more than ten or fifteen feet above the surrdanding level; but often not half so much. Those in the forms of parallelograms are seldom less than a hundred feet long, and are occasionally seen much longer, as in the example figured, [pl. m. fig. 3,] which is six hundred feet in length. Perhaps in this instance it was thrown up as a defensive earthwork, as its situation seems to indicate. Above the junction of the Des Moines River with the Missis- sippi, in Missouri, in the region locally known as “ Black Hawk’s Country,” we examined a long range of the circular tumuli. These were all of the common size, and some of them contained recent graves of deceased Indians, as was afterwards observed in many other localities. Thus, in the present day, the burial place of the Sauks and Fox, the Winnebago, and other tribes, is very commonly chosen upon the site of the more ancient monuments ; the memorials of a people that existed in unknown times. It is scarcely necessary here to include within our notice those mounds of much larger dimensions, existing on the borders of the Ohio and Mississippi, to the south and east. On the former * The Mexicans have a tradition that they originally came from the north, from a country called Aztalan. Vou. XXXIV.—No. 1. 12 90 ~—- Indian Mounds and Earthworks. river one mound is seventy feet high, and thirty or forty rods in circumference. Even within the limits of the rapidly rising city of St. Louis, are some of great magnitude. On the American bottom, at the village of Cahokia, (Illinois, ) it is stated by a con- tributor to a Western periodical, that more than two hundred mounds are visible from one spot ; the largest being 2400 feet in anc i and 90 feet in height ; in figure approaching to a . Inthe Cherokee country an earthwork has been Scectibed, as 75 feet high and 1114 feet round. The earthworks which have been constructed in the shapes of “animals, abound in the Iowa district of Wisconsin. They occur, mixed with the other varieties, in great numbers, around the high lands which skirt the “ Four Lakes,” forming a species of alto relievo, of gigantic proportions. This district appears to have been originally much resorted to by the early tribes, whose relics we here behold, mixed with those of the modern Winne- At one spot alone, probably, at least one hundred tu- muli may be counted. The Indian path, along which we passed, thas, for near half a mile in length, a series of these, mixed with circular mounds, in tiers several deep, on both sides ; forming a ‘cemetery in magnitude of itself sufficient, one would imagine, for the chiefs and warriors, and their descendants, of a whole tribe, if such was the original design of these earthworks. On the summits of some might be seen the recent graves, protected by pallisados, of the last Indian possessors of the so The site of the singular group of mounds exhibited: in our fig- ure, [pl. 1. fig. 1,] is about eighteen miles west of the Four Lakes, and seven miles east of the two remarkable natural hills called the Blue mounds. The area comprehended in the drawing is about two thousand three hundred feet in length. The figures are traced from survey, and their dimensions and the intermedi- ate spaces, were ascertained by admeasurements, In this group there are seen the effigies of at least six quadrupeds; six mounds in parallelograms; one circular tumulus; one human figure, and one circle or ring which may have been formed by the In- dians in their dances, whether peaceful or warlike, or may have -been occupied for some such purpose, in by-gone times, as the torturing and destroying their prisoners. The great Indian trail, -r war-path, which leads from Lake Michigan, near Milwaukie, to the Mississippi above Prairie du Chien, passes along the edge Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 91 of this chain of earthworks, and is now for many miles adopted as the route of the military road to the latter fort. We pursued this route for a great distance along the dividing ridge between the northern and southern waters; and we continually saw me- morials of the character above described, along its borders. What animals are represented by these. rude monuments of earth, now covered with the rank prairie grass, is not made alto- gether apparent by their designers. If of the horse, the design is somewhat doubtful. We were rather inclined, however imper- fect the representation, to attribute the intention of the construc- tors to be that of exhibiting the figure of the Buffalo; an animal which had here the finest pasturage, and an almost boundless range, within one of the most ample hunting grounds, and were exceedingly numerous at the time of the first exploration of the country by the French. It is nevertheless to be admitted, that the hump, a remarkable characteristic of the Buffalo, which it would seem unlikely to have been omitted in the representations of that animal, is never seen in these figures, which are distribu- ted over the surface of so many hundred square miles of this country. The respective dimensions of these animal effigies in our ground plan, are 90, 100, 102, 103, 120, and 126 feet in length; all of them apparently represent the same description of animal. Figures having precisely the same proportions in their outlines, may be seen at very short intervals throughout the Territory of Wisconsin, being generally from 90 to 120 feet, and extending to 150 feet long. This form, although the most prevalent, is by no means the only one, as we shall proceed to show. In the midst of this group, represented by our sketch, and forming a very important portion of it, we have now to notice the representation of a human figure, lying in an east and west direction; the head towards the west, and the arms and legs ex- tended. ‘Tts length is one hundred and twenty five feet, and it is one hundred and | forty feet from the extremity of one arm to that of the other. The body or trunk is thirty feet in breadth, the twenty-five feet, and its elevation above the general surface of the prairie, is about six feet. Its configuration is so distinct, that there can be no possibility of a mistake in assigning it to the human figure. 92 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. There is nothing remarkable about the oblong mounds. The circular tumulus in the centre is the highest, and overlooks the whole group. Whether all or any.of these earthworks contain bones, we had no opportunity of determining. ‘They probably all do. The site of this interesting series is an ‘elevated open prairie, on the dividing ridge between the waters of the Wisconsin and Rock rivers. "These monuments are covered with the same green carpet of prairie grass, intermixed with bright and brilliant flow- ers, as the prairie itself. There is an intervening space near the centre of the group, now overgrown with bushes, which probably conceal some unnoticed mounds. The figures marked on these and the other animal outlines in our drawings, indicate their di- mensions in feet. We twice visited these singular specimens of Indian antiquity, and consequently can speak with greater confidence as to the gen- eral accuracy of the sketch accompanying this article. Half a mile westward of this remarkable group, and on the same elevated prairie, occurs a solitary mound, about ninety feet in length, representing an animal in all respects like those we have described, but lying with the head ee the southwest. [Pl. n. fig. 2.] Along the space of twenty miles from this position, extending to the Four Lakes eastward, similar monuments, intermixed with plain tumuli, are seen at almost every mile, in the lowest situa- tions as well as crowning the highest swells of the prairies; and they are still more numerous all around those beautiful but almost unknown lakes. It would be a ceaseless repetition of similar forms were we to figure many of these, but the outlines of a few of the most characteristic are introduced in the plate. Had time and circumstances permitted a more leisurely investigation and survey of some of the groups of this region, there is little doubt but many drawings of a highly interesting character could have been constructed in addition to those which illustrate this com- munication. _ Fig. 3, Pl... An effigy ninety feet long, in form resembling animal outlines previously described, is placed nearly at the foot and at the point of a remarkable, picturesque, perpendicular bluff, of coarse, friable sandstone, fronting a rich meadow, the favorite resort, no doubt, of numerous buffalos in olden times. In Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 93 front of this bluff, and enclosing the mound or efligy, is a long earthwork in an exact straight line, about two hundred yards in length, having an opening in the centre opposite to the animal. The position of this earthwork indicates its having been designed for the purposes of defence or fortification against an enemy ; perhaps as an outwork to the strong hold in the rear, formed by the bluff itself. The great Indian road to which we have already referred, skirts along the outer or southern side of this embank- ment. Fig. 4, Pl. nm. This sketch is drawn from the admeasurement of acouple of animal-shaped mounds, between which passes the same Indian path, at the distance of six miles west of the Four Lakes. These figures are selected to shew that one, if not both of them, represented a different species of animal to those we have traced in the preceding outlines. In one instance only they were depicted with the appendage of a tail; the others were tail- less ; and whether in the present case this deviation from the usual configuration resulted from the caprice of the Indian artists, or really depictured some beast more favored by nature than his contemporaries, it is not easy at this period to decide. ‘They are respectively one hundred and twenty and one hundred and two feet long, and perhaps may have been intended to.represent foxes. Fig. 5. Beyond the Wisconsin Territory, on the north side of the ~ of that name, in the region still held by the Winne- innumerable: mounds, both of the circular and most of the ae forms we have figured. At one position, however, near the river, and not far from English prairie, a group of six of these appear to represent birds, probably the eagle, or perhaps the crane, which was the ancient badge of the chiefs of a branch of the once powerful tribe of Chippewas.* This sketch was icated to the writer by the person who took the original admeasurements The scale of these is about the same as the Plt, Fig. 2 is a tracing from a sketch drawn to a larger scale, ahinertul I had noticed as prisening the general form of the ——<—$—$——$———— * Col. McKenney’s History of the Indian Nations. 94 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. letter T, might on further inspection have been found to approach to the bird form also. Forms supposed to represent turtles have also been seen in more than one situation, constructed on an equally large scale. Of this class I cannot speak with sufficient certainty from personal obser- vation. We know that there existed the “Turtle Tribe” of Indians, which had that animal for its badge. The “ Walking Turtle” family, according to McKenney, was one of the highest distinction in the Winnebago tribe. To the above notices may be added some memoranda of certain other points where I observed, or have knowledge of the exist- ence of tumuli or mounds in the shape of animals in this western region. At the great savanna or prairie on the south bank of the Wis- consin river, called English prairie, are earthworks having the circular, the oblong, and the usual animal forms, and also some which bear resemblance to the Roman letter T, as shown in Pl. un. Fig. 1 : a fifteen miles to the southwest of the last mentioned locality, along the course of an ancient trail, and also of the present military road to Prairie du Chien from Fort Winne- . Numerous others may be recognized between these and the Mississippi. In the vicinity of the remarkable hills called the Blue Mounds, they occur abundantly. These hills were, until very lately, a great resort of the Indian inhabitants; as their existing paths, converging hither in singularly straight lines from every point of the compass, amply testify. In the centre of the territory, at sites which it would be tedious to enumerate, we repeatedly passed by similar mounds, almost invariably contiguous to Indian paths, whose deeply-worn, but narrow tracks, attest their extreme antiquity and long use. Between the interesting limestone hill, styled Sinsinnawa Mound, and the town of Galena, these animal representations are seldom out of sight, and are accompanied by earthworks of sim- pler forms. They prevail equally in the low meadow sites, ad _ the higher prairie ridges. Elevated circular tumuli rise from the flats on the margin of the Missin, at the old: French village or + trading station of Prairie dia Chix Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 95 All along the borders of the beautiful Wisconsin river, extend- ing from its mouth to the Winnebago Portage, similar monuments are traceable on the high and dry lands. Occasionally they occur in groups and chains, and not solitarily, and are of various fashions. On the shores of Lac de Boeuf and Lac Apucaway, wherever the land is dry and sufficiently elevated, one may observe, even from the water, a vast number of tumuli. Upon the summits of some of these may from time to time be recognized the modern grave of some Winnebago or Menominie chief, strongly protected by pickets. The margins of the Fox river are remarkable for the numerous Indian remains of this description. Colonel Petitval, of the U. S. ‘Topographical department, who was engaged during the last summer in a survey of this river, had the kindness, at my request, to give some attention to these ncuinds He describes an immense pemacolings of them, at a point on the river, called the Bank, « ding far into the interior, both north and south, for an eoeninked distance. Twelve of the mounds at this place were opened under his direction, among which was an animal mound one hundred and fifty feet long. All of them contained human bones in a very decomposed state. One of the most extensive and interesting collections of these monumental structures, exists near the eastern shore of Winne- bago lake, within the reservation made to the Stockbridge and Brotherton, commonly called the New York Indians. I am in- debted to Dr. Lyman Foote, of Fort Winnebago, for information on this and some other localities of Indian monuments. At a place named Crawfordsville, on the Fox river, a group of ancient mounds has recently been announced in the western pa- pers. ‘These structures are described as being from three to sev- enteen rods (two hundred and eighty feet) in length ; generally about four feet high, and they are stated to resemble “ lizards, alligators, and flying dragons.” They here all point in the same general direction, but are not precisely parallel. Among them there is one very large mound, which overlooks all the rest. A writer in the United States Gazette, during a late visit to Wisconsin, observed numerous mounds and large embankments, over a space of thirty miles around the site of ‘ the ancient city.”” Some of them were designed, he states, to resemble “ liz- ards, turtles, buffalos, and even human forms.” he present wandering tribes of Indians are “entirely unable to give any ac- 96 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. count of these remains, or to furnish the slightest tradition re- specting the ancient possessors of the soil.” Having disposed of as much of the details in my possession, as appear_necessary in relation to the localities of animal s earthworks, I have little to add concerning the mounds and In- dian antiquities of other parts of this continent. Ample details respecting a great many of them may be found in well known works on these subjects, such as that of Dr. McCulloch,* and the Archzologia Americana. From these and other authorities it does appear, that the forms of these mounds elsewhere are materially different to those I have been describing in Wisconsin and to the north of it. The animal form does not prevail in the Indian monuments within the valley of the Ohio. No allusion is made by Colonel Long, in the narrative to his second expedition, to any but the ordinary circular tumuli, in the relative positions of which the editor observes, “ we could discover no order or plan.” On the banks of the Miami river, a group of one elliptical and four cit- cular mounds is described, and figured in plate 2, of the narrative. On the Fox river, of the Illinois, Colonel Long saw many mounds, counting twenty seven at one spot, arranged with a cer-, tain depron of regularity, “varying from one to four and a half feet in height, and from fifteen to twenty five feet in length. Their breadth is not proportionate to their length, as it seldom exceeds from six to eight feet ;’” other mounds are described of an oval form. — The square and pyramidal mounds occur most frequently in the south ; and Dr. McCulloch, who is good authority on the sub- ject of fadian antiquities, ohmerves,! “that there seems to be a ma- terial difference in the construction and position of the mounds in Georgia and Florida, from those of Ohio, Kentucky, &e.t Tumuli, in the form of truncated pyramids, also occur in the south. Dr. Kain has described a group of six possessing this form in East Tennessee. Their proportions are ten feet in height, by thirty or forty paces in diameter, in the base ; the whole group being enclosed by a ditch. Mounds, having an exact rectangular form, are described by travellers as existing in Tennessee. of A 9 dees Researches, Philésiahical and a ee concerning cae the: ‘Aboriginal His: tory McCulloch, t McCualloch’s » Researches, p- 503. Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 97 Mr. Bringier, describing the Indian mounds in the region of the Mississippi, states, that from Red river to St. Louis, a dis- tance of five hundred miles, and in breadth eighty to two hun- dred miles, mounds constantly occur, and for the most part are symmetrically arranged, and contain human bones and other traces of man. This writer suggests, that they may be the ruins of ancient dwellings, constructed, on the old Mexican plan, of large bricks, and were covered with earth, which, mouldering down, left mounds in such abundance that the traveller is never out of sight of them. What an immense population, he ob- serves, must have occupied these dwellings, which cover so large a portion of the surface of this region.* That some of the earthworks in the southern part of this con- tinent are attributable to such an origin, appears to be the opin- ion of other investigators. Professor Rafinesque, on the of M. Rhea, states, that in an ancient walled town near Columbia, in Tennessee, are “the ruinsof many houses of various sizes, from ten to thirty feet in diameter, all of circular form.” The conical form is the most prevalent in Ohio. Mr. Atwater has described many of these, and Dr. Drake, among others, has given the details of four large elliptical mounds within the limits of the city of Cincinnati. It will be seen by a glance at our diagrams, that no precise po- sition, with regard to points of the compass, determined the con- struction of the Wisconsin mounds; and that in one case a single member of a group of animals has been placed at right angles to the rest. The choice, in selecting the sites of these memorials of ancient days, appears to have been influenced mainly by the con- tiguity to the lakes and principal rivers, and to those great lines of interior communication which from an unknown period trav- ersed this fine country. By this arrangement the greatest publi- city was given to the burial places of the distinguished dead ; to the simple yet permanent monuments erected to commemorate their fame and rank, and perhaps with the design to perpetuate the honor, and to flatter the vanity of some of the many tribes and branches into which this great Indian family appears, from remote as to have beat segumaeenes res thie Joacual, Vol. m1, p. 37. > Hoke XXXIV.—No. t: 13 98 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. Learned archeologists have speculated as to what nation, in far distant times, constructed the ordinary tumuli of circular form, so abundant in the great Mississippi valley. They have not yet, I believe, commenced to descant on the origin of those other con- figurations, the recent examination of which has given rise to the present article. From that highly important contribution to North American early history, the “ Antiquitates Americanz,” lately edited by the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries of Copenhagen, little or no knowledge can be acquired respecting the mounds of North America; and the communication in the same work from the Rhode Island Historical Society, refers, for the most part, merely to the chiseled figures and hieroglyphics on the rocks of Rhode Island. There are few, if any, authentic sources at hand, from whence to draw information, and it is no doubt quite unsafe to rely upon the accuracy of Indian traditions concerning these mounds, espe- cially as the last occupiers of the soil were but comparatively in recent possession. Successive tribes have occupied, by turns, the region of country where these apparent animal and human effi- gies abound. The Winnebago Indians, a branch of the great Dahcotah or Sioux family, have held possession of that part of the Wisconsin country which lies immediately south of the Wis- consin river, and east of the Mississippi, only from sixty to eighty years. ‘Broxiously to this time the district was in the hands of the Sauks and Fox Indians, a branch of the Chippewas, who dug and smelted the lead ore, but were driven out by the Winneba- gos. Neither of these tribes now erect permanent monuments of this character, to the memory of their dead. We have seen them, it is true, in numerous places, excavate graves, and deposit the remains of the deceased on the summits of the ancient circu- — lar tumuli, which they appear to conceive were constructed for such purposes. Some of these modern burial places are accom- panied by rude memorials, denoting the tribe and rank, and some- times by hieroglyphics, in red paint, even recording the principal achievements of distinguished individuals. But to a far different race, assuredly, and to a far distant pe- riod, must we look when seeking to trace the authors of these singular mounds, and the earthworks of such various forms, which are spread over the North American continent, from Lake Supe- rior to Mexico. The degenerate Menominess, and the slothful Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 99 Winnebagos, are retiring before the power and the intelligence of the white man of the old world, as the Sauks and Fox Indians had previously retreated from the Winnebagos, and ata still earlier period, the Illinois Indians were nearly exterminated by the Sauks and Foxes.* But who were they who have left almost imperishable memorials on the soil, attesting the superiority of their race? Nation and tribe and family succeed each other, and for a while occupy the land. They vanish in succession, and leave few or no traces. Yet of this unknown people, thousands and tens of thousands of monuments remain, which will scarcely be obliterated so long as the earth retains its present form. The result of a recent examination, by a friend of the writer, of the interior of many of the Fox river mounds, shews satisfac- torily that the animal shaped earthworks contain human bones equally with the round tumuli. These bones were found in a very brittle and decomposed state, having roots and fibres grow- ing through them, and were distributed, commonly, through every part of the mounds. These researches also threw some light on the mode adopted in the construction of these monu- ments; for it became evident that the bones or bodies of the de- ceased were originally laid wpon the surface of the ground, and the earth was then heaped upon them. No appearances occur of graves being dug beneath the surface, in the first instance.t Upon the summits of many of the original tumuli it is evident that the remains of other deceased persons have been subse- quently placed; and a new heaping up of soil thereon contri- buted to augment its former height. Finally, the wa Menominee or Winnebago, the last Indian occupant of the prairie, excavates a grave upon the summit, places the body therein, in a ma or reclining position, and strongly defends it with pickets. - That the more ancient form of burial upon the surface, and of sumulating the soil over the remains of the dead, was not uni- versal among the Indian tribes of North America, appears from the examination of M. Rhea{ of some antiquities in Tennessee, * McKenney’s History of the Indian Tribes. t One of the animal monaments lately opened by Cot Petitval near the Red Bank, in the vicinity of j fty feet long. The exca- vation was carried along the entire length, that is, from one extremity to the other, and bones were found abundantly. The number of individuals buried in some of these earthworks must ae been very great. Perhaps they each formed the cemetery of a family in those » $ Made public by Prof. icin in 1832. 