. oe : es oid & y Oe a THE ns 4a os Wy: ; AL ¢ : OF = : SCLENCE AND ARTS. € ioe as BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. . Prof. Chem., Min., &c. oa ao Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, Man. and Com. ; and For. Mem. ee Soc., London; Mem. I. Soc., Paris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Dreedon ; Looe Hist. “, Halle; Imp. » Mosc: Hon. M iy PR ig; * Agr mae Moscow ; m. Mem. Lin. Soc.. een —s : Phil and Lit. Soce., Bristol, Eng. mere Mem. i 3 Sussex t., Brig i yec; Mem. of arious Lit. and Scien. Soc. in nam erica. : AIDED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jn., A.B. _ Assistant i in the ey of Chem Mineralogy and Geology in sige | eo of the Yale Nat. t. Soc., Mem. of the Conn. Acad. of Arts and rr es Mem. 0 Lyce um of Natural History, New York, : G.« VOL. XXXV.—JANUARY, 1839. é N EW HAVEN: ‘Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES —Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. S. LITTELL.—Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—WNew York, 4G. & Sasabneem oe pion abate: and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 44 William St.— oe oe Co ES wee peed JAMES 8. Para re ‘abillo: as < Zz = 1 0 \z CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV. insti iia 1. Art. I. Memoir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- ditch, LL. D., F. R. S.; by Rev. ALEXANDER Youne, II. Cursory Remarks upon East Florida, in 1838; iy Maj Henry Wuaitine, . IIl.. Geology of St..Croix; by Prof. Ss. oan - - 4 Geology of Antigua; by Prof. S. Hovey, . Remarks on the Geology and Topography of Woctal New York; by Grorce E. Hayes VI. On Electro-Magnetism, as a Moring Powers by Ftd G. Pacs, M. D...: - - VII. Magnetic Electrepeter and Wecoeterr to be “5 with flat spirals; by Cuarxes G. Pace, M. D. - - VIII. Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and No- tice of a monstrous flower of Orchis epogan ts _ a plate;) by Prof. J, W. Baitey, - - IX. On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-Earth, at West Point, N. Y., with some notices of American Liner (with a plate 3). by Prof. J. W.. Al | iain Insects ¢ appear- ed; by ANDREW Crosser, —— a roomfal, Eng. ; (from the Trans. of Lond. Elec. Soc.) - . XI. Notice of Danburite, a New Mineral Spee by Prof. Cuan.es Uruam SREPARD, - nexion with the en of s ‘snow ; a” B. F. ios. In, M. D. 2-5 é * Page. 106 113 145 ok Letters on Atlantic Sicam evigsdon; by j uNIvus Smiru, 160 iv CONTENTS. MISCELLANIES. Page 1. Report on the sees Stars of the 9th and 10th of Bee 1838, - - 167 2. Observations ris at Yale College on the Solar = of Sept. 18, 1838, - - 3. Supposed New Mineral « at Bolion, ‘Mion 178 4, 5. New Locality of eer = came Chabiisie > a ‘ities minerals at Stonington, Ct. 6, 7. Crichtonite in R. 1.—Notice of the stew Flora of North America now publishing by John Torrey and Asa Gray, 180 8. Redfield’s Law of Storms mae of Lieut. Col. Reid's 179 work on hurricanes, - 182 9. Notice of Lea’s Observations on ii genus ie Unio, ke. - 184 10. Notice of Holbrook’s North American Herpetology, Vols. 1&2, ier - : - + . - - 186 11, 12. Announcement of Second Part to Shepard’s Deseriptive Mineralogy—Blowpipe mouth for oxygenand hydrogen, 187 13. Salisbury’s Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon, N. ¥Y. 188 14. Notice of Feuchtwanger’s Treatise on Gems, - 15. Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md. in July, 1838, 16. Evidences of diluvial curr —n 17. Notice of the American Almanac for 1839, - - - 49% 18, 19, 20. Green Feldspar and Galena—Fossil fishes in the red sandstone of New Jersey—U. S. South Sea sprite _ and Exploring Expedition, - 192 $ A als of Natural Bey: or a of Zoology, Botany, and Geology, - 194 22. Analysis of Gmelinite or Hydrolite, - ay 23. Prof. Owen on the Fossil Animals collected by Mr. Charles Darwi 2A, 25. ieee - the Wollaston Medal—On the Rapidity. of Motion in Railway Cars which is stent with safety, 197 oe On the Gases contained in the Blood, and on Respiration, 198 ae om of the British Association for the Advance- 195 CONTENTS. 7 NUMBER II. Fad: Arr. L. On the Courses of Hurricanes ; with notices of the Ty- foons : “8 China Sea, and other Storms ; y W.C. ReEpDrFIi II. On the 7 ae of May 18th, 1838, ait on Shooting Stars in general; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, - Ill. Account of a Storm in New Hampshire, in a letter ti dressed to Prof. O. P. Hubbard of Dartmouth me a ; by Rev. Joun Woops, - 2 _ IV. Notes on American Geology ; oe T. A. as - 237 V. Magneto-Blectric and Eleciro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments ; by Cuartes G. Pace, M.D., - 252 Vi. Soap ais of some new Shells; by BrensamMin Tar- PAN - = 268 Vil. On st ee of Uvularia poriifities as a rem- | edy for Poisoned Wounds ; by Bensamin Horner | Coates, M. D., - VIII. An Account of the Syosbidhigs of the Fighth Meeting of the ames Association for the Advancement of = BGen - . - - - 275 1X. On Cupellation, an easy, an accurate ene new method ; by W. W. Maruer, X. Meteoric Observations te at Cambridge, Wak - ty Prof. J. Loverine XI. Notice from Prof. Rowaics Hats, svibditing the Fu sion of Platina, also respecting a new Ether, and a Series of Gaseous bose cme formed with rp Ele= ments of Water, — - - +e | XII. Letters on Steam Navigation: by yikes ki: Esq. —with a Letter to the Editors, from Mr. Henry Smitu, 332 XU. On a New and Effectual Method of Preserving Speci- mens of Organic Nature, and of Obviating the Blanch- ; ing influences of Light, and the Depredations of Insects ; j —most Advantageously Applicable to the Formation and Unlimited Preservation of a Hortus Siccus, or Mu- seum of Dried ets anh Professor Joun L, raga MD. =e 338 XIV. Blectro-Magnetic Engi gine, ‘constructed wa ih faic A. W. CAMPBELL, - = 343 XV. Mistelisticons Notices i in Opstovses, Auakapas, ae $ by Prof. W. M. Ca - 5 vl _ CONTENTS. Page. XVI. On the Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid ; by J. K. Mircuerrt, M.D.,_ - - my fe XVIL. On a general Hysctro-Magnelie and ‘Magueto- Electric Formula, - XVIII. Fossil Encrinite ; by Sins G. ee : XIX. Report on the Shooting Stars of Dec. 7, 1838, with re- — on eens Stars in ag al E. C, Her- enuf aE - 361 XX. on Fs iecuierie Shower of November, 1838 ; by Prof. Denison OLMSTED, - - - XXI, Communication respecting Fossil oad Recent, nfaace ria made to the British Association at Newcastle ; by Prof. EHRENBERG, - — - -_-. - 371 MISCELLANIES. 1. Dr. Poltri Experiments on the Condensation of Carbonic, Sulphurous, and Chloro-chromic Acid Gases, - - - 2. Critical Interpretation of bara and asah, in a letter from Dr. Noau Werster to the Rev. WiLL1AmM stag Cslore England, - - 3. pen of the Height of Beicivier! in » North Carolina, ~ 4, 5. Fossil Shells and Bones—Auroral Arch i in Vermont 6, 2. Geological Specimens from the EastIndiemArehipe re Resemblance toan Aurora, - - - - : - 381 8. Meteorological Register for 1837, - - A eo 9, 10. Geological Surveys—Dr. Mantell’s Wonders of Geology, 384 11, 12, 13. Mr. Bakewell’s Geology—Elements of leila Lewis C. Beck’s Manval of Chemistry, - 14, 15. Notice of a Manual of Conchology aN to the ays- tem laid down by Lamarck, with the late improvements by De Je 1c on the late Dr. Nathaniel Bowditch, - " 16, 17. The Science of Geslead ‘oe the Chores Tidélises, with additions—Dr. Charles T. so Reports on the Geology of Maine, = - ae oe 18, 19. Ceilintie or Indian Pipe aa A s Comet, - 20. Greve of Godfrey, the inventor of the Quadrant, and of omson, - ee 21. Marble and Serpentine in Vermont, oT ERRATA. P. 200, 5th line fr. bot. after presiding, read over the Math. and Phys. Section.— P. 207, 4th line fr. top, for 1837, read 1835.—P. 216, 4th line from bot. for Para- cels, read Pratas.—P. 325, last lime; for commenced, read enumerated.—P. 374, 6th line from bot. for It it, read It is—P. 400, 13th ae from bot. for Moranies, nied ines. * _ Fossils of the Medial Tertiary of the United States, by Mr. T. A. Conrad.— of Iphia, in a letter dated Dec. 31, 1838, (received after our wiadien number was printed,) announces that he has published. the first part of this new work of Mr. Conrad. It will be completed in about 15 months, in 3 parts. The first No. contains 17 plates, and 47 species. He will again visit the Tertiary re- gion, and give a detailed description s the various localities in a future number. The price of the whole, will be $ 4 2 4 Pee ete ay ee eee Cre | THE Tt : | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ~ SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED, BY oe ee ‘BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D. LL D. Brvl. Chem., Min., &c. in Yale Coll, ;*Cor. Mem. Soc. Aris, Man. and Com. ; and For. Mem. Geol. oc., Lendon ; Mem, Geol, Soc., P ris; Mem. Roy. Min. Soc., Drenigh; Nat. Hist, Soc., Latte ; mp. Ag <., Moscow; Hon. Me , Paris; Nat. Hist. Soc., t, fre.; Phil. and Lit. Soc., Bristol, Eng.; Hon. =. Ro Brighton, Eng.; Lit. and Hist. Soc., Qu capi ec; arious Lit. and Scien. Soc. im A “. AIDED BY | BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Tey A a: = Assi oe : ~ departeint < of Chemistry. 1 Mine Be og and Seslony in bie ‘ate; Bec. of tlie : t. Hist t. Boe. - Saga of the Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sci. ; Mem ceum of Natural iis: New York, &c. “YOL. XXXV.—No. 1—OCTOBER, 1838. * YOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1838. oi ee NEW HAVEN: id. by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES o:Philadedghin: CAREY &_ d 5.5: JATTELL. Aa ens Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, - N way, ‘aad GS. S. SILLIMAN, No. 45 -—London, JAMES 8, H zone EPERRGN, Rue Mabill “ CONTENTS. aH BBB+ , Page “Arr. I. Memoir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- ditch, LL. D., F. R. S.; by Rev. ALExaNpER Youne, 1 IL. Cursory Remarks upon East ee in 1838 ; » ae -- Henry Wuitine, - 47 III. Geology of St. Croix; by Prof Ss. Hover, ae ae IV. Geology of Antigua; by Prof. S. Hovey, ~ - V. Remarks on the Geology and ik et of Westar New York; by Grorce E. Hayezs, VI. On 7 Sao a asa Moving Power; by aii G. Pacer, M. D. » 1 VII. Magnetic Electtdpeish and Hleetrctoms; to » te aed with flat spirals ; by Cuaries G. Pace, M. D. =. tte VII. Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and No- s “Sai ' tice of a monstrous flower of Orchis i sete Sea “t°~a plate ;) by Prof. J. Ww. Barry, - IX. On Fossil Infusoria, sred in Peat-Earth at West Point, N: Y., with some foticed of eas er cn Disiomsy ~ (with a plate ;) by Prof. J. W. Barry, 118 X. Description of experiments with the Voltaic Bitiery, i in the course of which, certain Insects constantly ¢ appear- ed; by ANpRew Crosse, ei en (from the Trans. of Lond. Elec. "o 1%8. XE. Notice of Danburite, a New Cuarves Urnam Saep 1 XII. On Certain Cavities in 139 Nn, M.D. .- 5 we eRe a: AMG XIV. Letters on Atlantic Steam Navigation; by Junius Suite, 160 MISCELLANIES. he Report on he Shoring Sat of the Hh and 16th of seein 167 2. oliarsien jatsig at Yale College on the Solar clipe of ig Sept. 18, 1838, - 174, i ii CONTENTS. 3. Sasponei New Mineral at Bolton, Mass. 4, 5. New Locality of Crichtonite—Stilbite, Chabasie, ae villas minerals at Stonington, Ct. - 179 6, 7. G Bchtonite in R. I1—Notice of the New Flora of North Arica now publishing by John Torrey and Asa Gray, 180 8. Reif d’s Law of Storms Zovas of Lieut. Col. Reid’s work on hurricanes, - at +1 9. Notice of Lea’s Observations on the genus Unie &e. - 184 10. Notice of Holbrook’s North American HIREOIETs Vols. - - 186 11, 12, Announcement of Second Part t to Shatants Descriptivs Mineralogy—Blowpipe mouth for oxygenand hydrogen, 187 13. Salisbury’s Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon, N. ¥. 188 14. Notice of Feuchtwanger’s Treatise on Gems, - 189 15. Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md. in July, ie wg -;; 190 16. Evidences of diluvial currents, &c. . ae... 191 1. Notice of the American Almanac for 1839, | - Se) | 19, 20. Green Feldspar and Galena—Fossil falta) in the red sandstone of New Jersey—U. S. South Sea PaNSeaey Se Exploring Expedition, - 21. Annals of Natural ragga he or Sons of Zoology, og and Geology, - £ Aa 22. Airsly ers of shat or Hy droite - —, ” 195 4 ess ss Ov a pend ossil™ VILE : mii re. X ar. es Darwii, 196 24, 25. Prowiitadol of the Wollaston Medal—On the Rapidity of Motion in Railway Cars which is consistent with safety, 197 26. On the Gases contained in the Blood, and on Respiration, 198 27. Eighth Meeting of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, - = ge - * - : NOTICES. : Any subscriber or agent who will send us either number of volume XII of this Journal, shall be paid for the same one dollar, provided it is sent without expense.—Eds. Acknowledgments to Correspondents will be published in the mext i e. galt of Massachusetts, on the 26th day of March, 1 that he and his mother had li THE yee ‘ AMERICAN /¢* JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c. Art. L—Menwir of the Life and Character of Nathaniel Bow- ditch, LL. D., FR. S.; by Rev. Atexanper Youna. NATHANIEL Bowprrcu was born at Salem, in the Com ' fourth child of Habakkuk and Mary His ancestors, for three generations, had his father, on retiring from that p a é i carried on the trade of a cooper, by which he ee a seanty and precarious subsistence for a family of seven children. — I had a curiosity to trace up the life of this wonderful man, if P possible, to his childhood, to ascertain his early character and pow- ers, and the influences under which his heart and mind had been ; formed. Accordingly, on a recent visit to Salem, I took a walk, of some two or three miles, to see sores 1 iv’ use ant me on pe oe are the plain two-story house,* with but two small rooms in it, where he dwelt with his mother; and I saw the chamber-window where he said she used to sit and show him “the new moon with the old moon i in her arm,” and, with the poetical superstition of a — Jingle the silver in her Bacespiot:« that her husband rs ae af, A * This house is in Wire ers, near the junction of several roads, this side of the Derby farm. See wood cut, next page. fe iL Vou. XXXV.—No. her whether she had ever heard what became of him. 2 sve and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. q might have ocd luck, and she good tidings from him, far off upon 3 the sea. [entered that house and two others in the vicinity, — and found three ancient women who knew her well, and remem- — bered her wonderful boy. I sat down by their firesides and lis- 1 tened with greedy ear to the story, which they gladly told me, of } that remarkable child, remarkable for his early goodness as well — as for his early greatness. Their words, uttered in the plain, hearty English of the yeomanry of New England, I took down — from their lips, and now give them without any alteration or im- — provement whatever. ) used to say that he would make something or nothing.” isa she replied, “he became a great man, and went to Boston, @ had a mighty deal of learning.” “ What kind of learning ?” asked. “Why,” she answered, “I believe he was a pilot, @ knew how to steer all the vessels.” This evidently was her! ple and confused idea of “'The Practical Navigator.” Phan second old lady stated that “ Nat. went to school to. : , when he was about three Bm old, and that she fo ightily to him, and that he Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 3 He learnt amazing fast, for his mind was fully given to it. He ~ did not seem like other ‘childrens he a better. His mother was a beautiful, nice woman.” The third old lady said that “ Nat. was a little, still creature ; and his mother a mighty free, good-natured woman. She used to say, ‘ Who should n’t be cheerly if a Christian should n’t?’? Her children took after her, and she had a particular way of guarding them against evil.” These I testify to be their very words, as I pencilled them down’ at the time. And they show, I think, very clearly, the in- fluence of the mother’s mind and heart upon the character of her son. Of that mother, in after life, and to its close, he often spoke in terms of the highest admiration and the strongest affection, and in his earnest manner would say—“ My mother loved me—idol- ized me—worshipped me.” After leaving the dame’s school, the only other instruction. he ever received was obtained at the schools of his . which were wholly inadequate to furnish even th likewise been told by one who lived in Salem at the Pane, that the master of this school, a person of violent temper, gave young Bow- ditch, when he was shout five or six years old, a very difficult sum in arithmetic to perform. His scholar went to his desk, and soon afterwards brought up his slate with the question Uolvea: The master, surprised at the suddenness of his return, asked him whe had been n doing the sum for him ; and on answeri wering ‘“ Nobo qance’ Kee 50 > difficult aquestion. - 3 But the advantages of school, such as hays were, We reapeblled to forego at the early age of ten years, “his poverty and not his will consenting,” that he might go into-his father’s shop and help : a the eatity He was soon, however, transferred as an oa ee ee - ee : ft We -d became a clerk in a and: ge ae ot r; large € xt Of the same kind,” “where he continued until he went to sea. It was whilst he was an apprentice in the ship- chandler’ s shop that he first — that strong bent, or what 4 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. is commonly called an original genius, for mathematical pursuits. : Every moment that he could snatch from the counter, was given to the slate. An old gentleman, who used frequently to visit the — shop, said to his wife, one day, on returning home, “1 never go into that shop but I see that boy ciphering and figuring away on his slate, as if his very life depended upon it; and if he goes on | at this rate, as he has begun, I should not at all wonder if, at last, in the course of time, he should get to be an almanac-maker !”"— this being, in his view, the summit of mathematical attainment. The expectation was stiendily fulfilled, for in the year 1788, when he was only fifteen years old, he actually made an almanac for the g ae year 1790, containing all the usual tables, calculations of the — eclipses and other phenomena, and even the customary predic- tions of the weather. The original manuscript is still in the — possession of his family. From his earliest years, he seems to have had an ardent love of — reading, and he has been heard to say that, ever when quite — , he read through the whole of Chambers? s Cyclopedia, in -. iwe tree folio volumes, without omitting a single article. He sailed on his first voyage, on the 11th of January, 1795, at iS the age of twenty-two, in the capacity of captain’s clerk on — Y> pec 0 owned by Elias Haske Derby, _ board the ship Henr to yn whom young Bow: mand of the ship, and had invited his friend to accompany him as clerk. He consented; but in consequence of some misuty course his agreement with his friend was atan end. Mr. Derby, ’ however, on the appointment of Captain Prince, said to, him, derstanding subsequently. springing up between the owner of the ship and Captain Gibaut, he relinquished the command, and of “Do you know young Bowditch?” “Yes, very well.” “How should you like to have him go in the ship with you?” th should like it above all things,” said the captain. He acetane ly went on board as clerk, although his name was entered on the | His second voyage was made as supercargo, on a the s ‘Salem, be id com: a PCapeaitr John Gibaut, with ; ch n engaged the year before in talt- ing a survey of Salem, ha previously been appointed to the com> shipping-papers as seen’ mate, The ship sailed for the Isle © urbon, and returned home after an absence of exactly one 1 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch, 5 by the same captain. The vessel sailed in March, 1796, to Lis- bon, touched at Madeira, and then proceeded to Manilla, ; aes rived at Salem in May, 1797, after an absence of fourteen months. At Madeira, the captain and supercargo were very politely re- ceived by Mr. Pintard, the American consul there, to whose house * the ship was consigned, and were frequently invited to dine with his family. Mrs. Pintard had heard from another American ship- master that the young supercargo-was “a great calculator,” and she felt a curiosity to test his capacities. Accordingly, she said to him one day at dinner, “ Mr. Bowditch, I have a question which I should like to have you answer. Some years since,” naming the time, “I received a legacy in Ireland. The money was there in- vested, and remained some time on interest ; the amount was sub- sequently remitted to England, where the interest likewise accu- mulated ;-and lately. the whole amount has been remitted to me here. What sum ought I to receive?’ Sheof course mentioned the precise dates of the several remittances, as she went along. Mr. Bowditch laid down his knife and fork, said it was a little. difficult, on account of the difference of caRTEnOY and the num- ber of the remittances; but squeezing the tips of his fingers, ho & said, in about two minutes, “The sum. hould receive is £843 15s. 64d.” “ Well, Mr. Cle ntard to the head clerk of the house, an’ elderly person, , who was esteemeda very skilful accountant, “ you hav been figuring it out for me on paper ; has he got itright:” “ Yes, 1 madam,” said the clerk, tak- ing his long calculation out.of his pocket, ‘he has got it exactly. And I venture to say, that there is not another man on the island that can do it in two hours.” _ In August, 1798, he sailed in the same ship with oa Prince, on his third iezess. to ae shenes othe Mesiterrancatts loaded at aA a On the foyage T eae Cadiz to Alicant, ey were neinsed by a French privateer, and having a strong armament of nineteen guns, they prepared for action. The post assigned to Bowditch cabin, and his duty was to hand the powder upon deck. In the midst a the preparations for the engagement, Captain Prince had a curiosity to Iook into the cabin, and see whether all things were going on right there ; and, to his astonishment, he found Bowditch calmly sitting at the table, with his slate and pencil, and figuring away, as usual. abe thing was so ludicrous, ‘ e : a : ; 4 6 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. that Captain Prince burst out a laughing, and said, ‘ Well, Mr. Bowditch, can you be. Waking your will now?” “ Yes,” was his good-natured reply. “After this affair, (the French privateer having hauled off without molesting them,) the supercargo re- _ quested to be stationed at one of the guns, and his request was granted. Captain Prince*testifies, that in all cases of waareadte * pe manifested great firmness and presence of mind. The fourth and last voyage which they made together, was in the same ship from Boston to Batavia and Manilla. They sailed in August, 1799, and returned home in September, 1800. On their arrival at Manilla, a Scotchman, by the name of Mur- ray, asked Captain Prince how he contrived to find the way there, through such a long, perplexing, and dangerous navigation, and — in the face of the northeast monsoon, by mere dead reckoning, without the use of lunars,—it being a common notion at that time, that the Americans knew nothing about working lunar ob- servations. Captain Prince told him that he had a crew of twelve men, every one of whom could take and work a lunar observa- tion as well, for all practical purposes, as Sir Isaac Newton him- self, were he alive. Murray was-perfectly astounded at this, and actually went down to the landing-place, one pares: nore see this knowing crew come meets = Mr. Bowditch was) vessels that ever floated in Manilla Bay.” ~ The knowledge which these common sailors had aon iies of 2@ navigation, had been imparted to them by the kindness of Mr — Bowditch. Captain Prince relates that one day the supercargo — said to him, “ Come, Captain, let us go forward and see what the — sailors are talking about, under the lee of the long-boat.” They eee a versationy-and-as Captain Prince ae sat ‘as miodeat™ as a maid said ‘not a word, but — held his slate-pencil in his mouth. Another person on the island, a broker, by the name of Kean, who was present, said to Murray, “If you knew as much as I do about that ship Astrea, you — wouldn’t talk quite so glib.” “ Why not? what do you know — about her?” “ Why, sir, I know that there is more knowledge ~ of navigation on board that ship, than there ever-was‘in all the : went forward, accordingly, and the Captain was surprised to find — he sailors ‘rated of sparuing their long yarns, earnestly engaged 2 neil, and discussing the high matters of 5 s, dip, and re i s Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 7 in particular, were very zealously disputing, one of them calling out to the other, “‘ Well, Jack, what have you got?” “ I’ve got the sine,” was the answer. “ But thatus’t right,” said the other. “ TI say it is the cosine.” Captain Prince says, that although Mr. Bowditch had such a thorough knowledge of navigation, he knew but little about what is technically called seamanship. He also mentions the fact, which he had often heard him repeat, that although, in his youth, he had long lived in the vicinity of the ship-yards, he had never seen a launch ; and rather scouted the idea that such a sight, or any thing like it, should be able to draw him away from his books. Captain Prince likewise testifies that during the whole course of these four voyages, he does not recollect the slightest interruption of harmony and good feeling between them. am happy to be able to corroborate the statements of Captain Prince, by the testimony of an officer in-our navy, who sailed in the Astraea the two last voyages to Alicant and Batavia. Ina let- ter recently written, after speaking in terms of the warmest grati- tude of the kindness and attention with which Mr. Bowditch treated him, when a poor sea-sick oes and ee self in all the sailors on board, ne ‘to ta x pains to instruct all who could read and write, in the principles of navigation. The consequence of this was, that every one of a crew of twelve men, who could read and. write, subsequently rose to the rank of cap- tain or chief mate of a ship. Indeed, at Salem, it was consid- ered the highest recommendation of a seaman, that he had sailed in the same 2 with Mr. Bowditch, and this circumstance alone ient t for flice same ship on the previous voyage. ~ He also Percaks of Mr. Bow- " ditch’s urbane and gentlemanly deportment to every one on board, and says that he never appeared so happy as when he could in- spire the sailor with a proper sense of his individual importance, and of the talents he possessed, and might call into action. Some idea of the extent to which ee of navigation 8 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. anecdote which is contained in the fourth volume of Baron von — Zach’s “ Correspondance Astronomique,”’ page 62. The Baron — is relating the sensation caused at Genoa, by the arrival there, in 1817, of that splendid packet, the “Cleopatra’s Barge,” owned — by George Crowninshield, Esq. of Salem. He says that he went — on board with all the world, “and it happened,” to use his own — words, “ that in inquiring after my friends and correspondents at — Philadelphia and Boston, I mentioned, among others, the name of Mr. Bowditch. ‘He isa friend of our family and our neighbor at Salem,’ replied the captain, a smart, little eld man, ‘and that — young man whom you see there, my son, was his pupil; in fact, it is he, and not myself, who navigates the ship. Question him a little, and see if he has learnt any thing.’ Our dialogue was as follow —‘ You have had an excellent teacher of navigation, young man; and you could not well help being a good scholar. In making ae Straits of Gibraltar, what was the error in your reckoning ? ” The young man replied, ‘Six miles.’~ ‘ You must then have got your longitude very accurately ; how did you get 2-5 First by our chronometers, and afterwards by lunar distan- ces.’ ‘What! do you know how to take and calculate the lon- gitude by lunar distances?? The young captain seemed some- what nettled at my nee and nahi me wis a mine smile— J can do that? Sabor = coer cane owner of the ship te the old captain assured tnethat the cook.on board could calculate the longitude very well, that he hada taste and passion for it, and did it every day. ‘There he is,’ said the young man, pointing with his finger to a negro at the stern of the ship, with a white apron before him, and holding achicken in one hand anda butch- _ er’s knife in the other. ‘Come forward, Jack,’ said the eaptain to him ; ‘the gentleman is surprised that you ean calculate the longitude; answer his questions.’ . I asked him, ‘ What method do you use to calculate the longitude ‘by lunar sincatioan? ? His answer was, ‘ It’s < one to me: I use the methods of Maskelyne, Lyons, Witchel Bowditch; but, upon the whole, I prefer mt I could ica mcepeces my surprise at hearing this black face talk in » with his excess chicken and knife in his hand. ‘Go,’ S| sod him, ‘ om — oes ons a used to it, and can work with it quicker.’ | * Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 9 culations.’ The cook soon returned with his books under his arm. He had Bowditch’s Practical Navigator, the Requisite Ta- bles, Hutton’s Tables of Logarithms, and the Nautical Almanac. I saw all this negro’s calculations of the latitude, the longitude, and the true time, which he had worked out on the passage. He answered all my questions with wonderful accuracy, not in the Latin of the caboose, but in the good set terms of navigation.” Capt. Prince relates a little incident that occurred under his ob- servation, that is worth preserving. »In the year 1796, there was an Paglishinarl% in Boston, who called himself a professor of math- ematics. He boasted a great deal about his mathematical know- ledge, and said that he had not found any body in this country who knew any thing about the science. “I have a question,” said he, “ which I have proposed to several persons here who are reputed the most knowing, and they cannot solve it.” This Eng- lishman was a friend of E. H. Derby, Jr. of Salem, to whom Capt. Prince had some time previously said that he thought Mr. Bow- ditch “the greatest calculator in America.” Mr. Derby and the Englishman being one evening at the theatre, and the latter re- peating the remark about his question, “ Well,” says Mr. Derby, ‘there is a young man sitting opposite: “oe peared ‘who, I think, will do it for you... You had Lccord- ingly, after the play was over, the problem was brought to the house where Capt. Prince and Mr. Bowditch boarded, by a man named Hughes, who asked him whether he thought he could solve it. “Yes,” was his instantaneous reply. The next morn- ing Hughes called and asked him how he was getting along with the question. “I’ve done it,” says Mr. Bowditch, “and I wish you would tell the Englishman that the answer is the logarithm of such a number,” naming it. In addition to this, I have mee * that the 2 th ematician said, “Tell your friend that have got a question which puzzled me once a good while and rigid method, and his inflexible integrity. Immediately on E ee 16 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. accepting the office he removed to Boston, at the age of fi and there spent the last fifteen years of his life. On his leavi Salem, a public dinner was given him by his fellow citizens a testimony of their respect. No man ever left that place m regretted. It scarcely aide to te stated at he discharged the duties of : his high trust with the greatest fidelity and skill, and. to the em-— ; tire satisfaction of the Company. The capital was five hundred thousand dollars. But, at his suggestion, the Company applied — to the Legislature for additional power to hold in. trust and loan — out the property of individuals. This power was granted; and . upwards of five millions of dollars, nine tenths of which belong — to females and orphans, have been thus received and invested. The institution has, in this way, been of incalculable service, it being in fact nothing more nor less than a Savings Bank on @_ large scale. ‘ Providence’”—I use his own language, in his part-_ ing letter to the Directors—* has ‘seen fit to bless our efforts to . make it an institution deserving of public regard.” It deserves to be mentioned, that Dr. Bovriliteh was never willing to receive — and tie up any investment, without himself seeing or hearing in — writing from the person in whose behalf the investment was: to be made, and ascertaining that it- was done with his.or her full and free consent, and that the individual. perfectly understood the — mode and conditions of the investment, — it was = ‘intl 3 the dead hand of the institution. | I may here also notice the fact, that i dming the late unexame pled commercial embarrassments and financial difficulties, when — almost all our moneyed institutions have sustained heavy losses from the bankruptcies of their debtors, “and,” to use his own — words in the same letter, ‘by having dealt with corporations, i whose affairs have been managed with a recklessness which has — never before been witnessed in this country,” yet so carefully ‘ and skillfully have the affairs of The Life Office been» managéed, — that, although the largest moneyed institution in New England, ; waving a capital equal to ten common banks, and with a loamout : of six millions, its loss has not been greater than that sustained 5 ay some of the smallest banks. vil was a hard. struggle for Dr. Bowditch to break away from the ple ‘Scenes and associations of his native ie There — _were his arliest friends, and there g But he felt Sa ie. s oe » Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 17 that he owed it to his family to make the sacrifice of personal at- tachments and preferences ; and for some time he and his amiable consort fondly cherished the hope of returning and apendling: their last days in the City of Peace. In March, 1798, just before sailing on his third voyage, he matr- ried his first wife, Elizabeth Boardman, who died during his ab- sence at the age of eighteen. In October, 1800, he was married to his cousin, Mary Ingersoll, a lady of singular sweetness of dis- position and cheerful piety, who, by her entire sympathy with him in all his studies and pursuits, lightened and cheered his la- bors, and by relieving him from all domestic_eares, enabled him to go on, with undivided mind and undistracted attention, in the execution of the great work, on which his fame, as a man of sci- ence, rests. He has been beni to say, that he never should have accomplished the task, and published the book in its present ex- tended form, had he not been stimulated and encouraged by her. When the serious question was under consideration as to the ex- pediency of his publishing it at his own cost, at the estimated ex- pense of ten thousand dollars, (which it actually exceeded,) with the noble spirit of her sex, she conjured and urged him to go on and do it, saying that she would find the means, and gladly make any sacrifice and submit to any self-denial that might be involved in it. In grateful acknowledgment of her sympathy and aid, he proposed, in the concluding volume, to dedicate the work to her memory—a design than which nothing could be more beautiful or touching. Let it still be fulfilled.* It is hardly necessary for me to say that this was a Trattalationy and Commentary on the great work of the French astronomer, La Place, entitled “ Mécanique Céleste,” in which that illustrious man undertakes to explain the whole mechanism of our solar sys- tem, to account on mathematical p principles for all its phenomena, _ and to reduce all the anomalies in the apparent motions and fig- ures of the planetary bodies, to certain definite laws. La Place himself, in his Preface, states the object of his work as follows. “'Towards the end:of the seventeenth century, New- aes his discovery of universal gravitation. Mathema- * This ca euies and excellent woma n, , whose entiting Gicertalsoes and vivacity rendered her many Bini in be to be the wife of such a man, died in Bos- ~*~ on the 17th of April, ‘ in the 53d year of her age. Vou. XXXV.—No. 3 ‘. ‘ =” 18 Lifeand Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. ticians have since that-epoch, succeeded in reducing to this great | law of nature all the known phenomena of the system of the : world, and have thus given to the theories of the heavenly bod-_ ies and to astronomical tables, an unexpected degree of precision. — My object is to present a connected view of these theories, which — are now scattered in a great number of works. The whole of the — results of gravitation, upon the equilibrium and motions of the fluid and solid bodies, which compose the solar system, and the — similar serra existing in the immensity of space, constitute the — felestial Mechanics, or the application of the. principles — a s to the motions and figures of the heavenly bodies. — rca ceod: in the most general manner, is a great prob- | lem of mechanics, in which the elements of the motions are the arbitrary constant quantities. The solution of this problem. de- — at the same time, upon the accuracy of the observations, and upon the perfection of the analysis. It is very important to _ reject every empirical process, and to complete the analysis, s0 that it shall not be necessary to derive from observations any but — indispensable data. The intention of this work is to obtain; a8 much as may be in my power, this interesting result.” a2 » It isa work of great.genius and immense depth, and exceed- ingly difficult to be comprehended. | This arises not merely from the intrinsic difficulty of the subject, and the medium of proof _ being the higher branches of the mathematies,—but chiefly from the circumstance that the author, taking it for granted _ that the subject would be.as plain and easy to others as to himself, — very often omits the intermediate steps and connecting links im~ his demonstrations. He jumps over the interval, and grasps the conclusion’as by intuition. Dr. Bowditch-used to say, “I never eome across one of La Place’s ‘ Thus it plainly appears,’ without — feeling sure that I have got hours of hard study before me io fill up the chasm, and find out and show how it plainly appears.” | Dr. Bowditch says, in his Introduction to the first volume, “ The 4 object of the author, in composing this work, as stated by him in ‘ his Preface, was to reduce all the known phenomena of the sy _ tem of the world to the law of gravity, by strict mathematical — principles; and to complete the investigations of the motions of the planets, satellites, and comets, begun by Newton in his Pris — cipia.. - This he has Ne PS in a manner deserving the | ; highest praise, for its symmetry and completeness; but from the : x ef Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 19 abridged manner, in which the analytical calculations have been made, it has been found difficult to be understood by many per-, sons, who have a strong and decided taste for mathematical stud- ies, on account ‘of the time and labor required to insert the inter- mediate steps of the demonstrations, necessary to enable them. easily to follow the author in his reasoning. ‘'T’o remedy in some. measure, this defect, has been the chief object of the translator in the Notes.” It was in the year 1815, at Salem, that he began th thie is herouienn and finished it in two years. The Com mmer hiche ceeds the original in extent, kept pace with the Tr: whilst the oublicating was in hand, his alteration Were so numerous that it might almost be consider of the work. Let it not be said, in ae a of the labors of Dr. Bow- ditch, that this was not an original work, but merely a translation. Suppose that it had been so. Whatthen? Was it not still a ben- efaction to this country and to Great Britain, thus to bring it with- in the reach and compass of the American and English mind * It is truly said by an old writer, “So well is he worthy” of per- petual fame that bringeth a good work to light, as is he that first did make it, and ought always to be reckoned the. second father thereof.” But the fact is, it is more than half an original com- meutary and exposition, simplifying and elucidating what was be- fore complex and obscure, supplying omissions and deficiencies, fortifying the positions with new proofs and giving additional * The only attempts that wri been made in England to grapple with the great work of La Place are, 1. “ An Elementary Treatise upon Analytical Mechanics, being the First Book of the Mécanique Céleste of La Place; translated and eluci- dated with Explanatory Notes, by the Rev. John Toplis, B. D., London. 181 8v0.—2. Hlustrations estial Mechanics of La chanics, by P. s. La Place ; translated from the French, and elucidated with Ex- planatory Notes, by Rev. Haney H. Harte, Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Part First, Book First, 1822. Book Second, 1827. Dublin.” 4to. highly honorable to the sex, that the best, may I not say the sady Exposition of La Place’s work that has appeared in England, is from the pen of a female, the accomplished Many Somrrvitix, wife of Dr. Somerville, of Chelsea Hoapitit, The Edinburgh Review said of her work, entitled “The Mechanism of the Heavy. ens,” eeeniaomne aie apne of the most remarkable works that female in- tellect ever produced, in any age or country; and with respect to the present day, we hazard little in saying Mrs. Somerville is the only individual of her sex ix the world who could have written it.” 20 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. weight and efficiency to the old ones; and above all, recording and digesting the subsequent discoveries, and bringing down the sei- ence to’ the present time. I have heard it said that La Place, to whom Dr. Bowditch sent a list of errors, (which however he nev- er had the grace to acknowledge in any way,)* onee remarked, “Tam sure that Mr. Bowditch comprehends my work, for he has — not only detected my errors, but he has also shown me howl — came to fall into them.” The manner in which he published this work affords a ntti illustration of the spirit of independence, which was a prominent ee ON feature in his character. He had been frequently solicited’ and urged by his numerous wealthy friends, and by eminent scientific men, and formally requested by the American Académy of Arts and Sciences, to permit them to print it at their expense, for the honor of the country, and for the cause of science. He was well aware, however, ihat there was not sufficient taste in the commu- nity for such studies to justify an enterprise which would involve — a great outlay, and, as he thought, would bring him under pecu- niary obligations to others. 1 recollect conversing with him once on this ‘subject, when he said to me, in his usual ardent way, “Sir, I did not choose to give an opportunity to such a man (mentioning his name) to point up to his book-case and say, ‘ I Mr.. Bowditch. by subscribing for his get work,’ patronized —not a word of which which he could understand. I preferred © to wait till I could afford ‘to publish it at my own Perec That time at last arrived ; and if, instead of setting up my coach, as f ' might have done, I see fit to spend my money in this way, who — has any right to Gorn plain? My children I know will not.” On the publication of the first volume, the London Quarterly — wc expressed the por aby high opinion of its merits. “ The — * This, possibly, may have been an inadvertence, or the letter of acknowledi C mient may have miscarried on the way. It is certain that his widow received the son of the American mathematician with great kindness and consideration, whet in the year 1833, he went to Paris to pursue his medical studies, earrying out with bim the « second a oe his’ nner : work. He was immediately invited to ® loon, filled with the savans of F Se wesistnapectodly greeted by seeing on the centre table-—the only thing on ( y identical volume which he had brought over with him—a delicate eompli- ment, which none but a graceful French woman would have thought of wee ane ° La Rlace subsequently sent sent to Dr. horn a = gee bust of oO Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 21 idea of undertaking a translation of the whole ‘Mécanique Cé- leste,’ accompanied throughout with a copious running commen- tary, is one which savors, at first sight, of the gigantesque, and is certainly one which, from what we have hitherto had reason to conceive of the popularity and diffusion of mathematical knowl- edge on the opposite shores of the Atlantic, we should never have expected to have found originated—or, at least, carried into exe- cution; in that quarter. ‘The first volume only has as yet reached us; anid when we consider the great difficulty of printing works of this nature, to say nothing of the heavy and ly unre- munerated ‘expense, we are not surprised at the del: the sec- ond. Meanwhile the part actually completed (which contains the first two books of La Place’s work) is, with few and slight exceptions, just what we could have wished to see—an exact and careful translation into very good English—exceedingly well printed, and accompanied with notes appended to each page, which leave no step in the text of moment unsupplied, and hardly ahy material difficulty either of conception or reasoning uneluci- dated. To the student of ‘Celestial Mechanism,’ such a work must be invaluable, and we sincerely hope that the success of this volume, which seems thrown out to try the feeling of the public, both American and British, will be such as to induce the speedy appearance of the sequel. Should this unfortunately not be the case, we shall deeply lament that the liberal offer of the Ameri- can Academy of Arts and Sciences, to print the whole at their expense, was not accepted. Be that as it may, it is impossible to regard the appearance of such a work, even in its present incom- plete state, asotherwise than highly creditable to American sci- ence, and as the harbinger of —_ sabe nenese in the loftiest fields of intellectual prowess.” “i, The first volume of the Reba wong hes pom 1829, the second in 1832, and the third in 1834, each volume contain- ing about a thousand quarto pages. © The fourth volume was near- ly completed at the time of his decease. He persevered to the last in his labors upon it, preparing the copy and reading the proof- sheets in the intervals when he was free from pain. The last time I saw “him, a few days. previous to his death, a proof-sheet was lying on his — which he said he hoped to be able to read over and correct. 22 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. The publication of the book proved, as he anticipated, and as I~ have already mentioned, a very expensive undertaking, it being — one of the largest works and most difficult of execution ever printed in this country, and at the same time one of the most beautiful specimens of typography. ; Though it met with more purchasers than the athe ever €X> pected, still the cost was a heavy draught upon his income, and — an encroachment on his little property. Yet it was cheerfully — paid ; and besides that, he gladly devoted his time, his talents, — and may I not add, his health and his life, to the cause of science — and the honor of his native land. That work is his monument. Si. monumentum queris, aspice librum.* He needs no other monument ; and at the same time it is the most precious and hon- orable egaay that he could bequeath to his children. Among the numerous services which Dr. Bowditch rendered — to the cause of good learning and the diffusion of useful knowl edge, after he came to Boston, was the deep and active interest — which he took in the Boston Atheneum. When, in 1826, the Perkins family, in that liberal spirit which has ever characterized — them, gave to the Athenzeum sixteen thousand dollars, on condi- — tion that an equal sum should be raised from other sources, Dr. — Bowditch exerted himself to the utmost to accomplish the object. _ Many of the best friends of the institution thought the enterprise — a hopeless one, and were indisposed even to make an attempt to raise the amount. But Dr. Bowditch said, “It is a good thing, — let us try it; if we fail, we fail in a good cause.” He called per- sonally on many individuals to solicit subscriptions, and chiefly in consequence of his exertions, the additional sum of twenty- seven thousand dollars was raised. The permitting the books to be taken out of the library was — another measure proposed and effected by him. Strenuous oppo — sition was made to it ; but he believed and said that the circular’ tion of the books wonbd make the library ten times more useful; — and he persevered till he accomplished the measure. It was — always a favorite object with Dr. Bowditch to render books easily — accessible to those who wanted them, and could make a good us? — of them. He doubtless remembered the difficulties under which usiiecatia Ce alter a little and apply to Dr. Bowditch, the well- vi — on Sir Sir Christopher Wren, beneath the dome o f St. Paul's Cat —H hh woxonesrow: QUARIS, CIRCUMSPICE.” ~ ~ Meat ey ety Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 23 he labored in early life for want of books, and was dis obtain for others the acvabiagen which had been extended to rte self. Immediately after his election as Trustee of the ‘heii i in 1826, Dr. Bowditch, perceiving the paucity and poverty of the sci- entific department of the library, which might all be put into one small compartment,—“ dim tota domus rheda componitur una,”— declared that “it was too bad, and a disgrace to the institution and to Boston.” He ancobiliindy set about supplying the de- ficiency, by collecting subscriptions for this express purpose. Col. T. H. Perkins gave $500, his brother James the same amount, Dr. Bowditch himself $250, and other gentlemen $100 apiece. With this sum were purchased the Transactions of the Royal Societies of London, Dublin, and ~Edinburgh, of the French Academies and Iselin, of the Academies.of Berlin, Gottingen, St. Petersburg, Turin, Lisbon, Madrid, Stockholm, and Copen- hagen; forming, as Dr. Bowditch once told the librarian, “ the most extensive and-complete collection of philosophical and sci- entific works on this continent.” ‘Dr. Bowditch also took a deep interest-in the «< Boston Me- chanics’ Institution,” which was established in 1826, and of which he was elected the first President, January 12, 1827. In 1828, more than a thousand dollars: was subscribed for the par- . chase of philosophical. apparatus, chiefly through his influence with his friends, and he headed the list with the sum of one hun- dred dollars. On resigning the Presidency, in 1829, he was elected first honorary member of the institution. Dr. Bowditch was likewise an honorary member of the Mas- sachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association. On the 3d of April a Eulogy on their departed associate was pronounced before that body by the author of this Memoir, on which day the flags of all the shipping in the port were hauled to half-mast by direction of the Boston Marine Society, of which he was likewise a member. His sense of the honor thus conferred on him by these elections, and his affectionate regard for these Societies, and for the city of his eter, will be best seen by the kllerane extract {fom his 8 And, i in aeank to ee the sand of A adoption, where, as a stranger, 1 met with welcome, “and where I have ever con- tinued to receive constantly increasing proofs of kindness and re- 24 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. gard, I should have been most happy to have made a similar acknowledgment of my gratitude, by legacies to those literary and charitable institutions for which that city has always been so ~ preéminently distinguished. And, in: particular, it would have — given me pleasure to have noticed the Boston Marine Society, of 3 which I am a member, and the Boston Charitable Mechanic As: _ sociation, which has placed my name on its small and select list _ : of honorary members; since these institutions are of a similar — character to the Marnie Societies in Salem, and have, for one of : their important objects, that of affording valuable aid to the des: — titute families of deceased members. But the pecuniary nea stances of my estate do not permit it.” : oat | -» In delineating | the character of Dr. Bowditch, it deserves to be q mentioned, first‘of all, that he was eminently a self-taught and — selfmade man. He was the instructor,of hisown mind, and _ the builder up of his own fame and fortunes. Whatever know- _ ledge he possessed,—and we have seen that it was ‘very great,— ( was of his own acquiring, the fruit of his solitary studies, with — ‘but little, if any, assistance from abroad. Whatever eminence’ he reached, in science or in life, was the product of his untiring — application and unremitting toil. From his youth up, he was a pattern of industry, enterprise, and perseverance, = no —_ : culties to discourage, no disappointments to dishearten . _ Within a few years, a very interesting work has been abled : in England, under the patronage of the Society for the Diffusion — of Useful Knowledge, entitled “The Pursuit of Knowledge un ~ der Difficulties.” Dr. Bowditch deserves a place in that work, if — any man does, and had he died before its appearance, he would, _ unquestionably, like our countryman Franklin, have occupied @ — prominent chapter. We sometimes hear persons say, how much — they would do, if they only had the means and the opportunities ; But almost any body ean work with means and opportunities: — It is the: privilege and characteristic of genius to work without — means, > great in spite of them, to accomplish its on in ‘ the face stacles and difficulties. by It would be interesting and instructive, had we space tos it, to -a parallel and contrast between the Hives, characters and sci- — of atablin and Bowditch; eg IE the : e i Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 25 Both rose from obscure situations in humble life, and from the straits of poverty. Both left school at the age of ten years, to assist their fathers in their shops. Both had an early and passion- ate love of reading, and the vigils of both often~“ prevented the morning.” Both had the same habits of industry, perseverance — and temperance. The contrast between their characters would be still more striking than the resemblance. It was my good fortune, some years since, in one of those fa- miliar interviews with him in his own house with which I was favored,—and which those who have once enjoyed them will never forget,—to hear him narrate, in detail, a history of his early life. From that day to this, I have never ceased to regret that, on my return home, I did not instantly put it down upon paper, for the refreshment of my own memory, and for the benefit of - others. At this distance of time, I can recollect but a few, the — most striking, particulars; the rest have faded away and are lost. I remember, however, very distinctly; his relating the circum- stance which led him to take an interest in the higher branches of mathematical science. He told me that, in the year 1787, when he was fourteen years old, an elder brother of his, who followed the sea, and was attending an evening school, for the purpose of learning navigation, on returning home one evening, informed him that the master had got a new way of doing sums and work- ing questions ; for, instead of the numerical figures commonly used: in arithmetic, he employed the letters of the alphabet. This novelty excited his curiosity, and he questioned his brother very ~ closely about the matter; who, however, did not seem to under- _ Stand much about the process, and could not tell how the thing was ses But the master, he said, had a book, which told all about ‘This served to inflame his curiosity ; and he asked his brother eaten aaa the book of the master, and bring it home, so that he might get a sight at it. (It should be remem- bered that, at this time, mathematical books of all sorts were scarce in this country. In the present multitude of elementary works on this subject, we can hardly conceive of then prevailed.) ‘The book was obtained. It was 1 that he had ever had.at algebra. “ And that night,” did not close my eyes.” He read it, and read it again, and ‘mas- tered its contents, and copied it out from: beginning to end. Sub- oon: he got hold of a volume of the Falleenhige Trans- Vou. XXXV.—No. 1 4 26 Life and | th -of Nathaniel Bowditch. actions of the Royal Sides of London, which he treated pretty much in the same summary way, making a very full and minute abstract of all the mathematical papers contained in it; and this course he pursued with the whole of that voluminous work. He was too poor at this time to purchase books, and this was the only _ mode of getting at their results, and having them constantly at — hand for consultation. These manuscripts, written in his small, — close, neat hand, and filling several folio volumes, are now in his library, and, in my opinion, are the most.curious and previods part of that large and valuable collection. T have more than once heard him speak in the most grateful manner,—and he repeated it the last time that I saw him, _ the kindness of those friends in Salem who aided him in his early. by the loan of their books. He named particularly the — 1e0 ‘Dr. Prince,* the pastor of the First Church, who gave . e access to his library ; and he likewise mentioned.a soci- _ ty of gentlemen who had a private collection of their own. The manner i in which these latter books came into the country, is 30 remarkable, that I am happy to be able-to relate it in Dr. Bow: ditch’s own words, as contained in his last Will. The extract im as follows :— -“Ttem. It is well known, that the ai scientific library of the celebrated Dr. Richens Kirwan} was, during the revolue” war, captured in the British Channel, on its way to Ireland, ps a Bexaahy privateer ; and that, by the liberal and enlightened views of the owners of the vessel, the library thus captured was sold at a very low rate; and in this manner was laid the founda tion upon which have since been successively established, The Philosophical Library, so called, and the present Salem Athe-— neum. ‘Thus, in early life, I fohind near me a better collection of philosophical and scientific works than could be found in any other part of the United States nearer than Philadelphia. And : by the kindness of its proprietors I was permitted freely to take — oe _* It is gratifying to. find the clergy, the acistidin Dr. Prince, and the learned Dt- 4 rliest encouragers of. the. precocious powers of the American y mathe | 4 out Snag ed a Ho died is 160 Life ant Character of Nathaniel Bai 27 books from that library and to consult ikagioty them at pleasure. This inestimable advantage has made me deeply a debtor to the Salem Athenzeum; and I do therefore give to that Institution the sum of one thousand dollars, the income thereof to be for ever applied to thé promotion of its objects and the extension of its usefulness.” _ [have two remarks to make on this singularly interesting ex- tract. In the first place, it seems to me there was something like a special providence in the capture of that library, consisting: of such a peculiar class of books, by a Beverly vessel, and its brought into the port of Salem rather than any other port in fhe United States. Here was apparent design, the fitting of means to ends. The books came exactly to the place where they were wanted ; to the only place, probably, in the country where were wanted. They came, too, at the right time, just in to be used by. the person who could make the best possible us them, and to whom they were, above all computation, valuz and necessary. If this be not | an act = mp rape: L hardly know what is. = The good Dr. Kirwan eemeened; no doubt, over the loss of his books, and not least of all that they had become ‘so utterly mis- placed and. useless. . He probably thought that the vessel which contained them might as well have been wrecked on the coast of Africa, and the leaves of his philosophical works employed to adorn the heads and persons of the Caffres and Hottentots, a use to which we are told “The Practical Navigator’ was once put by the inhabitants of one of the South Sea islands.* But had the learned philosopher known that his lost library had Pr the intellectual food for the growth of one of the greatest scien- tific men-of his ee) he =e eer ae heteee to his loss. - win ate tyl gant Hee * «Tt happened that sinéag the few > aoticka saved from the hip, [the eprstag] Mentor, of New Be dford,] was a copy of ‘ Bowditch’s Navigator ;’ as little use as we can conceive any one thing to have been at that er, Ss “a ingenuity of the females, who also have their passion for ornaments, tore out the leaves of the book, and making them into little rolls of the size” ‘of one’s finger, wore them in their ears, instead of the tufis of ch they usually Pi to give additional attractions to their native ee ace erican Quarterl y Review of Holden’s Narrative, Vol. XX, p. %. t Since the above was written, I have "éernt that the F tieatbs into whose hands Dr, Kirwan’s library fell, offered to remunerate him for the loss which he had sustained. He however dockubd receiving any compensation, and expressed himself gratified that his books had fallen into te good hands. poe 28 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. My other remark is, that this item in his Will is an indication — of a very prominent feature in his character, namely, his grateful : and generous spirit. Dr. Bowditch never forgot a favor; length of time did not obliterate it from his memory. ‘The kindness | shown him when a poor boy he remembers and repays by a lib- : eral legacy. The Salem Marine Society, a mutual charitable in- ; stitution, which had aided his father in his straits by the small an-_ nual stipend of fifteen dollars, he repays, and wipes off the obli- gation, though not his sense of the benefit, by a similar bequest of a thousand dollars. And the East India Marine Society, whose — peculiar and splendid collection of curiosities is so well-known, — receives a legacy of the same amount. And let it be remembered that these were not the donations of a rich man. ' He was fat _ from being one. These three legacies constituted one tenth patt of, his whole personal property. Others sometimes give to such institutions from their abundance—he from his comparative pen ury. Let the deed be an example and.an incitement to our ven thy men! ‘Dr. Bowditch combined, in a very remarkable degree, qualitiell -and habits of mind which are usually considered incompatible and hostile. He was a contemplative, recluse student, and at the’ same time, an active, public man. He lived habitually among_ the stars, and yet, I doubt not, he seemed to many never to raise his eyes from the earth. He was a profound philosopher, and at the same time, a shrewd, practical man, and one of the most ski ful of financiers. Judging from his published works, you would suppose that he could have no taste nor time for business or the world; and judging from the large concerns which he managed, — and the a“ funds af whieh 2 _— the supervision,—involving the most t minute details,—you would say that he could have no taste nor time for study. His exam ple is a conclusive proof and striking illustration of the fact, that there is no inherent, essential, necessary incompatibility betwee® speculation and practice—that there need be no divorce betweel philosophy and business. The man most deeply engaged in al fairs need not be cut off from the higher pursuits of intellectual culture ; and the scholar need not be incapacitated by his studies from understanding and engaging in the practical details of come | mon life. _ To fact, “eng should be blended in order to make UP- the full, complete man. Contemplation should be always united = Lifé and: Character of Nathanial Bowdith. = with action. ‘This was the doctrine and the practice of the great father of inductive philosophy, as well as of this his illustrious pupil. “That,” says Lord Bacon, “ will indeed dignify and ex- alt knowledge, if contemplation and action may be more nearly and strongly conjoined and united together than they have been, —a conjunction like unto that of the two highest planets, Sat- urn, the planet of rest and contemplation, and Jupiter, the planet _of civil society and action.” And speaking of himself in ano- ther place, he says, “ We judge also that mankind may conceive some hopes from our example; which we offer not by way of ostentation, but be®ause it may be useful. If any one therefore should despair, let him consider aman a8 much émployed in civil affairs as any other of his age,—a man of no great share of healthy who must therefore have lost much time,—and yet, in this under-- taking, he is the first who leads the way, unassisted by any mor- — tal, and steadfastly entering the true path, that was absolutely untrod before, and submitting his mind to things, may somewhat have piltranseil the design.” In the management of all his affairs and transactions, Dr. Bow- ditch was a man of great order and system, and he required it of all with whom he had to do, or over whom he exercised any control. He considered that there was.a sort of moral virtue in this, and he could not tolerate any thing like negligence or irreg- ularity. He doubtless had himself acquired this habit from the nature of his favorite study, which demands the undivided atten- tion of the mind, and is peculiarly suited to form habits of exact- ness and precision. He felt, too, that it was by a strict and undeviating adherence to order and system, that he had been enabled to accomplish so much in life, to unite the scholar with the financier, the speculative with the practical man. It may have been thought by some, that he carried this love of order to an extreme, and sometimes visited too harshly the deviations from the straight line of his directions. But he felt assured that it was the way to effect the most work and do the greatest good; he knew that the habit could be easily formed in a short time, and that it would then approve and recommend itself; and therefore he would admit of no apology for infractions of his rules, In the common sense of the word, Dr. Bowditch would not be called a public man, although I have ventured to call him so; for though he twice held a seat in-the Executive Council of 30 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. Massachusetts, under the administrations of Governors Strong and Brooks, yet he had no taste for public life, no ambition for po- litical honors. He could not be drawn from “ the still air of de- lightful studies,” to mingle in the turmoil and strife of politics. And yet he was a true-hearted and sound patriot, and not a whit the less so for not being a noisy one. He loved his country, and prized her peculiar institutions. He felt a deep interest. in the welfare and honor of his native State, and would do any thing tain the supremacy of the ini, and preserve the peace ior mind, good sense being one of its most prominent qualities. Accordingly, he could have no sympathy with those visionary reformers who would jumble society into its original elements, and bring. back. ancient chaos again, in order to get a chance to -at making the very best. possible commonwealth of the fragments. No. “He valued the lessons of experience, and prized the gathered wisdom of ages. He had faith in other men’s intelligence, as well as his own, and trusted in the light that had been reflected from a yonsand brilliant minds who had pored and pondered over the great questions of government and civil polity, and given us their results in laws and institutions. Dr. Bowditch thought, with Governor Winthrop, in his noble apesey for himself, that “‘ there is a great mistake in the country about liberty. ' is a two-fold liberty ; natural, and civil or Mh apo is common to man with beasts and other crea- tures. ee chin, man, as he stands in relation to man simply, hath liberty to do what he lists; it is a liberty to evil as well as to good. This liberty is incompetibte and~inconsistent with au-. thority, and cannot endure the least restraint of the most just authority. The exercise and maintaining of this liberty makes men grow more evil, and, in time, to be worse than brute beasts: ‘omnes sumus licentia deteriores.’ This is that great enemy of truth and peace, that wild beast, which all the ordinances of God are bent against, to restrain and subdue it. The other kind I call civil, or federal; it may.also be termed moral, in reference to the covenant lesensn: God and man, in the moral law, and the politic covenants and constitutions, amongst. men themselves, iberty is the proper end and object of authority, and can- t without it; and it is a liberty to that which is good, Libeetax you are to stand for, with the haZ- ; Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 31 ard not only of your goods, but of your lives, if need be. What-* soever crosses this, is not authority, but a distemper thereof. This liberty is maintained and leis ina ii: amnion: to au- thority.’’* The lawless and flagrant dscantta upon robiecky aa life which have -occurred in this country within a few years past, casting upon its fair name a stain of dishonor, grieved him to the heart, and stirred his spirit within him. Conversing with him about one of the earliest and most wanton and unprovoked of Sieoiopt- rages,—I mean the conflagration of a religious house in the cinity of Boston, inhabited solely by women and ch ild ren, b ya 5 ferocious mob at midnight,—he told me that had he been sum- ; moned, or had an opportunity, he would readily have shouldered his musket, and marched to the spot, and stood in defence of that edifice to the last drop of his blood. There was nothing, indeed, that stirred his indignation like oppression.+ | ‘Immediately after this outrage, he called on the Catholic bishop 5 in Boston, and put into-his hands a sum of money, to buy clothes | for the women and children, who had lost every thing in the EE a ee eT ee ee. | flames. It is an agreeable circumstance, well worth recording, that as soon as the bishop heard of Dr. Bowditch’s illness, he sent and informed the family, that, to prevent his being disturbed, the bell of the cathedral, which is in the vicinity of his house, should not be rung during his illness, although it was the season of Lent, and. religious services were going on almost every day. It is pleasant to see kindness thus reciprocated, between divergent sects, and the middle wall of separation broken down by the hu- mane-and grateful feelings of a common nature. Pe Why is it, that all the youthful talent of this. country is ruins. madly into political life?. To how many of these aspirants may we apply, with literal truth, the remark of Lord Bacon, in ee . ence to himself, that “ they were born andintended for literature, rather than any thing else, and, by a sort of fatality, have been drawn, contrary to the bent of their own genius, into the walks © of gubee life.”"{ Is it nota great mistake, on ther Saiss to sup- ek ee a of New England, HH. 909. con alae sot t “ The Ursuline Convent,” on Mount Benedict, in Charlestown, about two miles from Boston, was burnt on the night of the Hth of August, 1834. . literas potius quam ad aliud quicquam natus, et ad res ae, nescio quo 3 ’ contra genium suum abreptus.—De Aug. Sci. Lib. 8. Cap. 3. & 32 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. ‘pose that politics is the only or the principal avenue to endu- ring fame? Is the science of government the only one worth studying, or are civil honors the only ones worth aspiring to? It seems to me that the young men of competent abilities among us, who aim at distinction, those certainly who have leisure and property, might quite as securely seek it in the retired and quiet walks of science and literature, as in the bustling and dusty paths of political life. Are the names of Newton and Mil- ton less eminent .than those of Chatham ‘and: Fox? -Do they not stir the spirit as soon? ay, even as soon as those of Maribo- rough and Wellington? Are Cuvier and La Place ‘names less likely to live than those of the statesmen and marshals of France? Which are the two greatest names in our own annals, the best known and the most honored the world over?» First, Washing- ton; then Franklin; and the latter chiefly as a philosopher, from ——— and ‘diianiedieds in science. ‘The example and success of Dr. Bowditch are full of incite- ment and encouragement to our young men in this particular, and should especially stimulate those who have leisure and fortune, to do something to enable our country to take a respectable clacess in science and letters among the other nations of the earth; so that the stigma shall not adhere to us of being a race of unlettered republicans. Let them look, too, at more than one recent and uccessful attempt among us in the department of history.* How sine may they not accomplish? And into what pleasant fields will they not be led? Into the various departments of natural history, the different walks of exact science, the rich and instruc- tive annals of our own country, and the delightful province of general literature and philosophy. Let them labor in this field, which will reward all their efforts, instead of delving in a stony and sterile soil. . I have no fear that the path of politics will be deserted, or that the republic will suffer detriment from the absence of candidates for its offices and emoluments. Alas! these will always be too attractive ; and what we chiefly need is some counteracting influ- ence, some striking example, like that of Dr. Bowditch, to con- aes Prescott's 8 ae of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Cath,” already and Mr. George Bancroft’s “ History of the United eos t and honorable contributions to the growing literature oof a ew ees a Oe Re SC of New-England . ; qd gent Ye Ee oe, Se ee he ge ee EN SUS LS a era er ne. 2, ee a, Sue ee ete | eee Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 33 vince our young men that political life is not the only road to eminence, nor the only adequate and honorable sphere for the exercise and display of their talents. For affording us this evi- dence, his memory deserves to be honored, and his tiie dp. be held in everlasting remembrance. Agee! wditch was a remarkably domestic man. Bis affections clustered around his own fireside, ¢ ne ? last moments. His attachn cde to home, and to its calm and simple pleasures was, ireleidy one of the most beautiful traits in his character, and one which his children and friends will look back upon with the greatest satisfaction. As Sir Thomas More says of himself, “he devoted the little time which he could spare from his avocations abroad, to his family, and spent it in lit- tle innocent and endearing conversations with his wife and chil- dren; which, though some might think them trifling amusements, he-placed among the necessary duties and business of life ; it being incumbent on every one to make himself as agreeable as possible to those whom nature ‘has made, or he nat has singled out for, his companions in life.”*— His time was divided. between bis olfiee and his shisase : and - that must have been a strong*attraction, indeed, that could aie him into company. When at home, his time was spent in his library, which he loved to have considered as the family parlor. By very early rising, in winter two hours before the light, “long ere the sound of any bell awoke men to labor or to devotion,” and ‘in summer,” like Milton, “as oft with the bird that first rises or not much tardier,” he was enabled to accomplish much before others were Stirring. iTS these morning — he used ears “Lam ir € bte d for ailmyn 42 : mS Ste z ey a «Dum foris totum fariad dien alta impertior, me repr ndat, aut quis mihi jure succenseat, si quantum obeundas, quantum d festos dies ludorum celebrandos, quantum ad alias voluptates, et ad ¢ ag i et corporis conceditur temporis ; quantum alii tribuunt tempestivis conviviis ; ; quantum ae alex, quantum pee tantum mihi egomet ad hee studia recolenda sumpsero Vou. XX XV.—No. 1. 34 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. his evening walk he was again always to be found in the library, pursuing the same attractive studies, but ready and glad, at the entrance of any visitor, to throw aside his book, unbend his mind, and meee in all the so OE of his light-hearted conver- sation. - There was nothing that he seemed to enjoy more peek this free inecelainsa of thought on bjects of common interest. At such times the mathematician, the astronomer, the man of sci- ence, disappeared, and he presented himself as the frank, easy, familiar friend. One could hardly believe that this agreeable, fas- cinating companion, who talked so affably and pleasantly on all the topics of the day, and joined so heartily in the quiet mirth and the loud laugh, could really be the great mathematician who had expounded. the mechanism of the heavens, and taken’ his place with Newton, and Leibnitz, and La Place, among the great ci in exact science. 'To hear him.talk, you would never have suspected that he knew any thing aboct science, or cared any thing about it.. In this respect he resembled his.great Scot- tish contemporary, who has delighted the whole world by his writings. You might have visited him in that library from one year’s end to another, and yet, if you or some other visitor did not introduce the subject, I venture to say, that not one word on .- _mathematics would cross his lips. He had no pedantry of any kind. Never did I meet with a scientific or literary man so en- tirely devoid of all cant and pretension. In conversation he had the simplicity and playfulness. and unaffected manners of a child. His own remarks “seemed rather to escape from his mind. than to be produced. by it.” -He laughed heartily, and rubbed his hands, and jumped up, when an observation was made that great-: ly pleased him, because it was natural for him so to do, and -he had never been schooled into the conventional proprieties of arti- ficial life, nor been accustomed to conceal or stifle any of the in- nocent impulses of his nature. ae Who that once enjoyed the privilege of Yisiting isin 3 in sits li- brary, can ever forget the scene? Methinks I see him now, in my mind’s eye, the venerable man, sitting there close by his old- fashioned blazing wood fire, bending over his favorite little desk, 3 like one of the old philosophers, with his silvery hair, and at heh e, and pene countenance ; whilst ' : ar Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 35 - science of departed sages and philosophers, who seem to look down upon him benignantly from their quiet places, and sponta- neously and silently to give forth to him their instructions. On entering this, the noblest repository of scientific works in the coun- try, E almost fancy I hear him saying with Heinsius, the keeper of the library at Leyden, ‘ “T ho sooner come into my library, umbition, avarice, and all such vices; and, in the very ‘laps ernity, amidst so many di- vine souls, . 7 take my seat with so. lofty a spirit and such sweet content, that I pity mt the great and rich who know not this sat piness.” It may be here remarked, that althoujti“a mathematics was his chief and favorite pursuit, Dr. Bowditch still had a taste and love for general literature. He was fond of Shakspeare and Milton, and remembered and could repeat whole passages from their works. - He loved, too, the poetry of Burns and our own Bryant and Sprague. Many of his favorite pieces he not only had by heart, but also.had them written down, for convenience’ sake, on the covers of his mathematical common-place book. L recollect, among others, thus copied off, “ The Cotter’s Saturday Night,” a selection which evinced at the same time his good feeling and his good taste. Talso recollect observing on the covers and blank -Jeaves of his copy of Newton’s Principia many commendatory verses on Newton, selected from Voltaire and other French poets. But I must hasten on to speak, as briefly and comprehensively as I can, of what is the most important part of every man—name- ly, his moral and religious character—the qualities of his heart, and his principles of action. _ Dr. Bowditch was a man of unsullied jnisisy, af rigid scan and uncompromising ‘principle. - Through life, truth seems to principle of action. “ForLow Trorn,”’ might have been the motto on his escutcheon. “Truth!-Truth! Truth!” were among his last words to one whom he dearly loved. He was himself perfectly transparent. A child could see through him: ‘There Was, no_opaqueness in his heart, any more than in his intellect. It was as clear as crystal, and the rays of moral truth were trans- mitted through it without being refracted or tinged. In all his intercourse and transactions he was remarkably frank and candid. He revealed himself entirely. He had no secrets. He kept noth- a. 36. ae Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. ing back, for he had nothing to conceal. He lived openly, and talked freely, of himself, and of his doings, and of every thing that was uppermost in his mind. He never hesitated to speak out what he thought on all subjects, public and private, and he avowed his opinions of men and things with the utmost freedom and: unconcern. It seemed to me that he never had the fear of © man before his eyes, and that it never checked, in the least, the free and full utterance of his sentiments. Dr. Bowditch was perfectly fair and just in the estimate which he formed of his own capacities and gifts.. He did not, on the one-hand, overrate his talents; nor, on the other hand, did he, as some do, with a sort of hackshanded humility, purposely under- value his powers, in order to enjoy the pleasure of being contra- dicted by those about him and-told that he was really a much greater man than he seemed willing to admit. Asan illustration of this, let me mention a little conversation of his. “People,” said he, “are very kind and polite, in mentioning me in the same breath with La Place, and blending my name with his. But they mistake both me and him; we are very different men. I trust I understand his works, and can supply his deficiencies, and correct his errors, and render his book more intelligible, and re- cord the successive advanceraents of the science, and perhaps ap- pend some improvements. But La Place was a genius, a discov- erer,an inventor. And yet Thope I know as sauch about panthers matics as Playfair! ae I have been informed by a pontlanss of Susien, that soon ates his return from Europe a few years since, he happoted, in a con- versation with Dr. Bowditch, to mention to him incidentally, the high estimation in which he and his labors were held by men of science abroad, and told him that he had often heard his name spoken of in terms of the strongest commendation by persons in the most elevated walks of society in England. * Dr. Bowditch,” says my informant, “seemed to be sensi ment, so much so that I saw the tears g) isten in his eyes. But he immediately remarked that however flattering such testimo- -nials might be, yet the most grateful tribute of commendation he had ever received was contained ina letter from a backwoodsman of the een who wrote to him to point out an error in his Trans- 2 a Céleste. ‘It was an actual error,’ said the ime ‘which which had escaped my own observation, The : . Life-andCharaetet of Nathaniel Bowdite © $F simple fact that my work had reached the hands of one on the outer verge of civilization, who could understand and estimate it, was more gratifying to my feelings than the eulogies of men of science and the commendatory votes of Academies,’ ” -He was a singularly modest man. He made no. | pretensions himself and there was nothing that he so much despised in others. He was remarkably simple in all shis manners and intercourse with the world. He put on no airs and assumed no superiority on the ground of his intellectual attainments, but placed himself on a level with every one with whom he had _any concern. He reverenced integrity and truth wherever he found them, in what-- ever condition in life. He felt and showed no respect for mere wealth or rank. He fearlessly rebuked, to his face, the mean and purse-proud nabob, and “ sen doupenieal to men of low estate.” - Dr. Bowditch used to relate a little anecdote concerning himself, which strongly and beautifully ncumiaes the eee simplicity and naturalness of his character. In the year 1824, when General . Leabagrsge, in. his progress through the country, among-other places, visited Boston, the may- oralty of the city was filled by the Honorable Josiah Quiney. Dr. Bowditch, in-common with all the world, had a curiosity to behold the entrance of the nation’s guest into the city; and ac- cordingly accepted an invitation from a friend, whose house was in Colonnade Row, to take a station on his balcony. But finding that the chariot single tarried, and the General delayed his com= ing, he thought that he should have time to go down to his office to transact a little business, and return in season for the spectacle. But, in the mean time, the procession had arrived and passed on, and was fast advancing to State street. He concluded, therefore, to wait where he was, and, in order to get a nearer and better view, took his. stand" on the steps of the United States’ Bank. On the SppeNenees of the barouche in which Lafayette was seated, Dr. Bowditch remarked, that he was glad to see Mr. Quincy at his side; he was the proper aman. for that place, being the son of one of ip earliest and best of the patriots of the Miwichesbicat: _ “As the shout of the multitude rose unto heaven,” he said, “T know not how it happened, but I could not keep my place; my hat would not stay on my head, nor could I hold my tongue. And to my astonishment, I found myself, all at once, in the midst of the crowd by the side of the chariot, and shouting with the 38 Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. rest at the top of my voice.” The President of Harvard Univer- sity recollects distinctly seeing him in the position and attitude thus described. e At first sight there may seem something ludicrous and carci in this grave philosopher and calculator, this votary of abstract science, huzzaing in a mixed crowd on a city’s holiday. But to me it seems a most natural and beautiful expression of his simpli- city, his self-forgetfulness, his utter unconsciousness of greatness, his generous sympathy with the people, and his grateful and. ar- dent patriotism. This little incident cannot fail to raise in the estimation of every right-minded and single-hearted man. Dr. Bowditch was a truly conscientious man. He was swings true to his moral as well as intellectual convictions, and followed them whithersoever they led. He had great faith in the rectitude of his moral perceptions, and in the primary decision of his own judgment and moral sense ; and he carried them forth and acted them out instantly. The word followed the thought, and the ‘deed the feeling, with the rapidity of lightning. This straight- forwardness and frankness were among the secret causes of the remarkable influence: which he confessedly exercised over the minds and judgments of others.. By his honesty, as well as by his resoluteness and decision, he was the main-spring of évery tite which he Mes Songer By his moral influence he and swayed men with whom he was associated. As As Be Jonson —_ tod Bacon, “he commanded where he spo. e 7 Dr. Bowditch was a man of sett natintal ‘fooling, and of an impetuous temperament. A venerable lady, after her first inter- view with him, said, “I like that man, for he is a dive man.” He was strong in his attachment to men and to opinions, and was. not easily turned from-any course of speculation or action, which he had once satisfied himself was right, wise and good. At the same time, he always kept his mind open to evidence ; and if you brought before him new facts and arguments, he would reconsider the subject—deliberately, not hastily—and the next day, perhaps, would tell you that you were in the right, and that he had altered his mind: He was sometimes quick, warm, and vehement in ex- pressing his disapprobation of the character or conduct of an in- dividual, Lesa if he thought that the person had practiced "any thing like se duplicity or frand. In such cases, his indignation Se | ee EE =e Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. 39 was absolutely scorching and withering. “But he never cherished any personal resentments in his bosom. He did not let the sun go down upon his wrath. His anger was like a cloud, which passes over the disk.of the moon, and leaves it as mild and clear as before ; or, as the judicious Hooker’s was represented to be, “like a vial of clear water, which, when shook, beads at the top, but instantly parrine: without any soil or sediment of seeseee? tableness.”’ Let me relate an socideit itinereivé of this remarkable trait in his character. Dr. Bowditch had been preparing a plan of Salem, which he intended soon to publish. It had been the fruit of much labor and care. By some means or other, an individual in the town had surreptitiously got possession of it, and had the’ anda- city to issue proposals to publish it as his own. This was too much for Dr. Bowditch to bear. He instantly went to the per- son, and burst out in the following strain: “ You villain! how dare you do this? What do you mean by it? If you presume. to proceed any farther in this business, I will prosecute you to the utmost extent of the law.” The poor fellow cowered before the storm of his indignation, and was silent ; for his wrath was ter- rible. Dr. Bowditch went home, and slept on it; and the next day, hearing from some authentic source, that the man was ex- tremely poor, and had probably been driven by the necessities of his family: to commit this audacious plagiarism, his feelings were touched, his heart relented, his anger melted away like wax. He Went to him again, and said, “Sir, you did very wrong, and you know it, to appropriate to your own use and benefit the fruit of my labors. But I understand you are poor, and have a family to support. I feel for you, and will help you. hat plan is unfin- ished, and contains errors that would have disgraced you | you and me, | had it been paniahed | in the state in which you found it. [ll tell you what Twill do. I will finish the plan; I will correct the er- rors; and then you shall publish it for your own benefit, and i will head the subscription ist with my name.” What a sublime, noble, christian spirit was there manifested ! This was really overcoming evil with good, and pouring coals of fire upon the poor man’s head. The natural feeling of resent- ment, which God has implanted within all bosoms for our protec- tion against sudden assault and injury, was ovérruled and -con- quered by the higher, the sovereign principle of conscience. AO Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. Dr. Bowditch was, in all his habits of life, a very regular and temperate man. He never tasted any wine till the age of thirty- five. He approved the remarkable changes which have been ef- fected in the customs of society, within’ a few years, by “ the temperance reform,” and he heartily rejoiced in the success of that good cause. God bless it and speed it! In his religious views, Dr. Bowditch was, from examination and Sonvicilitr a firm and decided Unitarian. His parents were Episcopalians, and he himself had been educated in the tenets of , _ that church. But he had no taste for the polemics or peculiarities of any sect, and did not love to dwell on the distinctive and di- viding points of christian doctrine. . His religion was rather an inward sentiment, flowing out into the life, and revealing itself in his character and actions. It was at all times, and at all periods of his life, a controlling and sustaining principle. He confided in the providence and benignity. of his Heavenly Father, as revealed by his blessed Son, our Lord, and had the most unshaken confi- dence in the wisdom and rectitude of all the divine appointments. He looked forward with saiee faith to an immortality in the spirits ual world. He said to one, in his last illness, “From my boyhood my mind has been religiously impressed. I never did or could ques- ‘tion the existence of a Superintending Being, and that he took an interest in the affairs of men. I have always endeavored to regu- late my life in subjection to his will, and studied to bring my inind . to an acquiescence in his dispensations ; and now, at its close, I al look back with gratitude for the manner in which he has distin- ; guished me, and for the many blessings of my lot. I can only say, that I am content, that I go willingly, resigned, and satis- fied.” To another he said, “I cannot remember when I had not a deep feeling of religious truth and accountableness, and when I did not act from it, or endeavor to. In my boyish days, when some of my companions who had become infected with 'Tom Paine’s infidelity, broached his. notions'in conversation with me, I battled it with them stoutly, not exactly with the logic you would get from Locke, but with the logic I found here, (pointing to his breast, ) and here it has always been, my guide and support ; it 4 pc as still. . My whole life, fein been crowned with bles- beyc lL my deserts. I-am still surrounded with blessings nannaibeies “Why should TL distrust the goodness of God? a Life and Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. ~ At Why should I not still be lasiaicis? and happy, and confide in his goodness?” Dr. Bowditch was very familiar with the Scriptures, both of the Old and New Testaments, more so than some professed theo- logians who make it their special study. He had read the Bible in his childhood, under the eye of a pious mother, and he loved bag quote and repeat the sublime and touching ace 3 of Holy Such had been the life, and such the character of this distin- guished man; and such was he to the last, through all the ago- nies of a most distressing illness. In the midst of health and usefulness, in the full discharge of the duties of life, and in the full enjoyment of its satisfactions, the summons suddenly comes to him to leave it. And he meets the summons with the utmost equanimity and composure, with the submission of a philosopher and with the resignation of a Christian. He certainly had much to live for—few have more—but he gave up all without repining or complaint. He said he should have liked to live a little longer, to complete his great work, and see his younger children grown up and settled in life. - “But I am perfectly happy,” he added, “and ready to go, and entirely resigned to the will of Provi- dence.” He arranged all his affairs, gave his directions with mi- nuteness, and dictated and signed his last will and testament. While his strength permitted, he continued to attend to the ne- cessary affairs of his office, and on the day previous to his death, put his name to an important instrument. In the intervals of pain, he prepared, as I have already remarked, the remaining copy, and corrected the proof-sheets, of the fourth volume of his great work, the printing of which was nearly finished. at the time of his death. _ It is a little remarkable that the last page that he read was the one thousandth: It was gratifying to him to find that his mind was unenfeebled by disease and pain; and one day, after solving one of the hardest problems in the book, he ex- claimed, in his ‘exuluumnetic way, “I feel that I am Nathaniel Bowditch still—only a little weaker.” He continued, indeed, in all respects, the same man to the last. He did not think that this was the time to put on a new face or assume’a new character. His feelings were unaffected, his man- ners unchanged, by the prospect before him. He seemed to those about him only to be going on a long journey. ‘To the Vout. XXXV.—No. 1 6 42 Lifeand Character of Nathaniel Bowditch. end, he manifested the same cheerfulness, nay pleasantry, which he had when in health, without, however, the least admixture of levity. In his great kindness, he exerted himself to see many friends, every one of whom, I believe, will bear testimony to his calm, serene state of mind. 'The words which he spoke in those precious interviews, they will gather up and treasure in their memory, situ are all calcareous, though siliceous boulders, of a small size, are occasionally seen, and nodules of hornstone are here and there mingled with the limestone, which elicit sparks, and are some- times used by the Indians for flints. The geology of Florida presents many interesting fatuied 7 but it has as yet been examined with little attention, warranting few definite conclusions. 'The coast, as far as Cape Florida, is alluvial, a seeming mass of comminuted shells, resting on a rocky formation, composed also of shells, more or less broken and abra- ded: From Cape Florida, the formation is mostly coralline, the a ‘eys being of that character. The shells around. the Keys are found in nearly a perfect state. Take up a handful at random, and it will exhibit little else than fragments of coral and uni- bia of a small size, and diminishing almost to a point. Rm Js SUC 15 Rha SERGE a ey Remarks upon East Florida. 61 As high as Indian River Inlet, the beach is still formed of shells, though less distinct and perfect in their form, mingled with some sand; while about Cape Carnaverel the sand predominates, until shelly fragments almost disappear to.the naked eye, Still, it seems probable that the whole beach is of a calcareous character, The coquina rock (as the Spaniards called it) is a formation found in the spits of sandy land which separate the lagoons near - the coast from the sea. It has been quarried in Anastasia island, for more than a century, affording a material for structures of all kinds in St. Augustine, worked with uncommon facility, and of a durable character. A large fort, of Spanish construction, at that place, is of coquina. In latitudes where there is little or no frost, it is, perhaps, the best material that can be used in fortifica- tions ; being firm enough to sustain the form: of any work, and receiving a shot like a plastic mass, exhibiting no fracture, and throwing off no splinters. The quarries near St. Augustine are generally about ten feet deep. The profile of the strata, as presented to the eye there, exhibits, first, a superficial covering of vegetable mould; next, a \ stratum of shelly fragments, quite small, and without any dis- tinctness of character, with no cohesion. This stratum varies much in thickness, according to the undulations of the surface, being generally from two to three feet. The next in the descend- ing series is a stratum of several inches thickness, composed of similar shelly fragments, but united in a mass by some cement. Then intervenes a stratum of sand, an inch or two in thickness. Immediately below this sand is a stratum of shelly rock, between two and three feet in thickness. This stratum is formed of shells in various states, the upper several inches being much like the stratum above, that is, of small and indistinct fragments, when, shells being perfect in their outlines, and only much abraded, and most of them of a size to give some clueto their species. The interstices in this portion of the mass are large in proportion to the size of the shells, and the cement which holds them together is hardly visible. Bivalves, cockles, of the cardium species, pre- dominate, while here and there is found a conch of large size, as also oyster fragments. Some of these conchs are several inches — in length, though much worn. ‘This coarse and comparatively unbroken deposit has a substratum, with which it is equally 62 Remarks upon East Florida. closely joined, like that superimposed. A thin stratum of sand next succeeds; and then a third stratum of shelly rock, about two feet and a half thick, the component parts of which are ina state rather more comminuted than any lying above. ‘This stra- tum is likewise of a more solid and uniform character than its as- sociates, and gives the largest blocks for building purposes. A sandy stratum is found below this, and, so far as an examination has penetrated, the coquina formation descends no lower. _ All these strata are firm concretions, their component parts being obviously conglutinated by a caleareous substance, which holds them well together. This foreign substance, or cement, is quite visible in the finer formations, though little seen in the coarser Taking up a piece of the latter, the cause of cohesion is appa- rently so slight, that one is eapeiene that the mass does not crum- ble at a touch. It is a common conjecture that the coquina is of recent forma- tion, and that causes are still operating to produce it. This conjecture has some apparent and plausible grounds. It wants, however, the support of deeper investigation into the character and force of these causes. Fragments have been constantly heaping up on the coast, portions of which have been long lying in a quiescent state, without exhibiting any evidences of a change, or a \ tendency to.one, particularly of a change from a loose toa state. The upper stratum of the quarries we have been desc would be likely to assume the character of the strata below, if such a change were in progress. But the century du- ring which it has been subject to observation, has witnessed no alteration. 'The fragments all lie in.a ee state, without showing any signs of cohesion. t has been surmised, that the animal matter of the shells might have furnished the element of cohesion. But this surmise would seem to be at once disproved by the condition in which the shells were found, when the concretion took place. It is evident that they must have been subjected to a long and severe process of attrition and contusion; previous to that event; such a process as must have widely separated all animal matter, from its former 3 covering. Besides, there is no reason for supposing, that this an- matter, even if it had existed in connection with the shells at inane the ae | formation pocurred, could have ome the * Remarks upon East Florida. 63 . Amore probable conjecture is, that the shells themselves, by some chemical exertions or agency, which operated in connection with their partial dissolution, furnished the bond of union among the fragments, though not in a way that leaves the same agency still in operation. 'These different strata are evidently so many distinct deposits, probably at different and distant periods; bro- ken shells thrown up or spread over a certain space, and no doubt converted at equally different and distant periods into solid masses, either by sudden or gradually operating causes, ceasing with their effect. Such a hypothesis is in harmony with our notions of other formations of rock. ~ There are appearances of shelly formations on the St. John’s, particularly the upper parts of it, but the shells are of a different character. Scarcely a bivalve is seen on or near that river, either loose, or in rocky connection. The prevailing shell there, is the Helix, while univalves are as rare in the formations on the coast. The soil at Volusia and Fort Mellon consists of half shells, which are generally perfect in their shape, the defects evidently a rather from decay than abrasion or contusion. | - 'The limestone does not show itself on the coast, nor on the St. John’s until you reach Lake Monroe, where it is intermixed spar- ingly with shells. On Black creek, west of the St. John’s, a porous, rotten limestone appears, and this is said to be the charac- ter of the rock formations throughout the western part of the peninsula. Hence the many “surth-holes,” deep and (some of them) unfathomable orifices in the earth, which appear in these regions, and the disappearance of streams for many miles beneath the surface of the earth, while others come forth in all their full- hess at once, _ The climate of Florida, during the six or seven enptiths from € ly delicious. The frosts are generally few and slight, feaving vegetation its. verdure, and flowers their bloom, throughout the year. Such frosts as kill the tender trees or shrubs are of rare occurrence. Rains occasionally prevail during the winter months, but more commonly during the latter part of sum- mer. Our troops have now been operating during three winters. Two of them have been decidedly dry. The first was rainy. _ By a loose diary, kept in Florida, since the last October (1837) and continued through two hundred and fourteen days, more than one hundred and fifty of them, were decidedly clear and pleas- ; ; * 64 Geology of St. Croix. ant days; about forty somewhat cloudy or foggy; and about | twenty rainy, but of these nearly one half were single rainy or -showery days, leaving only about ten which were of .a rain- storm character. Musquitoes have bitten, and frogs have peeped throughout the whole time, though not always in the same num- bers or with the same spirit. It-is perhaps a common impression, that there are some formic dable animals and many venomous reptiles in Florida. The alli- gator is ‘a clumsy, timid animal, never, it is believed, the assailant, unless it mistake a swimming boy, for its common prey. Score pions, snakes, lizards, &c., are common upon the barrens, and our soldiers, in sleeping on the ground, often came in contact with all of them, and were often stung by the former, gene with un- pleasant, but never with fatal consequences. Invalids have long looked to Florida as a refuge ice the north- em winter; and during the disturbances of the last few years, St. Augustine has necessarily been the only place of resort. . But - when peace shall be established, and the St. John’s re-occupied, that river will present many places of great attraction to the in- firm and pulmonic. Arr, Wh— Geology of St. Croix ; by Prof. S. Hovey, late of the Faculty of Yale College, Ct., and Amherst College, Mass. Durine two winters which I passed at St. trois for the recov- ery of my health, I found great relief from ennui, the well-known natural enemy éf invalids in such circumstances, in examining the physical features of the island; and, had my observations been more complete, the record of them might have been a valuable contribution to science. Limited, however, and imperfect as they were, I am unwilling entirely to suppress them ; especially, as they relat to a quarter of the world highly ernare cet and but little known. Should they be productive of no other benefit, I hope they may lead some more competent individual, who may, _ perhaps, be driven, as I was, to seek refuge from the rigors of a New England winter, in the balmy climate of the tropics, to con- tinue the examination, and to present to the public the more am- ple re sults of his investigations. My object in this article is te give a brief outline of the ‘geology of St. Croix. Should time = ela te BR ety pz. Pet Ff tigi so SS ees aa sere oe . a " ee ee ot ee ee Se oe ae nie Seen rree Geology of St. Croiz. and health permit, I may, perhaps, on a future occasion, extend my remarks to one or two other sega and touch. on some other topics. I am not aware that more than two or three of the West India islands have attracted the attention of any geological observer. Indeed, the tropical countries in both hemispheres must yet be re- garded, so far as geology is concerned, as nearly a terra incognita. Sull, they will no doubt furnish highly important results in this Interesting science. Here some of its most specious theories will be tested ; and here, too, will be found entombed new races of or- ganized beings, brought into existence and advanced to maturity, and finally destroyed, in circumstances differing from any present or past in other parts of the globe. - If the axis of the earth has been changed, as some philosophers maintain, here we shall find the evidence of it, in a change of organic remains, corresponding with that in the northern regions, but in a reverse order. On the other hand, if the extraordinary size and character of fossil relics, in the high latitudes, are owing to a secular refrigeration of the earth, it will be interesting to know what were the types of ani- mal and vegetable life, during the same geological periods, in the equatorial regions. If past periods in the tropics were as much more favorable than the present to the gigantic development of organic existencés, as they certainly were in ours, the imagina- tion can scarcely paint the monsters, which careful research may bring to light. I must confess, however, I saw nothing in the West Indies to countenance such suppositions. No animals or saurians, to my knowledge, contemporaneous with those im- bedded in the secondary and tertiary formations of Europe and America, have ae been detected ; nor, if we except the island of T ‘inked ie v of any indications of the existence of ex- . erranean its of vegetable matter. The pitch- ie or that island, and the. petroleum which oozes from the rocks on the coast, are- probably due to a vegetable origin; but if similar indications of carbon in a fossil state exist in other ‘init they are yet to be discovered. Most of the islands in the West Indies, as is well known, ex- hibit marks of volcanic action. Though not lying ieithin the range of that great line of volcanoes which extends along the western coast of South America, and reaches to Mexico, they _ have often been _— to destructive earthquakes ; and two of 9 Vou. AXXV.—No. 1. = 66 Geology of St. Croiz. them, St. Vincent’s and Guadaloupe, are at present the seats of active voleanoes. By inspecting a map of the West Indies, it will be seen, that St: Croix is near the northern termination of the crescent of islands, which, commencing with Trinidad on the south, and ending with St. Thomas on the north, constitutes the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea. These islands extend through more than eight degrees of latitude; and yet, it is im- possible to look at their relative position, without suspecting that they were-elevated by a common force, and have been subject to similar geological revolutions. This, so far as my own observa- tion and the information otherwise obtained extend, I believe to be true. Many of the islands contain several formations, dis- similar in age and geological constitution ; but they all bear, if I may use the expression, a striking family likeness. The prevail- ing formations in the West Indies are, in the first place, recent igneous rocks, comprising the products of active volcanoes and different varieties of trap; in the second, tertiary groups, consist- ing of marl, calcareous sandstone, and shell limestone ; and in the third, a stratified deposit, which, without at present intending to intimate its place in the geological series of rocks, I shall call in- durated clay. As 1 have already suggested, some of the islands present all these formations, indications of which are seen upon as first approach to them. St: Croix contains only the two latter, which divide the superficial area of the island about equally. This island isin north lat. 17° 45’ 28”, and west long. 67° 12’ 40”. It is about 26 miles in length, and, on an average, not more than four or five in breadth. Its shape is irregular. The north- ern and southeastern parts comprise the clay formation, and the central and southern are caleareous.. There is a striking contrast in the elevation of the two portions of the island. The clay formation is a pile of mountains, separated, however, by gorges and valleys, which run in every direction, and give to it a beauti- fully diversified aspect. The highest point is Mount Eagle, which is estimated to be about 1200 feet above the level of the sea. The calcareous formation is much lower and less broken, but undula- ting. The greatest elevation in this part of the island, is about 600 feet. It is that on which stands Bulow’s Mindo, the elegant eountry-seat of the governor, so named in memory of his friend, Shag OS he 7 Geology of St. Croiz. 67 The most striking feature of the mountains of the clay forma- tion, is their high state of cultivation, even when they are. so steep that they cannot be ascended except in mule paths, which wind up their sides in zigzag lines. All bear the marks of great violence in their elevation. The strata were much broken by the unequal application of the uplifting forces, and formed into many distinct and grotesque summits; some of which, however, have since been rounded by the hand of time. Nothing can exceed the beauty of these mountains and the intervening valleys, when covered by a luxuriant growth of the stigar-cane, interspersed with plantations and orange groves, and seen from a summit, which, at the same time, commands a view of several vistas to the ocean. Some of the mountains, however, are too precipitous for cultivation, and the rocks are too hard to be readily broken down into an arable soil. Such is most of the eastern section of the group on the north, and the extreme portion of the south- eastern range. Jn favorable seasons, the cultivated tracts yield good crops of cane, but they are peoudianly. susceptible to the drought. As a mass, this formation is ditinaily stratified. The strata vary in thickness from six inches to three feet; and, in many pla- — ces, are exceedingly regular and well defined. A good section of this description may be seen on the coast, below the Mount Wash- ington estate. In others, they are schistose, and much contorted, as near Punch, in ascending from Little La Grange, and at a quarry contiguous to Jolly Hill garden. In some cases, no strati- fication is visible—the whole mass breaking up into small angu- lar fragments, or being consolidated into columnar blocks, with a structure and cleavage resembling trap. Localities, however, of ‘The strata are highly imeaiade: The lowest angle I Season] was hear Capt. Sempill’s house, at Butler’s Bay, which was about 45°. The inclination varies in different places, from this to 90°. It is generally from 70° to 80°. The direction of the: dip is pretty uniform, and is nearly north. The composition and gene- ral aspect of the strata in different localities, and even in juxta- position, are often various. In some cases, they are decidedly aluminous; in others, silex predominates. ‘They also vary much in hardness, the more aluminous being generally soft and inclined 68 Geology of St. Croix. to crumble, and the silicious requiring a smart blow of the ham- mer to break them. The grain is uniformly fine. I did not see, in this mass of rock, any thing like a pudding-stone. 'The form- ation seems to have been deposited in quiet waters, though there are frequent contortions in the strata, which may be due in part to the troubled state of the element from which they were depos- ited ; but probably more to the force by which they were uplifted. There are beds in the ravine near Mount Victory, as we ascend on the road from Sprat Hall, which strongly resemble argillaceous slate. ‘The color of the strata, in other places, passes through all the varieties of brown to that of clay. “They are frequently col- ored red by the oxide of iron. This is particularly true in the region of Annesley. In such cases, however, the oxide does not appear to have penetrated the substance of the rock, but to have been infiltrated through the seams sand crevices. The soil is also impregnated with this sub- “Thin Sivers of sroiert “from one fourth to half an inci in thiek- ness, are often interstratified with’ this rock, and sometimes cut the regular strata, and also each other, diagonally. Mingled with schistose formations, I often found small beds of marl and calca- reous spar. In some instances, the marl had been introduced from above,-in the form of a deposit ; in others, it was obviously interstratified with the rocks when they wete formed. The streams, also, which ran down from the mountains over the hard- est rocks, were more or less impregnated with lime. ‘ I have already intimated, that, the strata are often intersected by diagonal cleavage planes. 'This appeared to me.a striking pe- culiarity of the formation. ‘These planes were from one to three inches apart, sometimes parallel, but generally more or less in- clined to each other. They were often crossed by others; so — a that the rocks naturally broke into angular, columnar, or rhom- boidal fragments. It was often difficult to distinguish these cleav- age planes from the true lines of stratification. In this respect, I was much struck with the similarity between these rocks and the greywacke formation of Wales, as described by Mr. Murchison. The valleys and ravines of this formation, as I have already said, run in all directions, but more generally in that of the anti- clinal lines of the strata. Such, for example, are those which extend from the coast road, at the west end of the island, towards Jolly Hill, Mount Victory, and New ‘Caledonia, TR Fee tay on ee ee ae a eae LO ERE 2) PS le ae ee oe ie EM OO Coren ee a a = Sgr Geology of St. Croix. 69 Sometimes these valleys and the impending mountains are wild and picturesque in the extreme; in other cases, they are highly cultivated. The contrast is owing principally to the = ferent degrees of hardness in the rocks. One is at first surprised, that any portion of soil can be rekon on the cultivated parts of the mountains, as they are so steep that, in ordinary cases, it would all be washed away. It would be in this, but for the fact, that the cane is planted in deep trenches, dug horizontally along the sides of the mountains, which prevent in a great measure the flowing of water ; and also, that the rocks are continually decomposing and forming a new soil. Indeed this process of decomposition may every where be seen at present going on, in sections of roads cut through the rocks, where the passage from the solid, unchanged strata beneath, to the cultivated soil on the surface, is so gradual, that no distinct line of separa- tion can be Sea : _ A similar explanation is applicable to the different states in which the talus is found at the foot of the mountains. In some places, it is many feet deep, but thoroughly pulverized ; in others, it remains in the state of broken fragments, covered with so little soil, as not- to be susceptible of cultivation. This is strikingly seen at Ham’s. Bluff, which presents a stratum of ‘undecomposed detritus twenty-five or thirty feet in depth. » The thickness of this formation is at least several hundred feet. On the west coast, north of Sprat Hall, the strata are seen stand- ing side by side, in uninterrupted succession, for several rods; and, were it not for the gorges which break, occasionally, cbt continuity, the thickness might appear much greater. As to its age, I am not prepared to express a decided opinion. On the one hand, it cannot: be so low down as the older slates or the metamorphic rocks of Lyell; and; on the other, its composi- tion, structure, and high inclination, bear a striking resemblance to those of greywacke. I did not observe it associated with older rocks, except in one place, near South Gate, where a bed of sienite occurs, thirty or forty rods in extent. As to organic re- mains, though I-made diligent search, I found none ; from which it must at as be inferred, that, if they exist at all, they are very uncommon. I ought, however, to mention, that, on the road from Little La Grange to Punch, I discovered in this formation, from two to three hundred feet above the level of the sea, a bed 70 Geology of St. Croix. : of limestone, in which were imbedded the leaves and trunks of dicotyledonous plants. ‘They were both converted into the sub- stance of the rock, but were well preserved. ‘The largest speci- mens of wood I obtained were about four inches in diameter; though, if I am not mistaken, I saw the impressions of those much larger. 'The cortical layers were very distinct, and, through _the smaller pieces, were holes, which the pith of the plant once obviously occupied. The bed which contains them is of limited extent. It was clearly raised with the formation in which it is implicated ; and, if they are both contemporaneous, the clay form- ation is obviously of recent origin. I am in doubt, however, whether this bed is not the remnant of a calcareous stratum, ‘which may have covered the whole of this formation when it was raised, but has since been removed by meteoric agents. If this supposition is true, other beds will probably be found, from which farther light may be obtained. I may also add, that just before leaving the island, I received some specimens of | ne, containing casts of corals and marine shells,- taken from which was said to be found in this formation near Judith’s Paneg I would especially recommend this locality to the attention of any one who may hereafter have an opportunity to examine the geol- osy of the island. It may not be improper to remark, that this Sumnasians is exceed- ingly well-developed at St. Thomas, an island about forty miles north, which bears a strong resemblance in its geological .char- acter to that part of Santa Cruz which I have just described. The columnar and trappean forms of the rock, imperceptibly graduating into regular schistose strata, are, perhaps, more com- mon. ‘This island, also, contains extensive localities of trap and porphyry. On the west side of the harbor, they are seen truded among and overlying stratified and altered rocks, where the peculiar globular concretions of the trap are very apparent in the decomposing surfaces of large insulated masses. The clay and the trap are the only two formations of this island. Of the corresponding groups of Antigua, [ intend to speak at another time. I will only add here, that indurated clay constitutes a dis- trict of enedemnble extent on the island of Barbadoes. I saw it = ieione aay College, where it is not fully developed, and sfore speak of it with confidence. Here it was more cacane: semhandanred than the rocks of which I have . Geology of St. Croix. . 71 been speaking” in St. Croix and St. Thomas. Indeed, at this place, the consolidated rocks were nearly covered by thick strata of clay mingled with sand, some of which were partially har- dened into stone and dipped with the others at an angle of about ten degrees under the calcareous and tertiary formations, which constitute so striking and interesting a feature of that island. The greater portion of this district, consisting of strata highly inclined, _ is, I was informed, exceedingly wild, broken, and mountainous, Upon the whole, the entire class of rocks which I have been de- scribing, though they may not be of precisely the same age, ap- pear to me to have been formed in similar circumstances, and to owe their varieties principally to the different degrees of heat to which they have been subjected. The general aspect of the. calcareous part of the island, as I have before said, is undulating. . With the exception of some estates on the south and southwest coasts, where the limestone risaaaea the surface of the ground, the soil is easily tilled and very ferti] ‘The : strata incline at different angles and in different directions. Their prevailing position at the east. end of the island, is a dip towards the west at an angle of about 10°.. They crop out to- wards the east at Constitution Hill, and at King’s Hill; but at an eminence near La Reine, towards the west, I saw them inclining in other directions, and, also, nearly horizontal, as at a quarry south of Mount Pleasant. This formation presents considerable diversity also in compo- sition. Perhaps it can best be described under three general di- Visions—the section which is now forming on the northwest coast—the marl and the calcareous sandstone, which occupy the conte pein ee the limestone and coral crag, the former in on and together A acai side of the island. The first of these divisions § is of limited extent. It isa narrow belt, from two to six rods wide, extending along the west, with few interruptions, from the bluff to Fredoricksted: It consists of corals, shells, and comminuted detritus, thrown up by the Waves upon the coast and agglutinated by a calcareous cement. Most of the shells are broken; the stronger ones, however, such as Strombus gigas, Turbo pica, Tellina remies, Arca Noe, are found entire, and even retain their natural colors. I observed a 72 : Geology of St Crorw. ei . few more delicate shells of the genera Serpula, Lucina, Voluta; Bulla, &e.; all these species still inhabit the surrounding seas. In addition to this fact, there are other circumstances which show the recent origin of this deposit. This part of the coast is liable to a strong surf, which is constantly drifting shells and other sub- “stances upon the shore, and dashing ever them spray charged — vith calcareous matter. These generally unite and harden, espe- ~~ eially near the surface, and form into a tolerably compact mass. “as found imbedded in these rocks, iron utensils, which had been employed at no very remote period, in quarrying them. It contains many fragments and rounded pebbles of indurated clay, which as a general thing unfit it for the kiln. Though it is obvious these rocks are still in the process of for- mation, they have been much abraded and broken by the surf. — I doubted, indeed, for some time, whether they could have been formed in the face of such powerfully abrading agents 5 but the ; fact, that the windward coasts of coral islands are generally d tinguished by the greatest accumulations of matter, rer difficulty. I saw in one place a mass of rock containing abe hundred cubic feet, which had been detached from its bed, several feet, and thrown back upon the shore. This deposit every where rests upon the tilted strata of the indurated clay, which often form a precipitous bank, and generally rise within a short into high mountains. The shore is lined with tropical shrubs and trees, such as ‘Hippomane mancinella, Guilandina bonducella, Coccoloba uvifera, Lantana involucrata, Turnara ul- mifolia, Mimosa spinosa, &c. The marl varies in composition, and hardens even ‘wiibin mod- rate distances. It often comprises extensive beds of lime nearly pure, and so soft that it may be dug with a hoe ; in other places, it is mingled with sand, becomes harder, and forms a good build- ing stone. In such cases, it is easily broken at first, but hardens by exposure to the atmosphere. In structure and general aspect 1 saw quarries much resembling those of the Paris basin, from which such ample materials for building are derived. -It is impossible to draw a dividing line between these beds and the purer lime deposits on the south and west. Both. are no doubt contemporaneous, and owe their difference to peculiar cil Pg their deposition. The limestone sometimes occurs in a compac 3 but.the structure is generally loose and fnia- “ island i in the West Indies, whose potheahs is so rich in variety and interest. It contains all the three forma- tions, viz. indurated clay, recent’ calcareous deposits, and trap, which I mentioned in a preceding article as constituting the West India islands. They are all distinctly developed also within a territory of moderate extent, and yet are separated by broad lines of demarcation. But what constitutes the peculiar charm of the geology of Antigua, are the uncommonly beautiful and variega- ted silicious fossils with which it abounds. In this respect, I am not aware of the existence of any deposit in the world, which can be compared with it. I should confine my remarks to these "outtactdiniry relics; were I not persuaded, that a knowledge of them must create a desire to learn something of their geological relations. For the purpose of best accomplishing the object which I have in view, I shall not follow a strictly geological arrangement in my observations, but having noticed the trap formation, 1 shall describe the two others in the order of their contiguity, and then give some account of the silicious minerals and fossils which are more or less common to all the formations. 76 Geology of Antigua. Antigua is a little north of the centre of the circular segment of islands, which bound the West India Archipelago on the east. It is in north lat. 17°, and west long. 62°, and coniprises an area of one hundred and eight square miles. ‘The trap formation commences on the southeast corner, and in-. cludes nearly one quarter of the island. The district is broken. and mountainous, rising occasionally into summits of eight hun-. dred or one thousand feet in height, some of which are bold and precipitous, and others more gentle and rounded, affording a luxu- riant soil for cultivation. It is also divided. by valleys, which in- tersect each other in different directions, and are beautifully man- tled by a rich and ever-blooming vegetation. The rocks are con- siderably diversified. Basalt, in extremely distinet globular con- — cretions, is not uncommon. Indeed, I saw concretions so perfect, that ps might justly be compared to piles of cannon balls from. three to six inches in diameter. In some instances, the. interior was decomposed, and the concretions were presented in the form of well defined and regularly arranged cups imbedded in the sut-_ face of the rocks. Breecias and porphyry are very common. 7 The latter is often of a comparatively light porous character} and, at a little distance, might easily be mistaken for red sand- - stone. ‘The matrix has a red earthy appearance, and the imbed- : ded feldspar and scoriz are soft and easily decomposed. -Drew’s — Hill is.composed principally of a rock of this description. Brec- cias, of an exceedingly hard and compact character, are not un- . frequent. . L often saw them in the form of boulders, at consid- erable distances from their beds. Genuine greenstone, of a nearly homogeneous aspect, also occurs, and is sometimes employed for macadamizing the streets of St. John’s, These roeks overlie, and are protruded among the stratified rocks of the contiguous formation in every possible manner. Not unfrequently one is enveloped in the other ; and both are so blended and changed by having been suddenly brought in contact in opposite states of heat, that the line of separation can scarcely be perceived with- out examining their composition. At Drew’s Hill, a vein of la- mellar sulphate of barytes occurs in this formation; but of how great extent it is not easy to decide from the excavations which have yet been made. : This group i is separated from the clay Seameabicia on the north- ‘4 east, by what are called the Body Ponds, and by a small stream Geology of Antigua. 77 which issues from them and runs toward the northeast. The superficial area of this deposit is not great. -It is an irregular belt, extending from Five Island Division and Dickinson’s Bay on the northwest, through the island to English Harbor and Willoughby Bay on the southeast, and separating the calcareous formation on the northeast frou the trap on the southwest. This district is much less mountainous than the one which I have just described. The greatest elevation is Monk’s Hill, near English Harbor, which I should judge not to exceed five or six hundred feet. The whole formation is distinctly stratified, the strata inclining nearly north at an angle of 15° or 20° They often crop out on the south in bold and prolonged escarp- ments ; on the north the slopes are more gradual. The mineralogical character of this formation, as well as that of the trap, varies exceedingly. As I have already remarked, the rocks contiguous to the trap have been much modified by heat, frequently losing not only their color but even their stratification. — The most- marked rock in the group is the one, which the trav- eller first strikes in leaving English Harbor on the road to St. John’s. It constitutes Monk’s Hill. It is of a green aspect; and, as it is broken up on the roads, very much resembles greeh earth. When minutely examined, it is found to consist of feld- spar imbedded in green clay. -In some places the clay greatly predominates, and gives the rock a homogeneous aspect; in others, not only feldspar but fragments of different minerals are cemented by the clayey basis, and the rock assumes the charac- ter of a. conglomerate. Extensive beds are found in this forma- tion, composed of yellow earth instead of green, and containing a foreign substance of a brown color.” The coloring matter in both cases is probably iron or manganese. In the vicinity of St. John’s, the rocks are more hard and silicious. Near Scot’s Hill there is a quarry of a dull, homogeneous aspect, which much re- sembles a yellow free-stone. -I. also observed, about’two miles southeast of St. John’s, superficial strata of red sandstone im- perfectly hardened, in which, however, clay much predominates over silex. Indeed, throughout this formation, clay, with few exceptions, is the prevailing constituent. Compared with corres- ponding formations of St. Croix and St. Thomas, these rocks contain much more. feldspar—an~ ingredient, which, indeed, scarcely exists at all at those places ; they have also more of the 78 Geology of Antigua. character of a conglomerate, but are much less inclined, and have been less subjected to heat. _ The remaining formation is the calcareous. It is far the most extensive of the three, and comprises the north and northeast parts of the island. “It is no where very elevated—the highest hills not rising more than 300 or 400 feet above the level of the ocean. The surface of the ground is generally undulating } sometimes the hills are abrupt and broken, having summits cov- ered with a light soil and overgrown with tropical shrubs, partie- ularly Lantana involucrata, Pisonia subcordata, and Croton bal- samiferum. ‘The slopes of the hills and the lower grounds are highly cultivated; and, in an agricultural point of view, consti- tute the best portion of the island. This formation is separated from the preceding by a low tract, extending from Dickinson’s Bay to Willoughby Bay, which Dr. Nicholson thinks was, at no very remote period, submerged, and divided the island into two nearly equal parts. - The composition of this formation, like that of the correspond- ing one in St. Croix, is by no means uniform. In many places, it consists of marl, which may be easily quarried with a heavy hoe’; in others, it isa tolerably compact limestone which can be broken only with a hammer. I did not observe any specimens of what I called “coral erag” in the geology of St. Croix, though further observation might have brought them to light. Dr. Nu- gent describes strata running through the marl, which TI had not an opportunity to see, “ consisting of a grit stone, divisible into thin layers,” and appearing under a magnifying glass to be “ madé up of very minute fragments of quartz, hornblende, jasper, horn- stone, and green earth, held together by an argillaceous cement.” It also contains localities of a yellow calcareous sandstone, break- ing with an earthy, conchoidal fracture, and employed extensively in architecture. Asa group, this formation is stratified; but, in ‘many places, the planes disappear, and the mass bears the aspect of a precipitate from water. Though it obviously rests upon the clay, the strata of the two formations are not conformable ; those of the marl being sometimes horizontal, and at others inclined in different directions. : _ This formation contains a great variety of fossils. “ Of these we many “soem says Dr. Nugent, “as most frequently pre enting themselve aces “species of madrepore, echinus, se!- 6 | Hie ets ia oe SETS Sy vidos is See i a Geology of Antigua. 79 pula, pecten, cardium, strombus, cerithium, ostrea, trochus, cy- prea, turritella, venus, lucina,” &c. ese are sometimes found entire, but they generally occur in the form of casts, either calea- reous or silicious. Dr. Nugent also mentions several species of land and fluviatile shells, belonging principally to the genus He- lix, which he has observed associated in the same locality with marine genera, as murex, arca, nerita, purpura, chama, trochus, c. The most of these fossils have ving exemplars in the sur- rounding seas. From the specimens which came in my way, (for I did not see a complete collection, ) I think I should be safe in estimating the proportion of such as high as 70 per cent. If this estimate be taken as an approximation to the truth, the formation must belong to the latest tertiary or newer Pliocene pe- riod of Lyell. No relics. of mammalia have yet been discovered in this group, nor indeed in any upon the island.* As to the age of the clay formation, I have not sufficient data to form an opinion. With the exception of some petrified leaves found near its junction with trap at Drew’s Hill, I could not as- certain that any organic remains had been discovered in it. These leaves belong to trees of the dicotyledonous class. Dr. Nicholson thinks he recognizes among them those of the Ficus pertusa, and a species of Melastoma. The mineralogical charac- ter of these rocks certainly does not indicate great age ; still, neither this nor any thing in their relations to other rocks, points out their absolute place in the series of geological formations. We must wait, therefore, for farther light on this point, till their organic contents are better investigated. Intimately connected with the clay. fortnation, if not constitu- ting.a part of it, is another class of rocks of a most interesting character. . I ‘cabs ‘to the extensive beds of chert and the silici- ous petrifactions with which this. part of the island abounds. Dr. Nugent describes these beds as a distinct deposit, lying above the clay and below the marl.. His opinion is probably well found- ed ; but they are so intimately associated with the clay formation, that I prefer to class them with that group. Their comparative extent is not great. They are found principally in the neighbor- _ Of the age of the corresponding formation in Barbadoes I can speak with greater- certainty. Of forty one species of conchifera and mollusca, which I ob- tained during ten days’ residence upon the island, there were only three which are not found at present in a living state in the West Indies, 80 Geology of Antigua. hood of Si. John’s and of Constitution hill. Near St. John’s they have been disturbed by uplifting forces, and constitute two or three summits of moderate eran on one of which stands the cathedral. At this place, tH chert i is strangely intetmirigled with lime! stone, and it is not very obvious which occupies the lowest posi- tion. At an eminence a little south of this, it is broken up into immense masses, which appear like outliers or ledges on the sides of the hill. In the region of Constitution hill, and farther south on the road to English Harbor, it appears in the form of square and angular blocks, from a few inches to two feet in diam- eter, strewed in great quantities over the surface of the country. I saw only one or two beds which had not been disturbed. "They were distinctly stratified, and lay in a position, so far as I could judge, conformable with the strata of the clay formation: I saw ‘no place, however, where one distinctly graduated anne the other, or where they came directly in contact. The aspect of this rock is various ; generally, fowaren highly vitreous. It sometimes approaches to jaspet, both in constitution and color; at others it is a pale hornstone ; and it is often seen of a still coarser structure. The fracture is werbstiniis even, often conchoidal, and not’ unfrequently splintery. The structure of the masses of which I spoke on the eminence south of the church, differs from any which I saw elsewhere. It was more giving to the rocks an appearance not unlike a silicious tufa, which had been impregnated with iron and hardened by heat. This family of rocks is altogether of an interesting char- acter, entirely unlike any thing which I have seen in other parts of the West Indies or of the world. Their geological interest is greatly increased by the immense quantities of shells which they contain, supposed by Dr. Nicholson to be Melanie.* These shells are ibways silicified ; sometimes standing out from the rock in beautiful relief; at others entirely imbedded, and, with the ex- ception of the coloring matter, converted into its substance. I - Saw specimens of this description most elegantly polished.. Ac- cording to the best information which I could obtain, these shells 4 De Nugent calls these shells cerithium. I am not satisfied that either of the ‘Thames is correct; nor have I been able to consult any conchologist i in re- opinion | can rely. _ gerd to'thaen, noes | | | BF Geology of Antigua. SL are found only in rocks of the chert family, which is a very im- portant circumstance in ascertaining the origin of the beds. As I have already intimated, the two preceding formations abound in the silicious fossils of an exceedi ly interesting and important character. For variety of structtire, for fineness and beauty of material, and for richness of color, I know of none in any part of the world in comparison with which they would suffer. They are found in the form of jasper, cornelian, agate, chalcedony—sometimes existing separately, at others all beauti- fully blended in the same specimen. The coloring matter also Varies in intensity, presenting every tint and shade which are pe- culiar to those minerals. But the most. striking feature of all, is the perfect preservation of the form and structure of the petri- ' fied substances, even of such as in a living state are most delicate. For example, the opening leaves of the banana, than which no vegetable fibre can be more tender, have been converted into silex and perfectly preserved. I saw myself the petrified pod of a tamarind, so entire in its anape and all its parts, that no one could mistake it... These fossils may conveniently be divided ‘into two classes— aa marine and the land fossils. 'The former consist of corals, shells, &c., which are found principally in the calcareous iain tion, and are particularly abundant and beautiful in Belfast Divis-. ion. ‘They frequently appear on the surface, but are often found — at considerable depths. 'The corals are Srecuacinthy very striking ; they are converted into chalcedony both pure and colored, but still retaining their pattern so perfectly, that the genus may be recognized when they are set ina breastpin. All the fossils in the calcareous formation are,by no means of this’ character. Many | of. them are cealeareous. The silicious prevail only in But ine. most rere ee ee, fossils is the Blintted wood— the ordinary trees and shrubs of the climate still retaining their individual structures, but converted into the choicest mineral sub- stances. Fossils of this class are confined to the chert and clay formations, 'They are generally found intermingled with the chert in broken fragments, and scattered over the surface of the earth. Sometimes i in low districts, they constitute immense beds, and give one the idea of a thick forest, which has been prostra- ted by some mighty owe Pare into silex, and buried be- Vout. XX XV.—No. *82 Geology of Antigua. neath the ground. The fragments are not usually more than ten or twelve inches long, and are frequently split in the direction of the fibres. The most perfect specimen which has been found, is~ described by Dr. Nugent, as being the “trunk of a tree about twelve feet in tengtfffand as many inches in diameter, rent cross- wise asunder, but all the parts lying contiguous to one another.” The largest section which I saw, was eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, and about two feet in length. - Though these fossils are all silicious, they vary exceedingly in the perfection of the material and in the beauty of their colors. Sometimes they present a dull, compact, earthy aspect—some- times the grain is coarse and the fibres are indistinct; but when a combination of fine grain, variety and beauty of colors, and distinctnegs of structure, is found, the specimens are exceedingly elegant. Among these may be particularly specified, dendritic Moss agates, and the petrifactions of the loblolly (Pisonia subcordata. ) The cocoanut, also, is often very beautiful, espe- cially its involved fibrous roots. A person who has seen the tree in its natural state, would instantly recognize its petrifactions, The same may be said of many other specimens. Indeed, they are generally as distinct from each other, as the living fibre of one tree is from that of another. The most of these fossils, I do not doubt, are relics of shrubs and trees identical with those now growing upon: the island, though some of them are probably ex- either pure or mingled with: chalcedony, are abundant. “They often occur in veins of trap, and abound most in, the neighbor- hood of that formation. Fortification agates are also found in the form of nodules, both upon and» below the surface of the earth. The preceding details open to the geologist a most interesting field of speculation. The extent to which silex, in its purest and most interesting forms, here presents itself, is, I believe, within the same compass of country, without a parallel. It has converted into its own substance organized bodies of the most opposite char- acters, and in every variety of circumstances. It presents them. under all forms and of every degree of color and perfection. It re- s one of Midas’s touch, which changed every thing into gold. — ardly be expected that phenomena, so =i and compli- e referred to to a common oie | it is obvious, Geology of Antigua. 83 from the partial examinations already made, that they are due, not to a single cause, but to a combination or rather a diversity of causes. For example, some of the finest specimens of jasper are found in trap veins, and in the oie trap rocks. _ There can be no doubt, therefore, that these are to be ascribed to igne- ous agency, converting an aqueous rock into this beautiful sub- stance.’ Lyell, De La Béche, and other authors, have detailed similar facts occurring in other parts of the world. But in regard to the chert deposits, and the immense quantities of petrified wood connected with them, I think we must look for the agency of some other cause. The circumstance that those beds contain shells, either marine or fresh water, or both, is indubitable evi-. dence, that they are an aqueous deposit. But whether they were originally deposited in their present form, or whether they are al- tered rocks, is a question about which there may perhaps be some difference of opiriion. It is perfectly obvious, that since their formation, they have been subjected to the action of an internal force, which has thrown them up and broken them in pieces, and perhaps in some degree changed their constitution. The island, also, in the trap formation and in the contiguous altered rocks. affords the most ample evidence of comparatively recent igneous 1 - action on a broad scale. The position of the strata, also, being conformable with those’of the clay formation and not separated by any definite lines, might be considered as favoring the suppo- sition, that they both belonged originally to the same class of rocks. ‘Though I know of no example on so large a scale, where rocks of this description can clearly be traced to such-an origin, yet cases of a more moderate extent are not unfrequent. And if we admit, with Lyell, that all the earlier slates aré merely meta- morphic _ rocks, oteeae from. one and other fragmentary their it semi-crystalline forms by internal heat, we seem to have an atktiowledged eause adequate to the effect. But, however sublime and interesting such a conception’ may be, we are not perhaps yet prepared to admit it among the sober truths of geology. But independently of this objection, there are pecs circurnastaaces, which seem to refer the beds in question have already remarked that the shells im- edited in them show w, that they were originally deposited from water; and the fact that these shells are peculiar to the chert— that is, are not found in strata of the clay formation—seems to be * 84 Geology of Antigua. conclusive evidence, that the two classes of rocks were formed . under different circumstances. All the chert beds do not, indeed, contain shells; but as they are not found in any of the strata of the other formation, they seem to indicate a palpable line of dis- tinction between the two. If then we refer the chert and the petrifactions connected with it to a silicious solution, we may still inquire from what source ‘such a solution could have been derived. It is well known, that pure silicious deposits from hot springs are not uncommon, an that such springs abound in volcanic countries. . The Geysers of Iceland are striking.examples of this kind. And though Antigua is not at present a volcanic island, it presents the most manifest exhibitions of igneous agency at no very remote period. “These silicious deposits and immense fossil transformations may have taken place at that time, either from subaqueous springs charged with silex, or large bodies of water thrown up from the bowels of the earth, and spread otit on the surface in the form of basins. The low position of the part of the island where these beds abound, would perhaps favor this supposition. I am, indeed, ~ aware that the subject of silicious solutions is yet involved in great mystery—the process by which nature dissolves_silica having yet ina great measure evaded the scrutinizing eye of sci- ence—but the fact is among the best ascertained phenomena of - geology, and may therefore be.employed in the explanation of those deposits, which other circumstances would sptepMy refer to such an origin. - I cannot. but regard the fact, that minute fibres of the roots of trees, and tender leaves and fruits, which must certainly have been destroyed by the least degree of violence, are found among the fossils, as furnishing additional evidence, that the lapidifying process took place in a silicious solution. It does not appear pos- sible, that any great degree of heat should have existed in the su- perficial strata of the earth, without having destroyed every thing _ on the surface in the form of woody fibre. But there is another class of silicious fossils, found in the eal- careous formation, at a distance of several miles from the chert ts, which cannot be explained upon any of the preceding eS They are the silicified shells and corallines, which me Ss ae ~ < Geology of Antigua. 85 fectly agatized, that they are cut by lapidaries for jewelry and other ornamental purposes. In addition to these, nodules of chert are found in the clay formation, detached from the beds of chert ; and also agate nodules, of which I have before spoken. I do not see how either of these classes of fossils and minerals can be re- ferred to silicious springs; for there is no evidence that such springs have existed where they are found, or that they could, under any circumstances, have been produced by them. I am tia that Lyell and some other geologists have ascribed analo- ous phenomena fo heated vapors and aqueous solutions charged vith silex, and forced up through the superficial strata from the interior of the earth. To say nothing of the adequacy or inade- guacy of such a cause to produce the phenomena in question, I think a person who has well considered the concretions with which many clay beds abound—the nodules of flint in chalk— the segregation of mineral matter from the mass with which it must have been originally blended, and its aggregation into dis- tinct crystalline forms—and, also, the contents of metalliferous veins and fossil fissures of rocks, must have recognized an agency better adapted to the present case, than any sublimation from the interior of the earth. Mr. Bird’s suggestion, at the last meeting of the British. Association for the Advancement of Science, that wood is silicified by electrical influence, is certainly countenanced . by many facts; and it is to be hoped, that the experiments which he has commenced on the subject, together with those on the formation of minerals, will do something towards defining an- other boundary of the immense but mysterious domain of elec- trical agency. — It is possible that all the petrifactions of which I have-spoken in Antigua, mays at length be referred to this source. I see nothing in their chi which forbids such a supposition ; but, in the. present state of our knowledge, I think the explanation which I have given is the most probable. I am aware, however, that these fossils and the whole geology of the island need a much more minute examination than they have yet received, in order to draw any theoretical conclusions, in which entire confidence can be placed. I know of no field which would “more amply repay the geologist for such an examination ; and should the imperfect sketch which I have given, have no othe? effect than to direct the attention of some one to this island, J Song not consider myself to have hi in vain. 2 3 » 86 Geology and Topography of Western New York. Arr. V.—Remarks on the Geology seri Toposraphy ~ Western New York; by Groree E. erg of Buffalo Iw a former papesilllasetted? in this Journal,* I etidpavoreld to show, that the rock formations in the western part of this state belong to the transition series.+ I now propose to offer some gb- servations on the causes which produced the disintegration and removal of extensive strata of these rocks from their ancient beds of deposit, and gave rise to the existing topographical phenomena. The “ saliferous rock” of Prof. Eaton, which I there designated as the old red sandstone, forms the southern shore of Lake On- tario. It has an average breadth of about six miles, nearly a level surface, and is little elevated above the lake. Its southern boun- > eee J — ert limestone terrace, under pees it ee Oeittying this old red weck.ins, isa group of calcareous rocks—_ the “ geodiferous” and “cornitiferous” of Prof. Katon—with their accompanying shales ; which are evidently equivalent to the moun- tain limestone of Birpes This formation terminates on the north, in a line nearly parallel to the lake shore, by an abrupt pre- cipice, which forms what is here called the “mountain, ridge.” The limestone district forms a kind of terrace, bounded. on the north by this precipitous escarpment, and on the south. by the mountainous region which occupies the south tier of counties. Superimposed on the mountain limestone, we have a series of shales and slaty sandstones of great aggregate thickness, dipping, as do the formations already noticed, in a southerly direction, but "Jess able to resist the powerful, degrading action to which all have * Vol. xxx1. p. 241. + As early as 1824, Dr. Bigsby suggested that the horizontal limestone of Western New York, as well as that of the Canadas, was “the representative of the mountain or Carboniferous limestone of England.”’ See American Journal,, Vol. vin. p. 76 and onward. Again, in 1829, ie Vanuxem stated his conviction that they were transition a Ibid. Vol. xv : cape Dapamell's Geolog, scpond American edition, p. 369, the same opinion nig. epeated : notwithstanding which, from the confisien produced by the introdue- ¥ names, ‘and an apparent disposition to adhere to the classification of = say call been sid regarded as belongin, ~ ake Leaes Geology and Topography of Western New York. 87 evidently been exposed. The deep valleys, which penetrate this formation in a southerly direction from the great limestone terrace; the dividing ridges, also, which have their northern terminations on the same terrace, becoming more rugged and mountainous as they approach the Pennsylvania state line, with their sides deeply furrowed by precipitous gullies and ravines, are sufficient proofs that other ‘causes of denudation than the insignificant streams which traverse these valleys, have been in operation. One peculiar feature, which adds greatly to the picturesque scenery of Western New York, arises from the fact that many of these valleys have. been excavated to a level below the general escarpment of the limestone terrace,* which consequently forms a barrier at their mouths, and gives rise to most of those beautiful _ sheets of water so justly admired by the lovers of fine scenery. This feature will again be alluded to further on. The aggregate thickness of the rock strata, from Lake Ontario to the northern outcrop of the coal in Pennsylvania, is estimated by Mr. James Hall at six thousand and fifty one feet.t| How far they extended to the north, and whether the primitive regions on either or both sides of the St. Lawrence, were originally overlaid by them, are questions difficult to solve; and which require se minute and careful examination of the geologist. There some circumstances, however, which seem to favor this fonts sion. It is stated by Dr. Bigsby,t when speaking of the hori- zontal limestone of the Canadas, that “this limestone forms a horizontal~girdle around the trap mountain of Montreal, from which, as from a centre, large veins or dykes radiate into the ad- joining limestone to the distance of two miles in some cases to my own knowledge, and even to La Chine, according to informa- tion received from M. Burnett, chief engineer to the La Chine es The limestone in its upper strata, is brown and crystal- ‘line, but black, compact, and slaty below. It contains in immense quantities the organic remains peculiar to the mountain limestone of oe api and Ireland.” It is also stated’ — Prof. ibis S$ .* Since writing the above, my attention has been called to the fact that Mr. David Thomas commu niet s phenomenon to Prof. Eaton in 1830: See Amer- ican Journal, Vol. xviii. p.: t New York “Goolodical Report; 1838. -See Atlas. » American Journal te > Vole Wa. pe vd. »~ § New York Geological Report, 1838, p. 255. 88 Geology and Topography of Western New York. that extensive uplifts have been produced on the northern slope of the valley of the Mohawk, “which have deranged the surface, and destroyed the continuity of strata and rock, and created to the casual observer, where the uplift exists, the greatest apparent con- fusion as to their superposition or order of arrangement.” This being the case on the flank of this primitive range, where the sedi- mentary rocks come in contact with it, is conclusive evidence that they were deposited before the uplifts took place, and may there- fore have been spread out, and occupied the whole district. » Whether this were so or not, there can be no doubt that the rock strata in the western part of New York, have been disinte- grated and removed, from extensive tracts north of their present. limits. It would be absurd to suppose -they were deposited in such ridges, with steep escarpments, as we now find them. Na- ture does her work less artificially. The outcropping edges of these strata; the waterworn and somewhat polished surface of the limestone rocks; the deep valleys which penetrate the shale}; and the precipitous escarprnents of the more enduring strata, bear the unequivocal impress of secondary causes. All must admit, that the present surface has been shaped by the process of remo- val, long since that of deposition was completed. That these rocks were deposited at the bottom of an ocean, is” evinced by their fossil contents ; that they have been elevated from its watery bed, requires no sabdiadiaad evidence other. than their present altitude above its permanent level. If we seek for the cause of this gigantie phenomenon, and trace the ascending strata in a direction opposite to their dip, we invariably come to primi- tive rocks, or other proofs, equally unequivocal, of voleanic agency. If, then, as is now very generally admitted, these primitive dis- tricts were the original centres of elevation ; if the process was gradual and continued for an indefinite period ; or was intermit= tent, being active at one point while dormant at others; these vast changes, as well as those of a like character in other parts of the world, may be explained on rational principles. We ne no longer be driven to the poor necessity of supposing a train of causes which may never have existed, and which if admitted_,to have operated, would probably have produced results far different from those usually attributed to them. Why not then lay aside the fashion of tad to explain such phenomena by ne the Noachian Deluge, or of : the assistance of * ie Ee ne gee it 7 Sy eS eee = Salt Tie | SGT" aos eae eee: ee SoS toes Se Se Se ob ee ee ere: iar 7 : Geology and Topography of Western New York. 89 tions, sweeping over the tops of the highest mountains, produced “by the flux and reflux of mighty deluges, caused by the sud- den elevation of mountain chains in various parts of the globe ?”’* Sound philosophy forbids these violent presumptions, particularly when the facts admit of explanations. more consonant with the natural order of events. he condition of a continent, gradually elevated from the ocean, whether by volcanic action, or by the expansive force of crystallization, or by any other cause whatever, would be such as to account for all the geological phenomena hitherto attributed to the mechanical action of water. Every portion of a continent thus reclaimed, must, in succession, have been the bed, and then the beach of an ocean. Every portion must have been subjected to the action. of the waves and the tides, when lashed into fury by the raging storm; and for a period of time only limited by the greater or less rapidity of the elevatory process. When any considerable portion had become permanently ele- vated above tide water, it would form a water shed, collecting the rain into rivulets, which, finding their way-to the ocean, would cut out narrow channels for their beds. But the effect of these streams in the formation of valleys, by denuding and tear- ing. up the ‘rocky strata, would be insignificant in comparison with the action of the surge at those points where their waters were disembogued. As each portion of such channels would successively be exposed to their combined action, and must suc- eessively form the bed of an estuary at the valley’s mouth, we can readily account for their excavation, to a greater or less extent, in proportion to the hardness of the rocky bed, to the violence of the waves and tides, and the duration of their action. In these estuaries; the comminuted materials would assume nearly a hori- tion, and when left dry, would resemble the alluvial zontal plains or “ “ bottoms,” which border most of our rivers. Should a sudden rise of a few feet take place, the water would at first * Nearly every geological writer; excepting Lyell, whike works have fallen un- der my observation, even without including those who have evidently been influ- enced more by theological, than scientific views, has drawn largely on these won- derful deluges ; and the means by which they ate supposed to-have been produced, are equally fanciful with the n itself. The a from which the above quotation js taken, (see Hitchcock’ ’s Geol ogy of Mass:, p. 242.) is perhaps not avery extravagant specimen of this kind of iypaihetical oS See also L. XXXV.—No. 1. — 12 90 Geology.and Topography of Western New York. recede; but by the action of the waves and tides on this alluvial mud, they would soon regain possession of that part of their for- mer bed, bor ring the stream to a greater or less extent. The. centre of the valley would thereby be lowered; and this pro- cess being | repeated, a series of terraces, or steps, would re- sult, precisely similar to those in the valley of the Connecticut river, which Prof. Hitchcock attributes to the fluviatile action of existing streams.* Valleys could thus be formed where streams of no great magnitude ever flowed, and where currents, “except the ordinary ones of the ocean, never existed. _ The formation of sand hanks and of gravel beds, the rounding and transportation of boulders, the formation. and distribution of what we call diluvium, all admit the same. simple explanation. Truth is said to be more. wonderful than fiction ; however this may be, it usually proves more simple than hy potheuss We ought not, therefore, to, be surprised, if the phenomena which have led to the crude notion of a deluge, or a succession of deluges, _have been produced by an agent no less active now than at any former time ; an agent, as much more powerful in its action, as it is permanent in its duration. -._ : Could the Atlantic be drained of its.waters, we should find great diversity of surface ; and that portion oceupied by the Gulf stream, would unquestionably present a succession of beds of sand, gravel, clay, &c., with boulders, more or less profusely. distributed, in proportion to their proximity to beds of rock, or cliffs, which have been successively undermined by the contin- ued action of the surge. In other words, we should find. the ~ surface covered with diluvium, and arranged, perhaps, very much after the fashion of that in Massachusetts, described by Prof. Hitchcock, as exhibiting “‘concavities and convexities resem- bling very much the sandy or gravelly bottom of existing streams, where the current has been very rapid.” Assuming, then, that the. transition rocks of western New York. extended far to the north, probably or possibly covering that portion of this State, and of Canada, which now constitute the primitive districts, and which seem to have been the nearest points of disturbance, it must follow as a consequence, that they were the first peh into. contact wish the waves by the process _ “IB, p. 144. Geology and Topography of Westen New York. 91 of elevation. As few points could then have been permanently raised above the ocean, east of the Rocky Mout tains, the action tion, made equal progress. When, however, the Mtinitive nu- cletis was laid bare, and Mount Marcy had attained an elevation above the: level of the ocean, and bid defiance to its waves and the thunders of its storms, then, and not till then; New York ob- tained her first “foothold on terra firma.” This “war of the elements,” however, must have been of long continuance before any portion of the sedimentary rocks were rescued from the do- minion of the ocean. Mount Marcy has an elevation of 5467 ‘feet ;* while Roundtop, of the Catskill, composed ‘of sedimen- tary pace is but 3804 feet ;+ and from the best data in my pos- session,{ the highest peaks of the dividing ridge which separates the streams flowing south from those which take a northern course to the St. Lawrence, do not probably exceed 2000 feet above tide water. The elevation of this part of the continent, therefore, must have been exceedingly gradual, to give time for = degradation and removal of such an immense amount of mat- ter; and it would seem probable, that it was not till the shoals had become so extensive as to obstruct the further action of the waves and arrest the removal of the detrital matter, that this ridge attained a permanent elevation above tide water. _ Whether it prove true or not, that these rocks have been re- moved to so great an extent as the foregoing train of reasoning presupposes, is of little consequence to the main question under consideration. The broadest ground has been asstmed, in order to show that the causes assigned for the topographical phenom- ena of this part of the state, are abundantly sufficient, not only to account for what we actually witness, but also for any extent of ‘change which facts may hereafter demonstrate. Supposing even, that no very great extent of strata have boda removed, that these ancient deposits thinned out rapidly on the north, and that the surface has only received such modifications as hike? B Beg ftw from the remaining strata; is there * Prof, age ea, 1838, p- 244. t Prof. Emmons, New York Geological Report, 1837, p. 100. t See Am. Journal of Science, Vol. xxxim. p. 122. te 92 Geology and Topography of Western New York. any power in nature with which we are acquainted, other than the one suggested, capable of effecting the change with so muc regularity and order? Every inch of surface has been subjected to the denuding agent; the _tops of the highest hills, no less than the limestone platform, ar the scars and scratches of the contending elements. yce, except on the steep es- carpments, is every where everest with a thick coat of dilavium, composed of water-worn pebbles, boulders, sand, &c. The val- leys are often deeply filled with these materials, more or less comminuted ; and sometimes they contain large quantities of a gee detrital matter, little worn, evidently deawed from strata similar to those of the adjoining hills. The condition of an ancient inland lake which has burst its. barriers and disappeared, could not account for these things; nor could its drainage from a higher to a lower plain, as snggestéd by Prof. Rogers,} excavate the deep and long ravine through which the Niagara now flows. It is equally idle to suppose, that the ex- istiig streams have excavated the valleys through which they flow ; much less could they have effected the comminution and uniform distribution of the coat of diluvium. And as for a sud- ' den inundation, deluge, or any succession of them, (aside;from the improbability of nature stepping so-far out of her ordinary track, ) had they been sufficiently powerful to tear up the strata, | and lay bare so large a district of the limestone: rocks, we should hardly expect to find the work so systematically accomplished. A great deluge, it is true, may account for the uncovering of the limestone ; and by sweeping heavy boulders over its surface, might have produced the “ diluvial scratches.” But portions of this rock are highly polished, and indicate a much longer con- tinuance of the watery friction than is consistent with the notion of adeluge. The systematic and parallel arrangement of the long sloping ridges, composed of shale and sandstone, no better adapted t to resist a sudden and Sprceines inundation than “ The numerous proofs that this whole region was once submerged, ads led to ‘the Ge theory of an ancient lake, far more extensive than any or all of the existing - together. Had the pass through the Highlands been elosed - and a seohe of sufficient height existed across the valley of the St Lawrence, such @ lake must have been the result. But these have not been rendered woke by any indications hitherto discove peat = toe tee i Sn el presuming that t See Awaitas aay. Vol SXxviT, p- 329. ~ j ee ee ee. ee Ue TU Stetina nes Geology and Topography of Western New York. 93 those portions which have been removed from the intermediate valleys, could hardly have resulted from any sudden irruption of water. ‘The strata would have been indiscriminately torn up; and the ruins, instead of being finely pulverized, and —. distributed over the surface, to hide the “ nakedness of the la and prepare it for cultivation, w have been thrown together by the eddies of the currents} nsightly heaps ; and this fair region, instead of being the “ garden of the West,” would have presented to view the uncouth surface of barren rocks, and would have offered, comparatively, few inducements for se anor enterprise of the agriculturist. But to return.—Suppose this dividing ridge to pee attained an elevation above tide water. The southern slope would pre- sent to the waves the smooth surface of the strata; whereas their basseting edges would be exposed on the icetinown declivity. Deep notches would soon be worn into it from both sides, which would occasionally interlock, and sometimes meet ; thereby cut- ting the ridge into a series of islands, with transverse passes be- tween them. These islands now form the highest peaks of the range; and the passes correspond to the elevated valleys, in which the prin¢ipal-streams take their rise. When a considerable elevation had been attained, small stream- lets would collect ; and at the places where they entered the sea, the waves and the tides would be more powerful in tearing up and removing the shaly rocks, than at any other points; and thereby a system of valleys of denudation, precisely similar to those we here witness, would be commence On the southern — slope, where the streams flowed over the intlindd planes of the strata, in the direction of their dip, they would meet few ob- would seldom be formed. Not so ou the There, where the streams flowed over the dges of the ‘strata in an opposite direction; each harder layer, being fonger able to resist the denuding process, would, for a cer- tain distance, form the bed of the stream; and the dip, being in irection opposite to the current, a succession of pools of vould result... These phenomena may frequently be : the small streams on the northern slope of a hill, where some of the strata are composed of hard, chose giained se ggancete: Ry those on the southern deulivity of the same a 94 Geology and Topography of Western New York. The same thing occurs in many of the valleys, but on a vastly larger scale ; the shale and sandstone being cut through and te- moved dows to the surface of the mountain limestone, as before stated. In cases like this, the latter rock, at its northern outcrop, forms a barrier across the mouths of such valleys. . The streams which flow into them, are obstructed at these points; and lakes: of greater or less magnitude result. All of those whose outlets are situated on the line of bearing of the limestone strata, which extends from the Niagara to the Hudson rivers,* as Canandaigua, ‘Seneca, Cayuga, Skaneateles, and some of the smaller lakes, doubtless owe their origin to this peculiar feature in the dip and. arrangement of the strata. Other valleys, also, in this range, were probably once occupied by lakes. In that of Bristol, the depth of the alluvium is unknown. In sinking wells, trunks of . ° trees are met with at considerable depths; and in one instance, a frog is said to have been dug up, which, on being exposed to the vivifying influence of the sun, took advantage of his newly ae- ‘ged freedom, and hopped off, with much apparent satisfaction. _ Lake Erie is somewhat similarly situated, in as much as the oor of its basin, and the barrier at its cette are formed by the mountain limgatone, But, instead of lying at right a 3 to” bearing of the strata, it occupies a basin at the” junction ‘of the shale_and limestone, formed by the removal of the outcropping edges of the former. Its longitudinal direction, therefore, has a. general coincidence with the line of bearing of the strata; and its northwestern shore, consequently, is formed by the mouintaiti limestone, which, in that direction, attains an elevation above the surface of the lake, and underlies the peninsula in Upper Canada, included between Lakes Erie, Ontario, Simcoe and . Huron. Before this limestone terrace had become sufficiently eleveiial to shut out the sea from the basins now occupied by these lakes, their shores were swept by its waves, and they differed in no material features, from the estuaries of rivers, or the bays which indent our sea coasts at the present day. It is highly probable, also, that a strong current set in through the Gulf of St. Law~ see. and found its exit seboge the valet of the Mohawk a A 38, 1 Dr. Bigsby, American Journal, Vol. vis. PTB a Geology and Topography of Western New York. 95 Hudson ; forming for itself a channel through the Highlands, if that pede. did not previously exist. The large quantity of primitive boulders seatterdd over the sur- face, and distributed promiscuously through the diluvium, would seem to indicate some such movement. ‘That they came from the north, has ‘often been suggested ; and the fact, that the near- est primitive rocks, in place, occur in that direction, renders the assumption highly probable. I have noticed one within the boundaries of this city, containing the Labradorite: It is doubt- less identical with the Hypersthene rock in Essex county,* or with a similar rock described by Dr. Bigsby, as occurring on the northeast coast of Lake Huron,+ and probably ‘came from one of those locations. 'That loose masses of rock have been frozen into cakes of ice, and widely distributed over the surface of the earth, seems to admit of no doubt, as-the same phenomenon may be witnessed in all currents of the ocean which flow from = lati- tudes towards the equator. But by whatever agent these boulders have been transported, whether by the buoyancy of congealed water, and dropped in a more southern latitude, when disencumbered of their icy bark, or, swept along by the unaided force-of currents, tides and waves, they have left their. “ marks” engraven on the surface of the limestone rocks, in characters which bid fair to prove indelible, and by which we may obtain a clew to their early history. ‘The Niagara river takes a course at right angles to the general direction of Lake Erie, and, in its descent to Lake Ontario, cuts directly across the limestone terrace, which, at this point, exceeds - thirty miles in breadth. The upper strata of this lime-rock, con~ tain layers and strings of chert, which form a kind of net-work, and render them almost incapable of disintegration from ordinary causes. These strata form both the barrier at the outlet of Lake Erie, and the rapids, between Buffalo and Black Rock. Below the northern outcrop of these cherty layers,.which may be re-. garded as forming a kindof step‘on the terrace, and upon those strata which terminate at the mountain ridge, lie the shallow val- leys of the -Tonnewanda and Chippewa creeks, one of which flows to the west,-and the other to the east; both pacing the — between Black Rock and the Falls. Borner “a Reports, tg and 1838. pience, Vol. vii. p. 69. * ~-# See New York Geol + American Journal ot 96 Geology and Topography of Western New York. — The northern boundary of the terrace, as before stated, termi- nates by an abrupt precipice, rendered more rugged and forbidding in appearance, by the disintegration of the shale on which it rests ; causing the harder strata to project from the bank, and when su ‘* _, ficiently undermined, to be precipitated to the plain below. ’ This ~ action goes on, till the talus covers the face of the shaly strata, and protects them from further disintegration. The mural preci- _ pice above might apparently remain for ages, without suffering material change. 'This escarpment is indented by: numerous Fra- vines which penetrate the bank to a greater or less distance. The streams which now occupy these indents, are mostly insignificant in size ; while many, some of which extend. farthest back from the oalarhvoat drain but a few hundred acres, and are only oc- cupied by the water which oozes from their banks, except during heavy rains, and the thawing of the snow at the end of winter. | When viewing this escarpment, it is difficult to resist the conclu- | sion, that the terrace once extended much farther north, and has i been undermined and broken down by the action of the surge. _ Not unfrequently,. persons who visit the falls of Niagara, and superficially examine the topography of the’ surrounding region, conclude, that the cataract was once located at Lewiston, _ seven miles below its present location. Full of this grand eonc eption, and without taking. into the account the causes which gave rise | to these general topographical features, they first attempt to ascer- tain its perpendicular height at that time. Having settled this to their satisfaction, they often launch forth into a train of caleula- tions, alike unprofitable and éxtravagant ; first to determine their age, and then, the number of years they will occupy, in their backward course, before they will invade the rocky ramparts of Lake Erie.* But, as in the onset, the origin of the cataract, one of the most important terms of the problem, is entirely omitted, their conclusions are wholly erroneous, and are entitled to as little consideration, as the ‘baseless fabrie of a dream.” | ) . ‘ * After all, parkas those So ieae t who Suis view the falls in theory, are the most prolific in drawing such conclusions. A series of lakés, situated like this DP hg, Aen ih TRS EE Cot Aten, BES a OR te ap ee LONE Pie Le, eae are the ear this hypothetical deluge, which is to Sa the fair valley 2 oe Lawes 909 Gah hence, is cited to ustrate Geology and Topography of Western New York. 97 In order to understand the origin, and to account rationally for the present location of this cataract, let us go back to the time when the process of elevation was going on, and the highest parts of this limestone ridge had just, appeared above the saetere at low a tremity (now Lake Brie) and the northeastern section. Across the lowest points of the reef, a strong current would be thereby produced, alternately flowing in opposite directions, during the ebb and flow of the tide.. As the reef became more elevated, the currents would gradually become more and mor re confined to those passes where the fewest obstructions existed. In process of time, some one of these gaining the ascendency, the whole force of the conflicting currents would be concentrated at one point. The power of the waves and influx of the tide, operating from below, would be-applied to the best possible advantage, in tearing up those strata which most impeded their course ; while the cur.ent, combined with the receding tide, would carry off the fragments. In this manner the valley of the Niagara was doubtless formed ; and circumstances, which will be detailed further on, render: it highly probable, that the ledges above the cataract, which form the rapids, had the same origin. - That such a strait did exist, aftet Lake frie became fresh, ‘sist before the deep gorge below the falls was excavated, is certain. The ancient banks may be traced on both sides of the gorge; and that portion of the ancient bed, from the brink of the preci- pice up to the level of the river above the rapids, contains a fresh water deposit, embracing shells of species identical with those now inhabiting the waters of Lake Erie.