THE AMERICAN oe A Bester | OF J iY) / Vi 2% SCIENCE AND ARTS. 2) * CONDUCTED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M.D. LL.D. Prof. Chem., Min n., &. in Yale Coll. ; Cor. Mem. Soc. Arts, ee and Com., C r. Mem - Met. Soc., . Geo L n various Lit. and Scien. Soc. in the v. AIDED BY BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr., A.B. Assistant in the d i t of ee: Mineralogy and Geology in Yale oe Cor. Mem, of the Meteoro rological 80€. don; Sec. of the Yale Nat. H e Conn. d. of Arts and Sci. ; ‘Cor! re ne of the Lyceum of Natural History, ‘New ag &o. VOL. XXXVI—JULY, 1839. NEW HAVEN: Sold by A. H. MALTBY and B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & HART and J. 8S. LITTELL. —Baltimore, Md., N. HICKMAN.—New York, G. & C. CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 44 William St.—Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—London, JAMES S. HODSON, No. 112 Fleet St., and WILEY & PUTNAM, 35 Paternoster Row. ~-Perti, CHARLES DUPERRON, Rue Mabillon. PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. “OQ BOT. GA RDEN 1910 Art. I. te _— — af VHE B CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVI. NUMBER I. Citations from, and abstract of, the Geological Reports on the State of New York, for 1837-8, communica- ted by Gov. W. L. Marcy, to the As «pgs at Al- bany, Feb. 20, 1838, - . Some account of Violent cada Whirlwinds, which appear to have resulted from the action of large Cir- cular Fires; with remarks on the same; by W. C. REDFIELD, - . Additional facts Getnting: to the Raleigh's Tyfoon of of August 5th and 6th, 1835, in the China ep by . C. Reprietp, - - - Cherty Lime-rock, or Corniferous a propo- sed as the line of reference, for State Geologists of New York and Pennsylvania; by Prof. A. Eaton, . Account of the Hurricane or Whirlwind of the 8th of April, 1838; by Mr. J. FLoyp, - . On the destructive distillation of the Sulphate of eho ine or heavy Oil of Wine; by Cuark Hare, - . Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1838, kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprertun, - On Meteorie Iron from Ashville, Buncombe county, N. €.; by Prof. Coar.tes Upuam Surparp, M. D., . Analysis of Warwickite; by Prof. Cuartes Upnam Sueparp, M. D., “ . Notice of the Thermal Rigid of North haps _ ing an extract from an unpublished Memoir on the Geology of North America ; sf Dr. Cuaries DaUBENY, - . Experiments on two varieties of iron, shcettened from the Magnetic Ores at the Adirondack iron works, Essex Co., N. Y.; by Water R. Jounson, . Description of a New Fossil; by Joun G, AntHony, 59 106 lv CONTENTS. Pa XIII. Notices of the Native Copper, Ores of Copper, and other Minerals found in the vicinity of New Bruns- wick, N. J.; by Prof. Lewis C. Beck, XIV. Note on the Now Brunswick Tornado, or Water Spout of 1835; by Prof. Lewis C. Beck, = - XY. Account of the Bituminization of Wood in the ivan ; by Prof. Wm. Caprenter, - - m V1. The (Se of Galvanic bas + Sus B. ZAaBRISKIE, M. D., - * pa m XVII. Electro-Magnetic Rotations ; by Joun B. Zapris- , e - XVIII. Steam Ships isd Steam Nevigniiowt a tees Sani, XIX. Galvanic Batteries.—On the benefit of Fresh Immer- sion; by Cuartes G. Pace, M. D.,_ - - - Xx. Application of the Galvanoscope to detect the Failure of Water in Steam Boilers; by Caas. G. Pace, M.D., XXI. Dr. Jacxson’s Reports on the Geology of the State of Maine, and on the public lands belonging to Maine and Massachusetts, - - - . XXIL. Obituary notice of the Hon. Sreruen Van coup SELAER, - - - = ve XXIII. Some notice of the Kilee or Boomerang, a weapon used by the natives of Australia; by Cuar.es Fox, XXIV. Meteorological Table and Register; by Prof. Loomis, MISCELLANIES. 1. Echoes, - . % - a 2, 3. Analysis of Marl haste Fatebaghow Cen: —Tabular view of the price of labor and subsistence in certain parts of Continental Europe, - - ‘ 4. Rain from a clear sky, - = 5. European obaprvations on the iia Pianta of Sepemi ber, 1 ‘ 5 ‘ bs e i 6. Musedechogical Raaisles for 1838, - - 2 7. Chromate of potassa—a reagent for tistingushing so een the salts of baryta and strontia, = - - - 8. Frozen Wells, - - ° 9, 10. Ice formed at the festa of a sien Fall fishes of the red sandstone, - - av .* - CONTENTS. 11, 12. Volborthite, a new mineral—Reclamation of M. A. Warder, - ° ‘. : 13. Quantity of Salt in sea water, - - . - - - 14. Head of the Mastodon giganteum, - - 15. Notice of the use of the fumes of Nitrie Acid i in Pramegied diseases, - - - - - - = . - 16. Greece.—Revival of toon, - - - 17. Tongueless Dog retaining the power of nt - - 18, 19, 20, 21. Officers of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, elected February 25th, 1839—Royal Society of London; honor to an eminent scientific artist—Progress of the U.S. Exploring Expedition—Prof. J. W. Webster’s Manual of Chemistry, new edition, - - 22. Notice of a new mode of preparing Fish Skins for 2: Geese 23. An Elementary Treatise on Astronomy, - - - - 24, 25. Postcript to p. 71—The Mammoth, - - 26, 27. Discovery of Mummies at — Nude Fees of the star 61 Cygni,_ - - 28, 29. Ornithology of the United States—Third salle from the fifth English edition of Bakewell’s ae - 39. Chemistry of Organic Bodies and Vegetables, - . 31, 32. Olmsted’s Introduction to Astronomy —Temperature of the Earth, . Subterranean Retisdheate, - - . Extract of aletter from M. aitstnisty jun., to »M. Arago, _ the Temperature of the Ground in Siberia, - . Analogy between the organic structure and red color ~ eee globules in the blood of animals, and of those red — ble globules named Protoevecus kermesinus, - . Cause of the Red Color of Agates, - - - - - . Phosphorescence of the Ocean, . - - - On the Composition of a new indelible Ink, - - - Depth of the Frozen Ground in Siberia, - - - 40. Notice of a Chemical Examination of a Specimen of Native Iron, from the east bank of the Great Fish River, in South £8 R j Africa, - - - - m . | 41. Dr. Bowditch, - - - - . rs o To our Subscribers and Readers, - - - “ x ‘ ae eee eee yi CONTENTS. - NUMBER II. Art. I. Some notice of British Naturalists; by Cuartes Fox, . On the Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes; by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Prof. Chem. Univ. of Bonn. Communicated by the Author, - - - - Descriptive Catalogue of the North American Insects belonging to the Linnzan Genus Sphinx in the Cabinet ee pm Til. . of TuHapprevus WILLIAM sees ee M. D., Librarian of Harvard University, On American Amphibia ; by Anm. —— M. D., - . Translations relative to Bowlders and Cobalt Ores, from the Néues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geolo- gie und Petrefaktenkunde, herausgegeben von Dr. Lr- ONHARD und Dr. Bronn. a: 1838. Rey. W. A. LARNED, ~ - VI. A New Method of Making eel “Artificial Mastets by Galvanism ; by J. Lawrence Smirn, Student of the Medical College of South Carolina, VII. Remarks on the “Natural History of the Fishes of Mas- sachusetts, embracing a Practical Essay on Angling; os <= by Jerome V.C. — - _ mA D. abietibes se 2 oe Storer, M. D., VIII. Electro Magnetism ; oy Cansei G. faa M. D., IX. Observations on Electricity ; by Cuas. G. Pacer, M. D., X. Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838; communicated by Epwarp C, Herrick, XI. On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an ac- count of Observations made on and about the 20th April, 1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, - . Notice of a Report on a re-examination of the Reonosif cal Geology of Massachusetts; by Prof. Epwarp Hircu- cock. Communicated by Prof. C. U.Surrarp, = - x -—, aon MISCELLANIES. 1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His- ry ee tte ne eR dy en gees 2, 3, 4. African Meteorite—New Species of Argulus ; notice from Dr. 'T, W. Harris—Cabinet of Minerals for sale, Page. : QT a 230 320 = * 7 350 353 355 370 7 CONTENTS. vii 3 Page. 5, 6. Correction—Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirothe- rium, and of various = er in comeing - ~ 7. New Works received, - _* - - - 399 Specimens in Geology are wanted for a public institution. Those of organic remains and of the junctions of rocks are most desired. They must be excellent in their kind, of considerable size, say from 4 to 8 inches square, fresh, and not rubbed, soiled or bruised, extremely well characterized and labelled with care, particularly as to locality and geological association. None must be sent without previous notice. For such specimens a reasona- ble, but not an extravagant, price will be paid. Superior speci- mens in mineralogy are included. Letters may be addressed to Prof. Silliman at New Hpvet, ae e 2 e. ae NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS AND AGENTS. The Editors will pay $1 00 in cash per No. for the following num-_ bers of the American Journal of Science. Or if preferred, they will credit them to the account of any subscriber at the rate at which re=¥; cent numbers are charged. Or they will exchange for them such — other numbers as may be desired of which they have a supply. The — Nos. wanted are shown below in a tabular form. If any No. is sent by mail, the word rerurNeD must be put on the envelope. es Ae ae 7a XIV. XVI. XVII XXII. _XXVI, pe 8 Ry a a ee oes 1, 2. 1,29 Entire No.12. 24. 97, 28. 29,30. 33,34. 35,36. 45,46. 55, 56. ERRATA. P. 63, line ra for gerboniferone, & read appa Sona Ee 64, 1. 6, for that, read ret 27, for marble, read rubbl » 65, 4.12; "for _— read ‘alus—p. 69, 1. 19, for ere read thin—1|. 29, for é Oar, read Plea —p. 70, 1. 8, for Boel, read Beer ecraft— 1.16, for lydian, read Lydian ;—1. 17, for bluffs, read bluff ;— equivalent, rea ad pitaas nts—p. 83, 1.11 from bottom, for cholorate, read ae fr 1. 20 from, poem, & for fotos ii ‘ex — Barre i jl. 13 from bottom, in aa, re od p- 325, title, for Dr. Brown, read Dr. Brony. Cov ad Correction.—Since the communication o r was struck off, he has served that the description Pe the Sala aaa sit Sad reviously been published under another name. In escriptions of agi nfl fo rmule on p. a reader will substitute the apoisha name erythronota rm aan, and rubra ? for — ronota. eee re a aR ry XII. XIV. CONTENTS. . Meteorological Observations during a Residence in Co- lombia, between the Years 1820 and 1830; by Col. Richard Wright, - Remarks on the Trilobite; by Prof, tt M. D. 9 . Description of a New Trilobite ; by Prof. Jacob pe . On the Natural History of Voleanos and Barinquakes; by Prof. Gustav Bischof, Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof, Bischof *s jection to the Chemical Theories of Volcanos, . . Mountains in New York; by E. F. Johnson, . Account of a Tornado; by Willis Gaylord, - On Meteoric Stones—From the Annual Account of the Progress of Physics and Chemistry ; by Berzelius, - Terrestrial Magnetism; by J. Hamilton, ‘. : . Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen, with hesarks on Hemming’s Safety Tube; by Prof. J. W. Webster, . On the Greek Conjugations ; by Prof. J. W. Gibbs, - Notice of Prof. Ehrenberg’s Discoveries in relation to Fossil Animalcules ; also Notices of Deceased Mem- bers of the Geological Society of London, being ex- tracts from the Address of Rev. William Whewell, S., Account of a Meteor seen in Commertinel Sentiiheas 14, 1837; with some considerations on the Meieo- rite which exploded near Weston, Dec. 14, 1807; By Edward C. Herrick, Some Notice of British Naturalists ; by Rev. Charles Fox, MISCELLANIES. 1. Pictorial delineations by light; solar, lunar, stellar, and arti- ficial, called Photogenic and the art Photography, . 2. Correction of an Error—Cinnabar not found in Michigan, 112 136 185 li CONTENTS. 3, 4. An Essay on the Development and Modifications of the external Organs of Plants—Journal of the Essex ee, (Mass.) Natural History Society, 5. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, : 6, 7. Notice of the Journal of the Statistical Society of London. —Progress of the U. 8. Exploring Expedition, 8, 9. Cold Bokkeveld Meteorites—Meteoric Iron from Potosi, ¢ 10, 11. Encke’s Comet—Remains of the Mastodon in Missouri, 12. Latanium, a New Metal, 13. Biography of Scientific Men, 14, 15, 16. Note by Mr. E. F. Johnson, Civil Racine Nor- thern Lynx taken in Connecticut—Preservation of animal Fat for Soap Making, 17. Notice of Vespertilio Pruinosus pe fotars Phasiteus, 18. Malaria, . 19. Electrical Wesitebvent in Leshike by Biietion, 20, 21. Great Scheme for Magnetical Disacraieiic Anion of Spungy Platina, 22. Formation of Metallic tins bye aE Ageney To our Subscribers and Readers, Page. 194 195 196 197 199 200 age : 5 Sie alee Se od, a. ae et ACKNOWLEDGMENTS TO CORRESPONDENTS, FRIENDS AND STRANGERS. Remarks.—This method of acknowledgment has been adopt- ed, because it is not always practicable to write letters, where they might be reasonably expected; and still more difficult is it to prepare and insert in this Journal, notices of all the books, pamph- lets, &c., which are kindly presented, even in cases, where such no- tices, critical or commendatory, would be appropriate ; for it is often equally impossible to command the time requisite to frame them, or even to read the works; still, judicious remarks, from other hands, would usually find both acceptance and insertion. In public, it is rarely proper to advert to personal concerns ; to excuse, for instance, any apparent neglect of courtesy, by pleading the unintermitting pressure of labor, and the numerous calls of our fellow-men for information, advice, or assistance, in lines of duty, with which they presume us to be acquainted. The apology, implied in this remark, is drawn from us, that we may not seem inattentive to the civilities of many respectable persons, au- thors, editors, publishers, and others, both at home and abroad. It is still our endeavor to reply to all letters which appear to require an answer ; although, as a substitute, many acknowledgments are made in these pages, which may sometimes be, in part, retrospective-— Eds. SCIENCE.—FOREIGN. Important facts embracing many results in Chemistry, by Thomas Exley, A. M. London, 1837. From the Author Lethea Geognostica, by Prof. H. G. Bronn, the last Livraisons, with the index and table of contents. Author Observations on some new Organic feanieies in Flint of Chalk, by Rev. J. B. Read, M. A., F. R. S. London, 1838. From G. Mantell, Esq. Works of Confucius i in Chinese, from the Rev. Mr. elie ge. merican missionary, for the Library of Yale College as sea of the Indian » H, Moor. Singapore, 1837, Vol. I, Quarto, for the rp ic f Yale College, from Rev. J. F. Dickinson, Singapore. 2 Chart, exhibiting the plan proposed by Lieut. John Fayer, R. N. Commander of the steamship Liverpool, for extinguishing by steam, fires arising from spontaneous combustion of coals in other parts of a vessel. January, 1838. From Messrs. Abraham Bell & Co., con- signees of the Liverpool steamship, New York. British Annual and Epitome of the Progress of Science, for 1839. Edited by Robert D. Thomson, M.D. London. Hippolyte Ba- illiere, 1888. From the Author. Consistency of the Discoveries of Modern Geology with the Sa- cred History of the Creation and the Deluge, by Prof. Silliman of Yale College. Reprint by J. S. Hodson, 112 Fleet st. London, — 1837. Mr. Hodson. The Seventh Report of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, Vol. VI. From the Association. London. John Murray, 1838. Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Man- ufactures and Commerce, Vol. LI, Part II, and Vol. LU, Part I. From the Society through A. Akin, Esq. London, 1838. Institution of Civil Engineers. Minutes of Proceedings and Ses- sions 1838 and 1839, pp. 52 and 26. London, 1838, 1839. From the Institute of Civil Engineers. Palmer’s New Catalogue of Chemical and Philosophical appara- tus. Several copies. London, 1838. From Mr. Palmer. A Catalogue of Ancient and Modérn Botanical Books, offered for sale by O. Rich. From O. Rich. Henry Coxhead’s Catalogues of New Scientific Books. The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches, in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, &c., with descriptions of the Coalfields and overlying formations, by Roderick Impey Murchison, F. R. 5. F.L.S., in two parts, 4to., including an atlas of drawings and large separate maps. From the author. London, John Murray, Alber- marl st. 1839. V9,076 58° j The roads which descend to the coast of the Pacific are few almost impassible, and lead to no seaport of importance except Guayaquil. Journeys thither are undertaken with fear and hes tation; and the character of the Serranos is marked «with all the traits of isolation resulting from the geography of the country. Next to the direct influence exercised by climate on the frame of man, we may consider it relatively to the facility it affords of nourishing him, and advancing his progress in civilization. The most important presents made by the Old to the New World ae cattle and cerealia. The only domesticated quadruped known to the Indians was the llama, which furnished, like the sheep, with thick wool, unwillingly descends or is propagated in the sultty lowlands. ‘The horned cattle of Europe, on the contrary, have multiplied almost equally on the plains as on the paramos. Of the farm of Antisana, for instance, at an elevation of from 12,000 to 16,000 feet, there is no less than 4,000 head. The herds rai ed on the plains of Venezuela, as on the Pampas of Buen Ayres, are, or were previous to the revolution, almost countless Two immense magazines of animal food are thus placed at the two extremes of temperature, in situations uninterfered with by agricultural labor. 'The horse has been destined to figure in the political changes of the New World. The fear and respect with | which he inspired the natives at the period of the Conquest is well known. ~ Horses have since multiplied prodigiously in ® parts of the country, but more especially in the plains of Veneat ela. There, during the war of independence, Paez, and othet | guerilla chiefs, at the head of an irregular cavalry, and maintained by the cattle, defied the efforts of the Spanish infantry, and kept alive the embers of the revolution. y The best kinds of horses are those that are bred in the lowlands, and brought to the mountains at about four years old, where the” acquire hardihood by the influence of a colder climate, and theit Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 15 heck scone only to soft pastures, are hardened 9 on a pony. soil. The breed of sheep, like that of llamas, is limited to ‘the loftier regions of the Cordillera; while goats multiply more readily, on. such parts of the low country as are both hot and bargems4 a = ge: the province of Coro, where they form the chief we — habitants. ‘ ees sh But while nature facilitates the dispersion over “the | globe of certain species of animals, she seems to limit others by an impas-_ sible barrier. The dog undergoes the fate of his European mas- er; his sagacity and strength decay in a hot climate, and the breed dwindles rapidly into an animal totally inferior in habits and organization. The foresters accordingly, and the Indians of the lowlands, who are accustomed to the chase of the wild hog, bring dogs for the purpose from the mountains, where, though the Spaniards are by no means curious in this particular, a strong species of greyhound, more or less degenerated, is to be met with, and is used in the highlands for stag-hunting. The influence of temperature, and consequently of local eleva- tion, on vegetable life, was first examined in Colombia by a na- tive of Bogota, the unfortunate and illustrious D. José Caldas, who fell a victim to the barbarity of Murillo in 1811, in conse- quence of which his numerous researches in natural history were almost entirely lost, with the exception of some papers published in the Seminario de Bogota in 1808, and fragmeuts still existing in MS. or casually preserved and printed in Europe, to one of which I shall presently have occasion to refer. Humboldt trav- elled through South America about the same time that Caldas was directing the attention of his countrymen to physical science, and his investigations have fortunately been subjected to a less rigor- ous destiny. - His admirable treatise, “‘ De distributione Planta- rum geogzraphica,’ has left for future observers little but to corroborate the accuracy of his views and multiply facts in illus- tration of his theories. When we begin our observations from the level of the sea, we find certain families of plants which scarcely ever rise to above 300 or 400 feet: the “Sandalo,” producing the balsam of Tolu, the Lecythis, the Coccoloba, the Bombax, the Rhizophora Mangle, the Manchineel. A second and more numerous class push on to about 2,000 feet of elevation ; such are the Plinia, 16 Meteorological Observations made in the “ Copal,” the “ Anime,” the “ Dragon’s blood,” the mahoga- ny tree, the “ Guayacan.” Among plants, the Casalpenia Tpo- mea quamoclet, most of the Bignonias, Portlandias, the Van- Boakigssia alata and riparia, the Pontaderia, which forms the Bate 5 Cace0 and indigo are most limited as to elevation, nel ther of. which is cultivated with success at above 2,000 fee An attempt to raise indigo at Mindo (3,960 feet) completely failed. It would seem that a dry climate is most favorable to indigo, suc as is found in the valleys of Aragua near Valencia; while and moisture, as Humboldt observes, are peifticcalenia naam i cacao. Yet cacao cultivated on lands which are flooded the year, as is the case with the greater part raised in Gael is of inferior quality, scarcely producing in the market a dollat per ewt. That of Esmeraldas, on the contrary, where notwith- standing the moisture of the climate, the waters never settle on the sik is of equal or superior quality to that of the valley of Tuy. uear Caraccas. In Canigue, at an elevation of about 1,000 feet, the trees are loaded with fruit in less than two years from the time of sowing the seed; while generally three years is the period at which they are sschawel to commence bearing. Coffee is abundantly raised from the level of the sea to elev® tions of 5,000 or 6,000 feet, or even higher in favorable situations There are Ee near the valley of Banos in Quito at ahem 4s | Sante requires, according to Humboldt, a mean temperature of not less than 64°—60°, which would bring it to the elevatiol of Loxa. The sugar cane is cultivated in Colombia from the level of the sea to an elevation, which may appear extraordinary, of 7,865 feet in the valley of Banos at the foot of Tunguragua, of 8,500 in the valley of Chillo below Quito, and of nearly 9,000 feet near the town of Hambato. It must be observed, however, with res to the latter, that the vegas or nooks formed by the nae the river, where alone it is raised, are so sheltered as to produce — almost an. artificial temperature. A palm tree brought young from Guayaquil flourishes there, and “ Aguacates,” (the fruit Laurus persea) ripen perfectly, with oranges, limes, and othet i a eo 4) Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 17 fruits which in general are not cultivated at above 6,000 feet. In proportion, however, to the elevation is the time required for ripening the sugar-cane, varying from nine months at the eleva- tion of 1,000 feet, to three years at the elevation above cited. Plantains and maize are the principal articles of food in the lowlands or hot country, “ tierra caliente,” to use the expression of the natives. The larger variety of plantain, “ Plantano har- ton,’ cannot be cultivated at elevations above 3,000 feet, while the smaller variety “ Camburi,” will ascend to 6,000 feet, maize is perhaps the plant which, of all others, embraces the greatest variety of temperature and elevation. It is cultivated with equal advantage from the level of the ocean to the flanks of the Andes, 0 to 11,000 feet ; temperature 80°—59°. It is true, that in the lowlands it ripens in three months, whereas on the table lands of the Andes, it requires ten; but the grain is larger, and the ear fuller in the cold than in the hot country. The central or temperate zone of the Andes is distinguished by the Cinchonas, the arborescent ferns which precede and accom- pany the palms nearly, and in the moist forests of the Pacific, en- tirely to the levelof the sea.* At the back of the Pichincha they first appear about 8,500 feet. The Alsiremerias and Calceola- rias, peculiar to the New World, belong to this zone, though the former ascend to 11,000 feet and the latter to 15,000. The Cerealia, with almost all the varieties of European vege- tables, belong to this region. Humboldt observes a peculiarity that wheat is grown near Vittoria at the elevation of 1,700 feet, and in Cuba near the level of the sea; (Geo. Pl., p. 161) but it is probable that the reason why the cerealia are cultivated only at elevations where the Muse disappear, may be the natural inclin- ation of the inhabitants of the warm country to prefer the cultiva- tion of a plant which yields an equal abundance of food with infinitely less labor, not only in the mere cultivation, but in the subsequent preparation. ‘The three great wheat districts in Co- lombia are the mountain chain of Merida, the elevation of which rarely reaches 5,000 feet ; with a general temperature of 72°; the’ plain of Pamplona, Tunja, and Bogota, elevation 8,000 to 10,000 feet ; temperature 58°; and the Quitenian Andes of the same height and temperature. Humboldt has accurately observed, * Humboldt, who had not visited these forests, confines them to betwixt-800-and 260 hexap. De Geo. Pl., p. 185. Vol. xxxvi1, No, 1.—July—Oct., 1839. 3 18 Meteorological Observations made in (Geo. Pl., p. 152) that a comparison betwixt annual mean tem- peratures of Europe and the elevated tropical regions would by no means give a correct state of the climate. Thus, though the mean temperature of the south of France and of Quito be the same, (about 59°) such fruits as peaches, apricots, pears, figs and grapes, which ripen in perfection in the former, although abun- dantly produced in the latter, never attain their proper size or flavor. The reason is, that the temperature is equal throughout — the year. There is consequently no period, as in Europe, of summer heat sufficient to ripen fruit requiring at this season a mean temperature of 65° or 70°. As far, however, as the height of 7,000 feet all kinds of fruit are cultivated with success; and the markets of the colder country are thus constantly supplied from the neighboring valleys or “ calientes.” Humboldt is mis- taken in supposing the olive always barren (semper sterilis manet, p. 154.) On the Quitenian Andes near Hambato, it produces abundantly, though little attention is paid to its cultivation. hen we ascend above the extreme limit of cultivation, which may be placed at 11,500 feet, and pass the region of the Barnadesia, Hyperica, Thibaudia, Gaultheriea, Buddleia, and other coriaceous leaved shrubs which, at this elevation, form thick- ets of perpetual bloom and verdure, we enter the region of Par- amos (13,000 to 15,000 feet) properly so called, which present to the eye unvaried deserts clothed with long grass, constituting the pasture grounds of the Andes. Humboldt is inclined to fix below this region the limit of forest trees; (G'eo. Pl., p. 148) and in fact very few are generally met with near this elevation on those flanks of the Cordillera which join the inhabited table lands. But I have observed on crossing the side of Pichincha, towards the uninhabited forests of Esmeraldas, that the forests oceur nearly through the whole space which, on the eastern slope, is a naked paramo. Is this owing to a difference of climate? Or has the practice of burning the paramos, universal in the Andes, together with the demand for fire-wood in the vicinity of large towns, con- tributed to give this region the bare aspect it has at present? Further observations on the mountain slopes towards Maynas ant Macas are necessary to throw light on this point. It is certain from the present aspect of the inhabited plain of Quito, where we meet with a few scattered trees of Arayan (Myrtus) and at- tificial plantations of Capuli, (Prunus salicifolia) we should con- OO LL ee eee se eel ees edie aie Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830. 19 clude that the region of forests had scarcely ascended to the height of 8,000 feet, yet some of the houses of Quito are still standing, built with timber cut on the spot. A circumstance which cannot have escaped the notice of those who have ascended towards the limit of perpetual snow, is the variety and luxuriance of the Flora at the very point where the powers of vegetation are on the brink of total suspension. At above 15,000 feet the ground is covered with Gentianas, purple, azure and scarlet ; the Drabas, the Alchemillas ; the Culatium rufescens with its woolly hood; the rich Ranunculas Gusmanni ; the Lupinus nanus with its cones of blue flowers enveloped in white down; the Sida Pichinchensis spotting the ground with purple ; the Chuqueraga insignis ; all limited within a zone of about 500 feet, from whence they seem scarcely to be separated by any effort at artificial cultivation. Several attempts I have made to raise the Gentians, Sida, and other plants of the summits of the Andes, at the height of Quito, have been invariably unsuc- cessful. The attempts indeed to domesticate plants in a situation less elevated, is attended with greater difficulties than the trans- port of- plants from one climate to another. Besides the differ- ence of atmospheric pressure, as Humboldt has observed, plants transferred from one elevation to another never meet, for a single day, with the mean temperature to which they have been accus- tomed; whereas, transferred from one latitude to another, the difference is rather in its duration than in its intensity. It is easier to'accustom a plant of the lowlands to this elevation, than to bring down those of the paramos. 'Thus the orange and lem- On trees, Aguacates (Laurus persea) Ricinus communis, Datura arborea, all natives of the hot lowlands, grow and flourish, more or less at an elevation of 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, - On the Method of Measuring Heights by Boiling Water. Ir will be observed in the following Journal, that the indication of heights is, in most cases, joined with that of boiling water. The former is in fact a deduction from the latter; I had but a confused idea of this method, till, upon my arrival at Quito, I met with a pamphlet of the late D. Francisco José Caldas, (one of the most eminent victims sacrificed by the barbarity of Mu- Tillo on taking possession of Bogota in 1816,) published in 1819 at Bourdeaux, in which he details the steps by which he arrived 20 Meteorological Observations made in at a knowledge of this principle, and the experiments by which he confirmed it. In the year 1801, during a scientific excursion in the neighborhood of Popayan, he happened to break his ther- mometer ; and in attempting to mend it he was led to observe the variability of the extremity of the scale corresponding to the heat of boiling water. His reflections on this subject led him, after various experiments, to the following conclusions: “ The heat of boiling water is in proportion to the atmospherical pres- sure: the atmospherical pressure is in proportion to the height above the level of the sea; the atmospherical pressure follows the same law as the risings of the barometer, or, properly speak- ing, the barometer shows nothing more than the atmospherical pressure. Boiling water therefore shows it in the same manner as the barometer. It can consequently show the elevation of places in the same manner, and as exactly as this instrument.” Ensayo de una memoria sobre un nuevo metodo de medir las _ montanas, etc. p. 10. His first experiment in Popayan gave b. w. 75°.7 of Reaumur, the height of the barometer being 22 in. 111. To find then the variation corresponding to one inch of the barometer : 28in, —22in, 111, =5°,1 or 61 lines. 