100 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. where, within the ruins of an ancient town or village, fortified with walls, “graves are found in abundance, from one to three feet in depth, containing human bones. The bodies seem gen- erally to have been buried in a sitting posture, with flat stones placed around and over them.” I observed a grave or sepulchre of this kind on the summit of the natural hill, of limestone, called Sinsinnawa mound, a few miles north of Gialente Whilst endeavoring to ascertain the origin of the animal forms, adopted in the Wisconsin territory for monumental purposes, the writer became early aware of the embarrassments attendant on all researches in Indian archeology. It has been suggested, that they might be designed merely to record the achievements of cer- tain chiefs in hunting. That they were sepulchral, and enclosed the remains of human beings, has been proved by the recent ex- amination of many earthworks which have the peculiar forms noticed in the preceding pages. Concerning these ancient memorials of a by-gone people, view- ing them as commemorative of the dead, it has occurred to me that they may have served in some way to designate the respect- ive tribes or branches to which the deceased, in whose honor the structures were reared, belonged. Even at the present day it is an undisputed fact, I believe, that certain, perhaps most, Indian families and even tribes or branches, are distinguished from each other by badges indicating particular animals, or objects; or by devices symbolical of some memorable national event or peculiar- ity. In the same mode, and for the same purposes, many indi- viduals also, among the more remarkable of their warriors, assumed similar devices ; commemorative of personal prowess, of success in the chase or in war; and were further distinguished among their friends and adherents, by titles equally characteristic. 'Thus have We seen, even within the space of a few months from the time of writing this article, the survivors of an Indian chief recording at the head of his grave, by some rude hieroglyphics, the tribe and attributes of the deceased. And this is Indian heraldry: as useful, as commemorative, as inspiriting to the red warrior and his race, as that when in the days of the crusades, the banner and the pennon, the device and the motto, the crest, the shield and the War ery, exercised their potent influence on European chivalry. In all times have nations adopted and men arranged themselves under badges and symbols, to which custom and long cherished associations endeared them. Yet were they of no higher import Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 101 than those of the North aineiiais Indian. _ In the earliest periods men rallied around the sacred person of the standard bearer, with equal self-devotion, and perished in its defence with as much heroism, as after generations have perilled life to guard the con- secrated banner, or in our day have died to maintain the glory of a national flag. So far back, even, as the time of Moses, standards were employed to distinguish the different tribes of the children of Israel. There was an assigned place to each banner in the order of the march of the entire host; and all men were directed “to pitch their tents by their own standards, every one after their families, according to the houses of their fathers.” From that time to the present, in nearly all stages of society, may be traced the existence of symbols which were adopted for purposes of a like kind; certain natural objects being mi standards, and depicted on their commercial flags ; they were sculptured upon their monuments, portrayed upon their escutcheons, incorporated with their architecture, inscribed upon their seals, and impressed upon their coinage. We are informed that the kings of the Medes bore golden eagles upon their shields ; that the Greeks, the Trojans, and other warlike nations, had de- vices painted or sculptured upon their shields and helmets ;* and that the ancient Germans bore standards before them in battle.t The Roman legions planted the imperial standard over a large portion of the then known world. By turns, the shores of Albion have been invaded by the Roman eagle, the Danish raven, the white horse of Saxony, and the Norman lion. And then, when the followers of the cross led on their mar- shalled thousands to war against the crescent, what hosts of de- vices, cognizances, achievements, and symbols, were emblazoned on banner, erest, and shield ;—devices derived alike from from. natural i sctnse hadi and borne in commemoration of noble mi Dae A Write * « Mutemus clypeos, Danaumque sciigpie nobis Amptemus :—s! ic fatus, _deinde comantem Androgei galeam, ¢ y ge t Egyptians, Patiinve, ely i and Greeks, all carried ensigns of different figures in their armies. Among the most celebrated standards was the black crowned eagle of Attila, king of the Huns. It was called Astur, and sup- to be the same as the Schongar of the pole We might also mention the renowned Gonfalon and the sacred Oriflamm ? 102 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. deeds, and indicating rank, and honor, and high resolve. Under the red cross of St. George, the lily of France, and a multitude of other standards, the leaders of the soldiers of Christendom were individually distinguished by their own proper heraldic bearings. That spirit which the olden time originated, and which was so strikingly displayed by the chivalry of the middle ages, has, it is true, been modified; and as regards individuals, has been almost obliterated under the changed aspect of the civilized world. But with regard, perhaps, to all existing nations, these symbols are yet associated with the spirit of patriotisra, with na- tional honor, or with deeply cherished remembrances of ancient grandeur. The crescent of the Ottoman empire still shines in the East ; the fleur-de-lis of France, originating at least as early as the fifth century, is still her honored emblem ; the lion of Eng- land, that for “a thousand years has braved the battle and the breeze,” yet remains a cherished symbol ; and, although arising in later times, the eagle of America is no less an object of national pride and endearment. The remarks arise out of the obvious similarity of method by which, in all times and in all countries, men, whether barbarous or civilined,; have found it convenient to distinguish and arrange themselves. If the untutored Indians have adopted, as the badge of their nation, their race, or their kindred, some sim- ple object in nature, so also have the more refined of the old world constantly pursued the same mode; and doubtless, one common motive led the people of Scotland to select the thistle, those of Wales the leek, of Ireland the shamrock, and of England the oak, for their national emblems; with each and all of which many fond recollections are associated. Thus also did the white and red roses of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, desig- nate their leaders and unite their followers ; and the same feeling which gave rise to the local badges of the numerous Scottish clans,* may be traced among the North American tribes, and in like manner, suggested the insignia of numberless orders and as- sociations in the civilized world. If the mail-clad knight of old surmounted his helm with appropriate symbols of courage in the field, of devotion to the true faith, or of constancy to his ladye love, so also does the red warrior assume the attributes of fierce- i Ss ee ee * The institution of clans among the North American Indians, appears to have been general. Archzol. Am. Vol. II. Indian Mounds and Earthworks. 103 ness, of strength, revenge, or cunning—qualities which rank among the highest in his esteem—in the trophies of the eagle, the bear, the serpent, or the fox. If among the boldest of knights and kings, Europe had her Coeur de Leon, so have the chiefs of our Indians, though far less known to fame, their appellations ; such as the Black Warrior, the Grizzly Bear, the Swift Deer, the Watchful Fox, the Rolling Thunder, and the North Wind. And if in the proudest days of romantic chivalry, amidst the gorgeous panoply of the court, the tournament, or the battle field, all eyes might recognize him of the Falcon, the Leopard, or the Bloody Hand, so also in humbler guise, yet with not less pride of heart, have the brave of our aboriginal Indians commonly been dis- tinguished. No heroes of Greece, or Rome, or the Holy Land, were prouder of the badges of victory and the trophies of con- quest, than are the natives of our western world. Within their own limited sphere, they appear to have sought distinction and to have earned characteristic titles, by the exercise of those qualities which are most estimated in savage life; and our own ears are familiar, even at the present day, with such titles as the Black Hawk, the Panther, Alligator, and Rattlesnake; the Young Ea- gle, the Black Wolf, the White Dog. But it was not individuals, merely, by whom such appellations were borne. We have good evidence that many tribes of North America adopted, and even yet retain for their badges, the sim- ple natural objects whose names they also bear; as in the men- tioned instances of the Fox, the Turtle, and other tribes. Infor- mation on this head may be found in Colonel McKenney’s work *On the Indian Tribes of North America.” Another writer, familiar with Indian history, states that “all the Indian nations are divided into tribes, after the manner of the Jews.’’* The Shawanese nation was originally divided into twelve : tribes, or bands, all of which tribes were subdivided, in the usual manner, into families or clans, of the Eagle, the Bear, the Turtle, &c. These animals constitute their “totems,” among which is the family or totem of the Panther, which sprung from the.Kick- apoo tribe. The Crane was the badge of a branch of the Chippewa tribe, as was, doubtless, the Fox of another. The authority last * Johnston, Indian Agent. Archeologia Americana. 104 Indian Mounds and Earthworks. quoted, notices that the Winnebagos, like the Algonquin, and other tribes, are divided into bands, each designated by some ani- mal, as the bear, or by the devil, or some bad spirit.* Among the clans or bands of the Mohawks, were those of the Bear, the Wolf, and the Turtle. The Hurons also had a Bear clan. The Natches, who lived on the borders of the Mississippi, had four clans, or classes; the Sioux proper were subdivided into seven bands, and the southern Sioux into eight tribes, each being separately classed by some characteristic name.t Whether the southern Indians were similarly subdivided and distinguished does not ap- pear. From the different structure and form of their monuments, it is not improbable that there always existed a variety of races upon this continent. And if in remote times those.races were classified and designated in the mode which we have seen still exists, and long has existed,—that is to say, under the denomina- tion of particular animals,—it is not altogether incompatible with probability, that the earthworks in which their dead were depos- ited, and which resemble certain animal figures, were in fact de- ‘as representations of those national or family badges, and uently pointed out the burial place of the members of those particular tribes. I confess that I am aware of no positive evidence to show, that any existing tribes or branches, thus distinguished by a species of armorial bearings, actually did erect monuments of earth in the shape of the animals whose names they bear. In the absence of a more plausible conjecture, the idea suggested itself, perhaps on very insufficient grounds, that there might be some connection traced between the animal shaped configurations eco in the west, and some of the tribes who assumed animals for their badges, sit classed themselves under their names. — If, as is perhaps the case, the foregoing views are inadequate, to establish the heraldic character of some of the monuments of the aborigines, they show at least that to the same common cause may be traced, at every period in the recorded history of man, in all countries, and in every stage of civilization, the adoption of symbols and devices, derived from the simplest objects, yet char- acterizing nations, orders and classes, and even the indivi members of communities. ia, Feb. 12th, 1838. = BS ies ee es € McKenney’s History of the Indian Tribes. { Archeologia Americana. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 105 Arr. IX.— Observations made during an ercursion to the White Mountains, in July, 1837; by Oxiver P. Hussarp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and Geology, in Dart- mouth College. ; TO PROF. SILLIMAN, Dear Sir—In an excursion to the White Mountains, last July, I made such observations in Mineralogy and Geology, as my lim- ited time and other circumstances permitted ; hoping to add some- thing to the little already known of this interesting country, and that the facts when known may stimulate others to farther exami- nation, they are communicated for the American Journal. The details are minute, for I have often experienced the unsatisfactory nature of meagre descriptions, and I trust they will not be use- less to others who may visit the same points. My object is to record facts, and I am happy to say they are so numerous, and so decisive that we do not seem to be in the region of theory, when we infer at once the nature of those causes that have produced the sublime and beautiful scenery that adorns the greater part of this state. Trap Dikes in Granite, in Dorchester and Canaan. In passing from Plymouth, through Dorchester and Canaan, over the high ground that separates the branches of the Merrimack and Connecticut, boulders of trap were observed one mile east of Dor- chester south meeting-house. These are porphyritic, some of a light gray, containing a profusion of large crystals of glassy feld- spar, with two perfect cleavages—with a few of iron pyrites; oth- ers of a much darker ground, with feldspar and black hornblende in large and beautiful crystals, and also dark crystallized mica. The mica is in smooth nodules, without lustre externally, but pre- sents cleavage surfaces of great brilliancy, half an inch in diame- ter. It also occurs in crystals penetrating the crystals of feldspar. Similar boulders occur in some places in great numbers, on both sides of the new road, from Wright’s tavern south nine miles, to Daniel Patten’s, in Canaan, near N. E. corner of Hart’s pond. Be- tween his house and the guide-board there are several trap dikes in granite. No. 1, crosses the road N. by E.—is seven feet wide, porphyritic—resembling, in color and crystals, the boulders described above ; is uncovered in several places, and its appearance Vor. XXXIV.—No. 1. 14 106 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. varies ; it ramifies occasionally 1 into several smaller dikes and lines, and in one place, of a few feet square, are eight cut-offs, or disloca- tions, where the small veins terminate abruptly, and commence in forward or laterally, with granite intervening, and vanish in a line or point. The cracks in the granite pass through the dike, and at the same angle, and yet the dike intersects veins in the gran- ite. A hand specimen obtained here, presents a rare intermixture of trap and granite—actually exhibiting five alternations of the two, as if the fingers of one hand were alternately inserted be- tween those of the other, in the same plane. be 2 ™ We a We 4 pyenirtin dike runs vere Secaliel with ifs i in the field on Ro west, which a little farther south, beyond the guide-board, may observed as No. 2, crossing the E. and W. road in two veins, twenty inches apart—eastern one four inches, and western three inches wide—the former containing imbedded fragments of granite, the . latter dividing into two branches, that become mere lines. Fig. 1. North of this road, in the field, this dike is again uncovered, and appears in two veins fourteen inches apart. The eastern dike Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 107 is one anda half inches, and the western, four to six inches wide, and they become, as suggested above, at the distance of some twenty rods north, one larger dike. Fig. 2. The occurrence of the two veins in the field, after one had seemed to terminate, and the change of the’ vein of greater di- mensions from the eastern to the western side, are only some of the phenomena frequently observed in trap dikes, several of which will hereafter be mentioned No. 3. A short distance west of No. 2, crosses the road, direc- tion N. E. and S. W., two feet wide, color very dark, not por- hyritic. Trap Dike in Wentworth. On the road from Orford to Plymouth, one mile west of Went- worth, above the saw-mill on Baker’s creek, is a trap dike in granite, on the left hand close to the road, course north, ten feet wide, color dark gray, and even black, very fine grained and compact in some parts, and fracture smooth ; in others, amygdaloidal, and contains nodules of chalcedony, and numerous very small round white spots of zeolite, which, from its pearly lustre, foliated structure, and low degree of hardness, is, I think, stilbite. Where the surface of the rock is weathered, the stilbite is decomposed, and the cavities are empty. Darker specimens strike fire with steel, and all give, when aoe upon, an argillaceous odor, most striking in the softer imens. Half a mile S. E. of Wekdoai: by the roadside, are frag- ments of red feldspathic granite, lying on granite in situ, with a very hard, compact trap, adhering to them, but no dike was ob- served. Tourmalines and Diluvial Scratches in Rumney. . Arounded, well defined ridge of granite, terminates abruptly ‘on the south side of the stage road to Plymouth, and is divided from top to bottom, longitudinally, by fissures, into regular masses, several feet in thickness. On the eastern side is a large vein of granite, filled wih se a pei tourmalines in good crystals. ‘The jhoresces very beautifully with a pale sea-green light. < oe Diluvial Rirotche, of uncommon distinctness and dimensions, are seen on the west side of this ridge, on an inclined surface, near the road, running east and west. 108 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. Trap Dikes at the falls in Campton. Two miles north of Plymouth, at the falls of the Pemigewas- set, are some remarkable dikes. The whole bed of the stream is of solid rock, and the river which makes here a considerable fall, runs in several channels, separated by rugged rocks, each of which must be crossed by a dam to secure the whole power of the stream for manufacturing purposes, which is now in process of execution. The rock is granitoid, partaking in different mats of the varied character that belongs to the several members of this family, and perhaps may be called gneiss, as nearly as any specific name will apply ; course N. E. ; estimated dip 30° east. ‘This is, however, quite variable, as at dike No. 6, the dip of the strata is near 60°, and the cause is apparent. There is a group of dikes half a mile or more above these falls, which I had no opportunity of examin- ing, but hope the next season to visit them. My description at present is only of that group that occurs at the falls. The num- ber of dikes in this is seven, all of which may be examined very conveniently, unless it be No. 7, which, at certain heights of the water, is not quite as accessible as the others. The west bank is intersected by all these, which in some cases may be seen cut- ting the bed of the stream, the rocky island, and even the oppo- site bank; and all occur within a distance of a quarter of a mile.* No. 1. Just above the bridge; dark gray, and nearly black ; contains crystals of black hornblende and points of feldspar; erys- tals and films of iron pyrites in trap and associated rock, in small fissures extending from one to the other; some specimens fire with steel. Course E. and W., and cuts, as in Fig. 3, the island in the stream, and is seen in the eastern bank ; intersects veins of quartz. No. 2. (First below the bridge;) direction E. and W., and in upper part four feet wide ; divides a few feet from the water into two branches; the upper one is seen in the island ; structure very compact, like feldspar; fracture uneven; color light greenish gray ; powder almost a clear white; weathered surface dark brown; fires with steel ; translucent on the edges; effervesces abundantly (in powder) with dilute sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids; * "The accompan accompanying sketch is not intended as a correct topographical view of the falls at Campton, but only as showing the manner in which the dikes occ The sketch was made wholly from memory. ws, oy and Geology of the White Mounta < Mineralo Fig. 3. t litmus paper held over the solution is reddened by the car- mois ged in drying ; DS and the color is dischar From the external characters this is a true bonic acid evolved, cific gravity 2.61. _ clinkstone, which Gmelin has hown (Edin. New Phil. Journal, vol. vii, p. 68,) consists of mesotype and feldspar. 110) Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. No. 3. Four feet wide; direction N. W. and 8. E.; inclines N. E. 35°; variable in color ; specimens of a yellowish brown, clouded with red; others of a handsome light gray; structure compact; fracture flaky, with sharp edges; translucent on the edges; fires readily with steel; minute iron pyrites diffused throughout ; effervesces briskly with sulphuric acid, like No. 2. No. 4. Direction E. and W. ; terminates abruptly ten feet from the water in a quartz vein, and with a disconnected lateral shoot, and intersects many quartz veins; curves at and beneath the water, and unites at the distance of five feet with No. 5. 4a. Between 3 and 4, consists of three nearly distinct portions arranged in a curve; convex northerly; the terminations all ab- rupt, except the lower end of the lowest portion. These are, clearly, parts of what was once a continuous dike, and the dislo- cations evince a disruption subsequent to the injection of the trap ; width of 4 and 4a variable, from six to ten inches. No. 5. Direction E. and W. and two feet wide; breaks a few foots . the water and is dislocated doriborly: by its whole at the south side of the upper portion is in a line with the north side of the lower part ; continues up the inclined bank to the soil above, thirty or forty feet. In this and 4, and 4a, we observe the effects of one Silibeo- ting throw, which has displaced them all in the same direction ; whether the movement was N. or S., can be determined only by a critical examination of the rocks in place. No. 5 is exactly like fig. 89, in Lyell’s Geology, Am. edition, Vol. ii, p. 237. No. 6. Terminates eight feet from the water in a blade; inter- sects numerous quartz veins; six inches wide ; nearly perpendicu- lar; but the rocks dip at an estimated angle of 60°: another re- sult coincident with the contortion of 4 and 5, and probably from the same cause. Nos. 4and 5, we have seen, are united; but all from 4 to 6, inclusive, are so similar in mineralogical characters, they may be regarded as ramifications of the same main fissure, ejected from the same focus. Characters.—Color, black; fracture very uneven; granular ; ‘strike fire with steel ; éonitain iron pyrites, and a aaah green min- ‘eral diffused in mitalt dots, which in vitreous lustre and hardness, very nearly resembles olivine. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 111 No. 7 was not visited for want of time; but as I am informed, is similar to those last described. Porphyritic Granite. Proceeding E. from Plymouth, two and a half miles, we find boulders of this rock; soon the underlying rock, a decomposing pytitous mica slate crops out, and at three miles, porphyritic gran- ite appears in situ, and continues several miles, and along the north shore of Little Squam lake. This rock seems to con- sist of crystals of white feldspar, some of which are three to four inches long and two inches wide, and held together by quartz and mica, in about the same proportion to the feldspar as the cement of a breccia to the fragments. Common granite is found in situ at the top of the hill, after crossing the outlet of the lake ; but the boulders of the porphy- ritic granite are seen ~ Semitielot 1 in number, quite to Centre Harbor ; distant ten a from where they were first observed. Trap Dikes on Red Hill. Red hill or mountain, near Centre Harbor, Lake Winnipise- ogee, is usually ascended by visitors to enjoy the beautiful scenery of the numerous lakes, with their hundreds of islands, and also of several mountain ranges not very far distant from this peak. The mountain consists of reddish sienitic granite, and its sides are covered with fragments partly decomposed. Near the path leading to the top of the mountain are two dikes. No. 1 isa few rods north of the second house; seven feet wide ; course E. by N.; dip 15° to 20° N.; granite altered at junction, appearing baied and baked ; on the lower side the dike is expo- sed by the removal of the erandlio, and appears as an inclined wall afew feet high. The color and weight of the trap led some time ago to the supposition, that it was an iron ore, and several tons were quarried under this impression, which, upon better informa- tion, were never removed. Ns. 2 is one eighth to one quarter of a mile E. of No. 1. Course N. by E.; average width twenty-five feet ; dark brown ; slight lustre, owing to brown mica diffused wiGagh the mass; pyritous, and fires with steel. Near this, but separated eighteen inches from the dike, is a mass of trap several feet in dimensions, and pasted into granite. 