* 'This deposit consists principally of gravel, containing fragments and boulders of primi- ‘tive rocks, but chiefly made up of water-worn fragments of the limestone itself. At some — at the depth of from two * The Unios appear to be a thick-shelled species, and consist of water-worn fragments. I have not met with a-single whole valve, although recently I had a caved off. They are exceedingly friable, and will scarcely bear handling. Some of the small univalves, however, as Melania, Planorbis, Paludina, &c., and one minute bivalve, which I take to be a Cyclas, are not only abundant, but well pre- served, and probably inhabited the locality. The Unios may have been brought down by the river current. — Vou. XXXV.—No. 2 13 98 Geology and Topography of Western New _— = ‘to four or six feet, it is underlaid by a very fine zee of olf ‘horizontally stratified, containing fragments of limestone similar to the rock beneath. It appears to belong to the extensive clayey 2 “deposit, which covers large tracts on the limestone range, and in -- which I have never met with any fossil remains ; ae oe! may, and probably will hereafter, be detecte The extent and power of these counter leasballi which! exca- vated the valley of the Niagara, and assisted in cutting down the ravine below the falls, remain to be determined, when the laws which govern the ebb and flow of tides shall be fully developed, - and when the shape of this ancient gulf, at this stage of eleva- tion, shall be approximately ascertained. It is well known, that the height and violence of tides are materially modified by the direction of prevailing winds, by oceanic currents, and by the shape of coasts and estuaries. At some places on the coast of England, as in the Bristol channel, the tide rises forty-two feet,* and in the Bay of Fundy, to the enormous height of from sixty to one hundred feet.t As ‘no land which is now less than 575 feet above tide water, had then emerged from the ocean—uniless its rise was less rapid than this region, and the reverse is probably tre of the primitive districts—this arm of the sea had ample communication with the Atlantic, through the Gulf of St. Law- rence, and the valley of the Hudson. At this stage, the primitive range in the north of this State, and those in the New England , States, were but islands; and it is not improbable, when the rel- ua ative levels shall be alegrieioctle that other passes will be found, at a less elevation above tide water than Lake Erie. Receiving the tidal wave, therefore, through these different channels, which > would meet in the vicinity of Lake Ontario, an additional im- pulse would be communicated to it, and a tide would probably result, little inferior to that at either‘of the places above cited. There is another phenomenon connected with tides, which ought not to be forgotten. If, as suggested, this strait received a powerful tide, it might, when vushing upthe narrow gorge above | Lewiston, have produced that kind of tidal wave, called the Bore,” which, says Lyell,t “is sometimes produced in a river, where a large body of water is made to rise pain in coma ee ae eficnlegs, Vol. 1, p. 228. re 's Birds of America, Vol. 11, p. 448. Also, Ameriean Journal, Vol : v, p- 132. Also, Rees's and the American Encyclopedias. : * * Lyel's Geology, Vol. 1, p. 274. ana : a i ad Geology and Topngraphy of Wester New York: 99 a quence of the contraction-of | “the channel. This wave terminates abruptly on the inland side, because the quantity of water con- tained in it is so great, and its motion so rapid, that time hed allowed for the surface of the river to be immediately raise 2 means of transmitted pressure. A tide-wave thus rendered a s: rupt, has a close analogy, observes Mr. Whewell, to the waves _ which curl over and break on a shelving shore.” ‘This phenom- enon takes place in the river Severn, which enters the Bristol channel, where the Bore, during spring tide, is sometimes nine feet high, and rushes up the channel with extraordinary rapidity.* It also occurs in the Ganges, the Burrampoote id the Hoogly rivers ; sweeping off herds of cattle, or what - else may be caextabaint in its course, and occasions more or less i ciiiaaal to the safe navigation of all these streams. At any rate, the tide in the vicinity of the Niagara must hace been very considerable ;, and its power, combined with the dash- ing of the waves, seems to be the only rational cause which can x be assigned for the excavation of the numerous ravines already noticed.. In a paper by Mr. James Geddes, read before the Al- bany Institute,{ the fact, that they owe their: origin to other than existing causes; is Slnealet established. ' When. the elevation had so far advanced a as to ahen the. current exclusively to the valley of the Niagara, and the chan- nel below the present falls sufficiently deepened to receive and confine the tidal wave within its rocky walls, a power was brought into active operation which it is difficult fully to con- ceive without witnessing its effects on some of the iron-bound. coasts of this continent. The basin of Mines, and its. vicinity, at the head of the Bay of Fundy, would probably be a fit Bere - to study the effect of causes which were once active here.:. When we contemplate these powerful agents, which, in every country, have had so much to do in shaping. the surface of the earth, and consider, that in the natural order of events they must have been active here; when we find the proofs of their visitan, tion. engraven in shaescian as enduring as the continent itself, we ean hardly doubt that they played an important part.in exca- — vating abe deep channel below. the falls. And when we contem- a " * Lyell’s cee Vol. 1, p. 274. t Rennell, see Philosophical ‘Transactions of the Royal Society, 178I. ¢ See American ere Vol. 11, p. 213. 4 100 §=Geology and Topography of Western New York. plate them acting in concert with the river current, we cease to wonder that the chasm should have attained its present length and depth, and that the cataract should occupy a place at the dis- tance of seven miles above its apparent natural position. How much is due to each agent separately, can hardly be de-. termined. We must bear in mind, however, that the fall was nothing ‘at first ; that as the elevation advanced, the river became ‘more rapid; that finally, when the limestone was cut through and somewhat undermined by the disintegration of the shale be- low, and not tillthen, a distinct cataract could have been produ- ced. Until then, the tides and dashing of the surf were probably: most efficient in ing up the strata from their rocky beds, and comminuting the fragments; while the river would guide the oul vit "Op rations, and: remove the detrital matter from its bed. ae é “What distance the cataract has receded since that time, is a problem equally difficult to solve; but there are some indications which will enable us to applosiniate to the truth.. The rapids above the cataract, and the whirlpool below, are points where phenomena exist incompatible with the common theory. If it should be established, that the conformation of the whirlpool is such, that it could not have resulted on the theory of recession, this “endless saw” must relinquish its claim to four long miles of excavation for which it has received ecredit.. And if the rapids above the cataract existed prior to its.present location, we may presume that they are but the upper extremity of an ancient in- clined plane, or rather, succession of oe which existed before the limestone strata were cut through. . Goat Island is situated on the brink of the precipice, and di- vides the water into two unequal sheets. It is based on the lime- stone ledges which form the rapids, and the highest part of its~ surface is on a level with the river above their commencement. Near the upper extremity of the island, the rocky bed rises just sufficiently above the surface of the river to divide the stream, - and deflect the branches somewhat from the original course’ nt. It is to this eireumstance alone that the island owes istence ; for its lower extremity is covered with a tertiary sit of gravel and clay, which can offer no adequate _resist- the boisterous current, which seems anxious and ready cep the whole island into the gulf, below. #3 ing above the soil, afford conclusive proof, tha : es Geology and Topography of Western New York. 101 - Wherever the strata come in sight on the island, they conform to those in the bed of the rapids, and are equally water-worn and denuded. A portion of rock, recently uncovered by the en- croachment of the rapids upon the west bank of the island, pre- sents the same features, and can only be distinguished from those which have buffeted the fury of the torrent from time immemo- rial, simply by the knowledge of the naked fact of their recent exposure. One of the principal ledges, also, which extends en-— tirely across from the Canada shore, may be. encod some distance of the bed of the rapids, and the surface derlies the tertiary on the island, was effecte the same agent and at the same time. ren No rapids could then have existed at this sists, for the island has since received a tertiary deposit of clay, horizontally strati- fied, which is overlaid by one of gravel containing fresh water shells. These two deposits, at the lower end of the island, be- tween the cataracts, measure thirty three feet in thickness. I have already mentioned, that this clay resembles the numerous beds in this vicinity ; they all probably belong to the same gene- ral deposit. Mr. Rogers thinks this deposit took place from the waters of a tranquil lake.* The fact, however, of its contain-. ing gravel stones and water-worn fragments of the rock on which it rests, (as do all of these beds,) would seem to indicate a dif- ferent origin. -I suspect this clayey deposit may have been brought on by the overflowing of tides, after the rocky bed had become so much elevated as to be protected from the violence of the surge. The surface, where large tracts are overlaid by it, is marked by meandering-‘swales, which strike the observer as fit channels s to conduct the water back to its proper level at ebb | tide, after having parted with a portion of its sedimentary matter. No proof surely could be more conclusive than these tertiary beds on Goat Island, that the rapids have not — Biases — _ patt 2s, be the fact in coped to the cataract itself. From ‘the Falls to the Whirlpool, a distance of about © miles, I have observed no indications which have a direct bear- ing on the. question of recession; but»at this latter place, phe-. “3 at ; oe ie’ = American Journal, Vol. XXVII, p. 330. aa win . uel - es a Wd ie | ” 102 Geologyand Topography of Western New York. nomena are presented perfectly incompatible with that theory. To enable.the reader more clearly to comprehend the features of this singular spot, and also of the Devil’s Hole, one mile further down the river, the following wood cut is introduced.* - wdtciont. Banke, 0 or r Terrace = scabian a seatiem particularly, to the = ravine which aate Whirlpool from the northwest. It has a gradual as~ cent from the bed of the river to the level of the sur ig country, and disappears east of the road from the Falls to Queens- town. It is similar, in all respects, to those which indent the general line of the escarpments from Hamilton, U.C., to Lock port, N. Y.,;-and was evidently produced by the same means. Had this ravine been excavated by a branch of the river, which discharged. its waters into the basin of the whirlpool, we could surely trace its bed a greater distance than one mile ; and instead. of a gradual ascent, we ought to find the nas ledge pro- jecting over the whirlpool, as it does over the basin, into which the river now tumbles. It will also be observed, that the direetion of this ravine is a continuation of the course of the river where it enters the whirlpool. It is manifestly impossible, therefore, by any position of the cataract, to bring the action of the river to, upon its upper extremity, where it is wholly within the — limestone ledge. If the cataract was. placed across the river from A to C; the current would be drawn in that direction; if _ from A to B, it might undermine the bank where the ravine is £ 2 ‘situated, but the more violent its action, the steeper would hat «lia Sih — _.*Paken, ‘(but somewhat corrected,) from a map is a contemplated uaa ~ arou d the Falls of Niagara, by Lieuts. T. F. Drayton and J. G. Reed] vU. ri ‘aco tA Journal, Vol. xt. See wood cut, p. 215. Also Vol. “x1v. See ma’ of Welland canal district, by William Hamilton Merrit. r Geology and Topography of Western New York. 108 been the escarpment. In either case, the ravine could not have been formed. ~ Bat let the reader Sunes , os river flo Wisi nearly on a level with its banks; the high prominences, A, B, ©, directing the course.of its current, and the less elevated bank, near the ravine, flooded at high tide. Let him imagine such a tidal wave as the Bore, or even an ordinary flow of a few feet rise, meeting t current of the river at this place, and he will readily perceive, ” that both currents would be deflected towards the ravine, which, as the elevation advanced, would be left dry at its upper extrem- ity, and new portions of its rocky bed « exposed to ple watery below the limestone strata, we may suppose the. inclined plane, to which I have alluded, and of which the present rapids formed the upper extremity, had attained its greatest extent. The more ~ rapid disintegration of the shale would then undermine these harder strata, and the work of recession commence ; but whether at, or above the whirlpool, I have no data on which to form an pe certainly not below, however. re are other indications, further down the river, which strongly corroborate these views. The indent on the American side, called the Devil’s Hole, is a notch, embracing about two acres ; and to those who have not seen the place, its name, per- haps, may convey some idea of its gloomy and forbidding aspect. It is difficult to account for the excavation of this notch on any supposition but that of a force applied in the direction of the river from below. By inspecting the wood cut, -it will be per- ceived, that it is but the continuation of the gorge ; and this strikes the beholder with peculiar force when standing on the point E, and looking down the river. The high bank, also, on : ite shore, marked D, occupies a position well calculated to deflect the tidal wave directly into this notch. Bloody Run, which is laid down as entering the river through this chasm, drains but a few hundred acres, and is so situated, that a branch of the river could never have flowed through its channel ; were it not so, the thick bed of clay and gravel, which occupies the sur- face to within a few feet of the precipice, would be equally con- clusive’against the stipposition. Its bed is ‘perfectly dry, except during wet seasons of the year ; and it cannot be supposed to have done much towards this gigantic work of excavation. The name = Bi Me ee 104 Geology and Topography of Western New York. of this stream seems to be in very good keeping with that of the gorge, through which it enters the river, and was given in com- memoration of a tragic scene once enacted at this. place.* When the passes by which this inland sea communicated with the Atlantic, became contracted and shoaled; by the progressive elevation of the continent, it approximated to the condition ofa lake. . The same process which took place when this limestone reef emerged, was repeated, but in a new place. The. tides and waves began to spend their force on obstructions at a lower level; and when the plain, on which Lewiston is situated, emerged, ‘it is probable the change was nearly effected. We there find indications of an ancient shore, Saoxpoued of ‘rounded beach gravel, elevated a few feet above the general level of the surrounding surface, and having a direction parallel to the present shore-of Lake Ontario. It is generally supposed—and the geologist assigned to this district, in the survey now going on; — the ee — afield once had a —— eleva- “¢s The following brief account of that bloody eect as related by Farmer’s- Brother, a celebrate’ Seneca Chief, who himself headed ‘the attacking ait is extracted from Thatcher’s. Indian Biography: ‘and may oe interesting to some of the readers of this journal who have not seen that work. These party of Indians, he lay in ambush, patiently awaiting ae glee -ef a guard that nied the English teams employed between the Falls of Niagara and the ‘ort Niagara,) “ which looking den. A large ravin e, occasioned by the falling in of the perpendicolar bank, made dark by the spreading branches of the birch and cedar, which had ta- ken root below, and the low murmurings of the rapids in the chasm, added to ‘the solemn dhonder of the cataract itself, conspire to render the scene truly awful. The English party were not aware of the dreadful fate that awaited them. “Tn- : a. conscious of danger, the drivérs were gaily whistling to their dull ox-teams. mer’s-Brother and his band, on their arrival at sin, spot, rushed from the thicket, t had concealed them, and commenced a horrid butchery. So unexpected. was such an event, and so completely were the English disarmed of their presence of mind, that but a feeble resistance was made. ‘The guard, the teamsters, the oxem and the waggons, were precipitated into the gulf. But two of them escaped ; 4 Mr. Stedman, who lived at Schlosser, above the falls, being mounted. on a fleet horse, made good his retreat; and one of the soldiers, who was caught on a pro- jecting root of a cedar, which sustained him until oe by the distant yell of the savages, that they had quitted thé ground. It-is the rivulet, pouring itself is precipice, whose name is the only monument ? ate records the massacre, It is said to | have been literally colored with the blood of the vanquished. t Mr. Sam es Hall : se6 New York Geological Report, 1838, p. 310; and onward.” Geology and Top ra hy of Western New York. 105 tion than at present, and shandneeade Prive with this ancient beach, and that, from some ause, it has to its pres- ent level and dimensions.. I have long suspected some fallacy i in this theory, and have anxiously awaited the result of accurate levelings. It may be deemed equally probable, and more consonant with the views, here suggested, to suppose, that, after the principal tides were shut out from this-inland sea, and: the water had become nearly or quite fresh, but while it was on a level, or nearly so, with the Atlantic, the uplifting process became stationary, for an indefinite period ; during which season of quiescence, this beach was thrown up. Atsome subsequent time, the disturbing force again became active, raising the basin of Lake Ontario, above the further influ- ence of the ocean; and fixing the present levels and boundaries of this part of the continent. Should the statement of Mr. James Hall prove well founded, and actual admeasurement confirm the estimates of his assistant, Dr. George W. Boyd, this view of the subject will be clearly established ; although these gentlemen do not seem to have drawn such an inference. Mr. Hall states the elevation of the ridge in Niagara county, at about 160 feet; and admits variations in its level, of a few feet.* Dr. Boyd estimates its elevation in Wayne county at more than 200 feet.+ If this diversity of level actually exists—as I have long suspected would prove to be the case—it fixes the elevation at a period subsequent - to the formation of this beach. Its increased elevation, in ap- proaching the primitive district, is what should be inferred, on the theory, that those districts were the original centers of ele- vation. And the variation of forty feet in about one hundred miles, is quite as much as ought to be expected from an elevation , of but. four hundred feet, which is the height of this mage, 0 ancient ities in Niagara coUnEYs above tide water. * Second New York Geological Report, p. 310. - 4 Ibid. p. 312. Vor. XXXV.—No. 1. ul att ee = of this object, of which we e have any record, was made by Mr. _ try who produced a rotary electro-magnetic machine. Since the 106 ~—— Ellectro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. ees Arr. VL—On- Ele ct eed netism, as a Moving Pusal 3 by Cuartes G. Pace, M. D., Washington City, D Arter the first successful magnetization of soft iron by the we «vanic current, and more especially on the announcement of Prof. Henry’s signal experiment, the suggestion naturally occurred to every enquiring mind, cannot this immense attractive power, 80 easily developed and ps ie be rendered available as a me- chanical agent?» The first successful step towards the attainment William Sturgeon, a distinguished philosopher of E gland. next original invention by which an independent motion was ob- tained from electro-magnets, was the oscillating apparatus of Prof. Henry, described in a previous No. of this Journal. The next invention of any note, was that of Dr. Ritchie, now very well known as Ritchie’s revolving magnet. "This ingenious and sim- ple contrivance, will always be regarded as a superb philosophical apparatus. It does not exhibit that lishing rapidity of rota- tion, as if its poles were changed by the use of solid conductors, but as an instrument is more pleasing, as it shows at the same time the magnetic rotation, the vivid sparks, and in the dark a beautiful optical illusion. Some time after the announcement of this instrament in this country, Mr. Davenport of Vermont pub- lished in this Journal a partial description of an electro-magnetic — engine of considerable power. It appeared that Mr. Davenport had for a long time been occupied in the subject, an * ‘Sa ORES Nesiieaie ae time prior also to this period, some interesting experi described in this Journal, by Dr. Edmondson of Baltimo indeed, this gentleman appears to have been the first in this coum= announcement of Mr. Davenport’s invention, the innumerable ex- — periments which have been performed in this country, in Eng- land, on the continent of Europe, and even in the East Indies, é have all contributed to prove that the smallest engines which a have been made, have had by far the greatest proportionate power. # Since I first gave the subject any attention, I have had sixteen different models constructed, — involving distinct principles. From all these experiments the inference is still the same, viZ- the fewer the magnets and the s limits,) the greater the ratio of mecha experience as this appears dianoiirtegill cient to prove the experiment infeasible. are such as have been incident to the prosecution of all inventions in-their early stages. It is much to be regretted, that in our coun+ try the invention should be a subject of mercenary-speculation, when in reality it has no value exce tas an experiment, and that the public have been so far mislec withdraw that counte- er ! periment really merits. We can not but deplore, that such an teresting branch of science should > epee and that the very name of electro-maghet- | ism should be coupled with empiricism. There can be no doubt in the mind of any one who may have seen an electro-magnetic engine, that-it furnishes a mechanical power already eagurornee and. useful to a certain extent, provided : er be not expensive and difficult. r cannot be expensive, if the mechan- } a7 cob Pistso 6 of the aggregate attractive force ; that this a does not hold in any of the plans of which, hitherto, we have had any description, I shall prove, when the cause comes to be considered. Yet in certain arrangements this law must ob- tain, and although the necessary construction be at present some- what complicated, yet ultimately it doubtless will be simplified. “At ga we have no means of computing the extent of mag- at : care, I have succeeded in producing an attractive force € 0) pounds, by a galvanic pair having only ten square es of zinc exposed ; whereas with the usual arrangements, it required two or three square feet to produce the same power. This power, though so great for the means used, yet probably was not near the maximum procurable from the same zinc sur- face. It would seem, then, that if the above mentioned ratio ex- ists in attainable forms of machines, the application of the power cannot be otherwise than cheap. The difficulty of maintaining a uniform power is by no@neans insurmountable. The faults hitherto have been, the wearing and alloying of the pole-changer ee 108 Hlectro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. and springs, and subsidence of battery action, which are easily demonstrated to be remediable. It is not to be presumed that in the present age, or perhaps ever, we shall arrive at a power from electro-magnetism, which shall supplant the steam-engine, in its grander operations. Indeed, it is not essential that this should be the case, to render the invention even invaluable. Incalculable benefit would be conferred upon society, if a new and simple me- chanical power could be procured, available from that of a single man to one or two horses. A multitude of mechanical operations are now carried on by animal or water power, for which-a low steam power cannot well be used, from the fact that steam-engines below one horse power, are hardly worth the making, and are troublesome and expensive. A very natural question here arises ; if one horse power can be obtained by electro-magneétism, wary cannot two horse, or any extent of power, be made? Theoretically consid- ered, it can be; and electro-magnetic powers can only be limited by the means used. But practically we have already been taught, that (unlike other powers, where the largest engines are the most simple and least expensive ) electro-magnetic engines above a cer- tain limit, increase in complication and expense in a much greater ratio than the power obtained. ‘To ascertain this limit, the pre- cise point where economy ceases, is now the great, and mee to be the only object of research. ‘There seems to be little doubt, from the data we already pos- sess, that a power equivalent to.one horse may be obtained with economy. Before proceeding to point out the obstacles in the way of the application of this power, the following general rules are offered as deduced from actual experiment. First.—Whatever be the rate of passage of the galvanic cur- rent, the full magnetization of a bar of iron requires time in pro- portion to its hardness and size. Mr. Wheatstone has calculated the rate of electro-motion, in good conductors, to be 188,000 miles - asecond. Admitting that electricity, even in its lowest state of tension, passed at this rate, still the time required in giving a very e magnet its maximum charge, would be a perceptible item- Therefore a single impulse or discharge, as from a common electri¢ battery, (be the quantity ever so great,) scarcely magnetizes. » The necessary consequences of this law are, first, small magnets an- swer better than large ; second, change of siti to produce mo- tion, must be dispensed with, if the introduction of repulsive Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. , Se powers be not more than sufficient to compensate for the loss ; third, the power of a machine does not in ith its velocity. The second general rule is, that integrity of the conducting and magnetizing wires, is of the utmost consequence. By integ- - rity, I mean not only entire absence of flaws, fractures, and im- perfectly soldered joints, but a perfect molecular arrangement. Bending or twisting a wire, impairs its conducting power ; and a wire which has once anon wound upon a magnet, is not fit for - same purpose agai Fhird.—Iit is well jai that the fepulsive power i is not equal to the attractive, of the same magnet, be it even of the hardest steel. The difference between the two forces is still greater in electro-magnets, and for the same reason. ‘There is also another cause which operates to diminish the repulsive forces of electro- magnets, which will be considered when treating of the influence of secondary currents. _ Fourth.—T wo SETS aK unequally charged, attract each other, even when similar are presented. The same is true of the steel magnets, but not to so great an extent. Fifth.—Change of poles‘cannot be introduced in a machine, for the following reasons: 1. It requires time; and during this time, the magnets which change poles, are ditiacsod and re- tained somewhat by those which do not change. 2. Similar poles will attract and produce back action ; for, unless the mag- nets which change poles be favored by excess of battery, or superior conductors, they cannot receive near the same charge, as those which do not change: for, first, there is magnetism of an opposite character to be overcome ; and secondly, two breaks in or circuit are necessary to produce change of poles. "Pwo magnets which have a statical repelling power, that is, yer which will merely keep them asunder when the machine is at rest, will attract each other when the machine is in motion. This singular fact is a consequence of secondary currents, shortly to be described. The next law to be observed is, that the sum of the forces of any number of magnets charged by one battery, is in a diminish- ing ratio to the forces of one magnet charged by the same bat- tery, provided the battery be not in excess. Hence there must bea Breat loss of power, when a number of magnets are ee 110 | Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. by the same battery. The secondary current has also an impor- tant bearing upon this case. | One of the greatest obstacles we have yet to encounter, in the prosecution of this subject, is the influence of secondary currents to diminish the power of a machine, just in proportion to the use _ of those which at present we consider the most obvious means of increasing the power. By secondary currents are here meant, those currents which flow in the conducting wires, either with : or against the battery current, and are consequences of the devel- opment or cessation of magnetism, or of the approximation cession of two charged magnets, These currents are | obey the following laws. — one coil oe eco wound upon a magnet, the addition it a second coil increases the power of the secondary current in a greater ratio than the power of the magnet. Hence, as it has been found, some machines have had greater power with two coils of wire on the magnets than with four or five; although actual experiment proves, that the real or statical power of the magnets is considerably greater when a large number of coils is used. According to Faraday’s interesting Sem tists when mag- netism is developed in a bar of iron inclosed within a helix, a secondary current flows in the helix contrary to the Tccory cur- rent. When the magnetism ceases, the secondary flows in the same direction as the battery current. The development of mag- netism is equivalent to the determination or movement of mag- | netic forces towards the poles. The cessation of magnetic power is equivalent to the retreating of those forces. Now the ap- proximation of two electro-magnets attracting each other, occa- sions au additional movement or accumulation towards the poles, and consequently develops a secondary current flowing against the battery current. The power of this current is in proportion to the velocity with which the magnets approach each other. When two such magnets in proximity or contact are separated by mechanical force, a recession of accumulated forces takes place, and consequently a secondary is developed, flowing in the same as the at current. Therefore, an independent mo- c ine di the influence of * Electro-Magnetism, as a Moving Power. Beal the battery current in proportion to its velocity ; whereas the ap- plication of mechanical force to drive the machine against its own motion, contributes to the magnetizing power of the bat- tery. ‘The same rule applies to the motion of repelling poles. When two repelling electro-magnets are made to approach each other, a recession of the magnetic forces takes place, and conse- quently a secondary current is developed flowing in the direction of the battery current. While the forces are thus kept in re- tirement, if _ two magnets be made to recede, they will again rmine wards the poles, and tian the secon- s Seti, ) in which, the secondary current may be so ap- s to diminish or accelerate the velocity of the revolving par. ~ It will now be readily seen, that two electro-magnets, with a sta- tical repelling power sufficient to keep them asunder, would cease to repel when the machine is in motion. The attractive forces constitute the paramount motive power, and when the velocity of the machine exceeds that which the repulsive powers alone would give it, they ate of no value whatever, unless they ope- rate in conjunction with attractive forces; but even where this is the case, the secondary current arising from the velocity of the machine, must occasion so great a disparity between the similar poles of the magnets which change and those which do not change, that attraction, in lieu of repulsion, must take place. I have thus endeavored to point out the most important of those difficulties in the way of the application of this power, which necessarily arise from the connexion of galvanism and magnetism. There are many other hindrances entirely of a me- — nature, which perseverance will doubtless overcome, Magnetic Electrepeter and Electrotome. T. y I.—Magnetic Electrepeter and Electrotome, to be used 2 sr a — Pgs ; by Cuartes G. Bam M. D., ‘Weshingaa a City, D THE figure represents a serie instrument, ‘designed chiefly. to aid the operator in exhibiting the magneto-electric properties of flat spirals. Though the flat spiral as a magnetic electrical in- strument is inferior to the compound electro-magnet, described in the last number of this Journal, yet the phenomena are more in- teresting, as they are strictly magneto-electric, produced without the presence or coéperation of ferruginous bodies. The object of the instrument, as its name (electrotome) implies, is to bre the cireuit ; and as it accomplishes. this by changing the ¢ - tion of the galvanic current, it is also a selbanine clectaepaer : ~~ A rotating electro-magnet would effect the same object ; but the introduction of an electro-magnet or a coiled wire, in any part of the circuit, would detract from the value of the spiral. (g) isa thin base board of mahogany, which, when the instrument is in _use, is to rest upon the spiral coil or the box containing it. At the centre of the base (g’) is a pivot sustaining the magriétic bar of steel (c) and its axis, the extremity of which plays freely in the centre of the cross piece (h.) Between the upright pillars are secured two circular pieces of mahogany (a b) (p m) to serve a8 supports for the sie cells (dande.) The circular box (@). contains two concentric mercury cells, iasaleted from each other, Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 113 and connécted with the poles of a battery by the separate and cups (pm.) The centre of this box is open to adm shaft of the magnet, as is also the centre of the box (e.) box is made of two glass cylindrical sections, cemented int groove of a turned cup or base of wood. It contains two ‘dis for mercury nearly semicircular, and insulated from each other precisely as the cells for the Ritchie magnet. ‘These cells are connected with the extremities of the spiral by the separate wires and cups (a b.) ‘Fhe two wires (i7) are well insulated by a winding of varnished silk, and secured in their positions on the shaft by silk thread. 'The upper extremities of these wires dip _into the concentric cells of (d,)-and the lower into the cells of box (e.) The base board is made thin, and the pivot (g) short, to allow the magnet to come as near as possible to the spiral. Place the instrument upon the spiral, make the connex- ions as above directed, and the magnet immediately commences a rapid rotation by the influence of the spiral. ‘The instrument should always be placed without the centre of the spiral, and in such a manner, that the insulating pieces between the cells of (e) should be in the direction of a radius of the spiral. Art. VIII.— Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns, and Notice of a monstrous flower of Orchis spectabilis ; by J. W. Battery, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, at the U. S. Military Academy, West Point. = . I. On the Vascular System of Ferns. ) Tri isa Lcpalniens of much interest in vegetable anatomy, sister p vessels exist in ferns; for if they do, ferns present a remark- =, able deviation from the usual structure of flowerless plants. It 4 ‘ is well known, that the presence or absence of these vessels has been considered so invariably connected with the presence or ab- sence of flowers, as to have given rise to the division of the vege- table kingdom into_the two great classes Vasculares or Flower- ! ing, and Cellulares or F'lowerless Plants. Ferns are by all writers | placed in the last class, but it will be seen by the following quo- | tations, that there exists much uncertainty with regard to their having spiral vessels. Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 15 114 Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. k, (Elemens de Botanique, T’. I, p. 132,)as quoted by Hugo ais in his elaborate treatise ‘De Structura Caudicis Filicum Arborearum,’* states the wood to be “almost wholly made up of large spiral vessels.” Decandolle, (Organographie, T. I, p. 232,) as quoted by Mohl, mentions that they contain many an- nular ducts (vasa éesigbigownia) without alluding to spiral vessels. Lindley, (Int. to Bot., 1st edit., p. 22,) speaking of spiral ves- sels, says, that “in io ivebioss plhinrty they are for the most part altogether absent ; the only exceptions being in Ferns and Lyco- podiacee,” and adds, “in these they no doubt exist ;, Mr. Griffiths has succeeded in unrolling them in Lycopodium denticulatum.” Mohl, in the treatise above referred to, in which he describes and figures the vasa scalariformia, ‘says, (p. 48,) “ Num in juni- oribus plantis et in junioribus partibus adultarum harum planta- rum vera vasa spiralia occurrant exponére nequeo, quum has partes inquirendi occasio —— 7” and again, in a note on page 51 of the same treatise, he sa -’ “Schultzius quidem ( Plora, 1828, Tom. I, p. 154) commemo- rat propria vasa inesse, ceterum accuratiori eorum descriptione omissa ; equidem vero in — earum formationem inveni pro- priis vasis adnumerandum - When distinguished observers disagree so much in their state- ments, it often happens that their accounts can be reconciled by the. discovery. of some fact not observed by either, - which will explain the apparent contradictions. I hope that the wledge of the point of structure. which Lam about to describe, will have this bearing upon the present question; for it shows, that those who maintain the existence of spiral vessels in ferns, may actu- ally have obtained, what, when not carefully examined, might easily be mistaken for spiral vessels; while those who deny. the existence of spiral vessels, may have observed the same organs without attempting to uncoil them, or if they attempted they may have failed, owing to the age of the Sant or some memes cause. The fact to which I seetdd invite the attention of sana is this, viz. The ducts of ferns (Annular ducts of Lindley, Vasa Fasciitis of Decandolle and Mohl) can be wneoiled in “> Published i in the splendid work, ied Plantarum Cryptogamicarum, quas itinere annis 1 20 pe r Breziliam collegit et wera Carol. Friderie. Pip de Martius. Mo finch 1828—34. : ® ° are = s Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. 115 with wrth ease when the plant is young, but with more difficulty in the adult plant. The uncoiled- duct, when examined by magnifying power, has. all the appearance of a common vessel; but when highly magnified, it shows. the real structure to be as represented in Fig. 4, Plate I. It will be seen, that this differs ° very much from the structure of a true spiral vessel, which, shows merely one or more continuous, slender, round fibres, en- tirely destitute of any marks; while the uncoiled ducts of ferns show, as in the figure, a flat ribbon marked with peeie rows of Short ae To oben these = separate from each other, go. as to allow the state in which they exist in the plants to be seen, 1 macera- ted in water for several weeks the bundles of weasels from the petioles of young and tender, though large fronds of Onoclea sensibilis, Osmunda cinnamomea, &c. until by the decay of the connecting parts, the vessels could be easily separated from each other by placing a portion on glass, in a drop of water, and fore- ing them apart with the points of fine needles. ~The vessels, as prepared in this manner, present the appearance of long cylindri- cal (Fig. 2, Plate I,) or prismatic (Fig. 3, Plate I,) tubes, termi- nating at each end in very elongated cones. These tubes vary much in length and diameter, some being several inches long and as much as one twenty-fifth to one twentieth of a line in diam- eter, while others are very minute and short. The sides of these tubes are marked with a great number of short parallel bars, _ placed in rows one above another, and the length of the bars in _ the same vertical row is often seen gradually to diminish, (Fig. 2,) so that the bars are finally reduced to mere. points. ‘These bars are so placed as to incline slightly, often almost imperceptibly, upwards from left to right in all the ferns I have examined. The end of one bar is placed close to the end of one in the next row, so that the bars form broken spiral lines around the cylinder, and as the membrane of the vessel appears to be thinnest between the bars, it follows, that when a force is applied to tear this membrane, the laceration takes place ina spiral direc- tion, and the vessel when thus torn, appears as in Fig. 4, Plate I. Vessels torn and uncoiled in this manner have, I presume, been mistaken by Link and others for true spiral vessels. This lace- _ ration and uncoiling can be effected with so much ease in ten- der shoots of Onoclea sensibilis, Adiantum pedatum, Polypodium 116 Observations on the Vascular System of Ferns. connectile, and particularly in Osmunda cinnamomea, that if the petiole of the frond be snapped across and gently separated, hun- dreds of uncoiled ducts will be seen to connect the two fragments, as in Fig. 5, Plate I. These may often be drawn out to the length of two or three inches-without breaking. When broken, they exhibit the curious peristaltic motion which has been: noti- ced by Malpighi and others in true spiral vessels. This is evi- dently a mechanical effect, caused by the elongated and untwist- ed coil resuming its twisted state. I have found the vessels above described, and have unbédlels them, in every species of fern which I have examined, among which are Aspidiwm marginale, A. acrostichoides, Asplenium ebeneum, Onoclea sensibilis, Adiantum pedatum, Pteris aqut- lina, Osmunda cinnamomea, O. regalis, Polypodium connectile, P. vulgare, Botrychiwn virginicum, and others. From the draw- ings given by Mohl, (Table xxx, Fig. 1 to 3, m m, Table xxxv, Fig. 1,) it is evident, that the structure of the vessels in the ar- borescent ferns is similar, although it does not appear that a attempts have been made to uncoil them. In all the ferns which I have examined, I have sought in vain for any thing approaching more nearly to true spiral vessels than the lacerated ducts above described. As these ducts have precisely the structure which would re- sult from a compound spiral vessel, in which the spiral threads should be broken into short bars, I have carefully examined many young ferns, to determine if in the young state the bars may not be continuous, and thus form a true spiral vessel. But Ihave — found little to support this view, except the appearance of very small ducts when so torn as to iackade only a single spiral line of bars, in which case it is often impossible to see whether the bars are connected or not. I hence infer, that spiral vessels do not exist in ferns, and that the ducts when torn spirally have been mistaken for them. In connection with the above observations, I examined the young stem of E’'quisetum sylvaticum, in which I distinctly and repeatedly found small vessels which could be uncoiled spirally, and which presented no appearance of the bars seen in ferns, but which certainly appeared to be true spiral vessels. I did not de- a ‘si in EB. Lage or in £. palustre. yet examine Lycopodiacez in a young state. Notice of a Monstrous Flower of Orchis spectabilis. 117 Il. Notice of a Monstrous Flower of Orchis spectabilis. Although no doubt is at present felt with regard to the normal structure of the Orchidez, yet the instances in which this struc- ture is reverted to in monstrous flowers, are interesting and wor- thy, I think, of being recorded. An instance of this kind in Orchis latifolia. ' is désctibed by M. Achille Richard, in the “ Me- moires de la Soc. d’Hist. Nat.,” of Paris, in which the flowers were perfectly triandrous, with no no trace of irregularity in any part of the floral envelopes. I myself found a fine example in the case of a monstrous flower of our beautiful Orchis spectabilis. The plant on which it occurred was a very luxuriant one from the Crow’s Nest, West Point, supporting six or seven flowers, of which all but one had the ordinary structure. That one, however, had three stamens perfectly formed, and each presenting precisely the same appear- ance as the one usually developed. All the other parts of the flower were perfectly regular, and the ovarium had the three or- cney placente. For a sketch of this weeds see Fig. 6, Plate I. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fig. A. a terminations of ducts in ene. The ducts terminate at rr end in such co Fig. 2. Cylindrical portion of a duct, showing the bars gradually diminishing to points Fig 3. Prismatic sg of a duet. This form is probably caused by the pres- sure of cyerem oms rts. Fig. 4. A duct of ferns torn in a spiral direction between the bars = uncoiled. In te tates ducts have probably been mistaken for spiral vessels Fig. 5. Two portions of the bepaie of fibres in ferns, broken po pet ody separated, showing several torn ducts spirally twisted, still connecting the parts ~ Fig. 6. A sus flower of Orckis spectabilis, showing a return to the normal seeetare of Orchidex, having three perfect anthers, and the rest of the flower in ordi state. a, a, a, three anthers not differing in any ect from the one usually developed, and having a very dilated stigma in front of them. 6,5, b, Se- pals. c,c,d, Petals and lip. e, Spur. f, Ovarium 118 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, Arr. TX.—On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, at West Point, N.Y., with some notices of American species of Diatome ; by J. Ww. Baiwey, Prof.-Chem., Mineral. and Geol. “at es U.S. Mul. Acad., West Point. Dee the kindness of my 1y distinguished friend Dr. Torrey, I received some months since a portion of the fossil Infusoria, of the tribe Bacillarie, recently discovered by Ehrenberg, constitu-. ting whole: strata in Germany, &c. The specimen I received, came originally from Ehrenberg himself, and was a to this country by Prof. Daubeny of Oxford. Having by means of this specimen become acquainted 7 with the form of these singular creatures, I was led to search for the living species of this family in various situations in this vicinity. I soon found that they. were exceedingly abundant, occurring not only in small streams and stagnant poolk, but also netting in the wet moss on moist rocks. The situation, however, in which I found them to be most abundant was in the bunches of Conferva, Zygnema, and Ba- trachospermum which constitute the-green slimy matter known vulgarly by the name of F'rog-spittle, so abundant in bogs and slow eerie. brooks. They were accompanied by great num- bers of the’ Diatomea, particularly Diatoma fl m and Fragillaria pectinalis. By burning off. the vegetable matter from a bunch of the Conferva and examining the ashes with a good microscope, I found them chiefly composed of the siliceous ‘shells of various loricated Infusoria, and what was to me before unknown, I found that the Diatome were also unchanged by. fire or acids, and consequently like the Bacillarie composed of silica.* _ The imperishable nature of the Bacillarie and Diatome, led me to suppose that large numbers must be buried in the mud at the bottoms of the bogs, streams, é&c., where the living specimens oceur, but I was not prepared for the discovery which I shortly made of a deposit eight or ten inches thick ~ oie: several * Since making this observation I find that the same > dhnouwine had been pre- aaa De oo: 3; see extract from Meyen’s Report given at the end of with some Notices of American Diatome. — 119 hundred square yards in extent, which is wholly era up eo the siliceous shells of the Bacillaria, §c. in a fossil sta This deposit is about a foot below the surface “ys a small j bog, immediately at the’ foot of the southern escarpment of the hill on which the celebrated Fort Putnam stands. In draining this bog, a large ditch was dug, and among the matter thrown out, my attention was attracted by a very light, white or clay colored substance, which when examined closely in the sun-shine, showed BP glimmering linear ‘particles. On submitting it ion, by means of a good microscope, I found it to be almost aad? composed of fossil: Infusoria, with occasionally: a a few fragments of a Diatoma or Fragillaria. I have since examined many specimens, taken from different and distant parts of the same bog, and have invariably found the same siliceous bodies, and in-the same abundance. » ‘There can be no doubt that in this place there are several tons of the shells of beings so. minute as to be barely visible as brilliant specks, when carefully observed in astrong light by the naked eye. Hundreds of years must have elapsed before such an accu- mulation could have. been-made. ’ The forms most abundant in this peciouths are vopiesdanted on Plate2. Fig. 1, represents one of the Bacillariz, which is appar-. ently identical with fossil specimens from Ehrenberg. Fig. 2, represents a boat-shaped shell, which like the preceding is marked with parallel lines of almost inconceivable fineness. Fig. 3, shows a smooth siliceous body whose nature is to me unknown. Fig. 4, is arough siliceous. body of whose nature I am also ignorant, With these occur great quantities- of exceedingly _ 3 ings, discs, and smberee see Fig. 11, Plate2.. All forms together compose a white or clay colored mass, which when dry feels very light, does not effervesce or dissolve in acids, and is not Hee by the blow-pipe. I have no doubt that this substance will be found abundantly in many peat-bogs, and I hope in the next number of this Journal to see the announce- ment of its discovery in many ee. From its white color, Snes writing the above, I received from my sciontilic friend, O. Mason, Esq., President of the Providence page Soviet, a letter from vehncl I take the liberty to extract the following. He sa yo fth white sub- stance oceasionally esas at hs Sion cof p pr boge have afforded a gorda and very curious p which has often occupied my mind. I eould 120 = On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, it may in some cases have been confounded with marl, from which its action with acids would distinguish it. To examine for the Infusoria, diffuse a small portion in a drop of water, and exam- ine with a microscope of high power. ‘The very convenient Raspail Microscope is well suited for the purpose, but to see the fine lines on these shells most distinctly, a small glass sphere made according to the method of Torre of Naples, should be used with the Raspail fixtures.* As I have not had the good fortune to obtain Ehrenberg’s papers on Recent and Fossil Infusoria, I am unable to give the names of the species occuring at West Point. I have, however, made sketches of the principal forms occuring in the peat-earth, which I hope will serve to make these singular beings more gen- erally known and perhaps also enable those who have Ehrenberg’s papers, to identify our species. All the Infusoria figured on 2, occur abundantly in company with the Closteria, and poveral other forms, in a living state, in the waters near the deposit of fossils. Fig. 5, represents the species which appears most abundant as a recent species, and Jeast abundant as a fossil. As the species of Algee known as the Diatome, have also a si- liceous shell and occur abundantly in our ditches, &c. ina recent state, and occasionally in the peat-earth in a Sonail state, and as ee obscure but beautiful tribe appears to have been wholly neg- not even menses. the origin of this. ‘sedimentary accu accumulation, w Pano Prenils occurs under circumstances which afford no clew to its source. I have forgotten all the localities whence the specimens were obtained, which were oad _ into'my hand by various individuals some years since, some of whoin supposed it to be magnesia and others porcelain earth.” _ *I make these spheres by drawing into a thread a portion of green glass (flint glass will not answer, as the lead reduces,) and then snapping off a portion, about half a line or a line in length, I lay it upon a fragment of charcoal and very carefully that the bit of glass has assumed the spherical form, (otherwise ashes adhere, and the glass becomes full of flaws.) The spheres are then easily set in lead, thus: Make a conical depression in a piece of sheet lead and perforate the apex of the cone with a hole somewhat less in diameter than the glass to be set. The glass is then to be forced into the hole so as to project through slightly. I have fre- quently made, and set in five minutes, spheres in this manner, which would agnify from one hundred, to four or five hundred times the diameter of the object. Such glasses are much superior to any usually kept for sale in this country. sume that these glasses would have been more used, had they been tried with the proper aiieencaee for light. With the beautiful fixtures of the Raspail Micro- a Be es Sed little to be wished for, eat with regard to — or eer “4 cea? *. with some Notices of Amerian Diatoma. —- ‘21 lected by American botanists, (but one species, D. floeculosum, being credited to our Flora, ) I have made sketches of 7 spe- cies, which occur abundantly about West Point. T have found abundantly in this vicinity, Diatoma jacentensii Fig. 12, Plate 2, ‘another species, D. tenue, having the articu- lations six to eight times as long as the diameter, Fig. 13, Plate 2, Diatoma crystallinum? Fig. 14, Plate 2; Fragillaria pectinalis, Fig. 15, Plate 2, and Merilion vernale? ‘of Agardh, Fig. 16, Plate 2. My specimens of the latter, found in Washington’s valley, agree precisely with specimens sent to Dr. Torrey, by Dr. Binders, and tTharked M. vernale, Agardh, but Agardh’s description, does not suit them well. Perhaps this may be the M. circulare of Agardh. I have also fone: adhering to specimens of Abies collecéd near Providence, by my friend D. C. Cushing, a great quantity of Meloseira nummuloides, Azardh. This is another species of the tribe Diatome. It appears then, that this tribe is quite abun- dant in this country, and a monograph of the phonies occurring | in the United States, ismuch to be desired. -In* connection with the above, the following éxtiarte a Meyen’s Report of the Progress of Vegetable Physiology,* during the year 1836, will prove interesting. I met with it several weeks after I made the observations above noticed.. * Mohl confesses, that after many years’ observation he- still remains quite in doubt as to the place which the Bacillaria should occupy ;. thi however their i increasing by separation, oe: not justify us in -cle them as animals. & “T may also mention that Link. Briger = Morren, have of lat ——- that these doubtful. creatures which are kncwh abd nee @, ought to be arranged | with vegetables ; according to this, ace Would remain no other botanist, with the exception of Corda, that had paid any considerable attention to vegetable EET who did not consider the Bacillaria to be’plants. “From this we may judge of the contradictions on this wabject which are found in the reports edited by Wiegmann and myself, on the progress of mology 2 aed pasnclogiee botany for he yeah, 1835,7—as these crea- * Wiegmann ’s Archiv o far Naburgeschichte, 4837, _— iii. © Translated in Lond. 381. Wo. XXXV No. 1 °° “16 122 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-carth, tures are at times mentioned as plants, at times as animals, and fnbal under quite different denominations. “ Morren, in the highly important memoir on the Closterie,t has very fully treated the question, whether they should be arranged with animals or vegetables; he succeeded by employing very high magnifying powers, © in showing that those red and very movable little points discovered by. Ehrenberg at the ends of. these beings, were nothing else than minute - vesicles which afterwards change into new individuals. It was these eo BS and as it were, oscillating points, which were considered as or- s of motion, and appeared to justify the placing of the Closteri@ among animals, which, however, at present, after Morren’s discovery, falls to the ground. Besides the occurrence of these self-moving propagula in the interior of the Closterie, Morrem has observed a formation of fruit by conjugation, quite similar to the mode of formation of the fruit in the Conjugate,j and besides this there also net place an increase of the Closteria by separation. “The siliceous envelop which surrounds the Closteria, ‘as seal as all other Bacillaria, is regarded by Morren as a formation analogous to the so called cuticula at plants, a fact which is capable of confirmation only in certain relations ; for in the perfect plants this fine plate of silica lies in the substance of the cuticula, and is yonly separated from this by the de- Struction’of the organic parts. Besides this siliceous envelop, Morren supposes the existence of two other distinct membranes, which cuticles of the Closteriz, and inclose the green substance ; he however velop which is found in the members of Conferve when their spores are ripened, or they begin to increase in any other manner, as for instance, by excrescence and separation. © "Morten thinks it possible to explain the motion of the Closterie by the action of opposite electricities. The av- thor also gives a very complete description, accompanied by drawings, of the very manifold forms which the Closteria exhibit at different periods ; and by this he shows, how at least six of the new species of the genus Closterium, described by Ehrenberg, belong to one and the same species. : Brébisson§ also made observations on the enigmatical Diatome, in order to aeeidp the question, whether they should be ‘classed with ani- * Tam sorry to say, that these contradictions must abso eset? in this year’s report, as I do not think Ehrenberg’s view as to the animal nature of the Bacillarie weak- ened by the reasons here stated.—Wiegm _ + Sur les Clostéries, Ann. des Scienc. “Nat. "Vo 1. 3, p. 274. 't The same observation bed been si by Conde —Also ay Ehrenbors in 1834.— Wiegmann. § Observations sur Ss Dianoashed: AJpetient de 1836, p. . 373. Ann. des Scien®- Nat., 1836, LU, p. 248. with some Notices of American Diatome. — 123 mals or vegetables. © On burning a great ae of Fragillaria pecti- nalis, an animal smell. was noticed. Such a smell would, however, be a very indefinite character, for various other Algw produce a similar odor on their being burnt to acoal. After the burning of the Fr pec- tinalis, and various other beings of the same kind, Brébisson found sili- ceous envelope surrounding . them. in a very perfect state, and precisely similar to those exhibited by the fossil Diatome, discovered by C. Fis- cher in the peat-bog near Franzensbad, and hick led to those beautiful observations that priate f= made, known o on n this se eeae in the course of discovered, only those beings are to be-understood, whid 1 cae as has been previously shown, receive as plants. The occurrence in a fossil slate of these minute microscopical plants, is caused by the hard siliceous envelop, which resists all destroying influences. Kiitzing’s discovery, that the envelop of the Bacillarie consists of silica, which was mentioned in our first year’ ’s report, has, by this circumstance, been rendered more im- portant. If we observe the same minute plants in the living state, it often happens, that amongst them some dead ones occur, which exhibit that perfectly transparent and colorless siliceous envelop ; it is therefore proved, that a great mass of such siliceous envelops might also be produced by the decomposition of the plants, or in the moist way, and also that the mountain masses, which consist more or less of such siliceous envelops, might not always be regarded as being produced by the action of heat at the bottom of the sea.t Brébisson tries to bring the Diatome into two divisions, viz. the proper Diatome, which exhibit a siliceous envelop, and the Desmidie, which are without a siliceous coating, and en ntirely reducible to carbon. In the more perfect plants, the epidermis of which is penetrated by a siliceous envelop, it would at least be Heroes to make such divisions; in this Gase , however, they may be of some “In a recent memoir, Mohl Sus again declared himself against ia ani- mal hature of the Bacillaria.. *T admit, says he, ‘that the doubt which was raised respecting their. vegetable nature is not yet removed ; their animal ‘nature, however , has been as little proved, and we find evident transitions from them pa vegetables.’ ”—lLond. and a Phil. Mag., Oct. o—390. 1837, p. 38 * Vide on Fossil Infusoria, Wicgmaae’ s Archiv, 1836, p. 333. A translation of Ehrenberg’ s two papers on this subject is given entire and with engravings in the Scientific Memoirs, Vol. 1, p. 400—W, F. 3 have not had an npaetipgd to see . either of these work . W. B. / t Ehrenberg’s opinion is, that these masses owe their origin to the ie of vol- canic heat on the bottom of the sea. Vide Scientific Memoirs, Vol. I, p. 4 we 4 124 On Fossil Infusoria, discovered in Peat-earth, &§c. With regard to ‘the quextiont concerning the animal or vege- table nature of the Bacillaria, I can add nothing new to the testimony of those who support their animal nature. I have often witnessed the motions of several species of Bacillarix, and would no more think of referring them to the action of electricity, than I would the more active, but apparently not more voluntary movements. of Vibrio, or Rotatoria. Ihave seen them advance, and recede, vibrate to the right and left, push against obstacles, and i in case they could not pass them, retreat and go round. them. It must be a very. curious electric arrangementy: that: ‘can pensiee such actions as these. ore.—lI have taken considerable pains to distribute ‘specimens of the Fossil Infusoria, &c., above referred to, but those who have not received specimens, =? are interested in these matters, may obtain them from Prof. Silliman, to whom I have sent a large supply, from Dr. J. R. Chilton, New York, from O. Mason, Blet Providence, R. 1., and from aye at West Point, N. Y. at Van RSTO OF PLATE If. Fig. 1. One of the fossil Infusoria found at West Point, which appears identical with specimens from Ehrenberg. Fig, 2. Another species, whieh i is also very abundant in the peat-earth.—N. B. The fine parallel transverse lines are marks upon the shell, which are easily seen ashes = ris The. figures aes thése aoe as ape: oat 4. Around soli ico ay, hain wero apron Less abundant than the preceding. i : Fig. 5. Sili we ll of a com mon species of Infusoria Figs. 7,8, and 9. Siliceous shells of small Infusoria. The motions of the living species of Figs. 7 and 8, are more active than those of i any of this tribe that,I have witnessed. The motions of the species represented by Fig. 5, are also very evident, Fig. 10. A portion of peat-earth diffused in a drop of-water, and “moderately magnified (about fifty times.) This shows imperfectly, the immense number, and Variety of forms, which exist in the peat-earth. Fig. 12. Diatoma flocculosum. Very common in Saseke: &c. , among Conferve- Fig. 12a. .an articulation of the same more highly magnifie Fig. 13. Diatoma tenue? Found with the preceding species. Fig. 13 a. An articulation of the same more highly magnified. Fig. 14. Diatoma erystallinum ? Straight, smooth, ‘siliceous tabes, occurring in ‘great quantities in Ci ee near West Point closely rvonnalitinng foreign speci mens of D. crystalli Fig. 15. Snpileria: péctinalie. a, b, specimens diltéting in the width of | the articulations. ¢, articulations highly magnified. Fig. 16. Meridion vernale? from W: Washington's valley, near West Point: jit ticulations highly magnified. ‘ igri Ra oe SE ek i Sh fies Sales pete h FD Sew Bs ee Se MS re eae a ee et aie a ton, for the purpose of producing Crystals ; nt een ae which Experiments certain Insects constantly appeared ~ Com- nuvinicated ina letter dated Dec. 27, 1837, addressed to the Sec- retary of the London Electrical Society. Read. Jan. 20, 1838, From, the Treiiesctione of the Electrical Society of London. Magalies Birenk trust that the gentlemen who compose ‘hie “Electrical Society” will not imagine that bec -have so long ~ delayed answering their request, to furnish the Society, through you, as its organ, with a full account of my electrical experiments, in which a certain insect made its unexpected appearance, that such delay has been occasioned by any. desire of withholding what I have to state, from the Society in particular, or the public at large. I am delighted to find that at last, late, though not the less called for, a body of scientific gentlemen dive linked them- selves together for the sake of exploring and making public those - mysteries, which hitherto, under a variety of names, and ascribed to all-causes but the true one, have eluded the grasp of men of research, and served to perplex, perhaps, rather than to afford suf- ficient data to theorize upon. It is true that much has been done in the course of a few years, and that which has been done only affords the strongest reason for believing that vastly more remains to be done. It would be presumptuous in me to enumerate the services of a Davy, a Faraday, and many other great men at home, or a Volta anc an Ampere, with a host-of others abroad. ‘These paneer men have laid the foundations, on which their sue- cessors ought to endeavor to erect a building worthy of the scale in which it has been’ commenced. — Electricity is nolonger the paltry confined science which ‘it was once fancied to be, making its appearance only from the friction of glass or wax, employed in childish purposes, serving as a trick for the school-boy, or a nos- trum for the quack. But it is, even now, though in its infancy, proved to be most intimately connected with all operations in chemistry, with magnetism, with light and caloric ; apparently a ‘property belonging to all matter, perhaps ranging throagh all space, : from sun to sun, from planet to planet, and not improbably the cause of every change in the animal, mineral, vegetable, 126 Crosse’s E'xperiments with the Voltaie Battery. and gaseous systems. It is to determine whether this be or not the case, as far as human faculties can determine, to ascertain what rapk in-the tree of science electricity is to hold; to en- _ deavor to find out to what useful purposes it might be. spplieg, that I conceive is the object of your Society, and I shall at all times be ready and willing, as a member, to contribute my quota of information to its support, knowing well, that however little it might | be, it will be as kindly received as it is humbly offered. - It is most unpleasing to my feelings to glance at myself as an in- dividual, but I have met with so much virulence and abuse, sq % _much calumny and misrepresentation, in consequence of the ex- periments which I am about to detail, and which it seems in this nineteenth century a crime to have made, that I must state, not for the sake of myself (for I utterly scorn all such misrepresenta- tions, ) but for the sake of truth and the science which I follow, that I am neither an “ Atheist,” nor a “ Materialist,” nor a. “ self imagined creator,” but a humble and lowly reverencer of that. Great Being, whose laws my accusers seem wholly to have lost sight of. More than this, it is my conviction, that science is only valuable as amean to a greater end. I can assure you, sir, that I attach no particular value’ to any experiment that I have made, and that my feelings and habits are much more of a retiring than an obtruding character; and I care not if what I have done be entirely overthrown, if truth he elicited. The folowing 2 isa plain and correct account of t the experiments alluded to the course of my endeavors to form artificial shinerals by a long continued electric action on fluids holding i in solution such. substances as were necessary to my purpose, I had recourse. to every variety ef contrivance which I could think of, so that, on the one hand, I might be enabled to keep up a never-failing elec- trical current of greater or less intensity or quantity, or both, as the case seemed to require; and on the other hand, that the solu- tions made use of should be exposed to the electric action in the manner best calculated to effect the object in view. Amongst other contrivances, I constructed a wooden frame, of about two feet in height, consisting of four legs proceeding from a shelf at the bottom, supporting another at the top, and containing a third in the middle. Each of these shelves was about seven inches square. The upper one was pierced with an aperture, in which was fixed a funnel of W Wedgwood ware, within which rested. powder while still warm, nie b ‘ Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 127 quart: basin on a circular piece. of mahogany placed within the faivtell When this basin was filled with a fluid, a strip of flannel wetted with the same, was suspended over the edge of the basin and inside the funnel which, acting as a syphon, conveyed the fluid out of the. basin, through the-funnel, in successive drops. The middle shelf of the frame was ihewies pierced with an aper- ture, in which was fixed a smaller funnel of glass, which sup- ported a piece of somewhat porous red oxide of iron from: Vesuvi- _ us, immediately under the dropping of the upper funnel. ‘The stone was kept constantly electrified by means of two. platina wires 6n either side of it, connected with the poles of a Voltaic - battery of nineteen pairs of five-inch zinc and copper single plates, in two porcelain troughs, the cells of which were filled at first with water and =}, of hydrochloric acid, but afterwards with wa- ter alone. _ I may here state, that in all my subsequent experi- ments relative to these insects, I filled the cells of the batteries employed with nothing but common water. 'The lower shelf” merely supported a wide-mouthed bottle, to receive the drops as they fell from the second funnel. When the basin was nearly emptied, the fluid was poured back again from the bottle below into the basin above, without disturbing the position of the stone. It was by mere chance that I selected this volcanic substance, choosing it from its partial porosity; nor do I believe. that it had the slightest effect in the production of the insects to be described. The fluid with which I filled the basin was made as follows. ‘I reduced a piece of black flint to powder, having first exposed _ it to a red heat and quenched it in water to make it friable. Of this powder I took two ounces, and mixed them intensely with six ounces of carbonate of potassa, exposed them to a strong heat for fifteen minutes in a black lead ¢ epewie a an air furnace, and on an iron plate, reduced it to oiling water ‘on it, and kept it boiling for some minutes ina sand bath. 'The greater part of the soluble glass thus fused, was taken up by the water, together with a portion of alumina from the crucible. . I should have used one of silver, but had none sufficiently large. To a portion of - the silicate of potassa thus fused, I added some boiling water to dilute it, and then slowly added hydrochloric e acid to supersatu- ration. “A strange remark-was made on this part of the experi- Ze at the meeting of the British Association at Liverpool, it a 128 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. being then gravely stated, that it was impossible to add an acid ‘to a silicate of potassa without precipitating the silica! This, of course, must be the case, unless the solution be diluted with wa- ter. My object in subjecting this fluid to a long-continued elec- tric action, through the intervention of a porous stone; ‘was to form, if possible, crystals of silica at one of the poles of the bat- “tery, but I failed in accomplishing this by those means. On the fourteenth* day from the commencement of the experiment, I observed, through a lens, a few small whitish excrescences or nipples projecting from about the middle of the electrified stone, and nearly under the’ dropping: of the fluid above. On. the _eighteenth* day, these projections enlarged, and seven or eight filaments, each of them longer than the-excrescence from which it grew, made their appearance on each of the nipples. On the ‘twenty second* day, these appearances. were more elevated and distinct, and on the twenty sixth* day, each figure assumed the ‘form of a perfect insect, standing erect on a féw bristles which formed its tail. ‘Till this period I had no notion that these ap- pearances were any other than an incipient mineral formation; but it was not until the twenty eighth day, when I plainly per- ceived these little creatures move their legs, that I felt anysur- prise, and I must own that when this took place, I was not a little astonished. - 1 endeavored to detach, with the point of a needle, one or two of themfrom its position on.the stone, but they im- mediately died, and I was obliged to wait patiently for a few days _ longer, when*they separated themselves from the stone, and moved about at pleasure, although they had been for some time after their birth apparently averse to motion. In the course of a few weeks, about a hundred of them made their appearanee on the stone. I observed that at first each of them fixed itself for a considerable time in one spot, appearing, as far as I could judge, to feed by suction ; but when a ray of light from the sun was directed upon it, it seemed disturbed, and removed itself to the shaded part of the stone. Out of about a’ hundred insects, not "above five or six were born on the south side of the stone. “1 examined some * ooncpeg the microscope, and‘ observed that t have only six legs, but. the larger rfl jpastdrnpt a ae of e 22, and 26 Paar pe ~ ae Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 129 these little mites, when so excellent a one has been transmitted from Paris. It seems that they are of the genus Acarus, but of a species not hitherto observed. . I have had three separate forma- tions of similar insects at different times, from fresh portions of nee e fluid, with the same apparatus. As I considered the of this experiment rather extraordinary, I made some of os friends acquainted with it, amongst whom were some highly scientific gentlemen, and ee plainly perceived the insect in va- rious states. I likewise transmitted some of them to one of our most distinguished physiologists in London, and the opinion of this gentleman, as well as of other eminent persons to whom he showed them, coincided with that of the gentlemen of the Acade- mie des Sciences, as to their genus and species. J have never ventured an opinion as to the cause of their lirth, and for a very good reason—I was unable to form one. The most simple solu- tion of the problem which occurred to me, was, that they arose from ovadepesited. by insects floating in the atmosphere, and that they might possibly be hatched by the electric action. Still, I could not imagine that an ovum could shoot out filaments, that those filaments would become bristles ; and moreover, I could not detect, on the closest examination, any remains of a shell. Again, we have no right to assume that electric action is necessary to vitality, until such fact shall have been most dis- tinctly proved. I next imagined, as others have done, that they might have originated from the water, and consequently made a close examination of several hundred vessels, filled with the same ~ water as. that which held in solution the silicate of potassa, in _the same room, which vessels constituted the celle of a large Viale taic battery, used without acid. In none of vessels. I perceive the trace of an insect of that des . likewise closely examined the crevices and most. aepegidiiet the room with no better success. In the course of some months, indeed, these insects so increased, that when they were strong enough to leave their moistened birth-place, they issued out in different di- rections, I suppose, in quest of food ; but they generally huddled together under a card or piece of paper in a, as 130 = Crosse’s E'xperiments with the Voltaic Battery. domestic purposes, and consisting mostly of silica. ‘Two wires = of platina connected either end of the brick with the poles of a : Voltaic battery of sixty three pairs of plates, each about two inches square. After many months’ action, silica in a — state formed in some quantity round the bottom of the brick, and as the solution evaporated, I replaced it by fresh additions, so that the outside of the glass basin, being constantly wet by re- peated overflowings, was, of course, constantly electrified. On this outside, as well as on the edge of the fluid within, I one day perceived the well known whitish excrescence, with its project ing filaments. In the course of time, they increased in number, and as they successively burst into life, the whole table on which bse apparatus stood, at last was covered with similar insects, hich hid themselves wherever they could find a shelter. Some be them were of different sizes, there being a considerable differ- ~ence in this respect between the larger and the smaller ; and they were plainly perceptible to the naked eye, as they nimbly crawled from one spot to another. I closely examined the table with a lens, but could perceive no such excrescence as that which marks their incipient state, on any part of it. While these effects were taking place in my electrical room, similar formations were making their appearance in another room, distant from the for- mer. I had here placed on a table three Voltaic batteries, uncon- | nected with each other. The first consisted of twenty pairs of | two-inch plates, between the poles of which I placed a glass cyl- | - inder, filled with a concentrated solution of silicate of potassa, | in which was suspended a piece of clay slate by two platina wires connected with either pole of the battery. A piece of pa- per was placed on the top of the cylinder, to keep out the dust. | After many months’ action, gelatinous silica in various forms was | electrically attracted to the slate, which it coated in rather a sin- gular manner, unnecessary here to describe. In the eourse of time, I observed similar.insects, in their incipient state, forming around the edge of the fluid within the jar, which, when perfect, - crawled about the inner surface of the paper with great activity. The second battery consisted of twenty pairs of cylinders, each equal to a four inch plate. Between the poles of this, I interposed a series of seven glass cylinders, filled with the following concen- of copper: 2. Sub-carbonate of po- : 4. Green sulphate of iron: 5. TT ee i Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 131 Sulphate of zinc: 6. Water acidified with a minute portion of hydrochloric acid: 7. Water poured on powdered metallic arse- nic, resting on a copper cup, connected with the positive pole of the battery. All these cylinders were electrically united to- pethes by "ares of sheet copper, so that the same electric current through the whole of them. ‘many months’ action, and consequent formation of certain exghtaltina matters, which it is not my object here to notice, I ob- served similar excrescences with those before described at the edge of the fluid in every one of the cylinders, excepting the two which contained the carbonate of potassa, and the metallic arsenic ; and in due time a host of insects made their appearance It was curious to observe the crystallized nitrate and. sulphate of copper, which formed by slow evaporation at the edge of the re- spective solutions, dotted here and there with these hairy excres- cences. At the foot of each of the cylinders, I had placed a paper ticket upon the table, and on lifting them up, I found a little colony of inseets under each, but no appearance whatever of their having been born under their respective papers, or on any part of the table. The third battery consisted of twenty pairs of cylin- ders, each equal to a three inch plate. Between the poles of this I interposed likewise a series of six glass cylinders, filled with various solutions, in only one of which I obtained the insect. This contained a concentrated solution of silicate of potassa. A bent iron wire} one fifth of an inch in diameter, in the form of an inverted syphon, was plunged some inches into this solution, and connected it with the positive pole, whilst a small coil of fine silver wire joined it with the negative. © After some months’ electrical action, gulstindagjeitiba enraged both wires, but in much greater quantity at the positive pole; “aud in about eight months from the on exainining these two wires very minutely, by means ofa lens, having removed them from the’solution for that purpose, I plainly perceived one of these incipient insects upon the gelatinous silica on the silver wire, and about half an inch below the surface of the fluid, when replaced in its original position. In the course of time, more insects made their appearance, till, at last, I counted at once three on the negative and twelve on the positive them were formed on the naked -of the wires, that is, on that part which was partially bare of gelatitifns silica: but they. were 132 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. mostly imbedded more or less in the silica, with eight or ten fila- ments projecting from each beyond the silica. It was perfectly impossible to mistake them, after having made one’s self master of their different appearances ; and an occasional motion in the fila- ments of those that had been the longest formed was very percept- ible, and observed by many of my visitors, without my having previously noticed the fact to them. Most of these productions took place from half to three quarters of an inch under the surface of the fluid, which, as it evaporated very slowly, I kept to the _ same level by adding fresh portions. As some of these insects - were formed on the inverted part of the syphon-shaped wire, I cannot imagine how they contrived to arrive at the surface, and to extricite themselves from the fluid: yet this they,did repeat- edly ; their old places were vacated, and others were born in new ones. Whether they were in an imperfect state (except just at the commencement of their formation), or in a perfect one, they had all the distinguishing characteristic of bristles projecting from their bodies, which occasioned the French savans to remark that they resembled a microscopic porcupine. I must not omit to state, that the room in which these three batteries were acting was kept almost constantly darkened. It was not my intention to make. known these observations until I myself should be better informed int the matter. Chance led to the publication of an erroneous of them, which I was under the necessity of explaining. - Iti is so difficult to arrive at the truth, that mankind would do bet- ter to lend their assistance to explore what may be worth investi- gating, than to endeavor to crush in its bud that which might otherwise expand into a flower. In giving this account, I have merely stated those circumstances regarding the appearance of insects, which I have noticed during my investigations into the formation of mineral matters; I have never studied physiology, and am not aware under what circumstances the birth of this class of insects is usually developed. In my first experiment I had made use of flannel, wood, and a volcanic stone ; in the last, none — of these substances were present. I never, for a moment, enter- tained the idea that the electric fluid had animated: the organi¢ remains of insects, or fossil eggs, previously existing in the stone or the silica ; and have formed no visionary theory which I would travel out -- my way to support. I have since. repeated these latter experiments in a third room, in which there are now two Crosse’s. Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. 133 batteries at work. One consisting of eleven pairs of cylinders, made of four inch plates, between the poles of which is placed a glass cylinder, filled with silicate of potassa, in which is suspended a piece of slate between two wires of platina, as before, and cov- ered loosely with paper. Here, again, is another crop of insects formed. The other battery consists of twenty pairs of cylinders, the electric current of which is passed through six different solu- tions in glass cylinders, in three of which only is the insect form- ed, viz. Ist, in nitrate of copper; 2d, in sulphate of copper, in each of which the insect is only peodatied at the edge of the fluid, as far as I can make out; and 3d, by the old apparatus of coiled silver and iron wire in sllielte of potassa, as before. There are now forming on the bottom of this positively electrified wire sim- ilar insects, at the distance of fully two inches below the surface of the fluid. On examining these, I have lately noticed a peculiar quality they possess whilst in an incipient state. After being kept some minutes out of the solution, they contract their filaments, so as, in some cases, wholly, and in others partially, to diiappou Tat first thought they were destroyed; but, on examining the same spots, on the next day, they were as perceptible as before. In this respect, they seem not unlike the zoophytes, which adhere to the rocks on the sea-shore, and which contract on the approach - of a finger. I may likewise remark, ‘that I-have not been able to detect ‘their eyes, even when viewed under a powerful micro- scope, although I once fancied I perceived them. The extreme heat of summer and cold of winter do not appear favorable to their production, which succeeds best, I think, in spring and autumn. As in the above account I have occasionally made use of the word “ formation,” I beg that it might be understood that I do not mean creation, or any thing approaching to it. [am not aware that I have any thing more to add, except the few —_— I shall con= clude with. - 1st. I have not observed-a formation. of the insect, except on a moist and electrified surface, or under an electrified fluid. By this J do not mean to assert that electricity has any thing to do with their birth, as I have not made a sufficient number of exper- iments to prove or disprove it; and besides, I have not taken those necessary precautions which present themselves even to an unscientific view. These precautions are not so easy to observe as may at first sight appear. It is, however, my intention to repeat wae 4 134 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. these experiments, by passing a stream of electricity through eyl- inders filled with various fluids under a glass receiver inverted over mercury, the greatest possible care being taken to shut out extraneous matter. Should there’be those who blame me for not having done this before, to such I answer that, independent of a host of other hindrances, which it is not in my power to set aside, I have been closely pursuing a long train of experiments on the formation of crystalline matters by the electric agency, and now different modifications of the Voltaic battery; in which I am so interested, that none but the ardent can conceive what is not in my power to describe. 2dly. These insects do not appear to have sidesinaneil from oth- ers similar to themselves, as they are formed in all cases with ac- cess of moisture, and in some cases two inches below the surface of the fluid in which they are born; and if a full grown and per- font: insect be let fall into any fluid, ‘it is infallibly drowned. -Bdly. I believe they live for many weeks: occasionally I have found them dead in groups, apparently from want of food. za Athly. It has been frequently suggested to me to repeat thiese experiments without using the electric agency; but this would be by no means satisfactory, let the event be what it would. It is well known that saline matters are easily crystallized without — subjecting them to the electric action; but it by no means fol- lows that, because artificial electricity i a not applied, such erystals are formed without the electric influence. I have made so many ical erystallization, that I am firmly convin- ced in my own mind, that electric attraction is the cause of the formation of every crystal; whether artificial electricity be applied -or not. Iam, however, well aware of the difficulty of getting __ at the truth in these matters, and of separating cause from ‘effect. ~ It has often occurred to me, how it is that such numbers of ani- malcules are produced in flour and water, in pepper and water? also, the insects which infest fruit trees after a blight? | Does not a chemical change take place in the water, and: likewise in the sap of the tree previous to the appearance of these insects, and 1s or is not every chemical change produced by electric agency ? In making these observations I seek to mislead no one. The book of nature is opened wide to our view by the Almighty power, and we must endeavor, as far as our feeble faculties will poneeipaaenNaNN, Sonik stent; always reme membering, that Crosse’s Hxperimen the Voltaic Battery. 