80° —75°.7==4°.3. "Then 4°.3 x12 61). ; 4°.3::12. 3 —gp = Then reversing the process j e) 02.8 : 121::40.3:— or 6455 54d Difference betwixt this result and that of the barometer 34 lines. Satisfied with this commencement, or dawning of a new theory, he began a series of experiments in the mountains near Popayan, taking this city as the centre of his labors, and fixing the eleva- tion of the barometer at 22i, 11!. 2, and boiling water at 75°.65 of Reaumur. At a spot named Las Juntas I made my first observation. The barometer stood at 21i 9!, or 14! lower than at Popayan; the heat of boiling water was 74°.5 Reaumur. Then Height of the barometer in Popayan 22: 11.2 B. W. 759.65 at Las Juntas 21 9 74°.50 0°.8. 1 2.2 hs ennai tcc erate erie nite eatin ! : 3 Colombia between the Years 1820 and 1830, 21 ° 1 2.2=141.2 ; 19.15::12! “ss a mg = 0°.971 of Reaumur for 12!. of the barometer. I ascended to Paisbamba, a small farm iad leagues south of Popayan. Barometer 20: 91.1. B. W. 73°. Barometer in Popayan 22 111.2 ie W. 75°.65 in Paisbamba 20 9.1 B. W. 73 .50 Differences 2 2.1 2° 16 12 x2.15 221=26)1 ; 2°.15::1 a=, 988 of Reaumur, for 12 lines of the barometer. I ascended a hill E. of Paisbamba called Sombreros. Barom- eter 19i, 61.5. B. W. 72°.4. Barometer in Popayan 22i 111.20. B. W. 75°.65 on Sombreros 19 9.05. B. W. 72 .40 Differences * 6-46. 3 .25 A115 ; 39.25: se =0.947 for 12 lines barometer. I ascended the hill of Tambores: barometer 18: 11.6. B. W. 71°.75, Barometer in Popayan 22: 111.2. B. W. 75°.65 on Tambores 18 11.6. B. W. 71 .75 Differences 3 11 .6. 3 .90 12 x3.9 47.6 3 3°.9::12 47-6 = 0-983 for 12! barometer. g° Proof that above io of Reaumur is the true exponent of one inch of the barometer. I then proceeded to take the observations of Las Juntas and Sombteros, and calculating the exponent anew. Phroihdter'i in Las Juntas 21 9 B. W. 74.60 in Sombreros 19 6.05 72.40 Differences 2 2.95 2.2 12 X2.2 Ries 26.95 ; 2°.2°+19 96.95 = 0°:979 Reaumur for 12 lines of the barometer, 22 Meteorological Observations made in Barometer in Paisbamba 20 9.1. B. W. 73°.50 in Tambores 18 11.6. 176 Differences 1 9.5 1°.75 19.5=2115 : 19.75::12 ~*~ 790.976 of Reaumur for 12 lines of barometer. The mean of the six quotients is 0.974, which may be assumed as the exact exponent of 12 lines of the barometer. Given then the heat of boiling water in any place to find the corresponding elevation of the barometer, and consequently tts height above the sea. As 0°.974: 12 lines, so is the difference of the heat of B. W. To ascertain at Popayan the number of inches, lines, &c. of the barometer. Ex. in Tambores, B. W. 719.15, to find the corres- ponding height of the barometer. B. W. in Popayan 75°.65 in Tambores 71 .75 3.90 3, 0.974 1 12:70 7 AS!.05 = 4.0.05. As Tambores is above Popayan, deduct this quantity from the height of the barometer in that city. Barometer in Popayan 22 11.20 Deduct A 00.05 Remain 18 11.15 - of bar. in TTambores. Barometrical height observed 18 11.6 Do. by calculation of B.W. 18 11. « Difference 45 a result as exact as can be desired. Upon this principle I calculated the elevation of the falowitie | eleven places : Popayan, Poblason, Juntas, Buenavista, Paisbamba, Hevradura, Sombreros, Pasto, Tambores, i Quito. Kstrellas, Memoria, §c. p. 13. et seq. / ‘| | | | Ee Sree eee a any) ME Oe ee ee a ee ee NE ae ee Se ae a ee a ee aR Tee ET ae ee ee Colombia between the years 1820 and 1830. 23 Working upon the foregoing principle, Caldas adapted to his thermometer a barometrical scale. The product of 0°.974 of Reaumur by 19 is 18.506, or, in round numbers 18.5, i. e. 18°.5 of Reaumur corresponds to 19 inches of the barometer. Then measuring 18.5 from the summit, or 80° of Reaumur’s scale, he transferred it to the opposite side of the thermometer, dividing it into 19 equal parts, or inches of the barometer, subdividing these by a nonius into 24 each = half a line of the barometer. In this manner the elevation of the thermometer by boiling water indicates the corresponding elevation of the barometer under the same atmospheric pressure. Caldas observes that Humboldt, to whom he had communicated these ideas, when they met in Popayan, objected the variability of the heat of boiling water under the same atmospherical pressure ; to which he replies: “ Long practice has taught me its invariability in this respect, using the requisite precautions in making the ex- periment: otherwise, how could there be equal thermometers? Is not the invariability of the heat of boiling water under the pressure of twenty-eight inches, the foundation of the superior term of all thermometrical scales? It is true that boiling water does not immediately acquire its extreme heat, but pushing the Operation to its maximum its heat is always the same.” p. 24 Caldas did not consider an invariable exponent possible, on ac- count of the variability of atmospheric pressure. ‘The want, however, of a barometer induced me to make some experiments to this effect, by way of rendering this method of measuring el- €vations still more simple, and of more general use. Is the va- niability of atmospheric pressure such as to make any important difference in these calculations? Does not water boil constantly at 212° at the level of the sea? At Quito I found the same re- sult as Caldas had several years before; and several times the ‘Same result in this and other parts of the Andes. The difference then, is scarcely perceptible in the thermometer, and consequently unimportant in the results of a calculation founded on the heat of boiling water. The thermometer besides, immersed in boiling water, is less liable to a variety of atmospheric influences to which the mercury of the barometer is necessarily subject. Hence the great differences in different barometrical measure- ments of the same elevations, and the differences observed be- twixt different thermometers exposed to the air in the same place, 24 Meteorological Observations made in, §c. which I have observed on comparing three together to amount often to 14°, and never to less than 4°. I took the following method to obtain an exponent of the value in feet of each degree of the diminished temperature of boiling water. ! The elevation of Quito is, according to Boussingault, 9524; and water boils at 196°.25; 2t2°—196°.25=15°.5.9524— 15.75=604 ft. 6. in. nearly. Neglecting the fraction as unim- portant, I assumed 604 for the value of the degree, and began my observation on the conical hill of Javirac, which backs the city, and is calculated at 729 feetin height. Water boiled here by two thermometers at 195°. Then 196°.25 —195=1.25, difference of boiling water between the hill and the city ; and 1.25 x604= 755 feet; difference 26 feet. I next ascended the volcano of Pichincha, and found at the foot of the crater B. W. 186°.212° — 186° =26° x 604 = 15,730 feet ; and adding 246 feet, the differ- ence between this point and the summit, reckoned at 15,976. There could be little error in the calculation. I next applied this formula to the heights of several places calculated by Humboldt, and where the heat of boiling water had been ascertained by Caldas. Thus Bogota, height according to Humboldt - 8694 ft. B. W. according to Caldas 197°.6 - - 8712 Difference - - - 18 Popayan, according to Humboldt - - - 5823 B. W. 2029.21 - - - - - - 5922 Difference - - - 99 Pasto, according to Humboldt _- - - 857 B. W. 197°.6 - - - - - 8712 Difference - - - 140 ft. The differences here are in four points 27 feet, 18, 99, 140. With respect to the hill of Javirac, commonly called EL] Pane cillo, I suppose the measurement to have been made by the Ac- ademicians. But their calculations generally differ from those of Humboldt, as in the case of Quito; the former giving 9371 feet, the latter 9537 ; Pichincha 15,606 feet, Humboldt 15, 976; Chim- borazo 20,583, Humboldt 21,414. But even a difference of sites ] : | | Remarks on the Trilobite. 25 is sufficient to account for the 27 feet on ground so unequal as that of Quito. The 18 feet in the height of Bogota is so trifling a difference, that it rather proves the exactness of my calculation. In Popayan we have 99 feet ; yet the different barometrical meas- urements of that city differ still more widely. Caldas observes, p. 31, “'The Baron de Humboldt’s barometer stood in Popayan at 233.4, mine at 2211.2, and Bouguer’s at 2210.7.” The most accurate measurements of the peak of Teneriffe, selecting 4 out of 14, leaves a difference of 71 French toises, or rejecting the barometric measurements of Borda, of 18 toises.—Hu ‘ Pers. Nar. v. 1, p. 160, 170. Saussure is said to have found water boil at 187° on the summit of Mont Blanc, being, accord- ing to Humboldt, 15,660 ft. It is 90 ft. only below the point on Pichincha, where 1 found it to boil at 186°. The elevations nearly equal the difference cannot amount to a degree; and I consider the error less likely to be on my side, because I was aware of the probable cause of error, and had to deduce the height from the accuracy of the observation. Humboldt in the same manner suspects the accuracy of Lamouroux’s observation on the peak of Teneriffe-—P. Nar. vol. i. p. 159. _ [To be continued.] Arr. Il.— Remarks on the Trilobite; by Jacos Green, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Jefferson Medical College, Phila- delphia. Remarks.—We are informed by the author that the present communication was written originally for this Journal ; but some peculiar cireumstances induced him to publish it (March 16, 1839) in the Friend, a weekly Journal of Philadelphia. By the author’s request it is now republished with additions.—Eds. Tue anatomical structure and physiological history of the Whole family of the trilobites are not only involved in great ob- scurity, but we can scarcely hope that the most persevering efforts of the naturalist will ever be able to penetrate the darkness, or unravel the mysteries, which involve the subject. No depart- ment in the science of organic remains has been pursued of late With more zeal and curiosity than this. The trilobite furnishes Vol. xxxvi1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 4 26 - Remarks on the Trilobite. the earliest example of an articulated animal found among the ancient inhabitants of our globe, and although in some few existing genera we find certain points of analogy in their organization, the whole race probably became extinct after the subsidence of the great coal formation. Dr. Buckland remarks, “ No trilobites have yet been found in any strata more recent than the carboniferous series; and no other crustaceans, except three forms which are also entomostracous, have been noticed in strata coeval with any of those that contain the remains of trilobites; so that during the long periods that intervened between the deposition of the earliest fossilliferous strata and the termination of the coal formation, the trilobites appear to have been the chief representatives of a class which was largely multiplied into other orders and families after these earliest forms became extinct.” From the multitude of trilobites and fragments of trilobites which have been discovered in different parts of the world, most of which present nothing but portions of the upper shell of the fossil, the discovery of the figure of the under side of the animal, and of the form and arrangement of the organs of locomotion, seems almost hopeless. As the solid parts of the animal strue- ture alone are for the most part susceptible of petrifaction, it is not to be expected the softer portions would leave any traces whatever in the rocks which have entombed and so perfectly preserved these ancient inhabitants of our planet; for these rea- sons, and some others which we shall presently mention, the legs of the trilobite have been supposed to be soft and very perishable paddles. Although much controversy formerly existed as to the true na- ture of the trilobite, it is now admitted by all naturalists to occupy a place among crustaceous animals. The existing genera t0 which they are most analogous in their general structure are the serolis, the limulus, and the branchipus. In our monograph we announced the discovery of a recent trilobite in the southern seas, near the Falkland islands: this proves to be a species of the genus serolis established by Dr. Leach. In the configuration of its upper shell it approaches exceedingly near to that of some of the trilobites; the chief difference between the recent and fossil animal consists in the crustaceous legs and antenne of the serolis. The analogies existing between the limulus and our fossil, as We mentioned in another place, have been shown by Dr. Dekay others.

of one and the same Intelligent Creative Power. “ Professor Miller and Mr. Straus have ably and amply illus- trated the arrangements, by which the eyes of insects and crusta- ceans are adapted to produce distinct vision, through the medium of a number of minute facets, or lenses, placed at the extremity of an equal number of conical tubes, or microscopes; these amount sometimes, as in the butterfly, to the number of 35,000 facets in the two eyes, and in the dragon-fly to 14,000. “It appears that in eyes constructed on this principle, the image will be more distinet in proportion as the cones in a given portion of the eye are more numerous and long; that, as compound eyes see only those objects which present themselves in the axes of the individual cones, the limit of their field of vision is greater or smaller as the exterior of the eye is more or less hemispherical. “If we examine the eyes of trilobites with a view to their prin- ciples of construction, we find both in their form, and in the dis- position of the facets, obvious examples of optical adaptation, “In the asaphus caudatus each eye contains at least 400 nearly spherical lenses fixed in separate compartments on the surface of the cornea. The form of the general cornea is peculiarly adapted to the uses of an animal destined to live at the bottom of the wa- ter: to look downwards was as much impossible as it was unne- Cessary to a creature living at the bottom ; but for horizontal vis- 30 Remarks on the Trilobite. ion in every direction the contrivance is complete. The form of each eye is nearly that of the frustrum of a cone, incomplete on that side only which is directly opposite to the corresponding side of the other eye, and in which, if facets were present, their chief range would be towards each other across the head, where no vis- ion was required. The exterior of each eye, like a circular bas- tion, ranges nearly round three fourths of a circle, each command- ing so much of the horizon, that where the dintings vision of one eye ceases, that of the other eye begins, so that in the horizontal direction the combined range of both eyes was panoramic. “If we compare this disposition of the eyes with that in the three cognate crustaceans,* by which we have been illustrating the general structure of the trilobites, we shall find the same mechanism pervading them all, modified by peculiar adaptations to the state and habits of each; thus in the branchipus, which moves with rapidity in all directions through the water, and re- quires universal vision, each eye is nearly hemispherical, and placed on a peduncle, by which it is projected to the distance re- quisite to effect this pur “Tn the serolis, the disposition of the eye, and its range of vis- ion, are similar to those in the trilobite, but the summit of the eye~ is less elevated ; as the flat back of this animal presents little ob- struction to the rays of light from surrounding objects. “In the limulus, where the side eyes are sessile, and do not command the space immediately before the head, two other sim- ple eyes are fixed in front, compensating for the want of range in the compound eyes over objects in that direction. “In the above comparison of the eyes of trilobites, with those of the limulus, serolis, and branchipus, we have placed side by side, examples of the construction of that most delicate and com- plex organ, the eye, selected from each extreme, and from a mid- way place in the progressive series of animal creations. We find in trilobites of the transition rocks, which were among the most ancient forms of animal life, the same modifications of this organ which are at the present time adapted to similar functions in the living serolis. ‘The same kind of instrument was also employed in those middle periods of geological chronology, when the secondary strata were deposited at the bottom of a warm sea, 5 coil aa all exed the plates of Dr. Buckland, which being eeertant to the just comprehension of the subject, we have caused to be copied.—Eps ii a ais a Remarks on the Trilobite. 31 inhabited by limuli, in the regions of Europe, which now form the elevated plains of central Germany. . “The results arising from these facts, are not confined to ani- mal physiology ; they give information also regarding the condi- tion of the ancient sea and ancient atmosphere, and the relations of both these media to light, at that remote period when the ear- liest marine animals were furnished with instruments of vision, in which the minute optical adaptations were the same that im- part the perception of light to crustaceans now living at the bot- tom of the sea. “With respect to the waters wherein the trilobites maintained their existence throughout the entire period of the transition for- mation, we conclude that they could not have been that imagin- ary turbid and compound chaotic fluid, from the precipitates of which some geologists have supposed that the materials of the surface of the earth to be derived; because the structure of the eyes of these animals is such, that any kind of fluid in which they could have been efficient at the bottom, must have been pure and transparent enough to allow the passage of light to organs of Vision, the nature of which is so fully disclosed by the state of perfection in which they are preserved. : “With regard to the atmosphere also we infer, that had it dif- fered materially from its actual condition, it might have so far affected the rays of light, that a corresponding difference from the eyes of existing crustaceans would have been found in the organs on which the impressions of such rays were then re- ceived “ Regarding light itself also, we learn from the resemblance of these most ancient organizations to existing eyes, that the mutual relations of light to the eye, and of the eye to light, were the Same at the time when crustaceans endowed with the faculty of Vision were first placed at the bottom of the primeval seas, as at the present moment. “Thus we find among the earliest organic remains, an optical instrument of most curious construction, adapted to produce vis- ion of a peculiar kind, in the then existing representatives of one Sreat class in the articulated division of the animal kingdom. We do not find this instrument passing onwards, as it were, through a series of experimental changes, from more simple into More complex forms ; it was created at the very first, in the full- 32 Remarks on the Trilobite. ness of perfect adaptation to the uses and condition of the class of creatures, to which this kind of eye has ever been, and is still appropriate. 7 “If we should discover a microscope, or telescope, in the hand of an Egyptian mummy, or beneath the ruins of Herculaneum, it would be impossible to deny that a knowledge of the principles of optics existed in the mind by which such an instrument. has been contrived. The same inference follows, but with cumula- tive force, when we see nearly four hundred microscopic lenses set side by side, in the compound eye of a fossil trilobite; and the weight of the argument is multiplied a thousand fold, when we look to the infinite variety of adaptations by which similar instruments have been modified, through endless genera and spe- cies, from the long lost trilobites, of the transition strata, through the extinct crustaceans of the secondary and tertiary formations, and thence onward throughout existing crustaceans, and the countless hosts of living insects. “Tt appears impossible to resist the emolaniatee as to unity of ign ina common Author, which are thus attested by such cu- mulative evidences of Creative Intelligence and Power ; both, as infinitely surpassing the most exalted faculties of the human mind, as the mechanisms of the natural world, when magnified by the highest microscopes, are found to transcend the most per- fect productions of human art.” We now proceed to the more immediate object of this commu- nication, which is to describe a portion of the under side of the fossil animal, which we have named in our monograph calymene ufo. Some time since, my attention was directed by Dr. J. J. Cohen, of Baltimore, to a number of fragments of the heads of this spe- cies, obtained from the vicinity of Berkley, Va., and which are- still preserved in his cabinet. Three or four of these fragments seemed to disclose the configuration of the whole lower surface of the buckler, in a more or less perfect state. Within a few months, another friend brought for my examination, a fine large head of the same species, from the same locality, and which ex- hibited the under side or thorax, in quite a perfect state of pre- servation. All the fragments have precisely the same structure, 80 that there can be no doubt, we have now the external configura- tion of the entire head or buckler of the calymene bufo. F f f i ALS Remarks on the Trilobite. 33 _ The anterior edge of the buckler of this species, as has been often observed, is marked by a deep groove or furrow, produced apparently by the junction of the upper and the under shell at this place, and which at first sight looks like the mouth of the animal ; indeed, Professor Brongniart calls the elevated ridges on each side of this groove the lips. The mouth was, however, placed no doubt much farther beneath. These Zips, perhaps, indicate the separation of the shell, through which the trilobite crept out, and ~ left his cast-off covering in the same manner as recent crustace- ans leave their exuvie. We know that the Limulus polyphemus creeps through a somewhat similar opening, made along the whole anterior edge of his buckler.* In all our fragments, which exhibit the under surface of the buckler, the lower Jip is reflected beneath, so as to form a kind of scroll or rolled edge, extending from one side or angle of the head to the other. Beneath this, and passing backwards towards the tail, the surface of the shell is not flat and horizontal as in the isotelus and Limulus ; but it swells up on each side, below the oculiferous prominences, into a kind of oval pouch, diminishing in breadth as it recedes, and at last terminates in a rounded point, below the second articulation of the vertebral column. This is the position of the gullar po c or plate, when the animal assumes a cree ping or swimming atti- tude ; but when rolled up in the form of a ball, for the purpose of defence, then the gullar plate being composed of a single Piece, and therefore not contractile, reached below the fourth ar- ticulation of the back. Some of our specimens illustrate this conformation in a very satisfactory manner. None of our frag- ments exhibit fairly the small surface on each side of the gullar plate, and the edge of the buckler beneath the eyes. This space Was probably slightly concave, and occupied with the mandibles and their palpi, as in the genus serolis—the mouth being no doubt placed near the rounded termination of the gullar pouch. Thus we have at last discovered nearly the whole inferior sur- face of the buckler of the genus calymene, a portion which in- cludes about one third of the animal. Not the slightest impres- sion or other vestige of antenne can be perceived, and we may therefore pretty confidently conclude, that this genus of trilobites Were destitute of those organs. Professor Demarest, in his his- * See Dr. Dekay. Annals of Natural History, vol. 1. Vol. xxxvuit, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. * 34 Remarks on the Trilobite. tory of fossil crustacea, seems to have ascertained by his useful and ingenious researches, that the irregularities of the external shells in the living species of crustaceans have a constant relation to distinct compartments in their internal organization, and by the application of these distinctions to fossil species, he has been enabled to draw some highly curions, novel, and important con- clusions respecting their internal and general structure. From my limited knowledge of the anatomy and the habits of our living crabs, I would merely suggest, that the peculiar organ in the animal economy of the trilobite, which the gullar plate above described, was intended to model and protect, was perhaps the stomach, and that the spaces on each side covered the anterior portions of the liver. he upper shell of the genus calymene, like that of the iso- telus and depleuva, naturally and obviously divides itself into three parts, the buckler or shield—the abdomen and the caudal end. This last portion in the calymene is not covered with a thick epidermis, as in the two genera above mentioned, the ar- ticulations being all visible and somewhat difficult, in some spe- cies, to distinguish from those of the abdomen. These articula- tions, which are generally ten in number, are composed of a variety of immovable plates as in the other genera. The infe- rior surface of the caudal. end of the trilobite had never been observed by any naturalist, till my friend Dr. Cohen, obtained some fragments of the genus calymene from the neighborhood of Berkley Springs, in Virginia, in some of which that structure was developed. These were kindly sent to me for examination, along with those of the buckler just described. From our researches we have ascertained, that the inflexible margin which surrounds the caudal end or tail of the calymene bufo, is not reflected beneath the body of the animal, as might be expected, but that there is joined to it by a structure a slightly concave horizontal surface. This surface is lunate, being broader below the articulations of the vertebral column, gradually dimin- ishing on each side towards the horns of the crescent, which terminates just below the last articulations of the abdomen. This lunate surface is composed of a thick crustaceous plate or piece. Beyond this crescent shaped piece, directly below the vertebral column, there is a deep cavity in the under shell of the animal, which corresponds in figure and dimensions with the gullar pouch if - i FE oe = 4 Remarks on the Trilobite. 35 or under surface of the buckler. By this peculiar mechanism, whenever the animal rolled itself into a ball, to give protection to the soft parts of the abdomen, the protuberance under the shield would be introduced into the cavity below the tail, and thus retain the whole shell in a fixed position. In this position, with the tail closed upon the buckler, the calymene is often found. Professor Wahlenberg considers those trilobites only as perfect animals, which are found rolled, the others being merely exuded or cast-off shells, and in such alone, he remarks, can we expect to discover the organization of the inferior surface. Most of the fragments from Berkley Springs, which have occasioned my pre- sent remarks, are found rolled up or partially coiled animals. All trilobites have not, however, this power ; indeed, it seems to be principally confined to those only whose extremities are rounded and nearly equal in size. The rolled position would afford to the paradoxides and to many of the asaphs, but little security against the attacks of their enemies, and we rarely if ever find them in this attitude. The remark of Professor Wahlenberg above cited, though illustrated by the specimens now under consideration, we think of far too general a nature. The deep cavity beneath the tail in the fragments which we are describing, reaches forward towards the head as far as the ninth articulation of the back ; in other words, a portion of it lies beneath the three last abdominal divisions. It will be recollected that the gullar pouch reaches below the fourth articulation of the back, and that the whole number of divisions in the vertebral column in the genus calymene, is twelve; we have therefore discovered in these fragments almost the whole of the inferior surface, except the portion which lies below the five articulations of the back commencing with the fifth from the buckler or shield ; What we shall offer in regard to this portion of the animal must be merely hypothetical, or founded on certain analogies of struc- ture which probably existed between living crustaceous animals and the fossil remains of such as inhabited the most ancient seas. Some of our fragments, we think, exhibit a transverse section of our trilobite, showing the position and figure of the abdominal Cavity which once contained a portion of the viscera of the ani- mal. One of the sections is through and parallel with the sixth articulation of the back: by this means we have discovered that 36 Remarks on the Trilobite. some of the viscera were placed in a cylindrical cavity running beneath the vertebral column, and that the side lobes were only a covering and protection to the soft paddles or feet placed below, as may be seen in a similar structure in the serolis. Each of the five articulations of the abdomen, the under side of which we have not yet discovered, was probably furnished below, on each side of the abdominal cavity, with organs, which performed the double office of feet and lungs. Now, as our fragments develope all the inferior surface except the portion beneath these five ar- ticulations of the abdomen, it is probable that our trilobite was a decapodous animal. Professor Brongniart long ago imagined, that the reason why no traces of these organs have yet been dis- covered, is that the trilobites held that place among crustaceous animals in which the antennz disappear, and the legs become transformed into soft paddles incapable of preservation. If this supposition be true, we shall in vain look for any further discove- ries below the upper shell of the trilobite. What affords, we think, increasing probability to the opinion we have just advanced with regard to the situation of the abdominal cavity, and the or- gans of locomotion below the five abdominal arches above men- tioned, is, that when the animal rolled itself up for protection, this portion of the body would still retain nearly a rectilinear position ; thus no interference would occur in the ordinary fune- tions of the animal economy when the body was contracted. Besides the organs of locomotion and respiration beneath the abdominal arches of the genus calymene, it is probable that on each side of the deep cavity under the caudal end there was placed a series of thin transverse plates, which also performed the combined functions of breathing and swimming: a similar disposition of laminated branchiw may be observed also in the limulus and in the serolis. Beneath this deep cavity the heart of the animal was also probably placed. What we have said with regard to the inferior mechanism of the trilobite, applies exclusively to the genus calymene. It is probable that this structure differs essentially in all the genera of this remarkable family. Dr. Dekay has described and figured in the first volume of the Annals of the Lyceum of Natural His- tory of New York, the under side of the buckler of the isotelus, which is very peculiar in its configuration ; he describes this in- ferior surface as being formed by the anterior part of the buckler a Seiad as vs —— i i aii aa a er Sere a E E 4 | Remarks on the Trilobite. 