112 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. Trap and Granite Boulders, and Granite Veins. East of Centre Harbor, two and a half miles, are numerous fragments of large size, of trap in granite, but no dikes appeared ; some of dark blue, others of a reddish brown; a mixture of red feldspar and hornblende, mottled with dark spots; fracture con- ‘choidal, and edges very sharp; strike fire with steel ; and others frequently met with in this region, composed of hornblende and feldspar, with an excess of the former, such as Saussure charac- terizes, judging from description, by the name cornéene. At four miles from C. H. are immense granite boulders, strewed for miles, and the exhibition of granite veins in them is truly re- markable. They are very numerous, usually fine grained, and much whiter than the rock; the regularity and parallelism of their sides is as exact as if drawn by art, seldom over a foot wide, and usually but a few inches, and less: sometimes a rock is cut from side to side by a vein, retaining the same direction and thick- ness throughout; sometimes by two veins, which are parallel, and again by several, running in every direction, intersecting each other, the older cut by the more recent. In the present state of our imowledge of the formation of veins, and especially of veins of the same composition as that of the tock containing them, whose sides present none of that irregularity common in dikes, an observer might almost hesitate to record facts that may add to the obseurity of the subject, were it not, that valuable general truths can be derived only from an extensive comparison of In- dividual facts. Dikes in Mouttonboro’. Two trap dikes, in sienitic granite, are found on the right of the road on the top of Rogers’ hill, one and a half miles from Moul- tonboro’ corners, towards Tamworth; course W. by N.; parallel, and both contain fragments of granite of considerable size. Fig. 4. No. 1; one foot wide; sends off a lateral branch which curves southerly ; eight inches wide. No. 2; three feet from the former, is two feet wide, and por- phyritic, with crystals of feldspar. Dikes in Tamworth. _ At Fort Jackson, in Tamworth, about four miles west of Things’ tavern, on the right of the road at top of a hill, fifty rods from Bear Camp river, is a small trap dike in granite, six inches wide ; course E. and W. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 113 Fig. 4. No. 2, one quarter of a mile east of the former, crosses the bed of Bear Camp river at right angles; course N. by E. ; one to two feet wide ; inclines down stream at an angle of 40° or 50°, and curves up stream like a bow ; is itself crossed in the middle of the stream by a narrow granite fault or vein; on the lower side in several places, the granite, from its greater softness has n re- moved by the water and the dike, being left prominent, presents the appearance of adam. This exposes, on the side of the dike, a series of longitudinal light and dark gray stripes, never over two inches wide, arranged horizontally in regular alternations.* The river bed above, as well as below this dike, is filled with trap ruins. Dikes in Eaton. On the hill, near Mr. Eleazar Snell’s, one quarter of a mile east of the village, are two dikes from two to three feet wide and alse course in general N. E. by E.; one containing a owe this “oat to the kindness of a friend. 15 Vou. XXXIV. —No. 114. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. fragment of granite imbedded. Fig. 5. A farmer of the vicinity stated, that there are several other dikes cutting the hill in simi- lar directions, and this statement derives confirmation from the numerous boulders, or fragments of trap, scattered over the fields and laid up in the farm w Blende and Galena. Three miles south of Eaton is a mine wrought for lead. The ore is a mixture of yellowish brown blende and galena, which is abundant, and was formerly worked in a shaft fifty feet deep, with a SESS, drift, and as I understand with profit. Opera- tions are suspended at present by some legal impediment, and not through a deficiency of the ore. The specimens, with the two sulphurets intermingled, are beautifw, and will reward the min- eralogist for his labor in procuring them. Crystallized Smoky Quartz, is found near Pendexter’s in Bartlett, oecupying large geodes in masses of decomposing granite on the flanks of Kearsage moun- tain. The crystals are very clear and beautiful, from one to four inches long, and even one and a half to two inches in diameter. rsenical pyrites, crystallized and massive, occurs in a large vein, im a mountainous tract, four miles north of Bartlett, belong- ing to Mr. Eastman. Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 115 The White Mountains.~ It is remarkable, while hundreds of travellers annually Visit these mountains, attracted by the grandeur and beauty of the scenery, the salubrity of the air and the delights of the deep re- tirement from the busy world, that so little has been done to de- velope the geological character of the region. We may hope the day is not distant, when, in the geological survey of this state, proposed by our Executive, this great desideratum will be accom- plished. The labor and expense of exploring the structure of this extensive district with its associated ranges, is altogether be- yond the resources of an individual; while, if prosecuted under a liberal legislative provision, the results could not fail to promote largely the welfare of the community and bring to light valuable mineral resources, and advance very much the interests of science. These mountains will ever be memorable for the dreadful storm of August 28th, 1826, the awful effects of which, even at this period, are every where visible. The deep channels, worn by the avalanches that then de- scended from their summits, still form a striking and picturesque feature in the scenery, and the immense heaps of ruins, boulders, and large isolated masses of granite that cover their base, and are strewed in the beds of the streams, testify to the ona: continued action of degrading forces. In addition to the graphic accounts of this event in is Jour- nal, Vol. xv, p. 217, some facts came to my knowledge, which I do not recollect to have seen published ; and as they were com- municated by eye witnesses, and serve to illustrate the power and local character of the storm, they are worthy of record. At Bartlett, twenty miles below the Notch, the water of the Saco, which runs through it, rose on the morning of the 29th of August, twenty-six feet in one hour, and was filled with earth, like mud, and the sulphureous odor emitted by the attrition of the rocks borne along by the torrent, was almost insupportable. Rev. Mr. Wilcox, in his account, Vol. xv., says, the water of the Amonoosuck, about ten miles from the mountains, was, at day- break on the 29th, raised from a depth of three or four feet to twenty feet, and sixty feet wide, and “as thick with earth as it could be without being changed into mud.” A gentleman of this village, Hanover, (which, by the course of the Connecticut, and 116 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. its branch the Amonoosuck, is not less than eighty or eighty-five miles from the mountains, ) observed the same fact here, under the following circumstances.—He had returned from a ride of a few miles up the Connecticut, and along its banks, and noticed the water but slightly risen above its usual summer height, and clear. half an hour, he was informed, the river had suddenly assumed a very peculiar aspect, and so different from what he had just seen, that he was incredulous of the truth of the report. On going to the bridge, (half a mile,) he saw no longer a river of pure water, but the channel somewhat fuller than when he last saw it, and a semi-fluid mass, of a light brick red, descending in a sluggish current. The water, in fact, was charged with as much earth as it could sustain, and retain its fluidity. Unfortunately, no mem- orandum was made, so as to recall the exact time of this occur- rence, and thus enable us to measure the velocity, or the time ta- ken to reach this place ; but it was coincident with the arrival of the news of the storm, and the river continued to flow thus for several days.* - The mountains furrowed by the channels above mentioned, are in a peculiarly favorable condition to be examined, and the records of their history are written in indelible characters. There is the most abundant evidence of the prevalence of igneous agencies in elevating these mountains, and afterwards filling the fissures with intrusive rocks; and from the numerous trap dikes in the sienite and other rocks of the New England coast, and the very remark- able ones in the highlands of Essex county, N. Y., it is not im- probable the whole of this primitive region has been convulsed and elevated by the same causes. Decomposing Granite. There are many violent causes at work to reduce the large masses of granite to fragments; but as those which are at rest and removed from the action of running water and violent concussions. * The oxide of iron, arising from the decomposition of the rocks for years, seems by this storm to have been swept away, and carried down by the streams; and the inhabitants who live on the bank of the river opposite this village, speak of this ochery appearance of the water as sae peculiar, having oceurred only at this Sa the last twenty yea an above antiael has been perfectly acquainted with the river during hisehole life, and he assures me peshing of this kind has been known here except on this occasion, for the last years Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 117 seemed to be undergoing this change, we must look for another and more silent cause. This must be found in frost, moisture, &c., operating especially upon the large proportion of feldspar, the alkali of which is removed, and the mass is thus rapidly dis- integrated. The masses exfoliate on their angles and curves, and it is not uncommon to meet with those that seem to be affected by what Dolomieu calls la maladie du granite, which, on being struck with a hammer, fall entirely in pieces or grains. The ex- tent of this process may be imagined from the fact, that from Bartlett to the Notch, (nearly thirty miles,) the surface of the ground (as cut by the road ditches) seems entirely made up of decomposed feldspathic granite sometimes to the depth of two feet. Octahedral Fluor Spar. . Half a mile above the tavern of the elder Crawford, in the ruins of a slide east of the Saco, this rare mineral is found, which was mentioned twenty eight years ago in Bruce’s Mineralogical Journal ;* but the difficulty of obtaining specimens is much less than formerly. The spar is found in masses of radiated quartz, easily broken ; and occurs in pale green octahedra, from one fourth of an inch to one inch and one fourth in diameter, but is easily fractured in breaking the gangue; it phosphoresces most beau- tifully, on hot iron, with at first a yellowish light, which be- comes finally of a peach blossom color. On ascending the gorge about five hundred feet, (here about ten feet wide,) the quartz is found in place, on the south side of it, in close contact with the granite, which on the other side is removed, forming a vein or dike, (for it is really one,) two feet wide, and continuing farther up the mountain.’ Its structure is drusy, and there is near the middle a double serrated line, formed by the interlocking of quartz crystals. By unknown causes, the fluor has been in many eases partially or entirely removed, and the cavities thus formed are now filled with quartz in plates and crystals. Such a phenomenon in calcareous rocks and veins would be easily explained. The fissure existing, the calcareous matter in solution is deposited on either side, till the drusy surfaces unite in the middle. What greater difficulty in applying the same solution to deposits of sili- ceous matter in veins? The fluor is not equally disseminated * Mineralogical notice yo isin American fluates of Lime: by the Editor. Bruce’s Min. Jour., p. 33, Jan a 118 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. through the vein, but is confined to a portion of one side, three or four inches in thickness, and easily neparale from the mass of the vein. Trap Dikes cutting the White Mountains. At the foot of the gorge south of the Willey house, we find in abundance fragments of altered slate, slaty trap and basalt, and I am informed by a gentleman who passed over the mountain through this gorge, that in the upper part near the top, it is crossed by several trap dikes. Tmmense ruins lie at the foot of this and the gorge back of the Willey house, which appear as firm as the mountains, and are covered with grass, shrubs and trees, conceal- ing their deformity ; but those who have read the description in Vol. xv, of the wild devastation that reigned here, will at once penetrate the deceptive veil which vegetation throws over the whole scene. Dike in the Willey Gorge. From the melancholy associations of the last named gorge, my attention was more particularly attracted to it. The lower portion for a considerable distance is obstructed by the rocks and gravel that have rolled down from above. ‘There is a handsome vein on the north side, of crystallized feldspar, of a pale yellowish hue, with crystallized mica in granite. In the bed of the gorge, where it is but thinly covered by debris, beautiful flesh-red feld- Spar occurs, with many small cavities containing crystals of the same. Ruins of trap found here led me to ascend farther, and on passing the debris, a trap dike appears, forming part of the bed of - the channel. Its width is from two to six feet, usually averaging not more than four; course N. E. and 8. W., closely embraced by the red feldspathic granite, which is worn down to the same level with the trap. The dike is crossed about five hundred feet from the bottom, by a quartz vein or dike four feet wide, with parallel and vertical sides, at an angle of about 60°, the parts of which, on the opposite sides of the gorge, would be joined by right lines in the direction of its course, which indicates no dis- turbance or shifting. In the bed of the channel may be seen the trap, the quartz and the granite, all so interlaced, that it would seem impossible to decide whether the trap or quartz were the intersected vein ; or if they were not both contemporaneously injected, and that too Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 119 when the granite was not in a consolidated state. Above this, we may observe the dike passing in full width; then sending off branches from the main body, including coparenily detached portions of granite, or separated by long narrow and broad lines of granite; then becoming confluent into a lesser dike, to be again enlarged, and subdivided into tortuous lines, or stand in curved plates, covering concave surfaces on the side of the gorge, from which the granite has flaked off, or in shoots terminating abruptly, or in evanescent lines, every where enclosing granite, and the granite in turn enclosing trap. This constantly varying ce of the dike and granite at different elevations, forces the conclusion that the granite was fissured while a tenacious mass, and is still united by filamentous portions running in every direction, and the granite and trap both reticulated, so that if it were possible in a given spot to remove one layer after another, of only a few inches in thickness, each new face would present a varied aspect according to the size and inclination of the portions intersected. This dike was traced as far as circumstances allowed some fifteen hundred feet high, till the ascent became impeded by a perpendicular front six feet high. The dike was visible above this point till a turn in the gorge, and there can be little doubt that it extends to the top of the mountain, and has completely riven itin two. The gorge is from thirty to fifty feet deep, and at top twenty to thirty feet across, excavated in the rock itself; its sides very steep, vertical, and even overhanging in some places: The trap is generally of a dark or blackish gray, fine grained, crystalline, very compact, hard, fires a little with steel, and con- tains no foreign minerals; another portion is light gray, and com- pact ; and still another, light gray, seeming like a decomposing earthy sandstone, filled with smooth rounded nodules of the size of a small pea and less, very prominent on a weathered surface, occasionally containing white crystalline matter, but usually earthy throughout, and scratch glass readily. This at the time was saturated with water that runs in the gorge, and the speci- junction Pi ie dark gray trap and granite is most aatae as if soldered together ; and these specimens presenting a beautiful contrast, may be easily obtained, as a fracture seldom occurs at the line of junction more readily than through the mass. 120 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. Dike at the Notch. On the east side of the Notch, in the face of the cliff, quite ele- vated above the road, there is a dike four or five feet wide, that may be seen at a considerable distance, crossing several furrows in the cliff, and strongly contrasted in color with the rock. Mount Washington. This eminent peak, which is still generally acknowledged to be the highest point of land east of the Rocky Mountains, is one of very great interest to the geologist ; and here, possibly, many points in meteorology, affecting materially the history of that branch of science in our country, are to be decided. Brackett and Weeks gave a rather extended, though general, notice of the White mountain range, in the “ Historical and Miscellaneous Collections,’ Concord, April, 1823, and took levels, in 1820, from the Connecticut river, at Lancaster, to E. A. Craw- ford’s (now Fabyan’s) Mountain house, eighteen miles, and found it 1000. feet higher than the river; then to the top of Mount Was , and found it 5,850 feet dove tha river. The facts in this acbotnt are interesting, and it would form a very convenient guide-book to any who should wish to examine the range. The only particular to which I wish at present to invite attention, is the nature of the rock crowning the summit of Mount Washige ton. The visitor, on the west side, has to encounter much less difficulty in ascending the mountain than formerly, as he can ride on horseback seven and a half miles; then commences his jour- ney on foot through the woods, from which he occasionally catches a glimpse of the mountain tops, and when he emerges from the woods, where his vision is unobstructed, the various views are very beautiful; but the object of his pursuit appears still a mile distant. The peak he sees capped with a rocky covering, destitute of vegetation, broken up into huge masses, which, as he passes from rock to rock, seem as disjecta membra in the wildest confusion ; but when he has once surmounted the peak, and re- covered raae the mingled emotions of surprise, pleasure and sub- limity which fills his mind, and given his attention to nearer and minuter objects, his satisfaction, if he be a geologist, will than when viewing the more distant and impo- Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 121 The foundation, or mass of this mountain, as it is seen in the _ deep gorges cut by the slides in the western side, is granite ; and the top has been stated, by those who have and by others who have not ascended it, to be granite; and Alpine travellers, who have visited Mont Blanc, have thought they saw in the vast ruins sur- rounding the summit, the remains of lofty aiguilles, that towered above the present peak; but let the observer stand at the most ele- vated point, near the rude artificial monument, as in the centre of a decapitated summit, and let him critically examine the rocks in the whole circle about him, and he will soon discover the incor- rectness of these opinions. He will find the rocks stratified, layer upon layer, and symmetrically arranged around the center he oc- cupies. ‘The rock is mica slate, consisting of coarse mica and fine quartz, occasionally with fine grained veins of the two min- erals, with a little feldspar, and some considerable veins of white quartz. The uniformity of this surface, in level and appearance, is such, that a passage to the top is marked out by no ravines and eminences, but the path leads directly over the ruins, and the guide himself is directed by masses of white quartz, or collec- tions of stones raised at proper distances. Near the top are small black tourmalines, and also a small spring of water. The case is clear. ‘The mountain of granite was raised from the deep, bearing up on its Atlantean shoulders this huge cov- ering of mica slate, that extends a quarter of a mile below the summit, and by disruptive agencies has been fissured in every di- rection, and reduced to ruins. The granite, instead of rupturing the mica slate, and protruding at the centre of elevation, itself forming the peak, has broken it at some distance from the centre, and we ought to find the long line of disruption of the mica slate, if the rocks remain and are uncovered, very far down the moun- tain ; if not, in the low grounds of the valleys. The different zones, or belts of vegetation, are distinctly mark- ed on the flanks of the mountain—the lower forests with their varied hues—the upper belt of sombre evergree ighest of dwarf trees, stunted shrubs, and long grass and mosses, and terminates at the lower line of the rough weather-worn rocks that form the summit. From this height the several belts may be traced, with the eye, for a great distance each way. The upper limit of vegetation indicates very definitely the comparative ele- vation of the 7 peaks, according as it surmeounts or L. XXXIV.— 16 122 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. falls below their summits; though in the article quoted above, it is asserted, that vegetation uniformly rises higher on the western side than on the eastern of these mountains, and the difference is attributed to the greater elevation of the whole country on the western side. The Franconia Notch, seven miles south of the village of Franconia, is approached by a very considerable ascent in the road to the summit level. Some beautiful lakes on the north of this give rise to one branch of the Amonoosuck, and another lake on the south forms one of the sources of the Pemigewasset, while lofty mountains rise on each side of the road, which on the left are almost perpendicular. The profile on the west, or La Fayette mountain,* is still in high perfection, reminding one of an ancient warrior with his grisly beard and projecting helmet, and a countenance of deter- mination and majesty ; the whole presenting, in sharp outline, a face full of expression, like the most labored production of the Three miles south of the mountain-house, on the right of the road, is a wonderful excavation in the granite rock, called “ the basin.” It is perfectly ovoidal, and its diameters (by the eye) twenty five and twenty feet, depth fifteen feet, and filled with water of a pellucid sea-green, and rounded stones in great number lying on the bottom. A small stream, the outlet of the lake above, pours through “the basin” with great vivacity, entering on the N. E. strikes against the south, and receives a circular motion westward, pro- ducing eddies and a complete revolution, and is discharged on the S. W. side. 'The concave above the water, which is perfect on the N. W. side, and projects over the basin at a height above the water (to the eye) of some fifteen feet, is beautifully rounded and smoothed. It is obvious that the water once flowed so as to strike the highest point, where the granite is most worn, and by its constant circular motion, aided doubtless by the stones and gravel carried round with it, has produced this astonishing cavity. The ledge of granite above, and especially below the an * See a notice and sketch of this colossal profil ; Voli a1v, p: 64, of this Journal Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. 