135 however the timid may shrink from investigation, the more com- pletely the secrets of nature are laid bare, the more effectually will the power of that Great Being be ee who seems to have ordained, that *¢ Order is Heaven’s first law.” I beg to remain, in the mean time, my dear Sir, ect “very sincerely, Ayprew CROSSE. Broomfield, Dec. 27, 1837. : Pp. s- Since weititittr the ovis account, I hive obtained the in- sects on a bare platina wire plunged into fluo-silicic acid, one inch below the surface of the fluid at the negative pole of a small bat- tery of two inch plates in cells filled with water. This is a some- what singular fluid for these insects to breed in, who seem to have a flinty taste, although they are by no means coulda to siliceous fluids. This fluo-silicic acid was procured from London some time since, and consequently made of London water ; so that the idea-of ‘their being natives of the Broomfield water is quite set aside by this result. The apparatus was arranged as follows: Fig. 7, a glass basin (a pint one) partly filled with fluo-silicic acid to the level 1. 2, a small porous pan, made of the same materi- als as a garden pot, partly filled with the same acid to the level 2, with an earthen cover, 3, placed upon it, to keep out the light, dust, &c. 4, a platina wire connected with the positive pole of the battery, with the other end plunged into the acid in the pan, and twisted round a piece of common quartz; on which quartz, after many months’ action, are forming singularly beautiful and perfectly formed crystals of a transparent substance, not yet ana- platina wire passes under the cover of the pan. 5, a platina wire connected with the negative pole of the same battery, with the other end dipping into the basin, an inch or two below the fluid ; and, as well as the other, twisted round a. piece of quartz. By this arrangement it is evident that the electric fluid enters the po- rous pan by the wire 4, percolates the pan, and passes out by the wire 5. It is mow upwards of six or eight months (I cannot at this moment put my hand on the memorandum of the date) since this apparatus has been in action, and though I have occasionally lyzed, as they are still growing. These crystals are of the modi- — fication of the cube, and are of twelve or fourteen sides. — ‘The - we 136 Crosse’s Experiments with the Voltaic Battery. lifted out the wires to examine them by a lens, yet it was not till the other day that I perceived any insect, and there are now three of the same insects, in their incipient state, appearing on the na- ked platina wire at the bottom of the quartz in the glass basin at the negative pole. "These insects are very perceptible and may be represented thus (magnified): fig. 8, 1 the platina wire, 2 the quartz, 3 the incipient insects. It should be observed that the . glass basin, fig. 7, has always been loosely covered with paper. The appearance of the insect has already been deseri- d. The filaments which project are in course of time seen to _ move, hefore the perfect. insect detaches itself from its birth, gs Fig. 5, front view of the filtering apparatus, ns the use of which; the insect de- scribed made its first appearance.- (A, B,) two of the four uprights or legs issuing from the base (c,) supporting a movable shelf (p;) which shelf is kept in its place by four pins (£) passing through the four uprights, and may be raised or lowered at pleasure. (F,) the top shelf, which has an aperture cut in it to receive the Wedgwood ware funnel (¢.) (H,) a- quart basin standing on an unseen within the funnel (¢,) which support is a circular piece-of wood with holes eut in it to allow the free passage of the fluid between the basin and funnel. This basin is filled with the fluid required, which is conveyed out of it by the strip of flannel (1,) hanging over the outside of the basin, and inside the funnel, and which, con- e falls in successive drops through the funnel (¢) upon the rh 4 which is supported by the glass funnel (1,) kept constantly electrified by th _ wires Se N,) resting on the opposite sides of it, and connected with ee Ze ite poles of voltaic battery. (o,) a wide mouthed bollle standing on the base (c,) to reccive the uid as it falls from thes second funnel (x.) From this bottle, (oS EA TES a ee oe ee ne x 4 Ses . ro ; Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species, 137 when required, it is poured back again into the basin () without disturbing the K.) Fig. 6, (a,) a glass oylttiieteal vessel, containing about a "quarter 7 a pint, filled with a concentrated solution of silicate of potash. (,) a fine silve formed into a coil, which is immersed into the fluid in the cylinder, the sala end being connected with the negative pole of the battery, (c,) an iron wire about one fifth of an inch in diameter, bent somewhat in the form of an inverted syphon, immer- sed in the same vessel, and connected with the positive pole of the battery. (p, D) insects in their incipient state making their appearance, some on the gelatinous silica which partially-covers the wire, and some on the naked wire itself. These insects appear magnified. eee £7 Art. XL—Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species ; by Cuartes Upuam Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. - Tue enitierel here described, I found upwards of two years ago, while engaged in the geblogical survey of Connecticut. It was collected’ in the town of Danbury near the manufactory o: Col. Wurre, and occurred in small masses of a delicate bluish white and highly erystalline feldspar, found among fragments of dolomite, coming from a bed in place near the mills. ‘The feld- spar is extremely fetid, when rubbed or broken: in which respect it resembles the same mineral found in thin veins of dolomite at a locality a few miles distant, in bie town of Brookfield,—a circumstance which leaves little r o doubt that the specimens at Danbury, ica fee detached, were nevertheless derived from the dolomi ae ines alia as aie observed aiiocinbinvediie small. quantity through the feldspar (with which is likewise asso- ciated a small quantity of quartz) in fissures and eavities ties havi the shape apparently of oblique prisms. Owing to the partial de- composition of the mineral (a change to which it appears ‘to be particularly liable) these cavities are sometimes entirely empty. The longest of them noticed was above an inch in one direction, by one fifth of an inch in another. © Whether the mineral will be found in any Peonltigaine quantity, Tam unable to say. ‘The specimens collected, have been barely sufficient to afford the following notice. Vou. XXXV.—No. 1. 138 Notice of Danburite, a new Mineral Species. Mineralogical Description. Primary form: _ Oblique rhombic prism. Cleavage parallel with P indicated obscurely by fissures. - Lustre vitreous, in a high degree. Color shades of honey yel- low. Streak white; transparent. (The decomposing variety is nearly white, translucent and very fissile.) Hardness = 7.5. Sp. Gr.=2.83. ~ Chemical Description. When heated alone before the blow-pipe, it phosphoresces and fuses slowly without intuméscence into a white blebby, transpa- rent glass. . With borax, it melts with effervescence into a trans parent globule. When heated in a glass tube, it emits moisture. In the condition of an- impalpable powder, it is taken up by by- ‘dro-chloric acid after long digestion. By the requisite trials, it was found to contain neither fuciic, boric, nor phosphoric acid. By heating, it lost 8 p. c. in weight. By ignition with twice its weight of anhydrous carbonate of soda, it fused into a white mass, which formed a colorless solu- tion with dilute hydro-chloric acid. After the separation of the silica, which weighed 56 p.c., the solution was precipitated by ‘ammonia, and the precipitate treated with carbonate of ammonia solution in large eXCess, which after-frequent agitation and some time standing was partially evaporated ; a pale: yellow pellicle in- ° vested the sides of the capsule, which after drying weighed 0.85 p-c. It was treated with hydro-chloric acid, and the solution obtained afforded when tasted no impression of sweetness. Its yellowish color and easy solubility after ignition in hydro-chlori¢ acid proved it not to be zirconia ; while the absence of sweetness showed that it was not glucina, It seems most probable: there- fore, that it is yttria. ~The portion of the precipitate by ammonia. not taken up. by the carbonate of ammonia, was treated with a solution of potassa. It was instantly dissolved, and on being precipitated with hydro- chlorate of ammonia, washed and ignited, it amounted to 1.7 p. ¢ _ The clear hydro-chloric solution from which the alumina and yttria? had been separated was precipitated by oxalate of ammo- nia, ome noe pein 5 was washed and ignited. bigaed residuum 2s " ny OS a aera gd Neaaememcaee = cate I> pes eae = On Certain Cavities in Quartz, §. 139 The solution from which the oxalate of lime had been thrown down was treated with ammonia and phosphate of soda, without having its transparency effected, whereby the absence of magne~- sia and lithia in the mineral was apparent. After several hours standing, chloride of platina was added, which immediately gave rise to the fine granular precipitate of the double salt of platino- chloride of potassium _ Whether the waa: contains eile as well as biden Iam not at present able to say. st The following tenefast isa sameey 6 what I have been able to infer respecting the chemical mamma of the mineral under consideration : : Silica, wines ey - - 56.00 Lime, - - - °° 1» 2B88 Alumina, - : hos - ‘L70 Yttria?. : oe cng OSS Potassa Proposition 5th. Time from iifferent shiteors:taxmematreain: The snow or rain descends sooner after a halo than after an auroral cirrus cloud, earlier after this than after a vertical lunar column, and earlier’ after a lunar column than after an aurora bo- realis. Proposition 6th. Theoretical inference in relation to the nature o these meteors. one These pre itions now stand nearly as they were corrected’ in the list of errata in many Nos. t L use the term storm from the want of a better one equally brief, to “signify the descent of rain, snow, OF (148 Atmospheric Origin e the Aurora, §c. As they are all preceded by a depression of atmospheric tem- peraturé’ b w the mean, and by an augmentation of pressure greater than that which ninasion the fall of snow or rain at times when none of these meteors have recently appeared, there is ne . ditional evidence of the similarity of their origin. — 7th. | Theoretical inference in relation Ses 0 their alli- me may infer from ihe last two propositions that a emis : cirrous cloud is higher than a halo, but lower than a junar ee and the latter lower than the aurora borealis. Proposition 8th. Practical inference with regard to the prog: nostication of storms. The foregoing propositions which relate to pressure and tempe-. rature may suggest a rule for predicting storms much earlier than by-other methods; inasmuch as these changes, and especially that of the barornster, take place even more generally than those opposite changes which often occur within the twenty four hours immediately preceding the storm, and which have been observ by others, and generally regarded as among the surest indications.’ The above propositions are deduced from tables here omitted, and are founded upon the. observation of forty auroras, twenty two auroral clouds, seen in the day time, seventeen halos, and four luminous columns. The propositions in relation to the last and more rare phenomenon, the author considered as entitled, ed bserved. t toa mater oF fidrizontal, specularly-reflecting, crystalline oink with masses which are more amorphous and which produce @ ' reflection virtually radiant, he considers as complete and satisfac- tory, and corroborated by his observations on the crystals which subsequently descended. T’he author has observed the aurora if connexion with the above and other meteorological phenomena of the same, the preceding and the succeeding days, and endeav- ored to trace their respective and relative changes, and as far as the subject admitted, by the statistical and numerical method. This is a fertile field, and comparatively unoccupied. In the 3d, or class of inferences, he has endeavored to show 4 connexion between the aurora borealis and the et of snow. ' ay i ~ Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §*c. 149 The following is a summary. .- ‘That crystals of snow more minute and a which occasion halos, and usually too minute to produce sensible opacity, are always present in the atmosphere, above the region - of ordinary clouds, during the time of this meteor, we are indu- ced to believe from a comparison of the results of the foregoing observations. Several of these results are believed to be. new. The following are some of the circumstances which have a bear- ing upon this question. “Ist. Those seasons of the year and -those hours of the yight when it most frequently occurs, are favorable both to the iin and congelation of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere. — - 2d. The clearness of the sky, which at such times is usually either general or total. 3d. The usual northerly breeze at the earth’s surface, and the northeasterly breeze in the high region of the meteor. Ath. The usual depression of the temperature, at those heights at which thermometrical observations are made. 5th. The clouds which usually succeed the meteor immediately or on the same evening, and which often present the appearance of being continuous and identical with the auroral matter. 6th. The snow that in-weather sufficiently cold, almost uni- versally follows the meteor, after such an interval as the sim- ple -erystals might be expected to require for aggregation in more plicated groups and descent to the earth’s surface. th. The rain that almost universally succeeds it, after about = same interval, whenever the temperature of the lower atmos- slecic strata is motlicieas to melt falling snow. 8th. The co-existence of halos with regular crystals, the con-_ nexion between halos and auroral clouds, and between auroral clouds and vertical lunar columns, sag the anslosy between au- roral clouds and the aurora borealis. 9th. The pinnate appearance of composite auroral clouds, — appear (so to speak) like large crystals.’ From this point, the author, not finding any former theory : the aurora not liable to great. objections, has ventured into the — of speculation, and in relation to the intimate nature of the phenomenon, and under the 4th head, of views-of a more hypothetic class, has ventured to inquire whether atmospheric erystallizations may not occasion the development of auroral Fy. — 150 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. light, and the crystals be, under some circumstances, magnetic; _ and in relation to the 9th remark, has inquired, ‘ May not this expression be used as, something more than a figure of speech? What is so likely to produce this structure, so regular, and yet so complicated, as the. polarity of component crystals, whether this polarity is or is not magnetic? May not the ponderable material. of the colonnade of an aurora borealis consist of similar groups of erystals, formed either from the vapor of water, or from some lighter, less condensible and more magnetizable vapor in -the upper regions, which crystallizes at the same time, and under similar meteorological influences with the former?’ Has not the crystalline character of the higher clouds, if it exists, been generally overlooked by meteorologists; and when they have represented all clouds as being masses of condensed vapor, and snow as resulting from its subsequent congelation, have they not overlooked the, universally crystalline character of snow, forgot- _ ten the small height which is necessary for crystallization, and — ‘suffered their imaginations to be influenced by their own tempe rate climes and moderate elevations ? In advancing a step farther in the attempt at an explanagill of , the intimate nature of the. phenomenon, and especially as-con- nected with aqueous crystals, the author has ventured with diffi- dence upon a topic still more recondite.and obscure, but has found Some support in analogies drawn from the phictiies! light seen ‘during the crystallization of water, from the induction of crystals, ped by changes of temperature in many erystalline substances ordinarily unmagnetic. That iron, proba bly from its magnetic properties, has a peculiar relation to the crystals of hoar frost, he has been led to suspect, from their tel dency to assume a saaiilies at right angles to the edges of a mag- net and of a tinned vessel, at temperatures between zero and — 12° ‘In experiments with the solar microscope; I have been struck with the analogy between the polarity of erystals and that of magnets, a polarity evinced by the rotation of the smaller groups; in their approach to the larger and more complicated ones. ‘The extent of rotation produced in one group by another never &X- ceeded 180°. I have also detected a still more interesting anal _ Ogy in the influence which a large group exerts upon the forma tion of smaller ones at a considerable distance. There was a real ‘induction. This was evident from the fact that a large nucleus > | a Aimospheric Origin“of the Aurora, §c. 151 spread more rapidly than a small one, advancing like a wave, overtaking and absorbing those waves which had begun to spread. from a@ smaller nucleus. This induction, or the influence of a crystalline mass, in disposing particles and small crystals which are in its vicinity, but at'some visible distance from it, to unite with each other, was still more evident from observing on the screen the existence and motions of scattered clusters composing a. darkly dotted border or penumbra, skirting the darker image of the general crystalline mass already formed, and regularly advan- cing before it across the screen. Perhaps we should hardly be justified in calling such phenomena magnetic; yet it would be easy to show that these and manyother phenomena exhibited by microscopic crystals, are regulated by laws strikingly anelogous to those of magnetic induction.’ The above phenomena may be shown with great distinetnbas in tincture of camphor, sufficiently diluted to make the process slow. If the electricity of. scant water is ever sietieniail with magnetism, it must be during the perfect crystallization in elevated regions of auroral action, where the circumstances are favorable to the perfection both of the process and the products. The rarity of the vapor there is favorable to a regular aggregation of the molecules, and the cold is intense. During crystallization, the temperature of the crystal might rise to 32°, by the evolution of latent heat, and soon afterwards sinking perhaps 100°, to the “ original temperature of the vapor. For such immense and instan= taneous changes, a less elevation in the air is requisite in the higher latitudes ; and there, it appears from observation, that the aurora iapifiie teas elevated. It is unnecessary to cite the numer-— ous authorities which exist, to prove the occasional lowness of the aurora in high latitudes. Mr. Trevelyan observed, that in Faroe and the Shetland islands, it was often seen not more than forty or fifty feet above the sea, and learned, that in both countries it is frequently heard. One person had perceived in it, when red, an electrical smell.* In our latitude, the aurora is seician at great heights. On this subject the anthor’s views seem to have been misapprehended. Some of the intimate connections which he has proved to exist, * Edinb. Philos. Jour. vii, 182. 152 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §¥c. -as well as others which he has believed to exist, between the au rora and a certain class of clouds seen in the day time, do not im- ply an usual identity of location. He had stated, that the aurora is usually higher than clouds, even than cirrous clouds, which are often many miles above other clouds, and many miles above the : highest mountains. It by no means follows, that its origin is above crystals of the invisible kind. That the latter may be form- ing and descending for many hours, and in some instances a day, before they attain such a number, magnitude and complexity, as to form visible haze, is evident from the phenomena of halos and vertical solar and lunar columns in a clear sky.. But these crys- tals, in their nascent state, must have had a still earlier and higher existence. Should it then be thought surprising, that minute crystals, in a region far above halos, should require a day longer for their aggregation and descent? =~ _ It is not my present purpose to discuss at length the question as to the intimate nature of the aurora; but I am of opinion that in some region, usually high, a crystallization takes place on the evening of an aurora, and that the latter originates in the atmos- phere. . In the publication above referred to, I have ventured to speak of such a thing as “ sence maghetisiies, and to re- gard it as the direct cause of the needle’s and as loca: ted in a kind of auroral vapor; although it was the prevalent pinion of i eb that the aurora, so far as it was magnetic, - “was connected with changes in tellurian magnetism alone, that is, the magnetism of the solid earth. The variations of the nee- dle were thought to afford evidence of variations in the latter; and this view was thought to be corroborated by some simulta- neous disturbances of the needle in distant parts of the globe. Numerous facts might be cited, in corroboration of the atmosphe- ric location. Let one at present suffice. During the brilliant and | extensive red aurora of Jan. 25, 1837, I observed at Schenectady, N. Y., a variation-of the needle of 14° in eighteen minutes,” a 24° in two hours, and 23° during the night. “At New Haven, the variations Were, at one hour, still more rapid, that is, 45’ in two | - minutes; but the whole extent observed was only 1°. About thirty miles north of New Haven, no change whatever could be eted ; whilst at Annapolis, the needle varied to the astonish- in ent of 10° during the night.* Are not these facts wholly _ * See this Journal, Vol. xxxir, p. 180. ae Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §e. 153 irreconcilable with the idea, that the needle was disturbed by a general change in the magnetism of the earth? | According to Capt. Back, auroral beams sometimes seem to attract. ar Does not this.seenr like atmospheric magnetism? » - There appears to be no reason to believe that the aurora is. at an invariable elevation. Calculations founded on observed -alti- tudes, have given results vatying from a few miles to several hun- dred... This discrepancy-may be explained, partly by an actual difference of height,-and partly by mistakes as to the identity of arches when several have been presented to different observers. In the latter case, a mistake will usually lead to an exaggeration, rather than to an underrating‘of the elevation. Suppose two ob- servers, near the same meridian, but in different latitudes, to take the altitudes of two arches dina’ north of their respective ob- servers, and at so small an elevation, that the southern arch is be- low the horizon of the northern observer, and the northern arch below the horizon of the southern observer. Only one being seen by each, they are liable to be presumed identical; and the great. altitude of the northern. as. compared with the’ southern arch, would lead the mathematician to refer the imaginary arch—con- sidered as one—to an- elevation greater than the actual elevation of cither of the real arches.. There is evidence that the above case is more than a supposable one, and that similar mistakes have actually occurred. - The opposite error, an exaggeration of the parallax, would, from the nature of the case, more rarely occur. {have stated the first in a plain way, that those who are little conversant with the subject may not be deterred from examining the physical evidence of a theory of the aurora, by a caveat - posed to have- been entered. by the exact sciences. facts quite as conclusive as a great parallax : such as pag a ous instances where individuals at moderate distances cannot recognize the same phases, and some of them not even the’ exist- encé of the aurora seen by the others. . In such cases, it may fail to be meastired, simply because it is too low. _ ‘The views which I have taken of the aurora, whilst they do not require us to discredit those numerous proofs, both physical and mathematical, of its occasional situation in the inferior atmos- pheric strata, at the same time, allow, or even require us to refer - it in most instances to elevations above (and in the lower lati- tudes far above) the regions of the highest proper clouds, and Von. XXXV.—No. 1. 20 * 154 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §e. many times as high as ordinary clouds. Physical considerations have induced me to refer its origin’ to the earth’s atmosphere. The height of this is well known never to have been determined, so far as —~ evens rarer portions which — no > senile light. “Those oaks eeldct that there is a depression of obvi 1° for every 300 feet of ‘elevation, will find little difficulty in. adraitting the existence of crystals of snow above us in summer.’ The fol- lowing facts have a bearing on this, as well as on the connection between the aurora, snow, and magnetism. “On the 16th of Au- gust, 1836, I observed, at Schenectady, an aurora, at 10 P. M., chiefly obscured by clouds, and a faint aurora with three or four short streamers extending to the height of 7 Urse Majoris, at 2h. 10m. next morning. The sky was clear, and remarkably so du- ring the forenoon, At 7 A. M., the magnetic intensity was high and remarkably variable ; the time required for 100 oscillations of a suspended needle being: 270 seconds at 7 o’elock,. and 280 ten minutes later.. Rain commenced at 9 P. M.-of the 18th, about two days after the first appearance. Quantity during the night, .32 inch. On this day, the 18th, an aéronaut, Mr. Lauriat, who ascended, from New York over Long Island, encountered what was called by the papers “a pretty severe snow storm in the upper regions ; and when he touched terra firma, his clothes were frozen stif’* "The crystals may have been minute. The following cended about five miles, and proceeded over a hundred miles. He passed through clouds of sleet, which covered his balloon with icy particles. But what was more interesting, he discovered. that when he was at the greatest altitude, the needle of a com- pass which he had with him did not have the least tendency to exhibit polar attraction, but wavered about at all points of the compass.” May we not conclude, that the atmospheric magnets at the height of five milés acted more powerfully than the earth ? Even at the surface, I have inferred, from many hundred observa- Sais: be the magnetic intensity: is more affected by the forma- is ork Commer. Adver: achaiie 19, 1836. « Er Fies Prestof Moy. %, =) ning te Boo ltt mt Aimospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 155 tion of the higher clouds, and other obvious sepenalanations; than by any periodical diurnal changes. The following facts have also an sabeendiing bearing on the an, ory. At Fort Enterprise, where Lieut. Hood found the aurora in one instance to be only 24 miles high, he was, in two instances, surprised to see a discharge of snow, in small flakes, from a clear sky, at times when the aurora was active near the zenith.* These facts, with existing theories, were then extremely puz- zling ; but they are in exact accordance with the above theory. The short interval before the snow, and the diminutive flakes, are what might be expected in case of an extremely low aurora. Lieut. Hood’s measurements and observations will not be dis- puted. As early as 1820, (April 3,) my interest in the subject of the connection between the aurora and apparent clouds, was excited by a beautiful white arch, like a roll of wool, which on that eve- ning was seen. to detach Hie from the summit of an aurora of the ordinary character, and in the rapidity of its motion toward the zenith, in. the distinctness of its texture as it approached it, in the resemblance of this texture to that of a fleecy cloud, and in other circumstances, seems to have been unlike any arch in an ‘elevated region. Subsequently, an iortarvating class-of lgeiis ote a more. _ detie dedly nepheological character, but still intermediate between the aurora borealis and ordinary clouds, has presented itself in_polar- ized, linear cirri, or magnetic or auroral clouds. The linear cirri, when of great extent, and in other respects of a regular character, have generally been either in or near the magnetic meridian, or nearly at right angles to it. In hundreds of instances, these po- sitions are within a degree or two of them. These can hardly have been been accidental coincidences, and they have had. no constant relation with wind. In epochs marked by auroras, these have been more marked. 'They are occasionally composite, consisting of an arch with rays, like streamers. Whence the polarity of these clouds? They open an interesting field, and establish a curious analogy between the aurora and the phenomena of the lower regions. Although the N. and S., delicate lines corres- pond with ae streamers, in their ae with the meri- ~* See appendix to. Franklin’s Journey to the Polar Seas, 156 Aimospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. dian, yet the author has not confounded them, but has shown that the former differ from the latter in the absence of the dip. - But the analogy is not restricted to position. . It was soon de- tected in the concomitant phenomena. I have shown, by tabular views, that the thermometer usually begins to fall, and the baro- meter to rise, ‘several days before each, and rain’ or snow to de- scend within one, two; or three days after them. In the cases subsequently presented, in which the number of hours between the aurora and storm has been carefully noted, I have usually found that the time has been about thirty six hours, and that there is a curious exception inthe case of two auroras on two or three consecutive nights, in which ease, the rain or snow is less likely to descend, or is deferred till nearly the usual time after the last. The same is true of the polarized. clouds, and of halos; in bothr of which, vapor, which had unquestionably been precipi- is redissolved, or otherwise disposed of, during the time and under the influence of the ci prepuriyor y to or at- tendant on the second exhibition. This interference of one aurora with the results af ¢ its mnie cessor, opens @ curious field of investigation, discloses a new anal- ogy between this and meteors of a confessedly aqueous origin, — refers to a general law the observed exceptions to the descent of precipitated vapor ° which so generally takes place after an au- rora. In almost every instance-in which this has been deferred, there have been traces of auroral action on the succeeding night, though sometimes masked by the moon. The following rule has had few exceptions, viz. If the evening of the day after an au- rora is totally clear, rio storm follows on the second day ; and conversely, if no storm is to follow, this evening is totally or nearly clear. This general clearness is itself one of the: ustial attendants of auroral action ; and I have for many years observed, that the morning following an aurora is, in this respect, remarka= ble; as compared. with other mornings. In this fact, and in the © unusual clearness of the night of the meteor—with the exception _ of some peculiar, transient clouds—we have proof of the: influ- ; ence of an aurora, or the circumstances which precede and attend aS in eioeting the vesolntiont or ee of visible rages or is eni es us to explain or sininhiedint the fact of the non- ‘ance of the storm, of which the first of two consecutive ey ¥m Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, Sf. 157 auroras Would -have been the precursor. As tending to eluci- date this new and interesting field of inquiry, I will state the re- sults of observations on thirty two auroras observed at Schenec- tady, N. Y., between Oct: 5, 1830, and Nov. 3, 1833—the tables being prepared for these alone, although the results of subsequent observations are, I am persuaded, not less striking. My observa- tions are made at 9 A.M. and 9 P.M. The proportions of sky clear at the times of observation, are set down in tenths, About one day before an aurora, the sky usually begins to increase in clearness.. In the following results, reference was had only to clearness as compared with the corresponding hour of the prece- ding day, and only to mean results. During the 24 hours prece- ding the morning of the day on the evening of which the aurora occurred, the sum of the increments of clearness was to that of the decrements as two to one.* During the 24 hours immedi- ately preceding the aurora, the increments are to the decrements as six toone. Similar results would be obtained by taking the number of instances in which the clearness increased or dimin- ished in case of different auroras, instead of the amount of tenths, as above. Within the) two days preceding an aurora, and on some part of the night-of it, we observe all the circumstances preparatory to and connected . with crystallizations in the high regions, developing themselves; such as increasing atmospheric pressure, increase of cold, and the disappearance of clouds. On the other hand, during the day or two succeeding it, are devel- oped all. those circumstances which attend a more advanced stage and lower descent of the products, whether crystalline or melted ; such as a diminution of atmospheric pressure and clearhess, and an elevation of the temperature and dew point. The latter changes, oceupying less time, are more rapid than the former, and appear more striking. For example, during the 24 hours ‘succeeding an aurora, the decrements of clearness are to the in- crements as 37.to 1. But this high ratio requires in reality to be further increased, in conformity with the principles above estab- lished. fot, the mee increase of Caney which occurred, - * The sum of the tenths ‘which. saan express ss the amount by chad sky became clearer on the respective days immediately preceding the atin. au- Toras, is : called, in, expressing the mean results, the sum of the increments during a hours iminediately aie the aurora. A similar Soeaeareye is used 1 Other epochs and for the decrements. - 158 Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. was in a single instance, and that on the occasion of two con-_ secutive auroras, the latter tending to prolong and increase the clearness. This instance being omitted—as it should be—the decrements of clearness during the 24 hours succeeding the au- rora are to the increments, as 112 to 1, the increment having been in one instance one tenth; and the whole decrement in thirty instances, 112 tenths. On none of the eight instances in which there were auroras on two consecutive nights, had the cloudiness increased on the evening of the second, as compared with that of the first. The mean decrement of clearness for the remaining 24 instances, was .46. Hence, to give a popular state- ment, approximately true—the. evening of an aurora is, on an average, twice as Clear as the succeeding evening, unless another aurora occurs on the latter; in which case, the sky continues equally clear. As the forenoon succeeding an aurora is in.gene- ral unusually clear, this great decrement of clearness usually takes place‘in' a ad hours, whilst ths: increments had required. several YS... he following table,. (abotranted from those on which the nine propositions are Faia ,) shows the mean temperatures at 9 P. M. of the days of the different meteors, and on the evenings one and two days previous ; also the mean number of days previous, when ———— - — oes en PRE commenced.* = aae ~~ ag ag] «es = eee 38 : a : oa 7 ~s Sy oea Names of as meteors 2a S ee ie # Ee 23 ges ae , cal ee oo FS ee ee Se° | 333 Bes | &F eS e2° | 2e¢ | age Sil a E a” | gee Lee Aurora Boreaus, | 40 | 44.9° | 44.19 | 42.5° | 2.16 1.95 Polarized clouds; 22° |°40.5° | 37.2° | 36.2° | 1.90 | 2.92, Halos 17 | 33.8° | 29.6° | 28.9° | 2.09 | 2.30 Vertical beams, » 4°>' 235° | 16.72 14.59 3.00_ 1.87 “The nasi of vertical beams is so small, as to forbid wont dence in mean results as to elapsed time. In the case of the other meteors, we see a pretty near correspondence as to the times when the eemnnrannic and barometric iets weet ert as which, Speke inadvertence of an ‘inne: had crept into Atmospheric Origin of the Aurora, §c. 159 ced before them all; and find, in the relative temperatvres re- quired for them, a rogpoboration of the conclusion. drawn from the time of the mancooding storm in relation to their — heights in the air. The absolute temperature is, for the seasons of their occur- rence, low for all, and of itself affords evidence of the existence of crystals. Frota semi-monthly observations for five years, on two springs at Schenectady, I have inferred, that the mean tem- perature of the earth there is 48.8°; and this accords nearly with the mean temperature of the air in’ that vicinity for the last ten years. Should we make allowance for the daily mean, and for the mean seasons of the year in which the aurora occurs, we should have a still more just and striking view of the cold usu- ally required for its production. The barometer rises and. the. thermometer falls before an aurora, and the mean length of time is about two days; and consequently these changes commence about four days before the storm, or about. three and a baal days when there are not two auroras in succession. : -'This affords one of. the earliest and surest’ prognostics of the storm, and is-more to be relied on than even the subsequent de- pression of the barometer, which, in modern times at least, seems solely to have attracted attention. It would be curious, (though it is perhaps improbable, and I have not seen the original,) if this early ascent of the barometer were that alluded to in the long since banished rule of Pascal. Though this patriarch of, this branch of science may, as is alledged, have fallen into a grave error in regard to this, yet there will be revived a certain modifi- cation of his rule, that the batomefer rises" before a storm; and perhaps he may be aig zesceghe? the citron and aise nt be the ori ginal discoverer That the changés of pressure and temperature ‘Giiaiinee he fore the’aurora, accords with the above theory. They are to be’ regarded as among the causes rather than the effects of the au- rora, Yet that they continue a little beyond the time of it, I have long since observed, and expressed it by the rule, that the | barometer is usually es ‘and the nacemoncgg! falling, on the evening of ai aurora. - Within a few years, an interesting Retnsas of the above theory; so far, at least, as to the fact of a connexion between at- mospheric arial and magnetism, has been presented in many in- a 160 Atlantic Steam Navigation. stances, at different times, in a peculiar deep blue, but not linear, cloud, resting on the horizori in the north, in the day time ; its center of gravity being exactly, or almost exactly, in the ‘mage netic meridian, Whenever the cloud was of this deep blue color, its direction was taken by the compass; and to avoid any bias from preconceived : theory, a point judged to be the centre of | gravity was selected, previous to the use of the needle. The variation from the meridian rarely. exceeded ‘a fraction of a de- gree; the correspondence in direction being more exact than that of the position of most polarized clouds. Had the writer been influenced by love of theory, he might have wished the latter and more explicable phenomenon to-be the more regular of the two. He would’invite the attention of more northern observers to this somewhat. mysterious phenomenon, should the return of auroral epochs reproduce it. To those less favorably age _ he may appear to have drawh upon his imagination. Did ti “and space permit, he might give more particulars. He Lope oc- easionally to resume this and kindred subjects, so far as his pres- ent residence in a latitude less favored by auroral exhibitions, and _his more exclusive devotion to professional duties will allow. = ie Ax. . XIV. —Letters on Atlantic Steam Navig zation. : ak Jonws Suirn.. clear sky, absence of moon, and observers locate Scanned part of the heavens, it seems probable that meteors i in ‘considerable profit- sion might have been counted. Of those seen, the greater part left visi- ble trains behind them, and many of them were seen through a haze which obscured all the smaller stars. As to a point of radiation: there are some facts connected with these observations that may indicate such a point; but they may, just as well, in our present state of Lnowledgelbe wholly disconnected with the phenomenon, and certainly can not now be offered as proof on this point. The lines of flight of most of these mete- ors, if extended back, would cross near the tail of Camelopardalis, and this ie the poing: ‘(55° R. A. 60° ND.) which Mr. Schaeffer points out as the centre of radiation of the August shower of 1837. As a coincidence, this is perhaps worth mentioning, but certainly as nothing more at pres- ent.” No observations on the night of the 10th or 11th. - 4. At Hudson, Ohio, very good arrangements for observation were in- stituted by Professor Loomis, but they were almost entirely defeated by clouds. The report which he has published in the Cleveland Observer of ‘Aug. 16, 1838, concludes thus :—“ On the whole, then, although the total number of meteors seen here was small, on account of the very unfa- vorable state of the weather, the oheervietisee: lend some support to the theory that meteors are unusually numerous about the 9th or 10th of August.” No observations on the night of 10th or 11th. | 5. At Barren Hill, about 12 miles N. of Philadelphia, Pa. observa- ee were made on the night of the 8th by Mr. Gee. C. Schaeffer, who reports as follows: ‘‘ Thé house from which I observed was in a valley, over which the smoke from the fire in New Jersey spread a mist like a curtain, which, illuminated by a full moon, formed a very unfavorable medium through which to observe. My view was limited to a small por- tion of the heavens, so that I could not have seen more than one fifth or sixth of the entire number visible in a clear and moonless night. Between 1th. 30m. and 12h. 30m. I saw about 20. From various estimates, I think they appeared [to a single observer] at the rate of 15 or 20an hour. I watched very closely for the radiant point, and found it near where I placed it in August last, [see this Journal, Vol. 33, = 134,] but, to my very great surprise, there was a constant aud regular of this point. In this I am not mistaken, as I devoted my calicke attention to determine it. Between 11 and 12, it was about 12° from ¢ Cassiopeie, in a line from it to the North Polar Star ; it a near the star first named, inclining downwards, and at 3h. it was 13° or 2° on the other side of it.” No observations on the night of 9th, L0th, or 11th. 6. At Norfolk, Va. observations were made on the evening of the 10th, by Messrs. J. D. Dana, H. Eid, Sr. and J. W.E. Reid. Mr. D. writes: * Between 8h. 55m. and 10h. P. M. we observed thirty siz, which obvi- ously far exceeds the usual number at that hour. They appeared to Vout. XXXV.—No. 1. 22 170. Miscellanies. . radiate from Cassiopeia, .but it was not very easy to determine satisfacto- rily, the radiant point. The sky, within 25° of the horizon, was obscured by a thick haze, which prevented our seeing any meteors below that altitude.” At a later hour, the clouds and the moon rendered it unadvi- sable to resume the watch. No observations on the night of 9th or 11th. . 7. At Society Hill, S.C. Mr. William A. Sparks watched, at inter- vals, on the night of the 9th and morning of the 10th. On the 9th, at evening, the sky was clear, and the number of meteors appeared some- what unusual. “ About 3h. A. M.” (10th) writes Mr. S. “ I was awaked by my servant, who informed me that ‘ he had seen five stars fall since he first got up.’ I rose immediately and went out, and although the moon was shining with brilliancy, in mid-heaven, I saw at intervals of from two to five minutes, quite a number shooting in all directions. At 3h. 35m. one remarkably bright, which I noticed more’particularly, took its origin in the vicinity of the belt of Orion, shot about 50° toward the N. nearly parallel to ‘the horizon, and almost eclipsed the splendor of Venus, which was just then emerging from the East. At 3h. 45m. the sky became entirely overcast with cumulo-stratus clouds, which prevent- ed further observation. On this occasion, I counted’ twenty four mete- ors.” Mr. S. states,’ that on the nights of the 8th and 10th the displays wore much inferior to that of the night of the 9th. . At Wilmington Island, near Savannah, Ga. Mr. Thomas R. Dut- ton tae observations, which are far more extensive and satisfa than any which have hitherto reached me. The biastale: 2 table contains a. aap of the results. : 3 i a 5 het oe ‘Date. | Sine of Observation. 8 5 Remarks. ‘ i 1638. | he im: +h. m.~ eae Moon rises at 9h. Aug. 9. 9 30. m. to 11 30. m. 119) 9.5 5 nad oe | past fall. ‘ dl 30 p.m. to 0 25. m. (10th) 13.14.18 ; 10. 0 254.m.to 1 2a.m (14,14, “ ")410a.m.to 4 204. m. 954. ee te ‘9 30 P.M. Ky wit ison idaous Sale p. M. to 10 45 p. m. ee | Viveda ays past | Vb 20 p.7to -0.20 a.m, (Hae) aa .| 0 304. M. to 1 304. mM. Ba “ate Ac Mt to 4 “a.m. 55155, The following extracts are taken from the remarks which Mr. Dutton joins. “‘ You will, I think, agree with me, that the present year pre- sents, at this place, a recurrence of the meteoric shower of August last. In re to number, two'circumstances are to be considered: Ist, that agen teres: and 2d, that the moon was more ies 7 cal “ ae me ac a lS ma " ie Mivcllanies im full: It is generally admitted, that it requires, at least, three observers to note all, and that the full moon obscures two thirds or three fourths of those which would be visible in its absence. In the present case, we ‘may safely say, that one half were rendered invisible by the light of the moon. On the night of the 10th, one observer saw 140, in 5h. 15m. [and 122 of them in 4h. 15m.] Three observers would hive seen’ 420 during the same time, [and in the absence of the moon, 840.] On'‘the night of Nov. 12, 1837, four observers saw at New Saven, 223 in five hours ; the moon at that time obscuing; goby eb one “fourth more _ in the present case “On the night of the 9th, the contre’ of. radiation appeared to be near a point in R. A. 35° N. D. 69°. 'The~more extended | of the following night led me to a it somewhere between this’ point and € Cassiopeia. I have more confidence in this conclusion, as on the night of the 10th, the meteors were more abundant, and several | 1es Started from near the radiating point. Ican say with certainty ‘that this point lay somewhere within the triangle formed by the three stars ©, 4, and y Cassiopei#.- From this point radiated at least three fourths of all the meteors seen on the nights of the 9th and 10th. Of the meteors thus a two thirds had trains. It was remarkable that of all those which had , there was but one which did not move from the radiating point. was during most of the time of observation somewhere be- and 60° above the horizon, and as the meteors generally made their appearance at more than 30° from this point, we should conclade . that es few would be observed to fall directly towards the horizon. ‘This was the case during the two nights. About fifteen were seen to descend towards the north; the remainder either rose, passing near the zenith, or moved towards the south in lines nearly rataltl to the horizon. The northwestern part of the heavens, including on the right the constellation 10° or 15° south of the zenith. — From 3h. to 4h. on'the morning of the 11th, = 5 hardly noticed one which did not come from the radiating point. Nori of the meteors seen on previous nights July 28th and August 6th inclasive) seemed to haye a common centre of radiation. As to magnitudes, it may be observed that the me teors were of two very distinct classes ; ;—onle composed of such meteors as are visible upon every clear night, This class contained one fourth of the whole number scen, and were distinguished by their small size, (not exceéding stars of the third magnitude, ) by their unconformable Shee: tions, and their greater velocity. ‘The other class, containing the remain- ing three fourths, were all as large as stars of the second magnitude, and half them were equal f in size to Venus as she now appears as the morning star. Of this class, but ome had a direction which could be called un- conformable, and at least two thirds of them had trains. Most of the 172 Misceilanies. trains Vanished as‘soon as the meteors which they followed, but in some cases they remained for one or two seconds, and were occasionally 15° or 20° long. The velocity of those meteors which were conformable was much less than that of those meteors which were unconformable, and much. less also than that of those which are commonly seen. hose. whose course was longest were visible from one and a half to two seconds. The color of these meteors was remarkably uniform, and was a reddish yellow, or flame color. In some cases the train was of a deeper ool than its attendant meteor.” No facts concerning the appearance of this meteoric shower have yet been received from abroad. If the weather was favorable, observations were doubtless made in many parts of Europe. Especially may we expect a full report from M. Quetelet, of Brussels, who has done. more than any one in Europe towards directing public attention to the eps of the occurrence of ‘a meteoric shower in August. = Remarks on the neues: statements. Before we can determine whether the exhibition of lat files ; unusual, it is necessary to know the average number of shoc visible at other times. Numerous observations made in conjunc my fellow-laborer, Mr. A. B. Haile, and occasionally with ot furnish some materials for the detenninstin of this qui were made chiefly in the fall, winter and spring months, b beg probably apply without sauch error to the summer season. — ord- to these observations, if the light of the sun and moon be absent, the eas. number of meteors visible at the most abundant season of the night, viz. from 3 to 6 A. M., is about fifty per hour; and from 6 to 10 P.M. about twenty five ‘per: hour. Of these a single observer would probably detect one fourth or one fifth part. Much difference however exists in the fertility of the different quarters of the sky at different hours, ing stars with and many more observations must be made, before exact data on this part of the subject can be obtained. In the present state of our knowledge it seems not improper to multiply by four, the number seen by an indi- vidual, in order to obtain the whole number visible at the place during the period-of his observation. What proportion of these meteors is con- cealed by the light of the, moon at its different stages, cannot be fixed with minute accuracy. If we assume, that in the present instance one half were rendered invisible by the moonlight, it will doubtless be considered a liberal allowance. Looking at the foregoing accounts with these pril- ciples in view, it is evident that the number of meteors seen in this country about the 108 of August, 1838, was from three to eight times beyond the r To specify a single instance ;—Mr. T. R. Dutton, near Sa- between 3h. and and 4h. A. M. of the 11th, fifty five meteors. Miscellanies. 173 Multiplying this number by four, and the resulting quantity by two, we obtain for the entire number which might have been at that place, had-the moon been absent, 440, or about nine times the average. It is unnecessary here to reduce the other reports in this way, as any one who chooses can do it for. himself. The observations on the position of the radiant point of this shower are not altogether satisfactory, and it will probably be advisable to wait for the better opportunity of determining this point which the meteoric shower of August 1839 will present, rather than to attempt to reconcile the accounts which have been already made public. Enough is known to prove that this radiant (as seen in this latitude) lies fifty degrees north of the point towards which the earth is at the time tending. This fact may perhaps intimate that the meteoric zone does not lie in the plane of the ecliptic. Neither‘can we yet decide on what day between the 8th and 12th of August the shower arrives at its maximum. The determination of this and other important features of the phenomenon must be italia to the coming year. robably still unacquainted with all those periods of the year at _stars occur in unusual numbers. It cannot be concealed, tof the sixth of December, 1798, Brandes alone saw these rate of 100 an hour for four hours. This display must ly. or quite equal to any August or November shower 2n witnessed since 1833. It isa highly interestmg question, whether shooting stars do not now oceur im unusual numbers on or about this day of the year, and it is earnestly to be hoped that none of our ob- servers will suffer this period of the present year to pass without the most attentive inspection of the heavens. To the facts heretofore adduced in this Journal (Vol. xxxm1, p: 176— 180 ; 354—364; 401, and Vol. xxx1v, p. 180—182) in proof of the oc- currence of «meteori shower in August, I add the testimony, h although not of the most satisfactory character, seems to merit per 1. In Miss Harriet Martineau’s Retrospect of Western Travel, “yee ed. 2 vols. 12mo. N. Y. 1838,) Vol. 2, p..87, is the annexed account, pertaining to the evening of August 8, 1835 :—“ While the bright glow was still lingering in the valley, and the sky was beginning to melt from crimson to the pale seagreen of evening, I saw something sailing in the air like a glistening golden balloon. * * * It burst in a broad flash and shower of green fire. It was the most splendid meteor I ever saw. * * I saw an unusual number of falling-stars before we reached home.” 2% in Capt. J. E. Alexander’s Transatlantic Sketches, (Amer. ed. 8vo. 1833,) p. 102, in an account of the tremendous hurricane which i 174 = Miscellanies. visited the West Indies on the night of Wednesday, August 10, 1881, occurs the following. “ .* * Those who were driven into the fields, so far from being able to stand on their legs, could not even sit up, the wind was so violent as to throw them on their faces. The lightning flashed tremendously in their eyes and-appeared to strike the ground only a few yards from them; but such was the roar of the wind, that the thunder could naling een Fesanes Ghd heen were seen to fall — the clouds.” 2% The ¢ account wi this hurricane cle is copied Sent a Bridgetown (Barbadoes) paper into Lieut. Col. Reid’s “ Attempt to develop the Law of Storms, Sc.” 8vo. London, 1838, gives the following additional partic- ulars. “ About.3-A. M. (Aug. 11) the wind occasionally abated. * ** The lightning also having ceased for a few moments only at a time, the blackness in which the town was enveloped) was inexpressibly awful. Fiery meteors were presentlyseen falling from the heavens ; one in pat- _ ticular, of a globular form and a deep red hue, was observed by the writer to descend perpendicularly from a vast height. It evidently fell by its specific gravity, and was not shot or propelled by an extraneous force. On : ‘approaching the earth with accelerated motion ‘it assumed a dazzling whiteness and an elongated form, and dashing to the ground in Beckwith Square, pesone the stores of Messrs. Hi. D. Grierson & Co. ta iancy and the spattering of its particles cpdaicallig sei _ gave it the resemblance of a body of me of — bulk.” © ee September, cag 2. Oiserdiitions eats at Yale College on the Sekt of the Sun of September 18, 1838.—Communicated by Professor Ormsren. ‘I was prevented, by peculiar circumstances, from making any prepara- tions for viewing the interesting eclipse of September 18th, having re turned home from a journey onlyon the day of its occurrence. I found, however, that there was less reason for regret, as two young gentlemen of our senior class, H. LL. Smith and E. P. Mason, had been very assiduous in making preparations for viewing the eclipse, having the necessary i- struments all in readiness, and the time well regulated. Indeed, each of them was furnished with a good telescope of his own making, the former a Gregorian of three feet focus,* the latter a Newtonian of seven feet. yal A. L. Smith and F. Bradley have recently compinicted a large tele- hich they have furnished me the following memorandum : The reflee- about fourteen feet and is one foot if diameter, of the stand and adjustments are not yet completed, nor h accompanied me in the College. rst mm whilerk teadamenef our large Achromatic of ten feet focus. The weather was remarkably fine. For some time previous, the atmos phere was cloudy, with some rain, and the prospects were very discourag- ing ; yet only an hour or two before the eclipse came on, the clouds broke away, and presented a sky as clear and serene as could possibly be de- sired. Indeed, we were great gainers by the previous state of the atmos- phere, the-sky being washed clean of all, vapors, while yet the sun had not shone.long enough to disturb the tranquillity of iha:eedinm, by as- cending and descending currents. Hence, there was a r_shatp- hess in the line presented by the solar disk. _ ae ~ Each of the three observers kept separate ictea, but the observations of the commencement of the eclipse differed scarcely at all from each other, and none of them from the mean of the whole more than one fifth of asecond. The average of the three gave the following results, ex- pressed in mean time : s Badioning of the eclipse, et gtd 3h. 21m. 14.47s.* .. . Sh, 52m.. Fis, . The viele of the moon projected on the sun’s disk, as seen through the age Refractor LCs: Telescope). with a power of 180, pre é e! e aontiin nm particular, Pecan ae iS to make any of the stars visible ‘% the naked eye ; but a solemn, bronzy veil was — over the face of nature. The changes in the Barometer and Hyg ter, were inconsiderable; and the Thermometer suffered less aearh ‘ta it probably would have done had not the sun a short time previous emerged from a cloudy atmosphere. No change worthy of note was.observed in the magnetic intensity. Mr. Mason had attached to his telescope a divided object-glass micro- meter, by means of which he made multiplied observations onthe solar = an account at whieh . am happy to subjoin ‘in — stbieteite rds, is the telescope in an wives ntageous position tion for making | delicate _ observations. ube is a twelve-sided prism, strengthened internally by iron following objects have already been seen, and the results will afford Se of its power. The nebula in Hercules between 4 and ¢ resolved into.an immense numberof sfnall stars :—the annular nebula in Lyra very bright and distinet :— Debilissima inter 4 et 5 < Lyre, easily seen by direct vision :—sma all star near @ Lyre very bright and distinct :—¢ Bootis, 4 and 5 & Lyre of course easily sepa- ted :o Coronz Borealis, # Aquile, and the star south following # Bootis very distinctly double :—{ Orionis triple *—companion of ee very beh oe ~ the stars of the belt had disappeared i in the morning lig bere ps "Tt will be seen that this is 42.47 seconds later "ha the time re ‘ican Alman E 176 Miscellanies. deeming it unnecessary to add any remarks of my own, farther than to express my entire confidence in the accuracy of his determinations. Micrometric Measurements taken by E. P. Mason, During the progress of the eclipse, frequent measures were taken of the distances of the cusps, and the corresponding instants of observation were accurately noted. The instrument with which these were obtained was an achromatic object-glass micrometer, of Dollond’s construction, “attached to a7 ft. Reflector, the value of whose scale had been determined by frequent comparisons with an accurate sextant in terrestrial measures, and by observations on — of the Ast. Soc. Peet The following are the distances obtained : Time f Observ ition. ; Distance of Cusps. * ‘Time of Observation. ‘usps. iii eae age © “ : hi Wek i N 26 68 | 10. 23.43 4 14 15.0> 28 33.16 + 2 Oh ese *“ 15 129 | 28 4439 mR 61.2 | 4337.14 © 216.2, 87.7.1 23< 55Re “ 30 58.0 | 14. 2811 17 ~ 365 1-99-. 6H ~- O. 429") 38-57-48 “« 31 363. | 29. &68 eee 43.7 ° 115” 8592 nearest approach’ 19 13.59 Pee BE 17 = S18 ‘st 419° | 299 1649 «38 39.2) 18 936.72 “-53 188 | 29-cfao 4 42... 22. |. 30 .. 23.52- “ 55 442 | 29 23.38 Ss 42 185 | 20. 5758 “58 395 | 29 13.26 eek. 069 | 21. 20-87 5 0. 49.7 | 29 488 eee" Fae +82 96.54 > ee ee Oe SESS BS.7 |} 22 GA: “9 98.0) 28 53.51 «60 = 379 23° 32:79 “29-764 | 2. 498 “62. 446 | 24 12.57 *.- 4. 108 | 28 41.66 ne 54° 168 | 24 38.56. a ok noe |. Se ae 55. 62.' 24 52.99 8 943 | 99. aam “te 481° 1°35 26 = 9 96.0 | 27 Bae "68. 83.6°)-25 46.78 “ 31°84.08" Sir NEP atin aet AE RM ce “ce ig Es . x “ 55.64" sewer : - - oe 55007 aoe - - - b «- 54.89" “2% * 54.95" M8 tones ; the mean of which is 31’ 54. 81". It abiiald a be remarked, that a more perfect judgment can be formed of the exactness of contact of sharply termmated points, such as were the cusps during the eclipse, than. can be the case with edges or limbs, as tremulous as that of the sun, where an alternate overlapping and recession leaves something to estima- tion. On this account, an attempt to obtain several measures of greatest distance of limbs was relinquished, both because greater inaccuracy was apprehended from the above source; and the measures of the cusps af- forded a more advantageous method of arriving at the same results. The maximum distance of the cusps, which may be obtained by inter- polation from those nearest in point of time, will give the observed diame- _ ter of the moon, free, it is believed, from the effects of irradiation. The minimum distanice will be a greatly magnified measure of the error of the moon’s assumed latitude, the ratio of increase of the distance of the cusps at that pont to the corresponding difference of the latitude being about as 25.7 : “At 5h. 20m. the measures of distance were relinquished, as the sun’s proximity to the horizon would soon render = further. observation of this kind of little value. At the end of the eclipse, the sun was scarcely 3 degrees above the horizon, and the extreme undulation of his limb rendered much accuracy in the time of the observation impossible; and being, therefore, deemed phen se “it was not carefully noted, and may possibly be in “The sidereal. ack Shi which the abdve determinations of time were taken and reduced, had been compared frequently during the months of August and September with transits of stars, and the deviations of the transit instrument, the value of the divisions of its level, and the irregu- of the clock’s rate, carefully registered and applied. ~ From a comparison of these observations, it appears, that the error of or -* The moon's latitude, as assumed for the calculation of the eclipse in the Alm American , is by the observation of the nearest approach of cusps, 10.05’ too large; a determination which, if the calculated semidiameters of the sun and moon correct, is-in error by only one hineteenth part of the error of obser- vation. Vou. XXXV_No. 1 23 * 178 Miscellanies. in the transit of a single wire is seldom over .3 of a second; and the mean of the 5 wires of the instrument would, therefore, render the proba- ble error certainly Jess than .1 of a second. The error arising from it- regularity of the clock’s rate is rendered of comparatively little mbment by the fortunate coincidence, nearly, of the transit of Antares with the middle of the eclipse. -The only remaining error of importance, that of the imperfection of vision, in noticing the first moment of ingress, may be presumed to be very small, from the.circumstance that the observa- tions were entirely independent, at two different clocks, in separate apartments, and the coincidence of results was not mutually known till some minutes afterwards, thereby preventing the otherwise natural result of catching the first glimpse by contagion. “The agreement of the times of commencement to less than .2 of a second, under such circumstances, goes far to prove their accuracy. The clocks were compared by coinci- dent beats immediately before and after the ingress. The distances of the cusps are uncorrected for difference of refraction, which, in the last measures, is of considerable amount. If any of them should be found discordant with the others, from error in counting from the clock, or in registering, they will easily be discovered in the calcula- tion, and corrected, if the mistake is evident, or otherwise entirely re- jected. 3. Supposed new mineral at Bolton, Mass —The following angles were obtained with the reflective goniometer, from a small er fa gr inert sparingly disseminated in massive Scapolite, at the Bolton lime at occurs in small isolated prismatic individuals, imperfectly , or in divergent groups of slender flattened prisms, more or less perfect. The mineral has been considered Gadolinite, and by Prof Surrarp, who early observed it at the above locality, as Allanite, to which it is closely allied, if not identical with it. The primary is an oblique rhomboidal prism, M : T = 113° a5 and 66° 15’, M: é (replacement of obtuse lateral edge) = 149°, T : é = 144° 45',M:€ (vepliiocanent of acute }ateral edge) = 128° 45’, T : é== 117° 30’, €: € = 97° 45’ and 82° 15’. The crystals are flattened parallel with €, and slightly sieaaihla some varieties of green hornblende. M is bright, T much less so ; € is deeply channeled. No cleavage a H. = 575. G. as fund by Prof. S. 3—3.25, the former obtained wit fragment weighing 1.2 grains ; the latter, with 2 céntigrammes, OF a one third of a grain. Lustre, resinous; streak, greyish or greenish white. Color, grass green—blackish green ; raindacts t—subtranslucent ; brittle. A black variety occurs in the Petalite of the samme quarry, which, in lutre and and colar, much resembles Allanite. The above angles and other ts seem, however, to indicate that this mineral is a distinct apc If it should prove, ~_—— on further ee. identical Ss Sa i bas ee ee ee eee a ee biolicatl , Miscellanies. 179 with Aiaiien: the above angles, as they were taken with the reflective goniometer, should be. substituted - those usually given, which were obtained with the common goniometer. I have not observed any terminal planes, but infer the probable obli- quity of the primary, from the direction of a seam of carbonate of lime, which intersected the crystal. If we can place any a ‘on this kind of evidence, the crystal is oblique from an obtuse edge. The scapolite in which the mineral is found, contains, also, ex ceeding- ly minute zircons, scarcely ;'; inch long, and also_very small prisms of rutile. The zircons are square prisms, having the lateral edges trunca- ted, and pyramidally terminated at each extremity ; a narrow intermedi- ary plane replaces the edge between a pyramidal plane, and one trunca- ting a lateral edge. They are described in Naumann’s System of Crys- tallographic Notation, as follows: ©Pw.aP.P.2P2. J. D. Dana. July, 1838. : . 4. New locality of Crichtonite—This mineral is found in the north part of Litchfield, Ct. about two miles from the village. The locality is upon the east side of the road, leading from the Wolcottville turnpike to ule Bis on the land of Mr. John A. Woodruff. _ It occurs erystalli- short hexagonal prisms, with the alternate angles replaced by — planes, inclining upon the base, at an angle of 121°, and upon the lateral planes, at an angle of 134°. The largest of the crystals are about three quarters ofan inch in length, and two and one quarter inches in diameter. It is found imbedded in fragments of rock composed of quartz and mica slate. The prevailing rock is mica-slate, from which these probably have been detached. The mica slate also contains an abundance of staurotide. A common form of the crystals is that of the primary form, with the obtuse angles replaced. Some of them are four inphas in Jength SS : T.S.Goun, A. Be i Stilbite, Chabasie, ‘igh dN eke Pal: ‘wmiatigtas: Ct. Stilbite has been found within cavities in gneiss on the Stonington rail road, two miles and a quarter from that village. It is imperfectly crystallized, being composed chiefly of implanted globules, with occasional botryoidal mass~ es, which, when broken, present the stellated structure common in this species. Tti is of a wax-yellow color, and subresinous lustre. Some specie mens are of a light yellow color. Chabasie-—In connection with the above, were found very minute crystals of Chabasie, ‘of a light red color. But in a ledge on the rail road, a quarter of a mile further from its termination at Stonington, were found in rather more abundance, aggregated crystals of a deep carnation = tedeelor-- The crystals are very obtuse rhombohedra, from one fifth to - 186 | Miscellanies. one tenth of an inch in diameter. Owing to the brittleness of these min- erals and the great hardness of the rocks in which they are imbedded, none but small ones can be obtained, cmd expensive excavations are made. Associated ithe’ the above seaitionad mes are also found small traces of the following : 1. Zeolite, in small masses, whose fracture presents stellated radiations ofa po color. ‘Their size varies from one fifth to half an inch in sie eter. 2. Calcareous Spar, (with the last mentioned Chabasie) in hexagalald prisms ; and at the other ledge, in compact masses. 3. Scapolite, of an imperfectly semaine structure, and light green color, partly decomposed. 4. Sphene, in two or three minute black crystals. 5. Apatite, in small crystals of a bluish green color. 6. Magnetic Iron, in small masses, In a ledge on the ‘rail road, three miles and dived quarters from the vil- lage of Stonington, are several veins of quartz, partly compact and in part -of interlocking crystals.- In two of these, which were from half an inch to an inch and a half in thickness, was found a layer of Fluor. It is generally about one fifth of an inch in thickness, varying, however, from one third to one tenth of an inch. The colors are light green and dark purple. _ Traces of the same mineral were found in other veins at the same elie At this place were also found thin veins of calcareous spar, dolomite, and serpentine oo W. W. aaa A. B.. ag Ss in R. rane is found in thos town « of a R. I. in pity of gneiss, which has been quarried for building stone, on land — owned by Mr. Nathan F. Dixon. It is situated one fourth of a mile north of the 6th mile stone, on the Stonington rail road. The mineral, im im- perfect crystals, is dhiseminaied through a mass of semi-crystallized quartz, which is two or three feet in length, and about one foot in width and breadth. Ww. W.R Bi 7. A Flora of North America: containing abridged descriptions of all the known indigenous and naturalized plants, growing north of Mexico ; arranged according to the Natural System: By Joun Torrey and Asa Gray. Vol. I, Pt.1, pp. 184 8vo. G. & C. Carvill & Co. N. York, 1838. Here is the first number, and the earnest of a work long and anxiously desired by the botanists of the United States; and which will, doubtless, be cordially greeted by the cultivators of botanical science, throughout the world. The plants of North America ae which has been, Es z r ay = - Opportunities or discoveries Miscellanies. 181 always been regarded with a lively interest. They have, at various times, attracted hither a number of botanists from the old world, who have reaped a rich harvest of discovery. in our forests, on our mountains and prairies, and along the margins of our almost interminable rivers. A few of our own countrymen have also rendered important aid in making known the character and extent of our vegetable treasures. Their labors, however, have been, for the most part, restricted to the production of partial or local Floras, highly peace indeed, so far as they ex- tended, and furnishing valuable materials for a more comprehensive work ; but still, they were severally limited i in their scope, and, of neces- sity, incomplete in their contents. The materials thus existing in de- tached masses, and scattered through numerous volumes, eigictt the plastic operation of some master hand, to reduce them into one body, and give to all the parts their appropriate “ form and oem? It was exceedingly important, that whoever might undertake to prepare a North American Flora, should be thoroughly acquainted with the labors of preceding botanists; and, by consulting their collections, as far as practicable, be competent to detect their errors, adjust their discrep- ancies, and determine their various synonyms. We consider it, there- fore, asubject of felicitation, that: the work -has fallen. into the present hauda as being confessedly those among the best qualified for the task, in our country ; and we rely with confidence upon their receiving the ous cooperation and encouragement of every lover of the Science of Plants. We cannot for a moment doubt, that every American botanist will eagerly avail himself of the occasion to possess a complete Flora of our widely extended continent ; and we should fondly hope, that every liberal cultivator of science in our land, would be happy in the opportuni- ty to patronize so commendable an effort to enhance the national repu- tation. ‘The authors of this Flora have, of course, adopted the natural system, tific arrangement of Gece inthe present state of the science. _ - By issuing the work in parts, or siusibend some ad vantages will I cured, which would otherwise be unattainable. The natural fe being complete, even in those detached numbers, the botanists in various parts of our country will have leisure to examine and verify the particu- lars of each, Gonna. the course of the publication; and thus may suggest, in due time for a iz, (which must ever accompany works on a progressive scien ch h corrections, modifications, or additions, as their é shall enable them to make. In this way, much valuable aid may be furnished to the authors, and the Flora render- ed more perfect and comprehensive, without occasioning any material o delay in its final completion. (182 Miscellanies. The characters of the orders, tribes and genera, are well defined ; and the specific descriptions, though abridged, are sufficiently full to be — clear and satisfactory. ‘They are, moreover, frequently accompanied with notes and detailed remarks, (especially the less known, or newly discov- ered species,) which seem to supply all the information that can reason- ably be desired, in the Flora of so extensive a region The additions derived from the recent discovéries of Mr. Nosvatale during his journey to thé western coast of this continent, are highly im- t; and are here published, for the first time, from the original manuscript, furnished by that distinguished and indefsijgable naturalist. It appears, by a notice affixed to the number just published, that the work will be issued in nine parts, three parts to make a volume, and the whole forming three closely printed octavos, of about 550 pages each. The succeeding numbers will appear with as much ws ike as is Con- sistent with their faithful execution. Such being the character and plan of the forthcoming Flora of North America, we conclude our brief and hasty notice with a reiterated eX- pression of the hope, that the worthy and accomplished authors may be. adequately encouraged to persevere in their most laudable undertaking, and thereby be enabled to bring i it to a successful and speedy ge ae August 16, 1838. 8. Redfield’s Law of Storins : esi of Col. 1 Reid's Work on Hibes ricanes.—It. is well known to the readers of this Journal, that our valued friend and correspondent, Mr. William C. Redfield, now of New York, has for a Jong course of years zealously prosecuted the study of various topics of » and especially. that of the phenomena of the storms — of the Malinlac-conat To the latter subject his attention was directed as early as 1821, by the memorable hurricane which passed over our State with destracsiye violence, in September of that year. _ An investigation of its phases at different places, brought him to the highly interesting con- clusion, that this storm was a progressive whirlwind, whose path could be traced from the West Indies to the spain dour: of New Brunswick. Ia sation,” katt this Jdvenal for July, 1835 ,) and ‘die labors were reward- ed with the very important discovery, that the violent storms of the North- ern hemisphere are whirlwinds on agrand scale, each revolving or gyrating Srom right to left, originating within the tropics, advancing Westerly at Jirst, in a line curving to the North, turning near the latitude of 30° and thence pursuing a Northeasterly course. This view of the matter, — although often advanced previously by Mr. R. among his acquaintances, (as many, of us can testify,) was not made wie until-1831, when it ape eter, ae he ee Miscellanies. 183 — ‘in-a paper received in 1830, and published i in the 20th Vol. of this Journ ~eig numerous. investigations of the phenomena of hurricanes, as ob- served at different points of their path, which Mr. R. has since made, have only added new confirmation of his early opinions. Several of his papers, embracing some of the results of these labors, have at various times appeared in this Journal, and in other periodical works. That’ which was published in 1835, was accompanied with a chart, showing the tracks of eleven different gales or storms. His explanation of the baro- metric indications observed during the access, progress, and seers of these storms, appears to us original, ingenious, and true ; and his direc- tions to navigators, concerning the measures which they should adopt, to extricate themselves from their destructive grasp, are surely of the highest practical importance. In an article published in this Journal in 1833 Mr. R. announced the conclusion, from data whieh he had collected, that the storms of the Southern’ hemisphere pursue a counter direction, and gyrate in-the contrary way from those of the Northern : a difference which he considers due to their dependence on the earth’s rotation. ~ These doctrines, (of which ,the foregoing is but an imperfect statement,) being so unlike those which had, for a long time held-universal sway, were received by most, with great hesitation, and by some, with deter- mined opposition. There were, however, those among us, who had watched the movements of the barometer, and the changes of the wind, during these storms, and were satisfied of the truth of the new system. Within a year or two, the attention of philosophers in’ foreign countries has been turned to this subject, and recent occurrences indicate that the laws of storms, which Mr. Redfield has unfolded, will soon be universally acknowledged. The preceding remarks are elicited by the perusal of an elaborate work, published the present your in London, by Lieut. Col. W. Reid, of the Bows Engineers, entitled “ An attempt to develop the Law of Storms, by means of facts arranged according to place and time, and hence to point out a cause for the variable winds, with the view to practical use in Navigation, illustrated by [9] charts and wood cuts,” pp. 436, B 8vo. The author states, that his attention was first drawn to the si by the Barbadoes hurricane of August, 1831, when he was ind search every where, in the hope of learning the causes and mode of action sé these storms. “ The first paper, ” says Col. R. “I met with, which to convey any just opinion on the nature of hurricanes, was one Published i in the American Journal of Science, by Mr. W. C. Redfield, of New York.” Embracing with ready zeal, the views advanced in that paper, Col. Reid has prosecuted the study of his subject, with good judg- _ Inent and praiseworthy industry. In the volume before us, he has pre- sented the most convincing demonstration of the truth of Mr. Redfield’s ‘doctrines, and by the aid of numerous and excellent charts and diagrams, 184 Miscellanies. he has set forth the subject with great clearness and beauty. His exhibie tion of the storms of the Southern hemisphere is full and satisfactory, and entirely accordant with Mr. R.’s published statements. As Americans, we can not but feel much gratified with the frankness with which he attributes to our countryman the credit of establishing the true system, on a subject of such interest and magnitude. The skill and research with which the work is executed, and the candor with which he ascribes honor _ where honor is due, are creditable alike to the head and heart of its author. The volume deserves attentive study; as the matters of which it treats, and the results which it presents, are not only interesting to the theoreti- cal philosopher, but also of immense importance to all who expose their lives or their fortunes to the perils of the ocean. <9. Observations on “thé. genus Unio, together with descriptions of new genera and species in the families Naiades, Colimacea, Lymneana, Me laniana, and Peristomiana, with numerous colored plates: by Isaac La, Member Amer. Philos. Soc. etc, Vol. II, quarto, pp. 152. Philadelphia— (constituting Trans. of Amer. Phil. Soc. Vol. VI, Part 1.) The present volume consists of several papers read before the Ameri- can Philosophical Society, from Dec. 19, 1834, to July 21, 1887; and embracing descriptions of the following — new species of shells, to the names of which we annex their habitats : E One arctior, Ohio river. — ~ time Jgunus, S. Car. : ee lugubris, “ folliculatus, “ = “cc te 7 <3 con > a “* spinosus, re a . interruptus, : “splendidus, “ “ Cumberlandicus,. “ “ dolabreformis, “‘ “* simus, : Jayensis, Florida. “ notatus, > “ Claibornensis, Ala. “ec : — Barneiionus, * “ turgidus, Louisiana. = Zeighriauus, ve “ Hydianus, “ creperus, i os Fisheritonns, Maryland. “* glaber, at rm Noui-Eboraci, New York. ce “ 2 gibber, Bg “ Tappanianus, Penn. ¢ Vanuxemensis, ‘ ~ “ Tampicoensis, Mexico. ce 7 i . a Muhifeldianus, “ ** carbonarius, ‘ “ Menkianus, - “< pliciferus, ¥ venustus, Potosi, Mo. _. © Medellinus, : Vaughanianus, §. Car. we Brownianus, Ameen, river. - Miscellanies. 185 Unio Bengalensis, Bengal. Unio dss, India. “ Tamellatus, =“ » * , Unknown. Margaritana Holstonia, Tenn. - Mergaritaia fabula, Tenn. O° ° RR 2 P52 arcula, Georgia. Anodonta ovata, Ohio. Anodonta Newtoniensis, Penn on sae OO be subcylindracea, N York. “y Wardiana, ripe eg ee SC cylindracea, Mexico. sap Buchanensis, “ be oe Senna Ma of Rock. Mts. * Geterd, ESS, eee ee ‘pavonia, . > ce yes é % cs Nuttitients € ~ _ Pepini Me c- ioe pe Wah itensi: a ee : gigantea, Fort Gibson. “- exilis, Unknown. Iridina celestis, Africa. ae Helix mM thaliana, Oho. Wardia _ * © Vancouverensis, W. Rocky Mite. : Pig Garis “i? Nuttalliana ; oe Valenibidiit: ROS HES =. Pe: Sele ee lana, Bae eas age € >» Oregonen ee eeeEe Se : eae “Californiensis, Upper Cilitorsita, a et See ; ne eae / eS Nicklé iniana, * es : my “"~ magnifica, New Gran ; t =. ~~ Carocolla Hydiana, Porto Cal, 8. A. cS nak Sea ‘Polygyra sg conser ge os stiana, eae Bulimus lacteus, Colombia, S. A. Pealianus, . a Colombianus, iy as ne: . . corneus, a eae ase. : e: : : ae lant Ghat New ans ee. Boe cei ee “ parvus, “Garhagens, ee ee idee “ virgo, Sagi Be Sti | i Succinea aperta, W. of Rocky | Raieietie = ee te t Megaspira* Ruschenbergiana, Brazil... oe sii : | Cyclostoma maculata, Manilla. ‘ Re: As “ Popayana, New Granada. ” ia Planorbis lens, Ohio. - -Physa aurea, Virginia : $ ' Lymmnea s a, W. of the ie Back Mis. = : apicina, = Pte new genus allied to Bulimus, Pupa, and -Quricula. The name alludes to » and g7elge “a = : Vou. XXXV.—No. 24 186 Miscellantes. eyes Melanta inflata, Virginia. © eS plicata, Bengal? < oon ‘“ plicifera, W. of the Rocky Mts. “ — Troostiana, toh ° Paludina pallida,.O * oie -" Wetnonn Virginia. ’ i . sthistrosa, East Indies. * - nuclea, W. of the ssa Mes. : Ne ropa : mpu ee Peatiana, Colombia, 8. A “The volume includes, likewise, a series of very interesting “cheervaiioli upon the anatomical structure of the Naiades, illustrated by’ plates ; from which we perceive that Mr. Lea, is conv inced that these animals are not androgynous, as ‘has heretofore been believed in Europe, but, on the con- irary, have the Sexes in different.individuals. He notices, under these remarks, with “suitable commendation, the ingenious memoir of Dr. Kirtanp, of Ohio, on the same subject." The work is concluded bya very valuable synopsis of Naiades, in ‘which the embarrassing synonymy of this family is cleared up with the author’s usual address. It contains, according to this review, 323 recent species, as admitted, (rank and file,) 29 unknown to the author or doubtful, ( missing, ) and 22 fossil, (dead.) Of the subgenus Unio, there are 235 species in a recent state, and 20 _ which he has as not been able to admit as certain. Of fossil species 21. OF the subgenus Margaritana, there are 20 admitted species and 2 un- ‘known. — Of the subgenus Dipsas, 2 recent species. Of Anodonta, 58 ttec ,7 unknown, and 1 fossil, which is doubtful. Of Iridina, 2 re- pen geest Spatha, 6 recent species. US. 10. North lduricon Hagel: or a Description of the — inhabiting the United States; by Joun Evwarvs Hotzroox, M.D., Pro- fessor of Anatomy in the Medical College of the State of South Carolina, Member of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. Vol. I, quarto. Philad. 1836. pp. 120; and Vol. IT. 1838. pp. 125. With colored engravings. This is a second great work on natural history from the Philadelphia press, concerning which we have long. owed a notice to the scientific - public. Its merits are, however, of so high an order, as to ‘stand in very little need of commendation, and the volumes before us give the best as- - surance that the remaining ones will be executed with equal ability. To the distant subscribers, it may be of some consequence to be informed of. es ehith. Dr. Housroox. has made in - undertaking —a task, to * See this Journal, ea =r > Miscellanies. — _ 187 the undertaking of which, it is well known that he was-encouraged by the late Baron Cuvier, an individual who well knew i into what ele to direct the attention of his friends and pupils. — The author remarks in the preface of his first volume, “In no ee ment of American Zoology is there so much confusion as in Herpetology. This is to be traced partly to the earlier naturalists, partly to the practice of describing from specimens preserved i in alcohol, or from prepared skins. I have endeavored to avoid error in this respect, by describing, in every instance from the os animal, and often after a comparison of. mes individuals.” a The first volume contains an exttenlly tee essiay ¢ on n theo: 01 of Reptiles, and descriptions of the following species: Testudo Pol, mus, Emys hieroglyphica, E.. megacephala, E. Troostit, E. Muhlenbergit, ehiina sex-lineata, Anolius Carolinensis, Scincus lateralis, Bufo Ameri- canus, B. clamosus, Engystoma Carolinense, Scaphiopus solitarius, Rana halecina, R. palustris, R. sylvatica, R. ornata, Hyla versicolor, H. squi- ella, Coluber flagelliformis, C. meer noe C. a €. eryt mmus, C. abacurus. “The second volume contains the following species : Bays redonk! ensis, BE. terrapin, E. picta, E. guttata, E. serrata, E. rubriventris, E: reticulata, E. floridana, E. mobilensis, Salamandra dorsalis, 8. sytamet> rica, S. gutto-lineata, Trigonocephalus piscivorus, T. contortrix, Crota- lus delice: C. adamanteus, C. durissus, Elaps fulvus, Coluber erythro- gaster, C. fasciatus, ‘Heterodon platirhinos, Scincus erythrocephalus, Heterodon niger, Coluber getearyis, e. tarispiltus, C. punctatus, Cc. a@stivus, C. elapsoides. ‘We regret to learn that the first volume is nearly or quite out of print. It is to be hoped, however, that a second impression will soon be supplied. From the preface of the secodbd volume we perceive, that drawings are ready for the third volume,-which will er meninees sigh two vee béfore the — will be exhausted. d > Second Part to aes s Desstigites Measvabitd is now seein for the press, and will shortly be published by Wiley. & Putnam, of New York, and Grigg & Elliot, of Philadelphia. Tt is intended to em-— brace a view of the progress of the science since 1835, the year | in which the first part of the work-was printed. Rp. Bitipipe mouth for Oxygen and H; ydrogen. ite the late edition of Dr. Turner’s Chemistry, much credit is given to Prof. Daniell, of London, for the invention of a new jet to the compound blowpipe, which is calculated greatly to. increase the safety of that-apparatus. Mr. Daniell as also given an engraving and description of the same, in the Philoso- - phical. Magazine, Vol. Il, p. 57, 3d series. The jet, about 5 inches in length, is composed of two concentric tubes, each terminated by plati- # 188 Miscellanies. num; the gases pass through, one within the inner tube, and the other along the space between the two ; so that no mixture or communication can take place until they arrive at the outlet. There is another advan- tage attending this arrangement, viz. that-either of the gases can be made to surround the other, at pleasure; and.any quantity of the gases can be employed, and large masses of platinum can be melted. This jet was contrived by Professor Webster, of Cambridge, Mass. in 1824, who sent a drawing and model of it to Mr. Newman, the well known maker of philo- sophical instruments, in London, by whom a jet was’made and sent over, which Dr. W. has continued to use in his lectures and on all occasions, ever since, with perfect safety. A jet, on the same principle, was previ- ously devised by-Dr. W. and figured in his Manual of Chemistry, edit. 1 and 2, “This-was wholly of brass, and made by Dwelle, of Boston. Al improvement was made by introducing one of the gases into the end of the central tube, instead of the side. 13. Analysis of the Mineral Waters of Avon. By Samuel Salisbury, Jr. M. D. 1838.