37 being reflected beneath the animal so as to form a flat horizontal plane, which terminates in a kind of lunate spine, the horns of the crescent being curved towards each other. These horus are six lines in length, and their points are sharp and translucent. We have received from Dr. Warder a specimen of this singular structure, which was found, with other fragments of the isotelus, near Springfield in Ohio. Although it lies on the rock, unaccom- panied by any other fragment of the animal, its exact resemblance to the figure given by Dr. Dekay leaves no doubt that it once belonged to an isotelus. Among other conjectures respecting the uses of this crescent-shaped structure, it is observed that when the animal was attacked “it may roll itself up into a ball, as indeed it is often found, and by some mechanism these processes may be inserted into the corresponding cavities in the tail, and thus retain permanently a rolled position, presenting nothing but its calcareous covering to the enemy; or they may supply the place of antenne, for which their form and contiguity to the mouth and brain would seem to render them peculiarly applica- ble.” The first conjecture above noticed was ingenious, and will no doubt be confirmed when the lower surface of the tail is dis- covered. The inferior organization of the calymene bufo has at any rate given great plausibility to this opinion. We have also carefully examined another fragment represent- ing a similar structure. The original fossil was found in Ohio, and is now in the possession of W. Wagner, Esq. of Philadel- phia. The rock on which it oceurs is a gray limestone full of other petrifactions. This lunate structure differs essentially from the one noticed by Dr. Dekay; the points of the crescent are rounded and do not curve towards each other ; the terminations are not raised and translucent, but the whole surface is nearly flat.. It however formed, undoubtedly, a portion of the under Surface of some trilobite, whether that of an asaphus, an isotelus, ora dipleura, we are unable now to determine. In the Geol. Trans., No. 8, Vol. I, pl. 27, there isa figure by Mr. Stokes of What is said to be the under surface of the anterior portion of the Shield of an asaphus platycephalus from Lake Huron. Dr. Buck- land, whose copy of the figure we have only seen, observes con- Cerhing it, that the entrance to the stomach of the animal was between these lunate processes “analogous to that in recent crabs.” The A. phatycephalus is synonymous with I. gigas of 38 Remarks on the Trilobite. Dr. Dekay ; and if Mr. Stokes’s drawing and Dr. Dekay’s figure be accurate representations of nature, we think they must be drawn from analogous fragments belonging to animals at least specifically distinct. In Mr. Wagner’s cabinent there is another fragment of the un- der surface with lunate processes, somewhat resembling the one just described ; but instead of being composed of a flat plate or surface, it forms one that is convex, very much resembling the figure given by Dr. Buckland from Mr. Stokes. From this frag- ment it is perfectly evident, that this lunate structure is composed of an upper and under plate, the one convex and the other plain or flat, so as to form, when united, a plano-concave, hollow, lu- nate box or cavity. The physiological relations of this struc- ture [ am unable to suggest; but since the above remarks were penned, I have seen a copy of Murchison’s Silurian System, &c., from which the following extract is made, which may throw some light on this matter, and is otherwise interesting. “I have seen the work of Pander at too late a period to enable me to pro- fit much by his views concerning the original structure of the trilobite or the adaptations of the tegumentary skeleton of the an- imal to its habits, into the consideration of which he enters at length. He certainly throws some new light on the nature of these creatures by exposing the interior or under surface—partic- ularly that of their heads, in which he points out several divis- _ ions, and considers them to be the thoracic plate and jaws. The central portion, or that which was formerly described by Mr. Stokes from a North American specimen, he considers to have been connected with the head by cartalage only, and to have served as a thoracic plate to protect the stomach, the form of which varies in the different genera of trilobites found in Russia. On referring this subject to my friend Mr. W. Mc Lay, whose knowl- edge of invertebrated animals is so profound ; he assures me that this plate on the under side of the head, above alluded to, must be considered as the dabrum or upper lip. The trilobite is thus brought into close analogy with certain entomostracha such as the Apus Cancrirormis, &c.” We have called the fossil remain which has occasioned the present remarks respecting the organization of the under surface of the trilobite, calymene bufo, a name which we proposed some years since in our little work on these interesting reliques. Other —— Remarks on the Trilobites. — 39 writers have applied to it the term calymene macrophthalma, first given by Professor Brongniart, not only to this fossil, but to an- other, which differs essentially from it. He has given in his admirable work on this subject good figures of both animals, but his specific description refers only to plate 1, figure 4, A. B. He observes, ‘that the species is remarkable by the prolongation of the anterior portion of the buckler in the form of a snout, and that its middle lobe, or front, is marked on its sides by three oblique plice. or wrinkles, like those on the C. tristani.” This descrip- tion applies very well to some reliques found in the Dudley rock, which we have examined, but it is perfectly obvious that the cal- ymene bufo, which has a rounded front, and is entirely destitute of plice or wrinkles, cannot be included in it. We therefore took the liberty in our little work of calling by the name of caly- mene bufo, the fossil represented on his first plate at figure 5, and which is so common in the United States; and of restricting the €. macrophthalma to the animals represented on the same plate at figure 4, which are specifically distinct, and if not so called, must still remain nameless. Norr.—Mr. Murchison in his magnificent work styled the Silurian System, has jmepenei the name of calymene Downingie for one of Professor Brongniart’s fos- sils, called C. Macrophthalma, and restricts the term Macrophthalma to the one which I have named Calymene Bufo. There are several objections to this no- menclature. Ist, The C. Macrophthalma, Brong. was long ago divided into two Species by me for the reason above stated. 2d, In M. Achille Comptes large pic- torial illustrations of the Regne Animal, the vs ’ Macrophthelma is represented by Brongniart's figure 4, A. B.; naturalists therefore already know it under that name. The following are Mr. Murchisott $ remarks on this subject: ‘I have separated the C, Macrophthalma, Brong. into two species, believing that his figure plate 1, figure 4, B, is our common large eyed species, and that his figure 4, A, of the sane plate, judging from the ovate, accuminate head and the tubercles on the fore- ad is our C. Downingie. The last mentioned species is infinitely rarer than that to which I would restrict the name of Macrophthalma. That species is at once recognized by its bald, plain, rounded head, as is well exposed in the draw- ings of Mr. Stokes. See Toctin plate 1, figure 5, A,B,C. I have named. this spe- cies after Mrs, Downing, to whom I am indebted for the loan of it 40 Description of a New Trilobite. Art. IlI.—Description of a New Trilobite ; by Jacop Green, — M. D, Prof. of Chemistry in the Yeiérson Medical College, Philadelphia. Asaphus Diurus—GRreen. Girne? costis striatis, tubereulatis ; cauda bipartita; corpore depresso. The fragments of this Asaph which I have examined, consist of nineteen articulations of the abdomen and tail. The costal arches of the lateral lobes are very peculiar. 'They are marked by a shallow groove, or impressed: line on their upper surface, studded on each side with quite a regular row of bead-like granu- lations. On each division of the vertebral column, there is buta single row of pustulations. The lunate caudal end is more ex- panded than in the cognate species, the A. Selenurus, and the concave side of the cressent, is more regularly rounded; the whole animal is much more depressed, than that species, and the lateral lobes are much wider in proportion to the middle lobe of the back. There are two specimens of this fine species in the cabinet of William Wagner, Esq., of Philadelphia, both of which were found in Green County, Ohio, in the neighborhood of Xenia. The largest which measures two inches long and two and a half inches wide, is a plaster cast from a weather beaten natural mould; the other occurs in a grey, sparry, argillaceous limestone rock. It is. perhaps worthy of remark, that all the specimens of the Asaph, with a lunate tail which I have noticed, were natural moulds, made by the animal in the rock, the shell or body having disap- peared. I was informed some time since, by Mr. Abraham Sager, of New York, that he had discovered several fine specimens of a0 Asaph with a lunate tail at the foot of the Helderberg mountains near the Caves, in which the horns of crescent which forms the caudal termination were remarkably elongated and perfect. AS the A, Selenurus is found at Glenn’s falls and at Becroft’s mout- tain near the city of Hudson, is quite a different rock from that which occurs at the Helderberg, and as this last formation seems analogous to the one in which the Asaphus Diurus is found, it is probable that Mr. Sager’s species may be the one now described: I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Wagner, for the opportu- nity of making out this species. —— a et eae oe SS Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. Al Arr. IV.—On the Natural History of Voleanos and Earth- quakes ;* by Dr. Gustav Biscuor, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Bonn. Communicated by the Author. Con- cluded from Vol. xxxvi, No. 2, page 282. EARTH QUAKES. EartuQuakes, so closely connected with volcanic phenome- na, are undoubtedly owing to the same causes. That the pro- cesses by which they are produced must take place at a great depth, is evident from the simultaneous occurrence of earth- quakes at places far distant from one another. Some extraor- dinary examples in this respect are furnished by the memorable earthquake at Lisbon, on the Ist November 1755, which was not only felt over a great part of Europe, but extended to the northern coast of Africa and the Antilles ; and farther, by the si- multaneous shocks felt on the 16th November 1827, and Ochotsk and Bogota, which places are 1900 geographical miles distant from each other, and are separated both by land and sea.t Parrott has calculated that about 700,000 German miles, that is, nearly one-twelfth of the whole surface of the earth, was shaken by the earthquake at Lisbon. Stukeley$ calculated from the extent of country over which earthquakes have been felt, that the force must, in some instances, be 200 English miles beneath the surface. But Daubeny|| pointed out that we must not lay any stress on his remarks, because we have reason to be- lieve that the vibrations may be propagated latterly far beyond the immediate influence of the impelling force. In a former * From the Edinburgh New Philosophical Jour., Vol. XXvi, No. 52, April 1839. t Von Humboldt’s Reise, &c., vol. i, p. 497, and vol. iii, p. 23 and 27, Von Hoff, Verzeichniss Von Erdbeben, &c. in Poggendorff’s Ann. vol. xxi, p. 214. t Physik der Erde, p. 289. See also Berghaus’ Almanack, 1837, p. 106, on the || Loco eit. p- 388. Vol. xxxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 6 42 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. place, I have also shown, that the seat of volcanic action may be looked for at depths far less than Stukeley supposes. But there is no reason to believe that earthquakes could go on at greater depths than volcanic actions. Supposing that the interior of the earth is still fluid, and that rents conducting water, extend from the surface to the fluid nucleus, it is easy to conceive that the ac- tions of the steam may be felt at very remote distances. We have already pointed out the close connection which ex- ists between earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Von Hum- boldt, in his travels near the Equator, gives several examples of this. It may not be superfluous to refer here to what this illus- trious philosopher asserts generally with regard to these phenom- ena, at the end of the 4th chapter of the 2d volume of Part I, Book 2.* _ Every thing seems to show that earthquakes are caused by the effort of elastic fluids seeking an outlet. On the coasts of the South Sea their action is often communicated almost instan- taneously from Chili to the Gulf of Guayaquil, a distance of 600 geographical miles; and, what is very extraordinary, the _ shocks seem to be so much the stronger, the greater the distance from the active voleanos. The granite mountains of Calabria, the limestone chain of the Apennines, the county of Pignerol, the coast of Portugal and Greece, Peru, and the continent of Amer- ica, furnish striking proofs, of this assertion. It might be sup- posed that the earth would be more violently shaken, the fewer the openings on the surface which communicate with the inte- rior. At Naples and at Messina, at the foot of Cotopaxi, aud the Tunguragua, earthquakes are dreaded only when vapors and flames do not issue from the mouth of the volcano. In the kingdom of Quito, the great catastrophe of Riobamba led many well informed persons to believe that this unfortunate country would be less often disturbed if the subterranean fire would succeed in destroying the dome of porphyry of Chimborazo, and if this colossal mountain should become an active volcano. At all times, analogous facts have given rise to similar hypoth- eses. The ancient Greeks, who, like us, attributed earthquakes * See also what Von Buch says on Vesuvius. Geognostische Beobacht. vol. ii, p- 129. t Fleuriau de Bellevue, Journ. de Physique, t. Ixii, p. 261. ad aie ae ae ears Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 43 to the force of elastic fluids, brought forward, in support of their opinion, the total cessation of earthquakes in the island of Au- boa, after the opening of a chasm in the Lelantic fields.* The intimate connection of earthquakes with voleanos is not less clearly proved by the direction which the former take. With the assistance of a simple instrument (the sismograph) invented by Cacciatore, and erected at Palermo, it was found in twenty- Seven cases that the shock was propagated in a fixed linear di- rection, which coincided remarkably with the cardinal points. N nineteen cases the shocks were transmitted in a direction from east to west, corresponding with the situation of Mount Fina, the source of all these subterranean concussions, which lies di- rectly to the east of Palermo. In four cases it was from south to north; but, for want of corresponding observations, the seat of these shocks cannot be determined ; and it certainly does not seem to have been the effect of chance, that three shocks, which were felt on the 9th February, 30th June, and 2d July 1831, traveled from the south-west to the north-east: for it was pre- cisely in that direction, at a distance of about 70 Italian miles, that the small new volcano suddenly appeared in the sea, prob- ably on the 2d J uly. The two latter shocks were also the very Same that were felt with greater force at Sciacca, on the southern Coast, opposite to the new volcano. On the other hand, Boussingault{ asserts that the most mem- orable earthquakes in the New World, which ravaged the towns of Latacunga, Riobamba, Honda, Caraccas, Laguayra, Mer ’ Bar quisimeto, &c., do not coincide with any well established Voleanic eruption. 'The oscillation of the surface, owing to an eruption, is, as it were, local; whilst an earthquake, which is Not subject (at least apparently) to any volcanic eruption, extends to incredible distances, in which case it has also been remarked that the shocks most commonly follow the direction of chains of mountains, In favor of the hypothesis, that earthquakes are produced by aqueous vaporl| penetrating to great depths, the following circum- Siar BEEBE i 0 9 EE * Strabo, lib. i, ed. Oxon. 1807, t. i, p. 85- ' F. Hoffman in Poggend. Ann. t. xxiv, p. 63. + Annal. dé Chim. et de Phys. t. Iviii, p. 83. {| A remarkable case which has taken place at the iron-foundery at Sayn, proves, that shocks of the earth may be several times repeated by the effect of elastic flu- AA Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. stances may be adduced. Firstly, as aqueous vapor is supposed to produce volcanic action, it must’ be presumed to be also the cause of earthquakes. Secondly, some hours before the first shock of the tremendous earthquake at Algiers and the neigh- borhood, the 2d to 5th March 1825, which entirely destroyed the’ town of Blisa, all the springs and wells are reported to have been dried up.* Thirdly, earthquakes, though undoubtedly felt even the centre of large continents, seem to produce their most fright- ful effects in countries not very far removed from the ocean. But perhaps, earthquakes may also be produced by gaseous exhala- tions in the interior of the globe. At least in many accounts of earthquakes, mention is made of the exhalation of gases from rents, produced by them,t+ and the smell of sulphuric acid, and of sulphurous vapors, which indicate the presence of sulphuret- ids. A cylinder 14 feet in height, and 31,395 pounds in weight, was to be cast. The clay mould having been totally filled up by melted iron, the latter broke through the ground, and penetrated to the depth of 25 feet into the sandy soil, con- sequently 11 feet deeper than the lower part of the mould. Some time after an equally violent shock happened, and after more than 24 hours a third followed. The local circumstances of that iron-foundery lead to an explanation of these phenomena. There are at a depth of 23-24 feet under the ground of the said building, many inclined channels which communicate together, for the purpose of collecting the rain water. Immediately after shocks, watery vapors issued abundantly from the mouth of the tk "These vapors were evolved by the heat of the melted iron from the water, being in the ground about two feet below the bottom of the channels; and penetrated through “the joinings of their brick work. But these joinings being filled up with mud and sand, offered re- sistance, and consequently the vapors had to attain a certain wong before they were able to penetrate through them. It is, however, very probable that the va- pors, bearing mud and sand with them, again stopped up the opening, when their slanivity sarelasty again decreased. During the shocks, the steam attained its greatest elasticity, and thickened the earth which surrounded the heated mass of iron; and this circumstance may have impeded a new afflux of water. Therefore, after the first shock, half an hour elapsed ; and after the second, which still more obstructed the afflux of the water, even more than 24 hours etapa before the third and latest shock took place * Berzelius, epg ht, 1827, p- 310 t Von Humbol , Reise, t. i, p. 499. Vou Hoff in Poggend, Ann. t. vii, p. 292, ¢. 2, p.593, t. xxv; i 76. V. Humboldt believes indeed, that daring : most earth- quakes, nothing arises from the earth ; but there are on the contrary, proofs that s are ofien gradually evolved from the ground before and after the shocks. The uneasiness of small animals, or those whose organs of respiration are rather feeble, before and after earthquakes, leads us to infer this. Le Gentil (Nouveau Voyage autour du Monde, t. i, p. 172) has already observed, that animals living ™ ee ae i ina 7 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 45 Ay ted hydrogen.* These last may have occasioned also the de- struction of the fish in the sea, and in lakes, during earthquakes ; many instances of which are known. The bursting forth of flames from the earth and from the sea, which is so often men- tioued,t also indicates the presence of inflammable gases. How- ever, although this is corroborated by the fire-damp in mines, the isengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen while boring artesian wells, and the not uncommon exhalations of inflammable gas from the earth, yet it is difficult to account for their inflammation. This difficulty would disappear, if observation had found flames only to occur in really volcanic districts.t But at any rate, it is going rather too far to take the explosion of fire-damp for the cause of earthquakes, as Kries does.|| It is not impossible, that what has been taken for flames, if not altogether an illusion, was only an appearance of light, produced by the sudden expansion of highly compressed gases, exactly the same as is seen when an air-gun is discharged in the dark. he heating and boiling up of the water in the sea and in lakes, the spouting up of streams of water, as well as the ejection of various substances from fissures in the earth,$ which have oc- oe holes, as rats, mice, reptiles, d&c., commonly quit their abodes shortly before earth- quakes. Crocodiles quit their pools in the Llanos, and remove to the continent, Relat. Hist. t. v, p. 57. Von Humboldt moreover relates that dogs, goats, and particularly hogs, which have a keen smel), and turn up the ground, are suddenly affect » and a great number of these latter animals have been found suffocat during the earthquakes in Peru. i "Von Humboldt, ibid. t. i, p- 484, andt. ii, p. 73. Von Hoff, ibid, t. xii, p. 567, '. xviii, p. 46. See also Philos. Trans. t. xlix, p. 415. ie t Von Humboldt, ibid. Gehler’s Physikal. Worterbuch, new edit., t. iii, p- 804. Also during the earthquake of Lisbon (Philos. Trans. ibid.) and on the isl- and of Matschian, (Hist. de la Conquéte des Molluques, t, iii, p. 318) the bursting forth of flames is reported to have taken place. ¢ Von Humboldt mentions flames which rise from time to time out of two ex- tensive caverns inthe ravine of the Cuchivano. This phenomenon was accom- Panied, during the last great earthquake at Cumana, with a continued hollow subterranean noise. . The flames are more especially to be seen during the rainy Season, | In his prize essay on the causes of earthquakes. Von Hoff 1. ¢. t. xxv; pe 7 xix, p. 421. At the time of the earthquakes, : 73, tx . Which destroyed a part of Italy, (1702-1703,) many rents were formed in the : as thrown up higher than the trees in the neighborhood. Flames and a thick smoke rose from the neighboring hills, which continued three days with Some Mterruptions. Hist. de l’ Acad, an. 1704, p. 10. During the earthquake, 46 . Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. casionally been witnessed, may be satisfactorily explained by the rising of steam and gases, which may have the effect either of heating the water, or of throwing out solid bodies.* The same may be said of the concussions of the earth which take place, sometimes in horizontal undulations, sometimes in vertical shocks, and sometimes with a vibratory motion, backwards and forwards. The latter of these convulsions, called by the Neapolitans, moto vorticoso, is most common during the greatest earthquakes. Von Humboldt has proved, by abundant examples, that the propagation of earthquakes is not confined to any particular rock, but that the most varied formations are equally favorable to it. We infer, therefore, that the seat of earthquakes must be below all known rocks. Although all the rocks may be agitated, yet the manner of extension of the shocks in them is different, ac- cording to their particular quality. The earthquakes, which the 21st October 1766, which totally destroyed the city of Cumana, the earth opened at several places in the province, and vomited sulphureous water. These eruptions were particularly numerous in a plain, which extends towards Casanay o geographical miles eastward of Cariaco, and which is known by the name of the hollow land (tierra hueca) because it seems to be every where undermined by hot springs. Von picereaat il Reise, t. i, p. 482. During the violent ee which in one mi the city of Curaccas, on ‘the 26th March 1813, much water was thrown up through the cracks, that a new stream was fecabal At the same time the ground was also found covered with a fine ae earth, like volcanic ashes, which had been thrown up from fissures inthe neighborhood. The eruptions of volcanic masses were still more considerable during the earthquake consisting of volcanic matter, accumulated so as to form considerable hills, now alled moya. Wide rents were likewise opened es the violent earthquake in the north coasts of South America, last year, in order to give exit to streams of water which rose. It was often observed, that during the earthquakes, water with sand, mud, &c., was thrown up from wells, sometimes to a height of 30 ft. Von Humboldt relates, (Relat. Hist., t. ii, p.287,) that this phenomenon is gen- erally observed during the ution at Cumana. The same thing happened the Ist Nov. 1755 near Colares, (Philos. Trans. t. xlix, p. 416,) and also during the earthquake in Calabria. cn de Phys. Ixii, p. 263.) * Thus, during the above-mentioned ea rihangke on the north coast of South America oa; colu umns of smoke were seen rising out of the sea, a league from the shore, and in a depth of about 210 ft.; and in the night, flames were seen issuing m the same spot, which illuminated all the coasts of the island. After each shock, the sea retired, left the ships which were in the bay aground, and laid bare — the rocks to a great depth; the waves at the same time ran to a height of 16 ft. to 20 ft. During the shocks the earth opened and closed again very rapidly. When 1 ee eee ee ee eee er he ee ee ey ee ee ee ae |e ht ey ee SS le Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. AT have at different periods ravaged Smyrna,* Messina,+ Kings- town in Jamaica 1792, the county of Pignerol 1808,f Cala- bria,|| Talcahuano in Chili,§ &c., have always had a greater effect on diluvium and alluvium, than on rocks. Houses, for in- stance, built on sandy ground, were demolished, while those which stood on rocks were but little damaged. The shocks therefore act less violently and destructively on solid and rocky ground than on loose soil, which is unable to resist, and propa- gates the shock irregularly. In Calabria, where the loose soil occurred lying on granite on the declivity of the hills, the latter threw off the former, which glided down. Lastly, there are also instances of shocks extending irregularly in rocks. Many instances present themselves of earthquakes, which in extending longitudinally, follow the direction of the rocks. This is the case, according to Palassou,** in the Pyrenees. _Remarka- ble instances are presented in the phenomena of the 28th Dec. 1779; the 10th July 1784; the 8th July 1791; the 22d May 18 ¢. The regions situated more to the south, are, how- ever, more affected than the chain itselft+ Earthquakes in” South America seem also to follow the direction of the mountains. Thus, that at Caraccas (1812) followed the direction of the lit- toral Cordilleras from E. N. E. to W. S. W.tt That of Cumana 797, presented an instance of the same fact. The predominant direction of the frequent earthquakes on the coasts of Chih and Peru, is also that of the large chain of the Andes, which is par- allel to the coast.|||| \ All the older reports likewise state, that in these countries their direction is from S. to N., or vice versa ; and rs. Graham remarked, that she felt, during the violent earth- quake in Chili 1822, as if the whole ground from north to south potty bE tranquillity was restored, a whirlpool was observed in the sea, as if the waters Were being swallowed up in an immense gulf. The temperature of the sea in the * Hist. de I’ Acad. des Sciences, an. 1688. Buffon, Hist. Nat. t. i, p. 515. ' Spallanzani, Voyage, t. iv, p. 138. + Journ. de Phys. t. Ixvii, p. 238. I Oryktologische Bemerkungen ber Calabrien &c., 17 § Nautical Magazine, Nos. 49 and 51, March and June 1836. T Berghaus’ Almanack ftir das Jahr 1837, p. 72. ém. pour servir 4 l’Hist. Nat. des Pyren., p. 260. 1 Ibid p. 916, tt Von Humboldt, Rel. Hist. t. v. Ill That at Cumana followed the direction from N. to 8., which is extremely sin- gular, l. cit, t. iv, p. 16. 48. ; Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. were suddenly raised, and then sunk again. Von Hoff* has also related the circumstance, that the shocks of earthquakes are most common in the same direction as that of the basaltic masses themselves, and around a certain distance on either side of the line in which they occur. On the other hand, there are many instances of the countries of Europe having been agitated in all directions, without having been influenced by the mountains. Thus, earthquakes have ex- tended from Upper Italy across the Alps to Switzerland. 'That at London (19th March 1750) followed the direction from W. to E., although the direction of the mountains in Hngland is from Ss. s W.to N.N. E. &c. Sometimes the earthquakes originate from a common centre in a radiating direction on all sides. ‘That of Lisbon, (1755,) that in Calabria (1783,) and that at Lima (1746,) &c., offer instances of this kind. : With deed to the earthquakes in South America, it has been | observed that they occur principally in the mountainous coun- © tries. 'The cause which produces them, seems, as Boussingaultt believes, to be so constantly in operation, that, if all the earth- quakes, which are felt in the inhabited countries of America, could be noted, the earth would be found to quake nearly with- out intermission. These frequent movements of the ground of the Andes, and the slight coincidence between these convulsions and the volcanic eruptions, induce us to adopt the opinion of Boussingault, that the former are, for the most part, independent of the latter. He ascribes the greatest number of the earthquakes in the Andes to the sinking of rocks in the interior, which is a con- sequence of the former elevations of these chains of mountains. In favor of these suppositions, he affirms that these gigantic rocks have been thrown up, not in a doughy, but in a solid and frag- mentary state, but that the consolidation of these fragments of crystalline rocks might not at first have been so firm, as not to admit of some sinking after the elevation. He refers to the Indian tradition which preserves the memory of the sinking of the celebrated mountain of Capac-Urcu, near Riobamba, the name of which signifies the chief, ¢. e. the highest, of all the mountains near the Equator. It is said that the top of this apr: tail * Geschichte der Verinderungen der Erdoberflache, t. il. t Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., t. lviii, p. 83. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 49 mountain has sunk in consequence of a subterranean shock which took place before the discovery of America. At the pres- ent time Capac-Urcu is lower than Chimborazo. Boussingault alludes to many instances, in which it is asserted, that the Cor- dilleras have sunk. Without taking into consideration the infer- ences drawn from barometrical measurements, made by Bous- singault and his predecessors, which seem indeed to confirm that supposition, we will only mention the following circumstances. The French academicians, who, a century ago, were sent to Quito for the purpose of determining the form of the globe, were very much embarassed in their station on Guaguapichincha, by the snow surrounding their signals. Now, for many years, no snow has been found on the summit of this mountain. The in- habitants of Popayan have also remarked, that the inferior limit of the snow covering the Purace is gradually rising, whilst the Inean temperature has remained the same for the last thirty years, whence Boussingault infers, that the Purace is sinking down. That masses thrown up in a state of igneous fusion sink again by degrees, in consequence of their consolidation and contraction, cannot be doubted. But even if their elevation had taken place in a solid state, yet the immense masses of the Andes have risen from depths, where a pretty high temperature prevails. Suppos- ing the Andes to have risen 24,000 feet in height, that part of them which is now at the level of the sea, must have been be- fore the elevation so many thousand feet below it. This part brought, therefore, with itself from beneath, a temperature which Was ‘4°00 —470° F. higher than that which existed at the level of the sea before the elevation. ‘The same holds good of each Patt of the Andes, in any depths, so that every where in erupted Masses the temperature surpassed that of the adjacent rocks by 470° F. Whilst now these masses gradually lost their surplus of heat, they were contracted. But this cooling of these masses ©an, as far as they are within the earth, only be affected by con- duction, therefore a long period will elapse for that purpose. That part of the Andes, which is elevated above the surface of the earth, and is exposed to the atmosphere, will of course cool @ little more quickly. If the bases of the rocks thrown up be at # great depth below the surface, their contraction in consequence of their cooling may be very considerable, and as the elevation Vol. *xxvu, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 7 Mo, BOT. GARDEN ~~ 4910 : 50 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. of the Andes is said to be one of the latest, this cooling and contraction may continue even at the present time in that part which is within the earth. It is therefore possible to conceive that these effects are the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Andes. Besides, there is nothing opposed to the hypothesis, that the powers, whatever they may be, which produced so remarkable a phenomenon as these elevations, may not even now operate ina less degree, and occasion the earthquakes so frequent in the Andes. The later these elevations are supposed to have taken place, the more probable will such a hypothesis be. If further proofs are still necessary to show that the causes of earthquakes are only to be sought in the interior of the earth, we certainly find them in the fact, that these phenomena are totally independent of external circumstances. ‘They take place whether the sky be clouded or serene, in hot as well as in cold weather,* before or after rain, sometimes with rain, and sometimes without it. Even the strength and direction of the wind seem to have no kind of connection with them.t Nor do they seem to be * Many observers allude, indeed, to or of temperature of the atmos+ phere before and after aitthvihinn: but tk of Turin only have actu- . ally made observations on the temperature in the county of Pignerol. (Journ Phys. t. Ixvii, p. 292.) They found that their thermometer always descended as soon as shocks had been felt. Thus they felt a vehement shock in the morn- ing at sired ma ten, on the 10th of April, and their thermometer descended till noon from 26° to 22°. In fact itis to be desired, that farther observations should be made on wehas occasions, in order to confirm or refute the assertion of so re- + The late F. Hoffman in vain endeavored to discover in the Meteorological Journal of the Observatory of P alermo, (which ineluded a series of years fro supposed to have been connected with the ele: SO The same result was ob- tained by Domenico Scina in his memoir on the numerous earthquakes, which, 10 the years 1818 and 1819, caused so much apprehension i in the neighborhood of the Madonian hills —Poggendorff’s Ann. t. xxiv, p. 50 and 60. ‘tn contradiction t0 this are the traditions current in many countries. See among others, Berghau u's Almanack, 1837, p. 97, and following. There seems to be in fact, some truth im the opinion, that eurihiquated are most frequent and vehement at the beginning of rainy weather, and this phenomenon is even ascribed in Jamaica to a locking up of the pores in the erust of the earth by water, which impedes the rising of gases On the other hand, cases have occurred in which earthquakes, were preceded by a long continued drought.—Barham in the Philos. Trans. t. xxx, p. 837, y. 1718 and t. xlix, p. 403; Relat. Hist. t. ii, pp. 273, 281, and t. v, p: 15, and 57; Hans Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 51 confined to any particular season of the year, although it is cer- tainly remarkable, that of fifty-seven earthquakes, which were felt at Palermo during a period of forty years, almost a fourth part happened in the month of March.* Perhaps the best means of ascertaining whether any connection exists between earth- quakes and meteorological phenomena, is the observation of the barometer. But Hoffman was unable to discover anything pe- culiar or extraordinary, either in the relative height of the barom- eter, in the direction of its motion, or in the extent of the oscilla- tion, during the fifty-seven earthquakes above alluded to. The oscillations never went beyond their ordinary limits; indeed, in most cases they were very inconsiderable.t Von Humboldt also says that between the Tropics, on days when the earth is agitated by violent earthquakes, the regularity of the hourly variations of the barometer is not disturbed.t If aqueous vapors and compressed gases are the cause of earth- quakes, there can be no doubt that hot springs and exhalations of Sloane’s Letter with several accounts of the earthquake in Peru, October 20th, 1687, at Jamaica, 10th February, 1688, 7th June, 1692; ibid, y. 1694, p.78; Hist. des Trembl. de Terre, t. ii, p. 442; Collect. of the Massachusetts Hist. Soc., t. v, . 223. * Hoffman, loco cit. p. 52. It is also well known that in other countries, es- pecially in Chili and the Moluccas, the periods of the equinox, for reasons of which We are ignorant, are considered as those most favorable to earthquakes. During the above named period of forty years, this law does not seem to have been appli- cable to the autumnal equinox in that part of Europe. t During the earthquakes the barometer stood decidedly oftener above the mean than under it. However, Hoffman remarks, p. 56, that during the only shock of importance which occurred in this period at Palermo, viz., in March, 1823, the bar- ometer remained the whole month constantly below the monthly mean. : + Reise, t. i, p 487; also Relat. hist. t. iv, 19. Likewise Boussingault in Ann. J academy of Turin, during the earthquakes in the year 1808. state of the barometer was also inv ariable, whilst the shocks at Lisbon, the 9th December, 1755, were very strongly felt at Turin Philos. Trans. ix. The observations made on the island of Meleda. near the coast of Dalmatia, from the 15th November, 1824, to the 28th February, 1826, which likewise prove, that no connection exists between earthquakes and the pressure of the atmosphere, are very important, the shocks felt on this island having been the only ones of their kind as regards length of duration.—Die Detonations-Phinomene auf der Insel Meleda von P. Partsch, Wien, 1826, P- 204, f 52 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. against them.* Indeed, the ancients endeavored to diminish the violence of subterranean explosions by means of wells and excavations. What Pliny, the great Roman naturalist says of the efficacy of these expedients, is repeated by the ignorant inhabitants of Quito, when they point out to the traveller the Guaicos, or clefts of the Pichincha.{ But this is by no means confirmed by ex- ‘perience. Farther reasons in support of the hypothesis which attributed vol- canic phenomena to increased temperature of the interior. However distinct natural philosophers may consider the causes of volcanic action, and those of hot springs, yet the close connec- tion of these two classes of phenomena refers us to one and the same cause. In proportion as satisfactory grounds can be ad- duced in support of any hypothesis, which explains one class of phenomena, so much the more probable does the hypothesis ap- pear when applied to the other class. Though the seat of hot springs be concealed deep in the interior of the earth, and be as little accessible to immediate observation and investigation as volcanic action is; yet we may pursue and examine the phe- nomena of the former on the surface of the earth, and every point — of time selected by the observer for this purpose proves equally favorable. * Hoffman is inclined to ascribe the rarity and weakness of the earthquakes at Sciacca to the numerous exhalations of aqueous vapors, and to the eet number of hot sulphurous springs, which occur in that neighborhood, compar d with other parts of Sicily, that are so often and so terribly visited by these cate en { Von Humboldt, Reise, t. i, p. 491.. In Peru, the earthquakes are less frequent than in Latacunga, w bah 3 is ascribed to the great number of deep hollows which intersect the ground in all directions in the neighborhood of the town. Leon- hard’s Taschenbuch, 1822, p. 917. Von Hoff ales many Soe sree which sev- eral wells in Rome, Naples, and Capua, are said to h or totally parali- zed the effects of earthquakes. But, in my opinion, an undue importance is ascribed to this effect of wells, for it is hardly to be conceived, that the effects a cause, existing so deep in the interior of the earth, should ~~ modified in any considerable degree, by an opening which penetrates the crust of the earth to 8? slight a depth. steam and gases, may act as vents, and thus serve as a protection Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 53 Their wide distribution, the invariableness of their phenom- ena, the evolutions of gases from many of these, present to every attentive observer, matter of investigation and consideration on their origin, duration, and connection with other phenomena. _ If, then, we can succeed in proving that chemical processes can with much less probability be assigned as the cause of their be- ing heated, that on the other hand, the most convincing reason show that. their heat is acquired at the expense of the interior of the earth: then will the hypothesis, which endeavors to explain volcanic phenomena from the same causes, gain no little increased weight. And in fact if hot. springs be heated to such a degree as to attain the boiling point at a certain depth in the earth, we have but one step to make, by supposing this heat increased up to the fusing-point of volcanic stony masses, in order to attribute With equal probability, volcanic phenomena and hot springs to the central part of our earth. I must observe, in the first place, as was formerly remarked, that, by thermal springs, I understand nothing more than springs Whose average temperature exceeds that of the soil at the level at Which they rise. It is therefore indifferent whether this excess consists in 1° or less, or in 50° or more. I can form no other idea of the meaning of the word thermal springs; at least, I do not know what degree of temperature can be laid down as the boundary between cold and thermal springs, unless the distinction Were tobe perfectly arbitrary. Thermal springs (taken in this Sense, ) are very widely distributed over the globe, as I think I have formerly shown. Na , | am convinced that, if we take any district of nearly equal height above the level of the sea, Several of the springs will be found to exceed in average temper- ature that of the soil. An exception to this rule will certainly be found only in those situations where springs arise at the foot of hills more or less high and which have acquired a cooler tem- perature from the higher regions. » like~Professor Daubeny,* we regard chemical processes oing on in the earth as the cause of thermal springs, then must these processes be as universally distributed as the thermal springs. Ose who entertain these views, however, do not surely con- * Report on the present state of our knowledege with respect to mineral and thermal waters. London, 1837. 54 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. ¥ tend, that these processes take place near to the surface, else how could we explain the fact, that, in boring Artesian wells, the greater the depth, from which the water rises, the higher is its temperature. As little explanation could be given of the circum- stance, that springs rising in a small district near one another, often present no inconsiderable difference in their average tem- perature. In proof of the former assertion, I will cite out of many other instances that of the hole bored at Ridersdorf near Berlin, where water at 74°.3 F. was drawn by boring to a depth of 880 feet; and in proof of the latter, the numerous springs in Paderborn, whose temperature varies from 49° to 61°. EF. In the former case, then, these presumed chemical processes must take place far below the depth of 880 feet; in the latter they must be supposed to be going on, either entirely below the situation of the springs at a nearly equal depth, or at various depths beneath each separate spring. In the previous case, their different temperatures would be occasioned by one spring run- ning nearer, the other at a greater distance from, the common source of heat. Daubeny speaks, in general terms only, of chemical processes ; — if we may, however, judge from a note,* he seems to allude to the same processes as those which he assumes as the cause of volcanic phenomena, viz., the oxidation of metals of alkalies and earths by water. We may pause a little to consider these hypothetical chemical processes, as they ought to inform us whence the agent, viz., heat, is derived, which i is the point in question. As the presence of thermal springs is so universal, these met- als must be equally so. This hypothesis, especially in the ex- tent given it by those who maintain it, viz., that the whole nu- cleus of the earth consists of an unoxidized mass, cannot be rec- onciled with the proportionate density of our earth, as I have al- ready shown, Yet, let us admit for a moment the existence of these metals in a more limited proportion. Their oxidation re- quires the access of water; we must, therefore, suppose as many channels to conduct the water from the surface as there are ther- mal springs, or at least groups of thermal springs. Granting all this, the question yet remains to be answered, why the effects of * Report, &c., p. 68 and 69. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 55 these subterraneous oxidations are seen on the surface, in and near volcanos only ; and why not even a trace of such processes can be detected in other places, which yet present innumerable thermal springs? Surely no one will bring forward the scanty evolutions of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from sulphurous waters as proofs of such processes. But, were the conditions necessary for volcanic activity fulfilled by the access of water to the inte- rior in each of these channels, then would the occurrence of vol- canic phenomena be much more frequent on our earth. Or, it _ Must at least be assumed that they were at a former period as universally distributed as thermal springs now are ; and that they have left behind a high temperature in the interior, which warms the Springs, and, as Daubeny also assumes, extricates from the limestones, in the interior, the carbonic acid gas so universally present. ‘That this is occasionally the case, namely that springs do acquire their heat at the expense of. volcanic masses elevate ata distant period, is certainly true, and has probably been of still more frequent occurrence in former times. I have myself already adduced instances of this kind. With the cooling of €se masses, however, the thermal springs dependent on them must of course also cool, and whether this cooling take place in a longer or shorter time, must depend on the greater or less extent of those masses, _ After the preceding remarks, the question remains, whether it be necessary to assume, in explanation of the universal distri- bution of thermal springs, a voleanic activity once so universally distributed ; or whether their existence cannot be both more simply and more satisfactorily explained by an increased tempera- ture in the interior, which is by no means merely hypothetical, but is Supported by innumerable facts. aubeny says,* “That (the supporters of my views) should explain to us why primary rocks, traversed, as they so frequently “re, with fissures of all descriptions, should not in every part o the world, and in every kind of situation, give rise to hot springs, by evolving steam from their interior, and why they never ap- Pear to give issue to that class of thermal waters which I have hoticed in Ischia, as being unaccompanied with gaseous pro- ducts,” * Report, p. 70. 56 , Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. __A spring arising from beneath, leads us to conclude that me- teoric water penetrates through clefts which communicate low down with the former. The experience gained in boring arte- san wells, shows that a succession of strata is most favorable for such processes, and from causes easily explained. In what are - ealled primary rocks, however, no such alteration of strata is found, because they are not stratified. The usual occurrence, viz., the flowing of meteoric water down inclined surfaces of stratification which appear at elevated situations, and the rising of this water, by means of natural or artificial channels, after having been forced down toa more or less considerable depth, cannot then happen in unstratified rocks. It appears, nevertheless, that there are granitic rocks traversed by clefts more or less perpen- dicular, and communicating low down. Thus at Aberdeen, in Scotland, water has been drawn by boring in granite 180 feet be- low the surface, which, according to Robison, came from a cleft filled with sand and gravel, and rises six feet above the level of the earth.* Such a communication of the clefts low down, must, ‘however, occur but rarely. If the primary mountain rises above its environs and the clefts at its base lie exposed, then will the springs flow out of the clefts. Such an origin of springs, which are not naturally ris- ing springs, is often observed at the foot of basaltic and trachytie cones, &c. On the other hand, on the limits between stratified and un- stratified rocks, where the latter have traversed the former, and where channels extending to a great depth have been formed in _consequence of the contraction of the traversed masses during their cooling, circumstances favorable to these rising springs eX- ist, and it is easy to conceive, therefore, that thermal springs may be found on the limits of these interrupted masses, but not in their interior. Let us imagine a stratified chain of mountains consisting of several formations in a perfectly horizontal position, whose new~ est portion (jiingstes Glied) is much fissured, and under which an impervious stratum lies, then the meteoric water will penetrate the former fissured stratum, but be retained by the latter. AS long as this horizontal position remains undisturbed, no rising ————— * Compt. Rend. 183 No. 24, p. 575, and t. ii, No. 20, p. 583. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 57 Springs can be supposed to exist in the whole of this district, and — the inhabitants of such mountains could only supply their want of water by wells (Senkbrunnen.) We will now suppose, that at two points of this district, voleanic masses are thrown up, and that, in consequence, a partial elevation of the strata takes place, as is shown in the diagram, fig. 1. In this case, the hydrographic relations undergo considerable alterations. The consequence will be not only a movement of the water on the impervious Stratum, in the direction of its inclination, but meteoric water will also penetrate at A between the older strata, where, during their undisturbed horizontal position, not a drop of water could penetrate, and this water will continue to flow in the direction of the inclination of the elevated strata.* At B, where these strata Fig. 1. are also elevated, but to a lower level, springs will commence ris- Ing ; and as many of such springs may be supposed to exist In a district, as there are alternations of impervious and pervious strata in these mountains. The most copious springs, however, will be fonnd between the mass that has been broken through, and the oldest formation of the stratified mountain, because here, in con- Sequence of the contraction of the former mass during its cooling, 4 cleft has been formed, which receives the meteoric water flow- ing down on that side of the elevated mountain C, which lies ext to the raised strata. The meteoric water which flows down through the newest fissured stratum, will now as little give ori- 810 to rising springs as during its earlier horizontal position. If, now, after the period of this elevation, a stratum of a new forma- "on should cecur, covering the extremities of the older raised a Se Sa ea a ee tied ine ae ee peel ee een oR noe * The same holds good with regard to the springs of fresh water. Thus on the : isch Alp springs are always found there where cones of basalt or basal- Uc tufa have been elevated on the jura-formation, Plieninger in Poggendorfi’s Annal. t. x1, p 493 Vol. *xivit, No. l.—July, 1839, bis. 8 58 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. strata, and extending from B to D, and if, lastly, the new forma- tion contain impervious strata, then the conditions will undergo achange. The meteoric water, which penetrates at A, between each separate portion, will now all issue in the form of rising springs at B, between the elevated mountain and the new strat- ified formation which lies at its side. Should any obstacle here present itself to its exit, the water will even take a retrograde course B D, and issue at D, in which case the water between the last formed horizoutal stratum and the impervious stratum lying under the newest raised ones will unite with it. We will not, however, enter into farther particulars, as many circumstances may be supposed to exist which modify the course of the springs} and still more complicated relations naturally arise, when, after the deposition of the latest formed stratum, the elevation and raising are repeated. It will be sufficient to have called atten- tion to the circumstance, that rising springs can exist ouly when the originally horizontal position of the stratified formations has been destroyed by elevations; and that the most copious springs, and those which arise from the greatest depths are found precisely at the limits between the elevated masses and the raised strata. Numerous instances can be cited in proof of this assertion. The Pyrenées and Alps, present very characteristic cireumstan- ces. ‘Thus Pallasou* shows, that not only are the majority of the hot springs in the Pyrenées, situated in the great granitic district at the eastern side, but also, that all the others issue only from hollows of the newer formations, where the granite rises from beneath, at the foot of the declivities. He shows also, that evet the degree of temperature of these springs depends on the greater or less exposure of their source; for the thermal springs neater the principal granitic mass are warmer, while those more remote are colder. Professor Forbes has likewise pointed out, in an interesting memoir on the temperatures and geological relations of certail hot springs, particularly those of the Pyrenées,+ that, in the departments of the Arriége and the Pyrenées Orientales, whet granite formations preponderate, in almost every case which he | aris See * Mem. pour servir 4 I'Hist. Natur. des Pyrenées, 1815, p. 435, 459. t Philos. Transact. for 1836, p. 575 Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. 59 has examined, if springs rise in granite, it is just at the bound- ary of that formation with a stratified rock. Ina great many cases it happens, that part of the springs rise from granite, and part from the slate or limestone in contact with it; and, he cor- rectly observes, a more striking instance of the immediate con- nexion between thermal waters and disturbed strata could not be desired.* According to the observations of several geologists, the tertiary rocks in the Pyrenées extend horizontally to the foot of this chain, without entering, as the chalk, into the composition of any part of its mass. Elie de Beaumont thence infers that the Pyrenées received their position, relatively to the neighboring parts of the earth’s surface, between the period of the deposition of green sand and that of chalk (a formation, whose raised strata, according to Dufrénoy’s observations, ascend to the crest of this chain,) and before the deposition of the tertiary strata of various ages.t| We can very well explain, according to this supposition, why the springs in the Pyrenées issue between the elevated gran- ite and the raised strata of slate and limestone. The circum- Stance above quoted from Pallasou, viz., that the temperature of Springs becomes lower, in proportion to their distance from the principal granite-mass, may perhaps be of little importance, since, according to the remark of Forbes, cold sulphureous springs are to be found, even within not many yards of others, having a high temperature, and almost an identical mineral composition. Of this he has met with two examples in very different parts of the chain, one at the Eaux Bonnes, where a perfectly cold spring rises within two hundred yards of the principal hot spring of the Place, has similar medicinal properties, and is even more strongly iMpregnated with sulphur. The other example occurs at Las Escaldas, on the southern declivity of the Eastern Pyrences, Where a most efficacious cold sulphureous spring rises within about one hundred yards of a hot one. When, Forbes contin- ues, to these facts we add others scarcely less curious, of springs of totally different mineral composition issuing from nearly the IP Suscmmng oe ee Collin telerel _" At St Saureur and Thuez, we have the co-ordinate, and, as Forbes p. 602, nightly thinks, connected phenomena of intrusive rocks, dislocations or fissures, metalliferous impregnation, and hot springs. ' See Poggendorif’s Annalen, t. xxv, p. 26, also p. 58. Se = ee ee ee 60 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. ‘same spot, and with temperatures from 160° to 180° Fahr., as we see at Arand at Thuez, we are forced to conclude that the source of mineralization must be independent, to a great extent, of that high temperature, and that the arguments, as to the origin of thermal springs founded upon their chemical composition, must be to a certain degree fallacious. The origin of the sulphureous waters in the Pyrenées can scarcely be sought for in the granite, since no substances are con- tained in it which can be supposed to produce such springs. If such springs are formed by the decomposition of sulphates by means of substances containing carbon, it is very probable,* then we must look for the origin of the Pyrenean sulphureous waters in the secondary formations, perhaps in some coal stratum, or even possibly in the tertiary formations. This inference holds, even if the sulphureous springs are formed in a manner opposite to this view. If, now, the origin of the springs in question, in other words, if the materials necessary for their formation be present in one of the newer parts of the secondary formations, then warm or cold sulphureous springs will result, according as warm or cold water penetrates to this point. The granite plays, then, no other part here, than that of rendering possible the de- scent of meteoric water to great depths, and its re-ascent in con- sequence of the raising of the strata effected by the granite, which circumstance causes the heating of these waters. In this point, I think both theories agree ; viz., that which at- tributes the heat of springs to chemical processes, and that which refers its origin to central heat : for those who hold the former opin- ion will doubtless not assign the stratified formations as the seat of these chemical actions, but the granite, or the parts beneath it. According to both theories, then, the meteoric water will be- come warmer in proportion as it approaches nearer to the source of heat, which can be sought for only at great depths. As the subterraneous course of springs is subjected to many kinds of local impediments, so veins of springs of similar origit may flow out at points very remote one from another; and, vice by volcanic fire. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 61 versa, veins of very dissimilar local origin may issue very near one another. Nothing is therefore easier to conceive, than that any stratum in which the materials requisite for the forma- tion of sulphureous springs at present, may be traversed by Springs arising from very various depths, and therefore possess- ing very unusual temperatures, which circumstance would give rise to springs of similar chemical composition, but dissimilar temperature. Forbes* remarks that the hot springs at Baden-Baden, on the border of the Schwarlzwald, have a position almost identical With that which we have so invariably remarked in the Pyre- nées. They occur just where the slate rocks have been violently upraised by a curious granitoidal porphyry, which forms the pic- turesque elevations near the Alte Schloss, and which passes formably. The elevation is among the older of M. Elie de Beaumont’s systems: he expressly states that the Gres bigarré is undisturbed. Relative to the thermal springs in the Pennine Alps, Bake- Wellt remarks, that, according to his observations, the exits of all of them lie partly in the primitive mountains of the central chain self; partly, and indeed most frequently, at their extremities, at the boundary between the primitive mountains and the second- ary formations. According to the beautiful investigations of De Beaumont, two different systems are to be distinguished in the Alps, viz., that of the Western Alps, and that of the principal chain from the Valais to Austria, Mont Blanc lies at the point of intersection of these two systems, which here meet at an angle of 45°-50° ; also Leuk. The period of elevation of these two systems falls Somewhat late. That of the strata belonging to the first system took place after the deposition of the newest tertiary formations of these regions, and that of the strata belonging to the second ‘ystem between the deposition of the earlier diluvium (des iiltes- fen aufeeschwemmten Landes) and the flowing of the diluvial Streams, and at the time of the transport of the erratic Alpine Tocks The most favorable conditions for the origin of thermal - Springs evidently exist when the upraising, caused by the masses ee ee ee *L.c., p. 609. t Philos, Magazine, January, 1828, p. 14. & 62 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. thrown up, extends to the newest formations. Therefore we are justified, under these circumstances, in expecting to find many thermal springs in this district, and especially at those points where two different systems of elevation have intersected each other at different periods, and admitted the meteoric water to penetrate to the interior. The thermal springs in the Pennine Alps are found partly in the direction of the principal chain of the Alps, partly, and more abundautly, in the points of intersec- tion of this system with that of the Western Alps, and in this last system. Thus at Naters in the Upper Valais, (86° Fahr. ;) at Leuk (115°-124° ;) in the valley of Bagnes at Lavey, south- east of Ber (113°;) Saute de Pucelle, between Moutiers and St. Maurice, in Chamouni; St. Gervaise on Mont Blanc (949= 98° ;) Courmayeur and St. Didier, on the southern declivity of Mont Blanc (93°;) Aix les Bains in Savoy (112°-117°,) with numerous hot springs in the neighborhood; Moutiers in the Ta- rentaise, Brida in Tarentaise, and some at Grenoble. It certainly deserves particular notice, that at one point of in- tersection (Mont Blanc) so many, and at the other (Leuk) the warmest springsare met with. Moreover, many thousand springs present themselves, some in the glacier streams, some under the glaciers themselves, and some may be stopped up. ‘Thus, most of the above mentioned thermal springs have been discovered only since Saussure’s journeys; a few very lately, such as that at Lavey in the bed of Rhone in 1831; and others again have become filled up. Among those which occur in the continuation of the principal Alpine chain, I will mention only the two most celebrated, Pfef- ers and Gr'astein. They are distinguished by their very small proportion of solid and volatile ingredients. In fact they are scarcely any thing more than warm glacier-water.