123 furrowed and rounded for a great distance in a very remarkable manner, into troughs bounded by large salient and re-entering curves, and presenting also many subordinate basins of consider- able size. The basin is of the same class with the pot-holes at the foot of cataracts, and owing to similar causes; but from the smallness of the stream, and the nature of the rock, a remarkably hard and compact granite, it is one of the most extraordinary cavities of the kind that has been described. In beauty it may justly rival the Castalian fountain; but as a chronometer it is most interesting to the geologist. Science has not yet discovered, by experiment and observation, the law of attrition of granite by running water; and the that flows here seems utterly inadequate to the production of the effect within the historical period, and would seem to carry back the antiquity of the world to a remote era. Granite Veins in Granite. These are very numerous, and on a large scale. There is a remarkable one of this character, on the right hand of the road, just north of the basin. The granite is fine grained, and dark, with mica or hornblende. The vein, on the contrary, is feld- 124 Mineralogy and Geology of the White Mountains. spathic and white, six feet wide, and contains in abundance imbed- ded fragments of granite, like that enclosing the vein, and also of slate and trap, all finely contrasted in color with the vein, and pasted into it like fragments in a breccia. Fig. 6. The circumstances existing at the time this vein was filled, may have been these. ‘The granite was consolidated, and cov- ered by slaty rocks, (since removed, ) and by masses or fragments of trap, which were all fissured simultaneously, and the frag- ments of all falling into the fissure were entangled in the fused rock thrown up; or the granite was covered with the ruins of slaty and trap rocks, and when it was fissured the fragments torn off were enveloped together with those of slate and trap, and all consolidated. Whatever was the state of things here, the dike isclearly not one of segregation, but of injection from below; and its relative age is certainly more recent than the consolida- tion of the granite, and the period when the slaty rocks were deposited in this region, or the ejection of trap. Detached Masses of Granite. te this vicinity there are numerous detached rocks lying on the ground, and some of enormous size, which are fractured through and through, sometimes in two pieces, sometimes in more, the parts with their salient and re-entering angles exactly correspond- ing to each other; and thus proving that they were once joined, and have been cracked by violence, and not by decomposition or disintegration : the void being such a space as, had it been filled, would have made a dike. A remarkable rock of this kind, some thirty or forty feet across, may be seen near the ‘‘Flume,” fractured in this way, and is a mere boulder. The question arises, ‘how were these rocks frac- tured ?” They were once portions of ledges, and of mountains, and per- haps were cracked, but not parted, when the masses were de- tached from the main body ; and then water percolating through, has, year by year, by freezing, pushed the parts farther and far- ther asunder. They could not have been cracked and separated by earthquakes where they lie, and they are so numerous, there must have been a general cause. Magneto-E lectricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. 125 Arr. X.—Prof. Locxe on Magneto-Electricity, and Electro- magnetical Machines. Med. Coll. of Ohio, Jan. 28th, 1838. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—I mentionep to you in my last letter, some experi- ments which I was about to make in Magneto-Electricity ; I have now finished one series of them, part of which T propose to com- municate to the public through your Journal. As it is possible, that some of your readers may not be sufficiently acquainted with the principles of magneto-electricity, to understand fully the ap- paratus and experiments which Iam about to describe, I will take the liberty to prefix a concise statement of a ote of the most im- portant elementary principles. 1. Whenever a permanent steel magnet or loadstone attracts a piece of soft iron, it converts that iron into a magnet, so long only as it attracts it, with poles opposite in their character to those by which they are attracted. ‘This takes place when the horse-shoe magnet attracts its “ keeper.” . If the soft iron, thus made magnetical by the attraction of a permanent magnet, be forced off and reversed in position, its po- larity or magnetism will be reversed. 3. If the “keeper,” or soft iron attached to the magnet be wrap- ped by an insulated coil or “helix” of copper wire, as a spool is wrapped by its thread, and be applied to, or detached from, the permanent magnet, or be reversed in position so as suddenly to acquire, lose, or change polarity ; electricity, at the moment of change, will pass through the coil with its usual c istics. ~ 4. If the end of a bar magnet be thrust within a coil, or with- drawn from it, an electrical current will be momentarily excited. (Farad. 5. ana the feeble polarity excited by terrestrial magnetism on placing a bar of soft iron perpendicularly, and suddenly rever- gon nator by a sensible evolution of electricity in a coil surrounding that bar. The experiment succeeds still better, by making it in the line of the “ dip,” viz. with the upper end inclined about 20° to the south. 126 Magneto-Electricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. 6. Electricity thus produced by a magnet, is called magneto- electricity. 7. The common magneto-electric machine consists of a wrap- ped “keeper,” revolving almost in contact with the poles of a powerful horse-shoe magnet. This form:of the instrument is attributed by Mr. Faraday to Mr. Saxton, now residing in Phila- delphia. or figures and descriptions, the reader is referred to the last number of this Journal. Having premised these elements, I proceed to the subject of my investigation, which was to determine whether more electri- city is developed in a coil by passing the included iron abruptly by the pole of a magnet, or by passing it along from the middle or neutral point of the magnet to the pole, as close as possible to it throughout the whole course, thus exciting the polarity grad- ually. As I solved the problem with a new instrument which an- swers several other purposes, I will first describe that instrument and the several uses which I have made of it. I propose to call it the Electro-magnetic Dipping-needle. It was in the first place intended only for class experiments, and consisted of an iron bar eleven inches long, half an inch wide, and one tenth of an inch thick, bound with about twenty five feet of copper fillet, and fast- ened to a horizontal axis about two and a half inches long, piv- otted in two upright brass columns so as to give rotary motion in the plane of the meridian, exactly like the motion of the dipping- needle. On the axis were two copper wheels about half an inch in diameter, insulated, and running in mercury grooves in a piece of ivory, and having the two ends of the copper fillet soldered to By connecting the poles of the battery with the mercury grooves it became an electro-magnet, having free rotary motion. Class experiment of showing the Dip by Electro-magnetism.— The needle being placed horizontally, and the poles of the bat- tery connected with the mercury grooves so as to produce polarity, that end possessing north polarity immediately descended to the line of the dip. The wires being changed so as to reverse the polarity by reversing the current of electricity, the opposite end immediately descended to the same line. Thus to exhibit stri- _ kingly the effect of terrestrial magnetism in producing the dip, was all that had been so far contemplated. The Dipping-needle made to revolve by Terrestrial Magnet- ism.—I afterwards attached to the axis four semicircular “cams,” ) Magneto-Electricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. 127 running in mercury grooves in such a manner that the needle, by its own motion, produced the necessary reversals, when, upon the application of a vigorous calorimotor, it performed one hundred and fifty revolutions per minute, in the plane of the magnetical meridian, thus exhibiting terrestrial magnetism in a very agreea- ble manner. The north end of the earth shown to be virtually a Magnetical south pole.—While the needle was revolving by terrestrial mag- netism, I brought the south pole of a feeble artificial magnet to the lower point of the dip, so that the pole of the needle passed near to it. The motion was immediately accelerated. On pre- senting a north pole at the same point the motion was retarded, stopped, or reversed, according to the strength or proximity of that pole. The south polarity of the north end of the earth still more stri- kingly exhibited.—I constructed a semicircular steel magnet, the inside diameter of which just permitted the dipping-needle to re- volve within it, and attached it in such a manner, that the south pole of it was at the lower point of the dip, and bending round to the south had its north pole at the upper end of the dipping axis. The battery being applied, the revolutions were exceedingly rapid, and in the SAME DIRECTION as by terrestrial magnetism. On re- versing the semicircular magnet and bringing the north pole at the lower point, the motion was reversed, and conrrary to that pire by terrestrial magnetism. In this form, the instrument resembles Messrs. Davenport and Cooke’s model, as exhibited last spring in New York, one of their semicircular magnets being re- moved and the instrument being turned down on one side, so as to bring the diameter of the other into the dipping axis. Magneto-Electricity produced by Terrestrial Magnetism.— Removing the semicircular magnet and the battery, connecting the poles of my thermoscopic galvanometer with the mercury grooves, and giving the needle a smart whirl by hand, say one hundred and fifty revolutions per minute, I obtained a sufficient quantity of electricity to deflect the galvanometer needle 40° by impulse, and and that too against a torsion wire six inches long, weighing one third of a grain. And here I ought to remark, that the mechanism used for the reversal of electrical currents, and consequently of the polarity, when the instrument is used as a self-revolving machine, was precisely what was required in pro- 128 Magneto-Electricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. ducing deflection by magneto-electricity, for it sent the currents all in one direction, instead of producing the alternate or vibrating motion occasioned by the common magneto-electrical machine. It is curious to observe that electro-magnetical engines, moving by the reaction of an electro-magnet and a permanent one, are also magneto-electrical engines. When electricity is supplied to them from a battery, they revolve; and if they be made to re- volve by hand or otherwise, they give out electricity ; electricity and motion producing each other reciprocally. The problem proposed in the first part of this paper, solved by the Dipping-needle used as a Magneto-Hlectrical Machine.— Does a magneto-electric helix, or coil, act more powerfully by pass- ing the poles of the exciting permanent magnet abruptly, by mov- ing in a plane perpendicular to that in which the magnet lies, or by approaching the pole of the magnet from the middle or neutral point, keeping constantly close to the magnet itself? I restored the semicircular magnet to its place, still keeping the galvanom- eter connected with the instrument. Here, as the coil-bound iron needle revolved in the plane of the magnet, and close to it, I had one of the conditions proposed in the question. I adjusted the torsion index so that it required sixty revolutions of the iron needle per minute, to keep the galvanometric needle constantly at the point of strongest deflection, viz., parallel to the coils of the galvanometer ; then letting it return becols to its place, I found the torsion to have been 624°. T'aking out the semicircular magnet and placing it in a plane, at right angles to that in which the coil-bound iron needle revolved, so that its convex bend pre- sented to the west, and its poles only were presented to the iron needle at the points of the dip, I obtained the other condition of the question, the abrupt production of polarity. 1 then proceeded as before, to adjust the torsion index until sixty revolutions per minute would evolve electricity enough to hold the galvano- metric needle constantly to the point of strongest deflection, and letting it return freely to its place found the torsion to have been 41°. From these experiments, it appears that the deflecting power, by abruptly passing the poles, is only about two thirds as much as when continuous proximity is preserved. In order to determine whether electricity, produced by inversion of polarity; is in the simple ratio of the number of inversions in a given time; or increases in. some higher power, I varied the above experi- Magneto-Electricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. 129 ments, and instead of changing the torsion so as to obtain an equal number of revolutions, I let the torsion remain constant and changed the number of revolutions to produce equal deflection, and found that to maintain a torsion of 624°, required sixty revo- lutions per minute in one case and ninety in the other, which being nearly in the inverse ratio of the deflecting forces, I infer- red that the deflecting forces are as the number of reversals in a given time. gees => Explanation of “e Figure. ns. The electro etical dipping: , fastened to an axis ied in the two brass columns, E and F. A. Ts copper circles or wheels, to which are soldered the two ends of the coil B. A block of ivory having two mercury grooves, in which play the two pairs of semicircles of copper, C D. The support of the ivory NS. The semicircular magnet, supported by the wooden column, W. —No. 1. 17 Vou. X 130 Magneto-Electricity, and E'lectro-magnetical Machines. The above experiments have a bearing on the construction of magneto-electrical machines, and may possibly account for the effect of those machines, in which the coil is made to revolve at the side of the magnet* instead of acting opposite to the ends of it. It should be observed, however, that the armature or coil- bound keeper, in the common magneto-electric machine, is s0 short, that it scarcely leaves one pole before it begins to be in contact with the next opposite one. Yet it seems to me, that a magneto-electrical machine with the keeper revolving within, or at the side of, semicircular magnets, joined so as to make a com- plete circle, deserves atrial. As the evolution of magneto-elec- tricity and the motion of the same instrument used as an electro- magnetical machine seem to be in proportion to each other, it would appear that the construction adopted by Messrs. Davenport and Cooke, in which contiguity is preserved as in my dipping- needle, has superior advantages. Whether such machines can ever be made to compete with moving powers already in use, OF to attaan the maximum effect of electro-magnetism, is an inter- 5 1 problem. Additional Remarks, by Pict. Locke, on # by motion, and on motion produced by magnetic pa Med. Coll. of Ohio, Feb. 10, 1838. TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—It gave me great pleasure to receive yours of the lst instant. You were pleased to encourage me in the researches which I had begun, and I now sit down to communicate to you a generalization, which I suggested in my letter of the 28th, in which I stated “that electro-magnetical engines, moving by the reaction of an electro-magnet, and a permanent one, are also mag- neto-electrical engines. When electricity is supplied to them from a battery they revolve, and if they be made to revolve, by hand or otherwise, they give out electricity ; electricity and mo- tion producing each other reciprocally.” I have since e * As in those made by Mr. Clarke, of London, and figured in the last number Magneto-E lectricity, and Electro-magnetical Machines. 131 that subject more particularly, and find the generalization may be extended still further, and include all electro-magnetical motion produced by two magnets, or by a conductor and a mag- net. It may then be stated as follows: If a galvanic current from a battery produces an electro-maguetical motion in any piece of apparatus, and that battery be detached and a galvanometer substituted in its place, and connected with the same wire or poles of the apparatus ; then, on compelling the same motion in the apparatus by hand or otherwise, the galvanometer will be deflected, showing a current of magneto-electricity in a direction opposite to that current from the battery which had produced the same motion. I have tried the experiment with Barlow’s “revolv- ing star,”’* the “revolving wire” of Mr. Faraday, the “ revolving cylinder,” with Andrews’ revolving magnet, De La Rive’s coil, and also with one galvanometer acting upon another. The revolving magnet is the most simple magneto-electric machine possible. Take a cylindrical straight bar magnet, and holding two wires from the galvanometer, one in contact with one end of the magnet, and the other in contact with the mid- dle, let an assistant twist the magnet round on its axis, the wires slipping on its surface ; the galvanometer will immediately indi- cate the production of magneto-electricity. Or, the lower end of the magnet may be sharpened into a sort of pivot, and be pressed by the breast down into an indentation in one of the conductors, while the contact at the middle and the rotation of the bar are performed without anassistant. With a magnet eight inches long, and one sixth of an inch in diameter, made of watch- maker’s wire, nicely pivoted, and turned by drawing the finger across it, I obtained a deflection of my twelve inch galvanometric needle of sixty six degrees, viz. from N. 45 E. to N. 21 W. It is evident that the galvanometer itself is included in this rule. I connected my large thermoscopic galvanometer, by long wires, with the poles of an elegant and delicate Mellonian galvanometer, and then put the needle of the larger one into rotary motion by hand. ‘The needle of the smaller instrument was deflected quite to the west, while the needle of the larger swept one half of its * This This experiment is identical in principle with the ago of Mr. Faraday, the apparatus for which is figured in Brande’s Chem. 1836, p 132 Meteorological Journal. circuit ; and quite to the east, while it swept the other half. Most, if not all, of the elements of this generalization have been be- fore obtained by such distinguished experimenters as Faraday, Henry, Becquerel, Pixii, and others, yet I have not seen it stated in a form so convenient to those who are already acquainted with electro-magnetism, and are just commencing the converse subject of magneto-electricity. Arr. X1— Abstract of a inc Ae Journal, for the year 1837, kept at Marietta, (Ohio,) in Lat. 39° 25’ N. and Lon, 4° 28’ W. of Washington City ; by 8. P. Hitprertn. THERMOMETER. + s BAROMETER, ae S8 : $3 Months. = ~ oe ES Po = Prevailing winds. : : ot $B 16hg| |g )Si ce gf | ode see PR Olds Bla ‘ q Sere PP palhel Fe gia) 2)? % euge . et E Land 62 =|. x , = = = - January, |28.00/54) 6 23) - [4 W., 8. W.& N 20 39.65 28. “ ruary, |34. 4 13) 1/80\w., s. w. & N. Now. 25) 4, ch. 41. 12 12; 3 N. W. & 8. E. rag 15) a April, 45.33 86/24 |62) 20) 10 1 N.N.W. & W. 15/29. : 60.50 92) 4) 4: 8 8.:,S.E.& N. 30/29. J June, 66.83 88.45 |43) 4 7/84 8., W. & N. .20) 29. P July, 71.17.89/54 |35| 27] 4| 5|13) w., N.& 8. w. 32/29. ! g 69.708848 40} 21] 10 4/84 s,s. w. &N. 40 29.60: 4 September, |62.7185 41 |44/ I1} 4/23, 8., B. & N. .50)29.73)3 A ctober, | |54.44.8020 |60, 22} 9) 4/25 N. & 8. 49 29.73 4 November, |48.51,71 19 |52) 21} 9) 3/30) ., 8. & 8, w. 9.33 29.88|28.78|. December, 35.5771 13 (58 Ib 3 80) W. & 8. W. -30 29.70)2 90 Mean, = {51.57 Ri 141 43/36! Mean range, 39.31) Observations on the year 1837.—The mean temperature of the past year has been a degree and a half greater than that of the year 1836; which, although small in amount, has nevertheless had a decided influence on the season. The heat has also been more equally distributed through the year, and not subject to any great vicissitudes. In winter the temperature has at no time been at zero; and in summer it has not risen above ninety de-— grees of Pabronheit. The average heat for the different seasons of the year has been as follows, viz. Meteorological Journal. 133 For the winter months, . . . . 32.80° o«® spring months,a% ) 1. fs 49:60 “© summer months,.9. . .. 69.25 “© autumnal month: . «68.22 The winter has been three degrees warmer than that of 1836; and the autumn five degrees; while the summer has been two degrees cooler, and the spring one degree warmer: thus equal- izing the heat, and favoring the growth of the vegetable world. From the cool and wet state of the summer, the wheat crops were ten days later than usual in ripening, and the harvest con- tinued until the fore part of August, while in usual seasons it is completed by the middle of July. The crops of all kinds were uncommonly fine. Indian corn suffered somewhat from the ex- cessive rains in June, thereby preventing its receiving the dressings from the plow and hoe The blossoming of fruit and other trees was retarded beyond the average period in the spring, but was in the following order: Peach in bloom the 28th of April; pear and cherry, the Ist of May; apple, 5th of May; papaw, black walnut and butternut, the 16th of May; Ribes villosa and Prunus virginianus, the 16th of June. June and July of this year were remarkable for excessive rains and tornadoes. The bottom lands on all the small streams which rise in the broken country near the Ohio, were overflowed from two to three times, and the crops of grass and grain along their borders either entirely destroyed, or greatly damaged. 'The loss to the agricultural community was very great. The amount of rain for the year has been 43,5,9, inches, which is over the mean for this region. The aurora borealis has been seen a number of times during the year, especially on the 25th of January, when it was most grand and splendid; also on the 2d and 3d of June, and Ist of July. We have been visited by no destructive storms of wind or hail, and the year, on the whole, has been a very propitious one to man and the vegetable and ani- mal kingdoms. ~ Marietta, February 2d, 1838. 134 Geology of Upper Illinois. Art. XII.—Geology of Upper Illinois; by Cuartes Upnam Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Col- lege of the State of South Carolina. Tue remarks contained in this memoir are derived from obser- vations made the past season, during a short residence at Rock- well, in La Salle county. Having entered Illinois by the way of Chicago from the northern lakes, I shall commence my obser- vations with some account of this place and its vicinity. Lake-shore near Chicago. The western shore of Lake Michigan, above Milwalky, pre- sents no rocks as seen from the lake, being generally level, and but little elevated above its surface. It consists either of a sandy beach, or, as is more commonly the case, of an abrupt bank of blue clay. Chicago is situated on a beach-shore; but the low ridge of sand which formerly intervened between its site and the lake, has in a great measure been obliterated, in order to im- prove the building lots contiguous to the water. The easterly gales, however, silt up fresh deposits of sand and gravel, which singularly enough for this secondary region, abound in grains of garnet, magnetic iron and epidote, as well as in pebbles of granite, gneiss, Sienite and trap. ‘These foreign materials are no doubt derived from primitive boulders scattered over the bottom of the lake. The city plat scarcely varies from a perfect level, and rises only high enough above the surface of the lake to secure it a bare im- munity from inundations during severe gales, and seasons of unusually high water. In the rear of the town lies a broad level tract of wet prairie, still lower than Chicago, being only about ten feet above Lake Michigan. The width of this tract varies from six to nine miles, while it extends as far down the lake as the unobstructed view can reach; and in an opposite direction, follows quite round to the head of the lake, where however it ex- periences an extraordinary modification from the presence of sand- ridges, which we shall presently describe. The origin of so extensive a region of lagoon, which is almost completely submerged during the spring freshets, is not easily accounted for; since it is not contiguous toa broad slope of coun- Geology of Upper Illinois, 135 try, or one whose rapid descent’ might measurably compensate for want of area in giving rise to alluvial deposits. Neither do rivers of any magnitude find their outlet here, which, like the St. Clair where it enters Lake St. Clair, might produce flat plains of considerable extent. Its origin seems to have been connected with a higher level of the lake, when its waters advanced inland quite to the rolling prairie. Nor would this supposition be at all satisfactory perhaps, except for the knowledge we possess of the almost universal, rocky substratum which prevails over the wet prairie, coming for the most part to within a few feet of the top of the ground,—thus giving us the conditions of a hard bottom as forming the shore of the lake, upon which the sediment and wash of the coast was in the progress of ages spread out. The deposit covering this rocky floor, is a horizontally stratified blue clay, on top of which at Chicago, rests a yellowish clayey loam. Lake Michigun poll egrae On the subsidence of the lake to its present level, the beach- line in the region of Chicago must have begun to form. For a long distance up and down the lake, it is confined to one or two embankments; but on drawing near the head of the lake, by the way of the sap to Michigan city, we find the surface of the prairie invaded far inland by a succession of ancient beaches, cad. with the utmost regularity as to width and height, as well as conformity to the existing shore of the lake. I shall de- scribe them as they came into view on the stage road, endeavor- ing to robalek their character the more intelligible by means of the bove sk tructed from recollecti Leaving Chicago, the 136 Geology of Upper Illinois. road for about fifteen miles is on the beach, or just behind it, on the border of the level prairie. It then begins to diverge from the shore, and passes obliquely across a succession of ridges, each resembling a turnpike in its rounded form. These ridges are wooded, while the intervals between them consist of wet marsh, or level prairie. Advantage is taken of the ridges as far as pos- sible for the course of the road. After proceeding a number of miles in a south-easterly direction, the road takes a south course at right angles to the coast, and runs for a distance of five miles’ over about fifty of these ridges. They vary from four to ten rods in width, each one, however, preserving with exact uniformity its own breadth, and separated from each other by intervals of from six to forty rods. When midway between any two beaches, the eye is presented in opposite directions with an almost inter- minable vista, whose bounding lines of trees are perceived to be slightly curvilinear, the curvature of the ridges corresponding ex- actly to the broad sweep of the lake shore. No sensible differ- ence of level is apparent in the beaches, while the marshy prairie between them is so low and sunken as to be almost impassable, and apparently corresponds in level with the prairie in rear of Chicago. At the termination of the above series, commences a new order of ridges, all of which are situated at a somewhat higher level. They have an average width of only one hundred and twenty feet, and. are Besepersied by depressions of the same dimensions. In these, both the ridge and the valley are dry and wooded. The road crosses them for the distance of one mile, after which, assuming a more easterly cousre, it descends upon a flat prairie, about three miles wide, from which it rises over a wooded swell of land half a mile wide, and again comes upon a broad expanse of wet prairie. It afterwards turns still more to the east, and continues over high rolling land to Michigan city. As the last fifteen miles of the ride was by night, I cannot record the remain- ing features of the route. The succession of beaches described, would appear to have been occasioned by the action of northerly winds operating on the whole range of the lake, thereby producing an accumulation of water in this region, as well as a strong impulsive action upon the bottom of the lake from the motion of the sea towards the shore. - Be. ae ae ec cece eta Geology of Upper IMlinois. 