—The sulphureous waters of Avon, Livingston County, N.Y. have long been known and were used even by the aborigines, in ¢u- taneous disorders. Of late, they have been much frequented by the pont, of valetudinarians, who resort to similar places for health and p and in many diseases they have proved to be of the most decided ater _ Dr. Salisbury, who is a resident physician at Avon, has devoted him- = self to studying the chemical, constitution and medicin: qualities of these He finds their temperature not above 45° to Be which is about the usual temperature of wells and springs in that climate. The chemical tion eee “Tower spring,” as it is called, from its position, “ is by n 8000 pa phurie acid, 493, carbonic acid, 1.36; ; nitrogen and | oxygen, . 272; chlorine, ae; sulphuric acid, 10.116; carbonate of lime, 4.08’; lime, 3.86 ; soda, 84; magnesia, 2.31 ; spe- cific gravity, 10.018. Arranged so as to form the compounds existing in this bi se and cal- culated for 10,000 parts by weight, are— —_. Carbonate of lime, united to carbonic acid, —- Chloride of calcium, —__- » Bist of lime, - a magnesia, - * soda, - dit ih Ina volume of 10,000 parts, are— ASE acids «. c's; | re ois Note—The chlorine is assigned to calcium, as th oftener found in those waters which contain but little saline matter. There remains .006 sulphuric acid, apparently in excess, which is accounted for by the difficulty of separating, accurately, magnesia from the other earthy salts. The quantity of carbonate of lime considerably exceeds the equiv- alent quantity of carbonic acid, necessary to render it soluble in pure water, and this fact affords a probable explanation of the character this ” water exhibits, when tested by colored papers.” _ The “ upper spring” seems not to differ essentially from the. lower. In sensible properties, it bears a close resemblance to it : but there is a peculiar sweetness of taste, which distinguishes it. The deposit around it is mostly of a dark blue color, while that of the lower spring is hase It rises about sixty rods east of the other, aid is at an elevation considera- __ bly above it. The bed of sand, eagle which this water oozes, is about twenty feet, and the rock about thirty feet below the surface of the ground. One gallon from this spring, according to Prof. Hadley, of the institution of Fairfield, Herkimer County, New York, was found to contain the fol- sanida substances, and peers in the ein proportions, viz. - Carbonic acid, - exi0g GBs subio jechen Hydreabiphesie acid, - osteo; gs piss teas 8 eeinte of lime, - 2 «woe B& grt, “5 ett: i “apagenaia, Lgitel ye! rete t EDs or: SS “ ac soda, m te 16. “ Carbonate of Littioy il ee netgeealpets Chloride of sodium, - - 18.4... : And a small quantity of other matter. There are other springs in the neighborhood, but their qualities are essentially the same as those quoted. The geology of the vicinity is said __to be bituminous shale, upon transition limestone. Iodine and bromine . have not yet been detected in the constitution of these waters; but it is factory evidence of their containing iodine. re ne oe Rn ee 14. A “Treatise on Gems, in reference to their pete od scientific value. A useful guide for the Jeweller, Lapidary, Artist, Amateur, Mineralogist, and Chemist ; accompanied by a description of the most interesting American gems, and ornamental and architectural materials By Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger. New York, 1838.—The title of this work embraces a very correct idea of its contents. Dr. Feuchtwanger has col- lected-a great amount of information, drawn from many sources, in addi- tion to his own experience, both in regard to the scientific character, com- mercial value, history, and antiquity, not only of the gems, properly Se) 2 oes al 190 Miscellanies. called, but of all substances, natural or artificial, which it has pleased the * fancy of mankind to esteem as-objects of personal ornament, and which are usually known by the name of precious stones. He gives a minute account of the preparation of pastes, or imitations of real gems, of the method of cutting and polishing all gems, and of the forms most suitable to enhance their natural beauty. The history of the diamond, the prince of gems, and by many esteemed a better standard of value than silver or gold, is drawn with much care, and is particularly wae viewed either as a scientific or practical account. . This book, taken in connection with that of Prof, N..F. Moore, of Co-— fein College, viz. “ Ancient Mineralogy, or an Inquiry concerning the Mineral substances mentioned by the Ancients, &c.” and noticed in this Journal, (Vol. 28, p. 188,) affords a very complete view of the history and antiquity i those gems and minerals er were known in the early periods of societ ~ Dr. F. has sidesivoved to TAduedideniner his. “$b, by giving an ac- count of all the principal American localities of precious stones, and ornamental: and architectural materials; with the hope of calling more attention to our internal resources of this nature. At the conclusion of the present treatise, it is announced that Dr. F. is to publish a “ Mrner- ALOGICAL Text Boos; for the use of schools, seminaries, and private stu- dai. This latter work is intended. not to be strictly philosophical, as it is the younger student, who wishes to be informed of dow t to collect, and to See ~ "ROP. S eciavshe afternoon of shanti propre thermometer i in Faint’. toi, in Cum berland, Md.,* about two o’clock, was at 102° of Fahr: ; it gradually. rosé to 104°; from about 3 to 4 o’clock it fluctuated from 102° to 106° y—and : at about 4 o'clock it rose to 107°, and then to 108°, where it remained at 5 o'clock. One of the gentlemen then removed it from its against one of the pillars of the piazza in the shade, to one in the direct rays of the sun,—it almost immediately rose to 126°, the highest gradu- ation of the tube, filled it entirely, and the ball was soon after burst. At Hancock, about 30 miles below, on the Potomac, at the same hour, the thermometer varied from 107° to 109°. You are yourself familiar with the Sarees at Black’s 8; it looks, I think, nearly north. » With ee — your. friend and servant, B. B. sows” SRG SEL SO at, POPS. Long. 77° SW — | | | : i} Bg eee or — “ae, eo, sen bois . “SR i ee Ph, = ih a at* Miscellanies. 191 16. Evidences of diluvial-currents—petrifactions—metallic models of shells, To Prof. Suoman & Son: Gent.,—Herewith I send you speci- mens of the surface rock in this vicinity. The Jarge slab, containing chert, was taken from the village of Black Rock, about four miles north of this city. -The grooves at this locality, as determined by Mr. agen and myself, range, allowing for-variation, N. 28° 12 E You will perceive, that wherever a nodule of chert projects above a - surface, a ridge of the softer limestone has been protected, in some measure, from friction, which invariably, at this locality, as well as at the Black Rock quarry, one and a half miles distant, point in a southerly di- rection. Some parts of the surface rock, where this slab was ‘procured, present this phenomenon much more perfectly; the nodules of chert often having a semi-circular depression worn into the rock on their north- ern sides, opposite to the projecting ridge. I regret that such a specimen could not be procured, as the strata on which ey occur are from one foot - to one and a half feet in thickness. Can proof be more conclusive, that these siatie and eietithiens were produced by gravel stones and boulders, swept over the surface of the Tocks by currents, tides, or waves, which flowed from the north? - I also send a smaller slab, somewhat polished. It one about half a mile further north, but as no marks appear : could not determine precisely the course from which the water flowed. | At Black Rock quarry, where a large surface has been uncovered for the purpose of procuring materials to construct the breakwater, outside of Buffalo harbor, the grooves range N. 15° 32’ E. The friction there has been equally powerful; but as the rock consists almost entirely ge chert, ise —— pointing towards the south are less prominent. Talso put into the box a piece of weathered chert, from which short car- scant of lime has been decomposed. The workmen here sometimes call this “chawed stone.” I add also some madr , and metallic casts of two mesa enaperen te — ere: ‘able en A — single specimens. Hoping that the box and its contents will 7 2 acceptable, I yestiaies, yours truly, &e. : Geo. E. Haves. The box was highly aicepiniie, cone as the proofs of powerful and lasting diluvial action are decisive on the slab of limestone, as well as on the pieces which we have recently seen at Buffalo, in the poegneson of Mr. Haskins and Dr. Hayes. —Eprrors. 17. The American Almanac, and Rapesiloty Ff Useful): Knowledge, for the year 1839. Boston, Chas. Bowen. Vol. 10.—This valuable work, for the ensuing year, has been forwarded to us by its Editor, Mr. J. E Worcester. ‘To it is appended a general index of the last ten volumes, 192 Miscellanies. : which will render the valuable statistical information contained in them, very available. The astronomical department is still under the conduct of Mr. Paine, and is, as usual, able and accurate. 18. Green Feldspar and | Galena—The green feldspar of Beta, mentioned in our last, was discovered by Prof. Webster, not by Dr. - Cornelius, as stated, together with zircon, and described in the Boston Jour. of Philos. Vol. Ist. A vein of Galena*has just been discovered at — Mass; : 19. Fossil Fishes in the red sandstone of New Jersey. — Professor Gale, of the New York University, has found fossil fishes in the sandstone of New Jersey, near its western margin in Morris County. The existence of these fossils seems to have been long k the vicinity. The principal specimen obtain be a species of the Palaoniscus, of Agas nd _ with one of the Palaonisci, found at Middletown, in the state of cach : ety 20. United States 5 South Sea Sueigitan and Exploring Expedition.— The squadron entrusted with the execution of this important national enterprise, sailed from Hampton Roads, Norfolk, Va. on the evening of Saturday, August 185: 1838... _ The results of this noble undertaking will, we doubt not, prove of the greatest value to the cause of science and to the nautical and commercial interests of the nation, and highly creditable both to the members of the expedition, and to the government, which sends it forth. ‘The officers of the various vessels, and the members of the s corps which — apanies them, are gentlemen of ample quiliioaiiona’ om ‘the arduous and honorable duties assigned to them; and the auspices under which the expedition is finally dispatched, are highly propitious. ‘The enterprise has excited a deep interest in the mind of the nation, and all embarked in it depart with the kindest wishes of theif countrymen, for their prosperity, and for their safe return, in due time, 10 their kindred and their homes. We annex an account of the vessels comstihisting the squadron, with a list of the officers and of the gentlemen of the scientific corps. The Vincennes, is a first-class sloop of war, -of 650 tons, commanded by Charles Wilkes, Esq. Commander in Chief ofthe Expedition. A light spar deck has been put on this ship, which gives her the appearance and some of the conveniences of a small frigate. Her battery is reduced to 8 guns, and she carries about 150 men. The Peacock, commanded by William L. Hudson, Esq. is a second-class sloop of war, of 600 tons, and of the same construction. She carries 130 men and 8 guns. The store- ship Relief, peacearmingot K. Long, Esq. is of 450 tons burthen, ‘and carries 75 men and 6 guns. ‘The brig Porpoise, commanded by Lieut. Cadwallader Ringgold, is of 200 tons burthen, and carries 65 men and 4 guns. ‘The schooner Sea Gull, commanded by passed midship- man J. W. E. Reid, is of 110 tons, and carries 15 men. The schooner Flying Fish, commanded by passed ppidalpinns Samuel R. Knox, is of 90 tons, and carries 12 men. The Slowing i is a list of the officers, &c. - VINCENNEs. —Charlés Wilkes, Esq. Commander in Chief; Thomas T. Craven, Ist Lieutenant ; Overton Carr, Flag do.; Robert E. Johnson, 2d do. ; James Alden, 3d do. ; William Lewis Mukéry, 4th do. ; James H: North, Master ; Edward Gileheiet: Fleet Surgeon ; R. R. Waldron, Parser and Special Agent; J. L. Elliot, Chaplain ; John L. Fox, and John T. Whittier, Assistant si = cpanl George M. Totten, William Rey- nolds, William May, and Jose . Sanford, Passed Midshipmen ; George W. Clark, Midshipman ; § el Elliott, Acting Midshipman ; William Smith, Boaunvein: W.G. Bright, Gunner ; William M. Laighton, Car- penter ; S. V. Hawkins; Sail ‘Maker ; ; Benjamin Vanderford, Pilot; R. P. Robinson, Purser’s Clerk. - Scientific Corps.—Charles Pickering and J. P. Couthouy, ET He Joseph Drayton, Artist ;.J. Bracken nridge, - Assistant Eosmnints J. é Brown, Repairer of Instruments. 3 Pzacock.—William L. Hudson, Commanding ; Sante: P. Lee, Ist Lieut. ; William M. Walker, 2d do. ; Geo. F..Emmons, 3d do. ; Oliver H.. Ber, Ath do.; Thomas A. Budd, Master ; J. Frederick Sickels, Surgeon ; William Speiden, Purser ; -Sidas Holmes, Assistant Surgeon ; James B. Lewis, Passed Midshipman; Hunn Gansevoort, do. ; Henry Eld, Jr. do. ; George W. Harrison; do.; Wilkes Henry, Midshipman ; Wm. Hq. Hadzon, do. ; Thomas G. Bell, Acting Boatswain ; John D. Ander- a son, Acting Genter ; ; James Dibble, Acting Carpenter ; Sail Maker ; William H. Insley, Purser’s ‘Clerk. ~ Scientific Corps.—James D. Dana, Mineralogist and Getiogist Titian R. Peale, Naturalist ; Horatio E. Hale, Philologie Francis L. Daven- port, Interpreter. Revier.—A. K. Long, Counnilinn . Robert F. Rinciets hice’: ‘ A. L. Case, do. ; Joseph H. Underwood, back ; James C. Palmer, Acting Surgeon ; George T. Sinclair, Acting Master ; Alonzo B. Davis, Passed Midshipman ; Thomas W. Cummings, do.; James 'L. Blair, Midshipman ; James B. Harrison, Captain’s Clerk. Scientific Corps—William Rich, Botanist ; Alfred T. Agate, Artist. Porroiss.—Cadwallader i Commanding; M. G. L. Clai- borne, Ist Lieut.; H. J. Hartsein, 2d do. ; John B. Dale, 3d do. ; Charles T. B. Guillon; Assistant Surgeon ; Augustus S. Baldwin, Acting Master ; Simon F. Blunt, Passed Midshipman; George Colvooureesi, do. ; aT. W. eae =" Oliver Nelson, Acting Boatswain ; Amos For. XXXV.—No. 1. 25 194 Miscellanies. Chick, Acting Carpenter ; John Jones, Acting Sail Maker; William H. Morse, Purser’s Clerk. Scuooner Friyine Fisu. Kelton R. ee a Passed Midshireaseas ; George W. Hammersley, do. ; Richard Ellis, Acting Master’s Mate. _ Scnooner Sra Gown secgeeks W. E. Reid, Passed ae F, A. Bacon, Passed Midshipman ; Isaac Percival, Pilot. 21. Annals of Natural History, or Magazine of Zoology,. Botany, a Geology. Conducted by Sir William Jardine, Bart., P. J. Selby, Esq., Dr. Johnston, Sir W. J. Hooker, Regius Prof. of Botmy, Glasgow, and Rich- ard Taylor, Ff. L. Si—In Vol. 32 of this Journal we noticed, among other new Journals, the Magazine of Zoology, Botany, and Geology, conducted by the three fin names in the above list; and our readers have since then n often reminded of it, by our frequent quotations from its pages. The companion to the Botanical Magazine e has also become somewhat familiar to us, on this side the Atlantic, while the name of its conductor is here, as in the whole scientific world, inseparably associated with mod- ern botanical science. It was with regret that we learnt, that neither of these valuable Journals could be sustained singly, from the want of suffi- cient encouragement to meet the expenses of publication. It is, there- fore, we presume, with a view to mutual support, as well as concentration of talent and effort, that their editors have seen fit to unite them under @ new name, and to alter the time of publication from six to twelve times 4 year. They have, likewise, associated with themselves Richard Taylor, Esq. under secretary of the Linnean Society. We have not yet seen this new form of our former acquaintances, but there can be no doubt that it will sustain the same high position in its own departments, as each of the Journals of which it is composed did, previous to their union ; and it would seem strange if it should not rise above it. Presuming that oir readers would be glad of early information.on this point, we copy the contents of the first number, which was issued in March, from an adv ew which has reached us before the work itself, The price is 2s. 6d. per number. Contents.—I. On a new Oscillatoria, the coloring substance of Glas- lough Lake, Ireland... By James L. Decmmonp, M. D.—II. On the get- mination of Limnanthemum lacunosum. By Dr. GriseBacu. —Iil. Contributions to the Natural History of Ireland. By Wra11am Taome- son, Esq.—IV. On some new species of Quadrupeds, and Shells. By J. E. Gray, Esq—vV. On the Echinodermata. By L’Acasstz.—VI. On the Scottish Mollusca Nudibranchia. By Grorer Jonnston, M. D. —VII. Letters from Botanical Travellers: Mr. Cuming, Manilla; Dr- Schomburgh, Berbice ; Gardner, Brazil—Bibliographical notices -— Agassiz, Poissons @Eau douce d’Europe ; Plantes Cryptogames de France, ‘par. Deron: = der Pilze von L. Nees von Esen- Miscellanies: 195 beck und A. Henry.—Societies :—Proceedings of the Linnean Society ; Royal Society of Edinburgh; Entomological Society ; Botanical aes $ Zoological Society.—Mi: pciileaiaict: oe ‘ 22. Analysis of Gielinite or Hydrolite ; by A. ConneELL, Esq., F R. S. E., &c. (Jameson’s Journal, No. 48, p. 360.)—Mr. Connell finds that 17.67 grs. of this mineral from the County of Antrim, in Ireland, are composed exclusive of water of : ili Silica, - - - _ 8581 Alumina, - Sua = 3.19 Lime, - - = 1.084 a, ~ . . .682 Potash, - - - 069 a Oxide of iron, - - 02 13.626 To determine the qunatity of water, a portion of the crystals was igni- ted in a platinum crucible, and Shurcoal fire, when the loss of weight amounted to 21.66 per cent. We have thus, in 100 parts of the mineral, : Oxygen contained. Silica, = - 48.56 : Ss . Alumina, -— - ~ 18.05 8.430 3 Lime, ae 6.13 1.721 Soda, - - 3.85 984 | . otash, : ‘ 39 = 06 Oxide of i iron, . mS —, Water, - ~ « 21.66 19.253 7 98.75 Tt safiictently appears, both from the satelyile of Vauquelin* and from that here detailed, that this mineral is nearly allied to chabasite, in a - chemical point of view,°as according to Mr. Haidinger,? it is crystallo- Braphically ; and it is not impossible that if analysis applicable to differ- mula for chabasite might be found to embrace gmelinite. It does not, however, apply to the nie —- and still less to — Vauquelin. ¢ eh: Four peace, a — Montecchio Maggiore. Castel. Silica, - . : 50.00 ~ §0.00 Alumina, - - 20.00-" 20.00 Lime, - - - 4.50 4.25 Soda, . pect GO 4.25 Water, - - - . 21.00 21.00 100.00 98.50 + Mohs’s Mineralony. fig, 195. present day is exclusively 196 Miscellanies. The formula indicated by the above result i is, (CNK)S 3-+-3Al1S? oe ; view, than ‘Pathabeaite * and that in gmelinite, bisilicate of alumina is a with tersilicate of lime and alkalies; in chabasite with bisilicat and in levyne with silicate of these bases, as appears from the formule : (CNK)S3+43Al S?+7Aq. Gmelinite. (CNK)S?2+3Al S?-+6Aq. Chabasite. ~ (CNK)S +3Al S*+5Aq. Levyne. » Mr. Connell continues to remark, I have much less expectation that “the chabasite formula will ever be found to embrace levyne, because the proportion of silica and that of alumina, actually found in the latter min- eral, differs in a marked manner, and in opposite directions from those in chabasite ; while in gmelinite, the difference is much less ae still excluding the chabasite formula. 23, Prof. Owen on the Fossil Animals collected by Mr. ¢ Cassius Dar: win, (from the Zoology of the voyage of H. M. 8. Beagle during the years 1832 to 1836. Part first. Fossil Mammalia.) —“ It is remarkable that all the fossils collected by Mr. Darwin belong to herbivorous species of mammalia, generally of a large size: The greater part are referable to the order which Cuvier has called Edentata, and belong to that subdi- vision of the order (Dasypodide) which is terized by having perfect and sometimes complex molar teeth, and an external osseous and tessu- _ lated coat of mail. The megatherium i is the giant of this tribe, which at the tec ei — American species, the lar- ; Gigas, Cuv;) not not ex size of a hog. -'The hiatus between the living species and the smeganereme is filled up by a series-of armadillo-like animals, indicated more or less satisfactorily by Mr. Dar- win’s fossils, some of which species were as large as an ox, others about the size of the American Tapir. The rest of the coligction belongs, with the exception of some small Rodents, to the extensive and h neous order Pachydermata; it includes the remains of a mastodon, of a horse, and of two large and singular aberrant forms, one of which con- nects the Pachydermatous with the Ruminant order; the other; wit which the descriptions in - ee pages commence, manifests a close affinity to the Rodent ord The first fossil animal aa by Prolessar Owen is named Toz0- an Platensis, which he describes as a gigantic extinct mammiferous — animal, referable to the order Pachydermata, but with affinities to the * Lond. and Edinb. Phil. pee SE ee | Miscellanies. 197 Rodentia, Edentata, and herbivorous comer. From the dimensions of scribed is named. Macrauchenia Pal Ww quadruped, referable to the order Pashyéerioste ‘but with affinities to the _Ruminantia, and especially to the Camelidew. This is a very beautiful piece of investigation, and proves the singular address and skill of our author »—for, furnished only with a few bones of the trunk and extremi- ties, without a fragment of tooth or of gy ter to serve as a guide to the animal’s position in the zoological scale, he has been able to refer it to its place in the system — Edinb. New Phil. Jour. for April, sarees 24. Povemtation of. the Wollaston Medal.—TheWollaston M a a? the last year has been presented to Prof. Richard Owen by the Geolo- gical Society of London, on which occasion the President, Me. Whewell, expresed watt in the following terms : “Mr. Owen,—I have peculiar pleasure in presenting you with this medal, Sreuied to you by this Society, for your services to fossil zoology ie. general, and in particular for the description of the fossil a collected by Mr. Darwin. I trust it will bea his our testimony of the success .with which you have Wetted cs re great science of comparative ‘zoology, to which you have devoted your powers. I trust it will add to your satisfaction, to consider, that the sub- ject. which we more peculiarly wish to mark on this occasion,—the study of fossil zoology, is one to which the resources of your science were ap- plied, while the subject was yet new, by that great man, John Hunter, whose museum and whose reputation are so worthily assigned to your care, I trust also that this medal, thus awarded to you, at the outset, if I may so say, of an enlarged series of investigations, will convey to you the assurance, that in your progress in such researches, you carry with you our strong interest in your endeavors, and our high esteem of your powers and your objects; and will convince you, that in all your suc- cesses, you may reckon upon our most cordial sympathy in the pleasure Which your discoveries ae "Ed. New Phil. Jour. April, 1838. 25. On the opi of Motion in 1 Railway Cars which is consistent with safety —Mr. Sang, F. R. 8. E. &c. &c. of Edinburgh, in a late number of Jameson’s Journal gives as the results of his observations on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, that a speed much greater than the present twenty five miles per hour, may be used with safety. The. question is, whether with a velocity of three or four times the usual rates, the engineer can preserve perfect command of the powerful Iscomhotives . Mr. Sang remarks, that “with the velocity of twenty five miles an hour, even when exposed to the current of air, there was not 198 Miscellanies. the slightest approach to any feeling that would lead me to suppose that four or five times the _ Velocity would disable the engineer from direc and managing the train. Such was the result of my own observations, and it was — borne = by the experience of the men. I may cite two instances o! urrence. When the train arrives at the foot of ; of one of | 6 inc inclines, the banking engine follows to assist it up. Now _ one would be apt to imagine, that for the purpose of attaching the new engine, the train would stop, or that if it did not, there would be a con+ € cussion when the banking engine comes in contact. So completely how- ever are these powerful engines under the control of their directors, and so well are they managed, that a passenger in the train who is not aware of what is going on from ocular perception, is altogether unconscious of any change. I frequently watched this operation, but on no occasion could T perceive the slightest shock, even when situated only one or two es from the end of the train Jn one occasion the banking engine had got before us on the incline ; 0k king of it on in such a situation was a much severer't test we ae we : o fally | twenty five smile an hour. The banking engine aioe ekched its rate and allowed the train to gain upon it, until it could be hooked on,—that done, more steam was given and we pro- ceeded d with its assistance, yet not the slightest shock was felt in the train. Twenty fi five miles an hour is ry 1 rand again I saw bees not merely keep pace with 7 d across the coach, and that not by help of any current air which Sr might be supposed generated, but : at several feet distance from the train. ~ imens of la grandis kept up with us over half a mile; while ‘the smaller birds, such as the linnet, were una- ble to cope with the steam. One I almost caught, which while flying with all its might, remained opposite to the window for a few seconds. If a rail road be regarded only as a means of communication between two distant towns, I should have no hesitation in saying that a rate even of _ one hundred miles per hour could be maintained with perfect safety to the passengers ; but it is different if passengers have to be let out at sta- tions along the line, for then the trouble and expense of stopping the trains. comes to be considered, An average of about three minutes is consumed by hyd de including the gaboning and regaining of spect before and the power of managing the apparatus is = made a :. ha g "WR. Ou the Gases contained. in the Blood, etd on. Respiration; = My G. Macnvs.—M, sed ne remarks —_ t remains a question whether oA of a part of the ye. | * Miscellanies. carboti in the blood by the action of the it oF ates 6 venous blood, when it reaches the organs of respiration, cor carbonic —-= ready prive the gas of any carbonic acid which it bi dight contsinl when it gave no precipitate with lime water he passed it into the blood ofa Ayer man ; the gas afterwards made to go through lime water gave a plentiful » precipitate of carbonate of lime. Azotic gas similarly employed produced _ alike effect; and M. Magnus concludes, from these experiments, that carbonic acid exists ready formed in the blood, and consequently that it is not formed in the lungs. Carbonic acid was also separated from blood ¥ by means of the air-pump. | By using Liebig’s apparatus M. Magnus found that blood coutainel about one fifth of its volume of carbonic acid gas, and when it had been kept twenty four hours, without emitting any bad smell, the quantity was larger. The results were confirmed ca employing atmospheric air wa _ stead of hydrogen gas. me. a M. Magnus then ascertained nas nature and proportions of all ‘the gaseous contents of the blood. He found = one | d volumes. the arterial blood of a horse yielded eas eee = Pa Carbonic acid gas, - ~ . Oxygen, ise se Azote, Be 1 - . ox ete = Total, 7.84 7.84 vols, The venous blood of the same horse, drawn four. Mays afterwards, gave Carbonic acid gas, - 4.29. 7. iat » >) .q, Oxygen, - - . : ome Azote, is why * animals, amount (0. about one eighth or one tenth of the quantity em- F - ployed. He admits however that the experiments are not absolutely pre- 2 cise, because they were not all continued the same length of time, &c. But he observes, that as the proportions between the oxygen and carbonic acid are invariably the same, these results may be regarded as satisfactory. ~~ With regard to the theory of respiration, all experimentalists agree as the carbonic acid expired and of _ ” Miscellanies. devine, merely in the formation of carbonic acid in the win there are chemists whose results show that more oxygen is inspired than car- bonic acid expired.’ Messrs. Allen and Pepys observed that. this was constantly the case when the same air was repeatedly respired. Magnus adds, that this fact, so inexplicable by other theories, | i ul e conseq uence of the hypothesis founded on the law, that plicable as the preceding, namely, that by the respiration of oxygen, or by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, azotic gas is constantly expired, the volume of which is proportional to the bulk te gree seep that it cannot at all be attributed to the air. It now remains to be shown that the carbonic acid exinitie® from the blood is in sufficient quantity to account for the whole of that which the lungs expire. The results obtained on this subject are discordant ; those of Messrs. Allen and Pepys evidently exceed what they should be ; for Berzelius has shown, that if correct, it would require six pounds and a quarter of solid Terms of credit to Saat —* , Six months from ee publication of No. 1, of each tolume, The Editor will draw on the aeesh: semi-annually, i. e. on the publication of WVo. 2 of each Vol., payable, April 1, and October 1, in al cases, where payment | is not otherwise provided ed: Co a _ now 33 vols., are furnished at a suitable diseoun Phe expense of this Journal being greater, and the patronage set than tha of the ial jonas the price is necessarily one dollar more per annum. : eons Semeenaneer oo —Q—— . S 06 CORRESPON DENTS. “This work is most safely and expeditiously transmitted to distant subscribers by. ‘mail. This oe contains 12 sheets; postage, under 100 gel IS cents, over 100 | i miles, 30 cen se ech = sf euadadicdiece and of their anthers, te be fall y give : S copies are desired, the notice should be — at bes hid of the < MS be sent of discontinuance, removals and ths of subseribers.. inscribed with any a ioe corrections. are necessarily defe ferred. ce f e a2: sass ee ia ab i ag A NO "ae ama aiden ao tne ari Bunce ie ‘ . € ven Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. HART and J AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. sore welts reins ete ae pees et teat CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. . Soc. See, Man, and Com. ; and F or. now Geol Prof. guess Min,, &c. in Yale © ante ope Mer AIDED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. Assistant in end department of Chemistry, Minera logy and Geology in Vale College; Sec. of the t. Hist. Soc., Mem. of the Conn. Acad. of Arts an Cor. Mem. of the Lye eum of Nites History, New Xa dec. VOL. XXXV.—No. 2.—JANUARY, 1839. FOR OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, AND DECEMBER, 1538- PUBLISHED AT NEW HAVEN ON 12th rhe 1239. NEW HAVEN: ge ener CAREY & KMAN. LYFTELL.— Baltimore, Md., oadway, aia . : SILLIMAN, No. 44 G. & C. can & No. —_ y ee — Boston, C _ LITTLE I , SAME! Rae s.. ol 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS AND STRANGERS. Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books and hich are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and insertion. In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns ; to excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading the unintermitting pressure of labor,.and the numerous calls of our fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, with which they presume us to be acquainted. The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made dn these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective.— Eds. SCIENCE. Foreign. Ue on the Mineralogy and Geology of Nova Scotia, by Abraham Gesner, Surgeon, Halifax, 1836. From Neville Parker, Esq. Prancastort of the Literary sy Historical Society of Quebec, Vol. ILI, Part IV. From the Society. Address of the Duke of Sctssex, before the Royal ae Lon- don, Noy. 30, 1837. From Wm. Vaughan, Esq., London Researches on Heat, by Prof. J. D. Forbes, Edinburth. Third ean — the Author. Forwarded by the kindness of Mr. The seth Bridgewater Treatise, by Chas. Babbage, Esq. Sec- ond edition. London, J. Murray, Albermarle st., 1838. From the Author ’ 1 2 Icones Plantarum: figures and descriptions of new or rare plants, by Sir William Jackson Hooker, K.H. London, 1838. From the Author. Part IV. - Kongl. Regen 5 eg. Saki Handlingar For a 1836. Stock- holm, 1838. From Jac. Berzeli us, K. V. A. Secr Arsberattelse om “po aes i Fysik och Kemi, Mar. 1836, af Jac" hee Stockholm, 1836. From the Auth m.Technologien, 1836, af G. E. Pasch.. Stockholm, 1836. From Prof. Berzelius m Zoologiska Arbeten, 31 Mart. 1835 och 1836, af B. Fr. Fries. Sob EnOIEE: 1837. Prof. Berzelius. —— om Botaniska Arbeten och upptackter. For Ar 1835, af Joh. Em, Wikstrém. Stockholm, 1837. Prof. Berzelius. — om Hydraulikens, af P. Lagerhjelm. Stockholm, 1837. Prof. Wherceli ius. Arsberittelse i Astronomien af S. A. Constrand. Den 31 Mart. Elements of Geology, by =— Lyell, Esq., F. R.S. Lon- | don, 1888. From the Aut The Fifth rishi — of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic So- ciety, 1837. Falmouth. From the Society. The Logs of the first voyage of the ery behing Steam Ship. Bristol, 1838. Two copies. From Phillips’ Introduction to Mineralogy, ne Bobert Alla Fourth ition. London, 1837. Domestic. Holbrook’s North American Herpetology. Two vols. quarto— lates. Dohven, Philadelphia, __ Treatise on Gems, by Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger. New York, 1338. Fics the Author. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. VI, new series. Phila. 1838. Kay & Brother. From the Society. he same, from Isaac Lea, Esq., containing his observations on the Genus Unio, = descriptions of new genera and species in the family Naiades, Report on the Gebnna s Creek Coal and Iron Company’s lands, with a description and eee of part of the Cumberland Coal Basin, 1836. From the Author Olmsted’s Natural Philosophy, Qd err enlarged. 2- vols. 8vo., New Haven, 1888. From the Author American ae Vol. X, Boston, 1939. From J. E. Worces- ter, Esq., E Analysis = “~ Mineral Waters of Avon, N. Y., 1838, several copies. From Dr. Sal lisbury. On the influence of Caloric on the living Animal Body, by Robert Peter, M.D. From the Author. 3 Report of the Chisistiet on Nava] Affairs, on the Project of Dr. H. H. Sherwood, for determining Latitude and Longitude by the Me ea and Dip of the Magnetic Needle. From Hon. N. P. allmadge—another from Hon. J. Davis. The Cultivator, for i888. From Hon. Judge Buel, Editor. The Annual Report of the Water Commissioners, New York, 1838. From Mr. Redfield, Catalogue of Plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukie, Wiscon- sin. From J. A. Lapham, Author Faith ets life of Science—an Address before the ®. B. K. of Un- ion College, by Taylor Lewis, Albany. From the Society. © ransactions of the American Philosophical Society, Phila. His- torical and Literary, Vol. VII, Du Ponceau on Chinese Writing. From the Author. Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid, by and from J. K. Mitchell, } Report of Prof. Shepard on the Missouri Iron Mountains. Au- hor First and Second Reports of the progress of the Geological Sur- vey of the State of Virginia for the years 1836-7, by Prof. Wm. B. ogers. From the Author. Report on the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, second edition, by Pro f. Henry D. Rogers. From the Author. Philad. 1836. Catalogue of Philosophical and Chemical Apparatus for sale by Joseph Wightman, 33 Cornhill, Boston. From Mr. J. Wightman. Mr. Pickering’ s Eulogy on Dr. Bowditch. Two 3d one for the Seo Academy. From Mr. Pickering. Boston, 1838. lorida. From Col. Whiting, Detroit. bach aitions on the Le Motte Mines and Domaine in Missouri. Melos es 1838. From Forrest Shepherd. al of Conchology, by Thos. Wyatt, M. A.—Many plates. Philad. “1838. From the Author. eo aoerty of the ans Unionidae, or Naiades of Lamarck, by N 0, 11, two copies in exchange. From Mr, Dobe meeetater . The Science of Geology, from the Glasgow Treatises, with addi- ‘sone First American edition. New Haven, 1838. B.& W. Noyes. 3 copies, (two from the publishers, one from W. C. R.) Prof, Shepard’s Address before the Horticultural Society in New Haven. From the Author. MISCELLANEOUS. Foreign. Annual Report of a eae Education Society, Canton, China, 1838. From Dr. Par A Seventh Quarterly Report of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton, by Rev. P. Parker, M. D. From the Author Medical Missionar ‘Society i in ae From Dr. Parker Labora Sree London From William Vaughan, Esq. stituti nd By Laws aft i dwich Island Institute, 1838. Re rt of the Canada Sunday School Union. Domestic. - Catalogue of Oficets and Students of Wabash College. Harvard Univer., 1838-9. S:F. Plimpt Clislosve “of the Collegiate Department of the University of Pennsylvania, Philad. Prof. Parkes Catalogue of Columbia College, New York, from 1758 to 1836. Prof. Renwick Catalogue of Dartmouth College for 1888-9. Hanover, N. H. r. Lord. Catalogue of New Hampshire Medical Institution, Dart. Coll., for 838. Prof. Hu Catalogue of the heological Depriment 3 in Yale College, 1838. 44 — Reserve College for 1838-9. From ae a TGicites of the Medical College of Louisiana of 183 Annua SS sn hae of Jefferson Medical College, Philadel oS “9. » Fee Home Mission Society. Toth Annual Report. From the Soc. _ American Bible Society. 22d Annual Report. Letter to the Willard Rpocation of Tagg N. ¥Y., by and from Mrs. Willard. Report of the Executive Committee of the American Tempe- rance Union, 1838, Philad. From Rev. J. Marsh. Refutation’of Charges made by Dr. Caldwell against Prof. J. C. ross. From the Author. Twenty second Report of the Directors of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Hartford, Conn. 1838. me =. A ee © ese 5 Message from the Governor to the General a of —* vania. Harrisburg, en From Gov. Rita : Sachem’s Wood, a poem, by JA A. Hillbouse. Author. Thos. Williams’ ‘Contehiadl Sermon, preached 1836. From Mr. Williams. Christian Examiner and General Review, No. 87, Saly, 1838, containing a notice of Geological Surveys. Medical Education, and Address before the Medical Society of Tennessee, by Dr. Yandell. From the Author. Report of the First American Fair at Cincitnstl Ohio, with an Address by E. D. Mansfield. From Mr. Mansfield. Internal Improvements in the State of N. York, by H. O'Reilly. An Address before the Cuverian Society of Wesleyan University, aldol Conn., by Prof. William H. Allen. From the Author. Report of F. R. Ha ssler, Superintendent of the fabrication of Seantara: Weights and Measures. Senate, No. 500. Two copies, aaa Mr. Hassler. ort of F. R. Hassler, oe crintendent poo Sova Coast —s Sahat NO. 79. — Mr. "2 copies. we SPECIMENS. A box of Peat Earth. From Rev Linsle), Seratford eo small box of African Shells. hom Dr. Bienges 0 of ‘Middle: wk box of eae casts of Ornithichnites, and Peat. From Prolef Hitchcock, Amherst, Mass. A mass ‘of Mineral Tar, from the bitumen sigs Trinidad, From Dr. Van Buren, Trinidad, by the hands of os Botanical and other ht illustrative of the Natural et of Florida. From Col. Whiti a ty ae A box of fresh water Shells, for the Yale Natu: ' From Mrs. L. W New York. ve : WiWetivins. Domestic. Daily Buffalo oe No. 770. Contains Mr. J. S. Bucking- ham’s verses on Niag ew k Sad Tuy 13th, 1838. “ Antiquities unearthed.” C. J. Lynde. “The Country Advertiser. Petersburg, Va. Several Nos. Elizabethtown Republican. Jan. 2 : Connecticut Common School Rcdiat Nos. 1 to 6. H. Bar- rd. nard, Esq. 6 Louisville Gazette. Eight Nos.; containing geological notices by J. W. New York Common School Annual. Daily Chronicle. Augusta, Ga. No. 170. J. H. Plant. - New York Transcript. Vol. 7. No. 111. Mr. Holebrook’s sys- tem of education. Several papers on the affairs of the New York University. From G. S. Silliman, Esq. Albany Daily Advertiser. July 4th, 1838. Lines on 4thof July. From J. S. Buckingham, Esq. Eng Boston Patriot. August 25th, 1898. Eclipse of the sun. Troy Daily Morning Mail. 319. Genesee Farmer. Rochester, N. Y. No. 41, Vol. 8. W.- ne es Mercantile Journal. Vol. 6, No. 28. N. Capen Buffalo Conimercial Advertiser. Aug. Ist. 1831. Contains @ notice of this Journa].—Also Daily Journal, with notice of aurora of 13th of Sept. and following nights. Buffalo Patriot and Commercial Acer ache Nov. 28, 1838. With notice of a. Journal. Vol. 35, Do. do. ‘din Dec. 15. With a notice of diJuvial strsichok e same, of Dec. 24th. With extracts of proceeding of the French Academ The same, of whe. 27th. With do. do. The above five all from Mr. R. W. Haskins. Harrisburg Chronicle, of Dec. 5th, 1838. No. 55. Do. No. 59. The Keystone, of Dec. ee Pennsylvania Telegraph, pxiry Dec. 6: all from Mr. N. Ellmaker ; containing accounts of the re eedings at Harrisburg, with the proclamation of the gover- nor of Pennsylvania. e Temperance Herald. Providence. Dec. 6th, 1838. Mississippi Free Trader, of Nov. 22d, 1838. Containing a let- ter on the Sada of Jussieua grandiflora, by and from Dr. Cart- wright of Natc Phil. Metnhex — Ris, ak 1 Notice of working _ jron by anthracite coal. From J. W. Robin “i salle Register, with Dr. “Amsvonss 5 Agricultural Address. Christian Statesman. Washi ington. I of the American Colonization Society. From R. Gurley Daily Courant. Hartford. Dec. 18th, 1838. Modes of Mr. J A. A. Hlhowse lecture. From Mr. H. Barnard. f Boston Independent Chronicle and Patriot. Jan. 5th, 1839. wo height of barometer. 31,'; inches on Tuesday, Jan. st, Ist, 1838. Meeting 7 Foreign. London Atheneum. Nos. 565-6-7-8. British Association of ie 1838. Received from Rev. Samuel Wood, Canterbury. ngland. Montreal Morning Courier. Nov. 6th, 1838. ada. London Morning Advertiser. Oct. 3d, 1838. Mr. Richardson’s geological lectures at Brighton. ardson The Ta Circular. Nos. 26 and 27. Wiley & Put New oe: ri sale by Wiley & Putnam. Account of Lord With a notice of From Mr. Rich- London. From AMERICAN INSTITUTION FOR THE CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE. The following Circular was received too late for insertion in the body of our nt number,—we accordingly, that no time may be lost, take this method of placing it before our readers : Boston, Novemser 1, 1838. - In consequence of communications between members of the AmErtcan Puiro- sopHicaL Society, in Philadelphia, and gentlemen in Boston, a meeting was held in the latter place, of gentlemen belonging to Boston, Salem, and the University at Cambridge, at which the proceedings were as follows : His excellency, Governor Everett, was requested to take the chair. Hon. Francis C. Gray was chosen coe, : The Chairman stated the objects of the meeting. Dr. W: offered and explained the ‘hiss following resolutions, which were _ eloquently supported by the Hon. Judge Story and other gentlemen, and unani- mously adopted. ‘1. Resolved, That it is expedient to form an Institution to be called the AmErR- ee Ma other scientific Beceem and to advance the: sbfeet of this meet- ing mire means in their power. Committee. Dr. Warren, Hon. F.C. G Gov. Everetrr DaniEL Shanasics Esq., Hon. JupeeE Story, Dr. Hae Joun Pickerine, Esa. An account of the proceedings at this ‘meeting is transmitted to you, eo = ‘e = obtaining y , that of seg scientific friends, and lee neesoiatious with which you & are connected, i By order of the Contaniéel JOHN - this Shject ‘ARREN, haiens a. wai a AMERICAN as JOURNAL OF SCIENCE » &e, ee pe = eg See ret - os ieee Se es ee " ite —i_lh a e ae i ane at Sag Piet i {~* mee : "a 3 ane Arr. 1—On the Courses of Hurricanes ; with notices of the Tyfoons of the China Sea, and other Storms ; by W.-C. ’ Reprieip, Memb. of Conn. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, Corr. ‘Memb. of U. S. Naval Lyceum, the Albany Institute, &c. i Seti for the London Nautical Magazine. ] : ; re a corm neeeaee published in‘ the. ape Magazine for April, 1836, I attempted to correct some errers which had obtained currency in nautical books, solitini to the supposed erratic character and progress of the hurricanes of the Atlantic. corrections Were* accompanied by a summary statement of the results which my inquiries 0 on this subject had aipeared to es- operation of a general law, controlling the action and ieee ok these violent storms. . The incipient essay now referred to, was illustrated by a chart containing delineations of the routes of two of these storms. = To my communication i in the a ata aoe: 1s 191—193; Blunt’s Am t, 12th eiitbn, July, 333, p- 62 529 man’s Journal, Vol. XXV, p- cris, Vol. XXVIII, p. 310—318, XX XI 130; ora 50—65 & 261--265; Jour. Franklin Inst. Vol. XIX Pp. 3; Am. Posat Pilot 13th edit. ; Jameson’s Edinb. Jour. Feb —Apri 1838, © The» writer had never contemplated the —— of any. of the observa- tions which = he puree meaity been led to make upon storms, till within a few ee of th h earliest of the Se i apers was sent to the press; Eocene? by the suggestions of .. friend Prof f. Olmsted, to attempt a Vou. XXXV.- —No. 2. * 202 On. the Courses of Hurricanes. which had been remarkable for their violence, and which were selected as illustrations of the general course and whirlwind char- acter of many other storms, ae to which — information — had-been obtained. The favorable attention with which fies’ statements have gen- erally been received, together with the spirit and professional zeal with which the subject has been discussed in the pages of the autical Magazine, have seemed to invite a more detailed exhibi- tion of the numerous facts which have claimed attention in the. progress of my inquiries. Being informed, however, that Lieut. Col. Reid, of the Royal Engineers, had engaged in the investiga- tion, with the design of publishing a more full exhibition of the facts than had yet been offered, I most willingly awaited the issue ; being fully persuaded, that whatever doubts or difficul- - ties Adiehit. remain with those who had not thoroughly exam- ined the subject, would not fail to be dispelled by his enterprising and- judicious labors. The highly valuable work of Col. Reid, on the law of storms, is now before me; and I cannot-but express my commendation of the talent and research by which he has so ably and satisfactorily exhibited the true natural system of humi- ‘canes, and my acknowledgments, also; for the honorable and very : saeSoting manner in which he has noticed my previous labors-’ — The mass of evidence and the numerous illustrations exhibited by Col. Reid, have happily left but little for me to attempt on the 0c few of the topicswhich your anonymous corres your pages’: and whom, as the subject has now become more gen- erally interesting, your readers will hope to meet under his © own proper signature. e This writer appears, at an earlier period, to icon assumed the hypothesis. that the hurricanes of the inter-tropical latitudes origi- nate in the variables or calm latitudes, which border upon the exterior limit of the trade winds. But in the reports of Lieut. of H. M. Steam Packet Spey, and in other aca ge ent of his observations ; and it is owing chiefly; perhaps, to this cause, that several redundanci ies, and some suggestions on collateral points, require to be ex- 2 3 aa | 8 = e S it -8 a) 5 7 < tt mn & on 5 1831, but seed not be a applies to the conclusions or opinions which have : vaneed in he subsequent papers casion; and I proceed, Mr. Editor, to notice in a brief — signature of “Stormy Jack,” -has discussed in. = wh On the Courses of Hurricanes. 203 he thinks he finds evidence of a northerly or variable course, in the Barbadoes hurricane of 26th July, 1837; and also of a varia- ble or northeastern course, in-the Antigua hurriganoiof August 2d, 1837 ; or at least of a lateral movement or oscillation,.in the course ofchess hurricanes.* He also suggests that hurricanes may alter- nately dilate-and contract during their course The inquiries of Col. Reid, aided by his excellent charts and delineations; appear to have done much towards settling these questions, so far at Jeast as rélates to the particular storms referred to by your correspondent ; and it may be observed, that iri tracing the course or track of a storm, we must be governed by its regular geographical. developments or progress, rather than by any induc- tions from the directions and changes of the wind at a given place, grounded on the known whirlwind character of these storms. It is true that these imductions, if carefully made, will commonly harmonize, with wonderftil accuracy, with the actual course or path of the stornt ; but there are various sources of error, which may at times prihedil. us in our deductions, when made ftom a lim- - ited number of observations ; some of which eo be curso- rily noticed, - A. The reported Ghger tations are not always correct as to the point of compass from which the wind blows, and the changes ) which it exhibits, during the storm. This is not unfrequently the case with the reports of unpractised observers; or with observa- tions made in-the gloom of night; or in the tumultuous crisis of the hurricane, when the whole energies of the seaman are directed to-his more inimediate duties, and the preservation of his ship; and when in the darkness. and kotenpil of the storm, the swinging of the ship thav. sameti ken and reported for the irreg- ular veering of the wind. © Verbal or typographical errors, will also in the reports which are under conside- ition * and in some localities, an important difference between the magnetic and the true eo of direction, is ‘frequently con- founded, or unnoticed. ~2. The inductions in andetinit are isttlly made on the theory of an ‘exact circle in the course of the winds, which: in large storms, and for practical purposes, is, in most cases, sufficiently accurate. But it sometimes frais that the higher portions of _ the storm, overrun be inferior rseak ‘and reach the surface in ** See Nautical Magazine for cig. 1838, pp. 35—40. 204 On the Courses of Hurricanes. advance of the main storm ; ro presenting the wind, for a few hours, in a direction not nomiacheia’ with that exhibited by the main body of the storm. It may also be added, that in. the most violent of these storms, it is at least probable, if not cer- tain, that the course of the surface wind is. spirally inward, ap- proximating gradually towards the center of the storm. ~ - 3. At stations within the tropics, the changes of wind. during the passage of the hurricane, are sometimes known to exceed those which pertain to the passage of a regular circuit of wind; these changes sometimes running through the entire circuit of the compass, and even more. . Again, they have been known to shift back and forward, in alternate and fitful changes, when near the crisis of the storm. These phenomena, so far from dis- proving the rotative character of these gales, only prove some- thing more, and afford at least probable evidence, in support of one or both of the following positions, viz. 1. That, high land, and other obstructions, often produce sudden and fitful gusts and changes in these violent winds. 2. That, in accordance with our observations of minor vortices, the axis of rotation is often impelled, excentrically, around a smaller circuit, in the interior of the advancing storm. A. In the northern intertropical latitudes, the recession orde- parture of the southeastern limb of the storm, appears to be. fol- - lowed, not unfrequently, by strong squalls or gusts from south: — east, this being the true course of the general trade wind that nines the track of the storm. .'These gusts or squalls,.if taken for the regular action of the hurricane, may occasion erro- neous deductions in regard to the course of the storm. 5. In the latitudes near the exterior limits of the trade winds, the.change which here occurs in the course of the storm,: pro gees apparent irregularities or anomalies in the series of changes | extent in my estimate of the path of the first August hurri- ane of 1830, as delineated on my first published chart, with an irregular deflection of the curve on the coast of South Carolina, which was predicated, in part, on the wind setting in at northeast at Charleston, and veering to.southeast as the storm became more severe. 6. At stations * lee within the regular track of the storm, '. there will sometimes be an absence of violent wind ; or, tbe. S| “ nted by the wind. Owing to this cause I was misled to some: - On the Courses of Hurricanes. = 205 lence will pertain to only one of the-phases which the storm presents, in its regular course over suchlocality. This may usu* ally be accounted for, by the interposition of land within the course of. the immediate cireuit which the wind is found to’ pur- sue ; and this result i is. perhaps most obviously exhibited in the South Atlantic or in the Southern Ocean, near the Cape of Good Hope, where the. barometric column, not unfrequently, subsides and commences rising, before the full violence of the gale takes effect. — _ The barometer, however, appears always to indicate the true extent and path of these whirlwind storms ; and I have found no good grounds to infer, that a hurricane contracts in the width of its path, while sweeping upon the surface of an open sea, _ 7. Another source of apparent irregularity in the changes of wind in these storms, arises from the interposition of one storm upon the path of another, in their passage through the temperate latitudes. . Col. Reid has shown something like shia in the hurri- cane which overtook the. Castries , August 24th, 1837, which was evidently impinging upon the 7 path of the great hurricane which had previously swept along the American coast. "That of the Castries appears to have pursued a course similar to the- hurricane of October Ist, 1830, as delineated on my first published chart ; thus advancing; by a shorter course, into the path of the larger. hurricane, and-probably with a greater progressive velocity. Col. Reid justly urges the -influence of, these causes in producing the irregular winds of the higher latitudes. Of the influence of such interposition i in apparently arresting or modifying the regular de- velopment of a storm while in progress, I have for many years been convinced ; but it is due to Mr. Espy, of Philadelphia, to mention,. wats so far 7. ote _ was the first to serene the ——— racing cout ‘the path of iurrtaon we justly disc cory; and as the i tioh obtained of ‘their course a tent is. s cteteieae limited, and is acquired at different and tain periods, our delineations are, therefore, necessarily subject to minor errors and to subsequent corrections. Such corrections, I have ever found to be in favor of the uniform rotation and reg- ular course of progression, which have formerly been described. sr is probable, therefore, that the narrowed track, and somewhat oo: Journal of the Franklin Institute, Vol. xviu, a 1836, p. 239. ~ 206 = Hurricanes of 1838.—New Jersey Tornado of 1835. deflected courses, near the windward islands, of the Barbadoes hurricane of July 26,-and of the Antigua hurricane of August 2d, 1837, as laid down by Col. Reid, will ultimately prove to have been more symmetrical ;* and that the westerly recurvation of the track of the latter storm, across the shores of Georgia and Florida, to meet-the case of the gale at Pensacola, will give place to a regular continuation of the track in a northeasterly direction. Was the gale at Pensacola, on the 7th or 8th of August, an offset from the Antigua hurricane? or’ will it not prove to have — been another storm ? Although I deem it probable; Mr. Baitor, that: “your correspond ent will find oceasion to abaridon his former views of the sup- posed lateral motion of the main body of the hurricane, as well as its alternate contraction and dilatation, yet these views appear to be sometimes applicable, or, at least, partially so, to the avis or nucleus of the great whirling stratum which constitutes the hur- ricane. In the columnar whirlwinds, or water-spouts, also, these contractionsand dilatations of the diminished portion which sweeps _ upon the earth’s surface, are often made sufficiently evident. The suggestions of your correspondent, therefore, are very far‘from be- ing unsuited to the inquiry, and it is hoped that he will continue to-bestow his attention on such faets relating to these storms, aS may aid us in gaining further light upon the subject. For his commendations of my imperfect labors, he is desired to: accept my acknowledgments. In the further progress of the investiga- Soetes believed that he will find reason-to abandon all reliancé ‘Upon ‘ s’ or ‘local disruptions,’ in the great aerial page, as causes of the origin or eo rg of these ea peso Hurricanes of 1838. Two hurricanes of the present season, (1838,) appear to 5 init ow our investigation j;—that of the middle of June, in the North At- antic, and also that which swept the American coast, from Flor- a to Newfoundland, in the early part “of September. as and instructive.. New Jersey Tornado of 1835. At the late meeting of the British Association, when Col. Reid’s paper on storms was under discussion, Prof. Bache of Philadel- * Reid on the Law of Storms, Charts V. and VI. Those who have zeal for the padesabing; will find the jnaiy both in- ¥ Mr. Espy’s Theory of Storms. 207 phia, very properly referred to the opposing theory of Mr. apy; of that city, and stated, also, that in his own survey of the track of the water-spout, or tornado, which passed across the State of New Jersey in June, 1837, he had made. observations which ap- peared to accord with Mr. Espy’s theory of storms; and that he had found no evidence of a whirling motion at the surface of the ground, such as Col. Reid had ascribed to water-spouts and hur- ricanes. This view of the case Prof. Bache had also supported in an able paper on the phenomena of that tornado. I deem it proper ‘to state here, that having also examined the track of the New Jersey ‘tornade: within a few days of its occurrence, and having twice repeated the examination, at later periods, I have observed on each occasion, numerous facts which ¢ appear to de- monstrate the whirling character of this tornado, as well as the inward tendency of the vortex at the surface of the ground ; and further, that the direction of this rotation was towar ds the left, as in the North Atlantic hurricanes}—a result which I had not pre- ; viously expected, as it appeared probable that the direction of ro- tation, in these small whirlwinds, must be entirely accidental. This lends me to notice the only point, perhaps, on which my inquiries have led to a result differing from that obtained. by Col. Reid ; for in many cases of this sort} since examined, Ihave found the eotitse of rotation to be uniformly towards the left. Perhaps T should add farther, that having also examined with Some care, the reports of the meteorological committees at Phila- delphia, made through Mr. Espy, their chairman, and also the Meteorological essays of this gentleman, I have not been able to find evidence which disproved ‘the rotation of a violent storm, or that established-a course of wind from all sides of a storm: di- rectly towards its centre, im accordance with his eB but, on the’ contrary, an analysis of the evidence which Mr. E. has duced pattie with the additional facts which I have ea able. to sbiein,; has appeared to contravene his conclusions. “A val statement of facts relating to the snow storm which visited Péin- sylvania and other states on the 17th and 18th of March last, drawn up by Mr. Espy, has recently been published ‘by the Phila- delphia committees.* Should the facts contained in this. paper be — in favor of Mr. Espy’s theory, I would only say, that in * See Journal of the Franklin fiiitate, Vol. xx11, 1838, pp. 161-175. 208 Test of Mr. E'spy’s Theory. this, as in some of the former cases, the field of action of the whirl- wind storm will have-been in part mistaken. I would also re- mark, that the points at issue, do not relate to the common and often irregular winds, which, in different localities, accompany a general fall of rain or snow; or which sometimes attend the pro- — ot a whirlwind — exterior to si a ms Test of Mr. Flan: pocnel ~ The truth or error of Mr. Espy’ S theory may be. acetate i avery simple test. The hurricanes in the West Indies are known to move towards the, W. N. W. , nearly. Now, if this theory be : true, at those islands which are in’ the centre af the storm’ s path, and where the gale i is of the greatest duration, the wind will set in at about W.N. W., or exactly opposite to the course of the storm, and when its centre has passed over, will shift suddenly. to E. 8. E., and continue violent in this quarter till the storm is over. But if :* gale be a whirlwind, as the facts seem to show, the wind at such places will set in at about N. N. E., and in the middle. of the gale will shift nearly to 8. S. W. the wind varying from these points, and veering moré gradually, on either side, in propor- tion to the distance from the centre of the. storm’s track. “That this corresponds, mainly, to the facts of the case, will hardly be doubted by those who fretiends the i inquiry. - - The same test: ‘may also, be applied to ges storms as they move ina N. E. direction along the shores of the-United States ; ea according » to “Mr. ‘Espy’ S$ views, the gale, on the centre of its patl should blow, for the first part of its duration, from about N. E.; and in the second half, from nearly S. W.* But all our-inquiries serve to show, that the gale is violent at N. E. only on the northern portion of the track of the tempest, and that the usual changes from this direction, are not sudden, and to- an opposite point of the compass ; but, instead thereof, we observe a gradual veering, by the north, to the northwest. ~" ? a * Some storms, as Mr. Espy hae also bape = are peti in their de- velopment by the near approach of anot her storm. Care must be taken, therefore, not to mistake the N. E: wind of a storm whose northwest m oe is thus inter- * bordering storm, and which hence is sometimes followed by the natural current of air from the S. W. quarter, for the —— that pertain to the centre of the gale. } error is easily avoided by extending the field of er and by a due attention to ty the tadieasiode-af tha bacimater. ‘, Ei seh maa co? On the Courses of Hurricanes. 209 eo of the China Sea. It can hardly be doubted that the general course which is pur- sued by hurricanes, is the same as that of the general mass of at- mosphere or winds by which they are surrounded, and of which they form an integral portion. It becomes, therefore, a point of some importance in meteorology, to ascertain the true course of the hurricanes or tyfoons of the Asiatic seas. Should this course prove to be in conformity with the existing monsoons, this would be in accordance, it is believed, with the analogies in the tropical latitudes of the Atlantic ; at least, if we have regard to the entire stratum: of winds whieh lies below the common height of the clouds. But if the general course pursued by these storms, be the very same with those of the corresponding latitudes of the Atlan- tic, in which there are no monsoons, it may serve to show that ‘the westerly monsoons, which are opposed to the course of the regular trade winds, consist only of a misplaced or minor stratum of” current, which forms a thin layer of surface wind, less general - than that of the regtilar trades, and which is therefore inefficient in opposing the progress of a great hurricane ;—the latter. being impelled by the stronger and more general curfent of the regular trade wind; which is supposed to overlie, at all times, the stra~ tum of Piiaplaned current which forms the westerly monsoon. These remarks will apply equally to the monsoons of both - north and south latitude. Col. Reid has been fortunate in ob- taining full evidence of the opposite recurvation of a hurricane in South latitude, in open sea, and during the prevalence of the north- West monsoon ; a result whieh can hardly be too highly valued. This storm, however, (Culloden’s hurricane, of March, 1809,) was encountered to the: southward: of the limits of the northwest monsoon in the Indian ocean ; but ‘the hurricane of the. noticed by Col. Reid, was exposed to the full influence of this monsoon. It becomes important, therefore, to ascertain its pa in order that the influence of the monsoon upon its course rnaey be duly appreciated ; and we hope that its path may yet be ascertained. In regard to the northern hemisphere, Col. Reid has given us notices of several hurricanes or tyfoons in the Asiatic seas, with _ ho indications of a course different from those in the North At- _ lantic. The following generalization, grounded on independent 27 Vo AV .—No. 2. 210 , Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. evidence, was published by the writer in 1833.* ‘“ The tyfoons and storms of the China sea and eastern coast of Asia, appear to be similar in character to the hurricanes of the West Indies and the storms of this coast, [United States,}] when prevailing in the same latitudes.”. This remark was-made with special reference to both the rotative and progressive directions of these storms. One of the tyfoons noticed by Col. Reid, that of the Raleigh, which visited Canton, on the 5th and 6th of August, 1835, has been adduced, however, by the correspondent of the Nautical Magazine, as holding its course towards the southwest.} As this tyfoon had previously attracted my — it will now be made the subject of our examination. Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. The facts which have been chiefly relied on for establishing a - southwestern course for this gale, are contained in the report of H. M. S. Raleigh, which was overset and disabled in this gale, in the China Sea, when under bare poles: which report I have as follows: MB rig Raleigh. jue. 1,1 1835.—Working qutc of Macao Roads. —At noon, an Read of Grand Ladrone, E. 3 8.—Au , at noon, S. E. _end of Formosa N, 85 E., 340 miles ? fino weather all day —Aug. 34, at noon, S. end of. Formosa N. RE 1, 252 m ile es. Fine: weather all day. —Aug. "4th, 10h. 20m.a.m tone] D p.m m.—barometer fell from noon ve :-took in a na foresail ; -—at 1h. 30m. got all snug 5 ; vessel going ” through the water between 3 and 4 knots ; barometer , falling ;—at 7h wind veered to N sat 8 p.m. barometer 29.36, falling ;—8: om E.N: of ith veering to with a heav sea ;—at midnigh creasing ; barom, 29.04, falling. : —- mee eee * Aug. 5th—3 a. m: tyfoon veering round to E. S. E., still increasing in — —s 30m. barometer 28.25 ;—8 a. m. tyfoon increasing ;— 9h , if possible blowing heavier, ship went over :—In this aw- ful esate pete lay for about 20 minutes ;—9h. 50m- lower masts went oy the board and ship righted with seven feet water in her hold; barom- eter did not fall lower ;—at noon tyfoon moderated a little ;—at 6 p. ™. ty more moderate, with a heavy sea ;—midnight, strong gusts of wind Tie sea from south. ”°— Abridged from Canton Register of March __ See also the log of the Raleigh, as it appears in Col. Reid’s work, which contains a sketch, showing the position of the Raleigh, as Se eee ee oe -. * American Coast Pilot, 12th edition, p. 629. t See Nautical Magazine for May, 1837, pp.303--306.. | Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. 2 given in the log, and illustrating the direction of the wind. Col. Reid has also given the position of a schooner, which encoun- tered the tyfoon in lat. 18° 2’ N., lon. 115° 50’ E., of which I had . previously received no account. I will now submit such evi- dence as I possess, in addition to the account furnished by the Raleigh ; adding, also, a sketch and figure illustrating the course and - progress of the tyfoon ; and which was prepared and stereo- typed some months since, in reference to furnishing an account of this hurricane. At Macao, where the tyfooh was experienced on the 5th and 6th, many houses were greatly damaged ; also, many lives were Most i in the inner harbor, and some vessels driven on shore. The direction and changes of the wind at Macao are not stated ; but we are favored with the following valuable table of the state of the barometer during the period of the storm. * August Sth. Holy ames Barom. | h. m. Barom. bs maansy Barom, | Q@ 45 a. m.— 6 45 a, m. 29.12 1 00 a.m. 29.47 | 1.20...“ (lowest) 28.05 | 7 45 “ 29.20 230p.m. 2928/1 25 * 23.08) 815 “ 29.21 ao ”6—6UlU PlUh OO i 28.20; 845 “ 29.23 ae.‘ 20:12 | 1 85° -* - 23.30; 930 “ 29.27 9:00. 29.08 | 2.00 “ - 28,37 110 25. “ 29.30 10 20 “ 28.95 ;225 “© _ 2356/1100 “ . 29.34 10 45“ 28.90;245 “ 28.68 | 2 00 p. m. 29.42, — 28.85 |310 “ 28.75 |and continued rising to 11 36. * 28.76 | 3 40 “ 28.83 | 29.65, ‘at which point it lb 28651410 “ 90 | us ally Bevan: during August 6th. 445 “ 28.97 |fine ather.”*—Can Sisim” 25015 15 ™ 29.02 ton Rariter, Aug. 15. 030 “ 28.40 | 600 “ 29.08 | This table affords in itself good evidence of the passage of the Centre of the vortex near to Macao. At Canton, (60 miles north of Macao,) the tyfoon began on the evening of the 5th, after three or four days of very hot weather, with. northerly” winds, and continued throughout the night and the next day. Its violence was greatest about two o'clock on thé morning of the sixth.. The following is an ac- ee of the state of the barometer and winds at t Canton : : * This relates to “fine bea of rthe s. w. monsoon ; ng: mean of the barom- eter for July and August lms at Canton, 0.40 in. lower than for December and Janvary, i in the N. E. mo n. This barometer at Macao shitente to siand about 0.15 or 0.20 inch lower in ‘ths 5 Sidjoatnioat than that used at Canton for the reports in the Canton Register, the mean of which for five years is 30.027. Many, if not ‘Most of. the common ship barometers, stand too low in their adjustment. 212 Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. _ August 4th. 9 a.m. barom. 29. _ Wind N. W. ‘Fine wea eatin 4 p.m. 29.70 N. by W. Moderate breeze. August 5th. 9.8; m...t.*" 29.62 Wind N. and N. W. Fair Weather. eS ee ** unsettled—Rain and fresh breeze. _ i p.m. > 29.37 aE 5S og | hard and in heavy gusts. August 6th. P 2 lag 29. 34 Wind N. E. blowing hard with heavy rain. am =~ 9.51 ; Hava. = 09.58: S.E. blowing hard ;—moderating. & poem =a: 2990-5 & Be iho.m.:. was ." 8. E. , oe Aue cust 7th. 8a “29.94 Wind S. E. Cloudy. a ae From the Can- ton Bie On Wednesday the 5th inst. a Tyfoon swept over the city of Canton. It began in the evening and continued throughout the night and the next day, blowing its best about 2 o’clock in the morning. The damage done by the Tyfoon at Canton is small, but not so at Kumsingmoon, : ‘Macao, and elsewhere on the coast. —Canton Paper. The American ship Levant, Capt. Dumaresq, which arrived on. the 7th of August, the day after the gale, came in with royals set, from Gaspar Island, in fourteen days, having had light winds all the way up the China sea, and did not feel the tyfoon. This im- portant fact is stated in the Canton Register of August 11th. Extract from a private letter from on board the ship Lady Hayes, which left Mac ao Roads a day or two before the sto torm, and returned to the “Early on ‘the morning oF the 5th, Soflseried indications of bad weather. At 10.a. m. the wind “Sealey a a from thes same quarter it had been for the last twenty four hours, viz. north; e thought it best to turn her head back again to look for 4 ves t ad about thirty five miles off the land. We carried a press of sail until n, when we found we had too great a distance to run before we could north, we were desirou of ntti as far off the lan as possible, expect- ing the wind round to the eastward, there being a ee tremendous swell from that quarter. At 4 p.m. it was blowing in sereue gusts, and we Sh. 30m. the wind began to veer to the west, but continued to blow as hard as ever, till midnight, when it drew round to south, and moderated a ee It continued to blow hard from that quarter until noon of the 6th, when it moderated fast, and we e began bending other sails in room of those that were split. When the gale commenced, which we consider » ye baci I ee 3 Raleigh’s Tyfoon of 1835. 213 it did at 1 p. m. on the 5th, we were ace twenty miles east of the Lema; where we were when it ended, it is hard to say, as we saw nothing till south; but with us it veered to the westward round to the south. It was fortunate for us that it veered to the westward; for had it ae oo wae ward, we should most likely have been driver on shore am ands, as we could not have been more than fifty miles off the land al at ‘ ae, on the 6th. cceaeidged Srom the Canton Register of August _ On the reduced chart which is given herewith, the tracks of the Lady Hayes and the Levant are laid down by estimate, from the printed accounts. The small dotted circle B, surrounded by the storm arrows, is supposed to indicate the position of the centre of the storm at the time the Raleigh was overset ; and the position of the latter should be marked somewhat nearer this circle, ac- cording to the lat. and long. of the Raleigh on the 5th, which Col. Reid has given in her log. The course of the storm appears to have been N. 72° W., and its centre is supposed to have been op- posite the Raleigh, about 8h. 20m. a. m. on the 5th; but this cannot be ascertained with precision, as the indications of the barometer do not appear to have been closely watched and recorded _— this terrific period of the storm. _ Having shown the rotatory character of these tempests, I con- sider the depression of the barometer which attends them, as be- ing due to the rotative action ; and the point of greatest depression, as indicating the true centre or axis of the storm. Seay the evidence now before us, we arrive at the following am "That the Raleigh met a gale which set in with the wind at N. eee peed ae the Bi. to S. B. and 2. That at the harbors and roads “ inside,” irae Kumsing- ‘moon; &c.) aswell as at Canton, the gale occurred at a later pe- riod ; and the wind also set in at North, and veered to B. and S. E., in a manner similar to that reported by the Raleigh. 3. That with the ship Lady Hayes, off the islands near Macao, the wind also set in at North; but the ship steering S. E. by E. under a press of sail, (and doubtless falling off with the heavy sea from eastward, ) the wind, towards the middle of the gale, began to veer towards the West; whence tt drew round to east to- wards the close of the gale. ‘ , 214 Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. ~ 4. That the violence of the wind was apperenily greater with the Raleigh, than with the ea. Hayes. nt’ T aged track of Leva mass ls * a5 | is 3 . cd - Supp 5h ae Ua cede natehet ‘6th 4th |Aug. i — S aia ee oe : 5 "Phat the gale was Serine ee an English schooner, Aug. 5th, in lat. 18° 2’ N. lon. 115° 50’ E.; but the Levant, arri- ving on the 7th, in her course through the ‘Chines sea, did not eu- counter the gale. 6. That the fall and rise of the habbit at Macao, and with the Raleigh, and the strength and changes of wind with the latter, were such as are often exhibited near the centre of a hurricane ; and that the minimum depression of the barometer occurred about seventeen hours later at Macao, than with the Raleigh. These facts seem to establish the following conclusions: 1. ‘That the Tyfoon advanced in a westerly direction. 2. Negatively ;—that it did not pass through the China sea, from _N. E. to 8. W., nor on the opposite of this course. Raleigh's Tyfoon of 1835. “$e 3. That it was a progressive whirlwind storm ; = to the left, around its axis of rotation 4, That its centre of rotation passed to the obtiliniersh of the Lady Hayes ; and to the soutinward of the Raleigh and of Canton, and the anchorages near Macao ; and aceon on the line A, é £; as marked on our chart. _ §. That the rate of its progréss was abort seventeen india _ailes per hour. 6. That the extent or diameter: of the violent part of the gale, as deduced from its duration and rate of progress, was about four hundred nautical miles, or equal to six or seven degrees of latitude. 7. That the latter induction agrees with the geographical evi- dence which has been obtained of the visitation of the storm. The progress of the tyfoon being taken at 17 miles per hour, _ it follows that the excess of velocity of the wind at E. with the Raleigh, over that of the wind at W. with the Lady Hayes, sup- the rotation to have been in a circle, would be more than thirty miles an hour ;-allowing nothing, however, for difference of retardation of the setae wind, and not taking into the account #h@-additional-retardation which the west wind of the Lady Hayes must have been subject to, in its recurving course over the land. If a circle be drawn on the chart around each of the points. B and C, with.a radius equal to 3 or 34 degrees of latitude, these circles will comprise, somewhat nearly, the field of action of ‘the storm, at the two periods of 9a. m. of the 5th, and 2 a. m. on the 6th of August. The progressive velocity-and course of this tyfoon, is neatly the same as that of the Trinidad hurricane of June, 1831; and the rate of progression also corresponds nearly to that of the An- tigua hurricane of August 12th, 1835. See tracks Nos. I, and V, Spires chet 3 Shoconrees of mepioenl, in the April No. of the Nautical Magazine, 1836.* This examination of thé case befige us, appears to show that the direction of rotation, and the course of progression of ‘this ty- foon, while crossing the China sea, agree with those of the hurri- ~ canes of the West Indies; and that cts course was not controlled, or eg Remienee, by the existing pees monsoon. *For this Soi ig see alls Silliman’ s Journal, Vol. XXXI, or Reid on the Law eos Chart I q 216 ' Raleigh’s Tyfoon of 1835. : - Methods jor Escaping its 5 The professional readers of the Nautical Magazine will naturally inquire for the best method by which the Raleigh might have _ayoided the heart of the tyfoon, had its true character, and proba- ble course, been known. 'T’o this I answer, that the Raleigh being bound to the Bashee islands, and having sea room, and the gale having set in from N. or N. N. E., which showed that the ship was_then not far from the edperang its path, its greatest severity could have been avoided by either of the following methods : : rst, by tacking to the N. W., upon the wind, and, as the lat- ter veered eastward, hauling up for Formosa and the Bashee isl- ands, so far and as fast as the veering of the gale 1 in this direction might allow. Second, by standing away to W. 8. W. with a view of saving time as well-as distance, in the escape, and keepitig off more to the southward, as the wind should veer to the westward ; and when the barometer began to rise, by bearing away, unde the heel of the storm, for her point of destination. — The advantage of the first method would consist in wine to run a shorter-distance off her course, in order to avoid the centre of the gale. Its disadvantages consist in being too much headed off at the ‘outset, and perhaps, in getting. too far northward to make the best of the S. W. monsoon, after the gale should have terminated. The advantages of the second method would con- sist, Jin running off 5 more: rapidly, with a fair wind and sea; in get ing under t t of the gale, where, owing to the. course of the wind being counter to the progress of the storm, it becomes less violent ; in having almost throughout, a- fair, in- stead of a head wind;-and, finally, in being left by the storm to the windward of the point of destination, as regards the existing monsoon. ‘The disadvantage, if any, of this method would con-, sist in the greater extent of the rout; but as this would be accom- plished under far more favorable circumstances, and probably in much less time than the northern, it can hardly be counted as an objection. It would, however, have been sspanonid to ii the — Paracels, in shaping the southern course. The second method for avoiding the heart of this storm, there- fore, would appear to have been. preferable. But had the ship ® alien under the more northern portion of the gale, toward the dot- od ~~ Canton Tyfoon of Aug. 8d, 1832. 217 ted line which crosses Formosa, thus taking the wind first at N. E., or E. N. E., she should have kept to'the wind, with her head to the northward. But if her position had been nearer the dotted line which crosses Luconia, taking the wind first at N. W., she should first have brought the wind on her starboard cauinter: and subsequently have bore away, as the wind veered by the west. Some further notices of tyfoons may now be added, to show that the results just noticed, are not peculiar to this storm alone, and that other tyfoons of the China sea pursue a acalar oes, and exhibit the same rotative action. Canton Tyfoon of Aug. 3d, 1832. At Macao the wind set in Re the north, and reached its greatest : height about I p. m. ; continuing with the same Eo eve till 5 p. m., when it veered suddenly to ‘the pins A but with diminished strength. ‘When the fury of the gale was exhausted, the quicksilver rose at ‘the rate of three tenths per half vis ur. Baromet ter Aug. a. mM. p.m. 29. ug. —5 p. m. 27. 88, Other land barome- ters. differently ative’: “fal to 27. 96 and 28 At Cap-shu e gan at N. and N. W., ‘between which = it blew las tremendous violence ; shifting, towards the co nclusion, . whence it blew more moderately. The barometer, nm the early pat | fell to 28. 20. 18 e American ship Don Quixote left on the day before the tyfoon ; ; and returned on the 5th with loss of mainmast. Since the tyfoon, the British brig John Biggar, from Manilla, has come in dismasted. The Sp anish brig Veloz, also from Manilla, has arrived with loss of mainma A letter from the etdinidier of the Dutch ship Fair Armenian, which ‘foundered about thirty ary westward of the Grand Ladrone, says :— “On the evening of the inst. we made the Grand Ladrone, and on the morning of the 3 it came on a tyfoon blowing off the land ; this ped and broke our rudder, and carried away a great part of the bulwarks. The gale was at its height about 4 or 5 p. m., and after dark gates moderated.” The Edmonston, Caledonia, ee and. ialy have come in with- ‘aledonia.on the paca ° W., lon. 113° 50’ E. experie need a strong ga le from ag W. and S., with a heavy and confused sea. | The aati ts Fell | . 28, 50. The Edmonston, on the same day, when within seventy miles of the land, felt the same weather, which brought her under bare poles for four hours occa cig the weight of the tyfoon, which in Canton and Wham- pao ranged from N. to N. E., was felt about 4 or 5 p. m.; the barome- ter standing at Canis About 6 p. m. the ped ak rose and the e gale = to abate. Vou. XXxvV.— 218 Canton Tyfoons of Aug. 3d, 1832, and Sept. 23d, 1831. . Extract from the journal of an American pare bound to Can- ton.“ Aug . 2d, 1832, (nautical time,) lat. 18° 34’ W., lon. 114° E.; and barom. 29.56. First part light and baffling vikas from E. to NN. and hazy :—middle part the same —At4a m. calm, barom. 29,59 :— At 4.30 a. m. a breeze es. up from W. N, W. :—made all sail by the wind. Latter art and end, s W. N. W. wind and rough head sea. Took in the cle flying jib, and fore and mizen top gallant sails. Ba- rometer at no AQ. The weather, however, looks very fine, and the breeze is ead at W.N. W. ‘lat . 19° 54" WN., lon. 113° 50'E. Aug. commences with a strong steady breeze at W. N. W. and hazy weather, barometer falling fast. At 2 p. m. down to 28.98, but not the least unfavorable appearance in the clouds, sea, or weather. [The - « ei was at this time running into the path of the gale, from its ree side.]_ I must acknowledge that the rapid fall of the mercury, within the last ten hours, has alarmed me n me ee e, and we are now preparing for the worst of weather. oe p.m. m. 29.25 the wind freshening ; single reefed topsails. The old far pi eoions seen sail carried on this the N. E. at the rate of twenty knots, and the rhc shooting up from m. bar 1 every point of the compass. At 8 om. 29. Took in all at but the close reefed fore and main peanils and fore-topmast staysail ; the wind still steady at W. N. W. Sounded in- 45 fathoms, the Grand La- drone bearing W. N. W.38 miles. At10 p.m. the wind suddenly shifted to W. N. W.[N. N. W.?] in @ squall—Heavy rain and distant thunder until 5 a. m. :—Had continued shifts of wind all round the compass. At7 a. m. a steady gale very severe, from about N. W. and este rain :—hove to under the reefed main topsail -—At 8 a. m. barom. 29.!!—Latter part and end, the real , genuine, unadulterated Chinese 7’ ‘yfiiondl a steady roar pang constant r or took in the main topsail. g. 4th. (P. M. of 3d.) "The first quarter of this day extremely se- vere Mt and thick weather. —At 2.30 p. m. barom. 28.88 ; shortly after which it began to rise :—at 6 p. m. 29.05 ;—at 8 S, m. 29.08, and mode- rating. —During = night hard yal trom W. to W. S. W. and torrents of rain.—At 4 a. nd S S. W. to S.S. W. and hazy :—made sail an by 6 a. m. had rvs ‘and ‘addin sails set. During the day passed a number of wrecks, and when we arrived, (5th,) found that the hurricane had been very severe and caused immense destruction. New Yor: Journal of Commerce. Canton Tyfoon of Sept. 23d, 1831. The American ship Galen, from the Sandwich Islands, bound to Can- ton, encountered bad weather off the Bashee Islands on the 2lst of Sep- __ tember, and on the 23d near the Lema Islands, lost her mizen mast, f _ and main topmasts, &c. : rf ae) By Atanas ish Bie ay eS le sof | Tyfoons of the China Sea and North Pacific. eg past, one t along the coast. The gale was far more severely felt at Macao and-Kum- sing-moon, where it is described as having been truly dreadful Canton _ paper The narrative of Capt. Lynn, of H. C. S. Duke of Buccleugh, appended to his Star tables for 1822, contains accounts of four several tyfoons which were encountered by the convoy under H. M. 8. Swift, Capt. Hayward, which left Macao Roads on the 15th of June, 1797, bound homeward by the eastern passage. The first of these storms occurred on the 19th June, in lat. 22° 97 N.; lon. 117° 3’ E. The wind set in at N., and veered to N. E. by N.; but owing, probably, to the course of the ship, veered back to N.. een subsequently by N. W. and W. to S. Barometer, 29. The second was met on the 2d July, in lat. 19° 4” N., lon. 124° 1y E., and ended on the 3d. The wind set in at N. E., and veered by N. and W., as on the 19th of June; the ship having been kept before the wind, probably as before. Barom. 28.77. The Swift is supposed to have foundered in this storm. The third tyfoon was encountered on the 8th July, in lat. 16° 54’ N., lon. 126° 9 E. Barometer, at. lowest, 28.40. This gale commenced at N. N. E.; but the ship running to the southward, as before, the wind — veered to N. and N, N. W..,. and ence shifting, after a lull, to S. S. W. A fourth tyfoon was enieotiriterod on the 17th July, lat. 16° 54’ N., long. 126° 9 E., in which the wind set in at the same point as before, and veoted also in the same manner. Barometer, 28.55 These and other facts had been the basis of my inductions, in relation to the tyfoons of China and the storms of the North Pa- cific ; and the voyages of Cook and others upon the coasts of Ja- pan and China, and the journals of whale ships in the Northern Pacific, had afforded good evidence that the same system of storms eagle in the North Pacific as in the North Atlantic ge Hurricanes of the Asiatic Seas. ¢ : From a comparison of the foregoing accounts, it appears that those ships suffered most severely, which fell under the northern semi-circle of the storm. ~ This result, probably, would not follow in the higher latitudes, where the storm has recurved to the north- ward and commenced its easterly course. pee at Oe ee Hurricanes of the Asiatic Seas. It is generally believed that the hurricanes of the Indian seas occur only or chiefly at the change of the monsoons ; but this opinion appears to be of doubtful accuracy. From the valuable meteorological journal which appears monthly in the Canton Register, I have compiled the following statement : of the periods of change in the N. E. and 8. W. monsoons at that place : Vernal change from Nn. &. to ; w. Autumnal change, from s. w. to N. E. 1830. From 20th to 28th of April. .-| From 5th to 12th of October. gat. th to 17th : “Ist to 14th 1832. “ Ath to 7th ry on 25th September. 1833. “ 9th to 14th * 9th to 30th 1834. “ 3d of April to 8th of May. * 19th to 30th = pes “ 8th to 2st of April. “10thto24th “* : e American ship Parachute, at Boston from Calcutta, experienced ee 25th of August, 1831. Spoke the Nandi from Bon to pomeel dismasted in the gale-—London shipping lists. th, 1837. gs of the severest gales that has occurred trees, six feet in diameter and poets | feet. in pein were torn up by the roots, and many houses completely unroofed. é ‘The accounts of hurricanes in ie Asiatic seas, sven us by Col. Reid, are also more common to the regular monsoons than to the periods of change. Tyfoon at Manilla and Hurricane at Balasore, Oct. 1831. The following account of a tyfoon in the China sea in 1831, is interesting insomuch as it affords probable grounds for connect ing the hurricane at Manilla, Oct. 23-24, with that of Oct. 31, _at Balasore, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. : Extract from the private journal of Wm. F. agg: os ., Master of the s ship Panama, on a voyage to Canton, October, 1 es * From these and like statements of the changes of the monsoons at other points, some e useful inductions might be obtained. _ : they differ from those — of any other formation. 