* It seems to me that these thermal springs, and probably many others also in the Alps, reserable exactly those in Ischia, which Daubeny sup- poses to be purely the result of the infiltration of water to spots in the interior of the earth retaining a high temperature, with this difference only, that these spots lie somewhat deeper in the * Of the thermal water of Gastein, 10,000 parts contain only 3.5 solid matter the same quantity of water from the Liittschine, which flows immediately out under the glacier, contains only one, and that from the Jar at Bern only, 2.2. ‘Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 63 Alps than at Ischia, where the hot masses approach nearer to the surface in consequence of volcanic activity. In regions where, after the earlier general elevations, later partial fractures and elevations have been produced by volcanic action, remarkable phenomena also present themselves, with re- gard to the existence of thermal springs; as for instance, in Au- vergne, and in the vicinity of the Laacher See. In regard to the former, it is worthy of remark, that the baths of Mont-Dore are situated almost at the geographical centre of that group of hills, and also at the position of greatest disloca- tion; two of the centres of elevation, which Elie de Beaumont and Dufrénoy have pointed out, being found on one side, and one on the other, The springs issue immediately from trachyte, which is most remarkabl y and beautifully columnar just at the baths. These column have an extremely slaty cleavage perpen- dicular to their axes.* Although the clay-slate rocks in the dis- trict of the Laacher See are very massive, and so far unfavorable to the penetration of meteoric water to great depths, yet the number of mineral springs here is very considerable. They be- long, in general, to the class of thermal springs, although their temperature is for the most part but little (often only 19.5) above the mean of the soil. The strata of these rocks are raised, and thereby produce a descent of the meteoric water to deeper points; nevertheless, springs of this kind are very rare, where no vol- canic masses have been broken through. In these rocks slate- Surfaces (Schieferungs Flachen) are often found, which do not Colucide with the direction of the strata, but intersect them at an acute angle. These slate-surfaces give origin here and there to mineral springs, and.a copious disengagement of carbonic acid gas. By far the greater number of the mineral springs take their rise in Valleys more or less deeply hollowed, on both sides of whose de- Clivities, conical volcanic rocks, chiefly of a basaltic nature, have broken through. Some of them rise immediately from the clay- Slate rocks, frequently from the cleavage surfaces which separate the strata of clay-slate and greywacke, and some come from vol- Canic masses (trass and volcanic ashes) which cover these rocks. The circumstance that these mineral springs seldom, perhaps ee necag ie yf * Forbes, loco cit, p. 607. 4 64 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. never, flow out at the boundary between the erupted masses and the fundamental rocks, gives us an indication where to seek their origin. If the strata of the fundamental rocks, A, A, Fig. 2, are : Fig. 2. inclined from the erupted volcanic mass RB, then a cleft will be formed to a great depth in the interior of the earth at the boun- dary between this cone and the fundamental rocks, in conse- quence of the contraction of the former during its cooling. Down this cleft the meteoric water penetrates and meets the streams of carbonic acid gas developed in the interior. ‘This latter is ab- sorbed by the water, owing to the strong hydrostatic pressure exerted at so greata depth. This forms a water impregnated with carbonic acid, which effects a decomposition and solution of the stone, and hence arises an acidulous spring, rich in car- bonie acid and carbonates. The deeper the meteoric water pen- etrates, the warmer it becomes. Rising springs of water are then produced in this cleft, through which the concentrated min- eral water formed beneath at ¢, rises to 6. If here the direction of the slaty or stratified surface (Schieferungs oder Schichtungs Flache) leads down to d, which either has an immediate exit in the section of the valley abe, or runs at a slight depth below the surface, then the mineral spring will issue, owing to the pressnre of the column of water ab. While the rising streams of warm water take the course céd, the originally concentrated mineral water becomes diluted by the fresh water flowing down from above ; the carbonic acid gas, absorbed in great quantity beneath, is gradually disengaged as the water rises, and consequently the hydrostatic pressure is diminished, and thus free carbonic acid gas is evolved at d with the acidulous spring. It 1s clear, that the carbonic acid gas, which is constantly disengaged from the rising water during its whole course, not only moves on with the water on the surface of the stratum 6d, but fills all the intervals ‘a * Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 65 of the clefts in the whole clay-slate rocks so that the gas will be evolved wherever these clefts are open at the surface. If these fissures open above the bottom of the valley, and therefore are | not filled with water, at least not up to the opening, then the gas = will escape from them with a hissing noise. If, on the other hand, they open from beneath the bottom of the valley, and are 3 therefore filled with water, then the gas will escape bubbling ; | through the water, and present entirely the appearance of a min- 3 eral spring. If, lastly, these fissures be covered by alluvium, 3 which, hevertheless, does not form an air-tight covering, then the gas will escape silently from the ground, and such places are recognized from the seanty vegetation which exists there. I = know but one of the first description of fissures in that district, 2 which is found close to the first mineral spring, called Fehlenbor, in the valley of Burgbrohl, between Ténnisstcin and Burgbrohl. uch a fissure is also found in the Lifel, in the Brudeldreis, as it is called, not far from Biresborn. Fissures filled with water, from which gas is evolved, are tolerably numerous, as, for exam- ple in the valley of Burgbrohl. I formerly considered these Spots (which are~constantly met with in the vicinity of the - brooks, and consist of little basins filled with water) to be actual mineral springs. If, however, the basin be emptied out, or the Water drained off, it is at once perceived that no water springs up, but that merely an escape of gas takes place. I have had an op- Portunity of causing such gas-springs to be enclosed, and found e disengagement of carbonic acid gas to be extremely copious.* F issures, covered by accumulated earth, are very frequently met With. If such a place presents a slight excavation, in which the 888 collects, suffocated animals, as birds, mice, frogs, &c., are Commonly found in it. As Springs run in the most different directions between the Surfaces of strata, and through the fissures of the strata, so also do these disengaged gases. I have often had occasion to cause ©Xcavations to be made, in places where a scanty vegetation rendered the disengagement of carbonic acid gas at some depth Probable. Fissures were often met with in the trass, out of which rose abundant streams of this gas. Sometimes natural canals € trass were found under a covering of Spharosiderit, which Fe lta ig ci cere der Chemie et Phys. t. lvi, p. 129. 1829.) ol, xxiv, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 9 OG . Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. could be pursued from ten to twenty feet in a horizontal diree- tion, or nearly so, and which doubtless were prolonged still far- ther. If the carbonic acid gas arises from below with considerable elasticity, and the cleft contracts very much from 6 to e¢, then it may easily hapyen that the meteoric water may penetrate but little below 6. In this case, the column of water a b, will be as it were supported by the column of gas,+ and at the point of con- tact, a constant absorption of the gas will be going on. In this manner, probably, are those mineral springs formed, which abound in carbonic acid gas, but contain very little solid matter, and whose average temperature exceeds but little that of the neighboring wells. It must frequently be the case, moreover, that many springs which rise from a greater depth, and there- fore are originally warm, become cooled by mixture with cooler springs. The warmest of the mineral springs in the environs of the Laacher See exceed the mean temperature of the ground by 7° to 10° Fahrenheit. What is worthy of remark is, that they rise from the deepest spots of the valley, where, therefore, their sub- terraneous channels are proportionably deepest under the rock, — and possess already a relatively higher temperature. On pursuing the mineral springs up the valley, we find that their temperature decreases in a somewhat regular ratio.t The proportionably small number of clefts in the clay-slate rocks may certainly account for the circumstance, that, in the Laacher Nee, the Eifel, and the Taunus, so few springs of con- siderable high temperature occur, though the channels of the cat- bonic acid gas lead down to such great depths, probably to points where a red heat exists. Such warm springs may perhaps owé their existence to the favorable circumstance of a cleavage surface, which intersects the strata at an obtuse angle, leading up from the cleft between the volcanic cone and the clay-slate rock, and open- ing at a valley, ascd. Perhaps the warm springs at Bertrich * Neues Jahrbuch de Chem. et Phys. t. viii, p. 423, year 1833. + The rising and falling of the periodic spring of the salt-work at Kissingen, is doubtless a ke ae a of the elasticity of carbonic acid gas. See Poggendarif's Ann. t xl, p. t Soin the sed of Taunus mountains, the warm springs rise deep in the valley, . the cold acidulous springs on the heights. re enw dP : * Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 67 and Hms, which rise in deeply hollowed valleys in clay-slate rocks, are thus produced. We may also easily conceive the possibility of obtaining a thermal spring by boring. A slight glance at the figure will show that a hole bored into a clay-slate rock in a valley, in the vicinity of a voleanic cone, will probably give exit to a thermal spring, if the borer reach the surface of a stratum ora slate surface com- municating with the cleft between the volcanic and the clay- slate rock. A successful attempt of this kind was actually made a few years ago, by boring into the clay-slate rock at the foot of the basaltic hill, the Landskrone in the Ahr valley, about three German miles north of the Laacher See, when a copious mineral was obtained of the temperature of 58° F., affording consider- able disengagement of carbonic acid gas. Indications prognosti- cating a favorable result of this undertaking were indeed ent, inasmuch as a mineral spring already existed at the distance of but a few steps from the spot.* Phenomena, perfectly resembling those which are observed where volcanic masses have actually broken through, present themselves very frequently. A cleavage, reaching to great depths, may also be a consequence of a preceding elevation and fracture of the component strata, without an actual breaking through having taken place. These phenomena are found in formations of all ages. Thus Hoffmannt has pointed out, in the north- West of Germany, some peculiar valleys which, originally per- fectly closed, are surrounded on all sides by a precipitous escarp- Ment, whose component strata incline from the centre downward, Mevery direction. He has given to these valleys the name of cn ; known hot springs of the temperature of 75° to 131°. F. at Ems, é level, and since an acidulous spring already exists there, the poosrbility, of i Cess of this undertaking is as little to be despaired of, as a favorable result can be Promised. Leop. von Buch’s remarks on this subject in Néggeraths Ausflug nach huen. Bonn. 1838, p.5. The instance of the salt work of Nauenheim, near 68. Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. _ valleys of elevation. 'The most remarkable of these, are those of Pyrmont, Meinberg, and Driburg, where the well-known chalybeate springs rise, accompanied by a considerable disen- gagement of carbonic acid gas. Pyrmont and Meinberg lie precisely at those places where the directions of the northeastern system of mountains and of that of the Rhine intersect. Here, therefore, we find also a considerable disengagement of carbonic acid gas; yet no volcanic masses which have broken through; but only the secondary strata of shell limestone, of keuper and variegated sandstone, raised up and fractured. ‘The mineral springs are of another kind, and the alkaline carbonates are wanting, while sulphates and metallic chlorides supply their place. We may easily explain this by the absence of rocks con- taining alkalies; for instance, basalt or any other volcanic rocks. The clefts produced by these fractures reach certainly to great depths ; carbonic acid gas may be evolved from them, but its elasticity seems to prevent the penetration of meteoric water. The mean temperature of the mineral springs there, exceeds, therefore, but little that of the place of their occurrence. This is especially the case with the mineral springs at Meinberg, whose considerable annual variations of temperature prove that they take their origin very near the surface. The considerable — elasticity with which the carbonic acid gas escapes, and which is greater than I have observed at any place where gas is evolved, prevents, no doubt, the deep penetration of meteoric water. More- over, we may remark, that the inclination of the strata, from the centre downwards in every direction, carries the meteoric water away from the seat of the evolution of the carbonic acid gas. Even supposing, then, that the water could penetrate to the depth of the channels of carbonic acid, it would not rise, owing to the Fig. 3 absence of the pressure of a column of water. The section - the valley of elevation of Pyrmont, taken from Hoffmann’ work, Fig. 3, distinctly shows the inclination of the seen cd, ef, gh, ik, lm, from the centre downwards. Natural History of Voleanos and Earthquakes. ; ¢ fs It is possible that the raising and fracture of the secondary strata in such valleys of elevation, was the consequence of the elevation of voleanic masses from beneath, which masses have not appeared at the surface. Supposing this to be the case, we can easily imagine that at such places, mineral springs may be produced which contain carbonates of alkalies, because the Meteoric water only can penetrate to these masses. But the low temperature of the acidulous springs in question, shows that meteoric water penetrates to very small depths only at these col es. 2 oe | Valleys of elevation of the kind described, seem to be of tole = | erably frequent occurrence; thermal springs and disengagements of carbonic acid gas are not, however, always met with, either for want of sufficient depth of the clefts, or for want of mate- rials which give rise to the disengagement of carbonic acid gas. La Instances of three of such valleys at the eastern end of the ba- sin of London, are given by Buckland.* See also his and Con- } ybeare’s+ description of the structure of the country at St. Vin- 4 a cent’s rocks; and the example at Matlock long ago pointed out . by Whitehurst.{ Many other instances of this kind occur im Danbeny’s report. | Stifft$ also has long ago shown, that the Tocks in the neighborhood of the mineral springs of the Nassau territory manifest evident changes in the direction and inclination of their Strata, especially saddle-shaped elevations, often accom- Panied with fractures, _ Finally, dislocations or faults produced by elevations and intersecting stratified rocks, may direct the subterranean course of springs in a very different manner. Buckland has given Many instances of springs originating from causes of this kind. ' We take a summary view of all that has been said on’ the Subject of thermal springs, we. shall find it impossible to avoid Feeognizing a relation between elevations of Plutonic masses, the Upraising of Neptunian formations, and thermal springs. Cause and effect have, however, been frequently confounded here. Thermal and mineral springs are seldom, perhaps never, the cause of those effects, Where, however, these effects are observed, ® % Geological Transact. sec. ser. vol: ii, parti, p- 119. t Ibid, vol. i, t Theory of the Earth, 1786. || P. 66. : Rullmann Wiesbaden, &c. 1823, p. 103. 2 Geology and Mineralogy, &c, London, 1836, Vol. ii, p. 106 and 110, 70 = Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. _ where, in consequence, the penetration of meteoric water into the interior of our earth has been rendered possible, and where natural hydraulic tubes have been formed by the upraising of strata, there the phenomena of thermal and mineral springs were the consequence. We should transgress our limits, were we here to pursue the subject of thermal springs in their chemical relations, since the general aim of these remarks is to show that their degree of heat depends on the greater or less depth of their origin, consequently wholly and solely on central heat. The following remarks, how- ever, upon their chemical constitution, may perhaps not be en- tirely superfluous The chemical ingredients of those springs which take their origin at the boundary between volcanic and Neptunian forma- tions, are derived in some springs from the former, in others from the latter formations, in others again from both. e following conjecture is probable. If considerable quantities of carbonic- acid gas are disengaged from the interior, which are absorbed under strong hydrostatic pressure by the water, and thus act on the voleanic stone, decompositions ensue. The alkalies which are found in all stony masses of igneous origin, are extracted by the carbonic acid, and taken up by the water as carbonate of al- kalies, and especially carbonate of soda. In’the same manner are formed the bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, and of protoxide of iron. Metallic chlorides and sulphates may perhaps be less frequently derived from voleanic matter, and more so from the _ Neptunian formations. In this matter probably, are formed the great number of springs, which rise in the neighborhood of basal- tic hills. Where there is no disengagement of carbonic acid gas from the interior, no such mineral springs are found; at least we cannot assume that in this case the volcanic rock contribtites any thing essential to the constituents of the springs. 'Thus, prob- ably, neither in the Pyrenées nor Alps do the springs take up any thing essential from these rocks. The circumstance, that springs of very various chemical composition arise in the vicinity of the granite of different mountains, might here serves as an indirect proof. At the same time, the nearly similar composition of the springs occurring in the neighborhood of the basaltic cones, where carbonic acid gas is disengaged, however different may Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 71 be the Neptunian formations, is an argument in favor of these — springs deriving their ingredients principally from the basalt. _ The organic matter found in such abundance in the sulphure- ous springs of the Pyrenées (baregine, glairine, animal matter) proves, that their chemical constituents must be derived, at least in part, from the Neptunian formations. Since no carbonic acid escapes from the rocks there, the granite in the interior may, in- deed, suffer but slight decompositions. The formation of the sul- phureous springs there, probably by the decomposition of sul- phates by organic matter, is certainly much favored by the high temperature of these springs; and this again is a consequence of the great depth to which the clefts extend in the strata, which are piled up one on another in considerable masses, and partly raised up, With many strata-surfaces between them. The coin- cidence of various circumstances may thus produce one class of thermal springs in preference to another. : In the Alps, where, on account of the absence of escapes of carbonic acid gas, decompasition of the granite and other vol- canic rocks does not take place, and where even the Neptunian formations contain few soluble substances, we find thermal springs, which are scarcely any thing more than ordinary warm Water, On the other hand, we see thermal springs issuing, to all ap- Peatance, from erupted masses, which springs contain ingredients *pparently peculiar to those which can be proved to issue from Neptunian formations. This is, for instance the case with the Salt-spring, which rises at Kreuznach out of porphyry. This Tock is but little fissured, and yet the high temperature of the “rings, 58° to 83°, indicates a deep origin. Since the porphyry has penetrated the variegated sandstone, the latter, and also the shelly limestone, lie in close contact with the springs, so that this Voleani¢e rock has no other share in the formation of these springs, an the production of deep clefts between itself and the Neptu- nian formations, which have permitted meteoric water to penetrate Into the strata containing the salts. We must not pass over one *ireumstance, which induces us to attribute to these saline springs * totally distinct origin, viz., that sulphate of lime, which other- Wise so generally accompanies the common salt, is here entirely absent, and that these springs are remarkable for their abundance of bromine and iodine. Ree Ree ORS © ent 72 ; _ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. so sails escapes of steam (fumaroles) show themselves in regions (Tuscany for example) where hot masses have approached the surface of the earth by volcanic activity, one might perhaps be induced to expect evolutions of steam from clefts penetrating deep into the interior. It must, however, be observed, that between these two cases a wide difference exists. In regions where vol- canic action still manifests itself, clefts can with ease extend in masses which are of a boiling heat or even hotter. Meteori¢ water penetrating these clefts will be converted into vapor and exhaled. Were, however, such a phenomenon to show itself in regions where the increase of temperature follows the progres- sion, which we have found it to do in accessible depths, then must stich clefts extend perpendicularly to a depth of about 8280 feet in our country. But are any rocks, even the unstratified masses, traversed by continuous clefts of so great a depth? In granite the prismatic separation is very frequent. The columnar structure is most distinct in basalt, aphanite, and all dense and homogeneous rocks. The columbs are sometimes traversed and disjointed by traverse clefts. ‘The surfaces of separation (Ab-_ sonderungs F'lachen) in the smaller masses, always lie perpen- dicularly on the adjacent ones, as do also the columns, when present. Let us assume that such a jointed separation extends to the requisite depth, and that meteoric water penetrates so far, and then it will certainly rise converted into steam; when, how- ever, it attains the higher colder regions, it will bécties condenagl again, and resume the same course or circulation. Since the voleanic masses, when thrown up, form, generally; the greatest heights, we must look in them for the compressing columns of water, which render the rising of the springs possi- ble. The possibility of such a case is conceivable, when the surface of the unstratified rock is inclined in one or more direc tions, and the columnar separations are jointed by transverse clefts. It is, however, even then, possible only when the trans verse clefts have no continuation outwards, for in this case the water will take a side course, and either issue on the slope of the rocks as springs, or, if raised strata exist, it will take the cours? designated in the preceding remarks. These two last cases see™ to be the most usual, as the circumstances above explained, prov® viz., that thermal springs most frequently present themselves be tween the unstratified and stratified rocks. I have imagined thé ere lL Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. , we last case, in order to exhibit the possibility of hot springs rising in the Alps, when water descends from great heights to the interior of the rocks, flows through warmer strata of earth, and then makes its exit in the valleys. It is clear that such springs merely flow from above downwards, when the raised strata make their appearance externally, but that they will, on the other hand, rise again, if the strata are upraised in the form of a trough on the Opposite side. Phenomena lately observed, may perhaps present cases, where the effect of the internal heat of the earth nearly approaches the surface. Marcel de Serres,* for instance, describes a cave near Montpellier, situated in the Jura limestone, in which, at depths of 135 and 150 feet, a constant temperature of 72°.5 F. prevails, Which exceeds by 10° the mean temperature of Montpellier (62°.5.) He shows that no accidental circumstance, such as de- Compositions, the burning of tapers, or the respiration of those Who visit the cave, can be the case of this phenomenon; but believes it is to be songht for in: the central heat, which rises through clefts and affects one point more, another adjacent one less, Thus, at the distance of about 1200 feet from this cave is found a cleft in the same formation, from which issue watery va- pors, whose temperature, 73°.5 (that of the external air being 529-549. 5, ) is nearly the same as of an artesian well close in the Vicinity of the cave (70°.-72°.) These vapors, which probably rise from thermal springs existing beneath, are constantly disen- aged, and maintain a temperature of 73°.5, though in constant Contact with the external air. The cleft from which they issue, communicates with other wider clefts, which expand into caves, into which the inhabitants of the estate of Astier have already Penetrated. The laborers on this estate are in the habit of warming themselves pretty frequently in the hole where these Vapors are formed. On examinations, this vapor has all the Purity of distilled water. At an earlier period there existed, at the distance of 150 to 180 feet N.B. of the grotto of Astier, an- other opening from which an equally warm vapor was evolved, Which could be perceived at some distance off. This opening » however, been since filled up. ‘This constant vaporization of water, in the middle of the same rock in which the cave BE cee * Des Cavernes chaudes des environs de Montpellier in Annal. de Chim. et de Phys, t. Ixv, : Vol. *xxvu1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 10 74 ‘ Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. is found, shows pretty evidently the cause of the warmth in the w latter. It is scarcely to be doubted, but that, on closer investigation, the phenomenon of local heat in caves in the limestone rocks, which are fissured to such great depths, would be found to be of more frequent occurrence. The spring of the Orbe in the Jura mountain, formerly mentioned, which is nothing more than the discharge of the lakes situated 680 feet higher in the valley of the Joux, proves among others, to what a depth the clefts in the limestone rocks descend The whole ridge of the chalk hill of the Teutoburger Wald near Paderborn, is fissured to depths exceeding 800 feet, so that, on this whole ridge, either no springs at all, or but a few very scanty ones, are met with, which probably owe their existence to partial beds of mar] in the chalk rocks. In three villages which lie on this ridge, there is but one well 80 feet deep. On account of this almost total want of water, these are called the “ Dry Villages.” The cleavage continues in the valleys, which traverse these hills, consequently the brooks and rivers which flow through them gradually sink and flow out of the open- ings of these valleys only in the wet season of the year. At the foot of these chalk hills on the other hand, where the fissured limestone is covered by a stratum of marl, a very great number of copious springs issue, several of which form considerable riv- ers, as the Lippe, Pader, Heder, &c., immediately after theif exit. The cleavage of the chalk rocks is doubtless continued in the Quader Sandstein, which lie below and probably is lim- ited by the lias (gryphitenkalk) and veriegated marl, which fol- low immediately below the green sand, and which are remark- able for their large strata of clay marl (thonmergel,) that are impermeable, unless broken or dislocated by elevations. This whole chain of hills, then, from the clay-marl strata to the level of the springs which issue on the western declivity of the Tet toburzer Wald, is, therefore, saturated with water like a sponge Not merely geognostical reasons, but also physical relations, fur nish incontestible proofs of the existence of these considerable subterraneous reservoirs of water. For instance, while the water of the above-mentioned sinking brooks and rivers penetrates into the interior of the hills with the variable temperature of the sea sons, the waters of the numerous springs of Paderborn, whose ee |. a Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 75 mean temperatute is 50°.6 F, and exceeds the mean temperature — of the soil by about 1°.7, present already a uniform degree of heat. Thus, on the 21st May, 1834, I found the temperature of the Alme at Brenken, where considerable masses of the water of this river flow down through the clefts of the chalk, to be 63°, while the springs at Geseke, at the distance of 22,000 feet, which doubtless receive their supply from this river, were of the tem- perature of 49° to 51°. The miller there, whose mill is turned by one of these springs (what is called the Vé/meder spring,) told me he had often opened the holes found on the banks of the Alme, and let in as much water as would have been alone Sufficient to turn his mill, but that he never perceived the slight- est increase of the streams. This also proves the great extent of ‘the subterraneous reservoir of water, whose discharges are not Perceptibly increased by an addition of water. If, indeed, these additions are continued by continued wet weather, and the level of the subterraneous reservoir rises, then, not only will those springs become more copious, but water will also issue from high Situated channels, which contained no water during the dry sea- Son. Lastly, the same miller assured me that the muddiness of his mill streams by no means depended on that of the Alme, since they always become so after rain. Opinions were, how- ever, divided on this point, as other inhabitants of Geseke main- tained, that, within twelve or sixteen hours after rain, the Alme came mudy, and the Vélmeder springs became so too, while this had no influence on the springs in the town. Be this as it will, thus much is certain, that all the springs there do not be- come muddy after rain, but that many always remain clear, as the ‘warmer among the Pader springs. This circumstance 1s also a Satisfactory proof of the great extent of the subterraneous Teservoir, because, notwithstanding the fact, that the sinking Miers aud brooks, as well as the rain-water and snow-water, Which penetrate into the fissures of the fissured rock, are all muddy in rainy weather, yet the warmer springs, those conse- Wently which rise from a greater depth, run out clear. T have instituted some experiments in order to ascertain what Must be the extent of a single mass of water, which retains a Uniform temperature, when a given quantity of water is added to it, Whose temperature varies with the variable temperature of the Hvers of our latitude, and when from it is discharged an equal * _ 76 Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. quantity of water, whose annual variations of temperature are limited to those observed in the coldest of the Pader springs.