137 line at Chicago, it may very obviously be remarked, that an east- erly storm, (the only one that could here produce any effect,) acting simply on the breadth of the lake, would have very little power in giving rise to beaches, compared with gales traversing the entire length of such an immense body of water. Besides which, the line of coast on the western shore is so broad as to prevent the heaping up of the water to any extent, compared with what must take place at the confined extremity of the lake. It will be an interesting inquiry to ascertain if possible, the length of time requisite for forming a single beach at the head of the lake, since, if this could be settled, we should have the ele- ments for the chronological computation of all the ridges belong- ing to the first system, above described. Could this be satisfac- torily made, the era of the second series might perhaps be found capable of an approximative determination, as well as that of the third and fourth belt, both of which correspond in outline to those first mentioned, and are therefore plainly of lacustrine origin.* Before dismissing this very striking appearance of the coast connected with the action of the lake, [ must be permitted to ex- press the opinion, that a careful examination of the country bor- dering on the Kankakee and the Des Plaines valleys, will afford evidence of the occasional overflow of the lake at ancient periods, in those directions. It is a well known fact, that the lip of the lake, near its south-western extremity, is at one place so de- sed as to permit canoes to pass from the head waters of the Chicago river across to that of the Des Plaines. Nor would the circumstance cease to be an alarming one to the safety of this portion of country, except for the fact that the border to the lake is every where composed of a firm limestone. If then the waters of the lake are still capable of interlocking with those of the Des Plaines, it is clear that at a higher level of the lake, consid- erable descents of water upon the low country must have taken place. ‘Traces of such incursions appear to exist on the stage road from Chicago to Ottawa, in the general direction of the Jat: oF land on the nSiag prairie, and more particularly in the '* Heaton hh farth land these formations extend, I cannot say; but I should not be si rised to learn, that they p revail under yarious modifications, quite back to the summit level which turns the waters of the country into the Kankakee, a distance of fifteen or twenty miles. Vou. XXALV.—No. 1. 18 138 Geology of Upper Illinois. width and depth of the Des Plaines valley, and the immense diluvial accumulations it contains below Juliet. Route of the Michigan and Iilinois Canal. No internal improvement in the country will surpass in com- mercial importance the canal which is to unite the waters of Lake Michigan and Illinois river, since it will complete the navigable route from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, and open a water communication, so to speak, from the Rocky moun- tains to the Atlantic coast. The cost of the undertaking in some degree keeps pace with its importance ; for although neither the line of its extent, nor the amount of its lockage, is great, still the difficulty which grows out of obtaining an adequate supply of water for the summit division of the route, renders it the most expensive work of the kind ever projected. It is indeed a fortu- nate circumstance as aflecting the certainty of its completion, that the means for defraying its construction are already in the of the State, the general government having given the alternate sections of land for five miles on each side of the canal to the State of Illinois, to be appropriated to this important under- taking. Before speaking of the geological features of the country over which the canal passes, a brief sketch of the route it takes, and the nature of the difficulties it has to encounter, will be given, inasmuch as such a notice will serve in some degree to explain the topographical features of the region. The canal passes up the south branch of the Chicago river a distance of four miles, thence over the level prairie in a direct line eight miles, to the valley of the Des Plaines river, down the valley of this stream, past the mouth of the Kankakee, to the banks of the Illinois, whose border it pursues for a distance of fourteen miles below Ottawa, where it enters the river. Its length is one hundred and two miles ; and it is constructed with a breadth of sixty feet at the water pittese, and a depth of six feet. The lockage is all downwards, and amounts to one hun- dred and forty two feet. Before adopting the present route, an attempt was made to ob- tain a ‘Supply of water for the summit division, from the Des , the Calumet, and the Fox rivers; but on running a level Geology of Upper Illinois. 139 from the Des Plaines, nearly opposite the mouth of Portage lake, to the Fox river at Elgin, (thirty-five miles south of the State line,) where the surface of the stream is one hundred and fifteen feet above Lake Michigan, it was found, that the intervening ridge had an elevation of fifty or sixty feet, the cutting down of which would be too expensive to justify the expedient. The commissioners were accordingly led to adopt the magnificent plan of making Michigan the feeder to the canal. The first level thereby becomes thirty-four miles in length, with an average depth of cutting of eighteen feet, which is principally in solid rock. The depth of six feet of water has been decided on, in order to secure to the canal a constant depth of four feet during the fluctuations of tide in the lake, occasioned by high winds. A declivity is given to the bottom of the canal, of one tenth of a foot per mile. There are two locks situated at the end of this level, having a lift of eighteen feet. Above the first of these, for ‘the distance of three quarters of a mile, the canal has a width of one hundred and twenty feet. The estimated expense of this level is $5,871,324. The middle division of the work extends thirty-seven miles from the head of the first lock. It has six locks, with an aggre- gate lockage of fifty-seven feet in the first four miles, for the whole of which distance the route is over little better than solid rock, and is consequently very expensive. Another difficult por- tion ok this division commences about two miles below the cross- ing of the Du Page, and extends nearly to Dresden, below the mouth of the Kankakee. The bluffs here are from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet high, and approach so near the river as to be washed by it, which renders it necessary to construct the towing path wholly or in part, in the river, for a distance of more than two miles; consequently, an expensive protection will be demanded to defend the work from the ice-floods of the Kankakee. The western division has sixty-eight feet lockage, and is twen- ty-nine miles in length, exclusive of four miles of the Fox river feeder. F yom the first lock, below Ottawa, to the termination of the canal at La Salle, (on section fifteen,) the route lies through much wet ground, being along the bottoms of the Illinois, just under its northern bluff. As these lands are overflowed during the spring-freshets, the level of the canal requires to be con- siderably raised, and to be guarded by strong embankments. 140 Geology of Upper Illinois. The construction of a canal-basin, at the termination of the ca- nal, with an area of five and a half acres, whose bottom is to be considerably elevated above the present level of the bottom-lands, serves to render this division of the undertaking also, very expen- sive. The cost of the entire canal, as estimated according to the report of the commissioners, is $8,654,337 ; but it is admitted that the estimate is too low, it being generally believed that the work will not be brought to a state of completion under ten millions of dollars. The geology of the chief portion of the route above described, is exceedingly simple and uniform, the great rock formation of the country being the magnesian limestone ; at least, this is the rock from the commencement of the canal, (four miles from Chi- cago, ) nearly to the mouth of the Kankakee. It also reappears west of the Fox river, as will presently be pointed out, and enjoys a wide distribution prebably throughout the whole of Upper Tili- nois and Wisconsin. A good opportunity for examining its char- acter occurs near Chicago, where the excavations have already been commenced. It here rises quite to the surface of the prairie. It is imperfectly stratified, with an evident dip of 10° or 15° to the north-west. Its color is light grayish white, with a frequent shade of yellow. It is compact in texture, and often slightly cel- lular or cavernous—a peculiarity which seems to be connected, for the most part, with the profusion of organic remains existing among its materials at the period of its formation. The follow- ing is a brief list of the fossils which fell under my observation at this locality: two species of Orthocera, a Turbo (one and a half inches in diameter) with a depressed spire; a large species of Pectunculus? ; a Terebratula, (with very prominent ribs, and but few in number ;) two species of Ammonites ; a Caryophyl- la, and a Favosites.* Some of the beds are wanting in fossils, and occasionally the rock puts on a shistose or slaty structure, in which case it forms a valuable flagging-stone, which is already employed to some extent in Chicago. The same rock reappears in the bed of the Des Plaines, twelve miles from Chicago, on the road to Juliet, as well as near the sui- > = es 2 ‘ z ca = ae Bm x = o a a a 6a } ij a i : : TAY “In speaking of the boundary of the coal-field, I wish to be understood in gen- eral, as treating of its line of junction with the magnesian limestone. Whether the coal-beds run out against this rock, or are continued beneath it, no facts have yet been observed in this country sufficient to show. The extent of the magne- 144 Geology of Upper Illinois. Rockwell is situated on section fourteen, which is next to the section against which the canal terminates. The width of the Illinois valley varies in this vicinity from one to two miles. Its bluffs, which are generally of naked rock, and nearly perpendicu- lar, are between one hundred and one hundred and twenty feet in height. Their course and position with respect to the channel of the river, may be seen upon the accompanying map. ‘The bot- tom of the river in the vicinity of Utica is solid rock, with which also the bottom-lands are underlaid at very partial depths. deed, the strata often attain the surface over considerable breadths of the meadows between Rockwell and Ottawa. The course of the canal, which is also traced on the map, is directly at the foot of the northern bluff. sian limestone in Wisconsin, Upper Illinois, and Missouri, struck me with sur- gan, the islands about Michillimacinac, the mouth of Green bay, as well as near pm ee at the head of the bay. In the last mentioned region, it abounded in a Producta, which I take to be undescribed, and shall therefore denomi- nate a incure. ific character. Semi-circular: hinge nearly straight and the — = ee ans with Sane _giiaene = strie ; flattish ; edge crenated ; shal- res valve ine ; muscular impressions and hinge-pro- very neg a3 ira 3 2.) "The ae between the valves is very small in “es species. Fig. 3, represents a second species of the same genus, which is also grea new. The large walee e is deep an ry gibbous. Its strie are distinct, and eabebia the ‘ibe of the Pee- tens. Along with these species occurs a polypifera, apparently belonging to the genus Flustra. Geology of Upper Illinois. 145 To the traveller who enters the Illinois valley at Ottawa, after having been satiated with the boundless views of rolling prairie, no scenery can be more novel and enchanting, than that which he beholds between the mouth of Fox river and the town of Rockwell. The first striking object he encounters after leaving Ottawa, is Buffalo-rock, an interesting plateau, whose top corres- ponds in level with the high prairie, and whose sides are equally precipitous with the main bluffs of the valley. The area of Buf- falo-rock is about one square mile. The river sweeps directly past its southeastern base; while the canal, as will appear from the map, is carried along pekieun it and the north bluff of the valley. At a distance of about a mile from this insular elevation of prai- rie, and directly by the road-side, is situated one of those beauti- ful mineral springs (of whose chemical constitution we shall presently speak,) for which this part of Illinois is remarkable. Two springs break out within a distance of a rod, both of which occupy the same basin-like depression, whose surface is about five feet lower than that of the adjoining bottoms. The larger of these two springs discharges at least ten gallons of water per min-— ute, and rising through a bed of fine white sand, (which it keeps in constant agitation,) forms a very striking object. The water from the springs, after flowing a distance of fifteen rods over the bottoms, falls into a rocky channel worn out of the sand-rock, along which it rapidly descends for a couple of rods farther, where it enters the river, but not before it has received the water of an- other spring whose issue is from between the sandstone layers. Two miles after leaving the springs, the traveller is opposite the tragically famous Starved Rock.* It forms a part of the bluff on the south side of the Illinois, projecting promontory like, quite into the bed of the river, and rising twenty or thirty feet higher than the average level of the bluffs. Its face towards the river is perpendicular, and even overhanging. On some of the maps of the county its height has been stated at two hundred and fifty feet, which is certainly incorrect,—it having recently been meas- ured by Mr. O. W. Jerome, civil engineer of Rockwell, who finds ein one hundred and forty feet above the level of the Il- * About one Saale years since, a ferocious tribe of Indians, being driven by their enemies upon this projecting point of the Mlinois bluff, were reduced to submission by actual starvation. Vou. XXATV.—No. 1. 19 146 Geology of Upper Ilinois. linois. The prospect from this point is inimitably fine. A long stretch of the valley, both up the river and down, is at full com- mand. The river here flows over a level rocky floor, and the wa- ter is so clear as to enable one to discern the large fish swimming quietly along upon its bottom ; while at no great distance, flocks of wild geese, in the most unalarmed manner, occupy the bosom of the stream. A large island, wooded with an almost tropical denseness and luxuriance, is situated in the river nearly opposite to the rock, which greatly adds to the beauty of the scene. An- other point of interest occurs in the topography of the valley just before we reach Rockwell. It is where the Consogin river cuts the bluff and enters the meadows. Its present issue is at right angles to the course of the valley; anciently, however, it did not find its exit so high up the valley, by more than half a mile, but on reaching its present mouth, it turned down the Illinois, (still — within the high prairie,) and continued nearly to Camp-rock, (X on the map.) The wearing away of the bluff, by the waters which excavated the Illinois valley, in progress of time, however, g a new outlet to the Consogin, in consequence of which, a long ridge of prairie stands insulated upon the bottom-lands, whose shape and contiguity to the main bluff render it a conspicu- ous object. It has been called Chimborazo, and the idea of build- ing upon it a town, as well as upon Buffalo-rock, has even been entertained by some individuals in this region; but of both these situations it may be said, that the inducements to occupy them are rather such as are connected with fine views of valley scenery, than with the actual facilities and conveniences of life. 'The ca- nal passes directly under the south side of Chimborazo, though it is said to have been for a time debated, whether the better route would not be in the ancient channel of the Consogin. It is, more- over, a singular circumstance relating to the Consogin, that on entering the valley, it soon loses itself, and does not rise into view until it has passed Camp-rock, (X on the map,) when it begins to re-appear in a considerable sheet of water, especially as it enters the town of Rockwell. It here forms, directly under the bluff; a narrow lake, five or six hundred feet in length, by more than one hundred in width, which in seasons of the greatest drought has a depth of about six feet. I am the more particular in des- ‘the situation and dimensions of this strip of water, be- cause, from its particular location in relation to the Hlinois river Geology of Upper Illinois. 147 and the canal, it is intended, by means of a short cut across the bottoms in the direction of the dotted lines, (v on the map,) to admit boats from the river; and thus at a trifling expense, to con- vert it into a steam-boat basin. An dmprovement of this nature will have its value greatly enhanced, arising out of the mineral re- sources so remarkably accumulated at this point, the future devel- opment of which is destined to confer upon Rockwell numerous commercial and manufacturing advantages. It is within a few rods only of the eastern extremity of the Con- sogin basin, that the largest out-crop of coal in the valley of the Illinois occurs. By a reference to our map, a ravine will be no- ticed as descending from the high prairie, at a distance of about seventy rods from the eastern boundary of Rockwell. | This is the Swanson ravine. Its bed is entirely within the coal strata, and very nearly conforms in direction to their basseting edges. The slopes of the ravine consist superficially, to a considerable extent, of soil and loose materials. Slight excavations however, are all that is requisite to reveal the strata, which, on the west side at least, are uniform and continuous up the valley. Commencing at the mouth of the ravine on its western side, we have a good view of the position of the coal-bed, where it has been partially laid open, for supplying to some extent fuel to the vicinity, espe- cially for blacksmithing purposes. The following section was ta- ken at the locality, from the top downwards :— 50 to 60 feet of the superior slope, concealed by soil. ‘43 feet gray marly slate-clay. - A inches argillo-calcareous iron ore. 8 “ — gray marly slate. 1 foot 4 inches limestone. 1 ‘* black bituminous slate. 2" - gray marly slate-clay. 6 coal. This i se the coal-stratum nearly to the bottom of the ravine, in which however, a well has been sunk, thereby making us ac- aeimiodwiths the strata for a depth of at least thirty feet more howin of blue and gray slate-clays. The dip of the coal and its associated layers is W. S. W. at an angle between 15 and 20°. »» As the State owns the section on which this coal opening oc- curs, no farther labor has been expended with a view to trace the 148 Geology of Upper Illinois. bed up the ravine, until we ascend to the point B, on section twelve. Here we find a layer of coal two feet in thickness, form- ing the lowest part of the ravine, and traceable by means of a little gully descending from the east slope of the ravine, quite up to the level of the high prairie, a distance of eight or ten rods. In addition to this stratum, there shows itself at B, on the western slope of the Swanson ravine, and thirty feet above its bottom, a bed of coal four feet in thickness. Both the beds here described correspond, in direction and dip, with the main bed at the mouth of the ravine, nor can it admit of areasonable doubt that the up- per bed (whose thickness is four feet) is a continuation of the great deposit first mentioned. Still higher up, at C, where the ravine forks, the thick bed has been uncovered in two places, a few rods only apart. The coal here occupies the bottom of the valley, which, it must be under- stood, is situated at a level at least forty feet higher than at B. In the banks near the openings at C, occur frequent indications of the former combustion of the coal, in the abundance of brick-red slate and porcelain-jasper. Indeed it appears not improbable, that the entire ravine owes its origin to the inflammation of a body of coal near its out-crop, to which water, the exciting cause of com- bustion, must have found an easy access. _ In this way a channel may have been formed, which the spring freshets have widened and deepened, until the ravine has been brought to its present di- mensions. Among the loose materials accumulated against the edges of the strata in the upper part of the ravine, I observed an abundance of gypsum, in small white grains, resembling common salt, blended with argillo-marly soil; also frequent balls and kidney-shaped. masses of argillaceous iron-ore. Both branches of the ravine are shallow at C, and in running northward, soon attain the general level of the prairie; after which, the strata of course become concealed by the soil. But by taking the direction of the out-crop to the coal-bed, which is northwesterly, and proceeding a mile and a half across section - eleven upon section two, the sandstone which dips under the coal- bed of the Swanson ravine, reappears in slightly cohering strata; and still farther, by a distance of about half a mile, in the same course, at E, we strike the banks of the Little Vermilion, the east bluff of which, for some way, is composed of the identical grit of * Geology of Upper Illinois. 