'This sandstone has sometimes been con- - founded with that of Western New York,-a gross error, arising from its general resemblance to'the latter. _Mr. M’Clure regards it as a distinct formation, but. terms it old red sandstone. It ap- pears to me to be. intimately connected “with the Hudson’ river slaty graywacke, probably one passing into the other ; but at all events it alternates with Eaton’s calciferons sandrock near Easton, a character which identifies it at once with the Potsdam and Es- Sex sandstone, described by Professor Emmons as occurring in the northeastern séction of New York. - In all cases it rests upon primary rocks cand is. the oldest of the fossilliferous formations, being under the calciferous sandrock,. and occupying - the same position in the geological series as the Cambrian system of Wales, described by Mr. Sedgwick. The copper mines of Flemington, in New Jersey, belong to this formation. ‘The harder layers make excellent building stone, and of this rock the Penitentiary near Trenton is constructed. In New York it is one of the most common materials for door steps and “basements, .and it is occa- _ sionally used as a building material in ringers where iti is brought down the Schuylkill river. Vou. XXXV.—No..2. 32 250 Notes on. American Geology. wanerte by the Editors: Th eelinigih to the difference of opinion between Mr. Conrad and Prof. Henry D. Rogers, we take leave to state, that having been occasionally in communication on geological subjects with the last named gentleman, and knowing his opinions in the present case, we presume our much respected correspondent, Mr. Conrad, (with whose able. communications this Journal has been, from time to time, enriched, ) will be gratified to know the grounds, on which Professor Rogers differs from him. Should that gentleman choose to give his own explanations, this Journal is, of course, open to his communications, and should Mr. Conrad wish it, to his rejoinder; but in the mean time, the publie confidence in both gentlemen will be increased by being informed, that the pe- culiar opinions of each are sustained by appropriate and important reasons ; and it is, moreover, very-desirable, that our Baie ee should deedeistated each other. We proceed then to state, that Professor Rogers, as we have un- derstood from himself, has examined, with considerable care, the localities designated by Professor Eaton,- where the “ graywacke of the Hudson” is said to be highly insdlined, and to have the “ caleiferous sandrock” resting unconformably on its edges; and - that he has left these places fully satisfied, that the strata, sup- posed to belong to two formations of distinct epochs, are, in reality, but adjacent beds of one great formation, differing in mineral character, and seeming, at first glance, to meet. uncon- formably, in consequence of the numerous local ‘irregularities of dip, so common to this rock on the Hudson. In other words, he regards the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, (the first formation’of his report,) as every where lower in geological order, than this so called graywacke, which has been traced uninterrupted from the Hudson, through New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,, and the States Gaadser South as far as Tennessee, every where occu- pying the ¢hird place in the ascending series. » He supposes he has evidence to show, that a goologiei sec- tion, corresponding with a line drawn from the mouth of the Susquehanna river, a little east of north, through Pennsylvania: and New York, to the country of primary rocks, north of Utica, would represent ihe entire series of thirteen formations, described 7 _ Notes on American Geology. 251 - inhis report as occurring in exactly the same order, whether they are traced from the uppermost, (the anthracite coal formation,) - southward, towards tide water, or northward, to the end of the section in New York; and in no instance, in either half of the line, was evidence obearyed of any want of conformity between adjacent strata. Such a section, where it crossed the Kittatinny Valley, would display the calciferous sandrock of Eaton, under- lying conformably the metalliferous limerock of the same author, and this in turn underlying conformably the graywacke of the Hudson, while near its northern. extremity it would exhibit the calciferous sandrock.in conformable position below the limestone of Trenton Falls, and this again in similar relation, passing under ‘the foundation of the Salmon river. That such is the state of things, Professor Rogers appears to feel satisfied from a careful study of the country around both the southern and northern ends of this supposed section. He therefore regards the so named graywacke of the Hudson as the same with the gray sandstone formation of Oswego county. . He considers the argument based on the want of identity in the fossils as inconclusive, until it shall appear that a large number of species from each formation have been compared, and this because he places more confi- dence in conclusions drawn from following the rocks themselves over wide areas of country, (the only mode by which their true order of superposition can be first established, ) than in inferences based upon the organic remains, the true significance of which can never be known until large groups of species are studied, and until the order of superposition“of the strata, the very mat- ter under discussion, shall have been previously settled a By inde- eee ze 252 Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experimenis. Arr. V.—Magneto-E lectric and Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Eegieat bys Cuares G. Pace, M. D., Weshingtan City. es Sbtataed from magnetic electrical instruments where the galvanic battery i is used as a source of the magnetic power, the hope has been entertained by many, that such instruments, would prove valuable in a high degree as sources of electrolytic power. The present infantile state of the science, shows clearly the fu- tility of such a hope, and points directly to an arrangement which will place in the hands of the operator an instrument surpassing “ entirely the great galvanic. battery i in value and power. ‘Such an instrument is the magneto-electric machine. The instrument described in the last April* number of this Journal demonstrates, ~ by cateful experiment with Faraday’s volta-electrometer, that the. electrolytic power of the current from the combined arma- tures is just double that of one. The avenue, then, to an jnde- finite power, is too obvious to escape notice. Increase the num- ber of pairs of magnets, extend the series of armatures upon the same shaft, or in any way in which they. may be brought to bear on the same terminal pole, and I hazard nothing i in the assertion, that for the same prime cord, and contained. in the same space, a magneto-electric instrument can be made of equal, power to a galvanic battery of one thousand pairs of plates. It is evident, that there will not ‘be that rapid. diminution with the extension of the series which obtains in the _ galvanic arrangement, for in the magneto-electric machine the whole route of the current is through solid conductors, and in the galvanic battery, through a great extent of liquid and numerous soldered and imperfect joints. Nothing but the want of means has restrained me from erecting a magneto-electric machine, which J feel confident would rival the largest galvanic battery in existence. The arch of light would be obtained by disposing one set of armatures at right angles to the other, so that while one gavea diminishing cur- rent, the other would afford a current. increasing in the same ee while one set was in the neutral _ the other would be at the point of strongest action. “ * Vol. xxx1v, p. 163. a or the sparks, and the extreme intensity ie Binsreégnitc:depmeasis wit Bipwinatia, 8Y Having asserted thus much of the magneto-electric ‘machine, it will be necessary to allude briefly to the objections to machines for saan ate na where the galvanic battery i is the primum mobile. First. _The opposing currents produced € at and break~ ing the battery circuit cannot be separated, or rather cannot be united to form one current. In the magneto-electric machine, the alternating currents are made. ta flow. in the” same direction by the pole changer, or more. ! nection, the wni- trep. Asit is desirable that every distinct and useful apparatus should have an appropriate name, f have ‘selected the term Uni- trep, as short, and descriptive of the use of this part of the mag- —heto-electric machine. This important addition to the machine. appears to be beyond: simplification, consisting merely of two nearly half cylindrical pieces of metal, rivetted or secured in any manner to the circumference of a small disc of wood or ivory, and insulated from each other. Itsuse, as the name Unitrep implies, is to convert, or turn contrary currents. into one com- mon channel. Secondly.—In the galvanic an machines, a 2 tro-chemical effects can be obtained (to any considerable degree) only by distinct impulses, occurring at each rupture of the cir- cuit. 'These- impulses or secondary currents closely resemble a common electrical discharge, and are of too short duration to allow the particles of the substances to be decomposed to assume definite polar arrangement. Nor-can the circuit be broken rap- idly to any advantage ; for in the first place, the full magnetiza- tion of the iron requires appreciable time, and, secondly, the. flowing of the secondary through a completed circuit, weakens _ itself by re-magnetizing the bar: (this will be spoken of-in fu- ture.) In the pwre magneto-electric machine, water is decompo- sed far more rapidly by the continuous current than by breaking ‘the circuit, by the primitive than the secondary current. The secondary furnishes the most powerful shocks, but the primitive possesses the greatest decomposing power. _ Compound E lectro- Magnet and Electrotome for Shocks, Sparks, Se. In the late numbers of Sturgeon’s Annals, I iin that Mr. Bachoffner has introduced the bundle of wires as superior to the 254 Ellectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. solid bar for reaction upon the coil wires. Mr. Bachoffner proba- used this compound arrangement before myself, as I made the discovery February 14th, 1838. Mr. Bachoffner remarks, © “that it is necessary to iicealete the wires of the bundle, and that it is difficult to understand their action, as the magnetic power is not so great as that of a solid bar.” In every experiment hith- -erto tried, I have invariably found the magnetic power to be greater than that of a solid bar of the same weight. I have never found it necessary to insulate the wires to insure their ope- ration, although I would not say that a very careful insulation might not improve their operation. For I apprehend that in the development and return of magnetic forces; electrical currents are excited in the body of the magnet at ri right angles to its axis, aS well as in the wires surrounding the magnet. In this case the exterior portion of the — would act asa closed circuit upon the interior. . - By a closed circuit is meant a FLOWING socuchlan’ current, which has the effect to re-magnetize the bar after the primitive battery current has ceased to act. That the operation of these secondary closed. circuits has never yet been considered in the construction’of machines, will appear from the agg facts and practical observations. . First.—Enclosing a compound* slonevacegent in .a tube of metal, almost entirely prevents the formation of secondary cur- rents in the exterior wires, although by this arrangement the tic power is not perceptibly affected, with the exception, that its development requires more time.t .'The short and com- plete right angle currents in the metallic casing have a greater magnetizing power than the secondary of an extended and © lique coil of wire. Hence, after the battery current ceases, the chief portion of the secondary will flow in this short’circuit, and the magnetism of the bar be prolonged to a perceptible degree, and if it were possible to break this. closed circuit immediately after the battery circuit, a secondary and tertiary current would be observed from the coil of wire. This ¢ertiary circuit I have perceived 3 in another way. * Or a common single ~— t The increase of ti e- nocewazy to effect the full development of magnetism, is due to the femclian of the initial secondary flo owing against the battery current. Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 255 Secondly.—Insulate the metallic casing from the magnet, and divide it throughout its length, so that the secondaries cannot pass, and the coil wire will now exhibit the full power of - seconda Thirdly, Sanoutid an Sidiacotangues writt an entire metallic casing, exterior to the coil wires, and the secondary of the wires will be depreciated as before.. Split the casing as s before, and the secondary will again have full power. —- Fourthly. —Brass rings or straps surrounding the aoa of mag- nets or armatures for magneto-electric experiments, detract from their value by the action of closed circuits. Fifthly.—T he brass cheeks which are frequently used upon the armatures of magneto-electric machines for supporting the coil Wires, materially impair the power of such machines. These cheeks should in all cases be candle of wood, ivory, or some non- conducting substance. Sixthly—A metallic casing which entirely envelops: a U magnet or armature, cannot convey closed circuits, as each of the casing would transmit currents in opposite directions. Con- sequently, (as I have proved by repeated experiments, ) the secon- dary of the coiled wire is not in the least impaired by this ar- rangement. i The following scpelheats were tried with a view to ascertain if electrical currents were excited in the body of the magnet it- self. A hollow magnet was wound and tried ; the secondary current was not so great as that frem a solid bar ‘of the same di- ameter. Singular as it might at first sight appear, the insertion or filling. up of this hollow magnet with a rod of soft iron or a bundle of iron wires, did not in the least exalt the force of the secondary. This result accords exactly with that of a similar experiment by Mr. Bachoffner. I then rolled upon a cylinder of wood a piece of sheet iron, not permitting its edges to meet. It was then surrounded with three layers of coiled wire and tried, and the augmentation of the secondary was greater than that produced by the entire hollow magnet, which was of much thicker metal. But when the cylinder of wood was withdrawn, and its place supplied with a bundle of fine iron wires, the sec- ondary was increased to a very great degree, and the whole ap- peared to be equally powerful with a compound magnet of the same size.- It should be observed particularly, that when the 256 Hlectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. hollow magnet was entire, the insertion of an iron rod or bundle of wires produced no effect. From these experiments I think. the existence of secondary currents flowing in the body of the magnet may be very plausibly inferred. If actually determined, the fact would prove important, and is well worth pursuing. I soldered two wires to the edges of the enclosed sheet of iron, atid connected them with a galvanoscope, but could not perceive any effect upon the needle. But as the instrument was by no means delicate, the experiment may be regarded as valueless. Having no opportunities at present of pursuing the investigation, I hope that the subject may receive dus attention from these who may be interested. The following striking experiments afford still further illustra- tion of the action of closed secondary circuits. Experiment 1st.—Place a straight electro-magnet upon a large flat spiral of copper, in the direction of a radius of the spiral. When the spiral is connected with the battery, the magnet be- comes charged, and a secondary current in its wires is the conse- quence. Break the battery: connexion with the spiral, and ex- amine by the common tests the power of the secondary from the magnet. Again, break the circuit from mercury covered with oil, and the secondary from the magnet will now be found stronger than in the first case. When the circuit is broken over clean mercury, the secondary flowing through the heated vapor and air, acts asa closed circuit to prolong the magnetism of the spiral, and thus prevent a sudden and entire thfinence upon the magnet. When the mercury is covered with oil the secondary is arrested, and the magnetism suddenly ceasing, exerts its whole influence upon the magnet, or rather the magnetism of the bar ceases’ with that of the spiral. The same phenomenon is well illustrated by the electro-magnet alone, where the fine wire is a of the large. Experiment 2d.—The reciprocal action of the sieeid snout of the magnet itself upon the secondary of the spiral is more re- markable. Break the battery connexion with the spiral over clean mercury, when the ends of the wire’on the magnet are disjoined, and observe the spark ; join now the ends of the mag- net wire, and on breaking the battery circuit the spark from the _ spiral will be diminished... The manner in which the closed cir- cuit operates here, will be more sae understood from, Eilectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Eoperiments. 257 Experiment 3d.—Bring one extremity of-the magnet used in the foregoing experiment in contact with one pole of the magnet of a common magneto-electric machine. As this disguises a por- tion of the magnetism, the amount of electricity developed by the revolution of the armature will of course be diminished. While working the machine the magnetic state of the electro- magnet will vary with the approximation and recession of the armature, and a current of electricity in its wires will be the con- sequence. When the current from the armature is broken or not - suffered to flow at all, the current from the electro-magnet will be much. stronger than when the circuit from the armature is con- stantly complete. When the armature is leaving the magnet, the flowing current or elosed circuit magnetizes the armature and consequently disguises more of the power of the inducing mag- net, than when the armature leaves without the closing of the circuit. . The consequence is a detraction of magnetic power from the electro-magnet. Also, breaking the circuit from the armature under oil, increases the current from the electro-mag- - het. _ Experiment Ath. me the ends of the wire coiled on one leg of the curved armature of a common magneto-electric machine, and allow the coil fromi the other leg to be connected with the break piece, as usual. As long as the circuit of the first coil is closed, the second coil will furnish scarcely.any electricity ; but when the circuit of the first coil is opened, the second furnishes nearly as much electricity as the combined current from both coils. This singular fact first called my attention to the great advantage of short,, straight armatures, for the magneto-electric machine. Obviously, the best arrangement for straight arma- tures, would be that wherein they revolved between the. ends of the magnetic poles, the axis or shaft being parallel to the legs of | the magnets. ‘The points gained by this plan would be, a more ‘uniform and powerful current, and an exact division by the Uni- trep of the semicircular: routes through which the alternating currents are developed. In the machine described in Vol. xxxiy, p. 164, of this Journal, and in all others where the axis of motion is perpendicular to the plane of the magnet, if the two routes in which, the opposite currents are developed be represented by two ares of a circle drawn through the two neutral points, that are towards the bend of the magnet will be much the longer, Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. : 258 Ellectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. and represents a feebler current than the shorter arc. ‘The only objection to this arrangement is the extra room it requires.~ Figure 1. Figure 1, represents a. new form of apparatus, consisting of a compound cleetro-magnet and . electrotome ; completed April, 1838. a, isan ivory cheek or head, through the center of which appear the extremities of the wires composing the magnet. 4, 0’, two brass straps confining the magnet to the base board. ¢, ¢; the battery connexion for the large wires, which are terminally soldered to the cups with the binding screws, the soldered con- nexion being underneath the base board. d, d, are the fine wire terminations, the solderings being out of sight, underneath: the — base board. The movable part of the apparatits, e, f, 2, fh, &; is the electrotome. e, is a stout copper wire, passing through the shaft k. One satiny of this wire dips into the mercury CUP, oe the top of which is of glass for exhibiting the spark ; the base of brass is soldered to the brass strap b’, At the other ex- tremity of e, isa small ball of iron, (g,) which, being attracted by the magnet, gives motion to the eleetrotome. © It is proper to remark here, that the sphere of iron, g, is not attracted by the magnet with the same force as would be a piece of iron of ovoid form, or what would prove still better, a cylindrical piece, the length of. whose axis was considerably greater than its diameter. Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 259 h, is a short piece of copper wire epldensd to e, and distending into the mercury cup n, which is soldered to the brass strap 6. The brass ball J, is movable on the projecting screw 0, and serves as a regulator to the vibrations of the electrotome. The circuit traversed by the galvanic current is as follows. From the peg e, by the dotted line to the brass strap ’, thence through m, e, h, n, b, to one of the large wire terminations. The other termination of: the large wires surrounding the magnet, is soldeted to a cup: connected with & When the galvanic circuit is ‘completed, the magnet attracts the ball ¢, and raises e from m, producing a bright spark at m, and a powerful shock from d, d ; e, then falls by its own weight, re-establishes the connexion, and thus the vibration con- tinues. On the side of the ball 2, towards the pole of the mag- net, is fastened a piece of brass, or other non-magnetic substance, to prevent the adhesion of the ball to the magnet. The tips of the wires h, m, should ‘be tinned before use. In all cases, tin- ning, or covering - with soft solder the extremities of wires for connexions, and dipping them into mercury, will be found ‘a much more preferable mode of amalgamating, than the usual practice of dipping them into nitrate of mercury, as they pre- serve their brightness. a greater aa of time. - Circular Galvariometers. Figures 2and 3, represent two new forms of galvanometers, which are found to possess some advantages over other forms in common use. The whole appearance of this instrument, (though a trivial consideration ,) is somewhat in its favor for purposes of general exhibition toa class. a, fig. 2, is the magnetic needle © suspended by its centre on a fine point. The needle is made of - Watch spring, and bent into a form coneentrie with the coil ¢. 7 The distance between the poles of the needle is about one six- teenth of an inch more than the width of the coil. The coil ¢, of insulated copper wire, is fastened by strong cement to the pil- lard. p,m, are the terminations of the coil passing into the mer- “eury cups on the stand. _'The coil is made of a number of strands of wire in lieu of a continuous wire. Galvanometer coils are ustially made of too fine wire, and of a single wire of too great ~a length. M. Pouillet, in his late investigation of the general law of the intensity of currents, has shown that derivation made upon a. _— current from an elementary battery, strengthens 260° = Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. _ Figures 2-and 3. Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. - 261 that primitive current. By derivation is meant, the addition of another wire to any portion of the primitive circuit, The simple solution of the fact is, that derivation, or the addition of another wire, increases the conducting power of the circuit. Professor J. Henry’ s discovery of the method of increasing the power of the electro-magnet by winding upon it several short coils of wire, is a most striking practical illustration of this law. M. Pouillet has also arrived at the conclusion, that the” intensity of the current produced by a single element, is in an inverse proportion to. the real length of the circuit, The adoption of the several strands in the galvanometer seems therefore to be plainly indicated, and . experiment fully warrants it. 5, fig. 2, isa graduated circle of ivory for marking the deviations of the needle. _ Since the con- struction of the instrument, fig. 2, I have adopted the plan rep- resented in fig. 3, which is much to be preferred on account of its simplicity of construction, and the perfect | steadiness of the needle. ¢, is the coil cemented upon the stand d; b,a graduated - gone surrounding the coil. p and-», the wire terminations. a, the circular needle of watch spring, with a very delicate upper bearing at c, and a slender pivot at a, resting upon an agate centre cemented to the coil. As this needle is not liable to any mechan- ~ ical displacement, it may come very near the coile. The por- tion of the circle between the two lines. at a, which bears the ret, is of brass. a Double Ae Sor Inducing Magnetism. Figure 4, represents an apparatus contrived January Lith, 1838, for exhibiting the magnetic forces of the centre of the helix. a, a, are the two helices of five layers of wire, protected by brass ca- sings, (split on the under side,) and by ivory heads, ¢,¢,¢,¢. b, b, are two curved bars of soft iron which slide readily into the he- lices. 0,0, the handles for pulling, furnished with ball and socket joints at 0, 0, to prevent the magnets being twisted or wrenched. The wire terminations of the helices pass through the openings in the brass casings, underneath the base board, and are soldered ‘to the serew cups p, 7, for battery connexions. The attractive force manifested by this arrangement in the centre of the helices, is much greater than when an armature is applied at the extrem- ities. A small apparatus of this kind will resist the ‘Strength of two stout men pulling by the handles. This makes a very pretty 262 Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments, arrangement for a reciprocating electro-magnetic engine, there being no change of poles, as the motion is effected by an ar- rangement shown in the two next figures. This form of en- gine will be described in a future article. oe Revolving Armature. _ Figure 5, represents an instrument invented in February, 1838, for exhibiting motion by magnetism without change of poles. Figure 5. nN IEEE y/ nee ALLTEL ATTT (aa Wi This instrument was the foundation of a series of experiments, made with reference to the mechanical application of magnetism, which will be published with drawings in a future communica- Electro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments, 263 tion. m, is the electro-magnet. a, the armature of soft iron. is an.upright stem of brass, to receive and make the bourition of : the shaft of the armature. , is a disc of wood-or ivory to brace the upright ‘stem e. -¢, is oné termination-of the magnet. coil,- Serving as‘a conducting spring. d, is the other conducting spring passing through. the fia b, into the cup 2, for battery connexion. The other termination of the magnet wires passes into the cup p. At c, d, firmly fixed to the shaft, is a cylindrical piece of silver, which may: be. technically called the cut-off, or electrotome. The spring c, plays upon the whole portion of the cut-off. “The spring d, plays upon the dissected part, whose metallic ibislone are so arranged that they shall come into contact with the spring d, when the armature is a little inclined from right angles to the plane of the magnet, and leave spring.d, before the armature ar- rives at equilibrium. This armature revolves much faster than would a magnet changing its poles. “Besides the advantage of greater simplicity, the revolving armature. possesses advantages which cannot be gained by change of poles, or by revolving magnets, where the power is only cut off without a change of poles. Suppose another electro-magnet to be placed at right an- gles to the magnet m, in the figure, and the cut-off so arranged that the two magnets shall be charged in succession by the revo- lution of the armature. The velocity of the armature will thus be nearly doubled without the addition of more battery, for the points of action are doubled, and’ only one magnet charged at a time. _ This same plan admits of enlargement‘on any scale, only with the alteration of the mode of revolution. If electro-mag- netism should ever be introduced for smatl powers, such as turn- ing lathes, &e. it probably will be effected by — the See or vibrating armature machines. si ‘Reciprocating Armature Engine. Figure 6, represents an electro-magnetic engine with vibrating or reciprocating armatures. a, a, are the electro-magnets, firmly secured to the base board and the wooden table ¢. 5, b, are the armatures of soft iron connected with the shaft (¢) by stout brass arms. The balance beam, connecting rods, and balance wheel, represented in the figure, require no particular description. The cut-off by which the magnets are alternately charged, is on the shaft of the balance wheel at m. It is simple in construction, 264 Hlectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. made of silver, and similar to the one described for the revolving armature. ‘There are three conducting: springs tipped with sil- ver, one playing upon the whole portion, and two upon the dis- sected portion of the cut-of.. 'The connexions of the magnet Figure 6. (= 550 p , CCT 68 2a ICC | Cenc \ A ee aa wires with the springs and cups p, n, for battery connexion, are made .under the base boards, and are marked by the dotted lines. Several of these engines have been made by Mr. Daniel Davis, Jr., philosophical instrument maker, of Boston; and are beautiful working models. Asa proof that electro-magnetism is suscep- tible of useful application where only a small power is wanted, a’small engine was made by Mr. Davis in the month of July last, by the aid of which, an individual gains fifteen dollars: per day by the simple operation of drilling the steel plates for gas burn ers. I think this may be considered the first instance in which i ae rf | a Llectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 265 the mechanical. application of electro-magnetism has been turned to profitable account. This engine is to undergo considerable alteration and improvement, when a eens and eating of it will be published. That much remains yet to be atetaion! concerning the most ddveditayinad form and size of magnets and armatures, will appear from the following observations made during last October, while on a visit in Boston. First: it is possible to present a piece of soft iron to the most powerful magnet in such a manner that it will not be attracted in the least by the magnet. re Ei xperiment.—Drill a hole in the center of the pole of an elec- tro or permanent magnet, to admit a small sliding rod of brass. To one end of this sliding rod, fasten a small disc of soft iron. The diameter of the disc must be less than that of the pole of the magnet, and the thickness or axis of the disc, must be con- siderably less than its own diameter. Put the sliding rod in its place, and if the disc of soft iron be exactly parallel to the face - of the magnetic pole, if will not be attracted by it, be the magnet never so strong. If the disc isin ‘the least’ inclined from paral- lelism, it will be attracted by the magnet. The experiment will appear more satisfactory if varied in the followmg manner. Place the disc of soft iron, with its’sliding rod, in a frame, and place the magnet on a rest, so that its position can be varied; the same results will follow as before. Again: put the disc, without its silding rod, on the center of a large magnetic pole, and it will _ slip down to the edge of the pole, and there adhere. Again: sprinkle iron filings on a piece of paper laid over the end of a bar magnet ; the filings will cluster over the pole around a va- cant space at its center. Again: drill out the disc of iron so as to make a ring, whose width is greater than its thickness, and present it to the magnet in the same manner as the disc, and the ring will be attracted by the magnet. It appears from this, that the disc, though magnetized by induction is polarized in a radial direction, and the forces counteract, or disguise each other’s in- fluence upon the magnetic pole. When the diameter of the disc is greater than that of the magnetic pole, there cannot be this counterpoise of forces. When the disc is inclined to the face of the magnetic pole, it becomes polarized in the direction of an oblique line, joining that part of the disc in contact with the Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 34 | 266 laaa aan Apparatus and. E'xperiments. magnet, anit that point most remote from the’ point of ‘contact. — These experiments throw some light upon a fact which, though Jong since known, does not seem to have been understood ; viz. an armature which entirely subtends the poles of a U magnet, will hot sustain so great a weight as one which covers only about one third of each pole. If the surface of the armature be flat, it will not be held so firmly as if spherical, presenting much fewer points. If the armature be flat and broad, that portion over .the pole may be considered inthe light of the soft iron disc. Nu- merous holes in an armature do not sensibly interfere with its adhesion. A piece of soft iron was first suspended from a single pole, with just'as much weight as it would hold. It then had several large holes drilled through it, taking away a large portion of its substance, and was again tried; the induced magnetic power appeared to be.as great as thenagh the entire piece. ‘This doubtless would not be true to any extent, although the proper- ties of the armature are not perceptibly affected by a hole through its center, yet if a steel, or soft iron rod, be passed through. this hole, its inductibility will be greatly impaired. This fact should be particularly observed in the construction of magneto-electric, and electro-magnetic. machines, where a steel, or iron shaft, is often allowed to pass through an armature or magnet. If, while the armature is suspended by one end to a single pole, a piece of soft steel is drawn through the hole in its center, the steel be- comes properly and permanently polarized ; but if, while the ar- mature is thus in contact with the magnet, the steel rod be passed half its length through the hole, and Seiaraiued j in that situation, both its extremities will be found to be similar poles. In the management of electro-magnetic engines, it is worth observing here, that a greater power is always obtained by using a compound, instead of a Single battery, provided the series does not exceed.‘two. As the elementary battery has always been considered as possessing the greatest dynamic, ot magnetic power; this species of battery has been preferred for application to elec- tro-magnetic machines. I-have invariably found that two pairs of plates, arranged as a compound series, connected with an elec- __ tro-magnetic engine, or any apparatus for electro-magnetic rota- tions, produce a velocity nearly double that given by the same surface used as an elementary battery. If the series extend be- yond two, the magnetizing pare diminishes, although the a Eilectro-Magnetic Apparatus and Experiments. 267 at the break pieces are brighter. Tn all cases where motion is duced by the galvanic ¢ it, it must meet with considerable re- sistance, either from secondary “ currents or from the breaks in the circuit. ‘The compound current probably has a greater velocity than an elementary current, and meets with less resistance from opposing secondaries and passing breaks. Vibrating Armature. Figure 7, represents a vibrating armature, to be used as an electrotome, in connexion with an apparatus: affording sparks ¢ or shocks. 6, is a small electro-magnet, (of the actual size given in Figure 7. ANG, a the figure,) and covered with only a single coil of wire, so as not to detract much from the power of. the instrument with which it ds used. a, aslender iron wire for an armature, suspended on a delicate shaft. 0, is a connecting wire of eopper fixed to one end of the armature, joining the mercury in the two cups d and e. and n, are the terminal cups for connexions. The connexions ‘between the cups and the ends of the magnet wire, are made under the base board, and marked by the dotted lines. The cup €, is of glass, or very thin ivory, to exhibit the illumination from 268 Description of some new Shells. the spark. When the battery circuit is complete through the in- strument, the end 0, of the armature is raised by the magnet, the connexion is broken at ¢, and the end 9, falls by its weight, again rises, thus giving a rapid succession of sparks at c.. The extrem- ities-of the armature are wound with a little sewing silk, or thread, to prevent their retention by the magnet. Washington, November 13th, 1838. Arr. VI.—Description of some new Shells ; by SERIA Tappan, Steubenville, Ohio. Pror. Keccining —I send for publication in the Journal of Sci- ence the following descriptions of some shells found in Ohio, which are believed to be new. “Unio Sayn, ‘Ward. Plate IIL. Fig. " Shell - sub-rhomboidal, inequilateral, transverse, compressed ; valves thin, beaks slightly prominent and divergingly wrinkled ; cardinal teeth oblique, single in the right and double in _ left valve ; lateral teeth slightly curved ; nacre ‘white. Hab. Walnut creek and Ohio patie, near Circleville. W. H. Price. My cabinet ; cabinets of Dr. Kirtland, R. Buchannan, Esq., B. Tappan, A. Binney, Esq. Dr. Gould, Dr. Jay, Col. Tot- ten, d&oc., &c. Diam. 1. Length 1.60. Breadth 2.80. =f Shell inequilateral, transverse, sub-rhomboidal, compressed ; posterior and superior margins wectilinees). basal margin curved, anterior margin regularly rounded. Valves thin, translucent. Beaks slightly prominent, incurved and divergingly wrinkled, placed near the anterior margin., Umbonal slope sub-carinate, carina somewhat elevated. Ligament long, narrow, nearly straight and partially concealed. Epidermis-pale yellow, inclining to cu- preous on the umbos; glabrous, with indistinct capillary rays of a lighter color extending over the whole disk ; lines of growth black, and very distinct ; two faintly imapeniene lines diverging from under the points of ie beaks and extending to the posterior Basal margin. Cardinal teeth very oblique, not prominent, single in the right and double in the left valve, slightly crenate ; lateral teeth lamellar, one curved. Anterior cicatrices distinct, poste- Description of some new Shells. —— rior tipmSinent: dorsal situated horizontally across the cavity of the beaks and distinct; cavity of the beaks shallow and rounded ; nacre white, siptily iridescent over the entire surface of the valve, with faintly impressed strie or rays diverging from the cavity of the beaks, and eeraing to the basal margin. Inhab- itant unknown.” The above eas: is s by Doct, Charles J. Ward, of Roscoe, Ohio. “ PaLupina “METEROSTROPHA, Kirtland. Plate Il. Fig. 2. PSinietral, aperture more than half the length of the shell. Shell sub-globose, ovate ; spire depressed, apex generally trun- eate ; whorls five; aperture ovate, with its superior extremity eurved towards the body whorl, within bluish white ; epidermis greenish horn color, usually coated with ferruginous day, Length three quarters of an inc This shell fagiangheo oecurs in Mill and Yellow creeks, tribu- taries of the Mahoning river. 1 formerly considered it a mere variety of the P. decisa of Say; but on further examination find it to be specifically distinct. It never attains more than half the length of that species; its spire Is never Se ang it is al- ways heterostrophal.” » I am indebted to Doct. J. P. Kirtland be the foregoing de- scription. - Puysa ‘Sinn, nobis. Plate III. Fig. 3. Shell sinistral, ovate; color brownish yellow, or chestnut ; whorls five; the first large, the others small, terminating in on acute dark besgen apex; aperture large, four fifths of the length of the shell ; translucent ; length one inch, breadth seven tenths _of an inch. I first found this shell, May, 1837, ina small lake called Lake © Pipin, which is situated about fifty rods from the Cuyahoga river, in Franklin township, Portage county, Ohio, (the same locality where was found the Anodonta Pipiniana of Lea.) All the shells of this species hitherto found were dead, although much time was spent in examining for live ones in May, 1837, and in June, 1838. A few only were found, and are in the cabinets of Mrs. Say, Ue Kirtland, Doct. Ward, and myself, 270 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. - The shell- here published as the Unio Sayii, in honor of the ist American conchologist, has been supposed by Mr. Lea to be “a middle aged camptodon of Say,” and by Mr. Conrad and some others, to be the declivis of Say. Without entering into a minute comparison here, let those who have the Unios campto- don and declivis of Say and this shell, compare them with each other, and they will be compelled to agree that they are three dis- tinct and well marked species. Those who have not the shells to compare, will arrive at the same conclusion, by a careful com- parison of the drawings of the declivis, plate 35, of the American Conchology ; of the camptodon, plate 42, of the same work ; and the drawing, No. 1; herewith given: all by the same accurate ~ and skillful hand. ° In general, the western conchologists adopt t Mr. Lea’s classification and nomenclature of the Naiades, with perhaps but one exception, the mytiloides, which they are not able to find in Rafinesque’s © Monocrapu. But in dissenting from his opinion in this instance, and calling the Unio Sayii a new and undescribed ‘shell, the opinion of Dr. Ward is supported by all those conchologists; nor does it seem probable to them that Mr. Lea would have called it a camptodon, or Mr. Conrad and ie a declivis, if they had carefully examined many a Arr. VIL—On. the employment of Uvularia perfoliata as 4 remedy for Poisoned Wounds ; by Bensamin Horner CoaTEs, ied D., — peysiciat to the Pennsylvania Hospital. = Read béford the Paes rae par heig of Natural Sciences, Aug. 14, 1838, as a ommur ication, not intended for their Journal. Wane at Pottsville, in July, 1838, I was called ‘upon to visit a girl about five years of age, alleged to have been bitten by a rat- tlesnake, but as it afterwards appeared, probably bya copper-head, (Trigonocephalus contortrix.) When Isaw the patient, three hours had elapsed ; but the parent, an intelligent man, stated that the pain produced by the bite had greatly abated dindet the applica- tion of a plant obtained from the forest, and applied bruised and moistened with salted vinegar. Although crushed, the plant ap- peared on inspection, to be the Uvularia perfoliata ; and its identity was afterwards verified by fresh specimens obtained for me by 4 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 271 gentleman attached to the Delaware coal company, but who has forbidden me.to use his name. No other remedy of a nature cal- culated to diminish pain appeared to have been employed, unless a tight and hard ligature above the knee be considered such. This, however, appeared to me rather to increase than diminish the sufferings of the wounded individual. I apprehend, further, that the pain produced by. the bite of a copper-head does not.in general, terminate in so-short a period as three hours, and that the amount of pain relieved exceeded that usually experienced from the application of cold and wet substances, as mud, &c. to | envenomed stings. Under these circumstances, the case seemed p to possess a certain weight in favor of the real usefulness of this antidote.- The details of the narrative will be appehded to the present notice. . The gentleman already alluded to, had known it to be previ- ork employed in two cases with apparent success; in the first of which, it was applied by an old’ Indian to the bite of a rattle- snake near the shoulder of a boy. ~ I observe in the Medical Flora of Prof. Roknesine that the different species of Uvularia, particularly the perfoliata and grandi- flora, are set down as “said to be equal to Hieracium nervosum Frénesam] in bites of rattlesnakes ;” and to the Hieracium he 3 elsewhere (p. 228) gives a high character. I am ignorant from what sources Mr. Rafinesque derives his information relative to . the powers of the Uvularia, unless it is from the following passa- ges in Schepf, p. 40: “vis,—maturans, aperiens: usws,—radix aqua contusa ad-vulnera Caudison, aliaque vulnera et ulcera. Herbee decoctum ad inflammationem oris, laryngis, tonsillarum.” T From its affinities, it may be reasonably supposed to possess active properties ; Dr. Lindley placing it with Veratrum, Helonias and , and Dr. Torrey, near Medeola and Trillium. When chewed, it afforded but little saaslag, with a bitterish taste, and produced a strong sialagogue effect, pn a scarcely perceptible nausea. Upon summing up this evidence fam me aad: to believe, that a certain degree of probability attaches to the ascription of remedial virtues to this plant in cases of envenomed wounds. If we add together the observations at Pottsville, the statements of Professor _ Rafinesque, and the botanical analogies, I can hardly feel willing to pass them by as unworthy of attention. We may further sug- pene aes 272 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. gest the expediency of making trials of analogous plants so widely diffused among us, and so easy to obtain in larger quantities, as Veratrum viride, and Helonias lutea and dioica. ‘es Case.—Mount Carbon, July 22: 2, P.M. Called to visit s. B., five years old, said to have been bitten by a rattlesnake. Dr. Wetherill politely accompanied me. According to her father, she was walking with him three hours previously, picking whortle- berries, when the father trod on a snake, which immediately bit the child. On being questioned, the persons present acknowl- edged that the serpent in question was less than three feet long, that they had not heard it rattle, and that they had not killed it, and therefore had no opportunity of examining its ap As the-effects of the bite were violent, it was presumed that it was inflicted by a copper-head, iP aeonaneihalia contortrix, of Dr. Holbrook, ) which was.the only snake known in the vicinity likely to combine the above conditions. -A company who walked to the spot two days after, found the body of a copper-head in a state of decay, which might easily be attained in such an interval. It had. been, notwithstanding the above statements, killed by a blow across the back, and was fur- . nishing a repast to a number of large black: baesien, observed to gnaw the bodies of snakes. -A strip of white ash bark was Bound finaly" SBodd the limb above the knee; and at some subsequent: period, a quantity of Uvularia pestelata: bruised with vinegar and salt, was applied _ round the vicinity of the bite. - Under this treatment the wound, cat first intensely’ painful, became ie free from ‘pain unless touched. It continued to feel numb. The limb was enormously distended with an cedematous swell ling, extending as’ high as the ligature; masses of effused blood were visible, deeply seated in the top of the foot and in several parts of the leg, particularly at the middle of the fore part. The skin was white, shining, and cold. One puncture only was visi- ble, situated about two inches above the instep, and surrounded by a dark red circle. I could only explain the appearance of a sin- gle puncture by supposing, that the snake struck the child while isordered in its movements by the pressure of the parent’s foot. A cup was sent for, but when obtained proved too large to ad- here to the limb. Suction was made forcibly by the bowl of a enero tie for half an hour ; at the end of which time, several Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. 273 drops of blood had issued from the puncture, a little diluted with a serous fluid ; and other blood had. been effused from the inden- tation produced by the pipe, which was marked by a circular ec- chymosis. We then discontinued the suction, fearing to disor- ganize the skin by itslonger employment. ‘Three doses of a strong and caustic aqua ammonize, amounting in all to about twenty drops, were given to the child, with milk; a paste of the same liquid with wheat flour, was applied over and around the. wound, to the extent of about one and a quarter inches square. The ligature and Uvularia were continued. At 4, P. M., the swelling was a‘ little increased. No pais; Ivo wever, was ptperiGndedd when the part was not touched. The numbness was considerably increased, and the color much yel- lower. A slight increase of the frequency and volume of the pulse had taken place. Continued applications. Gave five drops more of aqua am- moniz f sis zy 6, P. M. Dr. Halberstadt met me at the house. Numbness and soreness abated. Color much more yellow; less redness; skin more opaque ; swelling slightly increased. Coldness nearly as great. Omit ligature. Purge in the evening with salts. 9, P. M. Parents.had continued the ligature sign terror. Swelling, distress and restlessness increased. - Apprehended mortification. Ligature to be removed peep; torily. 23d. Laiuatirg had been removed last evening. Patient had rested well. Cathartic had operated. Swelling diminished be- low the knee, but extended much nearer the body, beyond the mark of the ligature, to the terror of the parents. No fever. Am- moniacal ‘paste had blistered smartly. _ Considered better, | Poul- tice the blister with bread and milk. Continue Uvularia to un- covered parts. Sweat limb with hot vinegar steam. _ Evening. Dr. Halberstadt informs me that the swelling did not visibly diminish, till the child was freely purged. Wednesday, 25th: 5, A. M.. Child runs about freely. No pain. — inconvenience. _ Swelling greatly abated. Yellow color inten 29th, Sie Dr. Halberstadt in Philadelphia. Child well. With regard to the mortality of the bite of our venomous ser- pents, and the at of recovery from them by the unassisted Vos EXxV.— 35 274 Uvularia perfoliata as a remedy for Poisoned Wounds. powers of nature, the facts which have occurred or been commu- nicated to me, tend strongly to prove the correctness of the posi- tion, that death rarely, if ever, takes place from the direst effects of the bite in human adults. Thus, that which is ascertained by Fontana with so much labor in regard to the viper, and rendered so probable by Russell, as to the cobra de capello and other cele- brated Indian serpents, seems likely. to be also established in re- gard to our rattlesnakes. 'This would hardly have been expected from a comparison made by the last named author, who states that a rattlesnake in London killed a dog in two minutes; while the shortest period of time in which Dr. R. was able to produce that effect by his strongest cobras, was-thirteen minutes, or a pe- riod six and a half times as long. Of our ten or twelve venomous serpents, it seems generally conceded, that the most powerful are the different species of Crotalus. Of these, Dr. M’Connell, of Mauch Chunk, communicated to me eleven years since, that he had then attended no less than seventeen bites ; not one of which had proved fatal. Since that period, the Crotali have become less _ humerous in the vicinity, from the increase of population. Dr. M’C.-has however, within his momentary recollection, seen three or four more, and has never seen a death. Similar results were met with at Pottsville, by Dr. Halberstadt; and the popular re- collections I heard came to the same account, with the exception of one statement, of which I did not learn the details, that a man had some time previously died in two minutes, of a bite. Most probably, in this last case, the poison was instilled into a vein. I observe, that Mr. Daudin alledges that this venom is extremely for- midable in the south, but that its terrors are singularly exaggera- ted in the north. -That the exaggeration may also be found in another latitude, may be alledged upon the authority of our dis- tinguished countryman, Dr. Holbrook; as whose opinion T am authorized to state, that the poison of the rattlesnake is mortal to animals of the size of its prey; but very rarely, if ever, to man. by observations so extensive as those of the gentlemen I have named, the addition of two more cases could only be worth ma- king, from a desire to enlarge as far as possible the number of cases from which inferences are to be drawn. I have seen two such out of Philadelphia,* and both recovered. - * After the above had been read to the Academy, William Hembel, Esq., fa- vored me ‘iret he oe be = Pad ; ee st, that, : g t% 2A fam two British Association for the Advancement of Science. 275 _ From these facts, it will be easy to explain the-doubtful — tion of various remedies for the bites of our venomous se . Those enumerated by Daudin, seem to have been nearly all pa sight of by medical men and naturalists, with the exception of the Hieracium venosum. Perhaps most of our “snake roots,” the Aris- tolochia serpentaria, Polygala senega, Cimicifuga racemosa, owe their cognomen to a similar source. Still, it was thought a duty to medical science to preserve and compare the apparent fact of the agency of a medicinal plant, to extend science and facilitate future inquiries. -'The appropriate method of treatment would seem to be nearly that pointed out by Fontana; viz. a moderately tight ligature, and suction, with some force and for a prolonged period. It must be conceded that the venom, unless removed by suction, is gradually absorbed into the general system; and that the real object of the ligature is not the impracticable purpose of preventing this, but that of allowing time enough for the gradual introduction of the poison by the capillaries, and its progressive removal by the emunctories. Finally, as two hours were found by Fontana to be sufficient with the viper, conjecture or analogy would probably allow us to consider our precautions against the rattlesnake as sufficient in six or seven hours. It will probably be still right for us to make further trial of antidotes; nor can any circumstance render useless, such varying treatment as the incidents of the case may call for in the mind of a ne Arr. VIIL—An Account of the Proceedings of the Highth Meet- ing of the Firsts Association fr the Advancement of Science: ‘Tue eig th meeting of this noble institution was held at New castle, nie the week from the 20th to the 26th of August, 1838. The attendance was unusually large, and the interest ex- cited was in no degree inferior to that exhibited on former ocea- sions. such high authorities, it appeared to form too valuable an addition to the state- ments in the text to justify omission. Mr. Hembel and the late Professor Benja- min Smith Barton, made inquiries of a considerable number of Indian chiefs of _ The reply was uniform, “that “it was never mortal, because they had antidotes.” ‘The comments already made are Falaabs sufficient. 976 British Association for the Advancement of Science. The London Atheneum, (Nos. 565—568, ) contains a copious and excellent Report of the doings of the meeting. It is impos- sible, in the limits within which other claims upon our pages compel us to bring this article, to give-more than a condensed summary of that Report. We shall of course be obliged to pass with a bare mention, many of the papers, and to abridge others more than we could wish. We shall endeavor to lay before our readers those topics which fall more particularly within the prov- ince of this Journal. / The financial concerns of the Association are highly pa age On the 31st of July, 1838, its property amounted to £6812 | ld., viz. in books, £1000 7s. 6d., and in stocks and cash on aie £5812 10s. 7d. During the year: £932 2s. 2d. were eee for the prosecution of various scientific investigations. As heretofore, the meeting was distributed into independent sections, holding distinct daily sessions. The next meeting of the Association - will be — at as ham, during the month of August, 1839. Section A. \ Mathematical and Physical Science. _It was reported to the section, 1. That the Committee appointed to. represent to the Govern- ment the importance of reducing the Greenwich Observations on the Moon, had waited on the Chancellor of the Exchequer, _ and that the sum of £2000 had been appropriated for that purpose, which was placed at the disposal of the Astronomer Royal, who had-undertaken to superintend the reductions. 2. That the reduction of the. Stars, intended to ae the en- larged Catalogue of the Royal Astronomical Society, was in pro- gress ;—and (3) also the sedation of thé Stars in the Histoire Celéste. _ A. That arrangements had Saoeei piictacacth aecowal for the establishment of -an- Observatory at Liverpool, and would be car- ried into effect as soon as the eer power could be obtained from Parliament. Lieut. Col. Reid on Redjiclats Law sof Sirens. Tiéut Col. Reid, R. E. then read * A Report explaining the em made towards selene: the Law of Storms, ane a British Association for the Adeancement of Science. ort | Statement of what seems agri should be farther done to “8 vance our knowledge of the subje Col. Reid commenced by sisting that he had lohg Bie con- vinced that the operations of the Deity in the workings of his providential care over his creatures, were governed by fixed laws, designed by incomprehensible wisdom, arranged by supreme power, and tending to the most benevolént ends. However irreg- ular the tempest or the tornado might appear to the inobservant, yet our own day had seen some of the phenomena reduced to rule ; and he doubted not soon to convince the Section that we were on the eve of advancing some steps farther towards this most desirable end. His attention had been first’ directed to the subject in 1831. He arrived on military service, at Barbadoes, just after the desolating hurricane of that year, which, in the ‘Short space of seven hours, destroyed 1477 persons on that island alone. He had been for two years and a half daily employed as an engineer officer amidst the ruined buildings, and was thus nat- urally led to the consideration of the phenomena of. hurricanes. The first explanation which to him seemed reasonable, he found in a pamphlet by William C. Redfield, of New York, extracted from the American Journal of Science; a work much less known in this country than its value and great merits deserved. The northeast storms on the coast of America had attracted the atten- _tion of Franklin. He had been prevented, by one of these storms, from observing an eclipse of the moon at Philadelphia, which he was soon after astonished to find had been seen in Boston, although that town lay to the northeast of Philadelphia. This ‘was a circumstance not to be lost on such an ‘inquiring | mind as Franklin’s: he ascertained, upon inquiry, that the same northeast storm had not reached Boston for some hours after it had blown at Philadelphia; and that, although the wind blew from the northeast, yet the progress of the entire storm was from the southwest. He died, however, before he had made any fur- ther progress in this investigation.* Col. Capper, of the Hast India Company’s service, after having studied meteorological sub- jects for twenty years, in the Madras territory, published a work, in 1801, upon winds and monsoons, giving brief statements of eer fatal effects, from Orme’s History of Hindustan. In this * Pranklin-died in 1790, forty six years after he sous discovery —Eps. 278 _British Association for the Advancement of Science. work he states his belief that hurricanes will be found to be great whirlwinds; and says, “it would not perhaps be a matter of great difficulty to ascertain the situation of a ship in a whirl- wind, by observing the strength and changes of the wind. If the changes are swdden, and the wind violent, in all probability the ship must be near the center of the vortex of the whirlwind; whereas, if the wind blows a great length of time from the same point, and the changes are gradual, it may reasonably be suppo- sed that the ship is near the extremity of it.” In this conjecture respecting the nature of hurricanes, Col. Reid conceived Col. Capper to be decidedly right, and the conclusion he drew from it has stood the test of close examination. Mr. Redfield, following up the observation of Franklin, and though probably unac- quainted- with the views or opinions of Capper, ascertained that while the northeast storms were blowing on the shores of Amer- ica, the wind was with equal violence blowing a southwest storm in the Atlantic. Tracking Franklin’s storms from the southward, he found, throughout their course, that the wind on opposite sides of the shore over which the storm prevailed, blew in oppo- site directions, and that in fact, the entire storm was a progres- sive whirlwind, and that all these whirlwinds revolved constantly in the same direction. Ina No. of the American Journal of Sci- ence, (for 1831,) Col. Reid found collected together many records of the same storms, and a chart on a very small scale, showing the progress of one. Strongly impressed with the conviction that Mr. Redfield’s views were correct, he determined. to verify them by making charts on a large scale, and laying down on them the different reports of the directions of the wind at points given in the American Journal of Science : and the-more exactly this was done, the nearer was the approximation to the tracks of a progressive whirlwind.* He then exhibited to the Section @ volume,t containing eight charts on a large scale, of which the rs if 5 : ———— 7 ona : , in consequence of our frequent intercourse with Mr. Redfield, been acquainted with the pro ess of his inquiries and discoveries, we may here state that the course adopted by Col. Reid, of plotting-on a large chart, the various Te- ports.of a storm, had been employed many years pearionss by Mr. R., and indeed led him to his most important con conclusions. We also mention that we are sure that Mr. R. has not to this day, seen Col. Capper s book, and that he was not -aware of its —— until just before the reception of Col. Reid’s work.—EDSs. t See a notice of — 183 of this volume.—Epns. | British Association for the Advancement of Science. 279 . first and second chart contained the result of this part of the ex- amination; and he explained how the arrows showing the direc- tion of the wind at the several stations were all on the right hand side of the several circles flying from the south, while at the stations at the left hand, or towards the east of the chart, they were all coming from the north. After tracing a variety of storms in north latitudes, and being impressed with the regularity with which they appear to pass to the North Pole, and always revolved in the same direction, viz. opposite to the hands of a watch, or from the east roond by the north, west, south and east,—he was led to conclude, that in accordance with the order of nature, storms in south satitadies would be found to revolve in a contrary direction to that which they take in the northern hem- isphere. He earnestly sought for facts, to ascertain if this were the case, and had obtained much information confirmatory of the truth of the conjecture, before he was aware that Mr. Redfield had formed the same opinion. The general phenomena of these _ storms will be understood, if the storm, as a great whirlwind, be represented by a circle, whose center is made to progress along a curve, which generally approaches the parabolic, the circles ex- panding as they advance from the point at which the storm be- gins to be felt. He pointed out how his views were illustrated by the disastrous storm of 1809, experienced by the East India fleet, under the convoy of the Culloden line-of-battle ship, and the Terpsichore frigate, and four British men-of-war, which left the.Cape of Good Hope, about the same time, intending to cruise about the Mauritius. Some of these vessels scudded and ran “in the storm for days; some by lying-to, got almost immediately out of it, while others, by taking a wrong direction went into the heart of it, foundered, and were never heard of more ; others, by sailing across the calm space, met the same storm ‘o-different parts of its progress and the wind blowing in opposite directions, and considered and spoke of it as two storms, which they encoun- tered; while others, by cruising about within the bend of the curve, but, beyond the eircle of the great whirl, escaped the storm altogether, which had been for days raging on all sides of them. This led him to draw. the very important practical con- clusion as to how a ship should act when she encountered a gale, SO as to escape from it. By watching the mode of veering of the wind, the portion of a storm into which a ship is fall- 280 British Association for the Advancement of Science. ing, may be ascertained ; if the ship be then so manceuvred as that the wind shall veer aft in- stead of ahead, and the vessel is made to come up, instead of be- ing allowed to break off, she will run out of the storm altogether ; but, if the contrary course be taken, either through chance or ignorance, she goes right into the whirl, and runs a great risk of being suddenly taken aback, but most assuredly will meet the opposite wind in passing out through the whirl. To accomplish her object, he showed, by a diagram,* (as is above represented,) that it was necessary the ship should be “laid on opposite tacks, on opposite sides of a storm, as may be understood by drawing a number of con- centric circles to represent the whirl of the hurricane, and then different lines across these, to represent the course of ships enter- ing into, or going through the storm ; but to attempt the full ex- planation of even this, would execitd much beyond our limits. ‘The apparent pects of the force of storms with the law of magnetic intensity, as exhibited by Major Sabine’s report, is remarkable. It had beat frequently remarked that no storms occur at St. Helena. He had therefore felt. much curiosity to know the degree of. oes intensity there, and was not a little ‘Struck at finding it the est yet ascertained on the globe. Major Sabine’s Isodynamic lines, to express less than unity, are only marked there, ‘and they appear as it were to mark the true Pacific Ocean of the world. The lines of greatest intensity, on the contrary, seem to correspond with the localities of typhoons and hurricanes ; for we find the meridian of the American mag- netic pole paibeinig not far from the Caribbean st and that of the Siberian pole through the China sea. — - _ Prof. A. D. Bache, of Philadelphia, stated that he rose to than Col. Reid, for the very handsome marmer in which: he had brought forward the cui of his countryman, Mr. Redfield. ee . A Bape similar = ; with a discussion of the methods of escaping a storm, Was res by Mr. Vol. xxxt, p. 117, of this Journal—Eps. is, wee in some respects more full ‘od explicit, together Redfield i AO ae | British Association for the Advancement of Science. 281 Having done this justice to one of his countrymen, Prof. B. re- marked, that he was sure Col. Reid would follow it up by an examination of a rival theory of storms, by Mr. James P. Espy of Philadelphia. In this theory, the wind was supposed to blow in all directions towards the center of the storm; and a large col- lection of observations had been brought by Mr. Espy to form this point, especially those at his command from various quarters of the United States, as Chairman of the Committee of Meteo- rology of the American Philosophical Society,-and the Franklin Institute. This theory, Prof. B. further remarked, was ‘entirely in accordance with observations which he had made upon the track of a storm, popularly. called a tornado, which passed over a portion of the State of New Jersey, in June, 1835. He had sur- veyed, by compass, different parts of this sini and found the objects thrown down by the storm directed towards a center. He had found no evidence of a mailing motion at the surface of the ground. =~ Sir Ie FW. Herschel, (the President of the. Section, ) sities resigned the chair to Mr. Baily, addressed the audience, and hailed this communication of Col. Reid, as one of happy omen for the progress of science in this important branch; and congratulated the meeting that the subject had fallen into the hands of those who had already made such progress in its elucidation, and from whom it was likely to receive so complete a sifting. . He did not rise at present to add any thing to the stock of information already given, but, as having received from Mr. Redfield his pa- pers on this subject, he could not neglect the opportunity of pub- licly expressing his thanks, and of stating the great pleasure he had derived from their perusal. And here he found an anecdote of Franklin frequently pressed on his recollection. A_blunt sea- faring demanded from Franklin; or in his presence, what had been done for the advantage: or security of sailors by any landsman. At least, replied Franklin, you must admit that a _landsman had discovered the most useful art of navigation. It was not only at sea that the practical value of this splendid dis- covery respecting hurricanes would develop itself in enabling the sailor to escape its violence, instead of running ignorantly into the very jaws of destruction, by attempting torun away; but even on land, it would suggest invaluable hints for the secur- ing of life and property. One or two circumstances connected Vou. XXXY. —No. 2. 282 British Association for the Advancement of Science. with Col. Reid’s charts, particularly impressed him: the first was the curious parabolic shape of the courses denoting the progress of these storms, so well calculated to give unfailing directions as _ to the nature and course of a storm, when accidentally encoun- _ tered at sea ; as the sailor had only to consider the parts of these curves in which he was placed, and the veering of the wind, and he had almost placed before him a chart of the hurricane. He next threw out the suggestion for Col. Reid’s consideration, whether the Gulf-Stream would not perhaps give a cliie to the direction of these curves, as so large a body. of comparatively warm water must most materially tend to heat the air above it, and thus occasion disturbances of atmospheric equilibrium. Col. Reid had stated. that he had no theory: in this no doubt he was judicious as an observer ; but yet, in the present assembly, a the- ory, if it served no better purpose, helped memory, suggested views, and was even useful by affording matter for controversy, which might produce brilliant results, by the very collision of in- tellect. In the second place, he remarked, that in the southern hemisphere, the oscillations of the barometer, which were in an opposite direction to those of the northern, afforded a strong con- firmation of the correctness of Col. Reid’s views. ‘These revolv- ing hurricanes reminded him, that on discharging a great gun unshotted, the mouth of which had been previously greased, a beautiful ring of smoke is formed, which passes to a considerable distance with much permanence, but constantly enlarging in di- ameter: upon attending closely to this, every part of the ring will _ be found to be in rapid revolving motion, thus exhibiting to the eye a hurricane in miniature, performing its evolutions. As to Mr. Espy’s theory, though he considered it ingenious, yet he did not see how it was tenable against the indications of the barom- eter ; for, unquestionably, if a large body of air were to set on every side inwards, towards a central ascending column, the ne- cessary effect would be an increase of weight of the entire baro- metric column: but there was even stronger-evidence against it ; r if the air acquired any thing of a gyratory motion, on the principle of the vis viva, the rapidity of gyrations should increase enormously as we approach the center of the column ; just as we see the opera dancers, in the pirouette, increase the rapidity of the evolution as they diminish the circuit; and so we find in the in- dications of the facts detailed by Col. Reid, regarding the hurri- British Association for the Advancement of Science, 283 cane,—as the cireles of its gyrations open and extenes the storm is progressing towards spending its fury, and disappearing. Al- though it did not bear directly on the question now under discus- _ sion, yet he could not help saying, that there are circumstances connected with the spots on the sun, which forcibly impressed his mind with the idea of tornadoes in the solar atmosphere, which, by scattering and opening out the luminous superficial matters, laid bare the opake and dark mass beneath. It had at all times been a question. with astronomers, how the spots were formed, supposing the luminous matter of the sun to be a merely superficial and uniformly spread stratum ; but something like vio- lent hurricanes being supposed to take plana in the solar atmos- phere, the difficulty is much diminished, if it did not entirely disappear ; and in truth the appearance of the spots within the last year or two, was such as farther to induce the supposition of something in the solar atmosphere very like our trade-winds, for whereas, most usually, the spots have been scattered not very regularly over each hemisphere, they have latterly’ appeared more in lines following each other in succession, and having ap- parently an inclination towards the sun’s equator on each side. If decided indications of any thing like trade-winds should, by this or other circumstances connected with the spots, be detected, the other conclusions. would be much strengthened. _ Herschel’s Astronomical Observations at the Cape of Good Hope. These were reported under the following heads. 1. Re- duced Observations of 1232 Nebule and clusters of Stars, made in the years 1834, 5, 6, 7,8, at the Cape of Good Hope with the 20-feet Reflector. 2.. Fadticed Observations of 1192 Double Stars of the Southern Hemisphere, made.as above. 'The observations in these two papers form parts of two catalogues of southern neb- ule and double stars respectively, which comprise the chief re- sults of his astronomical observations at the Cape. They are complete only as far as the first nine hours of R: A. In the other hours, only a few of the objects which occur are added, being the results of a partial and very incomplete reduction of the ob- servations in those hours. Sir. J. thought that when all the ob- servations are reduced for the catalogues, the number of objects contained in them will be nearly doubled. The first catalogue contains all the numerous nebule and clusters comprised in the two Magellanic clouds. Each reduced observation expresses the 284 British Association for the Advancement of Science. | mean R. A. and North Polar distance of the object for the begin- ning of 1830, together with a description, in abbreviated language, of its appearance and physical peculiarities, as to size, brightness, condensation, é&c. The observations of double stars in the pneasy catalogue, express the mean place for the epoch above named,— the angle of position of thestars with the meridian, as micromet- rically measured. at the time of observation,—the estimated dis- tance, and the magnitude assigned to each star, with a column of remarks, in which are noted peculiarities of color, &c. 3. Mi- crometrical Measures of 407 principal Double Stars of the South- ern Hemisphere, made at the Cape of Good Hope. with a 7- ~feet Achromatic Equatorial Telescope. 'These measures were taken with the same achromatic and micrometer, and are arranged in pre- cisely the same’ manner as the former similar observations made by Sir J., and printed in the Trans. of Royal Astron. Society. _ Among the principal double stars in this paper occur, « Centauri, « Crucis, 7 Centauri, 7 Lupi, « Lupi, « Lupi, ¢ Hydre, « Chamele- ontis, 7 Piscis volantis, 7 Corone Australis, ‘&c. These measures afford unequivocal evidence of. rotation in.some of these double stars, particularly in « Centauri, @ Hydre, y Corone, and 7 Lupi. In « Centauri, the decrease of distance, even within the short pe- riod of observation, is remarkable ; and Sir J. remarked, that on examining the eatalogues of the Astron. Soec., and that of Capt. Johnston, and the Paramatta Catalogue, in all which, the places of the two stars are given separately, he finds this diminution of distance fully borne out and regularly progressive; from which he concludes that in 15 or 20 years from this time, the stars may be expected to appear in contact, or to be actually occulted one by the other, as has recently been observed to happen toy Vir- ginis. 4. A list of the Approximate Places of 15 Planetary and Annular Nebule of the Southern Hemisphere, discovered with the 20-feet Reflector ; with Drawings illustrative of the Appear- ance and structure of 3 principal Nebule in the Southern Hem- isphere. These are-arranged in order of R.A.-and numbered. Among these, several are somewhat elongated, and offer the ap- pearance of being double. No. 7 is of a fine blue color, and _ being particularly well-defined, has exactly the aspect of a blue planet. No. 4 is a very bright and considerably large elliptic dise of uniform light, on which, but excentric, is placed a — large star. Several are very small; No. 15 is not more than 3” — “3 ageeee a British Association for the Advancement of Setence. 285 or 4” in diameter. Many of them occur in crowded parts of the milky way, with not fewer than 80 or 100 stars in the field of view at once. 'The drawings are copies of much more elaborate originals, and merely selected from a greater collection, illustra- ting three of the most singularly constituted nebule in the S. Hemisphere, viz. 9 Orionis, 4 Argis and 30 Doradis. Sir J. ex- plained. how, by means of a small achromatic collimator placed inside his great sweeping telescope, he was able to obtain nearly the same precision ‘as was to be had in fixed observations; al- though from the ropes and wooden frame with which ics was mounted, it was ‘subjected to great hygrometric and pyrometric changes of form and position. These changes, by affecting alike the cross of the collimator, and the object, were readily detected and corrected.—Dr. Robinson, spoke in praise of the accuracy of the positions given in ‘Sir J. Herschel’s catalogues; and in favor of the application of reflecting telescopes to divided instruments. Notwithstanding the great increase in late years, of the size of achromatics, it seemed improbable that they would ever reach a magnitude which could not be easily overmatched by reflection. Something to this effect had been done in Ireland. In his. own observatory was a reflector of 15 inches aperture, applied to an equatorial of cast iron, which gave polar distances with a proba- ble error of about 6 seconds, and right. ascensions to the ultimate reading of the hour circle verniers. The artist who executed this, had since made a reflecting transit of six inches aperture, which _ performed well, and its collimator was not affected by reversion. Sir J. Herschel remarked that :the only change in a nebula, which he had-yet noticed, was in that of Orion. A small trans- verse strip, which, when he first figured. that nebula, was straight, had become parved, and showed a knotty” appearance, which cer- tainly it-did not possess before.” ~ Remarkable Phenomena if Halley s Comet.—Sir J. Herschel related the following. One of the most interesting series of ob- servations, I had to make at the Cape of Good Hope, was that of Halley’s Comet. This comet is the great glory of modern calcu- lation. ‘Fo see the predicted return of such a body now verified for the second time, true to a single day,—nay, to ‘a few hours— of his appointed time, after an absence of 75 or 76 years, during _ which it has been subjected to the unceasing perturbations of all the planets, and especially persecuted by Jupiter and Saturn, 286 British Association for the Advancement of Science. those great stumbling blocks of comets, is really superb. How- ever, what I have now to relate, refers to a very singular and in- structive fact in its physical history. I saw the comet for the first time after its perihelion passage, on the night of January 25. Mr. Maclear saw it on the 24th. From this time we of course observed it regularly. Its appearance at first, was that of a round, well-defined disc, having near its center, a very small bright ob- ject exactly like a small comet, and surrounded by a faint nebula. This nebula, in two or three more nights, was absorbed into the disc, and disappeared entirely. Meanwhile the disc itself dilated with: extraordinary rapidity, and by measuring its diameter at every favorable opportunity, and laying down the measures by a projected curve, I found the curve to be very nearly a straight line, indicating a uniform rate of incréase ; and by tracing back this line to its intersection with its axis, I was led, at the time, to this very singular conclusion,—viz. that on the 21st of January, at 2 h. p.m. the disc must have been a point,—or ought to have no magnitude at all! In other words, at that precise epoch some very remarkable change in the physical condition of the comet, inost:iays ‘cdmnieticed Well !-all this was speculation. But here comes the matter of fact I refer to, and which, observe, was communicated to me no longer ago than last month by the venerable Olbers, whom I visited in my passage through Bremen, and who was so good as to show me a letter he had just received from M. Boguslawski, Professor of Astronomy at Bres- lau, in which he states, that he had actually procured an observa- tion of that comet on the night of the 2Ist of January. Well then, how did it appear?—why, as a star of the sixth magni- tude,—a bright concentrated point, which showed no disc, with a magnifying power of 140! And that it actually was the comet, and no star, he satisfied himself, by turning his telescope on that point where he’had seen it. It was gone! Moreover, he had taken care to secure, by actual observation, the place of the star he observed ; that place agreed to exact precision with his com- putation ; in short, that star was the comet. Now, I think this observation every way remarkable. First, it is rernarkable, for the fact, that M. Boguslawski was able to observe it at all on the 21st. This could not have been done, had he not been able to direct his telescope poifit-blank on the spot, by calculation, since it would have been impossible in any other way to have known 2 Be ae British Association for the Advancement of Science. 287 it from a star. And, in fact, it was this very thing which caused Maclear and myself to miss procuring earlier observations. Iam sure that I must often have swept, with a night-glass, over the very spot where it stood in the mornings before. sunrise. And ~ hever was astonishment greater than mine, at seeing it riding high in the sky, broadly visible to the naked eye, when pointed out to me by Mr. Maclear, who saw it with no less amazement on the 24th.. The next remarkable feature, is the enormously rapid ‘rate of dilatation of the disc, and the absorption into it of all trace of the surrounding nebula. Another, is the interior co- metic nucleus. All these phenomena, while they contradict every other hypothesis that has ever been advanced, so far as I can see, are quite in accordance with a theory on the subject, which I suggested on the occasion of some observations on Biela’s comet,—a-theory which sets out from the analogy of the precipi- tation of mists and dews from a state of transparent vapor on the abstraction of. heat. It appears to me, that the nucleus and grosser parts of the comet, must’ have been entirely evaporated during its perihelion, and re-precipitated during its recess from the sun, as it came into acolder region; and that the first mo- ment of this precipitation was precisely that I have pointed out as the limit of the existence of the disc,—viz. on the 21st of Jan- uary, 1836, at 2 p. m., or perhaps an hour or two later. Rev. W. Whewell’s Account of a Level line measured from the Bristol Channel to the English Channel, during the years 1837-8, by Mr: Bunt, under the direction of a Committee of the British Association, was read, the result of which is, that in July, 1838, the sea level at Portishead, (near Bristol,) was found to be ten inches higher than that at_Axmouth ; according to which, the mean . ake at Wick Rocks is 3. 8 sipelin ies than at Bor. tishead. — Prof. A. D. Bache, of Philadelphia, ten cprritnnndented « « Note on the effect of Deflected Currents of Air on the quantity of Rain collected by a Rain-gauge,” the more remarkable phenomena no- ticed in it being represented by diagrams. Prof. Phillips’s first Report on the quantity of rain collected at different heights, in- duced Prof. B. to begin a series of observations near the end of 1833. Philadelphia, from the extent of the plain on which it stands, was thought a good locality for this purpose. At first, _ gauges were placed at three different heights. One station was 288 British Association for the Advancement of Science. the top of a shot:tower 162 feet high; another was near the ground within the enclosure about the tower; and the interme- diate one was the roof of the University. His attention was. however ultimately fixed upon the fact that the effect of eddy ‘ winds upon the observed phenomena, was by no means a secon- dary one in amount, and that no law could be deduced, until this disturbing action was prevented. Prof. B. proceeded to make experiments on the effects upon the rain-gauges of the currents of air deflected by the tower, placing gauges at each angle. The results are given in a table, from which it appears that—l. The ‘quantities of rain collected at the different angles of the tower. were very different.. In one>extreme case the quantity collected at the S. E. angle was 24 times that at the N. W. angle. -2. In general, the gauges to leeward received more rain than those to windward. Prof. Stevelly considered. the fact that less rain was caught in elevated gauges than in those near the earth, to be due to the greater perpendicularity with which the rain falls near the | ground, and not to a continued enlargement of the drops, during : their descent, by new accessions of condensed moisture. Dr. Bantieny read a paper.on the Climate of North America. He began by observing, that although the general fact was ad- mitted that the E. portions of the New World had a lower tem- perature than the W. portions of the Old, yet much remains to be done before the relative climate of these two portions of the globe can be regarded as in any degree determined. Most of the h American observations were not sufliciently accurate. In Mr. McCord’s observations at Montreal were the best; and in the U. S., those made in N. Y., and published by the Re- gents of the University of that State. These results are how- ever defective, in not giving the intensity of solar radiation, which probably affects the distribution of plants and animals m a-manner quite distinct from its accompanying temperature. Hence, though many plants which grow in this country are killed by the winters of comparatively southern latitudes in America ; yet others, which require the warmth of a wall or of a southern aspect here, are found in comparatively high latitudes in the New World. Sir D. Brewster called attention to the im- portant fact, clearly established by the observations recorded in the neighborhood of New York, and those of Hansteen and Er- man in Siberia, that two points of maximum cold existed in these — ; ‘ ; : a — British Association for the Advancement. of Science. 289 regions, very generally agreeing in. position with ‘the. centers of | maximum magnetic intensities; and like. them, too, the maxi- mum of North America indicated a decidedly higher degree of cold than that which charaeterized the Siberian pole. «Also, that the lines of equal mean.temperature, as they surrounded these ~ poles, had-such a relation to the lines of equal magnetic intensity, as to point out clearly: some yet unknown connexion between ~ these two classes of phenomena. Prof. Bache, of Philadelphia, made some remarks on the importance of connecting the obser- vations making in the U. 8. with any which the Association might institute in the British Colonies in North America. Con- siderable progress had, within a few years, been made in-Amer- ica in the science of Meteorology. The abstracts of the reports of. Meteorological observations from the academies of the State. of New York, and the deductions made from them by Sir D: Brewster, had been a great stimulus: to-increased activity in that department. The recommendations of Sir John Herschel, had not only been adopted by individuals, but had led to the forma- tion of societies for the cultivation of meteorology. He hazarded nothing in-promising the hearty concurrence of meteorologists in the United. States in any extensive plan which the British Asso- ciation should sanction. . A paper from Prof. Powell followed, On some points connected with the Theory of Light. Mr. Dent then read a paper On the Construction of. opertable Mercurial Pendulum, accompanied by Experiments.. The cis- tern is made entirely of cast-iron :.the adoption of which metal permitted the cistern to be turned perfectly cylindrical within and Without, and of thus simplifying the elements of calculation for the height of a perfect cylindér of mercury requisite for eompen- sating the effects of variable temperature on the rod, an advan- taze which glass did not allow. - The homogeneity of the ma- terial also facilitates the reductions for temperature, by equalizing this throughout, and also permits the bearings to be diminished in number, and simplified in construction, when compared with the usual mereurial pendulum’ having glass cisterns.. The sus- pending rod passes through a hollow screw, and is secured by a - pin going through both.» The hollow screw passes through the axis of the cistern, and the cistern is constructed to move round this screw, which admits of shortening or lengthening the pen- Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 37 290 British Association for the. Advancement of Science. dulum for alteration in time. The edge of the cap belonging to the cistern is graduated, which subdivides the threads of the screw on the cistern, it being turned round for alteration in time. There is an aperture on the top of. the jar, which allows of mer- cury being added or removed without unscrewing the cap of the cistern. This aperture is closed by a screw, which, as well as ~that on the c aay has a ravens cater, to render the joints poriay air-tight. Prof. Whewell made af impor on. the Discussions of ‘Tides, performed under his direction, by means of the grant of money made for the purpose by the shiniOciddicink? 