* The water district (Wassergebiet) of these springs is about 216 millions of square feet, and the quantity of water which they afford in one minute 16,530 cubic feet, according to measure- ments, as accurate as the nature of the thing would admit. It was calculated, from these numerical data, that a mass of water, 120 feet in depth, must be present in this district where the springs rise, if all the water which sinks here in half a year pro- duce an alteration of temperature of 2°.25 F., presupposing that a mean differance of 22°.5 exisis between the temperature of the water which sinks, and of that which lies in the fissured rock. Since, however, the presupposition that a// the springs in Pader- born undergo this variation of temperature of 2°.25 in a half year, applies only to those whose average temperature does not exceed 5U°.6 F.; while the warmer springs, which are by far the more numerous, exhibit no variation of temperature during the whole year; the size of the subterraneous reservoir must be much vaster, if such considerable quantities of water of a uni- jorm temperature flow from it, while the water which sinks and is added to it, suffers variations of temperature dependent on those of the atmosphere. Calculations of this kind can, from the nature of the subject, ive but approximations to the real size of that of which we could otherwise form no estimate at all. The preceding calcula- tion shows, at least, that all the clefts and caverns in the chalk rock of the Teutoburger Wald must be filled with water from the level of the springs, down to some impermeable stratum. How otherwise can we explain the fact, that considerable quan- tities of water of the varying temperature of the atmosphere constantly sink into the rock, and that as considerable quantities flow out at the slope of the rock, presenting a uniform tempera- Jie * It is really a remarkable fact to see so considerable a number of springs rise in 80 small a compass as the Jower part of the town of Paderborn. Their number 18 said to amount to 130, several of which constantly appear close together, often al the distance of but one or two paces, and immediately form considerable brooks, which by their union form the Pader, so large a river, that its diff branches turn no less than fourteen undershot water-wheels of the town situated near together. Almost equally large masses of water, however, derive their sources from Lippspr’"s Kirchborchen, and Upsprung, not to mention the many other springs which lie dis- persed at the foot of that chain of hills, Natural History of Volcanos and Earthquakes. 77 ture, or at all events, one which varies only 4°.5 Fahr., ina whole year. Since the conjecture is probable that the lias and the va- riegated marl present the first entirely impermeable strata, we may also conclude, that not only the chalk formation, but also the green sand, which is equally fissured, are filled by the reservoir, and that its bottom is formed by the above mentioned impermea- ble strata. Lastly, the high temperature of what are called the warm Pader springs (54°.5-61°.25 Fahr.) indicates also an or- igin from a greater depth, if they do not flow in distinct chan- nels, but come from warm streams, which rise from the base of the reservoir. The copious springs, which rise on the western declivity of the Teutoburger Wald, owe their abundance of water, even in dry seasons, to these vast subterraneous reservoirs; and what is derived from these reservoirs, is abundantly replaced in the rainy Teasons, when nearly all the water collected in a district so much fissured, penetrates into the interior. These large masses of water, whose temperature exceeds, by Several degrees the average one of the district under which they are collected, and which brings so much the more heat to their Surface the deeper they penetrate, have doubtless the effect of Warming the hills under which they exist. It is therefore per- haps a Phenomena of universal occurrence, that all chalk hills, Which are much fissured, and into which brooks, rivers, and most of the meteoric water sink, maintain a relatively higher temper- ature. ~The Pader springs alone, however, show how inexhaust- ible taust be the sources which warm such vast masses of water. hese springs furnish in a year at least 8688 millions of cubic . of water, whose average temperature exceeds by at least 75 Fahr., the average temperature of the ground at Pader- ™ and this excess would melt a cube of ice, having a side of 934 feet, This heat is irrevocably withdrawn from the interior, and yet the thermal springs of Paderborn have sustained no Which could there give rise to such inexhaustible sources of heat : the youngest secondary formations, must be, or have been, “attied on to a great extent indeed ! - . . . “ By far the greater number of the remaining copious springs, which rise on the iy ™ declivity of the Tutoburger Wald, are also thermal ones. Some, for in- “im Lippspring attain a temperature of 54°.5, a3: Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. Arr. V.—Reply of Dr. Dauseny to Prof. Bischof’s Objections to the Chemical Theory of Volcanos.—Edinb. New Phil. Jour. for April, 1839. ; Prof. Daveeny after referring to an article of his in the Edinb, Jour. for 1832, and to the article Volcanic Geology, in the Ency- clop. Metro., proceeds to vindicate his own views in regard to the chemical theory of volcanos, by replying as follows, to the objections against it. 1st Oljection.—It is not true that volcanos are always near the sea. Pesckan, in the centre of Asia, is 260 geographical miles from any great sea, and yet has given rise to streams of lava within the period of our history. It also lies 25 geographical miles from the lake of 'Timartu or Issikul, which is not twice as large as the lake of Geneva. The volcano of Turfan also is surrounded by very inconsidera- ble lakes. Answer.—The general connection of voleanic action with, ora proximity to, large masses of salt or fresh water, is all that seems required by the conditions of our theory. Now, in proof of this general proximity, it may be remarked, that out of a catalogue of ‘no less than'163 active vents enume- rated by M. Arago, as occurring in various parts of the known world, all excepting two or three in different parts of America, and about the same number of which we possess very imperfect information, in Central Asia, are within a short distance at least of the ocean. It is even found that the very excepted cases, when examined, tend to confirm the rule, being so situated, that their connection, either with the ocean or with inland seas that may supply its place, becomes a matter of fair inference. In proof of this, we need only refer to the descriptions given by Humboldt of Jorullo; from which it appears, that distant as this mountain may be both from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it is nevertheless connected with one or both through the medium of a chain of volcanic eminences; and even the voleanos of Tartary, whose existence in an active condition is more problematical, may be connected with some of those extensive salt lakes which seem 0 abound in the depressed portion of Central Asia. 2d Objection.—Atmospheric air cannot gain admittance to the focus of a volcano, because there must be an enormous force act- Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 79 ing outwards to protrude the liquid lava to so great a height, and as this pressure continues for many years, during which time the phenomena by no means abate in activity, it is impossible that air should in any way contribute to it. Answer.—The very conditions of our theory imply the exist- ence near and about the focus of the voleano of vast caverns, caused originally by the heaving up of the softened rocks, owing to the elastic vapors disengaged, and consequently filled in the first instance by these matters. But the amount of these vapors must be undergoing continual oscillation. Ist, Owing to differ- ences of temperature caused by the constantly varying intensity of the volcanic action. 2dly, By the reaction of the gases upon each other, as for instance, sulphuretted hydrogen upon sulphu- rous acid, muriatic and ca:bonic acids upon ammonia, the fixed alkalies and the earths. 3dly, By the ever-varying proportion between the amount of water decomposed by the alkaline or earthy metals, and generated by the union of hydrogen to the oxygen present. Hence, unless the passages between these cav- erns and the external atmosphere were hermetically sealed (which nO one contends), air must at times enter the latter to fill the vacuum thus occasioned. 3d Objection.—If the oxidation of the earthy and alkaline Metals were to take place at the expense of water, enormous quantities of hydrogen would be evolved, which has never been observed. Answer.—Hy drogen could hardly be expected to escape in afree state from a spot which contained so many elements for Which it possesses a strong affinity, and to which it would be Presented under the influence of the pressure and temperature 80 well calculated to promote its combination with them. ; Thus, sulphur and chlorine we know to be generally present iN voleanos, and oxygen and nitrogen, we may fairly assume to 80. But, although hydrogen may not be disengaged alone, large quantities of it, in combination with sulphur, appear to be almost universally evolved from volcanos, and it is probable that the great beds of sulphur which exist in most volcanic districts (viz. Sicily) are the result of the decomposition of the sulphuret- ted hydrogen evolved. Nor, indeed, does it seem possible to ex- Plain the presence of this hydrogen, without having recourse to the chemical theory. 80 Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. Ath Objection.—The evolution of carbonic acid by volcanos is not explained, and these diseugagements of carbonic acid gas could not take place in the presence of atmospheric air in those vast subterranean cavities without their mixing together. Now, the carbonic acid evolved by volcanos (Vesuvius, Bifel, &c.,) con- tains but little atmospheric air. nswer.—The evolution of carbonic acid in countries exposed to the influence of volcanic heat, would seem to be a necessary result of the existence of calcareous matter in the rock forma- tions. Its continuance for so long a period after the volcano has ceased to be in activity, seems to show, that it is not derived di- rectly from the chemical processes which produce the phenomena in question, but is only caused by the heat which these processes tend to diffuse through the adjacent rocks. Hence there seems no reason why it should be intermixed with any large proportion of common air, though, as I have shown, this ingredient is rarely altogether absent in any samples which it has fallen to my lot to examine. 5th Objection.—No nitrogen, according to Boussingault, is evolved from the voleanos under the equator, as would be the case if any process of oxydation were going on in which atmos pheric air co-operated. Answer.—The nitrogen remaining after the atmospheric aif had been robbed of its oxygeu, by the inflammable bodies pres- ent, may reach the air either in a separate condition, or unite with hydrogen in the form of ammonia. The former I have generally found to be the case in thermal spriugs connected with volcanos in an extinct or langnid condition—the latter in the era- ters or fumaroles of those still in a state of greater or less activ- ity. Ido not wonder, therefore, that Boussingault should have rarely detected nitrogen in the volcanos of the equator,* but I should expect that sal-ammouiac may, nevertheless, be exhaled from some of them. If this be not the case, it is still possible that the sal-ammoniac sublimed may have been accumulated within some of the vast cavities existing in ‘the interior of the voleano, so that the occasional absence of nitrogen seems less difficult of explanation in accordance with the chemical theory, Ai ee rial * In two instances it was present. | — i cs ay Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. «81 than the frequent associations of it with volcanos is, if we do not have recourse to this hypothesis. : 6th Objection.—The metals of the earths are not sufficiently oxidizable to kindle on the access of water, and to produce the intense heat which would be necessary for producing and lique- fying lavas. _Answer.—Silicon, though when pure it is incapable of decom- posing water, and is incombustible in oxygen, yet kindles readily when united either with a little hydrogen or with alkaline car- hates. Aluminium, even by itself, burns brilliantly when heated above redness, and dissolves with the evolution of hydro- gen in very dilute solutions of potassa. Calcium and magnesinm appear to be still more inflammable, and the bases of the alkalies, present along, and perhaps in com- bination with them, might, whenever water obtained access, generate heat sufficient to cause the other bases to enter into combination with oxygen. Besides, we know that aluminium and magnesium enter readily, with an evolution of heat and light, into combination with chlorine, a body which (as we shall See) there is good reason for supposing present in volcanos. -Tth Objection.—The slight specific gravity of the metals of the alkalies proves fatal to Davy’s hypothesis, for, if the mean density of the earth surpass that of all kinds of rocks, these metals cannot exist, at least not in great quantities, in the inte- tor-of the earth. In reply to this T cannot do better than extract the remarks Which [ made in reply to the self same objection in my article on vdleanos, published in the Encyclopeedia Metropolitana in the Year 1833, “An objection against our hypothesis has also been sometimes deduced “— the mean density of the Earth, which is calculated at five times that of water 5 and hence it has been concluded, that bodies so light as potassium and sodium are, *amnot make a part of its nucleus. exist, in the a On the other hand, the specific gravity of the basis of silica, and probably, also, of that of the other earths which predominate in lava, is sufficiently considerable to Warrant the’ ‘ containing these principles in the Proportions indicated, and united with as much metallic iron as we know to exist : State of an oxide in the generality of lavas, would form an aggregate pos- ol, Xixvur, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. li 82 _—s- Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. sessing a higher enh gravity than that of the compound resulting from the oxi- dation of the entire mass. Let us take for SERIA the recs baa given by Dr. Kennedy, of the lava from ag which he states to consist Silica, 52 per cent X Sp. gr. 2.65 = 127.8 Alumina, 19 per cent X Sp. gr. 4.20= 79.8 Lime, 10 per cent X Sp. gr. 3.00 = 30.0 Oxide of Tron, 15 per cent X Sp. gr. 5.00 = 75.0 Soda, 4 per cent Sp. gr.2.00= 8.0 100 320.6 We here find that 100 parts of this lava have a specific gravity equal to 320.6, and consequently that the specific gravity of the mass would be no more than 32, supposing it divested of water. Now, let us contrast this with the specific gravity of 100 parts of the metallic Principles which would give rise to a mineral possessing the above chemical Cheeposiu on. Silica, 52, contains of base, 26 % Sp. gr. 2.0 = 520 Alumina, 19, contains of base, 10 % Sp. gr 2.0 = 20.0 Lime, 10, contains of base, 7 yx Sp. gr. 4.0 = 28.0 Oxide of Iron, 15, contains of base, 12 X Sp. gr 7.8 = 93.6 oda, 4, contains of base, 3 X Sp. gr. 10= 3.0_ 100 58 196.6 Now as 58—196—100—340. Consequently the specific gravity of the whole would be no less than 3 4. specific gravity of aluminium appears not to be ascertained, but probably it is not inferior to that of —— which sinks in the strongest sulphurie acid, and there- fore is more than The theory, thicohrs, we have been advocating, leaves the question, with re- sation of such rocks as are found near the surface, in consequence of the super- incumbent weight, as certain metals may be rendered heavier by pressure, are entitled to extend this explanation to the case of the alkaline and earthy bases; whilst those who regard the density of the Earth to be a proof that some heavier matter must exist below, are not precluded from such a supposition, as our t implies merely the existence of such a quantity of metallic ingredients, as would be sufficient to peeins the materials hip leaving the constitution of the re mainder just as open to conjecture as it was before, It is curious Sedenk. that whilst some pet argued that the kind of materials found near the surface is inadequate to account for the density attributed to the Earth in general; others, as the late distinguished Professor Leslie, have ¢om tended, that these substances would have their specific gravity so much increased by the enormous pressure from above, that void internal spaces must be nece* sarily su pposed. On this he has founded his singular hypothesis, that the centre of the Earth is filled only with light, the rarest substance known ; an idea, the mere mention of which is sufficient. to show how little we can be justified in re jecting an explanation of facts, merely Kechase it appears to militate against the conjectures that may be conjured up with regard to the internal conditio n of our planet.” we ee ole Reply of Dr. Daubeny to Prof. Bischof. 83 \ 8th Objection.—If, according to Gay-Lussac, the hydrogen of the decomposed water goes to form muriatic acid with chlorine, the above mentioned acid ought to be general in volcanos. Now, it is wanting, according to Boussingault, in the voleanos under the equator in the New World, and according to Bischof, in those near the Rhine. Answer.—I believe, that muriatic acid will be found pretty constantly present in volcanos now in activity. Sir H. Davy found it at Vesuvius on both the occasions he visited that vol- cano, viz. 1815 and 1829. I myself in 1834, detected it there in great abundance; and in 1825, found it at the Solfatara, in the Island of Vuleano, and near Mount Etna. It has been discovered also in the volcanos of Iceland; in those of Java, at Mount Idienne; and of South America, at Purace. The sal-ammonia which so abounds in the volcanos of Tartary, shows, that it is also present there ; and the existence of it in the trachytic rock of the Puy de Sarcouy in Auvergne, proves, that it was a concomitant of volcanic action in days that have gone by. All therefore that Bischof is warranted in inferring from its absence in the case of the volcanos of the Rhine and Equatorial America, is, that it ceases to be disengaged when the action be- Comes languid or extinct. Now there are many ways of account- ing for this. In the first place, granting the acid to be derived from the sea-salt present in the water which originated the vol- Cahic action, it would cease to be generated when this fluid no longer obtained admission ; or, when the heat was inadequate to Cause the union of the alkali of the sea-salt with the earths Present ; and even if it were still generated, it might be pre- Vented from rising to the mouth of the crater, by combining in lis way with the calcareous rocks through which it had to pass. ence the carbonic acid, which Professor Bischof remarks as so abundantly evolved by the voleanos of the Rhine, may perhaps Tepresent an equal volume of muriatic acid, by whose agency it ad been evolved from the limestones that contained it. Thus have I replied seriatim to all the objections, which an ‘cute and learned opponent has been able to adduce against the chemical theory of volcanos; and having done so, might be ex- Peete perhaps to proceed to some remarks on the one to which he himself has given the preference. 84 Mountains in New York. But in order not to occupy too much of your space, I will merely here remark, that Professor Bischof appears (at least in the portion of his memoir yet published) to pass over without any attempt at explanation, certain chemical phenomena of con- stant occurrence, which follow directly from the principles of the theory to which he has objected. These are, Ist, The evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, in quantities far exceeding what are to be explained by the reac- tion of carbonaceous matter upon sulphates, or any of those other processes which sometimes produce it on the surface of the earth. : 2dly, The disengagement of sal-ammoniac, for although one of the constituents of this compound, the muriatic acid, might arise from the decomposition of sea-salt by aqueous vapor, the other one, the ammonia, implies the presence of free hydrogen as well as of nitrogen gas, near the focus of the volcanic action. 3dly, The circumstance, which I have substantiated in s0 many cases, that I begin to believe it almost universally true, that the atmospheric air exhaled from volcanos, and indeed gene- rally from the interior of the earth, is deprived in a greater or less degree of its proper proportion of oxygen. That processes, there- fore, by which this principle is abstracted, are going on exten- sively within the globe cannot be denied, and hence I conceive that any theory, which attempts to account for voleanic action, without taking notice of so essential a phenomenon, ought to be regarded as imperfect and unsatisfactory. Art. VI.—Mountains in New York; by E. F. Jounson, Civil ngineer. In a report recently made, by the author of this article, of @ survey of a route for the proposed Ogdensburgh and Champlain railway, the elevations above tide of the highest of each of the three distinct groups of mountains divided by the valleys of the Saranac and Au Sable rivers, are — as follows: Lyon Mountain, - - - - - - 3,864 feet. Whiteface do. - - - - - - = 4,666 “ Mit. Marcy; iecssf2+ en ele ee ATS To this statement of elevations, the following note was appended: Mountains in New York. | 85 “The altitudes here given, were deduced from the angular ele- vations observed from a point near Lake Champlain, whose ele- vation was known, and the distances as determined from the map. I mention this to account in part, perhaps, for the discrepancy be- tween the results above given and those contained in the geolo- gical report as derived from barometrical measurement.” Prof. Emmons, State Geologist for the Northern District of New York, in his last annual report, in reference to the above, has the following : ; oe “Ina report to the Legislature this present session, Mr. E. F. Johnson, the Engineer of the Ogdensburgh and Champlain rail- toad, questions the accuracy of the measurements of Mt. Marcy. In reply to his suggestions, I shall merely remark, that it is quite doubtful whether the mountain in question is distinguishable ftom those of the same group, especially by one who has never Visited the interior of this section, and if visible, his measurement is not entitled to consideration except as a very imperfect approx- imation,”” ~The observations made by myself were taken, as stated, from an elevated point near Lake Champlain. The instrument used was of a superior kind, and, graduated, 8° as to give, with the aid of the nonius, fractions of degrees as small as 7$ seconds. On the day when the observations were Made it was carefully adjusted. Not only the peaks above mentioned, but the elevations of from 30 to 40 other points were observed, several of which had been Previously measured. Among the latter number were the two Most elevated peaks of the Green Mountains, Camels Hump and Mansfield ; these were found, the former to be 4,220 and the latter 4,359 feet above tide. = hese peaks, as measured barometrically by Capt. A. Partridge, (see Gazetteer of Vermont,) were found, the former to be 4,188 and the latter 4,279 feet above tide; Jess in both cases than the Fesults by trigonometrical measurement. The barometrical ele- Yations of Mt. Marcy and Whiteface, as given by Mr. Emmons, Were on the contrary greater than the trigonometrical ; the former PY 687 and the latter by 189 feet; the first being 5,594 and the Second 4,855 feet above tide. It was this great discrepancy, that induced the remark of dis- WUst, as to the entire correctness of Mr. Emmon’s barometrical SE Mountains in New York. measurement ; a discrepancy which cannot be attributed to any inaccuracy of adjustment in the instrument used by me, since if by any error in this respect, the angle of elevation was too great or too small in one case, it Was also too great or too small in the other, producing a corresponding elevation or depression in both. Nei- ther can it be attributed toa difference in the estimated allowance for refraction, for this allowance was the same in both cases; hence if too great or too small, the elevations of both were simi- larly affected and to the same amount. ‘The observations were also made from the same spot at nearly the same time of the same day ; hence there could probably be no great difference in the re- fractive power of the atmosphere, Again, so great a difference could not well result from an error in the distances, for although these were obtained as stated from the map, they were tested by comparing with known distances upon the same map, the latter having been projected on a large scale and compiled from actual surveys, with the positions of the several peaks, as is believed very accurately defined, that of Mt. Marcy in particular, coinciding very nearly with the location and bearing of it from Whiteface and other points, as described by Mr. Emmons. That some other peak was taken for Mt. Marcy, as is intimated by Mr. Emmons, is therefore scarcely possible, more especially as it is certain that the one observed was the highest of the group in which Mt. Marcy is situated. Had the peak in question been a lower instead of the highest one of the group, its not being “distinguishable” could be urged by Mr Emmons with more propriety. Assuming therefore, as is proper to do under these circumstal- ees, that the trigonometrical measurement exhibits very neatly the relative elevations of the high peaks in Vermont and New York, it follows, that to place Mr. Emmons’s barometrical meas urements of Whiteface and Mt. Marcy upon a par, as it regat accuracy, with the barometrical measurements of Camels Hump and Mansfield, that the former should be reduced, the first about 290 and the second about 800 feet ; or in other words, these at@ the differences in the barometrical measurements by the two ob servers. Both surely cannot be correct ; and it is equally certaill also, that both may be incorrect. Until, therefore, Mr. ons shall have proved, that his measurements are entitled to a highet degree of confidence, he must submit to have their accuracy que Mountains in New York. 87 tioned. It is granted that it is possible he may be after all nearest the truth, but so long as the evidence in the case is more against — than for such a conclusion, his claim to superior accuracy cannot be allowed. Capt. Partridge has had perhaps more experience than any other individual in the United States in measuring mountain elevations with the barometer. In two measurements made by him of Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, the first gave 6,103 feet and the second 6,234 feet. The measurement of the same mountains by Prof. Bigelow, as computed by Prof. Farrar of Cambridge, gave as the height above tide 6,225 feet, a coincidence somewhat remarkable, considering the very great elevation of Mt. Washington. '. Emmons states that the distance from Mt. Marcy to White- face is about 16 miles, and that the depression of the latter from the former is 15 minutes of a degree. If the instrument used by Mr. Emmons in taking this angular depression was a suitable one and in a proper state of adjustment, and if he is correct as to the distance, the difference in elevation of those two summits would have been obtained therefrom with more accuracy than from the barometrical measurements. No one capable of appreciating all the causes of error in the two modes of measurement would prob: ably deny this. Assuming, therefore, the data above given as Correct, of which I cannot but express some doubt, it gives a dif- ference in elevation of the two peaks of 578 feet, nearly, whereas the difference shown by Mr. Emmons’s barometrical measure- Ments is 739 feet, or nearly 30 per cent. greater, being nearly as Much greater as the result by my measurement is /ess, showing that, if the 578 feet is taken as the standard, there is about as near ‘1 approximation to the truth in the one case as in the other. The barometer I consider a very valuable instrument, and have made much use of it, as being a cheap and expeditious mode of ativing at an approximate knowledge of the generak features of a Country ; but that it will afford, by a single observation, in the of practiced or unpracticed observers, and under all cireum- Stances, resnits as much to be depended on for their accuracy as a be inferred from Mr. Emmons’s statement, cannot be con- : The principal sources of error in the use of this instrument are MS great liability, particularly the mountain barometer to get out pe i. The difficulty also of arriving at a correct knowledge oy change of pressure, or condition of the atmospheric column o.