149 Camp-rock, whose direction and dip it likewise exactly imitates. The opposite side of the river, (at E,) moreover, offers us appa~ rently the entire series of slates, shale, and coal, which overlie the sandstone in the Swanson ravine, though the coal has as yet been fairly laid open only at two spots, Dand E. At both these places, the thickness of the coal-stratum is four feet. No doubt, therefore, can reasonably be entertained of the unbroken continuity of the coal across section eleven to the Little Vermilion on sections two and thirty-four. The southeast angle of the latter section touches the northwest corner of the former, as the sectional maps of the region will show. In following the river above HE, no farther tra- ces of the coal-rocks, are discovered. On the contrary, the mag- nesian limestone soon takes their place and forms the bed and banks of the Little Vermilion, and of its tributary, the Toma- hawk. Having satisfied myself of the general direction of the coal north of the Tilinois, it became a matter of interest with me to learn whether it obeyed the same law in an opposite direction, viz. in its extension towards the southeast. That this is the fact soon became apparent. The bluff on the south side of the Illinois, a little east of where the Big Vermilion enters, exhibits the same formation as Camp-rock. But no rocks manifest themselves in the line of direction from this place, until we reach the banks of the Vermilion at I, near Vermilionville. Here we recover the coal in the bed of the river, presenting its characteristic thickness, dip, and leading associates, with the exception of the underlie of sandstone, which, if existing, is concealed by loose materials and soil. The coal has the same thickness as at the mouth of the Swanson ravine. As my travels were extended no farther in the direction of the outcrop, I can only state what I was able to learn from others re- specting its course beyond Vermilionville. Abundance of coal is said to occur at several points for ten or twelve miles up the river, all of which may reasonably be considered as belonging to one and the same stratum. Indeed it is not impossible that future re- searches will prove the extension of the present outcrop quite across the country, even to the Wabash, in Indiana. The coal at Vermilionville is situated directly in the bed of the river, on its west side, at the base of a very steep portion of bluff, which is at least seventy-five feet high. It consists of five or six 150 Geology of Upper Illinois. * alternations of black bituminous shale, with a dark gray, friable, slaty marl, the series being surmounted by a heavy bed of eneri- nal limestone. The shale is in beds of between three and four feet in thickness, while the clayey mari-strata are considerably thicker. The shale-stratum next the coal, embraces a layer of limestone about ten inches thick. Large balls of limestone also, of a very peculiar appearance, are common throughout the shale. They may be described as flattened spheroids, extremely reg- ular in shape, smooth, and of a black color. They are arranged between the layers of the slate, with their flat surfaces coinciding with the stratification. Veins of calcareous spar, tinged brown by petroleum, divide their surfaces off into quadrangular and pen- tagonal shapes, thereby imparting to the balls a tolerable resem- blance to certain tortoises, petrifactions of which animals they are considered to be, by many people of the neighborhood. In some instances, these balls, which are in reality a species of septaria, have a diameter of between two and three feet. The dip of the bed at this place, is about 10° or 12° to the W. The rock on which the coal rests, as may be seen a little higher up the river, is a light gray, highly crystalline limestone. It oc- casionally embraces small seams and irregular shaped masses of calcareous spar, and is generally so rich in bituminous matter, as to afford the odor of this substance on friction. But three fossils attracted my notice in it : these were a trilobite, (a species of Caly- mene,) a F'lustra, and a Producta, which Fig. 4. so closely resembles a pecten in general fig- gaaeee ure, as well as in the delicacy and distinct- ness of its ribs, (56 to 60 in number,) that, believing it to be new, I shall call it the P. pectenoidea. (Fig. 4.) The two latter fos- sils are very common. Of the tribolite I saw but a single sample, and that was presented me by Rev. Mr. Euutor, of Vermilionville. The bluffs on the east side of the river, in the vicinity of Elliot’s dam, abound in the relics of the spontaneous combustion of coal, such as hardened slate and de- tached grains and crystals of gypsum, mingled with clay and marl. It is in the bed of the river near this place, also, that sev- eral mineral springs occur, a more particular notice of which will hereafter be given. Geology of Upper Illinois. 151 Before entering into additional details respecting the coal, it will be proper to say something farther of the horizontal formation of Rockwell and the Little Vermilion river, beneath which the coal of the Swanson ravine dips. They are well understood, from an inspection of the western bluff of the Little Vermilion, at the saw- mill near the river’s mouth. We have here the following arrange- ment, from the top downwards :— 12 feet limestone. 4 “ blue and red slaty clay. 12 “ limestone. 1 foot blue slaty clay. 24 feet black bituminous shale. 4s“ blue slaty clay. 3 inches coal. 5 feet blue slaty clay. 30 “ limestone. In ninkide wells in the town of Rockwell, fifty ro rods back from the bluff, where the surface is about fifty feet higher than it is immediately at the top of the bluff, a succession of clay and marl beds is penetrated before reaching the stratum of limestone first mentioned in the foregoing arrangement. The marl has a dull red color, and is very friable,—falling to pieces, or slacking on a short exposure to the weather. It contains frequent impressions of a species of Pecten, (Fig. 5.) and of a second bi-valved shell, (Fig. 6.) much resembling a Unio, though it is quite possible it may be a Mya or a Tellina.* Fig. 5. Fig. 6. The rocks, as they are seen on the face of the bluff at Rock- well, correspond in essential characters with those given above for * The blue slaty clay contains small crystals of iron pyrites, which for a time led the opinion that gold was also present in the formation. The application of the nicest chemical tests however, fails to detect its existence. 152 Geology of Upper Illinois. the Little Vermilion. We observe, however, that the upper lime- stone strata at the former place are less fine and crystalline in their texture ; but possess, on the contrary, a tendency to rapid disintegration, separating into ovoidal or lenticular masses, from two to six inches in diameter. The lower bed is more compact in structure, although it still contains frequent rifts and fissures. A partial digging has been made into the bituminous shale and coal-seam of Rockwell, which fully proves the correspondence between them and those above described. The shale however, at this spot, afforded distinct impressions of a minute Patella, and a perfectly flat valve, (Fig. 7.) with very delicate and almost obsolete concentric striz, apparently appertaining to a species of Placuna. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. The limestone of the western bluff of the Little Vermilion is a tolerably compact, crystalline rock. It embraces occasionally, as well as the looser variety of Rockwell, encrinal remains, and a small species of Terebratula, (Fig. 8.) whose surface is delicately striated, and of a silvery white color and strong pearly lustre. Should it prove to be undescribed, it may be called the 7. ar- gentea An interesting deposit of travertine occurs on the eastern bluff of the Little Vermilion, opposite to the point where the section above given was obtained. The spring which gives rise to the formation, issues from the limestone near the top of the bluff; and the tufa, after accumulating in considerable masses, becomes detached and falls in large blocks into the valley. Among the loose masses under the bluff, I noticed several of a purely siliceous nature, proving, that the character of the water has formerly been different from what it now is, since its present deposition is e0- tirely calcareous. Two miles farther west at Peru, the limestone becomes still more crystalline, and is quarried into blocks with considerable fa- cility. It here includes several very distinct fossils, among which Geology of Upper Iilinois. 153 were recognized Encrinal stems, a large Spirifer, the Pholadomya elongata, (of Morron,) and a species of Producta, of which a figure is annexed, and which I shall denominate the semi- Fig. 9. netata. Description.—Length rather surpassing the breadth : slightly inequilateral. Concave valve with a fold in the middle. Lower valve slightly concave. Hinge-line two thirds the length. Vout. XXXIV.—No, 1. 20 154 Geology of Upper Illinois. of the shell. Ligamental cavity deep. Flat valve marked by a vertical line extending from the summit half way to the base. Transversely banded. Minutely punctuated ; the punctules be- ing impressed, excepting when the shell is entire, the surface is then granose or obscurely hispid. The limestone east of the sandstone formation of the Swanson ravine, is the magnesian. It is horizontally stratified and gen- erally without fossils, though often abounding in veins and nod- ules of hornstone. Ten miles north of Rockwell, near the vil- lage of Homer, it is seen to advantage in the banks of the Little Vermilion. It here almost exactly resembles the metalliferous limestone of Missouri, (which I find to be the magnesian lime- stone also,) having its peculiar buff color, and like it, embracing siliceous seams and nodules. The only fossils I found at this Spot were a distinct species of T'urbinolia, and a part of the ver- - tebral column of a fish, the latter as well as the former, firmly im- bedded in the limestone. For an illustration of the formation which adjoins the magne- _ sian limestone on. ibe et I shall give a Sassiog section taken at Ottawa. Soil ied 14 feet limestone. 11 do. marly clay slates. 6 do. sandy clay. 12 do. blue slaty clay. foot bituminous shale. feet coal. do. gray slaty clay. 30 do. sandstone. And inasmuch as borings for salt have been made to the depth of one hundred and thirty feet below the surface of the river, at a place five miles west of Ottawa, near Starved rock, we are able to say, that the coal is not repeated for a depth of at least one hun- dred and sixty feet, sandstone being the only rock for the whole of this depth. The horizontal formation last described, continues up the Fox river north from Ottawa for a number of miles, and in an oppo site direction up the Illinois on its west side, at least to the mouth of the Kankakee. The coal of which I heard, as existing in 4 bed three feet thick near the mouth of the Mazon river, probably pertains to the same stratum as that at Ottawa. oOoWwWwWe Geology of Upper Illinois. 155 We shall now treat of the economical value of the coal to this region. Bituminous coal is valuable in every part of our country ; but to a rich prairie section, where the climate in winter is se- vere, and where wood is scarcely abundant enough to supply ma- terials for fencing and building, its importance is almost incapable of being ex The deposit, aa which main reliance is likely to be placed for coal, at least for a considerable time to come, is the stratum which crops out in the Swanson ravine. This bed will probably be found workable under the entire tract, bounded by the ravine on the east and the Little Vermilion on the west. At what depth below the surface it will be found, situated on the western por- tion of this tract, it is of course impossible to say ; but from what is known of coal-fields in other countries, we are authorized in believing that as the bed is worked down, its present pitch will alter, and that at no great distance from the ravine it will assume a horizontal position. The thin horizontal bed of coal which has been opened at so many points between Utica and Ottawa, and which is worked at several openings near the latter place, is undoubtedly capable of furnishing a large supply of this fuel... But the difference of ex- pense in: working a thin and a thick stratum is so great, especially where the thin bed, as in the present instance, is horizontal in po- sition, and overlaid by a vast accumulation of fissile strata, that it gives to the main deposit an obvious superiority. It is plain, therefore, that the canal commissioners have judged correctly, in affixing a high valuation to the coal-mines of the state on section thirteen. The coal at Vermilionville, besides being a number of miles from navigable water, is so situated, with regard to the bed of the river in which it occurs, as to render its exploration unu- sually inconvenient and expensive. It will not, therefore, be likely to come into market, until the supply near the canal and the Illinois river has been to a degree exhausted. No coal is ob- tained from down the river short of Henry; nor even at this place within several miles of the river. : It appears quite certain therefore, that Chicago and the region bordering on the upper lakes are destined, on the completion of the canal, to receive their bituminous fuel very largely from Rock- well and its immediate vicinity, since there is little prospect of 156 Geology of Upper Iilinois. the discovery of any nearer source of supply. At present, the re- gion referred to, is furnished by the coal mines of Ohio, which are situated one hundred miles from Cleveland, on the Ohio and Erie canal. It would seem however, that coal can be delivered cheaper at Chicago from Rockwell, than at Cleveland, for al- though the distance is the same, yet the dimensions of the Chi- cago canal and its smaller amount of lockage, will give it a de- cided advantage over the Erie canal in the expense of transpor- tation.* The quality of coal, so far as can be determined from the lim- ited exploration thus lar made of the Illinois beds, is in no way inferior to that of the Ohio coal. It belongs to the variety of bitu- minous coal, known in Great Britain under the name of caking coal, in consequence of the property it has of breaking into a great number of pieces on the application of heat, all of which become cemented together into a solid mass or cake. Its color is grayish black. It has a lamellar or foliated structure, the layers separating from each other with great facility at various inter- ae — an eighth to three quarters of an inch. Their surfaces thin films of what is called mineral charcoal, con- sting of the remains of various plants, in which the bituminizing ess has not taken complete effect. The cross-fracture of these layers is generally resinous and shining, while the slaty surface is dull. It is very easily frangible. Its specific gravity is 1.273.¢ It ignites with great facility, and burns with an abun- dant yellow flame. One hundred parts by weight, on being heated, so long as it burnt with a flame lost 47.5 p. c. in weight ; and the residuum after ignition until all the carbonaceous matter was removed, lost 46.5 in addition; thus leaving 6 p. c. of ash, which was white, and consisted of a ae oxide of iron, alumina, and lime. The ease with which it burns and the abundant flame it emits, must serve to render it a most valuable fuel. For while it will afford a warm and cheerful fuel for the grate, it is peculiarly ees also to steam boilers, and to all the operations of heat- * Coal is raised and delivered to the boats in Ohio, at four cents the bushel. It sells in Cleveland at from fourteen to sixteen cents, and in Chicago, at fifty. t One cubic foot of this coal will, therefore, weigh 79 7 gsls pounds, which will ae thick in one acre, nine thousand two hundred and thirty one ee Geology of Upper Illinois. 157 ing and evaporating fluids. It will also give rise to a cdke of amedium quality, the presence of iron-pyrites not being found so considerable as to interfere with its employment by the black- smiths of the country, who prefer it indeed in their work, to charcoal. Mineral Springs and Salt. Sulphureons and saline waters appear to be of frequent occur- rence in the region of the coal-deposit above described. Copious springs occur at and near Ottawa, particularly on the Illinois bot- toms in the vicinity of Buffalo rock. Others again exist in the bed of the Big Vermilion, at Vermilionville, and near the mouth of the Mazon river. The springs on section twenty three (H,) have already been alluded to. The two which come to the surface near together, and by the road-side, may be denominated saline waters. Their temperature was apparently above that of other springs in the vi- cinity, and decidedly superior to the mean temperature of the cli- mate. No odor of sulphuretted hydrogen is evolved from either of them, nor do they blacken a solution of acetate of lead. The application of the usual tests, proved them to contain the follow- ing principles :— Carbonic acid. Nitrogen. Super-carbonate of lime. Bi-carbonate of soda. Chloride of sodium. a of calcium. . of magnesium. epee of lime. of magnesia. . of soda. The spring issuing from the sandstone ieyein, nearly on the bank of the Illinois, is a strong sulphureous water ; and in addi- tion to the above enumerated ingredients, contains free sulphur- etted hydrogen and the hydro-sulphuret of sodium. Both these springs were tested for iodine and bromine, with- out discovering either of these substances; although the exam- ination was made on less than a gallon of water. If these prin- ciples are present therefore, their proportion must be inconsidera- ble, compared to the other ingredients. 158 Geology of Upper Ilinois. It is certainly a circumstance which considerably enhances the value of these springs, that one of them is a sulphureous bape while the other two are saline only. Their effects on the economy will undoubtedly be different, and a much larger class of invalids may therefore resort to them with advantage. As the country of the Upper Illinois has been settled only a few years, of course nothing has been ascertained from experience with re- gard to these waters; but from what is known of the constitution of the Virginia springs, it may fairly be presumed, that the use of of these waters will be attended with the same beneficial results, as are experienced at some of those celebrated resorts. The Illi- nois springs occurring, moreover, in a region distinguished for the beauty of its scenery, and lying directly on one of the greatest thoroughfares in the west, must also have their value much en- hanced from these considerations.* The springs in the bed of the Vermilion, at Vermilionville, (O,) are sulphureous in their character ; and at the same time, equally rich in saline matter with the iliziots springs.t 'They are unfor- tunately so situated, however, as to make it difficult to obtain a supply of the water they afford, since their points of issue are completely overflowed at high stages of the river. The spring at Ottawa is simply a saline water. I had no opportunity of test- ing its ingredients, but should judge from its taste that it will be found to resemble in constitution, the main. spring on section twenty-three. A still more valuable resource to the country is fully indicated by the composition of these springs, and the circumstances under which they occur. The large and constant proportion of chloride of sodium they contain, taken along with their occurrence in a region of coal, sandstone, and red marl, leaves no room to doubt, that borings of a suitable depth will load to the supply of a strong and pure brine well adapted to the manufacture of salt. Nor need any apprehension be felt at the detection of so many foreign substances in the waters of the existing springs, since these will be replaced by chloride of sodium, in the supply to be expected * That they were frequented in former times by the deer and the buffalo, is P- parent from the remains of the skeletons of these animals found buried in the in their immediate vicinity. + T examined these waters on the spot, and subsequently a a5 of them con- densed by evaporation, which was furnished me by Dr. Hat Geology of Upper Illinois. 159 from a greater depth. For it appears to be ascertained in respect to these ancient saline deposits, that the common salt in a state of perfect purity, forms the lowest stratum of the series, while the upper layers and members of the formation, such as marls and clays, abound in the sulphates, other more soluble chlorides, iodides and bromides.* -To what depth it may be necessary to penetrate in this region, in order to obtain a supply of salt water, may perhaps be inferred from the borings in Ohio, where they work down from seven to nine hundred feet, which is several hundred feet below the level of tide-water at the mouth of the Mississippi. Now, provided the salt-stratum lies at the same level in Illinois as in Ohio, (which perhaps is not an unreasonable conjecture, ) the borings we Illinois would not have to be carried as deep as in Ohio, - the surface in the latter region is obviously more elevated ion in the former. Iron Ores, Sand, Clay and Soil. Argillaceous carbonate of iron in balls, tuberose masses and kidney-shaped concretions, occur in the clay and marl beds of the Swanson ravine ; but whether in such quantity as will ulti- mately lead to extensive iron manufactures, cannot at present be determined, though when the coal comes to be extensively work- ed, enough ore will perhaps be obtained to furnish the region with a full supply of iron for castings. It is not uncommon to find balls of many pounds weight ; while strong indications of a con- tinuous stratum of the ore, several inches thick, exist at the coal opening on section thirteen. Its specific gravity is 3.025, and being mingled with limestone, its reduction will of course be effected with great facility. A sandstone moreover, is at hand for the construction of furnaces, while the coal will afford an ex- cellent fuel to be employed in the process. Tron-pyrites exists in the large coal stratum in two layers, each about an inch in thickness. As it is a variety strongly prone to decomposition, it can be employed to great advantage in in the ufacture of copperas, from which salt, both sulphuric acid and col- cothar, may be obtained, should their production be found an ob- ject in that region. * Report on Mineral and Thermal Waters, by Prof. Dauner, made to the Brit- ish Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1836, p ~ 160 Geology of Upper Iilinois. Clays, well suited to brick making, are abundant in the prairie country ; and others, adapted to the manufacture of fire brick and pottery, are found overlying the horizontal coal near Ottawa, and at the mouth of the Kankakee. Extensive beds of pure, white sand, derived from the decom- position of the sandstone, occur north of Rockwell, near the little Vermilion. It is advantageously employed in the fabrication of mortar and plaster, and will one day lead to the production of the finer qualities of glass.* The extraordinary crops of grain and potatoes every where ob- tained from the prairie lands, induced me to submit’a portion of the soil to chemical analysis. 'The sample was taken from eight inches below the surface, and after being thoroughly dried by several weeks’ exposure to the air, it afforded the following result on one hundred parts. Water of absorption, - - . . 8.50 Organic matter, - - . - 9.50 Silica, - - - - - 70.00 Saeco. Se ae mot Carbonate of lime, - --. - -- &# 1.50 Carbonate of magnesia, Sulphate of potash, ; In depth and fertility of soil, the Illinois prairies are probably unsurpassed by any tract of country in the known world. Fields near Alton have been planted with Indian corn for fourteen years in succession, without the addition of manure, and still continue to yield an abundant crop. The farmer in this region, moreover, enjoys a great advantage in the boundless extent of cleared land within his reach, which permits him on the exhaustion of tracts long under tillage, to bring into cultivation fresh fields, and thus to allow those which are exhausted to recover their strength, by enjoying a fallow. Occasionally also, where the soil is light, as on the Illinois bottoms, near Buffalo rock, gypseous marls, like mei ee ef * A variety of limestone occurs adjoining the canal, a little east of Camp-rock, well suited to the fabrication of water-cement. The precise locality may be learned on application to Mr. Dixwext Larurop, of Rockwell, a gentleman whose pub- ee and intelligence render him of essential service to the region in which he * * When I first ob- served it, a space of about 15° above the horizon was strongly marked by a pale white light, above which the crimson hue pe- culiar to this phenomenon began to be distinctly visible. At this time, the greatest degree of brightness was to the east of north, assuming no very definite form, but extending, as well as I could judge, about eight or ten degrees east, and reaching in height to the constellation of Cassiopeia’s chair, the lower portion of which was enveloped in its reddening glow.” The action then subsided, but at about eight o’clock, another bright crimson column ascend- ed due north, attaining an altitude some degrees greater than that of the polar star, and maintaining its place about half an hour. Af ter this had faded away, no return was observed till about half past nine, when Mr. Sparks observes, “I again perceived another broad arch of crimson light, ascending several degrees to the west of north. The altitude of this latter column was greater than that of any of the preceding, but I regret to say that MY ardent desires to see it ‘sean the blue vault, and in the zenith glow,’ were not fully realized.” Time at Society Hill is about 274m. earlier than at New Haven. At the moment of this last mentioned return observed by Mr. Sparks, the crisis of the action in our longitude was past. 5 Te The other communication just alluded to, is a letter addressed to Professor Silliman by Mr. J. Darby of Culloden, Geo., latitude Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 283 about 32° 45’, N. Mr. Darby writes: “ Immediately after dark, or at about six o’clock, the sky a little to the north of the star Ca- pella, began to appear luminous, and a luminous arch was soon formed, of about 6° or 8° in breadth, and extending over to the north-western horizon, having the pole-star in its highest point. Soon after the arch was formed, that part of it in the N. E. hori- zon became much brighter, and somewhat broader than the rest ; and this luminous portion gradually rose, and passed on in the arch ; its densest part culminating a little below the north star. It con- tinued its motion to the western horizon. “'The passage of the luminous part of the arch occupied at an hour and a half. It became somewhat fainter, after it had passed the meridian. ‘The arch gradually passed off, beginning first to disappear in the east, so that not a vestige remained at nine o’clock, three hours from its first appearance. ®..