4 Prof. W. remarked, that he had adopted the method of curves, first systematically employed by Sir J. Herschel, which consists in laying down a number of points expressing the results of individual observa- tions, and then getting rid-of the irregularities which these in- volve, by drawing, not a line joining the points, which would be * a broken line, but by striking with a bold but firm hand; a line among the points, so as to come as near as possible to the whole assemblage of them. In this manner the heights and-lunitidal intervals were laid down as ordinates, and curves were drawn. This method of curves depends upon the fact, that the eye gene- ralizes the relations of space more rapidly.and surely than the in- tellect can generalize phenomena in any other way. Mr. Russell, of Edinburgh, brought up the “ Report of the Committee (cousisting. of Sir John Robison and himself) on _ Waves.” This report was a-continuation of that of last year, recently published. These researches are of great value and in- terest, but it is scarcely possible to condense the account. We give merely some remarks on the best forms for ships. One part of his subject was the relation which, the translation-wave bore to the phenomena of resistance of fluids. He had previously as- certained that the displacement of a fluid by a vessel took place, not in the body of the current; but solely by the generation of waves. Now, the manner in which they were generated ap- peared to throw light: upon the subject of the resistance of fluids ; because they wished to have. exactly the same. transference for particles of matter which was required for transference of waves. ‘They: wished to remove-the particles of fluid from a state of rest, and admit the vessel to pass through, and then allow them to-re- turn to their former places, hens the wave the pee a" British Association for the Advancement of Science. 291 first elevated above the surface, and then permitted to subside. Now they found. that whenever the displacement took place, as in the wave, they had the phenomena of least resistance. “So that in forming a floating vessel with this wave-line disposed on alternate sides of the keel, so as to give such motion to the parti- cles as to displace nothing more than was necessary, nor.for a greater distance than was necessary to allow the vessel to. pass, they obtained the solid of least resistance. Since that time, a variety of experiments on large vessels had been performed ; essels were now constructing on this form; and it was a remarkable fact, that the fastest vessel on the Thaines was one to which this juli had been given. It was scarcely credible, that a vessel should move at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, and not raise a spray,—not raise anything like that high mass of water which was always found at the bows of vessels going at speed, but enter the water perfectly smooth, and leave it smooth, and as much at rest in the direction of the displacement as it was before: the floating solid ‘passed... This phenomenon had i invari- ably accompanied all the vessels formed on this line. .- On some Preparations of the Eye, by-Dr. W. Clay Wallace. Sir D. Brewster exhibited a series of beautiful preparations of the eye, made by Dr. W. Clay Wallace, an able oculist in New York, calculated to establish some important points in the theory of vision. As no paper accompanied these preparations, Sir D. Brew- ster explained to the meeting their general nature and importance. Dr. Wallace, he stated, considers that he has discovered the appa- Yatus by which the eye is adjusted to different distances. "This adjustment is, he- conceives, effected in.two ways,—in eyes, which have spherical lenses, it is produced by a falciform, or — hook-shaped muscle attached only to one side of the lens, which by its constriction brings the crystalline lens nearer the retina. In this case, it is obvious that the lens will have a slight motion of yotation, and that the diameter, which was in the axis of vision previous to the contraction of the muscle, will be moved out of that axis after the adjustment, so that at different distances of the lens from the retina, different diameters of it will be placed in © the axis of vision. As the diameters of a sphere are all equal and similar, Dr. Wallace considered that vision would be equally perfect-along the different diameters of thelens, brought by ro- lation into the axis of vision. Sir D. however, remarked, that 292 British Association for the Advancement of Science. he had never found among his numerous examinations of the lenses of fishes, any which are perfectly spherical, as they were all.either oblate or prolate spheroids, so that along the different diameters of the solid lens, the vision would not be similarly per- formed. But, independent ofthis circumstance, he stated that ‘in every solid lens there was only one line or axis in which vision could be perfectly distinct, namely; the axis of the optical figure, _ or series of positive and negative luminous sectors, which are seen by the analysis of polarized light. Along every other diam- eter, the optical action of the lens ig not symmetrical. When the lens is not spherical but lenticular, as in the ‘human eye and in the-eyes of most quadrupeds, Dr. W. considers that the apparatus for adjustment is the ciliary processes, to which this office had viously ascribed, though not on the sami scientific grounds as those by him discovered. One of the most impor- tant results of Dr. W.’s dissections, is the discovery of fibres in the retina. 'These fibres may be rendered distinctly visible. They diverge from the base of the optic nerve, and’ surround the foramen ovale of Sémmering at the extremity of theveye. Sit J. Herschel had’ supposed such fibres to be requisite’ in the ex- planation of the theory of vision, and it is therefore doubly in- teresting to find that they have been actually discovered. Sir D. concluded by expressing a hope that British anatomists = turn their attention to this subject.. Sir D. Brewster then éommunicated his researches on “A N ew Kind of Polarity i in Homogeneous Light.” - At the last meeting, said he, I gave an account of a new property of light, which did not adniit of any explanation. Since that time, I have had oc- casion to repeat and vary the experiments; and having found the same property exhibited in a series of analogous though different phenomena, I have no hesitation in considering this property of ‘light as indicating a new species of polarity in the simple ele- ments of light; whether polarized or unpolarized. ~After detail- ‘ing the experiments, he says, hence I conclude that the different sides of the rays of homogeneous light have different. properties when they are separated by prismatic refraction or by the dif fraction of grooved surfaces or gratings ;—that is, these rays have polarity. When light is rendered as homogeneous as possible by ~ absorption, or hint it is emitted in the most homogeneous state by certain col — it exhibits none of the indications of } British Association for the Advancement of Science. 293 polarity above mentioned. The reason of this is, that the more or less refrangible sides of the rays lie in every direction; but as © ‘soon as these sides are arranged in-the same direction by pris- matic refraction or by. diffraction, the light displays- the same properties as if it had originally formed part of a spectrum. Some discussion among” the wee on points connected —_ this subject, ensue _~ Sir Wm. R: Hiunfiton then made a Per cg respecting the propagation of light in vacuo; and subsequently, on the propagation of lizht in crystals. The object of these papers was to advance the state of our knowledge respecting ‘the law which regulates the attractions or repulsions of the particles of ~ the ether on each other. Sir J. Herschel offered a Note on the Structure of the Vitreous Humor of the Eye of a Shark. . The-result is, that the vitreous humor, (so called,) of this fish is no jelly, but simply a clear li- quid; inclosed in some close’ cellular structure of transparent membranous bags, which, by their obstruction to the free move- ments of the contained liquid, imitate the gelatinous state. Mr. Ball, of C. C. Cambridge, read a paper “ On the meaning of the Arithmetical Symbols for Zero and Unity, when used in : atcagend Symbolical Algebra.” . - A communication was read from Prof. Wolisih, “On Sibdeien: ~nean Temperature ; and notice of a Brine Spring emitting Car-— bonic Acid Gas.” Observations had been made and were now ~ in progress, on the temperature of the earth at various distances beneath the surface, in the vicinity of Edinburgh, the results of which he intended to lay before the next meeting of the Associ- ation. ‘The brine spring is about a mile from Kissingen, Bava- tia. It has 3 per cent of salt, and rises in a bore 325 Bavarian _ feet deep in red sandstone; but it is understood that the water flows at about 200 feet in deyeh: Its temperature is never less than 65°,—the mean temperature of springs.near, being only 50° to 62°.- It discharges carbonic acid gas in volumes almost unex- ampled, keeping the water,—in a shaft of eight feet diameter,—in a state resembling. turbulent ebullition. 'The enormons supply of gas has led to its use in gas. baths, for which purpose it i8 carried off by a tube connected with a huge inverted funnel, which rests upon the water. It contains scarcely a trace of nitrogen. It is conducted into chambers properly prepared and thence into baths, 294 British Association for the Advancement of Science. in which it lies by its weight, and is used as water would be. But the most remarkable feature still remains. About five or six times a day the discharge of gas suddenly stops; ina few sec- _onds the surface of the well is calm. The flow of water, amount- -ing to 40 cubic feet per minute, also stops, or rather, becomes neg- ative, for the water recedes in the shaft even when the pumps, commonly used to extract the brine, do not work, and the -water subsides during 15 or 20 minutes. . It then flows again, the water appearing first and suddenly, the gas gradually increasing in quan- tity, till, after three quarters of an hour, the shaft is full as-at first. The state of greatest discharge continues with little variation since. the bore was made in 1822. Within a short distance isa bore 554 Bavarian feet deep, which exhibits somewhat similar phenomena. Altogether, Prof. F’. considers. that the: salt spring at Kissingen is the most singular phenomenon of its kind in En- rope except the Geysers. - Mr. Russell gave a description of 3 ag! Substitute ‘for the ot tain Barometer in Measuring Heights,’ by Sir John Robison. Mr. R. said, that all ‘persons who had.used the mountain. barom- eter, when measuring heights, would admit that it was a very cumbersome instrument, put out of order by very slight accidents, and only to be ‘used by persons well skilled in observing. ‘The principle of ‘Sir J. Robison’s contrivance is simple, and such that the most ignorant person might be intrusted with the preparatory manipulation of it, and might be sent up mountains when the philosopher could -not leave*his study, and bring-back the air to. be experimented upon ; and, since he could not go to the air with his barometer, to cause it to come to him. It consisted-of a wood- - en box, containing simply a thermometer and a number of tubes, of a bore something wider than those of self-registering thermom- eters, open at one end, and blown into bulbs at the other; also a small vessel of quicksilver.. All that the person who went up the mountain had to do, was to note the thermometer, and immerse. the open end of one of the tubes. into the mercury at each sta- tion, and then bring down the whole. "The examiner then places each bulbed tube, mto the stem of which a considerable quantity of mereury will, of course, be found to have entered, under the receiver of an-air pump, either along with a barometer, or with a well-made gauge; and on pushing the exhaustion until the mercury stood within the bulbed tube as it did upon the mouu- a i il 1 i] British Association for the Advancement of Science, 295 tain, making certain simple allowances for temperature, the height at which the barometer would have stood at the-station on the hill can be deduced ; and. thence, by the usual calculation, the height of the station. . The stem of the instrument is previously graduated, so that bare inspection shows the es of es air at the elevated station. - Sir D. Brewster communicated the following papers: “Ona new phenomenon of Color in certain specimens of Fluor-Spar.”— “On an Ocular Parallax in Vision, and on the law of visible di- rection.”—‘ An account of certain new na of Diffrac-. tion.” ——“ An account of an analogous series of new phenomena -of Diffraction when produced by a transparent diffracting body.” —‘ On the combined action of grooved metallic and transparent surfaces upon Light.” These valuable papers called forth from Sir J. Herschel the highest praise. “There is extreme difficulty,” said he, “in following with sufficient rapidity for discussion, such an. absolute torrent of new matter. Indeed, the discoveries of Sir D. Brewster, whether viewed in relation to the intervals at which they succeed each other, or. the instruction they ost veys equally fill us with delight and astonishment.” A paper on the Helnv Wind of Crossfell, was read by Rev. J. Watson. »Dr. Smith vend J a paper on the Varkitions. in the yaicnndity of Rain which falls in different parts of the Earth. The causes of these variations are, the author imagines, to be ascribed to the physical differences of the vicinity of each place, and in the track of the most rainy winds; and he found this opinion confirmed by a long average of Westerly and Easterly winds at London, com- pared with six other places. — . Prof. I esntitons- staal paihe-ai Bitlet Finisjtnioorite , an instrument for tllustrating its phenomena. The Stereoscope instrument is so named, from its property-of presenting to the mind the perfect resemblances of solid objects. A short explan- ation of the principles of the instrument was offered by Prof. W. Sir D. Brewster feared that the members could scarcely judge from.the very brief and modest account given by Prof. W. of the principle and-of the-instrument devised for illustrating it, of its extreme beauty and generality. He considered it one of the most valuable optical papers which had been presented to the ' -He observed,.that when taken in conjunction with the 296. British Association for the Advancement of Science. law of visible direction in monocular vision, it explains all those phenomena of vision by which philosophers had been so long per- plexed; and that vision in three dimensions received the most. complete explanation from Prof. W.’s researches. Sir J. Herschel characterized Prof-W.’s discovery-as one of the most curious and beautiful for its simplicity, in the entire range of ae optics. Rev. Charles Graves read a paper on, a General Catena Method. Sir T. M. Brisbane reported. the result of .an cxpheinnalld to de- termine the difference of longitude between London .and Edin- burgh. Having observed the surprising accuracy with which the difference of longitude of London and Paris had been ob- tained by Mr. Dent’s chronometers, he applied to him, and he very liberally placed at his disposal twelve of his valuable chro- nometers. With these, the differences of longitude of London, Edinburgh and’ Makerstouin, were taken ;.and by 4 mean of all the observations taken in going to the latter station and in return- ing, they were doen: to differ only by five one-hundredths of a secon A letter: from. the Astronomer Royal, G. B. shiny, was Ewell on ithe means of correcting the local magnetic action of the Compass ‘in iron Steam-Ships. By an apparatus of his: invention, the local deviations were almost wholly cabrseted. © The description will probably be given hereafter. Prof. Lloyd read a paper entitled, “ iistinslasion i the obser- vations of the Magnetic Dip and Intensity in Treland, with ad- ditional elements.” It i is found that the annual decrease of the’ dip at Dublin is 2/38. The recent and more complete observa- tions of Sabine at London, make the annual decrease there 2/.40. _ Major Sabine spoke in reference to the Report on the Variations in the Magnetic Intensity, printed in the last volume. He ad- verted to the observations of Profs. Bache and Courtenay, made in New York and the adjoining States, and which Prof. B. is now engaged in connecting with Europe.. Until this comparison is complete, these observations determine the value of the magnetic © force at the stations at which they are made, relatively to each other, but not relatively to other parts of the globe. - It was for this reason that they were not available for Sabine’s Report, = ee the, general distribution of the magnetic — is . LS British hiepibiins eb the Adéancomentof Science. 297 force over te earth’s. eusoee. The American observations. were made with needles inelosed.i in a vacuum apparatus, which Prof. B. had devised, with the. view of avoiding some of the anomalies occasionally experienced by other. observers. .They were made with extreme care, and were remarkable for minute attention to. all those SRS OMSIAD CAR which eopdnee, to the accuracy of the results. The oasnaiaey ae Mr. Snow -Hatris’s Report 1 of Meteorole- gical Observations made at Plymouth. Mr. E. Hodgkinson gave several’ observations made the last year on temperature in deep mines. in Cheshire and Lancashire, a full report of which he hoped to offer at the next meeting. Mr. Russell described an - apparatus for showing the connexion of magnetism with the wind, invented by Mr. Watt. Section B. Chemistry and. sinieeiiaets : Dr. Thomas Thomson on Native Diarseniate of Bead: Die ring the meeting of the. Association at Liverpool, a collection of minerals from Alston Moor was exposed for sale. Among them was one labelled, “ Vanadiate of lead from Caldbeck Fell.” It was in botryoidal concretions on quartz. Several-of these nodules, had, under thé microscope; the aspect of cylinders. Color, honey- yellow, like that of arseniate of lead, but lighter ‘and much less translucent. Lustre, resinous, and, more brilliant than that -of vanadiate of lead. Does not scratch’ calcareous spar, but scratches gypsum with great ease. Gravity, 7.272: that of vanadiate of lead is only 6.663. Before the blowpipe on platinum foil, it melts into a transparent globule, which on cooling, assumes nearly its original appearance. On charcoal, it gives out abundant arsenical fumes, and leaves globules a —_ see Two analyses by - lating, 68S apie gOS SORES 28 gage Lead FE Se are ne een Atsenic acid,’ > SP ste 18.20 Protoxide of lead, - -- ~ - = - 70.14 Peroxide of iron, - .- = te WA... Volatile matter, - 7< a ears 1.00" 3 100.10 Mr. Séanian cortirunicated observations: on the Constitution of the Commercial Carbonate of Ammonia. ~The results.of his Vou. SAV No. 2. 38 ~ 298 British Association for the Advancement of Science. investigations: are, that this substance is not a homogeneous salt, a true sesquicarbonate, as Mr. Phillips considered it, but a mechan- ical mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate. Mr. S. also read a paper on the blackening of Nitrate of Silver by Light. Esxperi- ments which he has made result in the conclusion previously as- serted by Dr. J. Davy and by-Mr. Fergusson, (although contra- _dictory to the statements of most books of chemistry, ) that pure nitrate of silver, is not blackened by continued exposure to sun- light, unless organic matter is present. Mr. Thomas Richardson ‘presented an examination of two spe- -cimens of Sphene, one from. 2 niagara in 2p and the other from an unknown locality. Mr. Thomas Exley read a paper on the apsnifc gravities of Ni- trogen, Oxygen and Chlorine, and of the Vapors of. Carbon, Sulphur, Arsenic and Phosphorus. By experiment and calcula- tion, he finds the following to be the true gravities of these sub- stances, viz. N.=.9722, O.=1.1111, H.=.0694, Chl. =2.5, C.= .8333, S. = 2.2222, ee ‘= 5.2777, Ph. 2.2222, Mr. E. conelu- ded by suggesting an opinion that there is another elementary _. body, yet undiscovered, having both an exceedingly small sphere of repulsion, and an exceedingly small atomic weight, or abso- lute force. This substance, he conceives, gives rise to the mi- asmata ‘of marshes, to infectious effluvia and other. concomitant exhalations ; chlorine, acids and other substances, owe their dis- infecting qualities to their power of absorbing this substance into their atmospheres. If its existence should be ascertained, Mi- crogen might be deemed an appropriate name. Dr. T. Thomson read a paper on Diabetic Sugar. This sugar has been commonly considered as isomeric with starch sugar. Taste, sweet ; color, snow-white ; gravity, after fusion 1.56 at 65°: melts at 2399 100 parts of water dissolve 108 parts of it. Boiling water Lannion: any quantity. Soluble in alcohol. -It crystallizes, but so irregularly that the shape of the crystals has not been ascertained. After being dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, it loses an additional atom of water if it be exposed to a heat of 212°, without losing weight» Analysis of it gave, _ Carbon, 37.23, or 12 atoms = 9.. se 38.09; Hydrogen, 7.07, or 13 “, = 1.625 = 6.88 Oxygen, 55.70, or 13 is eee bBo + = BROS - 100.00 - ~~ 93.695 100.00 British Association for the-Adiancement of Science: 209 By Dr. Prout’s analysis, starch sugar is CleH 0 +, or it con- tains an atom of water more than diabetic sugar. Mr. Robert Mallet read a communication on @ new case of the decoloration of recent solutions of Caustic Potassa of commerce, and on the nature of the coloring matter. The author stated, that the caustic potassa of commerce, was well known to be a very impure compound, containing besides potassa, sulphate of ' potassa, chlorides -of potassium and i iron, peroxide. and carbonate of iron, silex, charcoal, and generally line, ‘He had also in one case found a trace of cobalt, and in several protoxide of lead, probably from the vessels usell in its preparation. The color of recent solutions of this potassa in water freed from air by boiling, is apple-green, and occasionally, purplish-green, which, whether exposed to air or not, or in dark or light, gradually disappears, leaving the solution ition A red precipitate of peroxide and carbonate of iron is produced on solution; but, after a time, the een solution in losing color, deposits. second in very small aoe: which Mr. M. has found, by analyte to consist of, Sesquichloride of iron, - . Ab Fu tees Sesquioxide of iron, ~ -. = ~ - ~Bh 2 The decoloration of the solutions of common caustic potassa — was effected by violet-colored light in 30 hours, and by red in 200 hours. z Mr. H. Pattinson gave an account of a new process, by him discovered, for the extraction of Silver from Lead. By this pro- cess, the details of which -are too extensive for insertion here, a large atnount of both lead and silver wasted by the methods now employed, would be. saved. . Dr. Golding Bird communicated “ Observations on some e of the Prodeaate of the action of nitric acid on .”. Numerous ex- periments are related in this paper, and - tlle are some of ~ the author’s conelusions: 1..During the action of nitric acid on alcohol, no oxalic acid is formed as long as nitrous ether alone distils over. 2. Aldehyd is not produced, in any appreciable quantity, until oxalic acid appears in the retort, and the produc- tion of nitrous ether nearly ceases. - 3. During the preparation of nitrous ether in the eold, acetic acid is abundantly produced, and appears. to replace the oxalhydric. acid formed when heat i is em- Hoged. 300 British Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. B. also Gunibdhiented a paper “ On the possibility of obtain- ing by Voltaic action, crystalline metals, intermediate between the Poles or Electrodes,” and exhibited a mass of plaster of Paris (upon which he had operated ) containing little veins of copper disseminated through it in ‘every direction, which presented a marked ee to those met aatthe on the large — in na- ture. ~ Prof. Johinistot desdribad a Ninspouied of siudphaite of lime; de- posited from a high-pressure. boiler, containing half an atom of water, and in this Y scteteu ee from any Other As of the kind. ‘Mr. Phillips stated that the B Iue Pigment.submitted last year by Dr. Trail, was ‘Prussian blue hues es diluted, ei rendered pale by ferrocyanide of antimony. Prof: Graham read a Note on the Constitution of Salts. He wished to draw attention toa distinction in saline combinations which is*too often overlooked, and confusion thereby occasioned. The orders of monobasic, bibasic, and tribasic salts, of which the phosphates proved types, have lately been greatly enlarged by the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas respecting vegetable acids, and the distinctive characters of thése-orders are well understood. The best proof that an acid is bibasic or tribasic is its combining at once with two bases which are isomorphous, or belong to the same natural family,—as: ‘phosphoric acid does with soda and ammonia in microcosmic salt, and tartaric acid with potassa and soda in Rochelle.salt. Water and magnesia; water and barytes, water and oxide of lead, are also constantly associated as bases in bibasic and tribasic salts, but never in true double salts, or com- binations of two or more salts with each other, with which salts of the preceding orders are often confounded. But it is too gen- erally supposed that a metallic oxide cannot exist in a saline com- bination, except in the capacity of base, although in most of those ~ bodies whiek are at present termed swb-salts, the whole or a por- tion of the metallic oxide is*certainly not basic, but is attached to a really neutral salt; in a capacity similar to that of constitutional water, or water of crystallization. 'The test of the non-basic character of water or a metallic oxide in a compound, is the ab- sence of a mong irene mes containing an oxide of the ates class. British Asso ati ; for the A " * | , . t of Si 24 . ne 301 A paper by Dr. Andrews, was read, on the influence of Voltaic combination on Chemical action, He endeavored to show that the proper tendency of a voltaic circle is to diminish the chemical action of the solution on the’electro-positive metal, from the con- ‘sideration, that in-ordinary solution, the dvolticities thus devel- oped have only an indefinitely small portion of liquid to traverse ; while in voltaic solution their reuhion ¢an be éffected, only by passing across a column of variable extent, = pe cm of an imperfectly conducting substance. _ Mr. Robert Mallet read his report of the experiments ftiétitated at the command and with the funds of the Association, “ On the action of Sea and River Water, whether clear or foul, and at va- rious temperatures, wpon Iron, both cast and wrought,” and made by himself and Prof E. Davy, of Dublin. The report is compris- -ed under four principal sections, viz. . 1. A brief summary of the actual state-of our chemical knowedge of the reactions of air and water on iron.’ 2. A statement of the nature and extent of the experiments on the action of water on iron, which have been. made on the great scale for the use of the engineer as well as chemist. 3. A refutation of the method proposed by J. B. Hart- ley, of preserving iron by brass. 4. A new method, founded on electro-chemieal agencies, for the protection of wrought and cast iron ; with a statement of various desiderata upon the subject. A paper was ‘presented, by Mr. Robert Addams, On the con- struction of Apparatus for solidifying Carbonic Acid Gias in con- tact with the liquid form of the Acid, at different temperatures. Mr. A. adverted to the original production of liquid carbonic acid by Dr. Faraday, in 1823, and also to the solidification of the acid -by Mr. Thilorier, and then exhibited three kinds of instruments which he (Mr. A.) had employed for the reduction of the gas into the liquid and solid forms. “The first mode was mechanical, in which powerful hydratlic pumps were used to force gas from one vessel into a second, by filling the ‘first with water, saline solu- tions, -oihor mercury ;- and in this apparatus a gauge of observation is attached, in order to see when the vessel is filled. The second kind of apparatus is a modification of that invented and used by “'Thilorier. ‘The third includes the mechanical and the chemical “methods, by which is saved muclr of the-acid formed in the gene- ‘rator; whereas by the arrangement of Thilorier’s plan, two parts in thrée tush into the atmosphere and are lost. With this set of 302 British Association for the Advancement of Science. instruments are used two gauges of observation,—one to show when the generator is filled with water by the pumps, and con- _ sequently all the free carbonic acid forced into the receiver ; and the other to determine the quantity of liquid acid in the receiver. A table of the elastic force or tension of the gas, over the liquid carbonic acid was shown for each ten degrees of the thermometer, from 0° to 150°. The following are some of the results :. Degrees. ~ Ibe per square inch. * ~ Atmospheres of 15 Ibs. each. ay oe. ne RIND este eta Sh A POR et 46 2 sgiess - 300 that - 20 20 deitietsneeh ace oRMBD aly Hier Reus hr B6.64 BR, Kerk xe mtis ANS Agee nh. ho 27.06, si BBO osc en ueer 620.05. yee «2 > BLOT AON sere er ot MRER ec = t+ | 62.32 150 snes >= 0-7 1406.65 - + - = 99:71 Mr. 7.4 Cinedtdi to examine the pressure at higher temperatures, up to that of boiling water and above; and he ‘assorted his belief that it may be profitably employed as an agent of motion,;—a sub- stitute for steam,—not directly, as had been already tried by Mr. Brunel,—but indirectly, and as a means to cireulate or recipro- eate other fluids. ©The solidification of the acid was shown, and the freezing of pounds of mercury in a few minutes, by the cool- ing influence which the solid acid exercises in passing again to the gaseous state. . T. Thomson communicated ‘a a paper on the foreign sub- stances contained in Irom. erage dictate ppees mic 7 phosphorus in very minute quantities. - Prof. Johnston read a paper on some iteniions to the law of Isomorphism, showing that substances crystallizing in the same. form were not always composed of the same formule. Dr. R. D. Thomson and Mr. T. Richardson presented a com- munication on the decomposition net by the action of E'mul- sin on Amygdalin. — A paper was offered by Mr. Exley, on Chemical combinations produced in virtue of the presence of bodies which remain to con- tinue the process. It has been observed, said Mr. E., that in ma- ny instances, powerful chemical affinities have been brought into activity by the presence of certain bodies which remain insulated. This Berzelius attributes to a peculiar force, which he calls cata- lytic force. Several reasons are adduced to show that this force is ~ British Association for the Advancement of Science. 303 but.one species of the general effects which usually occur in chem- _leal actions, all of which are modifications . universal etic arising from circumstances. Mr.. William Herapath gave a paper. on a new process. for tae ning. He assumed that the great cause of obstruction to rapid tanning, is, that the weakened ooze is retained by the capillary attraction of the. fibres and blood-vessels so long, that when it shall. have passed out by exosmosis, it will have produced the same effect upon the soluble gelatin as is produced by maceration. Hydraulic pressure was too expensive, and he accordingly thought of employing pressure by the roller. . On the application of gas obtained by Water to the cantonal: ture of Iron, by Mr. J. S. Dawes. The mode is as follows. Jets of steam are made to pass through red hot cast-iron pipes, filled ‘with small coke or charcoal; decomposition immediately takes place; the base of the. carbon of the coke combines with the ox- ygen base of the steam, forming, at first, carbonic acid, but by passing this over.a further portion of red. hot carbon, it is con- verted into carbonic oxide, sensible heat at the same time becom- ing latent on combining with the hydrogen base, producing hy- drogen gas, which, together with the oxide -before mentioned, is applied to the furnace by means of a-jet inserted within the blast- “pipe tuyere, the prenenne of the gas, of course, being oan to that upon the blast. . - A description,. by Prof. Miller, was next prec of an improve- ment in the construction of the rails Gontometer, by salvinh it is rendered more portable. , Drv: Thomson gave an aapgtink of Galoctin, a substance which constitutes, the principal ingredient in the sap of the Cow tree, or Galactodendron utile of South America. ~The. sap, on standing, throws up.a white matter, soluble in boiling alcohol, but deposited as that liquid-cools. . When well washed and dud in vacuo, over sulphuric acid, it constitutes galactin. It is yel- low, translucent, and brittle, has a resinous aspect and is tasteless, It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Gravity, 0.969... It dissolves readily in oil of turpentine and. olive oil. It is composed of 6 atoms carbon, 4.5+6 atoms hydrogen, .75+41 atom oxygen, 1, = 6.25, being isomeric with Brazil wax. r The secretary, Prof. Miller, read a paper on Lieut. Morrison’s instrument for measuring the electricity.of the atmosphere, and 304 British Association for the Advancement of Science. also a paper by Mr. J. C. Blackwell on the formation of crystals of silver by the contact of brass with nitrate of silver.—Prof. Johnston read a paper on the Resin of Gamboge and.its salts. He also produced some specimens of resinous. substances found in coal mines, and expressed his belief that this resin was an ex- udation from the trees of which the coal is composed. —Dr. Bird stated that he had formed chloride of copper by the voltaic ac- tion.—Mr. Maugham read a paper on a new Compound of Car-. bon and Hydrogen. -When the electrodes of a voltaic battery are armed with charcoal points, by means of platinum wires, and then brought under water, so as to produce the spark in the ordi- nary way, neither hydrogen nor oxygen gases are. evolved, but carbonic, oxide passes off, and a compound, not previously noti- ced, remains in the water, consisting of carbon and hydrogen.— A letter from Prof. Hare, of Philadelphia, was read, on his mode of fusing large masses of Platinum. Mr. Maugham claimed this as his own discovery.* __ i Section C. - Geology and Geography. sae ~Mr. ay: presented a Description of a Bone Cavern in the Mendip Hills.. The cavern is on the summit of one of the Men- dip Hills, in a limestone rock. It. was discovered in pursuing a fox, which fled there for shelter. It is entered by a perpendic- ular fissure, 30 feet deep. From a large chamber at the bottom ‘of this Sinwiates an. arched’ way leads into another chamber, from which a passage leads up towards the surface, and this latter seems to have been the original entrance. - The bones are gene- rally found’ imbedded in soft mud, in hollows in the bottom of _ the cavern, but sometimes also in stalactite. The greater part of the putida labo those of the ox, horse, deer, fox, boar, &c. But the most interesting cintemnstenice connected with. this deposit 1s, the .existence of human bones, which are found beneath the ‘others. Nine skulls were also obtained. Many of the bones are in so decayed a state, that they crumbled to dust on being han- dled. It is worthy. of remark that none of the bones belong to extinct species. Prof. Sedgwick observed; that no human bones — had yet been found in any of the old’ caverns, unless under cir cumstances which clearly showed theit recent introduction ; and |" °* See Dr. are’s paper in the present No—Evs. ut ~ r ¥ d oe British Association: for the Advancement of Science. 305 this cavern did not militate against | the received theory of the for- -_mation of osseous breccias. It may have been a. place of ancient sepulture, the bodies: pi let down cane a stratum of wed z ‘and gravel. — The next communication was on the Nifoeatile, nie field, by Mr. John Buddle. This coal field occupies a tract in the coun- ties of Northumberland and Durham of about 700 square miles. Mr. B.’s very valuable essay was fully illustrated by a profusion of accurate and highly-finished drawings, plans and sections. | A paper was received from Prof. Von Baer, of St. Petersburgh, entitled “ Recent Intelligence respecting the frozen ground in Siberia.” Additional experiments on the temperatures during: the year at different depths have recently been commenced at Yakutsk; details of which we shall have hereafter. ' Mr. Lyell, the President of the Section, read a paper on verti- cal lines.of tie smragneng horizontal strata ia Chalk, near Norwich. Mr. Webb ea a short notice of Lunar Voleanoes. ‘He had for some time examined the moon with an excellent five-feet achromatic, and had found that several volcanic vents existed not laid down in Schréter’s lunar map ; and also, that several vents, which had been so laid down, were now much enlarged in di- ‘mensions. On the whole, iowever, he considered that the moon and the earth were. dentin in this respect, viz. that volcanic ac- tion was now less violent than it had been in by. gone periods.’ The secretary réad-a brief account of a Mandingo, native of Nyani-mari, on the River Gambia, by Capt. Washington, R. N. This man, after many adventures, is now in England. As al- ready observed by Goldberry and Laing, of the Mandingos gene~— rally, he resembles-in his features the Hindoos more than the blacks of Africa in general. His features are régular and. open, his person well-formed, full six feet in height, his nose Roman, with the nostrils rather flattened, not thick lips, beautiful teeth, hair woolly, color a good clear black, not jet. With the aid at Mr. Renouard, a vocabulary of about 2000 words and. phrases in the Mandingo language had been gathered from this native, be- sides itineraries in various parts of his country ; and when ‘we consider how extensively. spread is this language, perhaps the - Most so of any of the 36 families of languages into which au- thors’ have divided the 115 languages of Africa; and that hith- Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 39 * 806 British Association for the Advancement of Science. ; erto a vocabulary of about 400 words is all that we possessed of it, it will be admitted that this. native of Gambia has not been _ an unprofitable subject of geographical inquiry. Next was read a Sketch of the recent Russian Bapatitons to to Novaia Semlia, by Prof. Von Baer. | Lieut. Col. Don J. Velasquez de Leon gave a short account of a map of Mexico recently made by order of the Government. Capt. Washington, R. N. communicated an account of. in cent Expeditions to the Antarctic seas.. This paper was illustra- ted by a South circumpolar chart ona Jarge scale, showing the tracks of all former navigators to these seas, from Dirk Gherritz in 1599, to M. d’Urville in 1838; including those of ‘Tasman in 1642, Cook in 1773, Bellingshausen in 1820, Weddell in 1822, Biseoe in 1831, and exhibiting a vast basin, nearly equal in ex- tent to the Atlantic ocean, unexplored ‘by any ship, British or foreign.. The writer pointed ‘out that the ice in these regions was far from stationary ; that Bellingshausen had sailed through a large space. within the parallel of 60°, where Biscoe found ice that he could not penetrate :-—that have d’Urville had lately found barriers of field-ice, Weddell, in 1822, had, advanced. with- out difficulty to the lat. “ef 744°, or within 16° of the pole ; and that it was evident from the accounts of all.former navigators, that there was no physical obstacle to reaching a high southern latitude, or, at any rate, to examining those spots which theory pointed out as the positions where ‘the southern magnetic poles will probably be found, The paper also mentioned the expedi- tion to the South Seas, which has just left this country fitted out by several merchants, but chiefly under the direction of that spirited individual, Mr. Enderby, whose orders were to proceed in search of anethehns land, and to attain as high a south latitude: as possible. Mr. Murchison gave an account of a Geologic map and sec- tions of the border counties of Eingland and Wales. _ Mr. Griffith gave an account of his Geological map of Ireland, and of two remarkable sections in the south of that country. - A paper on the siratfontion of rocks, by Mr. A jethessy, of New- castle, was next read. A short paper by Mr. Trimmer was read: on the occurrence of marine shells over the remains of Terrestrial Mammalia in Cefn Cave, in Denbighshire. The cave is in carboniferous limestone ; British Association for the Advancement of Science. 307 the bones of the rhinoceros, hyena, &c. are ¢ontained in marl beds and stalactite ; and over these the fragments of marine tes- tacea, showing the irruption into this cave of a diluvial current. Dr. Daubeny read a paper on the Geology and Thermal Springs of North America. 'The facts which he was about to detail, Dr. D. said he had become possessed of, partly. from his own researches during alate visit, and partly through thé kindness of the Messrs. Rogers, to whose labors in American geology he paid a just tribute of approbation. He then gave’a short sketch of the different chains of mountains in the United States. He stated briefty, as the result of his examination of various thermal springs in the U.S., that they gush out in all instances along lines of fracture of the Seater: a result similar to that which he had already estab- _ lished respecting the thermal waters of Europe. Dr. Buckland communicated the contents of a letter from Mr. Lea, stating that the quantity of coal in the valley of the Se was vastly greater than has hitherto been suppo The next paper was on the sruchire of Fossil Teeth, “by Mr. Gwen. The internal organization of the teeth in the higher mammalia, as shown by magnified transverse sections, was first described. The curious modifications which this structure un- dergoes in the Megatherium, the Ichthyosaurus, and: fossil fishes, were pointed out in detail, and illustrated by numerous magnified drawings. It is impossible here to give the details, but the gen- eral result of the investigations is a most important one to geolo- gists, viz. that the different genera may be distinguished by the - internal structure of their teeth alone ; and therefore, when other characters fail, or a complete tooth is unattainable, generic, nay, perhaps even specific identity, may be established by merely ob- taining a thin’ slice of one of these fossil teeth. Prof. O. read before the Medical Section, the day previous, a paper on the struc- ture of teeth and the resemblance of ivory to bone, as illustrated by microscopical examination of the teeth of man, and of various existing and extinct animals. 'This paper Soin the results of extensive investigations, conducted with Prof. O.’s usual skill and thoroughness, on the internal ae of the teeth of various or- rs of animals. - Dr. Buckland communicated an Account of Footsteps on Sand- stone near Liverpool. This interesting discovery was made in a quarry on the summit of the peninsula between the Dee and Mer- 308° =©British Association for the Advancement of Science. sey, ata considerable depth from. the surface, by two intelligent rsons, Forrester and Horne, connected with the quarry, and an account of the circumstances was drawn up on the spot by Messrs. Cunningham and Dwyer. The specimens found were casts of the impression of the foot, and nothing could be more perfect and characteristic. There are two sets of footsteps; one set being those of an animal of. which traces have been before observed, and which has been called Chetrotherium, from its hand-like foot: the other, those of smaller animals, which seem. to have been land tortoises, similar to those which have been long known in the Dumfries quarries, and which are fully described in Dr. B.’s Bridgewater Treatise... A space of between 20 and 30 feet ‘ horizontal, is exposed in the quarry, on which these footsteps are distinctly seen, and where the animals do not. appear to have been walking in the ordinary way, but to have been performing gambols. ‘He stated also that from the appearance of the surface of the sandstone, covered with minute spherical elevations quite different from any ripple mark, it was manifest that a shower of rain had fallen, and its traces Hind. been ‘ ; f 4 { ' Letiers on Steam — 2 33 _ LETTER il. Dear Bape my “Jest letter I took the liberty t to ihe ‘ships generally, and thus to save the expense of masts, sails, rig= _ ging and top hamper in the first place, and in the second, the con- _ stant disbursements necessary to keep them in working condition. My main object, however, was to show that masts in steam ships are worse than useless, because the resistance being constant, and the advantage only occasional, the loss by resistance exc by such power. But I do not suppose the view I. novels of several particulars relating to Atlantic steam navigation, will re- ceive, at present, the countenance of the public ; because the errone- ous opinions generally entertained are both so deeply rooted and so agreeable to the minds of many, who fear their craft is in dan- ger that they do not choose to have them corrected, but rather feel a secret délight in. any thing which has the slightest tendency to strengthen and confirm them. 'The bursting of a boiler, an acci- dental fire, the wreck ofa . ship, or the loss of a crew, are events hailed with triumph by the class of persons of whom I am speaking. ' But if the hints that I have thrown out lead the public mind from that general mode of thinking to which the novelty of At- lantic steam navigation has given birth, to-a more close investi- gation of the subject, we shall soon see our enemies disarmed and uniting with-us in carrying out a system of navigation which meets the wants and promotes the welfare of mankind. : It is with the view of showing the subject in its largest dimen- sions and most important results, that I venture a few remarks upon steam ships of war. It may seem premature, ate ifieioai to speak of the Séwor of the sword, to measute the force of nations, and to weigh in our hydrostatic scales the fortunes of-empires. But the thing throws itself upon us in such bold relief, that it seems impossible to con- ceal it. We are compelled, whether we will or not, to trace the outlines, to bring the subject under review, and to anticipate the mighty effects of steam power upon the destinies of nations. Whatever nation, England, France, or America—and I think that it will be one of the three—has the largest and greatest num- ber of steam ships of war, will comaneiiad the ocean. Nothing can prevent it. In estimating the relative force of antagonist - the inguiry will not i how many frigates, or how many 4 334 Letters on Steam Navigation. line of battle ships were engaged? but, how many steam ships? be felt at once that the power of the fleet depends upon l L remember that notwithstanding every effort was made and enormous incurred by the transport board to meet the urgent demands of the army, yet such were the delays arising from head winds, tempestuous weather, detentions in port, and long passages, that the sufferings of the army were aoa: appalling and its operations crippled. - _ In war, the facility of transportation is tantamount to victory. If a fleet of twenty steam ships can transport an army of twenty five thousand men to the American coast in fifteen days, and to the continental ports in-a time less in proportion to the distance, the army can land when and where it pleases. 'There is no de- tention in port, no delay in the passage, no hovering upon the coast, with light and baffling winds, and thus affording time for the.enemy to collect the means of defence; but the steamers push at once into port, and are in possession of their ia ue before the enemy can be aware of his danger. - _'The transportation of the munitions of war and the victualling stores is scarcely less important than that of the army itself. The great magazines will always be at home, whence daily supplies will be drawn with the same ease and regularity as if they were in the vicinity of the camp... The celerity of communication and its absolute certainty supersede the necessity of eens stores in a foreign country before they are wanted. But the greatest triumph of steam power will be seen in those tremendous naval engagements which hereafter will settle and establish the sovereignty of the seas. Such is the locomotive — power of a steam ship, that she can place herself in any position in reference to the enemy, can run down from the leeward or wind- ward upon the bows or stern of a sailing man of war, and with broadside after broadside, riddle- her fore and aft, annihilate the erew, and leave in her scattered wrecks an undeniable evidence of the irresistible power of a steam ship. I know it will be said that the paddle-wheels of a steam ship are liable to be shot away, and thus disabled, she may become herself a prey to the enemy. But is she as liable to be-disabled — as a sailing ship?- Suppose a shot were to pass through a paddle- wheel, it is not destroyed, and may not’ be materially —_— Those. who were spectators of the last continental ee pans eae a a ORR Bir < aetna “acest * oe | Letiers on Steam Navigation. 335. but if it were utterly destroyed, the ship is not disabled. She ean work with one wheel. You must therefore destroy both wheels before she is disabled. How is it witha sailing ship > Disenei her, end her ee = gone. She isa lost ship. The argument therefore regarding the danger of being disabled is vastly in favor of the steamer. She has no masts. And you must imagine her rash enough to expose herself unnecessarily to the enemy, and that too in such a man- ner as to give him an opportunity of carrying away both paddle- wheels, whilst his own masts are unscathed and entire, before she is disabled ;—not a very likely thing, when we consider that the steam ship, by virtue of her locomotive. power can always ap- proach the enemy or claw off, when a sailing ship cannot do ei- ther. The power of sails is perfectly useless, and the sailing ships go into battle like so many dismasted ships, the y ae me playthings of the lively steamer. ° If a steamer man of war has occasion to board her enemy, she manceuvres not, waits not the favor of a wind, but darts upon her prey at any point she pleases, and her combatants march over the bridge of her own deck into the camp of the enemy. ‘The boilers‘of a steam ship of war ought to be below the loaded water line, and therefore perfectly secure from the effects of shot. .The resistance of the water would effectually prevent the shot from penetrating, whilst the even keel of - steamer would give her a point blank ‘shot at her enemy. Think for a moment of a sailing ship of war, no matter how many guns, chasing a‘steamer, no’ matter how few, the longer she chases the further she is off, until, if it were possible to sail on an uninterrupted circle, the steamer in the very act of running away would overtake her pursuer. Reverse this picture, and fancy you see the steamer bearing-down ‘upon the seventy four under full sail. Can the latter quicken her speed? Can she fly i in the eye of the wind? Can she escape before it? Has she the slight- est chance of evading the combat? Can there be a doubt as to the result? When we consider steam power in time of war carried out into all its multiform ramifications, what merchantman can €scape capture ?. What harbor afford shelter? What village resist plunder? What city destruction? ‘What country invasion? Steam power alone can cope with steam power, and therefore the - telative naval force of nations can be measured by no other scale. ‘ 25 ~ Letters on Steam Navigation. 4 Hence we see all the maritime nations upon earth reduced to the _ same level, and the work of destruction, upon a large scale, must — gin afresh. All the existing navies of the earth are not worth a pepper corn. ‘They will neither augment, nor diminish the power of a nation in any future maritime warfare. _We may just stand _ upon their ruins, and witness kingdoms, empires, and republics, all starting anew in the career of naval achievements, and pressing - forward towards those grand results which wait upon superiority. Nothing but.a steam power navy, in the present advanced state of steam navigation, can protect itself, much more a nation from insult. It would seem therefore preposterous and absurd, for any nation to exhaust its resources upon so useless and lumbering a thing as a sailing ship of war, The apathy with which this great _subject is regarded in high places, if indeed it be regarded at-all, is-quite surprising. But the time is hastening on when its power — will be felt. England, in all the ecices s of her vast empire, her — commerce, great in arms, great in peace ; England, first in moral excellence, in mechanics, in manufactures, in literature, in the arts, in. opulence, in every thing which exalts and adorns a na- tion, and Imay be permitted, after a residence of more than thirty years in her metropolis, to say, all this and a thousand times more. England, with all this radiance encircling her crown, is at this moment more exposed than any other nation to the ruthless hand of the invader. It is-not enough that she has strength to crush invasion, she wants the power to preven: it. That abe can never Rieakiaieics a steam war: ox “Your ob't serv't, Jontws pay London, Oct. 19th, 1838. Remarks by the Senior E'ditor.—It —_ obvious that certain objections to the views of Mr. Smith would present themselves to’ many readers, a letter, dated Dec. 3d, was addressed to his cor- — in oe York, to which the repre is an answer. t LETTER It. ie TO PROF. SILLIMAN. Dome Siecia reply to yous queries I try to answer each in ie order,’ commencing with ‘“ What for instance will the sparless, > a, 1A tan ea er Letters. on Steam Navigation. 2 oe sailless ship do when in mid-ocean her machinery gives way, (perhaps the main axis of the wheels of motion,) or should se boilers burst, how will she get on then, and what will become of, — it may be, two hundred or three hundred people or more, rolling about ‘in the sea, when, their steam paddles being idle, they have consumed their provisions and do not speak any vessel ee Answer. I do not understand Mr. Smith as doing away. with the use of masts entirely, but only so arranging them upon a bolt axis or otherwise, that they can be unshipped or rigged at pleasure. The basis of his argument as I understand it is, that the great re- sistance which they meet in adverse winds, counterbalanices the use of them, and therefore in doing away with the top hamper, they could be easily rigged so_as to lie upon deck, to be used in case of need. If so rigged, the case you contemplate of “ break- ing the main axis of salute of motion, or bursting of boiler,’ must be provided for by resorting to the movable masts. Steamers might have two or more engines detached from each other, as is the case with the British Queen, so that in the event of the burst- ing of one boiler or injury to one engine, the other would remain in full operation, and a case would hardly occur when both en- gines would be disabled at the same time. The next question, ‘‘ How are the great warlike steam navies to be supplied with fuel? Even if the countries have wood, that will last but a little while, as coal cannot be obtained in every ma- ritime country, and~if it could, enough could not be carried for a long cruise ?” Answer. Here again I understand that the plan of Mr. Smith for steam ships of war, is more one of defense than of aggression, and his argument seems based upon this position. Ido not think he contemplated that steam ships of war would be sent on long cruises, but to be relied upon more as a means of defense. The British Queen is one of our line of ships, and we have some expectation that she will arrive in January, yet she may not be here before February. It would afford me great pleasure to introduce you to the ship whenever she does arrive, and I shall not fail to inform you of it. With much respect, dear sir, yours very truly, Henry Suiru. New York, Dec. 12th, 1838. Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 43 t — 338 On Preserving Organic ——— Arr. XIII. —Ona New and Effectual Method of Pride % Specimens of Organic Nature, and of obviating the Blanch- ing Infiuences of Light, and the Depredations of Insects ;— most Advantageously Applicable to the Formation and Un- limited Preservation of a Hortus Siccus, or Museum of Dried _ Planis ; by Joun L. Rippety, M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Materia Medica, in the Medical College of Louisiana. - Corpora non agunt nisi i aint soluta.” Ir is conceded, I believe, that light exerts an influence in chem- ical changes, by modifying or exacting the inherent electrical en- _ ergies of material particles. This influence has been observed times innumerable by every one, in the blanching or fading of organic colors. © Few, I apprehend, could be found, who would be willing, upon the first proposal, to believe in the possibility of easily and completely averting this fading power of light, and of conferring immutability upon the organic tints which are con- sidered as most delicate and evanescent. The possibility of so doing may perhaps be made theoretically to appear, thus :—The particles of an absolutely solid body can suffer no change, because'they are inter se immovable. A with- ering leaf; exposed to air and light, fades and decays, because there is moisture present. Liquid water fills myriads of its in- mebaibie pores and intercellular spaces. The leaf may be dry ex- ee it may be apparently dry within ; yet-it is really bued with more or less of water. - “This water may give fluid- ity to the fading coloring matter, either by immediate solution, or by becoming impregnated with acid substances. But it is chiefly by absorbing, and thus giving liquidity to oxygen gas from com- mon air, that it contributes to change. © Besides, it is favorable to ' chemical action, by standing ready to dissolve and remove some or all of the eliminated products. Water, moreover, may exert an indirect agency in hastening organic changes, by favoring the existence of insects and animalcules. Light renders the chem- _ ical affinities concerned more active, and thereby soon accom= _plishes changes which time and other circumstances would ac- complish without it. Those conditions only, on which the power of assuming -the liquid state me ngs are essential. Re- - move = and no or cali occur. On Preserving, Organte Pu 339 My plan consists in wholly abstracting the moisture from the specimen to be preserved, having previously inclosed it in some material impervious to air or moisture, in order that the condition of absolute dryness may be perpetually maintained, The desic- cative substance which I make use of, is unslacked lime ; and. though other agents might be used, this seems to answer in all Cases so perfectly, well, as to leave nothing to be. desired, Pure quick lime, it is well known, will absorb near one third its weight of water in the process of slacking, Telsing a powder Per as free from moisture as at first. _ IL will first explain the manner in which botanical specimens are to be framed for constant ‘exposure on the walls of a museum or lecture room. Take a specimen, recently dried in the usual way, between folds of bibulous paper, in order that every shade of color may be. natural and fresh as. life ; procure - -a pane of glass of sufficient size, and a plate of tin, zine, copper, or sheet lead,* half an inch longer and half an inch broader than the pane of glass; bend _ this around the edges so that it will embrace the glass; remove the latter, and place in.the shallow cavity a thin layer of cotton batting ; upon this, sift a thin stratum of the powder of quick lime ; over this another: layer of batting; upon this a sheet of ‘issue paper, and on the tissue paper, the specimen and label. Over all, place the clean pane of glass; press it gently down, and carefully turn over it the edges of the metallic plates. Se- cure the junction of the glass and metal with a ceroid or resi- hous cement, as bees’ wax, shellac, or sealing wax: or what is more convenient, and seems to answer well, fill the crevices with stiff glazier’s putty, and when that gets ary, pass over it with thick Japan varnish, of which two or three successive coats may be used. If the back be of sheet tin, zine, copper, or thick sheet lead, a ring may be soldered to one end, for the purpose of hang- ing up without further preparation. But if very thin sheet lead be used, it may require to be first protected by a back of binder’s board and some kind of frame. ‘With a view of subjecting theory to the test of experiment, I enclosed in this manner a dried specimen of Lycopodium apodum, ‘and also attached a part of the same specimen by means of stick- een The sheet lead which lines tea boxes answers very well. 340 On Preserving Organic Specimens, ing wax to the outer surface of the glass. It was exposed to air and sunshine in’a high and sheltered situation. After the lapse of two or three days, the outer-specimen had obviously begun to lose its color, and was inclining to yellow, while the enclosed spe- cimen, equally exposed to light, still retained its vivid green and apparent freshness. The outer specimen continued to fade until it became nearly decolored ; but the enclosed one suffered not. the slightest change in appearance. It is not essential that the specimen 1 should be dried previously to being thus enclosed. By increasing the quantity of lime to three or four times the weight of the substance to be desiccated, aspecimen just plucked may be carefully arranged beneath the glass—it may be then. subjected for a couple of days to a few pounds of pressure, may bé sealed up and never afterwards re- moved. 'The degree of perfection with which the most delicate tints of flowers can thus be preserved, is incapable of being sur- passed. In the space of two or three days, the specimen generally becomes more thoroughly “% than it is a to render it by bibulous paper. Upon carefully surrounding fresh specimens of Asclepias Dra- keana* and Rosa Gallica, with fine powder of quick lime, in a close tin box, complete esiccation was accomplished in a single day ; and I was agreeably surprised in finding, that the lime had. not in the least modified any of the colors. The flowers were taken out of their natural shape and color, but stiff and brittle m dryness. It is sometimes rather difficult, however, to re- move all the lime from some. portions of the flowers. Probably it would be best to fill the interior of deep flowers ‘with fine clean sand, before burying them in the powder of lime. In this way, fruits, fungi, insects, small fish, and even reptiles, may be rar 5 ally eanbalmed. In common herbals the flower is rudely crushed ; the ‘inte ant organs from which generic characters are drew: are deform- ed, displaced, and often incorporated into a seemingly homoge- neous mass; and the fine colors, if they do not become even com- pletely faded, are never preserved for any great length of time with- out Seterioration, Large specimens exhibiting the stem, branches, leaves, and mode of inflorescence, me well enough be — in “ Undescribed. Rowan alia ‘and crimson: The gauge for measuring the pressure is pec culiar.. Into a wrought iron box, S, are inserted, by screws, two soekett T and U. The former descends almost to the bottom of the box, which . is nearly filled with mercury. Through the axis of the screw, X, a small tube passes into the cavity of S, and is continued to the top of it, so as to risé above the mercury. ‘Two strong ba- ab s, R and M, are cemented* into U and W, and her- eal ed at the upper ends. These tubes are carefully In one of them, U, a-short cylinder of mercury is made to stand at Y at the commencement of the experiment. The other, socket and all, is full of air, as no mercury is intro- duced into it. A very fine screw at W, enables the operator to The tin cup, O, used to collet the solid acid, is covered by a lid, Z, perforated oF a pipe, P, whose top is full of small holes. The hearslle Q, is hollow, so as to fit the end of the pipe of the receiver at G. To secure the hand of the operator from the cold produced by the experiment, the handle is rae wrapped up in some kind of cloth. - The apparatus is _prepared for use -by removing ‘the screw E, and placing 8 Ibs. of bicarbonate of soda in the generator, A, * The cement used was made of shell lac 3 or 4 parts, white or crude pa a tine 1 part, melted at as low a temperature as possible, so as not to make bu in the mixture. This cement is very strong, but liable, without great care in the regulation of the heat, to have capillary tubes in it from the vaporization of the. niine. This defect may be completely = by cutting away, when cold, the external mass of cement, and putting on a little common cap cement, which melts at a much lower setintianess sad Deaae ¢ the tu _ Liquefaction and Soli dific ati ‘s Carbonic Acid. 351 to which 24 fluid ounces of awitde rare to be added. After ma- king these into a thin paste: by sti irring; 9 fluid ounces of com- mon sulphuric acid are to be poured into ‘the copper cup, N, and that is to be let down by a ‘crook. of wire into the generator. ' After the screw, E, has been firmly applied, and the stop-cock, J, closed, the contents of the generator are to be brought into ad- mixture by moving it round to a horizontal-position on the swivel D, which is supported ‘by the wooden frame, B, B. There i isa check bar atC.. This motion isto be repeated several times. In about ten minutes the whole of the carbonic acid is pcre and exists in.A, chiefly in a liquid state. The next step in the process is to attach, by means of the stir- rup and screw, K, K, the receiver, F', previously cooled by ice. The keys, Iand J ay then be panied slowly, and instantly the liquid carbonic acid is perceptible in the gauge, L. At the end of ten minutes, the communication with the generator may be cut off—when about -eight fluid o liquid acid at 32° F. will be found in the receiver. ; By letting this liquid into the box, 0, through the - pipe, G large part of it is instantly expanded: into gas, whieh « escapes through the tube, P.. The coldness consequent on the enormous expansion, freezes another part of the liquid, which falls to the bottom of O. About one drachm of solid matter is thus cases for each ounce of liquid. The porosity and volatile character of the solid Be its ‘spe- cific gravity of difficult ascertainment. When recently formed, it is about the weight of carbonate of magnesia, and when strongly compressed by the fingers, its density is nearly doubled. Solid carbonic acid is of a perfect whiteness, and of a soft and spongy textufe, very like slightly moistened and aggregated snow. It evaporates rapidly, becoming thereby colder and colder, but the coldness produced seems to steadily lessen the evaporation, ‘so that the mass may be kept for-some time. A quantity weighing 346 grains lost from 3 to 4 grains per minute at first, but did not entirely disappear for three hours and a half. The nati tempe- rature was from 76° to 79°. ‘The solid is most easily kept when compressed and rolled up in cotton or wool. Its temperature when newly formed is not exactly ascertainable, because it is im- mediately lowered by evaporation. Thilorier seems to have en- pe “ nee tertained the opinion, that the greatest degree of cold was created 352 = Liquefaction and Sol dif ication of Carbonic Acid. at the time of the formation of the solid. In my experiments, a constant decrease of temperature was observed, which was accel- erated by a current of air, or any other means of augmenting “evaporation. At its formation, the carbonic snow depresses the thermometer to about —85°. If it be confined in wool or raw cotton, its cooling influence is retarded ; if it be exposed to the air, especially when in motion, the theraganaier descends much more rapidly ; and under. the receiver of an air pump, the effect is at its maximum. The greatest cold produced by the solid car- bonic acid in the air was —109°, under. an exhausted receiver —136°, the natural temperature being at +86°. : The admixture of sulphuric ether so as to produce the appear- ance of wet snow, increased the coldness, for the temperature then fell, under-exhaustion, to —146° ;* a degree of cold which we were not able to exceed by means of any variation of the experiment. That result is most easily obtained by putting about two fluid drachms of ether into the iron‘receiver before charging it. A compound liquid may be thus formed which yields a snow in less quantity, but of a more facile refrigeration. Alcohol may replace ether in either mode, but with less decided “effect. In the air, the alcoholic mixture fell to —106°, and re- mained stationary. By blowing the breath on it, it fell to —110°. Left to itself, it rose slowly to —106°; but on being placed un- der an exhausted receiver fell to 1340. Every attempt to wet the carbonic solid with water, Siilede: so that no estimate of its relative effects could be made. _ The experiments resulting from the great coldness of the new solid, were very striking. Mercury placed in a cavity in it, and covered up with the same substance, was : frozen in a few scconds, But the solidification of the mercury was almost instantly pro- duced by pouring it into a paste made by the addition of a little ether. Frozen mercury is like lead, soft, and easily cut. It is ductile, malleable, and insonorous. Just. as it is-about to melt, - it becomes brittle or “short,” and breaks under the point of a ‘knife. These facts may account ‘for the discrepancies of authors on this subject: Frozen mercury sinks readily in liquid mer- cury. -* "As —6432= 175, the cold is nearly as far below the eens —32 =180 is above it Liquefaction and S 2 of Carbonic Acid. 353 _ At about —110° liquid s s acid is frozen, and the ice sinks i in its own liquid, and at —130° alcohol of .798, assumes a viscid and oily appearance, which by increase of cold, is augmen- ted until at —1 46° it is ike melted wax. Alcohol of .820- froze readily. : ~ At —146° sulphuric sihehi is not in the slightest degree altered, When a piece of solid carbonic acid is pressed against a living animal surface, it drives off the cireulating fluids and produces” a ghastly white spot. If held for 15 seconds it raises a blister, and if the application be continued for 2 minutes a deep white ‘depression with an elevated margin is perceived ; the part is killed, and a slough is in time the consequence. I have thus produced both blisters and-sloughs, by means nearly as prompt as fire, but much less alarming to my patients. The specific gravity of liquid carbonic acid may be estimated either by weighing a given measure of it in a tube, and deduct- ing the weight of the tube, and of a superincumbent gas, or by means of very minute bulbs of glass as suggested by Sir M. Far- aday. By the latter means I obtained the setae. maeults, Which 2 are ya arp with those of Thilorier.. : Thilorier. ’ Temp. Fahr. r Sp. Gr. 4 ee Fahr. Sp. Gr. BIO ere COM ge SBOP “pe! ye es MOOD ee a UNE 5 ty ee oe Be OO dae oo NOG Ba ee aces ey GA° 2. he 5 OBB, RE ae a A _ 6°... & - 86° - .60 The specific gravity particularly at 32°, was examined repeat- edly, and with different bulbs, and always found to be at, or very near, to .93. The difference never amounted to .005. "The sp. gr. as given by Thilorier at 32° is 83. The anomalous expansion — of the liquid as indicated by both ‘sets of experiments is truly sur- ptising. By mine 73.85 parts raised from 32° to 74°, or 42°, -be- come 93 parts, and gain 19.15 parts, while the same bulk of the gases acquires in the same range of temperature only 6.46 parts, or the liquid is expanded very nearly three times as much as its own orany other gas. According to Thilorier, 60 parts gain 23 parts by an elevation of 54°, while the same bulk-of air would under _ like cireumstances be supuiontid only by 6.75 parts ; or the _ is nearly four tinies as expansive as the gases. POPE RER NR’: 45; oa “> 354 Liquefaction and Solidification of Carbonic Acid. As below 32°, or at reduced pressures, the augmentation of temperature is productive of much less expansive influence, we may infer that under the weight of a few. atmospheres, as when near to its freezing point, liquid carbonic acid is. scarcely more dilateable by heat than water. Between —4° and +329, its expansion is 0.053 while that of air is 0.069. These facts suggest the inquiry how far water at very high temperature and ‘pressure may be obedient to the same expansive influence, and thus by % suddenly filling the whole ay ein of boiler, sometimes cause €X~ plosions. ~The pressure of carbonic acid gas, when slhsata over its liquid; is given by Thilorier at 32° and 86°, as 36 and 73 atmospheres respectively. ar 2 means of the gauge S, M, R,—I found the — as follo ows es 320 ees 36 tenis dake ee age SL a NN ee ee ee 86° - - - 72 do. The principle of the gauge renders it capable of registering the pressure. with great accuracy ;—for as one tube, M, begins to mark the pressure from the commencement of an experiment, and the mercury in the-other, R, does not reach a visible point until the first has shown ‘a pressure of several atmospheres, the second tube is equivalent in effect to one of several times its length. The first determines the amount of pressure, at which the mercury reaches the initial point on the 2nd, and the 2nd, subsequently, exhibits the multiplicators of that sind quality. Thus, if when the mercury is at five atmospheres in M, it is at the unit mark in R, the value of that unit will be five, and the numbers repre- sentative of the pressure on R, must be multiplied by five; or R is equal in effect to a tube five timesits length. By these means very short tubes may be used to determine very high~ pressures. Inequalities in temperature, irregularities in the cement, an other causes; may vary the capacity of the socket T, W, but as M always signifies the unit for R, in each case, no error can arise from these causes. There must, of course, be a correction for the weight of the mercurial column in R, which is to be added to the product. Care must -be taken to kegp the temperature of the vessel which holds the liquid below that of the gauge and. tubes, otherwise the liquid will be formed by condensation in Ligite ofaction ot Solidification ’ B55 the latter. This. actually et ‘in the attempt to ascertain the pressure at 86°, when the natural temperature was 75°. Bubbles of gas were seen ascending through a liquid in M, up to its surface at a few inches below the mercurial cylinder. This as far as relates to the tubes may be avoided by prolonging the socket of M, down into the mercury of the cup, so as to include a cylinder of common air between two cylinders of mercury, and prevent any carbonic gas from entering either the socket, or the glass tube. A correction for the weight of this PINE. must in ‘such case be made. When a glass tube, hermetically sealed at one a and cemen- ted into a brass socket and screw at the other, is attached toa charged receiver and cooled by snow or pounded ice, liquid car- bonic acid may be collected in it: It is perfectly colorless and transparent, and the specific gravity bulbs, previously introduced, are seen to ascend or descend, as the temperature is altered. When the tube so charged is opened, the liquid becomes vio- lently agitated, escapes rapidly, grows colder and colder, and finally the remainder’is-convertéd into a solid, more dense than the snow already described, but nearly white, and very porous. If the tube be exposed to a paste of carbonic snow and ether, the liquid is solidified into amass which is not porous but which sinks in the liquid as the latter is formed again by the melting of the solid. The analogy between liquid carbonic acid and water, is thus completed for we have liquid, vapor, snow, and ice, exhibited by both. By the previous earn of water, ether, alcohol, metals, oxides, or oils, &c. into such tubes, and then filling shins with liquid earbonie acid, the~ resulting phenomena may be. easily observed. Water-being-heavier rests below the. new liquid, and ~ does not appear to mingle with it even at the surface of contact, for when the latter is let off no bubbles appear in the water, aia it is frozen at the top into solid ice. When alcohol or ether is introduced, the new liquid falls through it in streams, as water would do, but soon renders it milky by mixture. The removal of the pressure causes a violent effervescence, and immediately the clear, colorless ether, or al- cohol, is seen alone in the tube; no solid being formed. When alcohol holds shell-lac in solution, the acid causes its precipitation in light whitish flocculi, which are immediately re-dissolved 356 © Electro-Magnetic and Magneto-Electric — when the acid is suffered to fly off. Nothing remains but the brown Jac-stained liquid. ‘Liquid carbonic acid did not appear to act on any of the metals or ‘oxides, but the experiments on this point demand a. further examination. Its inaction is probably owing to the * want of the force of ‘ presence,’ or of ‘disposing affinity.’ “When the liqtiid has been frozen in a tube of lies the tube may be melted off by the blow. pipe, and hermetically sealed. Such a tube will always retain the liquid, or gas, the former, if in sufficient quantity, at all temperatures, if not, the latter alone will be found in it at high temperatures. I have one such tube, ‘which begins to show moisture at 56°, and exhibits a constantly elongated cylinder of liquid, as the edldivens i is ie * At 32° the cylinder is about half an inch in length. Carbonic acid mechanically powerful as it is, is not applieab® perhaps, either to locomotion or projection ; but though the rea- sons for this are most of them obvious, the Franklin Institute has appointed a committee to investigate and report on the subject, that the exact truth may be known, and the ‘waste of. time and talent eapad otherwise to be —— be =“ to the country. Arr. XVI —On a coal Sn Sa and Megwit. Electric Formula. . Extracted from the Journal of Chemistry, by Erdmann and ee Seidel: and forwarded for meena in this Journal. Mr. Scuweiccrr repeated on the 26th of. July, 1834,. before the Society of Physiciens of Halle, several of the experiments which he had already performed in his public lectures in the University. He demonstrated by those experiments that a mag- net turning around its axis, produces a greater accumulation of electricity than a couple of small disks of zine and copper, of about the size of a half crown, (or half dollar,) and are wetted in a solution of muriate of soda. For whilst the current of this hydro-electric combination produced a constant deviation of the needle of 30° to 40°, they observed in turning the magnet, in-. stantaneous existionie of 160° to 170°, and the magnet being con- tinually Gs the needle finally. stopped between 60° and 70°. Oe ae = : £ etre Magnet ih: Magnelo-E lectric Formuta. sor" In those experiments Mr. S chi \weigger employed an electro-mag- netic multiplier, eC d of only six brass-wires, one twelfth of an inch in thickness, “which we shall designate by AH, A’E’, A’E”, &c., and of which each was folded, as shows in the fig. 1, the line ABCDE. By means of small grooves filled with mer- cury, the extremities of these wires can be placed in commu- nication in. two modes, and thus send-the current at will either from the first wire AE into the second AYE’; from this into the third A”, &c:; or in causing to communicate on one part all the extremities A, “AY, AY”, and on the other, the extremities E, EK’, E”, through the six wires at once. _In this last disposition, when the multiplier forms but one circuit, the current produced by the rotation of a magnet, and saitectel to the multiplier by ‘conductors of a pretty large mass, (thick bands of copper, ) causes the needle to deviate instantaneously 80° to 90°, and if the needle continues to be turned, stops finally between 50° to 60°, If, the’ multiplier remaining the same, two disks of zinc. and. copper, wetted with a salirie solution, are used, the constant deviation of the needle is but 10° to 15°. Fig. 1. “al sy, Fig. 2. Fs ‘OL Pig. 3.2 An olin multiplier, of which: Mr. ‘Faraday atid’ use, . corn poaed of numerous turns, and formed with a wire, thin, and very long, folded as shown by fig. 2, (that which, aboording to the Journal of Chemistry and Physics, by Mr. Schweigger, 1825, Vol. III, is the best form which can be given to it,) produces a deviation of only 10° to 15°, by the current of the same magnet turning round its axis. By a proper combination of several mag- ets turning around their axes, this same multiplier (fig. 2;) shows an increase of the electric force, whilst the multiplier, ‘whieh we described in the ene of this noe, and is destined ber ee 2 > * See J. S. C. Schweigger tber Mythologie. Tab. I. Fig. 1. 358 Electro-Magnetic and. Magneto-E lectric Formula. to ‘measure the quantity of electricity and not its tension, indi- cates, on the contrary, a decrease of strength. Several variations of this experiment are easily deduced from _ — the figure given above, (fig. 3,) which may be considered a gen- eral magneto-electric and electro-magnetic formula. In order to justify the idea of using the figure of man, we will request our read- ers to peruse what Mr. Pouillet says on the subject of the elec- tro-magnetic figure of Mr. Ampere.* _ The two stars on the head of those two figures are the symbol of the two electricities at the moment they unite, and the position of the same figures indi- cates the. movement of the electric spark, as going from above downwards, and it is infact thus that lightning (foudre) or- dinarily moves. . They know that this movement, from above downwards, of the electric spark produces magnetization all around it and in a plane perpendicular to its direction, and the whole passes exactly in the same manner as if the magnet- ism were conveyed by an austral pole, (that is to say, the pole of a magnetized needle directed to the north,) which is con- ducted in the same plane on the left, (from the west south- ward, towards the east, éc.,) and by a northern. pole inseparable from it, which is conducted to the right, (from thé east south- ward, to the west, &c.) It is thus that the figure A turning to the left, is the symbol of the austral magnetism, and the figure B turning to the right, that of the northern magnetism. It is seen then that the direction of the spark or of the electric current, is indicated by the situation of these two figures, and that the movement of these same figures expresses the situation of the magnetic pole according to all the tangents, which, as indicated by this motion, are all comprehended in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the spark. All that is essential to electro- mgnetism being thus explained, our design is evidently a gen- eral symbol of the electro-magnetic phenomena,» or a general formula, the eireh tae of which to all particular cases is very But this design is— ale a sige magnefo-clectrie formula. If, for example, the south pole of a magnet enter into an helix of copper wire, it produces evidently a separation.of the riba fluid, since the northern a is attracted and . Ponillet, Elem. de Phys. exp. Paris. 1692 Tom. I. P. 2. p. 242. he ee ; ¢ f 5 = - FPossit Enerinite. ae 359 the southern magnetism. repulsed. itt ‘adhe this movement of the northern and southern magnetism for the commencement of revolutions in opposite directions of the two figures, they can be put in the helix in a corresponding manner, the situation of the figures which result from it will account then for the direction = the electric current. If a southern. pole, for dnnighe, is turned to the left aati its axis, let us fancy the symbol of the southern magnetism in-- troduced into the interior of the “magnet in a situation corres- ponding to the direction of rotation: the electric current resulting from this, will be directed then from the head of the figure spoken of towards. the feet. - ‘It is evident that the wire com- municating to the southern pole, receives the northern magnet- ism at the place of contact, whether this contact is effected imme- diately or by the agency of the mercury. It will be seen that this wire will turn respectively to the right. if the southern pole turns to the left, conformably to our symbol... And in effect, és the essential point in this trial, and departing hence, we can easily obtain a long series of ‘varied and instructive experiments. It is necessary to warn all those who intend to repeat them, to take all precautions to avoid thermo-electric currents, the mul- tiplier described above being very subject to them. In effect, it can be easily - demonstrated in experimenting in the man- ner indicated above, that the thermo-electric current is greater than an hydro-electric current produced by a single pair of zinc and copper disks, which are about equal in size to a crown, (or half dollar,) and are wetted with a solution of muriate of soda. “Arr. XVII Fist Enerin inite ; by Joun G. ANTHONY. : “Cincinnati a ith, 1838. TO PROF, SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—Encuiosev I send you'a drawing of a speci- men in my collection, which I found near this place in March The first specimen of this fossil was discovered by myself a year since, and consisted merely of the reticulated part, with- out any stem, and but a ‘small portion of the: fimbriz. During the past winter more than seventy similar specimens were washed ‘out by the rains from the rubbish of a quarry, and picked up,— « 860 Fossil Enerinite, the present is decidedly the best specimen which has rewarded our search. gl” _ For want of. any systematic work. on ve fossils: ‘of.0 our strata, I cannot venture to say whether it is described or not. It is un- doubtedly one of the encrinite family, probably an apiocrinite, and the present drawing is forwarded for publication in your Journal, with a view to enable some one better nequalnias with the subject to determine its specific name. The letter accompanying the notice of Dr. Warden’s trilobite in your daly: number,* is calculated to convey an erroneous-impres- is. species is entitled to priority. ‘The statement made to me 5 by Dr. W. was, that his sister-received the specimen from some one, and had-put it away with many others, without being aware of its true character, and that. on his visit to Springfield out a month after he saw; my specimen, he. noticed this, and brought it away. with him to Cincinnati... That Dr. W, was not aware of its existence previously, is evident, for he drew up the report alluded to in his letter, and therein says, “it is undoubt- edly the shield of an undescribed trilobite furnished with feelers or tentacule ; this is a very important fact. to establish, as it will prove ebtitlusively; that the trilobite family are properly consid- ered analogous to the crabs,” é&c. &c.° Throughout the report he makes no allusion. to ‘any other specimen as bearing any analogy with it, or conflicting in any degree with its claim to priority. As this claim was set forth in my communication to the Acad- emy, and as he takes no notice of it in his report, it is evident, that at. the time, the-existence of his sisters specimen ve un- nang, to him. . nie. ese +. - * Vol. xxs1v, p. 379. ame Stars of December x 1838. ee dre XIX. —Report on ae sShabicie Stars oF Doctor : 1838, with remarks on Shooting Stars in general. By Epwarp C. . Herrick, Record. Sec. of the Conn. —_ of Arts and Sciences. _ Ar the. acini of the Report on the meteors of last August, (p. 173 of this vol.) it was stated that on the night of Dee. 6, 1798, Brandes witnessed a remarkably large number of shooting stars.* This fact was first communicated to me in April last, by ‘Professor Loomis, of Western Reserve College. Believing that phenomena of this nature result from celestial causes more or less permanent, I at once entertained strong hopes and considerable expectation that a return of this display would now be seen on or about the same period of the year. I well. knew that our knowledge of the true system of shooting stars was too imperfect to warrant the prediction, that a meteoric display which had been once observed, would ever after, in greater or less degree, be visible at the same season, in all parts of the earth, Yet the fact that since proper observations have been made, a season of meteoric abundance has been detected, about the 10th of August and the 13th of No- * The entire account of this display is given in the following extract, the original of which arrived to-day in a letter from Prof. Loomis: The work from which it is taken, is entitled, ““ Versuche die Entfernung, die Geschwindigheit und die — der Sternschnuppen zu bestimmen: von J. J. Benzenberg un W. B Hamburg, 1800. 8vo.”