- Mountains in New York. which sustains the column of mercury, arising from fluctuations, that are independent of temperature, and for which no provision is made in most formulas, and the discrepancy in the results as given by different formulas, all claiming to be equally correct. Errors from these sources when they occur so as to affect the result differently, may neutralize each other, but when they ope- rate the same way, may produce a very considerable deviation from the truth. In the observations of Mr. Emmons, the barome- ter at Whiteface was compared with the barometer at Burlington and Albany, and if I rightly understand him, the mean of the two was taken, the difference being about 100 feet less at the former than at the latter. .The time of making the observations was 6, A. M. of the same day, Sept. 21. In the record which he gives of the state of the barometer at the two latter places at noon of the same day, the fact is made known that while the baromet- ric column fe// at the one place it rose at the other, causing @ difference equivalent to upwards of 100 feet of elevation. Com- puting the elevation of the place of observation at Burlington at 6, A. M. above tide from the observation at Albany at the same time, and it gives 500 feet, nearly. Taking the observations made at the same places at 12, M. of the same day, and the re- sult is 390 feet, nearly. Which of these is correct, or whether either is only known from the fact that the elevation in question has been ascertained by the common mode of levelling to be 372 feet, nearly, giving a maximum deviation from the truth in tw observations only, of 128 feet, nearly. In the case of the obset- vation on the summit of Whiteface, there exist no data by which the relative conditions of the atmospheric column as compared with the same column at Burlington and Albany can be ascel- tained.. Whiteface is about 35 miles west of Burlington, the nearest of the points mentioned, but far enough, it is believed, for considet able difference to exist. But one observation is recorded as hav- ing been made on its summit and that not under the most favor able circumstances, since it is stated that the “ wind was strong from the northeast and cloudy.” In the case of Mt. Marcy, the comparison was made with the barometer at Albany. In cousé- quence of the greater distance of the places of observation, a much greater error might result than in the case of the observations a Whiteface and Burlington. That the greater discrepancy tween the barometric and trigonometric elevations of Mt. Mar Mountains in New York. 89 compared with Whiteface is attributable in some degree to this cause, it is most certainly not unreasonable to suppose. Again, a considerable discrepancy in barometric results may arise from the difference in the different formulas used in making the computations. Mr. Emmons makes the elevation of Mt. Marcy above tide 5,594 feet. Mr. Redfield, by another formula, makes it from the same observations 127 feet less, and by yet another formula which has been found by comparison with the known elevation of objects by levelling to give results quite near the truth, it is somewhat less than the elevation obtained by Mr. Redfield. In the case of the Whiteface Mt. the elevation by this latter formula, computing from Mr. Emmons’s observations, is less than that given by him by about 290 feet, or about 100 feet lower than the elevation as derived from trigonometrical measurement. If these causes of error exist, and the tendency of all combined is to affect the altitude in the same way, of which there is no ev- idence to the contrary, it is not difficult to-imagine. that Mr. Em- mons’s barometric measurement of Mt. Marcy may be farther from the truth than he is willing to admit. The propriety of this conclusion, independent of all other con- siderations, is I conceive most fully warranted in the great dis- crepancy of the relative barometric altitudes of the peaks in New York and Vermont already described, as shown by the trigonom- etrical measurement. The statement made by me in the report alluded to at the head of this article, was, I believe, clearly warranted by the circum- Stances of the case, and as such was entitled to a degree of con- sideration in no respect inferior to that which can be reasonably Claimed in behalf of Mr. Emmons’s measurement. It was most *ettainly no wish or intention of mine, in making that statement, * disparage, in the least, the labors of Mr. Emmons ; and it was not imagined that he could consider the statement as having that tendency ; but” since, from the tenor of his remarks, he has thought proper to construe it in that light and to pronounce so unequivocally (to use a very mild term) in respect to the superi- ty of his barometrical measurements, I am compelled, very re- luctantly, I confess, to state the facts in detail which influenced My judgment and which I believe fully justify me in all I have 90 Account of a Tornado. Arr. VII—Account of a Tornado; by Witx1s Gaytorp. Havine visited and examined the scene of the tornado, so well described by Mr. Willis Gaylord of Otisco, Onondaga Co., N. Y¥., in the Genesee Farmer, Nov. 10, 1838, we also can bear witness to the tremendous devastation which that whirlwind produced. We were on the ground in September, about two months after the event. Before the tornado, a region of 4 or 500 acres had been covered by a dense forest of pine trees, many of them very tall and large; roads had been cut through this forest and a few solitary houses were planted in it, here and there. Now we looked in vain over the whole tract for a single perfect tree. Those which had not been uprooted or broken in two near the ground, were shivered and twisted off at different elevations, leaving only 4 portion of a shattered trunk, so that nota single tree top, and hardly asingle branch were found standing in-the air: there were instead only mutilated. stems, presenting a striking scene of desolation wherever our eyes ranged over the now almost empty aerial space. On the ground the appearances were still more re- markable. The trees were interwoven in every possible way s0 as to form a truly military abattis of the most impassable kind, nor immediately after the gale, could any progress be in fact made through the gigantic thickets of entangled trunks and branches, without the labor of bands of pioneers, who cut off the innumer- able logs that choked every avenue. We had before seen many avenues made through forests by winds, prostrating the trees and laying them down in the direction of its course: but never had we seen such a perfect desolation by a gyratory movement, before which the thick and lofty forest and the strongest framed build- ings vanished, in an instant, and their ruins were whirled irresist ibly around like flying leaves or gossamer. Still it was truly wonderful that people were buried in the ruins of their houses, and travellers with their horses and cattle, were exposed to this driving storm of trees which literally filled the air, and still not a single life was lost, although some persous were wounded. We were assured that this wind had marked a track of devas tation for twenty miles or more, but this was the scene of its greatest ravages. T'wo or three miles from this place, we saw ® Account of a Tornado. 91 wing of a house which had been moved quite around so as to form a tight angle with its former position, and still the building was not broken.—#ids. “On the afternoon of the 25th of July, 1838, (says Mr. Gay- lord,) a violent tornado passed over part of the county of Allegany, N. Y., rarely equalled in its destructive effects, and giving a most striking illustration of the peculiar movements of the wind in these aerial currents. It was noticed in some of the journals at the time; but happening to cross its route, in passing up the Genesee valley in the succeeding month, we were so much in- terested with the appearance as to be induced to prepare the fol- lowing sketch for the readers of the Farmer. “The first appearance of severe wind, was, as we learned, in the town of Rushford, some fifteen miles from the place where we observed its effects. 'The day was hot and sultry, and the course of the gale was from the N. of W. to S. of East. At its commencement in Rushford, it was only a violent thunder gust, such as are frequently experienced, but it soon acquired such force as to sweep in places every thing before it. In its passage the same violence was not at all times exerted ; some places seem- ed wholly passed over, while in the same direction and at only a Small distance whole forests were crushed. In the language of ne who had suffered much from the gale, ‘it seemed to move by bounds, sometimes striking and sometimes receding from the earth,’ which indeed was most likely the case. “It passed the Genesee river in the town of Belfast, a few miles low Angelica, and its fury was here exerted on a space of coun- tty perhaps a mile or a mile and a half in width. The country here is settled and cleared along the river, but the road passes at little distance from the river, and at this point wound through One of the finest pine woods to be found on the stream. Of course When it came over the higher lands from the N. W., the tornado Crossed the river and the plain before encountering the groves of Pine. In the space occupied by the central part of the tornado, “ay three-fourths of a mile in width, nothing was able to resist its fury. Strong framed houses and barns were crushed in an instant, and their fragments and contents as quickly scattered to every Point of the compass ; while those out of the direct line were only Unroofed, or more or less domaged. Large oaks and elms, were literally twisted off, or crushed like reeds. 92 Account of a Tornado. a “The road from the north approached the pine woods on what was the northern verge of the tornado, and the first appearance of the country in front was that of woodlands in which all the trees had been broken off at the height of 20 or 30 feet, leaving nothing but countless mutilated trunks. On entering the narrow passway, however, which with immense labor had been opened through the fallen trunks, it was perceived that much the largest part of the trees had been torn up by the roots, and lay piled across each other in the greatest apparent confusion imaginable. Fortunately for our view of the whole ground, a few days before our arrival, fire had been put in the ‘ windfall,’ and aided by the extreme dry weather, the whole was burned over so clean, that nothing but the blackened trunks of the trees were remainihg, thus disclosing their condition and position, most perfectly. This position was such as to demonstrate beyond the possibility of a doubt, the fact that the tornado had a rotary motion against the sun, and in perfect accordance with the course which we in a for- mer volume of the Farmer have ascribed to such electric aerial currents, a theory first developed by Mr. Redfield of New York. “The first tree met with, prostrated by the tornado, was a large pine, which lay with its top exactly to the N. of W. or precisely against the general course of the storm. Hundreds of others lay near in the same direction on the outer part of the whirl, but immediately after entering the fallen timber the heads of the trees began to incline to the centre of the space torn down, and south of this the inclination was directly the reverse until the outside of the whirl was reached, when they all lay with their tops to the east. This almost regular position of the fallen timber, was most distinct in the bottom courses, or that which was first blown down, those that resisted the longest, being, as was to be expected, pitched in the most diverse directions. That there was also av upward spiral motion, causing a determination of the rushing aif to the centre of the whirl would appear probable from the fact that articles from the buildings destroyed were carried high in the air, and then apparently thrown out of the whirl, into the com mon current; and also from the fact that a large majority of the trees both to the south and the north of the centre of the gale, lay with their heads inclined to that point, while the centre was marked by the greatest confusion imaginable. A diagram formed of a continued succession of circles moving from the right to the | | Meteoric Stones. 93 left would illustrate the position of the trees first uprooted, as these lay as when first crushed by the approach of the whirlwind. — “Many curious facts illustrative of the force of the wind was "related by the inhabitants in and near the place, A farmer at- tempted to drive his team of horses to the barn, but the tempest was too soon upon him, When the rush was over, and it was but seemingly a moment, he found the barn torn to pieces, himself about thirty rods in one direction from it, and his horses as many tods the other, and what was most remarkable with scarcely a fragment of the harness upon them. A wagon was blown away, and a month afterwards one of the wheels had not been found. A house standing near the Genesee river, and a little out of the line of the gale, was completely covered with mud that must have been taken from the bed of the river. And appearances tender it very evident that near the centre of the whirl the water Was entirely taken from the channel.” —— Arr. VIIL—On Meteoric Stones.*—F rom the Annual Account of the progress of Physics and Chemistry, by Berzexius, in the Annual Reports of the progress of the sciences by the members of the Royal Academy of Science in Sweden. Arsberittelser om Vetenskapernas Framsteg. D. 31. Mars, 1835. Stockholm. Translated for this Journal, by Rev. W. A. Larsen. : Merrorre stones, as inorganic masses occurring on the surface of the earth, present also an object for mineralogy, the more in- teresting since they give us information of the mineral products * © é . Berzeling published a paper on Meteoric Stones in the Transactions of the Royal A wart Stone at Blansko, and of its analysis, was published. in this Journal, Ol. xxx R red entire. As a recent analysis of meteoric iron from Clairborne, Ala , by Dr. C. ys Jackson, publis pp. 332—337, made known the 94 Meteoric Stones. of other planetary bodies, and of their likeness or unlikeness to those of the earth. I have communicated in a paper addressed — to the Royal Academy of Science,* examinations of various me- = teoric stones, undertaken with the design of studying them as mineral species, and of thereby enabling myself to determine of © what different minerals they are composed. The occasion of the investigation was afforded by the friendly commission which Reichenbach of Blansko gave me to examine the composition of a meteoric stone, whose glancing apparition within the atmos- phere of the earth, on the 25th of November, 1833, about 6 o’clock in the evening, he himself had witnessed, and of which, with very great expense and labor, he finally succeeded in collecting the scattered fragments in the region about Blansko. The me- teoric stones which I examined, have fallen near Blansko in Moravia, Chantonnay in France, Lautolax in Finland, Alais in France, and Ellenbogen in Bohemia, and I have also analyzed the meteoric iron made known by Pallas from the region between Ab- ekansk and Krasnojarsk in Siberia. From the analyses referred to, I believe I have discovered that the meteoric stones are m rals; as it is absurd to suppose that minerals can be formed in the air out of the elements of the air, they cannot be atmospheric pro- ducts, and the less so, as many of them present cavities, which are filled with a mineral of another color and probably of a different composition, which it were a plain absurdity to consider as being possibly formed in them during the few moments the attraction of the earth would suffer so heavy a body to remain in the atmos phere. They become such elsewhere. They are not cast out from the volcanos of the earth, for they fall everywhere, not merely nor oftenest in the near or remote neighborhood of a vol- cano ; their external appearance is unlike a terrestrial mineral, unlike any thing which the volcanos eject. Their containing unoxidized malleable iron, proves that water is not found, and perhaps, not air, in their former abode. They must, therefore, come from some other planet, which has voleanos. The oné nearest us is the moon, and the moon has gigantic volcanos com: pared with the earth. The moon has no atmosphere to retard the volcanic projectiles. Collections of water do not appear © exist on it, in a word, among the probable sources, the moon '8 moe ss we ~ * Kongl. Vetensk. Acad. Hand]. 1834, p. 115. * Meteoric Stones. 7 . 95 the most probable. To get an idea of the elements of another _ planetary body, were it only the one lying nearest us, the moon, gives to such an examination an interest which in itself it would be destitute of. The general results of my investigations have been, that me- teoric stones of two sorts have fallen on the earth. Those which belong to the same kind, have a like composition and appear to come from the same mountain. The one sort is rare. Hitherto there have not been observed more than three meteoric stones belonging to it, which fell in Stannern in Moravia, in Jonzac and Juvenas in France. They are thus characterized; they do not contain metallic iron, the minerals of which they are composed are more distinctly crystalline, and magnesia is not 4 prevailing element of them. Of these-I have not had any spe- cimen to examine. ‘The other sort is made up of the great num- ber of meteoric stones, which have been hitherto examined. They ate frequently so like one another in color and external appear- anee, that we might believe them to have been struck out of one Plece. They contain malleable metallic iron in variable quan- lity. We have an example of an enormous block, which was constituted of a mere continuous web of iron, the cavities of © _ Which the mineral fill up, and which came down whole in the fall, Solely because the iron-web held them together. Some are Composed more of the mineral and less of iron, in which case they do not cohere, but burst apart from the heat, which the ex- tteme compression of the atmosphere by means of their irresisti- ble Velocity, moving with the rapidity of a heavenly body to- Wards the earth, has produced in the few moments they are pass- Ng through the air, and from which their outermost covering is Continually melted to a black slag thinner than the thinnest post- pn: We may say then, that the meteoric stones supposed to Proceed from the moon, come entirely from two unlike voleanos, the eruptions of one of which either take place oftener than the other, or are projected in such a direction as that they oftener reach earth. “Such a circumstance agrees well with the fact, that a Certain part of the moon has the earth continually in the zenith and directs al] its projectiles straight towards the earth, though mey do not proceed straight thither, because they must also suf- st the motion, which they had before as parts of the moon. If "1s the part of the moon which sends to us the meteoric iron aN 96 Meteorice Stones. masses, and if the other parts of the moon are not so full of iron, then we see a reason why that point turns continually Lowen the magnetic globe of the earth. The mineral portion of meteoric stones consists of various min- erals. 1. Olivine. It contains magnesia and protoxyd of iron, is colorless or grayish, but is sometimes streaked with yellow or green like all the terrestrial olivine. This shows that oxygen is wanting for a higher oxidation of the iron. Like the terres- trial, it is soluble in acids, and leaves the silicious earth in the form of gelatine. . It contains like some of the terrestrial, a trace of oxyd of tin and oxyd of nickel. Olivine, however, in the me- teoric iron found by Pallas, makes an exception to this, for it is without nickel, and its color is yellow approaching to green ; but it contains tin. Olivine comprises about one half the quantity of the unmagnetic minerals. Olivine separates by treating with acids, and the silicious earth is then set free by boiling in car- bonate of soda. Then there remain, 2. silicates of magnesia, lime, an of iron, protoryd of manganese, alumina, potash, and soda, which are not separated by acids and in which the silicious earth con- tains two species of bisilicates. These are probably blended with more, which I was not able to separate. We may conjecture Mg a species of pyroxene f ¢ S? and a species of leucite where C lime and magnesia in the first terms replace a portion of potash Mg and soda. + S?4+3AS2. The pyroxene not having so much color as the terrestrial, is to be attributed to the same cause as the want of color in meteoric olivine. 3. Chrome-iron.—This is contained in both kinds of meteoric stones, in both in like small quantity, isnever wanting, and is the source of the chrome in meteoric iton. It can be obtained unde- composed if the unmagnetie portion of the meteoric stone is sepa rated with hydro-fluoric acid, and is then, after all the silicious earth is removed, treated with sulphuric acid, after which the sulphates and the gypsum are boiled out, when the chrome iron remains 10 the form of a black burnt powder. This is the cause of the grey- ish color in meteoric stones when they are seen in the mass. | Meteoric Stones. 97 4. Oxyd of tin.—This is mixed with the ehrome-iron. One can satisfy himself of its presence when the last named metal is _ Separated by bi-sulphate of potassa, and the solution in water is "treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, when the sulphuret of tin is thrown down. It has a trace of copper. : 5. Magnetic Iron-ore.—This does not perhaps occur in all. It is taken out with the magnet, when it again manifests its property of dissolving in hydro-chloric-acid with a yellow color and with- out a disengagement of hydrogen. 2 6. Sulphuret of Fron.—This is found in all. It has been im- possible for me to separate any for a distinct examination. All the circumstances seem to show that it consists of one atom of each of the elements. A surplus of sulphur in a mass, where a surplus of iron prevails throughout, is not supposable. One part of it follows the magnet together with the iron, the other part remains in the powder of the stone, as nothing more is given up to the Magnet. This is sometimes a larger percentage. - Whether this is by a chemical union, as is the case, for example, with the sul- tet of manganese in helvin, or is merely by adhesion to the powder of the stone, my researches could not decide; the latter 'S the more probable when FeS is weakly magnetic, but the | former is not impossible. 'The sulphuret of iron causes the pul- Verized meteoric stone to develope sulphuretted hydrogen gas When it is mixed with hydro-chlorie-acid. 7. Native Iron.—This iron is not pure, although it is altogether malleable. It contains carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, magnesia, langanese, nickel, cobalt, tin and copper. But it is moreover blended with small crystals within the mass, of a union of phos- Phuret of iron with phosphuret of nickel, and phosphuret of man- Saese. These are insoluble in hydro-chloric-acid and fall down While in the solution. Their quantity varies. ‘The iron of El- enbogen gives 2! per cent., but the Pallasian iron not ; per cent. Olt. A part is so finely divided in the mass of the iron, that What falls down in the solution resembles a black powder. The “aise of the Widmanstittian* figures is, that the foreign metals are meteoric me refer i he surface of some i 8 to figures of a crystalline shape on the i id Agram, Siberia, icin &c. first noticed by Widmanstatten. See ay cet Geschichte und Kenntniss meteorischen Stein-und Metall-Massen von D, Carl von Vol, x Schreibers. p. 70.—Tr. Xxvit, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 18 2, per teateits Wuintsc caftg be, AIR eae Se ee, ae gs Meteoric Stones. not equally blended, but separate into imperfectly formed erys- talline series. If the iron is dissolved in an acid solution of sul- phate of iron, the pure iron is set free almost by itself and its lam- — ine fall down in flakes. The elementary bodies hitherto found in the meteoric stones make up just a third of those we are acquainted with, namely, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, chrome, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, iron, man- ganese, nickel, cobalt, tin and copper. The following analyses of the meteoric iron may be cited; some conducted at the same time by Wherle are added. Tron of Pallas. Tron of Ellenbogen. : erzelius, Wherle.* Tron, - - - - 88.042 89.90 Nickel, - - 10.732 8.517 8.44 Cobalt, - - - 0.455 0.762 0.61 Magnesium, - 0.050 0.279 — Manganese, - - 0.132) © 98.95 Tin and copper 0.066 , Carbon, - - => O04 of teas Sulphur, - - - a trace. Metallic phosphurets 0.480 2.211 The metallic phosphurets were found to contain: Of the Pallas Iron. Of the Ellenbogen-. Tron, - - - = 48.67 68.11 Nickel, - - - 18.33 4 Magnesium, - - oes Tite Phosphorus, - - 18.47 14.17 95.13 100.00. This last result cannot possess entire precision, for the whole quantity of the metal, which I was able to take for analys'; was of the former only 3, and of the latter 2.8 centigramme: Wherle’s analysis will be seen to agree more exactly with mine when [ add that he had in the iron the alloy of phosphorus and manganese, and also of magnesia, which fell as the ammoilo phosphate of magnesia with the oxide of iron. Wherle has cited (in the forementioned Journal) still othet analyses of meteoric iron which I here communicate. * Baumgartners Zeitschrift HI, 222. | skis ST eage w Meteoric Stones. 99 Agram. _ Kap. Lenarto, Tron, 89.784 85.608 90.883 PRS Nickel, 8.886 12.275 450 Cobalt, 0.667 0.887 0.665 trace of copper. ; 99.337 98.770 99.998 Wherle has sought the constant proportions in the metals; this inquiry I regard as fruitless. But before I conclude this subject, perhaps already sufficiently long for my report, I must subjoin one result more of my exami- nation. The meteoric stone from Allais falls to pieces in water, to an earth, which smells of clay and hay and contains carbon in a1 unknown union. ‘This shows that in the region of the me- teoric stones, minerals fall to pieces to a clay-like mixture as on Me earth. Now arose the inquiry, whether this carboniferous earth from the surface of another planetary body contains the or- ganized products, whether indeed organized bodies are thus dis- covered there, more or less analogous with those of the earth. t is easy to conceive with what interest the answer would be Sought. It was not in the affirmative, but to decide in the neg- ative would be to conclude more about it than we are author- ized to do. The earth was found to be olivine, containing ferro- sulphate of nickel and of tin. 'The magnet took up the compound oxide of iron in black grains, along with which the microscope detected flitters of metallic iron. Water brought out sulphate of Naghesia with small quantities of sulphate of nickel ; but nothing organized, as none of the alkalies could be extracted. In a dry distillation were developed carbonic acid gas and water, together with a black gray sublimate, but no burnt oil, no carburetted hy- drogen ; in a word, the carboniferous substance was not of the “ame nature as the soil on this earth. ‘There were besides a car- bonate and black soot. ‘The sublimate heated in oxygen gave no ttace of carbonic acid or of water, and changed to a white, unerys- lallized, volatile body, soluble in water, which did not become acid in the process and was not precipitated by nitiate of silver. What this body is I did not know ; it remains unknown to me. _ Is it Indeed an elementary body not originally pertaining to our planet? ° answer this question in the affirmative would be too hasty. 100 Terrestrial Magnetism. Arr. IX.—Terrestrial Magnetism ; by J. Hamuron of Carlisle, , Penn. In the 22d volume of this Journal 1 suggested the idea, that the magnetic poles coincided with the coldest points in the north- - ern hemisphere, but did not assign the grounds for such a con- clusion. : In 1837, Dr. Brewster published his Treatise on Magnetism at Edinburgh, originally prepared for the Encyclopedia Britanica, which contains very full details of the latest researches on that subject. ; In the 42d page of this Treatise it is stated, ‘the discovery of two poles of maximum cold on opposite sides of the north pole of the earth, which was announced by Sir David Brewster in 1820, led him and other authors to the opinion, that there might be some connection between the magnetic poles, and those of maxti- mum cold.” The opinion advanced by Dr. Brewster, “ that there are two poles of greatest cold in the northern hemisphere,” it ap- _ pears, was published in the 9th volume of the Edinburgh ‘Trans- actions of 1821, and Dr. Dalton in remarking on it, considers it as a probable supposition, and Mr. Kupffer in a memoir read in 1829 to the Russian Academy, explicitely adopts the opinion. Of all this I knew nothing when I wrote the letter above re- ferred to in 1832, nor until I met with Dr. Brewster’s Treastise published in 1837; but drew the inferences therein stated, from the views I entertained of the nature of light and heat,* and from observing a certain correspondence of climate at similar distances. from the magnetic poles. I regard light and heat 77 the comvmon acceptation of these words, as not only material in their nature, but as compounds of othet simple elements, and suppose the magnetic fluids to be two of those simple substances which enter into their constitution. From the refined nature of light and heat, we cannot subject them to experiment like other forms of matter, and the difficulty would necessarily be increased, if we have to do with the simple elements of which they are here supposed to be compounded. That matter exists in such states of refined minuteness of atoms, as to be imperceptible to such senses as we possess, }§ : i the word “ heat” I always mean sensible heat, and not the unknown prin ciple. “he # ad Terrestrial Magnetism. 101 proved by the miasmata, which sometimes impregnate the at- mosphere, and yet baffle the skill of the chemist to detect them, although the disease which follows in their train establishes their existence. If we examine what are termed the magnetic fluids on the poles of the loadstone, it appears that we can neither see, feel, nor taste them, they are not easily disengaged from the particles of the iron, and the only proof of their existence is the attraction they exert. May not this difficulty in perceiving them, arise ftom their atoms being so exceedingly small, as to be apprecia- ble only to a higher order of senses than we are endowed with. Light and heat will pass through transparent bodies without much difficulty, but Mr. Haldat has shown that the magnetic fluids will hot only pass through transparent substances, but through all bodies, even the most dense ;—and from this I argue, that they are of greater tenuity than either light, heat, or electricity. _ The sun is continually emitting rays which reach the earth in immense quantities, and the question has been significantly _ asked, but not so easily answered, if they are material bodies, What becomes of this flood of light and heat? They do not ac- cumulate on the earth’s surface like snow, but disappear as fast as they arrive. It may be said they become latent. This sup that light and heat, as usually understood, are perceptions of the mind, and that the exciting causes of these sensations are un- known principles or substances, as evanescent and difficult to ap- Ptehend as the magnetic fluids themselves. Now, may it not be, that these substances hitherto incognita, are the identical ele- . nents or fluids, whose attraction causes the phenomena of mag- Hetism, and that instead of light and heat being mere sensations, — €xcited by we know not what, they are real material bodies, com- — Pounded of these and other elements. Ress There Suppose, that there are three elements ; one of which is ommon to light and also to heat; that light and heat are each Composed of two simple elements; and that when the ‘sun’s rays Teach the earth, they are decomposed by the attraction of the bodies on its surface, with which their elements unite, and from Which they can be again extricated by different processes. 