§ Bat Mine color of the arch was that of light scarlet, and the most lumin- ous part a little darker, and much more intense. It appeared to be a semicircle, having for its base about 60° of the horizon. It differed from the Aurora in its regular outline, and its regular mo- tion from east to west. It was observed with wonder by many in this region, and was suchas no one had ever witnessed before.” Time at Culloden, 45m. earlier than at New Haven, nearly. - At the date of this letter, Mr. Darby was not aware of the con- temporaneous occurrence of the Aurora at the north. The ap- pearances he describes are certainly very unusual; but must, of course, be attributed to the phenomenon which was at the time exciting so great admiration and astonishment, throughout all the northern states. We learn from some of the English journals, that this Aurora was seen in Great Britain. It is mentioned in a number of the Cambridge Chronicle, published in November, and also in Lou- don’s Magazine of Natural History, No. XII, Dec. 1837. Its splendors seem to have been in a great measure concealed by clouds, and the Aurora of Nov. 12, two days previous, attracted a much higher degree of attention. A notice of this latter phe- nomenon, by J. H. Stanway, Esq., of Brookfield, near Manches- ter, dated Nov. 15, and published in Loudon’s Magazine, contains this incidental mention of the Aurora under consideration : _ * My attention was also last night directed, by the oscillations of the needle, to the existence of an Aurora Borealis; but, by 284 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. reason of the interference of clouds, it was not long visible. The variations noted, were as follows :— h. mm. h.. m. Baie RO OF 12:30 3° 238%: 37 SH DA8B 25 2 < BTA (AS Se RE 2 The mean variation for the month of November, had been determined to be 26° 48’ 45”. The writer continues :— 5 “At half past twelve, a patch of the most intense blood red colors which I have ever seen, was visible, free from the interpo- sition of clouds. The whole of the sky had an awful appear- ance ; for the tinge of red which pervaded the whole expanse, as- sumed, in many points, from the depth of colors above, and the density of the clouds below, the dark copper tint, which is seen on the disk of the moon during a lunar eclipse.” The time here mentioned would correspond nearly to a quarter before eight in New Haven ; and the display which seems to have been observed at its height, must have been almost contempo- raneous with some of the earlier appearances noticed in this country. The time included between the earliest and latest ob- servations on the needle, is equivalent to that from half past six to eight, here. ; _ None of the scientific periodicals published on the continent of Europe, of a date sufficiently recent to contain notices of this Aurora, have yet reached us. Considering the intensity of the auroral action in England, as observed by Mr. Stanway, we call- not doubt that the phenomenon manifested itself over a great part, if not the whole, of the continent. General Remarks. “In considering the various accounts, not only of this, but of all great Auroras, we are not the least astonished at their vast extent. There can hardly be a doubt that often, at the same moment, the auroral action is going on in every longitude of our hemisphere; and possibly, at the same time, quite as extensively in the south- ern hemisphere also. ‘True, there is commonly believed to be some mysterious connection between this phenomenon and the absence of the sun, or, in other words, the night; but to what can this be owing, save to the fact, that, during the day, the light of the Aurora, like that of the stars, is necessarily swallowed up in the radiance of the sun? On one oecasion dur f Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 285 ring the last autumn, the writer, being on Manhattan Island, a little north of New York city, was fully persuaded that a power- ful auroral action was going on, between the hours of eleven and twelve, A.M. ‘The sun was, in the mean time, shining, without the slightest cloud to obscure his lustre; but along the north there lay a heavy bank of haze, above which a flickering or wavy light was obvious to the eye for more than half an hour. The same appearance was also noticed by Mr. J. H. Pettingell, of New York, who continued to observe it after the writer’s attention was withdrawn. No magnetic needle was at the time accessible ; and accordingly it was impossible to verify the truth of the observa- tion, by an appeal to that instrument. In a paper appended to a Report of the Regents of the Univer- sity of the State of New York, for 1836, it is stated by Professor Joslin, that, on the day following the great Aurora of Nov. 17, 1835, “there was such a display of auroral clouds as almost to justify us in considering it a proper Aurora seen in the day-time.” But if the Aurora be exclusively a nocturnal phenomenon, it is desirable that the fact should be established. ‘This will be one step, at least, toward the development of its causes. By a series of observations, the truth can be ascertained, either positively or negatively ; but the needle must, from the nature of the case, be the chief means of bringing it to light. The agitation of the needle during the existence of an Aurora, unobserved at the time, in consequence of clouds, but subse- quently ascertained by observations elsewhere made, has been repeatedly noticed. An extract of a letter from M. Humboldt to M. Arago, contained in the Comptes Rendus of the French Acad- emy of Sciences, No. 1, Jan. 1837, cites a statement of M. Gauss, inserted in the Jounal Astronomique de Schumacher, No. 276, that the disturbance of the needle at Gottingen, on the seventh of February, 1835, was greater than ever before known; and adds that, at the same time, a beautiful Aurora was chearved by M. Feld, Professor of Natural Philosophy, at Braunsberg, in East- tern Prussia. It is stated also in the Comptes Rendus of April 17, 1837, that, on the sixth of the same month, an Aurora was observed by M. Morren, of the College Royal d’Angers ; and that, at Paris, in the mean time, the sky was covered with clouds, but the needle violently disturbed. 286 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. It is stated by M. Wartmann, of Geneva, in the Bibliotheque Universelle for October, 1836, that “an illustrious philosopher, M. Arago, has often announced in advance, the early appearance of an Aurora Borealis; being apprised of its approach by the ex- traordinary oscillations of the magnetic needle, which is regularly observed every day at the Royal Observatory of Paris; and that the event has confirmed his prediction on the same day, though frequently the phenomenon has occurred at such a distance as not to be observable at Paris.” It would hence appear, that auroral action has been detected during the day, by the aid of the needle: and it is quite probable that the light would also have been observed in the absence of the sun. Although the Aurora undoubtedly manifests itself, on many occasions, contemporaneously in places situated in every direction from the pole, there is no reason to believe that its intensity is, in the same latitude, every where the same at any given moment; nor that its successive fits come on, or reach their height, in dif- ferent longitudes precisely at the same time. There is great rea- son, however, for the contrary opinion ; as is manifest, indeed, from the various accounts which we have condensed in the pres- ‘Nor does it seem that the disturbing influence of the Aurora upon the magnetic needle is similar in different longitudes. There are three observations, of the four recorded in the extract above cited from Loudon’s Magazine, which we are able to compare with corresponding observations made in New Haven. After ma- king ample allowance both ways, for possible errors in time, We are able nevertheless to say with positiveness, that, while the nee dle in New Haven was deflected to the east; in Brookfield, neat Manchester, its disturbance was in the contrary direction ; sess ordinary variation in both places being westward. Not only are the causes of the Aurora as yet a sealed book to us, but we have not been able to ascertain, otherwise than con- jecturally, the altitude of the illuminated substance above the earth’s surface. {[t is even a question whether this substance is within or beyond the limits of the atmosphere. The question is one which it is exceedingly difficult to settle. To identify posi- tively, particular beams seen from different situations, is not 5? simple a matter as it may seem. The same beams observed from different points of view, may present very different phases ; while Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 287 their fleeting existence and their mutability while they do exist, the great numbers which, in every striking display, commonly spring up and fade incessantly, and finally, the restlessness with which they are momentarily changing their positions, till at length they vanish, are all circumstances precisely suited to con- found all simmiteneoas observation, atid to render it next to im- possible to obtain a parallax. ‘These remarks apply to columns seen laterally. If to both the observers, the Aurora is coronal or Vertical, the difficulty becomes still greater. Since the corona seems, every where, to settle itself at a point in the heavens in the line of the dipping needle, it follows that every place, during a vertical Aurora, must have its own corona, which can be seen from no other position. Were it not so, the distance of the Au- rora might be determined at once; since the corona, if its appa- rent form were real, would predatt a most striking object, visible at the same time to a multitude of observers; while the steadi- ness of its position would afford abundant timés for accurate ob- servation. There is one mode, and, as it seems to the writer, only one, in which the question admits of being settled. It may, after all, lead only to an approximation to the true altitude of the Aurora; still it may unquestionably determine the limit, beyond which the luminous vapor cannot be. This is to institute a series of obser- vations along the same meridian, in order to determine, as accu- rately as possible, the lowest latitude at which the auroral columns, on a given occasion, reach the zenith. Let an observer, then, situ- ated at any given distance due south, observe the greatest altitude at any time attained by the columns directly north of him, and a parallax may be obtained, by means of which the problem may be solved. For inatece on the occasion we have been consid- ering, a corona was formed at Richmond, Va., and perhaps even farther south. At Culloden, Geo., the greatest altitude observed during the evening, was about equal to that of the pole star. Were these two places on the same meridian, we should be able to say, from knowing their difference of latitude to be 4° 47’ 17” very nearly, that the height of the Aurora could not be much greater than two hundred geographical miles. At Society Hill, the greatest observed altitude appears to have been about 40°. A similar calculation founded on this observa- tion, would reduce the extreme height of the Aurora at its sum- 288 Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. mit, to about one hundred and sixty geographical miles. It must be observed, however, that we know not how far south of Rich- mond the Aurora was vertical. If it extended a single degree farther south, we should infer an altitude of but very little more than one hundred miles. The result of a calculation similar to the foregoing, made in Europe upon the Aurora of Oct. 18, 1836, by M. Wartmann of Geneva, is stated in the Comptes Rendus of April 17, 1837, to give an altitude of two hundred leagues, or about six hundred _ miles. Two observers may obtain a parallax of the summit of the highest column observed due north, or of the extreme altitude in that direction of the general mass of illuminated vapor, when the Aurora is vertical to neither. This will give the distance of the Aurora from either observer, and by consequence its perpendicu- lar height at the point where it is vertical. The mode of calcu- lation, it must, after all, be confessed, is far from being so accurate as could be desired. Mr. Dalton, in his Meteorological Essays, estimates the altitude of the summits of the auroral columns, at about one hundred and fifty English miles. Mr. Dalton’s observations were made upon an auroral arch, at right angles to the magnetic equator, and he assumes this arch, and all others similar, without proof, to have an altitude equal to that of the highest extremities of the ordinary columns. Mr. Dalton supposes the auroral columns to be cylin- drical, to stand nearly parallel to each other, in the line of the dip, and to have a length about ten times as great as their diameter, and about equal to the height of their bases above the surface of the earth. Allowing the auroral columns to be all of equal di- mensions, a concession, however, which we cannot possibly make, Mr. Dalton’s conclusions are pretty well sustained by observation, and by mathematical demonstration. Mairan supposes the mean altitude of the Aurora to be one hun- dred and seventy-five leagues, or about five hundred miles ; while Euler places it more than one thousand miles above the surface the earth. On the other hand, we have estimates which give it an elevation no greater than that of the ordinary upper clouds, oF anions it iain the limit of a few miles. Such is that of rquharson of Scotland, who supposes the ordinary contin patty be 2000 feet at the base, and 4000 or 5000 at the Aurora Borealis of November 14, 1837. 289 summit. Such also is that of Professor Joslin, who supposes an intimate connection to exist between clouds of certain forms, and auroral phenomena, But these seem to find little support in mathematical computation, founded on the observation of par- ax. During the expedition of Capt. Franklin to the polar regions, however, in 1820, contemporaneous observations were made on three Auroras, by Lieutenant Hood and Dr. Richardson, in latitude 64° 2/ 24”, from points eighteen leagues distant from each other ; and from the parallactic angles obtained by them, an altitude was deduced of two or two and a quarter leagues—equal to six or seven English miles. It is possible that the height may diminish as we approach the poles. According to the theory of M. Hansteen, the auroral cloud is an iaideiation from the earth, which rises directly upward, but becomes luminous only on escaping from the atmosphere, at a height of forty five or fifty miles. But there have been differences of opinion in regard to the ori- gin of the auroral vapor, as to whether it is terrestrial or celestial. That it partakes of the motion of the earth, in its diurnal revolu- tion, is sufficiently evident. Whether this fact alone will demon- strate it to be a terrestrial emanation, may possibly be disputed ; butit is certainly an argument in favor of that belief. The Aurora has been represented to be attended with rustling or crackling noises. In our latitude we have no very good evi- dence of the occurrence of these: and, indeed, if the auroral va- por be, in truth situated as far above the earth as our computations as yet compel us to place it, we know not how such audible evi- dences of its action can reasonably be expected. 'The case would be somewhat different, if the sounds described were heavy peals or explosions, like the reverberations of thunder. These sounds are represented as being more remarkable, and of more frequent oc- currence in the higher latitudes. This circumstance might result from the more violent action of the Aurora, as we approach the poles; but it may, also, be in part, a consequence of the greater proximity of the phenomenon to the earth’s surface. M. Mairan, believing the auroral matter to ascend from the earth, and during a coronal Aurora, from the immediate region of the observer, sup- poses these sounds to be occasioned by its upward passage through the lower regions of the atmosphere. — XXXIV.—No. 2. 37 290 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. Thus far, however, the reality of such sounds, in any latitude, is seriously questioned. The Aurora is a phenomenon well suited to terrify the ignorant, and thus predispose them to connect with it athousand marvels, which have no existence: and it may even so far excite the imaginations of the better informed, as to inca- pacitate them fairly to judge of the fact; since for the most part, their impressions are previously formed. The world is, after all, very much in the dark, in regard to all that relates to this wonderful phenomenon. It is perhaps some- what doubtful, whether, in our day, this darkness is to be enlight- ened. We certainly live in a remarkable era, as it respects the frequency and the splendor of auroral exhibitions; and the phi- losophers of the present time will grievously neglect their duty, if they fail to take every possible advantage of the opportunities of observation, which alin are so happy as to enjoy. New Haven, Conn., Feb. 22,1 Arr. I[1.—On the Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle in different parts of the United States; by Ex1as Loomis, Pro- fessor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy i in Western wei — ge Asour three years ago, ¥ formed the design of collecting as far as possible all the observations which had ever been made on the variation of the magnetic needle within the limits of the United States. I was of opinion that such a work would contribute something to the cause of science, and might also be of practical utility to public surveyors, who very generally in this country make use of the magnetic needle in their surveys. ‘The Connec- ticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, gave me permission to write in their name to gentlemen in different parts of the country Te- questing information on the subject. A great number of letters Were written, and to most of them, answers have been received. The amount of information they embodied was not so great as had been expected. I therefore hesitated about prosecuting my original plan, and this, together with an absence of more than 2 year from the country, is the reason that those observations have notsooner been made public. Although the article which is here presented is very imperfect, eiegesotilot the number, ane Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 291 frequently in the accuracy of. the observations, still it is thought that its publication may prove useful at least in two respects if in no others. First, some do not seem to regard it as settled beyond dispute, that the magnetic needle has at present a retrograde move- ment compared with its motion the last century. I trust the ob- servations I have here brought together, may be considered as fi- nally settling this important question. And secondly, it is hoped that this article may remind men of science of the importance of observations of this kind, and of the need there is of multiply- ing them toa much greater extent than has been hitherto done. And itis hoped moreover that they will not be content with sim- ply making their observations, but that they will see to their pub- lication. Probably many individuals who have taken observa- tions sufficient to determine the magnetic variation in their re- spective places, have deferred publishing them because they did - not regard the observations as of suflicient consequence. But al- though it is of little importance to the theory of magnetism to be informed of the variation of the needle at one place alone, yet when like observations are collected from every part of the coun- try, their united value is immense. It is hoped then, that who- ever has accurate magnetic observations which have not been published, will see that they are recorded in this or some other public journal. Such a record may be made within the space of two or three lines, and if the practice were extensively followed, we should have the materials for laying down with considerable accuracy the lines of equal variation throughout the United States. The substance of the letters which I have received, may be gathered from the following observations. Mr. John Johnson, Surveyor General for Vermont, thus writes from Burlington : “Tn the year 1817 I determined the latitude of the source of the St. Croix, 45° 55’ N., and longitude about 67° 55’ W. The va- ration of the magnetic needle washere 14° W. Proceeding due north to latitude 48° 1’ N. I found the variation 17° 45’ W. In 1818, near Timiscuata Lake, latitude 47° 38’, longitude about 69° W., the variation was 16° 31’. In 1818 at the Matwaska settle- ment, on the river St. John, latitude 47° 12’, longitude about 68° 10’, the variation was 16° 45’ W. » “ At the University of Vermont, in Burlington, near where I re- side, lat. 44° 28’, long. about 73° 14’, I found in 1818, the varia- tion 7° 30’ W. ; in 1822, 7° 42’ W.; 1830, 8° 10’; 1831, 8° 15’; 292 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 1832, 8° 25’; in 1834, 8° 50’ W. The town lines north of Onion river, Vermont, were run from 1784 to 1787 at N. 36° E. About twenty years after, the same lines were N. 35° E., and the last summer-I tried and found the same lines N. 37° 50’ E.” Prof. Farrar, of Harvard University, Massachusetts, writes thus: “J endeavored in 1810 to ascertain the variation of the needle in this place as accurately as I could. I made it 7° 30’ W., at 10 o'clock, A.M. Ihave now (July, 1835) observed the neal with great care almost every day for the last two months. ‘The mean of my ten o’clock observations gives 8° 51’ W.” Prof. Hitchcock of Amherst College, determined the variation of the needle at Deerfield, Mass., in 1811, to be 5° 28’ W Mr. George Gillet, Surveyor for the state of Connecticut, de- termined the variation of the needle at Hebron, Conn., to be in 1805, 4° 50’ W., and in 1835, 6° 10’ W. Prof. R. M. Patterson of Virginia University, lat. 38° 2’ N., long. 78° 31’ W., states that the needle there, in 1835, had no sensible declination. Mr. John Bethune, surveyor for the state of Georgia, gives the variation at Milledgeville, lat. 33° 7’ in 1805 at 5° 30’ E., and in 1835 at 4° 40’ BE. Prof. James Hamilton of Nashville University, Tennessee, states the variation at that place to have been 7° 7’ E. in 1835, and adds, “I have lost the record of observations made several times since the year 1827, and have forgotten what the variation has been heretofore. ‘The city surveyor however assures me that in the year 1829 I gave him the variation 6° 50/ E., and that he has it on record.” Mr. James H. Weakly, surveyor for the state of Alabama, writes from Florence; “'The variation of the needle is here 6° 28’ E. Dur- ing the years 1817, 8, 9, it was about 6° 35’ E. About the year 1809, it was 8° 10’ E. at Mobile; at this time it is about 7° 12’ E. During the survey of the Creek Territory in 1832, which lies on the eastern border of the state, it was found in some places in the northern part of the survey 5° 25’ E., and in the southern part about 6° 30’ E.” In addition to the preceding, the Hon. Timothy Pitkin, of Con- necticut, has kindly put into my hands a collection of documents containing many very valuable observations. In 1810,arepresem- tation on the subject of the variation of the magnetic needle was laid before congress, by Mr. Shaw of Maryland. This tation was referred to the consideration of a committee of the House of Representatives, of which Mr. Pitkin was chairman. The committee deemed the subject of sufficient importance to merit investigation, and accordingly directed circular letters to men of science in different parts of the country, requesting infor- ~ mation on the present declination of the magnetic needle. ‘The answers to these circulars embodied considerable information of Which the following is a summary. President Wheelock of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, States that in 1765, the declination of the needle was at Hanover about 7° W.; at present (1810) 4° 15’ W. James Whitlaw, a surveyor in Ryegate, Vermont, lat. 44° 10’ N. and long. 72° 10’ W., states the declination at that place in 1801 to have been nearly 7° W. President Messer of Brown University, Rhode Island, states the variation there in 1769 at 63° W. ; but in 1790 it was, if the variation compass made use of could be relied on, only 3° 46’ W. [I have myself italicised the above clause to intimate my convic- tion that there must have been some error in this observation, or else that the compass did not in both instances occupy the same Spot. It is not credible that the needle had changed 23° in twenty one years.