-—* It will be proper here briefly to relate an inten Gottingen to my native place. As I was travelling, on the evening of the 6th of December, 1798, from Harburg to Buxtehude in an open post-wagon, I had the gratification of dest a larger number of-shooting stars than I had ever before wit- meee B noticed yas soon after the close. of evening twilight, and baving Ike f the number PP of the Mince which I ae with conyenience survey from miy seat. For the - sake of greater accuracy, at the end of every hundred, I noted the time by my watch, which there was just light enough to enable me to do. They appeared in ~ such numbers that for about four hours, I ¢ounted as waney: as 100an hour. Occasion- ally they came at a much more rapid rate ;—often 6 or 7 in a minute. Afier this, [about 10 P. M.] they were much less frequent, and during the whole night, I saw only 480, although T had counted in the four first-hours alone, over 400. In order to be certain that no one portion of the sky was richer than the rest, I looked ocea- Sionally at other parts of the heavens, but found no difference. I may, therefore, Safely say, that on this evening;. many-thousand shooting stars must have been vis- ible above m my horizon.’’—It does not appear that Brandes noticed at this time any point of radiation; or that he watched in subsequent years for a return of the dis- play. The idea of a periodical shower of meteors had then probably never been advanced. Von. XXXY. —No. 2. Ab6 362 Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. vember,* added strength to my hopes. On the other hand, my confidence in the return of the display was somewhat shaken by the apparent absence of any other records of unusual meteoric appearances at this season. A very extensive search will probably bring some such to light, but if it should not, it will at least prove anew, how easily a phenomenon of this kind, when not specially watched, may pass unnoticed. However, the chance of a re- discovery of this long-lost shower, induced me to request several friends in various places, who had previously obliged me in a simi- lar way, to keep up a vigilant watch at this season. Few returns have yet been received, and from some of the distant observers, they can not be expeeted under many months. The observations made in this city show conclusively that the number of meteors visible here about the 7th of December, 1838, was for sever hours, from‘six to eight times beyond the average. Those de- tailed in the following table, were made here by Messrs. C. P. Bush, A. B. Haile, J. D. Whitney, B. Silliman, Jr., and myself. They comprise, with one exception, every favorable evening from the 4th to the 15th, inclusive. L Observations on Shooting aes made at New Haven, Conn. ecember, 1838. ; ; ‘Quarters of th e|No. of mete } coy Time of observation. “ ~ No. of ob- aaa ss Was seen \Dec. 6 | 8h. 8m. to 9h. 8m. P.m. =60min| 1 —~ Ez. 23 « « 10h. 5m, to 11h. “5m. r.m. ==60 “« 2 - |s. BE. & N.N.W.| 328 12m tt 5 een th. Om.a.m. =45“% | 2 |s.8.n.8N.W & Lom Hote) ah... to 5h. a.m. =60 “ oO See 2im. ieee &. |S to 9h. P.M. =60 “ 2 E-8 W. 62« 31 regis Seo Oh. p.m. =60 “ 2 E.& Ww. 43 « 28 ee SET OR: ith. P.M. =60 N. E. % 8 | Th. Bony. (0 “Sk. p.m, ==45 gE 15 ; 8h. to Qh. P.M. 60 # E 3 | “ « | 8h. 15m. to Qh, p.m, ==45 * w 19 * 11 | 8h. 45m. to 10h Pom. =75 * EB... eae “ 32 | 6h. 7h P.M «“ OE 6 f fea | Bh. 9h P.M. ==60 “ a E 12: “ 13 | Oh, 45m. to Ih. 30m. a.m. —=45 “ hed ae &, 15: Gh, 7h. P.M. 60 * ] E. 2 “1 6h. 25m. to 6h. 40m. ep. mw. —15 “ ] | w. g 0 “ 6 | 8h. to 9h. 15m, p.m. —75 “ 2° 1 “naw. ft eee * The “ meteoric shower’’. of November, 1838,.came chiefly on the morning | of the I4th. According to observations made at Middlebury, Vt., a « The People’s Press,” by Prof. A. C. Twining, meteors. were visible that morn- ing from 4h. to Gh..in the whole heavens, at the rate of 105 per hour; and for a short time the next morning, they were wer as numerous. ‘ f Shooting Stars of December 7, 1838. 363 During the above observations the sky was sufficiently clear. Where m. is annexed to the number seen, allowance must be made for the presence of the moon 53 or 64$*days past the full. This table shows, that a season of meteoric abundance extended from the 6th to the 11th (at least ,) and that'it came to its max- imum early on the evening of the. 7th. During the evenings of _ the 6th and 7th, shooting: stars were so frequent and brilliant, that they attracted the attention of persons abroad in different _ parts of the city. Being then ignorant as to the period of the night at which the display of Dec. 6, 1798, occurred, and having fallen in rather too hastily with the common conclusion, that me- teors are always most abundant between midnight and morning, my arrangements were made chiefly for a morning watch.- The appearances were consequently not so ‘well observed as they would have been, but for a reliance on this-premature general- ization.. On the evening of the 6th, meteors were not much less numerous than on the evening of the 7th, and they did not in- crease in number after midnight.* Professor Olmsted informs me that onthe evening of the 7th, from 64 to 8 p.m, he, with two of his sons, (F. A. Olmsted, and D. Olmsted, Jr.,) without very close attention, and in much less than the whole heavens, counted meteors at the rate of at least 100 an hour. He re- marked that at 8 they were becoming less frequent. From 8 to 9, Mr. Haile and myself observed ninety three, and we probably saw not more than half the whole visible number ; ; for, although a single observer can. see large meteors throughout half the hemi- sphere, yet he can not detect all the smaller ones, (which are commonly the majority,) throughout more than.an eighth part of the hemisphere. ‘The meteors slightly diminished in number, as. the evening advanced; but much to our regret, we were pre- vented, after about 11 p. m., by an overclouded sky, from deter- _ mining the rate of dimindtion, or the general progress of the phe- nomenon. On the morning of the 8th, Mr. Haile watched from Ath. to 5th. (about a sixth of the hemisphere, in the N. W. being nearly clear,) and saw five meteors. ‘The meteors of the 6th and 7th were not unlike those of ordi- hary times :—many of them were — and —_— fire-balls, it may be even lied; in the liquid acid, but if moist in the slightest degree, it will burn . with a loud exploant, requiring particular precautions —Senior Ep. — 2. Tay Interpretation of bara and asah, in a letter from Dr. Noau Wensrer to the Rev. Wilkiam Buckland, Oxford, England. Rev. Sir—I am reading your treatise on Geology with great pleasure, and, I hope, not without instruction. Th the second chapter of your treatise on Geology, a part of the Bridge- _ Water Collection, you have advanced the doctrine that the matter of this globe was created long before it was reduced to its present form or state, 376 Miscellaniés. for the residence of the present race of men. This doctrine supposes that the first verse in Genesis refers to the first creation of the matter of the globe, and of the celestial orbs ; ; and that between that event and the creation of man, an indefinite period of long duration elapsed before the reduction of the earth to its present form. - Long before your treatise on Geology was written, and anterior to the modern discoveries of the-remains of animals and plants in the different formations of the crust of the earth, I had conceived the same opinion. I could hardly express my opinions better than Bishop Gleig has expressed them in a note in page 32 of your book, Philadelphia edition. My object now is merely to offer a few remarks on the Hebrew words bara and-asah, which are used to express creation and making. I sup- pose that lexicographers and commentators have mistaken the’ primary signification of bara. Gesenius supposes the primary sense to be to cut, _ cut out, to carve, or to form by cutting or carving, from the notion of ae cutting, or separating, inherent in the radical syllable 43. - © But this is probably a mistake, which shows how imperfectly the most eminent scholars understand the order in which the various uses of words are derived from a radical signification. If the primary sense were to cut, or carve, the sense of being born or producing young, could not be deduced from it. Yet Gesenius himself thus miereetee the word, in Ezek. 21: 30, 28:13; Ps. 104: 30. The primary sense of the word is probably ta spate in some form or other, and cutting may be deduced from that sense. “But in éxpressing creation, ‘the sense isto produce, to drive out, or send forth. Creation was a producing to light or.to existence ° a visible form. Thus the apostle expresses the fact, = Macknight renders the original words, and as I should sea them: ‘so that the things which are seen were not of t vared ; ;” that is of things’ previously formed and appe visible. “Heb. 11: 23: Tein: the: since inclined t this opinion, because — I believe the word bara i is our English word bear, or of the same family, coinciding with the sense in which we use it for the nes of infants and of births. The word asah seems ethane to denote the act or process of shaping and fitting for use, by giving due form to a thing.’ And I would suggest it as worthy of consideration, whether the sense of the passdge, Gen. 11: 3, in which both of thes words are used, is not this—Because that in it he had rested from all his works which God produced for formation ; created to be reduced to a form for use, or for its intended purposes. For the ‘great variety of uses or application of Lars Hebrew Jom see the Introduction to my Quarto Dictionary. ‘suggestions are offered with some diffidence, iy = our obedient servant, N- WEBSTER. “New Haven, Camsistaiem, United States, hh 16, 1898. ne Te A Miscellanies. 377 3. Notice of the Height of Mountains in North Carolina, from Prof. _E. Mrrcnext, of Chapel Hill University. (Taken from the os Re- gister of Nov. 3, 1835, and forwarded by Prof. M.) The younger. Michaux, on his way from the Valley of the Mississippi, in the fall of 1802, passed through the counties of Yancey and Burke, and in the small volume,. containing an account of his travels, that was pub- lished soon after his return to Paris, the opinion-is expressed, that in these counties, the Alleghany Mountains attain their greatest elevation. He mentions, in evidence that this belief is well- founded, that his father ree trees and plants it res them which he did not meet. with again before reaching Can The geology of these aide has some pesaliar featutes: “They were visited during the Jast summer, for the purpose of tracing the boundaries of their rock formations, and along with other collateral objects, provision was made for measuring the heights of their principal mountains, with their bearings and distances from each other. Prof. Mitchell in a letter to the editor, dated University of North Carolina, May 12, 1838, remarks that the results transmitted were obtained by fiiiustelf. He adds— “Tn their general accuracy I placed a-confidence at the time which has been increased by the publication of the Report of the Surveys made by the engineers employed by the Charleston and Louisville Rail Road Company. For the height of Mount Washington I trusted to Worcester as the ‘best authority within my reach. The difference in elevation be- tween the northern and southern mountains is probably not considerable ; in point of beauty there is in some instances a decided superiority on the side of the latter. Mount Washington, according to his measurement, is not so high as the highest peak of the Black Mountain.” One barometer he observes was stationed at Morganton, and a vacerd kept of its movements by Mr. Pearson of that place. This served asa standard. ‘The observations made at the same time (nearly,) upon the _ tops of the mountains and at Morganton, fornished the data for calculat- ing their elevations above that village, and the mean of ten observations, on successive days, gave what is probably a near approximation to the — height of Morganton above the level of the sea—nine hundred and sixty eight feet. Deducting from this the descent to the bed of the Catawba, there remains only about eight bance feet of fall between the ford lead- ing over Linville and the sea. North of the point where the James River leaves the mountains, the first high ridge of the Alleghanies is called the Blue Ridge. In North Caro- lina, this name is applied to the range that separates the eastern and Western ‘waters. This is commonly the first high mountain, but not : always. The Table Mountain, which forms'so fine and striking a fea- ture in the scenery about Morganton, is not a part of the Blue Ridge, but spur or outlier. It seems, when seen from Morganton, to be a round AS Vou. age —No. 2 &. 378 Misceilantes. tower; rising perpendicularly from the summit of the first range of the Alleghanies. _ It is, in fact, a narrow ridge, affording a very fine prospect of the fertile valley of the Catawba ‘and its tributaries on the southeast and east, and of nature in her wildest dress where the Linville pours over the rocks along a deep ravine, wholly untenanted and uncultivated, and of a vast extent of mountain peaks and ranges on the northeast. Its top is two thousand four hundred and fifty three feet above Morganton, and a little more than fifteen miles distant in a right line, The Grandfather, seventeen miles from the Table, and twenty eight from Morganton, has hitherto been generally ‘supposed the highest moun- tain in North Carolina. But this proves to be a mistake, as may be seen in the following table. .There is a mountain not far off called the Grand- mother ; from being crowned with the balsam of fir it is ie conjoutirad that the elevation may be twenty six hundred feet: The Roan Mountain is fifteen miles from the bieendinaines and thirty five northwest from Morganton, lying diréctly over or beyond the Hawks- bill. It touches thé Tennessee line, but the highest peaks are in North Carolina. This isthe easiest of access, the most beautiful, and will best repay the labor of ascending it of all our high mountains. With the ex- ception of a body of rocks looking like the ruins of an old castle, near its southwestern extremity, the top of the Roan may be’ described as a vast meadow, without a tree to obstruct the prospect; where a person may _ gallop his horse for a mile or two, with Carolina at his feet on one side, and Tennessee on the other, and a green ocean of mountains raised into tre- mendous billows immediately about him. .It is the elysium of a southern botanist, as a number of plants are found growing in this cold and humid atmosphere, which are not seen again till we have gone some hundreds of miles farther-north. It is the pasture ground for the young horses of the whole country about-it during the summer. We found the strawberry here in the greatest abundance and of the finest quality, in regard to both size and flavor, on, the 30th of July. : ; ~ The Black Rania; is a long ridge,.at a medium distanee of about a miles from Morganton. It has some peaks of greater elevation than any point that has hitherto been measured in North America, east of the Rocky Mountains, -and is believed to be the highest mountain in the United States. This: Black Mountain. ccet nearly a week’s Jabor in fixing upon thé peak to be measured and the measurement. For the _ sake of comparison the following heights are given, The first five are copied from Worcester’s Gazetteer: - : Mount Washington in New Hampshire, hitherto accounted the: highest mountain in the United States—highest peak, 6,234 - Mansfield Mountain, Vermont, a 4279 _> Saddle Mountain, Massachusetts, .- + ~~ 2- ~~ 4,000 © ~ . Round Top,-highest of the Catskills, ae : 3,804. a a Miscollaniés, | 379° ; Peaks of Otter, Viral 3 ST te = SS Table “Mowatiia: Burke, Nortit Caroli, tse — Sat ‘Grandfather, - po ae "SSS Yeates’ Knob, 2 eg. SieN, wel reg." BBS : ad at Thomas Young's e . vi ORs : SE aie eT OE Highest ees of the Black, : 6,476 e There are other high mountains at no great_ dideses from those that were measured, as the Bald Mountain in the western part of Yancy, and the White Topi Virginia, which are nearly if not quite as higli as the ' Roan. In the southeastern part of Haywood county, near the South Carolina line, there is a tremendous pile, and between the counties of Haywood and Macon and the State of Tennessee, the Unikee Mountain _ swells to a great elevation. ‘But these appear to the eye to be lower than the Black. ; The Pilot Minsataits which has heretofore enjoyed great celebrity, is much lower than several others. The ascent of the Black Mountain is very difficult on account of the thick laurels which are so closely. set, and their strong branches so interwoven, that a path cannot be forced by push- ing them aside; and the hunters have no method’ of advancing, when they happen-to fall i in with the worst of them, but that of crawling along their tops. The bear, in passing up and down the mountain, finds it Wisest to keep the ridges, and trampling down the young laurels as they Spring up, breaking the limbs from the old ones and’ pushing them aside, he forms at last a sort of burrow above ground, through this bed of vege- tation, along which he passes without difficulty. This is a bear trail. The top is covered with the balsam fir, from the dark and sombre shade of whose foliage it doubtless received the name of the Black Mountain. The growth of the tree is such on these high summits, that it is easy to oe to the top and taking hold of the highest branch look. abroad upon ne Beet At the time of our visit, the smoumhaily was Seas in a return with the least ponte delay, and this when it was clear weather, at a small distance below the ridge and the thermometer at 80°. The temperature of a few wells and springs is subjoined. The finest iced water is a vapid drink,.in comparison with the pure element that gushes from the sides of these western mountains. Wells on Chapel Hill, Oct. aig e's i : 59° Well i in Lincolnton, July 16, : Pit eget Bye & Moanin, July 16, "=". i : - §8°° = Spring i in Keller’s Field, ee Daniel Moore’ s Globe Setlment, zs - B79 oes _James Riddle’ 8, 54° 380 Miscellanies. Spring » near the top of the Grandfather, . . 53°" “Ascent of the Roan, vit 52° “North side of the Black Mountain, tops 50° Another, same Mountain, aie tq ee 4. Fossil Shells and Bones.—A Ye writes from Wilmington Island, near Savannah, July 16, 1838,—Wilmington island is situated in the Savannah fiver eharbt miles from the sea, and would : appear, though surrounded by salt water, to be a part of the delta of the river, were it not for the vast beds of shells (principally oysters) which are found. upon it. These beds extend through all the islands in this vicinity, and al- though attributed by sore to the aborigines, are evidently the deposits of the ocean, as they are found in layers of uniform thickness wherever they have not ‘bore disturbed. Under such circumstances they are found about three or four feet from the surface. You heard, I suppose, of the discovery ‘of fossik bones made inthis State last spring while digging the canal near Brunswick. TI endeavored to lay hands on some of them, but found that they were to be sent to the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Boston. They were the only bones~ever found in this State except those of the mega- therium. They were: at first supposed to belong to the mastodon. Dr. S., the gentleman with whom I reside, Bees in his possession some of the bones: of the eects : . oa es ae SION 5. oral. Arch in Vermont. —Eclipse. Burlington, Vermont, 20th November, 1838. cuz Eprrors. —Gentlemen—Again has the same region, described feces Vol., p. 21 , presented a similar phenomenon, and for the. reasons there given, and: with the view of obtaining a certain parallaxin order-to ascertain the mediante of these wonderful iphapaments, I shall = scribe this also to On the evening F the "Th of September I was called out by a friend to look at a remarkable light. It extended to within 10° or 15° of the horizon at each extremity, pote ae between Alpha and Zeta Pegasi, leav- ing both stars just clear of its penumbra, between Beta Cygni and Beta Lyre, enveloping both in its penumbra, and just N. of Arcturus. This was at 8h. 30m., and it continued nearly unchanged for five minutes. It then seemed disturbed on its N. edge, especially near Lyra, as if bya current moving westerly, and epatianally detaching ‘small fragments, which, on their separation, immediately disappeared. At the same time, the portion between Lyra and- Arcturus was greatly bent towards the south. In about 5m. more it entirely disappeared. If I can trust my recollection, it was brighter. than those I saw last year. There was a _very bright and active light in the north at the same time, and long after- wards, but exhibiting nothing else uncommon. a # ~ « Me a en 4 An atiempt was made to obtain an observation of the late eclipse with the following result. Sun’s center on the meridian by chronometer 11h. 53m. 53sec. Eclipse began by chronometer 3h. 12m. 50 sec. Chro- nometer gaining 3.87 sec. per day. The end was involved in thick clouds. ours with high respect, * James Dean. 6. Geological Specimens. from the East Taian Fok pile from Jas. T. my Miss. of the A.B. C.F er. 20th March, 1838. To Pror. SILLIMAN. — Dear Sir—I send by a friend, Mr. Hope, a few geological specimens which I collected not long ‘since during a voyage among the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The specimens are very small for convenience of transportation, an ties value, if they have any, is derived only from the fact that they are from highly interesting islands, which, if I mistake not, are little known to geologists. The Ternati specimens are most of them from the top of the moun- tain, 5060 feet high, and exhibit the trap rock in all stages of fusion. _ The mountain is a volcano, the crater of which was emitting amoke, but no flame, at the time we visited it. The coal from Borneo was found in situ _— the hills, and may pro- bably be found in any quantity. . The rock of the island of Singapore is all red sanilapne, so far as I know. In some places the sandstone has fragments of quartz imbedded in it. _The mountains of the Malay peice are patil, and so also are those of Cochin China. The islands east and south of Borneo are trap, and abound in volcanoes. Beginning, then, at the north and west, we have granite—next, proceeding towards the south and east, we find sand stone—and next, trap. Remarx.—The specimens sent by Mr. D. fully sustain his opinions ; and there-are among them also very beautiful phelendomies and _agates wal ne anao.—Eps.- es ¥ Keita to an Acre ert of a letter from Grorcr : Ginns, Esq., dated New York, Nov. 26, 1838.—A druggist’s store in Pearl street was burnt in the evening and while the air was filled with snow, (a slight fall took place during the night,) and a column of pale light shot up from the blaze as high as the zenith, (in appearance.) It was entirely distinct in color from the light of the fire or smoke, being stationary, higher, and slender like the mast of a vessel. It was to the south of where I stood and about a mile off, and was noticed by others at the time. I had no doubt of its being an artificial aurora. You will be - able “Gat to explain it if not. 8 METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER FOR 1837, - nak at pce, Begs 8 Canada, in Lat. 45° 50! N. Long. 73° 22! W. by J. 8. M‘Cord, Corresponding Secretary of the Natural History iety, and Member of the me 8 and Historical Society, Quebec, and Albany Institute, State of New York. : is ND. PESTAES Ae: MONTHS. of days blowing. Number of Sear ae 8% g E} 2 e ‘8 | Sw | we J rs | Cy. Rn |Shrs | Fog Snw, as wo January, ag Pe ecaarmmmarmmens 6.0) 1. 3.0 5.5] 14.5] 2.0) 13.0 | 12.0 | *.75[. | 1.25) 4.00" .. (21.55 epreary ae : 6.0, 3. 6.5 6.0; 3.5} 3.0} 6:0 | 16.5.) (5 | .25|) 5 | 4.25) .. 118.50 March Saat 8.0 0. 7.5 4.0; 6.5} 2.01105 | 165|3.5) ..| .. | 5 | 1.20) 4.15 - April 3,0) 2. 3.0 2.5) 11.5) 6.5] 14.0 | 11.25) 3.25) . 2) .. | 1,50) 2.45) 4.25 ay ; 3.0| I: 5.5 4.0| 7.5) 5.57 13.5 | 115/60) ..]°. »+ 1 2,95) 0.30 = Sane? > ; 8.5) 2. 8.0 6.5| 6.0} 1.0) 10.0 | 14.5 | 3.25295] ..| -- | 200) ..) S&S uly echt SD d 3.0 0. 1.5, 5.0} 5.5} 8:5) 12.5 |. 5.5 | 2.75) 2.70.|~ 50] . |} 2.00) .. KS August ; ‘ ‘ 7.0 0. 1.0.10.5} 11.0} 0.0) 15.75, 11.25) 2.00) 2.00) ..) . 66 =. September , j 2.0 1. 3.0) 5.0, 13.5, 3.0155 | 85/55/05 | . 3.0] ..| § October : j 4.0) I. 1.0| 4.0) 3515.0) 85 | 7.0) 3.75] 25] .4| 50) 265) 1.00] 3 -} November . \ a 1.0, 0. 1.0] 3.0] 9.54 3sb.75) $60") 2751.50!) .4)° 0.0 2. 13.65 gS. “December + 5 6.0, 1.00.0) 1.5) 2.5) 4.0] 9.0] 1,0} 10.25 fae G25)... 2.25) .. 11.10) * ia 65 [1.0|38.5 6 38.5 5/34.95| 9.50 | 3.25\i3 oohiG.a 64.50 J “HY . ‘ tk se sure of the Year, corrected and er to 32° Fahrenhei it live J Jes ‘ " ‘ « 29.823 Mean Tem Pissh of the Year, mean of Maxi engi wi agli Regier Thermometers ee er” a TS ge ML Mininaen age nf the Barometer hewi. the e year 30.534 , (mean of yearly Maximum . —. 30.287) ole Me Bee oe Re “Minimum . +8, lamcte Rangé aa; a ae a ors ce gmat mi... ae " * Drifting. 1 20 days only observed, $16 days only observed. § 25 days only observed. || 24 days only observed. ? aie ; Pe a at si é8E : * Warme st da ay : . ape ee os e-% nee SE 4 +909... : Coldest day Ce. Bit 52s 6 et ie OO Range of Thermometer. See oe : eee |) i Number of ar Clear“. ee EO a. Se, BODO Clo udy ‘ Sp ete Re TAR Lien re ee ee ee . 34.25 te t Siew Se eel 0 kn, - 9.50 ee ee ee 2.25 tet, AES ee AES Snow Se ee 5 age : : 3 : 13.00 ~ Number of days pbarrSd sf er xe i ee Number of, age of A winds Sea Pea: ek Bmore _ aaeget ae se ° Se = “ 2 “ ' South “c eee = ee =e = - : Nenker of days See. ee I FE Mean Temperature, 1836 ce “ 1837 A +4 ed Ra -MONTUS. |_ BAROMETER. THERMOMETER. : Min. "| Range. | Max. | Min. | Range. | nuary 30.212 | 28.776 | 1.436 ] + 34] —18 52. February 30: 322 |-1.062 | + 38 | —15 53 | March 30.4 9.268 | 1.216] + 49| —13 62 Spell 30.112 | 29.040 | 1.072] + Go| +22 38 |May . .. . |. 30.118 | 29.334 | .884] + 80/ +.20 60 June. . 30.1 29.278 | .822].4+90| +49} 411: | Jul 30.159 | 29.501 | .658 | + 90 | .+52 38 | Au | 30. 29.431 | 816 }+ 80 |. +46. 34, September . | 30.332-| 29.455 | .877]+81/ +41| 40. Oe ae ; 30.370 | 29.450} .920}]+ 68] +30 38 November . | 30.400 | 28.700 | 1.700] + 49| + 2) 47]. fincisies” = - 30.534 | 29.200 | 1.334] + 45| —14| 59 Means, | 30.287 | 29.313 : a Ce s ~ Sr - 24 urs. |Wind 8. and 8. W. a 4 aca lms ~ S's Ly Ww. : és W. ' "ej | ee of Well, Botanic Garden—31 feet deep. Sept. 1835, to August, 1836 46° Fahrenheit. sept 1836, to August, 1837 6.2 % Storms, Phenomena, &e. _ Goben 18th. Wind and rain.—17th —Wind 8. —Shifted to 8. W. ee 18t enceenneaced to blow hard at 11 A. M. of the 18th. eae ter fell from 9 A. M. of 17th to2 P. M. of 18th, .884— “adele to 30. 168 at 9 A. M. of the 19th. ? > 384 Miscellanies. October 0th. gags and rain.—9. P. M. of the 19th, wind N. E.—Barometer .028 blowing fresh—Thermometer 37, falling. At half past 3 Po M. of 20th, wind shifted to S. E. ends storm began.—Between 4 and 5 A.M. blew a gale, heavy rain in a rae falling rapidly —9 A. M. storm still raging—10, began to abate, and shortly after wind shifted to S. and gradually died away.- Fall of Barometer .540 in 12 hours—tain fallen half an inch. 25th.—Snow storm—from N. by W.—began 4 A M,—snowed till 11 A. and then rained all day—heavy wind. -November 4th to Sth, Gale fi from N. W. with ssschionileii 8 AvM. of 4th 4th. ae brilliant Aurora—commenced at 6 P. M.—at half oget 8 at- ined its greatest 5 sop crimson —s darting ove the zenith to we 16th. es snow storm fom N. E, d-3 P. M. —lasted till 7PM : ba | “19th —Steady 1 rain, set in at 10 P. M. id pantiudd without intermission _during the 20th, ist, to 9 P. M. 22d—at which proud stopped, wind N. E—blowing fresh—Barometer 28.87 23d, 24th, 25th.—Heavy and continued gale from S. S. W.—Snow on 25th. November 30th to Decomber 13th.—Extraordinary mild season—warm rains—nav- igation open—steamers plyi ing to the 13th December inelusive. December 21st. —Caldent day—Thermometer varying from —14 to —18 according to situation. 26th. -Ext linary rise and fall of Baroniever ee 9 ALM. 26th, .°..29.516 | —- 9 A. M. 27th, . . 30.534 rise 1.018 iS Bo 2 9 A. M. 28th, . . 29-964 fall 570 9. Geslagicad Sievege —Meiy engagements. aid doties have caused us to fall in arrears in regard to several valuable Belogical reports, par- ticularly of New York, Maine, and Massachusetts ;* but without proffer- ae a pledge we may not have it in our eres to Raioecs. as soon as we could desire, we trust that we shall be able hereafter to gratify our own — doing justice to able and faithful — in — different and responsibl¢ fields of science and economics. 10. Dr. Mantel?’s Wonders of Geology.—This fine work was men- tioned fully in our July number. Although it was ‘published in London only in March, the second thousand of copies was nearly sold in ka ot ber, and a new edition is expected early in the present year, 1 Arrangements have been made with the author and publisher by which Mr. A. H. Maltby of New Haven will publish the new edition in this country as soon as it can cross the ocean, and by the author’s approba- tion it will appear under the direction of Prof. Silliman with introductory remarks by sl paper, type and ilastrations, identical with those of the London editi : se a ng a * We now add those of Virginia, BRR SRR Se 18 andy Pr W B.. 1836.—Eps. _ Rogers, Phila. 1838, soho Tow leon, at a = . Miscellanies. 385 IL. Mr. Bakewell's Geology.—Third American from the fifth English edition of 1838, revised and improved by the author: the American edi- tion, by B. & W. Noyes, of New Haven : with an Appendix by Professor _ Silliman: 8ro. pp. 600. Mr. Bakewell’s searliont treatise is well known in this: ‘country, in con- sequence of the two American editions that have been already published ; its plan therefore requires no explanation, and commendation would be quite superfluous in the case of a work already approved and extensively adopted at home and abroad.. Mr. Bakewell has added a new chapter on the general removal and disappearance of the coal Strata raised by faults above the surface. of the ground. The former editions were par- ticularly full and instructive on coal, and this chapter is a valuable addi- tion. The American ine, that of 1829, from the third English, and of 1833, from the fourth, were edited by Professor Silliman, with the author’s privity and approbation, and by his request this third edition is passed : over to the American public through the same editorial supervision; with 3 a view of: rendering the work more useful, an appendix will be added by | the editor, containing a condensed summary of the ground before occu- pied, with such corrections of fact and theory as appear necessary. reprint is executed in good style, and numerous — errors have been corrected. 1 7 hagpeeies rn . 12. Elements of Geology; by Cuartzs Lye., Esq., FE. R. S., d&e. &c., London, Aug. 1838, pp. 543, 1 Vol. large 12mo.—These elements are, as may be supposed, an abridgment of Mr. Lyell’s large and well cies sa ork, the Principles of Geology. This is a new work, and very = illustrated by figures, chiefly superior wood cuts, of great precision d beauty; there is one colored ideal section of part of the earth’s crust, sdawenid the theory of the four great classes of rocks. Those who are acquainted with the author’s previous works, will expect, __ What they will find, a lucid and eee! exposition of the science. This eet work might well be styled, Institutes of Geology.” Bs It presents the.elementary facts, perspicuously arranged and described, and the philosophy of the sctence is such as those familiar with its more. profound discussions will readily appreciate. We understand that this B work is in the press at Philadelphia, by Kay & Brother, and that it may e be expected to appear early in the spring of the present year, 1839. 13. Dr. Lewis C. Bucx’s Manual of Chemistry ; 3d edition, with nu- merous wood cuts: New York—1838 : pp. 482, large 12mo.—The order of this work is—Definition, Attraction, Heat, Light, Electricity, Galvan- Magnetism and Electro-Magnetism, Elementary: Bodies, Supporters Vou. XXXV.—No. 2. 49 -_* 386 Miscellanies. of Combustion or Electro-Negative Bodies, Non-Metallic Combustibles or Electro-Positive Bodies, Metals, Sinise Bodies, Vegetable and Animal, with an Appendix. This order is probably the most unexceptionable. There is no pete arrangement ; none that will avoid inconvenient anticipations, or that will bring i into one group all the members of the same subject. The best course is to anticipate as little as possible ; to explain the nature of the materials which we must employ so far as to render our processes intelli- gible, and to revert, as far as necessary, so that either sooner or later, every thing will be explained. This course Dr. Beck has judiciously pursued, and his work is a perspicuous and condensed abstract of the science, and is well adapted to the “— for which it was written. 14. Notice of a Manual of Conchology siacecsiida to the system lad down by Lamarck, with the late improvements by De Buainvitie, for students; by "Trosas Wart rt, M. A.; in a letter to him from Isaac Tes, Esq., dated Philadelphia, December 19, 1838.— Dear Sir—I have ex- amined your ‘ Manual of Conchology,’ formed from the works of Lamarck and Blainville, and consider it well adapted to the introduction of the stu- dent into the science of conchology. The plates, which are from the ex- cellent work of Blainville, are generally very well done, and calculated to aid the tyro in obtaining a paras! of the genera of this interesting branch of natural history. ~“T sincerely wish you success in this work, which must have cost you much labor. Should it pass to another edition, I would advise the inser- tion of a plate with the various parts of shells, with proper definitions in the peat The name of each shell should. also be upon the plates throu, %: ~ Mr. - has, ilk good yeast, cbattctiled the plates of this work, and it is no small advantage that they are printed on excellent paper, which will bear using both by the quiet student and the traveller. Offi- cers of the navy and in the merchant service, will find this a very con- venient, and we doubt not, useful manual, by which to direct their obser- vations while collecting shells to enrich their own cabinet as well as those of yoni institutions and of preety individuals.—Epbs. 15. Hideo ices on the late Dr. NaTHANIEL Saacura —The death of this distinguished man produced a strong impression on the public mind, and called forth many tributes of respect. ~Three eulogiums were pro- nounced, severally, by the Hon. Judge White, at Salem, and at Boston by Rey. Alexander Young, and by Hon. John Pickering, the latter before the American Academy, May 29, 1838. Mr. Young’s discourse was, by particular request, revised for this Journal, and appeared in the October Ae ne Se 3 Miscellanies. — sor number. This, therefore, has already spoken for itself in our pages, and has been received with warm interest and gratification by the public. The eulogium of Judge: White is a delightful composition, replete with eloquence and literary beauty, and warm with affectionate respect for the great philosopher whom it commemorates. Being the production of a townsman and cotemporary, like Mr. Young’ s, it presents graphic sketches of his life and character, both in the forming and mature stages, and does equal honor to the head and heart of the writer, and to his noble subject. The eulogium of Mr. Pickering is a obit, dual composition, alto- gether worthy of its author, (and this is no stinted praise. - In unity with the character of the learned body before which it was delivered, and of which Dr. Bowditch was president, it presents, as its peculiar characteristics, a masterly analysis of the scientific labors of this eminent man. Performed in the midst of arduous and respon- sible business, and of numerous social engagements and duties, which touched his warm heart as much as science filled his clear intellect, his philosophical labors were enough to hare absorbed a powerful mind,-un- shackled by common cares. It is remarkable, that the eulogist of this em- inent man, by the manner in which he has executed his delicate task, bringing literature and science into beautiful harmony, should have evinced that Dr. Bowditch was not alone in reconciling conflicting du- ties. Every wise and good American must feel proud that his country has produced a subject of such deserved eulogy, and gifted minds and. hearts to appreciate such talents, attainments, and virtues. 16. The Science of Geology, from the Glasgow Treatises, with addi- tions; first American edition, Common School Treatises, No. 1—This little work of 72 pages, is neatly printed, with good illustrations on wood, and is issued at. New Haven by B. & W. Noyes. It is well adapted to be useful 1 in | the education of young people, being judicious in selection, and s and attractive in lie 17. ‘Dr. Charles T. Sickie? $ ‘Reports on i: Geology of Maine.— It has been impossible for us to notice in the present number Dr. Jack- son’s very valuable reports, being the second on the geology of Maine, and the second also on the geology of the public lands of Maine and Massachusetts, These reports together occupy about 300 pages, with appropriate illus- trations. They correspond with what we might expect from Dr. Jackson, being able and perspicuous, and eminently adapted to do honor to the State, and to promote its vital interests. We trust that the good sense and patriotism of the government of Maine vill carry out this noble work until it is entirely finished under Dr. Jack- 388 Miscellanies. son’s able and efficient management. No time for a full completion of this great labor can be so good as the present; an abandonment would be most unwise,—even a suspension highly injurious, and in point of eer? very improvident and wasteful. 18. Catlinite* or Indian Pipe Aten: —Dr. Jackson, of Boston, has analyzed Mr. Catlin’s pipe stone from Coteau du Prairie, which is not steatite, but a new compound very similar to agelaniolite, it being com- posed of in 100 grains : ‘Wateryc ecicous tats i Sa 38 OE Bre Silica, - i acne ‘ . sk 4 Alumina, - - rss a a wine = 98.2 ‘és ‘Magnesia, - i a - z 6.0 ‘s Panos: romp So ne cas see got BO Ox. manganese, : - a a3 n=, OG es 4 arb. lime " epeeien < = ie x 26 See Loss, (probably ssligneais,) oe es a ee ee The carbonate of lime is not an essential ingredient, but is mixed in fine particles. The Catlinite évidenily’ exists in pseudo strata or tabular sheets, and overlaid by quartz rock, glazed, as if from the action of fire, while the surface is carved with bird tracks, called by the Indians the points or —S of the great <5 19. Encke’s Comet. —The proximity of this bay to the earth, during its return in the latter part of the present year, has rendered it an object of peculiar interest to astronomers. It was seen in England as early as the 21st of September, but as yet no foreign observations upon it have reached us. Unfortunately, an ephemeris of this comet was not obtained in this country until the middle of November, at which time it had passed the circle of perpetual apparition, and was visible but for an hour or two in the evening after sunset. It was first seen in this country on the 17th of November, and at a number of places simultaneously ; at Yale Col- lege, New Haven, at the Wesleyan University of Middletown in this State, and at Philadelphia. It had then recently passed the point of its nearest approach to the earth, which was about 21 millions of miles, and was visible to the naked eye as a star of the 4.5 magnitude. We have, as-yet, heard of no regular series of observations upon the comet made in this country. But few days remained after its discovery before it morales disappear m the evening twilight, and its proximity to * After Mr. Catlin, the celebrated traveller in the West, and the successful painter of Indians, their costume, the scenery of their country, Se: His Indian museum is a most interesting and unique collection. A mR Se Si Miscellanies. 389 the horizon promised little reward to any efforts that might be bestowed upon it. It was observed here -with the 14 feet reflector of Mr. Smith, described in the last number of this Journal, and with particular refer- - ence to its size and actual appearance. There was no decided or clearly defined nucleus, but its degree of ‘condensation towards the center, was about as much as in the kind of nebulx described by Sir J. Herschel as “ suddenly much brighter in the middle.” The nucleus was excentric, the coma being less extensive on the side opposite the sun than elsewhere. The greatest diameter of the coma was in this telescope fully 12’; its least not more than 2 as much, and in the direction of a line drawn to- wards the sun.. The expected occultation of the star 7 Herculis, which was not visible in Europe, was observed here. It did not occult it, but preceded it when nearest by about 10 or 15 seconds of time, A small star of the 9th or 10th magnitude about 5’ south preceding 7, was almost central- ly occulted, but before the nucleus had quite reached it, the comet was too _ low to be observed ; the nucleus had approached within 30” of the star, and in a few suingien would have either air it or passed very near it on the side next to 7 Rerouliee® ; The Bibliothéque Universelle of Getices gives an abstract of the Ephe- meris of this comet, as calculated by M. Bremiker, under the direction of M. Encke. Its present return is peculiarly interesting on account of its near approch to Mercury, from which its nearest distance is not two mil- lions of miles. The perturbations of the comet, arising from this so close proximity to the planet, will furnish data, from which the mass of Mercury, hitherto little: more than conjectural, may be known to a great degree of exactness. The full advantage of these data for the cal- culation of the mass and density of Mercury, will not, however, be real- ized, until future returns ap the comet have more completely fixed its loci: It is somewhat Sn A hat since the return of Halley’s comet, no other than this has been seen in se oes of the world. fp. P. M. Yale. Coltage, December 29, 1 “20. Grave a Godfvey, ‘the ieee of the Quadrant, “and of ‘Charles Thomson.—It will be interesting to the friends of science to learn that the remains of Thomas Godfrey, the undoubted ‘inventor of the Quad- rant, have been rescued from oblivion and removed to the beautiful cem- etery of Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia. Mr. Godfrey had been interred on. the farm of his father, near Germantown; in the course of time, the family burial ground was crossed by a cart road, and the old soapstone monument of the father} bearing date 1705, was knocked regularly by a _ Cart wheel every time it passed, and was thus much defaced. This em- phatically exhibits the folly of interring on farms, which must pass, in this ~ Country, after a few generations, into other families. = 390 Miscellanies. Appreciating fully the discovery of Godfrey, and anxious to prevent a further desecration of the grave, the annalist of Philadelphia, John F. Watson, Esq., who resides in Germantown, has had the remains of God- frey, of it father and mother, and of a small child, all disinterred with suitable care, and we are happy to add, that the managers of the Laurel Hill cemetery have erected a suitable tomb over the remains, The friends of science, when viewing this already celebrated spot, will not forget to” visit the tombs of Godfrey, the inventor of the Quadrant, and of Charles Thonison, the first, and long the confidential Secretary of the Continen- tal Congress, also to be found appropriately ornamented in the same cem- etery. It is high time other attempts were made to perpetuate the mem- ory of the great and good men of the Revolution. —Cam. by Mr. Smith of - Phila. Library. — - 21, Marble and Serpentine in Vermont. —We have | some beau- tifal marble tablets from Vermont through Mr. Tlock. Hills, agent of the Black River Marble and Manufacturing Company. The quantity is stated to be inexhaustible. The marble proper, is in the town of Plymouth, county of Windsor, twenty five miles west of Connecticut river. Some of the pieces sent to us have a white basis, with a faint blush of red, and varied by clouds - a light chocolate color ; the structure is sub- exvitaiiine, almost compact, and the same is true of other pieces whose basis is black, but beautifll pictured by white spots, tinted in some parts with gray. The white is often elongated into figures, having consider- able regularity; sometimes. almost cylindrical, and suggesting, at a tran- sient glance, the idea of imbedded encrinites, or other organic remains. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that this is not the fact; and, indeed, the geological character of the country 1 from which the marble comes, 1s primary, and destitute of organic bodies The serpentines and serpentine aac from the eee town of Cavendish. The color presents every shade of green, and becomes, by easy transi- tions, deep leek-green and almost black. A piece of the latter color, 12 inches by 10, now lies before us, and is so highly polished as to bea good mirror; it is, indeed, very beautiful. The lighter colored pieces have considerable resemblance to the Verd Antique of Milford, Connecticut. We cannot doubt that these materials will prove important both to use- ful and ornamental architecture. ‘The pieces before us are all very ae and would indicate good quarries. The serpentine graduates, we are informed, into soapstone of an ex- cellent quality, and the distance of the quarries of serpentine and soap- stone from the river is less than that of the marble. We observe in these ns SR magnetic oxide of iron and chromate of iron, both so charac- teristic of serpentine formations. ; 3 _ 4 tale See Ee a ee ee ee o Ca Miscellanies. ee 391 ae 2. Ow from White Fish. Madison, September. 12, 1838. To Pror. Susamax. amie Sir—The question has often been proposed to me, whether by some chemical or natural process, the oil contained in our “white” fish might not be extracted without material detriment to them as a manure. You are probably aware that in our vi- ia we rely in a great. measure upon these fish as a manure for the “worn out lands.” For this purpose, at least one hundred and fifty of our most active men are in the season. engaged in taking he number taken yearly i is, upon average, ‘Alien millions. It has oan: as- certained by repeated experiment, that these fish contain half a gill of pure oil apiece. By those who made the experiment, (who at the time consulted you upon the subject, viz. 1814 or ’15,) the remnants, after the extraction, were applied, side by. side, with fish just taken, and no mate- rial difference noticed in the crops. They at that time extracted from 7000 fish, value $7, a barrel of oil, value at that time $25 ; the process was very tedious and filthy, From these premises, sir, I wish to ask of you, whether. the oil contained in these fish can be purified from the other matters. Does the principle of manure consist in the solid material parts of the substances used, or in a gas arising from the decomposition of.such materials? Is the oil the principal source of manure, and if so, in what ratio? I have been induced to solicit your opinion in this matter from a conviction that a very large profit may be realized from a disposition of the fish in the manner suggested, provided any method can be devised for rope a separating the oil from the other parts. Yours with great respect, W. W. Witcox, A. M., Prec. Lee’s Rodauy” Being unable to caggeet any Ling satisfactory in reply to the letter of Mr. iia We give it publicity, in the hope that it may elicit informa- 23. "Calm _We learn frodi Prof Robert Hare, that he has recently, by a new process, obtained calcium, the metal of lime, in considerable quantity. His process is new, and we will not presume on a private letter for any of the details of procedure, or of the Properties of the metal, of which, we trust, the public may, ¢ ere long, receive a notice from Dy. Hare : himsel f. ~ 24. N. Dunn’s Chinese vellneesion at Philadelphia, enmvetiniiated. —It would be difficult to name a subject that has puzzled the learned world so much and so Jong, as the accurate delineation of the char- acter of that wonderful and unchanging people, the Chinese. The 392 | Miscellanies. English embassies added something to our knowledge of the heretofore little explored interior of the country, and some light was diffused re- specting the condition of agriculture, the habits, and the manufactures of. the country. The works of the missionaries have also tended to make us more familiar with some of their peculiarities; the best book, however, which has ever been written respecting China, is the recent work of Mr. J. F. Davis, who had Jong been a resident in China, and who accompanied the embassy of Lord Amherst to the capital city of Pekin. Mr. Davis has concentrated much real information ina small space, and has, with singular ability, developed the characteristics of the three hundred millions of people of this region; his volumes have been republished in Harper’s Family Library, and it is to them, and to the recent Fan-Qui in China, in Waldie’s singly that we would direct the attention of the inquirer. - nother new effort to open a fruitful source of information to the student is about to be made public, and on this occasion it is our own country which is to be gratified by the industry; zeal, and discrimina- ting judgment, of one of her native merchants. Europeans have never succeeded in transporting a perfect’or even a very respectable collec- tion of Chinese curiosities. Those impressions which would be re- ceived by a resident who had enjoyed the rare privilege of unrestrained intercourse with the better classes.of Chinamen, have been denied to foreigners. It has been too much the custom of the natives and their visitors, mutually to despise each other, and for both to seek for little further communication than that which the nature of their commercial transactions demands. The consequence has been, that the articles exported have continued to be principally those only which European and American every-day life have required; while strangers have limited th eir purchases to to the common articles made to suit a foreign demand and taste, and their intercourse to the classes of natives who are appointed by government to serve or to watch over them. A few streets of the “ outside” city of Canton are generally visited, and the stores in the vicinity of “ Hog-lane,” a place frequented by foreign sailors, are ransacked for the well known manufactures of gew-gaws, successively carried off by every new comer, but possessing little no- velty i in any sea port. The interior of the city of Canton even is a sealed book ; how much more then the interior of China itself. This being the case, it became an interesting problem, as the Chinamen re- fuse to admit us in, how it would be possible to bring out what it was so difficult to get a sight of; in other words, as foreigners were not per- mitted to inspect the workshops, the houses, private apartments, and manufactories of the empire, what was the next best phing that could < # a — a ae Fi | | ie és MM: iscellanies. 393 be done to enable those outside the walls,-and at home, to become acquainted with the domestic affairs and tastes of. these recluses. Certainly little could be expected from the natives, unless other meth- ods than those heretofore practiced could be adopte _ Nathan Dunn, Esq., of. Philadelphia, who had pear coudh upon this subject, and who, in the course of the very successful prosecution of his business at Canton,- had learned to respect the ingenuity, and when called forth, the intelligence of the numerous Chinese with whom he was daily in contact, happily conceived the idea of transporting to his native shores, every thing that was characteristic or rare, whether in the natural history, or the natural and artificial curiosities and man- ufactures, no matter how costly they might be. And now came effi- ciently to. his aid those requisites that had been but too frequently wanting in the officers of the East India Company, or their agents, who had made the attempt to procure such a collection but had failed. Mr. Dunn, who, it will be admitted by every one on the spot, had conducted himself toward all classes ina manner to win their esteem and confidence, and to whose house and table were introduced so many of the most distinguished officers of government, either tempo- rarily or permanently at Canton, soon discovered that it was in his power to obtain favors not usually granted to strangers. One after another he procured, either by purchase or as presents, those rare and costly articles constituting his collection: how many of these are per- fect novelties even to thousands who have visited China, let those de- cide who may soon havean opportunity of doing so; if indeed, that op- portunity is not already in their power, before this hasty notice passes through the press. For one, the writer is free to say that but for the insight thus obtained, he should have remained as ignorant of the subject as other travellers. It is with a view of honing a portion of this satisfaction, that he ventures to put them on paper, Without further preface, we shall proceed to notice very briefly some of. the peculiar features of this novel exhibition, enumerating a very small portion of the contents of the three hundred cases from which it has been now — the first time unpacked. | The following are the principal grou The entrance ih ey a China work, yee a voaiibulé. through the centre of which you enter the great saloon, one hundred and sixty feet in length, by sixty three in width, and twenty. four feet in height, with a double colonnade ; to the right and left of which are the nu- merous cases containing specimens of all that is rare, curious, or common, to, be procured in the celestial empire. This screen is such 8s is common among the wealthy Chinese, in partitioning off a very Vou. XXXV.—N o. 2. 394 Miscellanies. large saloon from the remainder of the great ground floor of their houses. It is richly gilt, and ornamented with Chinese paintings on silk, inserted in the pannels; and is mounted above with small square gilt apertures ; in these latter are inserted paintings of boats and gor- geous flowers. ‘Fhe screen forms a beautiful termination to this end of the room; _the full effect bursts upon the eye of the visitor after passing the folding door. Hours, nay, days and weeks, may be pro- fitably employed in examining the details within this magnificent sa- loon, which brings the most populous nation of Asia at once before the view of the spectator. '. Accurate likenesses in clay. —The visitor is first attracted byt the accurate and characteristic whole size Chinese figures of various rank, from the mandarins to the cooleys, from women of distine- tion, to those sculling their boats on the rivers. These are in num- ber seventy or eighty, and were made by a very experienced artist in this line, from living subjects. The material of the faces and hands is a prepared substance, so well adapted to the operation of moulding, as to take the impression perfectly and retain it permanently ; the faces are colored to nature, mounted with hair, &c., and each presents a speaking countenance in a style of art perfectly novel in this coun- try or Europe. These figures are neatly arranged in groups, arrayed in their appropriate costumes, some of them extremely rich, while others exhibit the working and every-day’ dress of the lower orders. The effect of this department is to exhibit to the spectator the in- habitants of China-as they really exist.. Great care was taken in pro- curing the likenesses, and about three years of the time of the propri- etor were oecupied in bringing them to perfection; his head carpen- ter, and other workmen about the factories, were pointed out to us, and many co conspicuous characters of China street, &c. will 3 itl nized at once by those ‘who have been: to Canton. Bearers of a se- dan chair, itself a perfect specimen in all its parts of ornament and utility, are in the act of carrying a a native gentleman, accompanied by his pipe-bearer and footman. Porcelain and earthen ware manufacture—In this department, endeavors have been successfully made to procure the best specimens of all the most expensive manufactures of the country, embracing sev- eral very ancient and highly esteemed articles. There are also those articles in common use for domestic purposes, to ornament grounds, fish-ponds, or used as flower stands, seats, &c. A very interesting fact will be developed by this section, showing that the art of porce- lain manufacture has been on the retrograde for the last century or two; it will also serve to show, ies many of the most ornamental ~ #7 Miscellanies. | B95' and beautiful specimens are rarely, if ever, exported. Formerly the emperors patronized the porcelain manufacture by very high premi- ums and extensive orders; the art has now dwindled to supplying commercial and domestic wants. There are here many hundred jars, vases, pipe-stands, and various services used by the Chinese, differing materially from those exported. The specimens of- ware cracked on the surface by age, are interesting and costly. There must be several thousand pieces of fine China, including the thin egg-shell cup with its lettered inscriptions, octagon a three or four feet in height, inscribed landmarks, tile work, screens, &c. &c., in very nu- merous patterns; affording us “ neha new ideas on the subject of their manufactures, and probably new patterns for our artists. Agricultural and other instruments.—We notice among the agri- cultural instruments the very crude plough, that is drawn by the buf- falo with his simple yoke and rope traces; the harrow, differing very materially from that of our country, is one of the accompaniments. There are forks, rakes, hoes, axes, shovels, spades of wood faced with iron for the sake of economy, &c.; a complete set of carpenter’s and joiner’s, or cabinet maker’s tools ; of the superiority of these over our own, we cannot say much. There is a native shoemaker’s shop com- plete ;, a blacksmith’s anvil, his curious bellows, &c., comprising the complete accoutrements of the travelling smith: the entire shop of the ambulatory barber, his clumsy, short razor, cases, &c..&c. e musica] instruments of the Chinese, also ‘figure i in full among the curi- osities. Castings of iron of very great beauty, consisting of pots, kettles, and other cooking utensils of universal use, and which, unlike our own of the same metal, may be mended at pleasure as ness as our own tin vessels, Here is a study of Chinese eaaibactares perfectly novel to an American, who will be surprised to find that the most simple opera- tion which he has been taught to believe can be performed only by a certain form, is equally well executed by another si a totally different figure ; the flat-iron, for instance, is more like our chafing-dish than what we employ for smoothing linen. We are amused to see the New England patent mouse-trap, that has. been used in China for ages. There are gongs, bells, metallic mirrors, and articles under this head. which nothing short of a most copious descriptive catalogue would embrace. Models of boats.—The ‘models of boats form a striking feature of the scene; first, we have the gorgeous flower boat with its numerous tions, various furnished apartments of comfort and luxury, and painted and adorned in the peculiar style of the Asiatics. 396 : Miséellanies. Of the canal boat there are three models of different sizes of such as are used in conveying the articles of their produce, teas, salt, grain, and manufactured articles, to and from the distant points of the ex- tensive empire, and in loading and unloading foreign ships: They are remarkable for strength and durability. man-of-war boat.—These tidewaiters’ boats, ‘or cutters, are ene cruising about with the police officers, to keep order among the numerous residents on the water, and to enforce the revenue laws. The san-pans, or family boats, in which it is computed about ,000 persons constantly reside on the waters before the city of Can- ton and its suburbs; they are kept as clean asa milk-pail, and contain entire families, who are born and live to the end of their days on the | river. This great city of boats presents a remarkable aspect ; through them it would be difficult to navigate, were it not that the fleet is arranged in streets, and at night lighted up. There are also other boats; each has been made by reducing the dimensions to the proper scale; in every particular, even to the employment of the same de- scriptions uf wood, the oars, sculls, rudders, setting poles, cordage, &c., are fac-similes of those in actual use. We are not sure that a Chinese canal boat, of a thousand years ago, might not be advanta- geously transferred to our own recently introduced water ways. Bridges.—There are four accurate mode]s of granite bridges, from one to four arches; the workmanship of the originals is of great beauty and durability, and really in them we discover the perfect arch, the most approved piers of the present day, and yet their bridges are so ancient, that the date of their erection is almost, if not entirely, lost. Having no carriages, they are imarely used for foot passengers, paren eoclers: and an occasional hy 2 > or bu s.—Four models of summe: Touses exhibit the pe- caller taste. af ‘the: Chinese; #6nie are" lain, and others very orna- mental, with their-scalloped roof, bells, gilding, painting, &c., and furnished with miniature chairs, tables, &c., models of real things, every part being complete for the luxuries of tea and the pipe. Tea is the universal beverage ; this is sold from eight cents the pound up to many dollars, and is an article on which some of their citizens ex- pend.a very large income. The working man carries it in his rude tea-pot to the fields, and drinks it cold to quench his thirst, while the more wealthy sip it on wey occasion of ceremony, ces or . familiar intercourse. Paintings.—The pictures ‘snilic paintings are very numerous, and probably occupy the greatest surface in the collection. Many of them _ were presented by aiviciguishen men of China, and many were painted ee * - - * Se inn ny AO TRS EE _mpeametmmmmt Miscellanies. . 397 by the most celebrated artists of the principal inland cities, including the capital. They représent in the first place all those scenes which are characteristic of Chinese life in its detail, including a series show- ing every process of the tea manufacture, from the planting to the packing up. There are large and handsome views of Macao, Bocca Tigris, Whampoa, Canton, and Honan, with its remarkable temples, &c. The portraits will astonish those who have seen only the paltry daubs usually brought as specimens of the art in China. There is one of the high priest of the Honan temple, and others of distinguish- ed men well known in Canton, worked with the minuteness of minia- ture painting. This department comprises also a variety of paintings on glass, an art much practiced by the natives; pictures of all the boats peculiar to the country ; of rooms, their domestic arrangements; of all the costumes of people of rank; the furniture, lanterns, and, in short, of every variety of Chinese life, from the most degraded class to the emperor. The flowers embroidered on aims &c., will attract the eye of female visitors.» A Chinese room.—At the east end, faced by a ‘nivy superb: se6¥0 brought from China, is aChinese room. The alcove itself consists of wooddeeply carved out of solid blocks; the carving represents figures of men, animals, birds, flowers, &c. The cutting penetrates through the whole of each piece, and forms a net work, the front being painted and gilt in the Asiatic taste, with the rich colors for which the nation is so celebrated. The screen is a fac-simile of those put up in the houses of the wealthy, to form an ante-room in their large establish- ments. This vestibule will be decorated with furniture, such as chairs, tables, stands, stools, vases, maxims, scrolls, &c., and in every re- spect will represent a room as actually occupied by the rich. This screen work extends over —— of the cases the entire length of the north side of the room, and its effect, as seen by the writer, is ex- tremelg ae sominding him of the representations made in old illumina scripts, before the invention of. printing in Europe. The colors, eRe blue, crimson, scarlet, &c., are those employed by the illuminators, and lead one to believe that stats imitated the Chinese. Furniture, books, &c. ties addition to the furniture contained in this beautiful pavilion, there will be also distributed in the saloon a variety of Chinese domestic articles and utensils. ‘Two dark colored and extremely rich bookcases, which might serve to ornament any library, will display copious specimens of the books of the Chinese, in their peculiar and .safe binding, so rarely seen in this country. Specimens of their blocks or stereotyped wood are also in the collec- 398 Miscellanies. tion. The bookcases are made in excellent taste, of a dark wood susceptible of a beautiful polish, and in some respects they may be considered an improvement on our own. The chairs of different forms, large and capacious, made of wood resembling mahogany, with their appropriate cushions and footstools, are in a taste of re- finement and comfort, which would have been creditable to some of our forefathers of New England, into whose parlors they might have been introduced without differing much from the fashion of fifty years since. The stools without backs exhibit their adaptation to a south- ern climate, in being partly composed of China ware, marble, and There are also tables, such as ornament the rooms of the wealthy, gilt, and richly carved and painted ; stands, inlaid with marble or pre- cious wood, such as are placed between every two chairs to hold the tea apparatus, or those various little ornaments or flower pots, of which the Chinese it-will be seen, are so remarkably fond. There is also a common table, such as is in universal use, and has been for cen- turies, which will be recognized’ by our present generation as:a fac- simile of the favorite eight legged table of our great grandfathers, now thrust by modern fashion into the kitchen or garret. It folds up as those do, and the legs are turned in rings; this, like a thousand things in the saloon, proves that our common usages have been de- rived from China, where we are accustomed to believe they are cen- turies behind us. The vases and seats of porcelain are particularly rich and unique. Natural history.—The brevity we have been obliged to use in the oing enumeration, has prevented the mention of much that would have interested the readers of this Journal, and we have to regret anaes of natural-history must be also merely touched ‘It evinces the comprehensiveness of Mr. Dunn’s plan to find, eee even in this particular, nothing has been omitied which time, trouble, and expense could accomplish, and as one evidence among many, of the laborious nature of the occupation of bringing these things together, we may mention the care bestowed upon the numer- ous objects of science here concentrated. A young gentleman of Philadelphia, well known there as an enthu- siastic naturalist, Mr. William W. Wood, son of Mr. William Wood, made his way to Canton in search of objects of interest, in the rea- sonable expectation of bettering his condition. Mr. Dunn at. once sought his aid to perfect his collection, and i his valuable time for a very considerable period. He had a carte blanche to pro- cure objects in natural history, yet some art — no Fab itle subterfuge Miscellanies. 399 were necessary, to persuade the Chinamen to collect articles of a kind in which they take no interest; prejudice and national feelings were to be overcome before they could be induced to make the necessary excursions by land and water, to spots where no foreigner could pen- etrate.. By industry, money, flattery, and kindness, he succeeded, however, in amassing a great variety of birds, fishes, reptiles, shells, &c., and a few animals. Of these, all have arrived in good condition with the exception of the insects; the butterflies, moths, &c., which when last seen in Canton were particularly rich and curious, have suf- fered most by the delay in unpacking, and by natural causes, Mr. Wood was indefatigable for many months in completing the herpetology of China; the conchology is fully represented in many rich and rare specimens; and one of the rarest birds, the mandarin duck, with its very peculiar plumage, will be new to many: the China partridge and many beautiful song birds, add variety and interest to the whole. The. fishes were procured principally at the famous fishing stations at Macao, where Mr. Wood resided for several months for this ex- press purpose; the specimens are very numerous and rare. (There has also been procured a great number of very fine drawings of fish from life in the accurate style of the Chinese, and in fine colors. The stuffed specimens will be neatly and appropriately arranged to afford a study for the naturalist. In the department of botany, attention has been paid to procuring accurate drawings of many plants and flowers. These will be exhib-_ ited in frames. _ ee The mizerals in this collection are few in number, and together with the primitive rocks of China, embrace some remarkably fine car- bonates of copper, both nodular and radiated. The shells include the well known species of the China sea and the Canton iver ; ; the former, however, are of remarkable size and beauty, illustra ites all their varieties. - | of acquaintance with the science of mineralogy, which prevents his more than alluding to the specimens, said to be highly interesting. Miscellanies.—The jos-houses, pagodas, articles of virtu, of orna- ment, of stone, of jade, of ivory, bamboo, wood, metal, rice, &c., are so numerous that we can only allude to them. A case of shoes in all their clumsy or ornamental variety, exhibit the form of the compressed female feet,’and the clumsy shape of those of the male; another of caps fresh from their makers, with the button of. office, and the cheaper kinds of the poor; theatrical dresses, known to be those of the very 400 Miscellanies. ancient Chinese, spectacles, opium and other pipes, fans the compass in great variety, models of fruits, coins, exquisite specimens of carving in ivory, metal, stone, and bamboo, very numerous and grotesque carvings from roots of trees, in which they exhibit a peculiar taste, singular brushes, combs, beautiful vessels of odoriferous wood for their altars and temples, of which latter there are models; very nu- ‘merous ornamental stands carved with good taste; huge cameos in stone of great cost; fine specimens of their lacquered ware, as well as their common ware; a silk embroidered saddle; a water wheel worked like our modern tread-mill; a fan for cleaning rice resem- bling our own; lanterns of every possible shape, size, and ornament, will. be suspended from various points, with their rich and tasteful paintings; there is a model of their very singular coffin, which few would even guess was designed to. contain the last relics of humanity. _ Space is wanting to perfect this notice of a collection highly credit- able to the taste and liberality of the proprietor, and valuable to our country. No where else can we see so complete an exhibition of this interesting nation. ya and his works.—By a letter from this eminent wee dated Neuchatel Nov. 5, 1838, received Jan. 4, 1839, at the moment of closing the pre- # execution. The work on Tux FresnH-Warter Fisurs or Evrore,* with nu- merous plates, executed with all possible care, and that on the Ecuinopermata,” will lished in such time, that the first number of each may arrive in this country early in the present year, 1839. The fresh water-fishes will appear in livrai- sons, containing each about 20 aa The Echinodermata in livraisons, with 5 plates each, containing also the explanatory text> It is known to the geological world, that Prof. Agassiz has recently ore some novel and interesting views respecting the movement of the Erratic Blocs o the Jam, and upon Glaciers Morapive. es and Evratic Blocs.t On this subject he re- etter : “ You will greatly oblige me if you will communicate to me such facts within your knowledge as have reference to the phenomena of the transport of erratic blocs, and especially with respect to polished surfaces in any regions in the vicinity Giew: York (or elsewhere “T have it in eontomplation to publish, in the. course of next year, the result of extensive researches into this subject, ees shall be very happy to add observations made in countries remote from ‘my own We have only room earnestly to fecoininsdnd the works and wishes of Professor Agassiz to our geologists, and his wishes especially to those charged with the geo- logical surveys. His address in this country is to M. August Mayor ; care of - rat Nagath, New York.—Eps. * For a notice of these works, see vol, 34, p. 212 of this J 1 Jameson’s Journal, for Oct. 1837, and April, 1838, vol. a; pp. 176 and 364. i INDEX TO VOLUME XXXV. A. Actinie, gemmiferous bodies and ver- miform filaments of, Addams, Robt., on solid carbonic acid, sats. Prof., Sis new works noticed, a - correcting local magnetic pe Allis, Mn ; of York, on toes of Ostrich, Allen, Ww. SqgPt R, N., map of central Africa, 309. American Almanac, Vol. X, notice of, 19}. ie Sp aa of commercial carbonate of, 297. Analysis of Gmelinit 9 Bae boone i ral waters of Avo Annals of Natoral History, sohicek Antarctic seas, account of expedition to, Anthon , J. G., describes fossil encri- ite, Anti ua, geology of, by Prof. Hovey, 75. App Hreas ation of small coal to economical St, engine, oe 263. ving. Vi ‘ire g, 267. Arsenic, ipecine’ gravity of, vapor of, 298. Mle fe ‘he "blind d, 316. one “sy navigation, several letters 162, 332, 333, 336. . Seetacke of Dr. Lardner ogni Ags W.L., on certain cavities in 139. on spontaneous combustion, 144. Aurora, atmospheric origin of, 145. resemblance to, observed in New or! connection of, with crystallization of snow, 1 Auroral arch i in Vermont, 380. B.. ae botany of Channel Islands, , mention of Mr. Bache, Prof. A. D. py’ of storms to British ta a or report on pistecrology of the U. 8. ‘0 the Brit. Ass $39, 321. i aoe collected by a guage as fates nts of ae 287. Backhouse, E. ,ont the , Leeattth tribe, org a Von, on frozen ground in on pag tea to Novata fe Bailey, Prof. 4: W.., on the vascular sys- — ferns, 113. Cage: onstrots flower of Orc. epee tabilis, 11 foes ‘infusoria, . merican Diatom e, 121. Bakewell s Geology, 3d eiice of, an- ced, Barometer, substitute a in measuring heights, ze of Cuzco, 309. istry 385. Binoctilat vision, Prof. Wheststone on, 295. Bituminized ig curious deposite of, in Lousiana, 34 Bird, Dr. G., on the roducts of nitric acid and alcohol, 299. : Mr. James, on injecting veins, — Blake 3 ngs noe mouth for oxygen and hydro- gen, 187. ae Boilers for stea am, how rivetted, 320. — Bo avernin Men dip Hills, 304. ’ on as section of, in P British Associa- Bereich, ‘Nathaniel, memoirs of his li Eulogi ums on him noticed, 386. list oth res eee 6g ‘trans fic papers,46, canique cule eg Brandes’s account of the meteors of Dec. mS Brewster, — David, on new a cme ena 0 n fluor spar Bridge apension, ao. von, mineral waters of, 188. Vo. XXXV.—No. 2. Ceney and mine 402 INDEX. - Brewster, Sir David, on new kind of po- f. larity in homogeneous light, on Dr. Wallace’s preparations | 1§ of the eye, 29 Brisbane hah ss ence of longitude, 296. British ‘Alectintion for the advancement of science, abstract of, for 1 hells, supposed ne Buckland, Rev. De Cakcount of ee sandstone near Liverpool, 307. asian of small coal to economic eee s, 308. letter to iA ton Dr. N. Web- ster, 375. Cc. Calcium obtained by Dr. Hare, 391. Cambridge, meteoric observations at, . 323. Come A. bal 4 electro-magnetic en- Carboni weit Soketotr and solidifi- cation a me 6, 374. mitted by a brine spring, 293. Carbon, sca gues ¥t +5 vapor, 298. Carpenter, Prof. W. M., geological no- tices of Opelousas and. ‘Fitukinpas, 344. Catlinite, new mineral analyzed, Cattle of pot Park, 310 Caustic potassa commerce—nature of = potassa ‘ matter, 299, Cavities j in qu ss artz, 139. combinations, 302. Chemistry, eatiract of of b. Dr. Beck, 385. mil Le before the h Association, 297. sae wet = Conrad, T. A. y Hotes on American ge-| . fy 287. Cook, Capt. J. We on the genus Pinus, Abies, &c., 311 Courses of hurric , 201, Crichtonite, new locality of, 179, 180. Critical interpretation of bara and asah, 375. , || Crosse’s oS with the voltaic 1 ba attery, Crystallization | od = as connected ith the au Cu palais, nis de f, 321. Cursory remarks on East Flocida, 47, Dana, J. D., on a supposed new mine- ral, 178. Dasari, anew ser species, 137. Darwin, Mr. mals rollected by him, remarked. ee tog rof. Owen, 195. aubeny, . Charles, on the climate of N. Am erica, 288. thermal springs of N. Amer- a, 307. Dawes, Mr. J. S., on manufacture of on, "303. eats Prof. J., auroral arch in Vermont, "380. and ecli ipse, Dent, portable mercurial pendulum, 289. Deflected currents bes air, their influence the rain gua Description of wo" new shells, 268. mires notice of some American spe- Diabeti ic sugar, analysis of, 298 Dickinson, Rev. J. T., geological speci- mens from him notice paeaiet e of mosiiude between London d iuvial currents, evidences of by Dr. Hayes, 1 ae helix for inducing magnetism, ‘stars, micrometrical measures of, 4 Dunn's Chinese collection, 391. E. ars tani by Prof. L. Agassiz, 400. 1 bap e of the sun observed at New Ha- ven, Pon ae 8th, 1838, 174. rved in Vt. by Prof. Dean, "|edit remarks by them on American ee by senior, on Mr. Junius Smith’s | Ehrenberg, Prof. C. G., on fossil infu- win as a moving power, apparatus and experi- | Se i a pein, sa 4 ; Peruse and electrepeter described, Employment of Uvalaria rfoliata, 270. Encke’s comet obse Encrinite, fossil, by yt °C. Anthony, 359. Engine, e ectro-magnet ic, 343. with reciprocating ar- e, 263. Erdmann and Schweigger’s Journal, ex- om, 356. Esp ys ie theory of storms a 208. er, On a new one e, 329. eae ite geologica Exley, Mr. Thos., on ’ specific gravity of “ay 206 che au ical combinations, 302. : magnetic electricity, 252 Exploring expedition to the Sou Extreme heat at Cumberland, Md., 190. mid Falco nan ge Ferns, vascular ene of, by Prof. Bai- ea =. Feu an anger’ 2 beg” on gems, 189. Fish with four eyes, 309. rth America, 180. Florida, Geet notices of, 47. Fluor spar, new phenomenon of color in, 295. Forbes, — of subterranean heat and of brine spring emitting carbonic Fossil animals collected by Mr. Darwin, Fossils, as characteristic of strata, 237 Font fish in red sandstone of New Jer- sey, 192. 2 ie 5 B09. Banca. 118, 311,301, shells and bones at "Savannah, 3380. teeth, by ] ape of. Owen Fox, a mineral v. n obtained by him by | Geography and geology of British Asso- , ciation, 304. | Geology, American, notes on by J ew. Ts Gonra ad, 23 bea ‘At atigua, nts of, can edition sate edition oF Bakewell, 385. 64. iby oh Aa of St een of Florida, 60. of North America, 307. of F prec ee = and to ‘a western New York, 86. = y Mantell, yonder of, 384. science m Glasgow trea- s, 387. as, Geological excursion, 309. surveys, 384, — sent from the In- dian Archipelago, 381. Gibbs, Geo., notice of false aurora, 381. Glover, on rete ei and pigmen- tum Sarum Go a, T-8 f eats aaiiiiil of Lricbhonties Godfrey, his grave discover: . old, e sy mode of sang , 327. Graves of Boe, and Chas. Thomson discovered, 389. Gray, Sex notice of Flora of North - America, 180. ray, J. E. ., angular lines on certain mollusea, 310. on the boring of the Phola- des, 312. on a British shell, 309 Greenhow, on mercury in Seape 313. Griffith, — of geological map of Trelan H. galvanism 308... Fresh-water fish of Europe, by ‘Agassiz, Frozen ground of Siberia, 305. G. Galactin, Dr. Thomson on, 303. Gale, Dr. L. D., on _— fish in red sand- stone of New Jers Galvanometers, pt ar, "9. mboge, resin of, Gases in the blood, experiments on by M. Magnus, 1 compounds formed by the ele- os of water Gases condensed by Dr. Torrey, 374. Gaylord, Mr. Eo is = on the me- _ teori of Nov. 1838, 370 “uae, tr on, 189. — s ee remarkable phenome- Handyiide, Dr., on Sternoptixinee, 312. Hancock, J., Falco Islandicus, 310. Hare, Dr. Robt., on a new ether and gaseous compounds formed with the elements of water, calcium obtained by him, 391. ne eRe - platina in mass, 328. refuta augham’s charge, 331. r. Snow, meteorological obser- vations pin at Plym yes, Sai 2 ,on di pial currents,191. the geology and t topogra- phy of western New , 86. Helix, double, for inducing magnetism, 261. 404 np cet re Wm., on a new process || for-tanning, 303. Benjemplcgy of North America, by Hol- brook, 136. Herrick, E. C., on shooting stars of Au- - gust 9th, 1838, 167. on shooting stars of Dec. 7th, 1838, 361. Herschel, Sir J., remarks on Mr. Red- field’s law =: storms, 281. omical observations at the Cape of Good H ope, phenomenon of Halley’ 8 comet, 285. vitreous humor of shark’s eye, , 293. Hil th — his quarries of marble in t, t, 390 Bow. w. -, on vegetable mon- stones 310. Hindmarsh, pe ;on the wild cattle of Hivebaoe eee E., note to Mr. Con- rad’s remarks, Holbrook, Dr. i Bs his American Her- prfic ation al insects, 311. oxious inse pees Prof, S., on daiebogs “of St. Croix, on geology of Antigua, 7 Seats B. pnt heat 4 cases crs Pe storm in New Hampshire, Miriesses, with notices = the oe of the Chi ina sea, 201. 206, 220. 21 — a a oe uble theli for ,, 269. Insects 2 cepa appeared in Mr. Crosse’s agnetic ag etn’ s, 125. d, 338. Interpretation | of bare and nthe by Dr. Noah Webster, 37 — new pe manufacturing, 303. BS oes coun dense to law of, 302. ee a s report of geology of Maine, «his analysis of Indian pipe stone, 1 Salmonide of Scotland, 312. S, ia) ay survey of British India, letter addressed || INDEX, a ton, Dr., on an — to the aw of Isomo hism, 302. resin gamboge, 30 Jo an Prof. B. the nnected with xf dir eryeeallaeation of K. Kirwan, Dr. R., capture of his library ,26. L. Lagoons of ieiesgs PR 54. Lardner, Dr., on navigation ‘of the At- lantic by steam Lea, Isaac, observations on the genus Unio, otice of Wyatt’s manual of Sechoivey, 386. ead ores, e easy mode of cupelling, 321. Leithart, on the stratification of rocks, Lev el line aE cert 287. Levelling stave, new, described, 318. Life and character of Dr. Bo wditeh, I ight, obviated Laos, its power of shacchaine pete 8, 338. Liquefac hii and solidification of car- bonic — » 81, 36, 374 Lloyd, on magnetic dip and inten- sit 906.” > ong, dee hile, 308, of a bone cavern in Mendip hi sat a Prof. Elias, on meteor of May 18th, 1838, 223 Lunar voleanoes, ‘notice of, 305. Lye Chas., on vertical lines of flint, Elements of geology, no- ticed, 385. M. Magnetic action, (local,) mode of obvia- ting, ae and intensity in Ireland,296. iiectispatin and electrotome, Magnete-slecties) experiments, 252. M n gases in the blood, 198. eM gpa ; “0, Mr. Rs n commercial potass, Mandingo, account of a native, 305. Mantell’s Wonders of geology, 384 boot in ‘ermont described, 390. tri Association, eee W. W., easy mode of cupella- ; refuted, | Maualon, ofa i M‘Alister, asylum for the blind, 316, M‘Cord, his meteorological register for rs Mecanique Cileste, translated by Bow- ihiee science, 317. edical science, 313. m Mercurial pendulum, port Meteoric ee ns made at Cam- bridge, 3 of Die, 7th, 1838, 361. ag = Nov. 1838, 368. Meteor o of Mac 838, ee en kept at Montreal, C., for 1837, 382. Miller, Prof 4 portable goniometer, 303. ilne, D., on Berwick and North Dur- ham coal fields Mineral, new a at Bolton, 178. 388. anburit, ISK. diarseniate of lea ec one “peter art of, announced We rof. Shepard, 187. cael notices in Opelousas, At- s Mitchell, Prof.’ E., notice of high moun- wae Carolina, ees rof. J n liquefaction and solidification of eavvonie c acid, 346. a ntains in North Carolina, height of, 7. Moving power of electro-magnetism,106. Murchison’s 8 genes! ical map of England and Wales, 306. N. ses ee utd nd Atlantic by steam, 160. of Junius Smith on, 333. Navigator, geactical, by Bowditch, LL. New Jersey tornado , 206. New omnes species, eee of, by Prof. Shepard, 1 sup osed at ee 178. Catlinite iarseniate ors , 297. New Zealand, changes of cnaiceianel in, 5. —— of rime pure, not blackened by Nit ane if gee of, Nitrogen, s a c orth oo na, leans in, Ame aeee _ etology, 1 November sh meteors, oleae tions on, 361. 313. ore of the British acaciicaan Ghutbvaticus on shooting stars of bos 7th, 1838, 361 on meteors of Nov, 1838, 368. on vascular system of ferns, sew Odontograph, a new instrument, 319. Oil ex white fish, 391. Olmsted, Prof. D., observations on the e of the sun, Sept. 18th, 1838, : meteoric shower of November, 1 Opelousas and Attaka as, geological no- ice concernin 344. Orchis spectabilis, monstrous flower of, Ornithichnite, note on by Prof. Hitch- Osiricl s, 312. en, Prot, = the fossils collected by ee ‘Dar 196. pane ee of fossil teeth, 307. Wollaston: medal presented to, 197. Oxygen, its specific gravity, 298. pe Peas, Chas. G.,on clectro-magnetism as moving oe electrepeter and electro- tome, 112. tne appara Palmetto used as food in n Florida, 59. Paludina heterostropha deseribed, 269. Parnell, Sag rare British fishes; 310. Pattinso Hi. new mode of extracting silver ia ‘lea d, Pendulum, portable mercurial, 289. Physa Sayii described, 269. nee specific gravity of its vapor, ae Hon. John, notice of life of Dr. Bowditch, sets Plants, hodt of — fi 338. Platina, fusion of, in quantity, 328. Poisoned wounds treated wit Uvularia, Proceedings of British Association in 38, 275. Preparation of the eyes by Dr. Wal- e, 291. Piedets of nitric acid and alcohol, Prout’s analysis of starch sugar, 299. Q. . Quartz, cavities in, 139. r eppersias, aint exper elec- 406 R. matey cars, rapidity of motion in, 197. ways constructed with cast iron sleepers, n, on nr quantities collected, by the g quantity . different parts of the earth, : on, Mr., o Raws n fires in. —— 316. Raleigh’s ee of 1835, 210 he ce dip and intensity in Ireland, armature engine, 263. . C., law of storms, 182, Reci rocatin Redfield, 276. n the courses “ ee and t foons of China sea, 20 —_— ol., on Mr. Rediield’s law of eg n storms noticed, s, 167, 223, 323. Respi ration, M. Sens on, 198. Riddell, Dr., new mode of sean: nts, pn on electro magnetic engine, 343. Eatveon,. rein in transition, 248. i substitul by beromale r, 294. new Tovalitics of inion on age of gray- Paras mineral wat Avon, 188. ce Satetps on, ear Liverpool, of New Jersey containing fos- sil fish, 192. peculiar arene? of, 249. Sang, Mr., ote a dity of motion in rail- Seankaaten commercial carbonate of am- “nitrate ailver not blackened by “sun light, 298. Schweigger Seidel, his general electric ‘formula, 356. ie in Vermo: s, new s] I 7 T 208. nt, 390. pecies a4 ‘described by » © o, notice of a new min- es , (danburite,) 137. INDEX. onepard) ten” -U., 2d part of lett by bie without masts, 332. >i stars, 167, 223, 323, 2% 368 Siberia, frozen ground of, Silurian and transition system, 243. Smith, Henry, letter to Prof’ Silliman, 336. Junius, letters on steam naviga- tion, % ee variation in quantity of rain in "different parts of the earth, 295. H. L., account of his telescope, 174, note. Sopwith’ s mode of constructing secre- taires, Sowerby, on Encrinus moniliformis, Specific avity of several elements 298. echoes pater of wood, 144. itish Associ- — section of, in Bri Statistical tables, oro team vigation, letters on, 160, 161, 332, 398 boilers, new construction of, 318. Sica instrument for illustrating binocular vision, 295, ote on the law of, 1 sidered before ie "British year 276. Col. W. Reid’s book on, 182. of, 222. natural ge Storms, of Euro Storm in New amps in 1821, 233 evens . n Ardea alba, 311. ohn’s ieee, seo rks on, anes, ee analysis of, 298. 0! , 298, || Sulphur springs ‘in Florida, 51. ity of, 298. Surveying and “exploring expedition to uth Substitute for the mountain barometer, 294. 'F. Tanning, new process for, 303. ar, Judge, iacestian of new Taylor, W. Ww. c. , change of population in d, 315. Temperature o - the interior of the earth, of deep mines, 297. produced by ev solid carbonic onde 347, of wells and ' springs at - ca uname from earth’s surface in different eles By ion of : —_— 240. Teale, T. & , on vermiform filaments of actinie, 31 ES Same 14 ft. reflector, 174. Theory of Mr. Espy on storms, 208, 281. ,» analysis of diabetic of diarseniate of lead, 297. foreign substances in iron, on galactin, 303. Prof. R. D., of emulsin and wes eee ae Charles, his ithe found, 390. eet —— of, b hab well, 290. a Tornado in New Jerse By! Torrey.” Dr. John, notice of flora of N. : America by him and Dr. Gray, 1 condensation of gases y, 374, Trovetion and silurian system of rocks, 243. ganic remains of, 246. Treatise on res BS. be Somer, nee of marine shells in efn Cave, Tyfoons of the China sea, 209. , 220. nate 217, 218. Man a, 220. Raleigh's 210. ethod a escaping, 211. U. Unio, new observations on, 184. Sayii described, 268. wounds, Me Vanilla in Europe, 310. Vegetable monstrosities, 310. Vibrating armature, Vi or =A shark: s yes 293. or . oes in the ~ = °. ‘aic atte ond s ~~ rimen with, 195. ry; pe WwW. Wailes, Rev. , on rare insects, 310 Washington, ak: account of a Man- INDEX. Uvularia perfoliata used in poisoned ||. 270, 407 Washington, Capt., account of trigono- metrical Pogue Wallace, Dr. W. Clay, preparations of the eye, 291. Waves, report of the committee on, Web b, on lunar volcanoes, 305. —— ee Doo he of green feld- ar and gal “oa boty to ‘blowpipe mouth, 180. . Noah, interpretation of ara bar wnat rN. Y., geology and topography Wheatstone on binocular vision, 295. Whewell, account of a level line, report of discussion of tides, Whiting, Major H., remarks on East Florida, 47. White, Judge, his eulogium on Dr. Bow- ditch, ced, 386. Ow Wonders of Geology, by Dr. Mantell, Wood, ——= s combustion of, 1d. usly flattened by pressure a iuminized, 335. v. John, on storm in. anh, re, 233. Wonenes: ‘E., notice of the Americ almanac conducted by him,191. ‘ att, barn manual of conchology t 1 m notice 2 Yarrell, Mr., on Osmerus Hebridicus, _ 3l on an acoustic instrument, 313. Youn, Rev: Alex., memoir of Dr. Bow- ditch, gered ‘Rev, G., antiquity of organic re- Z. of recent = tions to Antarctic seas, 306. Zoology, section of, in British Associa- tion, 309. : x Wilco WW. letter from rompers Sits white fis ete i : No 1 Onio Savit Ward 2 Heterostropha Kirtland a eae Sar, (Hab. Lake Pepi Fito) PP? Duval Leth Parhad* ; —- > THE AMERICAN JOURNAL, &c.—AGENTS. i = MAINE. yBUFFALO, O. G. Steele & Co. 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