—E. L. Mr. Asher Miller of Middletown, Conn., states the variation at Danbury for 1810, at 5° 41’ W.; at Lyme 40 30’; Pomfret 5° 5 ; Hebron 4° 50’; East Hartford 4° 46’. President Smith of Princeton College, New Jersey, gives the Variation at that place for 1810 at 7° W. Andrew Ellicott, surveyor of the United States, gives the va- riation of the needle at various points on the western boundary of Pennsylvania. But as these observations are published in the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, they are not here repeated. Mr. Ellicott adds however, “ the line of no variation in the United States at present, (1810,) crosses the west boundary of Pennsylvania, about thirty miles south of Lake Erie, and enters that lake near to Presque Isle.” Nicholas King, public surveyor, states the variation at Wash- ington, Dec. 23, 1809, to have been 52’ Madison of William and Mary’s College, Williamsburg, Virginia, lat. 37° 15’, long. 76° 35’, states the variation there to 294 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. have been 43’ E. 1809. Other observations about the same time made it 23’ E. In 1694, the variation was 5° W. At Norfolk, lat. 36° 51’, long. 76°, he found no variation in 1809. At Rich- mond, lat. 37° 27’, long. 77° 25’, nearly 57’ E. In 1728, on the boundary between Virginia and North Carolina, lat. 36° 31’, long. 76°, nearly, the variation was settled at 3° W. In 1752, at Cape Henry, lat. 37°, long. 754°, the variation was 4° 40’ W. Jonathan Price, of Newbern, N. C., lat. 35° 7’ N., states the va- riation of the needle to have been there, in 1796, 2° 40’ E.; in 1806, it was less than 2° E., and in 1809, he found it 1° 45’ E. Jared Mansfield, Surveyor General of the United States, gives the following observations ; “S$. E. corner of Western Reserve, lat. 41° #3 long. 80° 37’ W., variation, 1°21’E. 10 miles —_ on the _ parallel of alia ef 1 37 20 3 1 48 33 tc 4 ‘cc & 2 4 43 ¢ 6 6s 6 2 92. 57 6c 3 “ 66 2. 30 123 74 6c (6 &“ 3.57 In latitude 40° 55’ and longitude 81° 48’, “ 2 36 Marietta, lat. 39° 25’, long. 81° 26’ W. ae 2.36 Detroit, lat. 42°. 30’, long. 82° 56’, 4 2 48 Rapids of the Beak lat. 41°. 30’, long. 83° 30’, . 3 25 Fort Defiance, lat. 41° 15’, long. 849 23, « A 30 Cincinnati, lat. 39° 7’, long. 84° 27’, 4 5 0 Mouth of Miami River, lat. 39° 8’, long. 84° 45/, 6 5 10 Latitude 38° 45’N., longitude 85° 15/ W., 5 25 Latitude 38° 10’, longitude 86° 307, 6s 30 Near the Falls of the Ohio, lat. 38° 20’ N., long. 85° 40’ W., es 5 50 Vincennes, lat. 38° 12, long. 87° 20, “ 6 45 11 nee north of the mouth of the Wabash 6 7 10 Riv Mouth of the Ohio River, lat. 37° 4’, long. 89° W.., 7 20 , IL, lat, 38° 36’, long. 90° ¥, «, 8 25 — Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 295 _ Nearly all of the foregoing observations have been made within the four or five last years (from 1810.) ‘They go to the estab- lishment of a principle which will be found of considerable use to surveyors, viz. that the quantity of variation easterly in the same parallel, increases gradually and nearly equally in advancing westward at the rate of a degree in about 60 English miles.” — Mr. Edward Livingston states that the first observation made in Louisiana by Father Laval, in 1720, determined the variation at New Orleans to be 2° E.; and that by sixty-two observations made by Lason in 1806, who employed in each six different nee- dles, which made 372 observations, he had found a mean of 8° 2 39” East variation. The following were copied from the returns made to the Trea- sury department by the public surveyors. . Mouth of the Scioto, - - variation 5° EE. in 1805. Augusta, on the Ohio, = - - s 5 -E... 1806, Jeffersonville, - - a: . 45’ BE. sé Natchez, . E. 1802. In Louisiana, lat. 310, fone 90 10 W. varia. ; 20E. 1807. ashe Washita river, lat. 34°, lon. about 920 W.8 20E. ¥*1804. Amelia Island, lat. 30° 44’, long. 81920°W. 2 W. = 1775. Mouth of St. rales lat. 45° 5’, long. 67° 12’, 12 19W. = 1797. Pensacola, lat. 30° 25’, long. 87° 12’ W. 430E. 1780. Port Royal, S. C. long. 79° 30’ - os Bi: i Aes. Charleston, S. C. - - «. § 48.4. d0d4. Nantucket, - . - - ~.. 6.30 W,: +1776. Plymouth, — - - - Cpe See eee vets Boston Harbor, = - - - <=.) FD We. 1576. Penobscot Bay, - - - a Besides the preceding observations, few of which have ever been published, I have endeavored to collect together all the pub- lished observations I could find. In Douglass’ History of the British Settlements in America, Vol. I, pages 270-2, is given the Variation for several places in the United States ; and in Kalm’s Travels in North America, Vol. I, page 43, are given some more observations. In Samuel Williams’s History of Vermont, 2d edition, 1809, is given a table of all the magnetic observations *By William Dunbar. 296 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. in the Eastern States with which he was acquainted ; and in the Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, as well as im those of the American Academy, various observations are recorded, The substance of all of these is given in the general table which follows. In the Aurora, a paper published at Philadelphia, July 27, 1813, is a communication from David M’Clure, stating the variation in Philadelphia at that time to be 2° 25’ W. In the same paper for Sept. 12th, is a communication from Thomas Whitney, mathe- matical instrument maker, stating the following facts. It ap- pears that the variation was here 8° 30’ W. in 1710. In 1798, it was observed by R. Brooks to be 1° 30’ W. In 1804, it was ob- served by several men of science to be 2° W. An anonymous - communication in the same Journal for Sept. 15th, states the va- riation at Lewis, in Delaware, in 1795, to have been 55’ west. _ The following facts I have learned from various sources. Mr. N. Goodwin, surveyor in Hartford, Ct., determined the variation at that place in 1824, to be 5° 45’ W.; in 1828, 6° 3’ W.; and in 1829, 6° 3’W. He also deterrained the variation in New Ha- ven for 1828 to be 5° 17’ W. The variation at Pensacola, Florida, was stated to me in 1835, by an officer of the navy, to be 6° E. The variation for New York is given at 4° 40’ W. in 1824, on Blunt’s map of that year. The variation at New Haven is also given at 5° 10 W. in 1811, on a map of that city. The variation at Montpelier, Vt., in 1829, was 12°25’ W., as given in Executive Documents, Vol. IV, No. 190, page 23. Variation at Kaskaskia, Ill., in 1809, 7° 20’ E., according to American State Papers—Public Lands, Vol. II, page 195. Variation at Alton, Ill., was given me at 8° E. in 1835. Variation at Athens, Ga., in 1837, 4° 31’ E., as determined by Prof. McCay. Variation at South Hanover, Indiana, in 1837, 4° 35/ E., as de- termined by Prof. Dunn. Variation at West Chester, Pa., in 1832, was 3° 25’ W., as ob- served by Prof. Bache. The Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York for 1837, contains the observations made at eleven different places in the State. ‘These are all all to be found in our general table. Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 207 Dr. H. H. Sherwood, of New York city, has politely furnished me with several statements of the declination in different parts of the country, which are also incorporated in the table. Besides the preceding, I have been furnished with various additional observations, by the kind assistance of Mr. E. C. Her- rick, of New Haven. Some of these are extracted from “ Long’s Expedition & to the Rocky Mountains,” and “ Long’s Expedition to the Source of St. Peter’s River.” These are all to be found in our general table, and need not be repeated here. The remain- ing observations are as follows: Mr. Jedediah Herrick, of Hamp- den, Penobscot county, Maine, in a letter of April, 1837, says: “Thirty-two years ago, I found the declination at this place, by an ordinary semicircle, 114° W., and, during the past month, have made a series of observations with a better instrument and much care. Declination 13° 4’W. In 1825, at the Forks of the Penobscot, lat. 45° 30’, found the declination 14° 45’ W.” An almanac, by Nathan Wilde, for 1836, published at Keene, N. H., contains the declination of the needle for each year, from 1812 to 1836. The observations were made by Mr. Wilde with a needle two feet long, at Chesterfield, lat. 42° 53’, long. 72° 20’. They are all shown in our table. In June, 1837, the variation at the same place was determined, by Mr. A. C. Twining, to be 8° 5’ The variation at Barton, Vt., was determined July 8, 1837, in the evening, at 10° 51/ W., by Mr. Twining; and at St. Johns- bury, July 22, 1837, at 11 P. M., 9° 16’ W. At Burlington, Vt., the variation is stated by Prof. Benedict at 9° 45/, or 9° 50 The Gazette and Merenry, published at Greenfield, Mass., Dec. 19, 1837, states: ‘It has recently been determined in Sesrhetd. , by a number of observations with accurate instruments, that the variation of the needle is at present 7° 57’ W.” At New York city, about three years ago, the variation was 4° 50’ W., as stated by Mr. W. C. Redfield. Mr. G. C. Schaeffer, of New York city, states that Prof. Ren- wick, of Columbia College, determined the magnetic variation in the summer of 1837 at Constable’s Point, about five miles S. W. of the City Hall, under favorable circumstances, being on a sandy ee far away ‘from local attraction. - Variation, 5° 40’ W. At Philadelphia, Sept. 1837, variation 3° 52’ W., as stated by Mr. Walter R. Johnson. Vor. XXXIV.—No. 2. 38 298 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. In the preceding enumeration, I have not included a table of magnetic variations which is given in Vol. xv1, page 63, of this Journal. This table professes to give the variation of the needle at intervals generally of five years, from 1673 to 1800, for Bos- ton, Falmouth, and Penobscot. I have rejected the table, be- cause I am satisfied it is a caleulated table. This assertion will sound strange to some, for I have more than once been referred to it by men of science, as a repository of exceedingly valuable ob- servations, and they seem never to have suspected that the obser- vations were not genuine. But there is no room for the shadow of a doubt, that those numbers were mostly calculated. The evi- dence is as follows: The table is a very old one, being found in the Almanac for 1771, by Nathaniel Ames. A copy of this al- manac is in possession of Mr. William Lyon, of New Haven. There is also in the possession of Mr. Adam Winthrop, of Lou- isiana, grandson of Prof. Winthrop of Harvard University, a small printed sheet, in the form of a handbill, containing the same table. It is without date, but bears marks of age, and was found among the papers of Prof. Winthrop. It is my opinion that this is the original from which the table in the almanac was copied, and as it is a document to which circumstances have given - considerable consequence, I have here transcribed it verbatim. “ A table, exhibiting the variation of the compass in Boston and the parts adjacent, from the earliest accounts of it to the end of the 18th century; agreeable to the actual Observations distin- guished by Obs. By John Winthrop, Esq., Hollisian Professor of Mathematics at Harvard College, in Cambridge, in New England. Years. Variation at Boston. Falmouth. Penobscot. 1673 11° 15/ 12° 00 12° 08 1671S. cde AE GD 11 45 11 53 1689 10 30: 11 15 11.23" 1700 10- OObs. 10 45 10 53 1705 9 46 10 31 10 39 1710 9 32 10 17 10 25 1715 9 18 16.22 10 li 1720 9 5 9 50 9 58 1725 8 51 9 36 g 44 1730 8 37 9. 22 9: 30 1735 8 23 9 8 9.16 : 1742 8 OObs. 8 45 8 53 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 299 Years. Variation at Boston. Falmouth. Penobscot. 1745 Cate oye Gt 8° 49 1750 7 42 8 27 8 35 1757 7 20 Obs. os 6 8.58 os, 2461 (fey ‘= 8 0 Obs 1763 7. 0 Obs. 7 A5 Obs 7... 63 1770 6 46 ese | 7°39 1775 6 32 ES Te E26 1780 6 18 je y Sac BS 1785 6 A 6 A9 6.67 1790 5 50 6. 35 6 43 1795 5. 36 6 21 6 29 1800 5 22 a 6. 1h The table which is given in Ames’s Almanac for 1771, is ex- actly like the preceding, with six exceptions, viz. the variations for Boston are given 9° 45’ for 9° 46’; 8° 57’ for 8° 51’; 6° 457 for 6° 46’; and 5° 35’ for 5° 36’. In the column for Falmouth is given 10° 12’ for 10° 17’, and in the column for Penobscot 8° 32’ for 8° 35’. I have no doubt that these were typographical errors in the almanac, and that the sheet in the possession of Mr. Adam Winthrop, which was doubtless printed under the eye of Prof. Winthrop, is the correct copy. It is evident that the prece- ding table was entirely computed, with the exception of those numbers marked Obs. For (1.) the table was published before 1771. One quarter of the numbers were then certainly compu- ted. (2.) The variations for Falmouth are constantly 45’ greater than those for Boston, and those for Penobscot 8’ greater than those for Falmouth. Tio one who has ever made magnetic ob- servations, this will amount to an absolute demonstration t those numbers were never observed. (3.) The observations from 1700 to 1800, with the exception of those marked Ods., all occur at intervals of five years, and the change of declination for this period is constantly 14’ or 15’. The observations of 1742 and 1763, showing a change of one degree in 21 years, or somewhat more than 14/ in five years, doubtless furnished the data for the table. (4.) Penobscot and Falmouth, during the first years con- tained in the table, were small settlements. Penobscot was little more than a military post, and Falmouth was devastated by the Indians in 1692, and the town entirely broken up. ‘The inhabit- ants did not return until about 1708. Who then is this indefati- 300 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. gable observer, that, with clock-like regularity, at the expiration of every five years, returns to measure the magnetic variation ; and how does his zeal reprove the sluggishness of the scientific institutions in our country, at many of which the variation of the needle has not been even once observed? (5.) The table does not purport to be a@ table of observations, but to be “ agreeable to the actual observations distinguished by Obs.” The numbers marked Obs. were then observed, and the others were computed from them, so that six observations were the foundation of the whole table. The matter appears to me so plain, that it seems useless to argue the question further. The table which is given in volume sixteenth of this Journal, has copied the errors of Ames’s almanac, and thus, by introducing a little irregularity into the numbers, has given them more the air of actual observations. The table is still further disguised, by omitting the Obs. which marks certain numbers in the original table. If now I have sue- ceeded in showing that this “interesting document,” as Mr. De Witt terms it, contains but six actual observations, I shall consider that I have effected no small object ; for it certainly is a fact not very creditable to American science, that a table which Prof. Win- throp, nearly three quarters of a century ago, computed for his own amusement, should now be referred to as composed of genu- ine observations. I have taken the more pains to expose this imposition, (for imposition I think it may be called, although @ perfectly honest one on the part of Prof. Winthrop, ) because it is necessary to be particularly on our guard against confounding cal- culations with observations, and because in the progress of my investigations, I have met with other tables similar to the prece- ding one of Prof. Winthrop. I have now mentioned all the new magnetic observations which I have been able to collect, and have also stated where other pub- lished observations are recorded. The results of all these are embraced in the following general table : Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 301 Table, oe = Variation of the Magnetic Needle in — oe of the Uni- ed States, from the first settlement of th | Place. Lat. N.|Lon. W.; Variation. | Date. | Authority. AIN Oo 14D rio ’ | N. dotcdery of State, 48 1/67 55,17 45 w.)1818 Mr. John Johnson. Timiscuata Lake, 47 38169 O16 31 1818 « “ Matwaska, 47 1268 1016 45 |j1818° “ bs Source of tl oe ix,}45 55/67 55/14 OO |1817 o - Forks of Penobscot, (45 30/68 30/14 45 [1825 Mr. J. Herrick. Mouth of the St. Ceili 45 567 1212 19 |1797,Chart. Ha 44 4068 5511 15 |1805.Mr. J. Herrick. ss sel ee ee 1IQ 4 1 se sé Pownal, 43 5170 10) 8 O- [1761 Prof. Winthrop. Falmouth, 43 39:70 19|7 45 |1763 “ se: Kittery, 43 670 35) 7 46 (1771 Holland. NEW HAMPSHIRE, = Hanover, 43 41,72 10| 7 O (1765 Pres. Wheelock. oe ot toe “hs 4 15 1810 “6 73 Portsmouth, 43 5/70 45 7 48 (1771 Holland. Chesterfield, 42 53,72 20) 6 26 +|1812 Nathan Wilde. 6“ 66 6s “| 6 25 1813 “6 6“ 6“ se eel ee we) G& 17 1814 6s ss ia be be | th be 6 7 1815 “ sé ce (ta ee) ee 2 6 4 1S16 sé“ “cc oe ee sé 66 6 2 1817 sé se “ce se sole wl g g 1818 ‘e “ “cc 6 66) eT GG 3 1819 6 6 ss (Te) ee) ed 6 0 1820 “cc iT4 (73 se Se es ae {821 6“ 6“ ss se selec 6] G 1D 1822 3 “cc ss CT ee. ee) ee 6 30 1823 “cc “cs 6“ se ee | ee 6) G& 40 1824 6“ T3 ra $46 et 35 1895) sc (73 6c 66 6c; 6G CGE 6 35 1826 “6 “ec ac 66 66) eG 45 1827 sé sé sé se 66 | ok OG 6 52 1828 “ec ee “e (7 ey ee ee 7 oO 1829 sé ee se [Te ) ee | ee 7 6 1830 3 ac 6s CL ef 10 11831 6“ sé as 66 66 | Gk OS vi 15 1832 oe sé “cc 66 66 | 66 OSE 7 30 1833 “6 6é ts dé 66 p68. e6 F oy 35 1834 6a 6 “ss 66 6h | 6k Oke | 40 pe 66 sé ss ee ee Bear f 45 “ce “ec ex we whe 6) 8 5 = & ba Twining. Hinsdale, 42 4672.17 6 0 (tTWri ected | Barto 44 44/72 3/10 51 ‘|1837\Mr. A. C. Twining. Burlington, 44 28/73 14| 7 38 1798 Dr. Williams. se ee} se 66) 7 30) 1818\Mr. John Johnson, 302 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. Place. Lat. N.}Lon. W.,; Variation. , Date. Authority. VERMONT, Se eS! Burlington, 44 28/73 14) 7 42 w.1822Mr. John Johnson. “ec ie es eT: 8 10 1830 ac ss se ee CECE ee 8 1D 1831 oe bh se so Ge] oe ee) BQH 1832 “cc cc “cc 6 bel ee 6] 50 18 ec “ “ we se} ee 66] G 45 1837 Prof. Benedict. St. Johnsbury, 44 2671 55} 9 16 1837 Mr. A.C. Twining. Montpelier, 44 17/72 36/12 25. |1829 Executive Doc’ts. Ryegate, 44 10/72 10/7 0 1801 James leet Rutland, 43 37/72 467.3 1789,Dr. Willia “se so 6G} ee TG 4 1810 sé Ce ee oe 6} i 1811 se sé Pownal, 42 46/72 59| 5 52 #1786 “ ig MASSACHUSETTS. Newburyport, 42 48/70 52; 718 (1781) : Williamstown, 42 45/73 15) 5 52 786 be Deerfield, 42 34:72 291 5 28. 1811 Prof. Hitchcock = se ee} ee 6) 7 57 61837 Gaz. and Mercury. Salem, 42 31\70 54) 7 2 (1781 Pres. Willa “eo eles «15 57 (1805 Dr. Bowditeh. “4 € C6 pte -t 5 20 1808) 66 “cc thc 66 ee 68 6 22 1810! 6 Cambridge, 42 2271 7 7 30 {1810 Prof. Farrar iT eae: | | ce 8 51 1835 Boston, 42 2171 4/9 0 [1708 Mr. — uae ee Oe eS O » 11942 Prof. Wate “cc oe tS cc be Ff 20 17 | 66 - “ele «17 14 11761'Dr. Williams. = eles 66) 7 0 . (1963 Prof. Winthrop a “ 1 16 46/1782 Dr. Williams sc ee ee 6 388 ‘“ Plymouth, 41 57/70 41) 7 0 |1776 Chart ppomenes 41 17:70 6) 6 30 6 ODE ISLAND. | Providence, 41 4971 26] 6 30 [1769 Dr. West. wport, 41 29;71 21; 6 O |1776Chart. CONNECTICUT. “ Pomfret, 41 52)71 57) 5 5 /|1810)Asher Miller. East Hartford, 41 46/72 48} 4 46 j181G) « - Hartford, 41 4672 40) 5 25 11786/Dr. Williams. ie oe) we 1 & 45 | |1824IN. Goodwin. se 6h 6G pee ea 6 ns 4 182 6s oe 66 66} 66 ee 6 3 1829) se “6 41 3872 18) 4 50/1805 George Gillet. 6h -€6 debt out 6 10 | “ec ee 41 22:73 5 41 |1810/Asher Miller. 41 1872 17|430 |1810) “ * 1 18,72 58| 5 47 Sold Pres. Stiles. a it «ele 415 26 _[1776\Prof, Strong. _ Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. 303 Place, Lat Ni — i — Date. Authority. Se _ CONNECTICUT. ceees : New Haven, 4l 1s72 ae 15 w./1780)Pres. Stiles. 44 “ “sei ss 6) 10 |1811)Nathan Redfield. - “ se ee jee 6) 435 =611819)Prof. Fisher. % “ wo eye ec) & 17) «(182S8iN. Goodwin aa “s B-te + & 6S. 11835 Prof. Loomis. ‘ ae, je“) 6) & 56 (1836)Mr. E. C. Herrick. NEW YORK. Potsdam, 44 40/75 1,7 25 = j1835)Regents’ Report. Utica, 43 6175 13:4 10 11834 es 2 “ a es. 3 35 1836 ‘“ “ | Johnstown, 43 074 23°6 2 /|1818 “ “ Cazenovia, 42 55/75 51) 3 25 +1834 “is as Auburn, 42 5576 28, 3 43 {1833 se * Buffalo 42 5378 55 1 25 |1837/Mr. R. W. Haskins. Geneva, 42 52,77 5 3 49 ee ee et Albany, 42 39:73 44,5 44 |1817|Mr. De se (7) ss | 5 45 LSI1S 6s sé te Ob ct” (G6 6 0 {825 “6 6s “ se} se 6) G 40 = 11834|Regents’ Report. ot sc kG 7 oe 6 47 [S36 “é ose Oxford, 42 2875 33) 3 52 =|1834 “ - 66 sc Gs cy & | 4 9 1836 “ss 66 Ithaca, 42 2776 30} 2 51 1833 Oblong, 42 3173 30/5 3 |1786Dr. ‘Williams. West Point, 4] 25/73 56) 6 32 1835, Prof. C. Davies. East Hampton, 41 072196 8 [1834 Regents’ a New York City, 40 43,74 1|8 45 |1686)Mr. Welles 66 eh cay ee.” ee 7 20 1723, Geo. Burne - sep 1 GOS: (To Mr. Preis #4 “ sé Te > a | 1755 Evans. * = ter ey ese 4 20) «= 1789|Encyc. Met. = 1 “eel ee ) 4 40 |1824)Blunt’s Map. <4 “ig so eee | 4 50 {1834\Capt. Owen. i se ee} ce 6) & 40 «11837/Prof. Renwick. Jamaica, 40 41,73 56) 4 O- |1835/Regents’ Report. Flatbush, 40 37'73 58 425 |1834 * “ 6“ cc - ct | et” & 4 45 183 ee iT 3 NEW JERSEY. Princeton, 40 22,;74 35 7 O |1810|/Pres. Smith. PENNSYLVA Ww. boundary of state,|41 880 27 25x. |1786/Andrew Ellicott. 41 Q (74 ese 19 E. 6s ee “é “ 73 40 50 se OS 17 E. ee “é “6 “ce 6é 40 42 Se° te 51 es ‘se (T4 oe 66 “ce 40 1 ee ee 1 TE oe ae “ec “ss ‘“ 39 59 ce 45 1 12 E. “cc sc “ec ce 73 39 5li «| 2 10k. rT] “ “a Norriton, 40 1075 26 3 8w..1770,W. Smith. Philadelphia, 39 57/75 11 8 30w. 1710'Thomes Whitney. 304 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. | Place. Lat. N.;Lon. W.) Variation. | Date. Authority. PENNSYLVANIA. 7 249 R= TESS 4 Philadelphia, 39 57/75 11) 5 45w./1750\Kalm’s Travels. ss s s/ ss 6! 1 30 . ope Thommen Whitney, “ ae ae) 2 0 1 " ere «+52 2 61813 David M’Clure. “ “& 66) ee 6 | 2 5D 1837|Walter R. Johnson. | West Chester, 39 57\75 41) 3 25 1832/Prof. Bache. sec alg Lewistow 38 44,75 0 55 (1795\Aurora. Washington City, 38 53,77 2) 52 (1809\Nicholas King. RGINIA. ICharlottesville, 38 2)78 31/0 0 /|1835)Prof. Patterson. ichmon ai o272.2% 57 x. |1809/Pres. Madison. | Williamsburg, 37 15176 35| 5 Ow.1694) “ ses sé Re Cetbotee. 50w. 1780 “ec “cc “ec 66 66 f 66 OS 33 EB. 1809 “c Cape Henry, 37 075 30) 4 40 w. 1732|Douglass’ naa Norfolk, 36 51/76 19 0 O- |1809)/Pres. Madis S. boundary of state, 36 31/76 0) 3 Ow.1728 Commissioned NORTH CAROLINA. Newbern, 5 2077 5 2 40&./1796\ Jonathan Price. “ec a 2 be 0 £. 1806 66 sé sé a ee ee 1 45r. 1809 “ec 66 SOUTH CAROLINA. iCharleston, 32 47/79 57| 3 48x./1777/Chart * Rg ges es 54 5. /1837/Capt. Missroom. GEORGIA. Athens, 34 0/83 20 4 31 £./1837/Prof. McCay. |\Milledgeville, 33 e: 20 5 30 £./)1805\John Bethune. “cc 40. 66:4 46—- st 4 40k. 1835 sé “ FLORIDA Pensacola, 30 2887 12 6 Ox. 1835\Officer of Navy. ‘Tallahassee, 30 2734 36 5 12x./1835|Mr. P. Mitchel. ALABAMA | Florence, 34 5087 47 6 354./1818\James H. Weakly. “se | 66 sit co. 4] 6 28 x%./1835 66 sé Mobile, 30 4088 11, 8 10£.'1809) « = 6s | 66 so] oe 66) FY ID¥", 11835 66 66 MISSISSIPPI. Natchez, a 3491 25| 9 Ox.'1802)/Mr. Dunbar. LOUISIANA Cheneyville, 31 092 15) 9 20x. 1807/Public Surveys. New Orleans, 29 5890 72 Ox. /1720/Laval. sé 6s CT ae ke a) 8 Sk. TROKR Lason ARKAN Wachita River, 34 0/92 8 20x. '1804/Wm. Dunbar. TENNESSEE Nashville, 36 10/86 49] 6 50x. 1829|Prof, Hamilton. sc se ele el 7 TE, 1835) “ 6 Variation and Dip of the Magnetic Needle: 305 Place. Lat. N. jLon. Wj Variation. | Date. Authority. KENTUCKY, Cee = Bee Sa Augusta, 38 50/33 50) 5 0 x./1805 Public Surveys. OHIO. Rapids of Maumee, [41 30/83 30) 248 [1810 Jared ee Hudson, 41 13)81 30) 1 14 |1837,Prof. Loo Defiance, 41 15/84 23) 4 30 1810 Jared Mansfeld Poland, 41 0Oj80 37) 1 21 “ Canfield, 41 0/80 50} 1 37 + sé “ Berlin, 41 O81 3 1 48 “ “6 “ Atwater, {41 O31 21,2 4 ss nad bad Suffield, 41 OjS1, 34) 2 22 oo s6 6 Coventry, 41 O/s1 48,219 | « | «“ Norton, 41 Q/S1 53] 2 30 “ “ “ Seneca, 41 O83 20) 3 57 ss 6s + \Chippeway, 40 55/351 48) 2 36 ” * a marietta, 39 25/81 26) 2 36 st = co ee ee) FeO «SSS Prof. Loomis. Mouth of Miami river,39 884 45) 5 10 1810 Jared Mansfield. Cincinnati, 39. 784 27| 5..0 ” a Portsmouth, 38 4882 50,5 O 1905,P ublic Surveys. INDIAN Madison, 38 45/85 15} 5 25 nt pe ae South Hanover, 38 45'85 23) 4 35 nnes, 38 42:87 20| 6 45 1510 Jared Mansiield Falls of the Ohio, 38 20/85 40) 5 50 | On the Ohio river, 38 10:86 30) 6 30 cot thle. sas Mouth of the Wabash,38 05S 0) 7 10 “ “ “6 ILLINOIS. Chicago, 42 O87 40| 6 12 |1823 Long’s Expedition. Jacksonville, 39 4590 18) 8 45 [1833 Prof. Sturtevant. Iton,- 38 5290 12} 8 0 |1835Mr. Loomis. Cahokia, 38 “ig sp 9 8 25 |1810 Jared Mansfield. Kaskas} 37 57/89 55| 7 20 1809 Public Surveys. Mouth of Ohio river, 37 489 ©! 7 20 |1809\Jared Mansfield. MISSOURI Franklin, 38 5792 57\11 42 |1819 Long’s Expedition. St. Louis, 38 3689 36/10 47 a + és “ so se) ce 66) 8 49 = |1835.Col. Nicolls. MICHIGAN. Detroit, 42 3082 58 248 (1810 Jared Mansfield. MISSOURI & WISC. TERS Lake of the Woods, 49 094 O11 1 |1823Long’s Ex. St. Peter’s. samp Monro 48 59 13 17 re og Island in Rainy Lake, |48 35:92 30, 8 15 ve Bg <7 N. coast of L. Superior 47 5890 0 6 21 “ “ “ Fort of Colum. Fir Co.|45 39:96 3412 29 e * = Mouth of St. Peter’s R..44 5393 810 29 | « 8 = Encamp. on St. Peter’s\44 4197 012 21 = + “i Fort Crawford, 43 lee 52 : 49