3 We know that light and heat can be obtained from almost “very form of matter, and the idea here offered to explain their Ppearance and reappearance, by a decomposition into simpler se | 102 | ‘Terrestrial Magnetism. ? ‘ elements, and a recombination of those elements through a play ts of attraction, is not an unphilosophical suggestion. olomb has ascertained that “gold, silver, glass, wood, and all substances, whether organic or inorganic, obey the power of the magnet ;”’ so that all substances are susceptible of magnetism. Here then is a striking coincidence between light and heat, and the magnetic fluids; they pervade or influence all terrestrial bod- ies, and friction will develope light and heat as well as magnetism. That the violet ray imparts the magnetic virtue to iron, is shown by the expermints of Mrs. Somerville, and by the still more striking experiments of Prof. Zautedeschi, who exposed a horse-shoe artificial loadstone, carrying 134 ounces, to a strong light of the sun, and after three days. it carried an additional weight of three ounces, and ultimately its power was so increased as to carry 31 ounces. These experiments being repeated under an exhausted receiver did not succeed, hence a doubt has arisen as to the source whence the magnetic virtue was derived, but it - must be conceded that the sun’s rays had some agency in evolv- ing the magnetism, let it come from what source it may, and this is readily explained if we suppose one or more of the magneti¢ fluids as entering into their composition. That a compound body should differ not only in its appearance, but in its most striking qualities, from either of the ingredients entering into its composition, is accordant with every day’s ob- servation of the chemist; it ought not therefore to be considered so extraordinary, that ROS fluids, such as we find on the poles of the magnet, should, when combined, produce radiant matter, such as either light or Kent: In fact, what is the magnetic spark, unless it be the result of the union of the two fluids. But elec tricity and galvanism also evolve light and heat; and may not there also be different combinations of the three cleinines which would account for the evident connexion existing between gal- vanism, electricity, and magnetism, and also their relation to light and heat. t is said, however, that light and heat are evolved from the atmosphere-by condensation, and this indeed cannot be contro verted; nor does it conflict with this hypothesis, for by conden- sing the air, these elements which are diffused throughout the atmosphere, are brought in contact, a union is effected, and light and heat are the result. The same effect would be produced by * ¢ Ce Eee oT) Terrestrial Magnetism. 103 the rapid passage of one of the elements through the air, but with increased energy, for the element itself would enter into the com- bination. Still I contend that light and heat, or one of them, is the result of the combining of the fluids of either magnetism, elec- tricity, or galvanism, without the aid of any other body. This is shown by passing electricity through the exhausted receiver of an air pump, when we have beautiful displays of light, and the effect is the more striking, the more perfect the vacuum. — If there are three simple elements such as I have here supposed, two of which are the fluids on the poles of the loadstone; then ‘let these three be so unequally diffused over and in the earth, as severally to predominate, one at or near the north pole, another at the magnetic equator, and the third at the south pole; each at- tracting the others, but repelling itself; and we have an elucida- tion of terrestrial magnetism. One of the elements entering into the constitution of light, but not necessary to heat, abounded in the arctic regions, so as to predominate in all: terrestrial forms to the exclusion of the ele- ments constituting heat, and this element is identical with one of the fluids on the poles of the loadstone, then it must follow, that the poles of greatest cold would coincide with the magnetic poles, and the isothermal lines have some accordance to the magnetic intensities of different latitude. The frequent occurrence of the aurora borealis in the northern tegions would be explained on this hypothesis, from one of the “onstituents of light predominating in the arctic circle ; and the ason of its affecting the needle be at once shown: so I think a Solution may be afforded, for the curious facts, that heat while it imparts the magnetic virtue to soft iron, diminishes with its in- ‘tease the power of the loadstone; while a white heat entirely destroys it, and a red heat reverses the poles. T admit that these views are merely hypothetical, but they are a more extended theory, which runs its ramifications through all the phenomena of nature, according with so many facts, that I cannot regard it as merely visionary ; but I admit that much deliberation and caution are requisite in advancing such Pesitions, lest we should disturb science with unfounded specula- ions, 104. =~—- Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. : Arr. X.—E zplosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen, with remarks on Hemming’s Safety Tube; by Prof. J. W. Wessrer of Harvard University.. Te occurrence of several explosions of the compound blow- pipe of Dr. Hare, in the hands of experienced chemists, is well known ; and the student can take up none of the modern chem- ical books without being made aware of the danger of using al imperfect or ill contrived form of the apparatus. In the use of two separate reservoirs for the gases, and the double concentric jet, it is impossible that explosion can occur. But it has, as those accustomed to use this splendid instrument* are well aware, beet modified in various ways, with the desire to render it more porta- ble, safe or convenient. The repetition of the early experiments of Dr. Hare and Prof. Silliman, by the late Dr. Clarke, of Cam- bridge, (Eng.) and his disregard of the claims of these gentlemen, are also well known; but it is somewhat singular, that so many | of the British chemical writers should still incline to give the ____ eredit of these brilliant results to him who but repeated what had been long before accomplished in this country. As every chemist must deem the compound blow-pipe, in some form, an essential portion of his apparatus, and as it has even become one of the constituent parts of the cheap, and too often imperfect, ‘sets of apparatus,” manufactured in all parts of the country, for the usé of schools of all grades, not unfrequently to be used by begit ners or inexperienced persons, it is highly important that every one should be aware of the danger of operating with the single vessel as a reservoir of the mixed gases. 'The convenience ° transportation, and the small space it occupies, are great tempta tions to make use of the single vessel and compressed gases, a8 1 the form first employed in England in the blow-pipe of Mr. Brooke. The tremendous explosions which took place with this instrument in the hands of Dr. Clarke, and of several others, t defences erected by the operators for personal protection, and the modifications in the jets, ad infinitum, with which the philoso- phical journals teemed, are too well known to be described. But PS Res ei a a So ees been with * For this invention our distinguished countryman, Dr. Hare, has recently most deservedly honored by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences the Rumford medals, ———— sae aie ni siee a aii eneeecnaeens eae Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 105 the encomiums bestowed upon the contrivances of Gurney, the oil cylinder of Prof. Cumming, the layers of wire gauze as sug- gested by Wollaston, &c., have now given place to the safety tube of Mr. Hemming, which is in fact a modification of the faggot of capillary tubes proposed by Wollaston, This tube was first publicly exhibited by Mr. Hemming at the meeting of the British Association for the advancement of » Science, in 1832, and is fully described in the published. report. - The description is quoted by the late Dr. Turner in his Ele-- ments, with the remark that all previous modifications, of the ap- Paratus “are rendered unnecessary by the Safety Tube lately proposed by Mr. Hemming.” An authority like this, and one Which has become the guide of so many, will undoubtedly lead to the employment of this tube, as well as to its construction, by — inexperienced persons ; and without previous care to test its safety in the severest manner, its use may be attended with the destruc- tion, not only of apparatus, but of life. Thave been induced to make these remarks in consequence of a terrific. explosion which occurred in my laboratory a few days since ; and to show how much care was taken to test the safety of the instrument before it was exhibited to my class, the fol- wing notes of some of the test experiments are taken from my record. The tube was constructed of sheet brass, 6 inches in length and #ths of an inch in diameter, the size recommended by Hem- ming. This was closely packed with iron wire (No. 22), each Wire extending through the entire length of the tube. The close approximation of the wires was increased by the introdue- ton of a pointed rod of the same metal and same length; this Was driven forcibly through the centre of the bundle of wires. Thus the Spaces between the wires were exceedingly minute, and it was with difficulty that air could be forced through by blowing With the mouth. It is hardly necessary to remark, that . large cooling surface was thus produced, and that flame ap- Plied at one extremity would be far more effectually cooled down byit, than by the wire gauze when held over a gas flame, or when “uttounding ignited gaseous matter, as in the safety lamp. The tube was terminated at each end by a female screw to receive . stop cocks. In my first experiments, the Hemming’s Mabe Was prolonged at each end by a leaden tube about four feet Vol, XXXvir, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. ~ 106 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. in length, to increase the cooling surface ; and bladders, contain- ing hydrogen and oxygen gases in the proportions that compose water, were attached to the two extremities. The stop cocks being opened, the gases were forced from one bladder into the other several times through the leaden tubes and that of Hem- ming’s interposed, thus ensuring their mixture both in the blad- ders and tubes. The apparatus was now placed in the open alr, and an arrangement made which allowed me to explode one of the bladders and observe the effect without danger. 'The one bladder alone exploded. This experiment was repeated many times, shortening the leaden tubes each time, until they were el- tirely removed, and bladders were attached directly to the Hem- ming’s tube. One of them was then exploded, but the flame was arrested as completely as in the previous trials. Having repeated the experiment with the Safety Tube alone several times, and uniformly finding it impossible to explode both bladders, I now did not hesitate to hold the tube in my hand, and to apply a flame to one bladder ; this was repeated several times, and in no instance was explosion communicated from the one bladder to the other. Mr. Hemming is stated to have operated before the members of the British Association with the bladder under his arm; and Dr. Hare in his letter to Dr. Dalton,* states that he has ceupharred the mixed gases with safety, more than a0 hundred times, allowing them to explode as far into the tube of efflux as where the contrivance in questiont was interposed, without explosion extending beyond it The safety of the tube having been so thoroughly tested with the bladders, I now substituted for one of them a strong globe 12 inches in diameter, made of 22 oz. copper; this, as well as the bladder was filled with the mixed gases. The apparatus Was placed out of doors, and, with the necessary precautions as to per sonal safety, the mixture in the bladder was fired, but that in the copper globe did not explode. 'The same result always occulTe in repeating this, and in no trial could I cause the flame to trav- erse the Hemming’s tube. y next experiments were made without the bladder. A small jet, —— an orifice of about ,'; of an inch diametel, Ne si ihanaltemaeOe * Amer. ae Vol.- XxxuI, p, 196. put t Dr. Hare alludes to some improvement he has made in Hemming’s tube, ?? has not informed us in what it consists, Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 107 was screwed into the tube, the mixed gases were condensed in the globe by a syringe, until on opening the stop cock they is- sued out with considerable velocity. The globe thus charged was again placed in the open air, with arrangements for igniting the gases as they issued from the jet and for protection, should explosion occur. They were ignited without explosion, and con- tinued to burn quietly. The experiments were repeated with "different proportions of the gases and under different pressures, always without explosion. The safety of the tube had thus been severely tested, and there was apparently no cause to apprehend accident, so that I saw no objection to exhibit it to my class in connection with the usual illustrations of the properties of hydrogen gas and the compound low-pipe. Accordingly, two bladders, filled as before, were at- tached to the two ends of the tube, the stop cocks opened, and one bladder being fired, the other did not explode. This latter, by applying a flame to an orifice and exploding it, was afterwards proved to have retained the mixture. _A few days after this, I exhibited the gases burning at the jet on the copper globe, to several gentlemen who happened to visit the laboratory ; and subsequently employed the same apparatus, filled with the mixed gases, before the audience usually attend- ing the lectures at the Cambridge Lyceum. It was used as a compound blow-pipe, and particularly for obtaining the intense light from lime in the focus of a reflector, as proposed by Lieut. mond. No accident or inconvenience occurred. On the following day, as the gases had not been entirely consumed, it Was used on my lecture table before the class. It may be thought that unnecessary precaution was taken to ‘scertain the safety of an apparatus that had come to us with the “actions I have already alluded to; but we cannot be too care- ul in experiments of danger, especially with new apparatus, and when made in this country from description only, and by artists hot always aware of its applications, or not prepared to put it to the test to which such instruments are usually subjected by the best English makers.* a eer ere me orem * : 4 “ An instance occurred under my own observation a few years since, where a — was compressing air into a copper globe, made in this vicinity, when it urs . : , t wounding the operator very severely in the hand and face 108 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. Having occasion to exhibit the compound blow-pipe in my lec- ture on the 16th of May, in addition to my usual method with two separate gas holders, andthe double, concentric jet, the cop- per globe was charged with the mixed gases, but with a smaller proportion of hydrogen, viz. 14 vols. to 1 vol. of oxygen, for the purpose of making some comparative experiments. After using ‘the gases in the separate vessels, I proceeded to operate with the new instrument; the jet was ignited and a few experiments made with confidence and safety. Having closed the stop cock, I removed (as I had often done before) a very short piece from the end of the jet for the purpose of obtaining a somewhat larger flame, to be directed upon a lump of magnesia. 'The orifice ex- posed was now ;,th of an inch in diameter and about 6 inches from the end of the Hemming’s tube, being at the extremity of a small brass tube bent upwards at an angle of 45°, the same which had been used in all the previous experiments. The globe was nearly in contact with my person, the jet and Hemming’s tube projecting horizontally in front of me from right to left. With the right hand the stop cock was opened, and the emission of the gases adjusted ; with the left the jet was ignited. The slight crackling noise, which all must be familiar with who have operated with the compound blow-pipe, occurred several times, and the gases were extinguished, but no communication of flame or explosion of the gases in the globe took place. On again applying a lighted paper to the jet, however, the copper globe exploded with tremendous noise and force, shatter- ing several glass vessels standing upon the table and shelves i the rear, and projecting the torn copper, stop cocks, and tubes, iD different directions. My fingers, resting upon the stop cock, were bruised ; and the right shoulder severely, by a large fragment of the copper, which in its course robbed me of no small part of the coat sleeve, and the cuff was entirely carried away. ‘The force of the explosion was exerted principally in the direction of ° the tube and jet in front of me, or I should not probably have escaped with so little injury. ‘The noise and concussion were deafening, and my hearing was not perfectly restored for several hours. No one, fortunately, of the class was injured ; the usual good order and attention were but momentarily interrupted ; the lecture was proceeded with, and the remaining experiments pel formed. — Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 109 On examination afterwards, it appeared that a large fragment of the globe had been projected behind me, striking a shelf in which it caused a large indentation, and a fissure of more than two inches in length, and of nearly one indepth. One large piece of copper was projected over the heads of some persons present out of an open window several yards distant from the table. The windows being open, but one pane of glass was broken; but the sound was heard in all the college buildings, and at a very consid- erable distance beyond. The question now arises, how could this explosion have oc- cured with an apparatus which had been subjected to such ap- parently thorough and severe tests? I have carefully examined the tube and every fragment of the apparatus, and recalled all the citeumstances and arrrangements, without being able to discover any imperfection or assignable cause. I have made experiments With the tube and bladders since the accident, and with the same tesults as before the explosion: the tube is as perfect as ever, and as incapable of transmitting explosion. That the stop cocks and every part of the globe were perfectly ight, and allowed of no leakage by which a stream of the gases Might have come in contact with the flame at the jet, I cannot but feel confident, as nothing of the kind was observable du- ting the condensation or in the previous trials. ‘The apparatus was new and very faithfully made. It was found by Mr. Hemming, that when the gases contained * Portion of water mechanically suspended in them, the flame Would return through the tube proposed by Mr. Gurney, where layers of wire gauze, &c. are employed, and even in its improved orm, where layers of asbestos are interposed. But with the tube filled with wires, exhibited before the: British Association, it Is Stated to have been impossible to produce explosion, even when the gases were made to recede by withdrawing the pressure on the bladder, In the present case no recession could have taken Place from diminution of pressure, as the compressed gases were ‘ushing out with great velocity. How far the compression of the gases may have aided the Combination of their bases, we are unable to say ; but from the °Xperiments of Biot, we know that it must be made suddenly and Violent] t Y, for when gradually applied, as in the sinking of a mix- me of the gases to the depth of one hundred and fifty fathoms, 110 Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. where the compression would be about thirty atmospheres, no such effect was produced. And in the present case, the conden- sation had been made rapidly, and two hours before the explosion occurred. It is not impossible that the state of compression and close approximation of the particles of the gases may have aided the rapid combination, and but a slight increase of temperature have been required to produce explosion, which may have been caused in the tube, by the slight explosions to which I have be- fore alluded as so often occurring in the jet. The capacity of the jet and stop cock, in front of the safety tube, was sufficient to contain but about one cubic inch of the gases, and the com- bustion of so small a quantity could have had but little influ- ence in raising the temperature of the safety tube; probably none, when we consider that the compressed gases were expand- ing as they passed out, and no doubt attended with the usual effect, the absorption of caloric. In a letter now before me, Dr. Hare has suggested the heat- ing effect of the previous slight explosions, as the most probable cause of the final explosion; but for the reasons just stated, I am constrained to seek for some more satisfactory explanation. Although it would be difficult, if not impossible, to prove that electricity, from the presence of the different metals entering into the construction of the various parts of the apparatus, or de- veloped by, or evolved from the gases, or the products of their first partial combustions, was not the immediate cause of this explosion, it would be equally difficult, in the present state of our knowledge, to prove that it was. The ignition of platinum sponge, and the combination of oxygen and hydrogen which it effects, it is well known, were, when first observed, attributed by Dobereiner to electricity, which has not been disproved, or satls- factorily explained, even by the researches of Faraday. aving communicated to the distinguished inventor of the compound blow-pipe a brief notice of the occurrence which have described, it will not, I trust, be deemed an undue liberty to remark, that in the letter above referred to, Dr. Hare appeals to consider all explosions as dependent on “a mysterious electrical reversal of polarities,” and that we are not as yet able to deter mine all the modes by which such reversals may be induced. From the first experiments made with the Hemming’s tube; it is obvious that it cannot be said that the wires were not | Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. - EY sufficiently small size to arrest explosion. Neither can it be sup- posed that the outlet at the extremity of the jet was insufficient for the expansion of the exploding mixture, and that in conse- quence of that expansion, the inflamed gases were driven back into the copper globe. This expansion must have been far | greater than 15 or 18 times, as deduced from Davy’s experi- ments, to have overcome the force exerted by the gases, which at the moment were issuing from the globe, under a pressure probably of nearly two atmospheres. The expansion of hydrogen and oxygen gases by explosion, : has not, I think, been satisfactorily determined; and Davy, | Whose results are most commonly adopted, does not appear to | have deemed his own conclusive. I have made some experiments on the subject, and should not have offered the preceding re- marks until more satisfactory results had been obtained, had it hot been necessary to defer the investigation to an interval of more leisure. When water is mechanically suspended in the gases, the dan- ger of retraction and explosion is undoubtedly increased, but the influence of the small quantity formed in the jet on the occurrence of the slight explosions already alluded to, must have been ina great measure, if not altogether, counteracted by the elasticity of the issuing gases. ; The cause of this explosion is certainly mysterious; but in Whatever manner we may attempt to explain it, it must be re- garded as additional evidence of the danger of employing the gases in a state of previous mixture, and of the importance of adhering to the use of two separate vessels and the concentric jet. With these, although less convenient on some accounts, there are other advantages ; their perfect safety, however, is alone suffi- “lent to induce us to recommend them, and them alone, to the chemical student. The trials with the tube of Hemming previous to the occur- fence of this explosion, seemed to warrant the statement in Its favor which has been made in anote in the edition of my Manual of Chemistry, now passing through the press. Laboratory of Harvard University, Cambridge, June 5th, 1839. 112 Greck Conjugations. Arr. XI—On the Greek Conjugations ; by Prof. J. W. Gupps. THE conjugations found in our common grammars, have usually been formed by writers directing their attention to a single language, and are probably the best for merely practical purposes. It often happens, however, that there is another arrangement of the conjugations which enters more deeply into the nature of the verb, separates more closely between primary and derivative forms, and prepares the way for more successful comparisons with other languages. The classification to which I allude is based, for the most part, on the broad distinction between internal or strong inflection which takes place within the root itself, and external or weak inflection which consists in the addition of new syllables and leaves the root untouched. As the internal inflection, which consists principally in the change of the vowel or in the reduplication of initial letters, is found in rad- ical or primitive verbs, and has a manifest analogy in different lan- guages, it has of late engaged the attention of philologists. These remarks apply more or less to Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, including English, verbs. I shall confine my attention at present to the Greek. Strong Inflection. Strong verbs in Greek are divided by philologists, for the sake of exhibiting their vocalic changes, into four classes. The tenses chosen for the purpose of showing these vocalic chan- ges are the 2 aorist, which usually exhibits the radical vowel, the 2 perfect, and the present. Class I. This class includes verbs whose radical vowel undergoes no chang® in inflection. 2 aor. éygdpyr, perf. /éyoage, pres. /oaqo. 2 aor. sigor, perf. ——_— pres. S890, 2 aor. 2golpnyr, perf. 26 grpa, pres. 6/1T0. 2 aor. éxdanr, perf. xéxona, pres. #670, 2 aor. éxoifny, perf. #éxguge, pres. xgimT0), 2 aor. 2aor, perf. dédac, pres. dé, 2 aor. 29uov, perf. dédcc, * pres. Jim. 4 2 aor. épinr, perf. zépue, pres. pio. Here belong a few verbs with « made and continued long by posi- tion, one verb with 7, and a few doubtful examples with ¢. Greek Conjugations. 113 2 aor. %ucgroy, 2 perf. uéuagra, pres. méortor, 2 aor. 2 perf. Adlaure, pres. Aguaw, 2 aor, éxhyyor, 2 perf. aénhyya, pres. ahijoow, 2 aor. *otIor, 2 perf. Béforda, pres. Pot The Latin language exhibits examples not only of a, but of other vowels, made and continued long by position ; as, Jambo, pret. lambi ; verto, pret. verti ; mordi, pret. momordi; curro, pret. cucurri. Class I. This class includes verbs whose radical vowel « is ciangee in the course of inflection into other vowels. 2 aor. &ganor, 2 perf. .rét9070, pres. Tgé70. 2 aor. Beyor, 2 perf. Aédoya, pres. Aéyo. 2 aor. ®augzor, 2 perf. dédogxe, pres- déguor. 2 aor. dorddyy, 2 perf. Zorole, pres. otédho. 2 aor. eTauor, 2 perf. TETOUC, pres. TEMLVO). 2 aor. txtavoy, 2 perf. xtova, pres. «revo. Z aor. LpIiony, 2 perf. EpIoga _ — pres. pteign This second class has a striking aii to the I. and IL. Teutonic Conjugations ; as, CONJUGATION I. Goth. past brak, part. brukans, pres. brika. Germ. past brach, part. gebrochen, pres. breche. Eng. past brake, part. broken, pres. break. CONJUGATION IL. Goth. past halp, part. hulpans, pres. hilpa. Germ. past half, part. geholfen, pres. helfe. Eng. past holp, part. holpen, pres. help. __ This seeond class of Greek verbs, like the I. and IL. Teutonic con- Ingations, has its radical vowel sols either preceded or followed iquid. by a li Class ITI. - This class includes verbs: ‘Whose radical\vowel a, t, v, is lengthened ° doubled j in certain tenses, 7 being equivalent to double «-. 2 aor, eugttyor, perf. nénoay ct, ' pres. noc lo. 2 aor. xltiyoy, perf. nexdyye, : | pres. hilo, 2 aor. ertixny, pert. rérnxer, eoUs? pres. Ti}x0, : 2 aor, Wexor, perf. dédyxa, . pres. Odzve. Pha Eqitvoy perf. négyra, pres. palvel. Xxvn, No. Scilibe: 1839, bis. 15 114 Greek Conjugations. 2 aor. Exotyor, perf. “éxorya, pres. xgitw. 2 aor. tovtyor, perf. Bésovzo, pres. fgiza. » 2 aor. iuiizoy, - perf. uéuixe, pres. “vxco. This third class has a striking analogy to the IV. Teutonic conju gation, where however @ has been changed into 6 or @; as, - Goth. past sloh, part. slahans, . pres. slaha. Germ. past schlug, part. geschlagen, _ pres. schlage. Eng. past slew, part. slain, pres. slay. Class IV. This class includes verbs whose radical vowel 4, v, is made a diph- thong by Gina in the perfect and present; as, 2 aor. évFoyr, perf. 2én013-, pres. mel do. 2 aor. tumor, perf. Adhoune., pres. hela. 2 aor. épvyor, pert. zépevye, pres. pevyo- 2 aor. tuyor, perf. tétevze, pres. Tedzo. 2s the first and second examples the radical vowel « is made@ diphthong by prefixing « or 0, as in Sanserit the same vowel is made a diphthong by prefixing a. In the third and fourth examples the radical vowel v is made a diphthong by prefixing «, as in Sanscrit the same vowel is made a diphthong by prefixing a. This mode of form ing a diphthong out of i or wu by prefixing a, is called Guna by the Sanscrit grammarians. This fourth class has a striking analogy to the V. and VI. Teutonic conjugations ; as, CONJUGATION V. Goth. past drazb, part. dribans, pres. dreiba. Germ. past tried, part. getrieben, pres. treibe. Eng. past drove, part. driven, pres. drive. CONJUGATION VI. Goth. past baug, part. bugans, pres. biuga. Germ. past bog, part. gebogen, pres. biege. Eng. past lien part. bowed, pres. bowed. In Conj. V. the radical vowel 7 is, made a diphthong in Gothic by prefixing aore. In Con VI. the radical vowel wu is made ati thong by prefixing a or 7 ~ The fourth class of Greek verbs, like the V. and VI. Teutonic co” jugations, has the radical vowel usually followed by asingle conse nant and that not a liquid. Greek Conjugations. 115 The verbs belonging to these four classes are all primary or radical verbs. , Weak Inflection. : ! _ Weak verbs in Greek, or verbs externally inflected, include some Primary verbs whose root or theme ends with a vowel or diphthong, | and all derivatives or secondary formations. Primary Verbs. perf. bé0gaxa. perf. xéntovxa. pres, doce, pres. 7Talw, perf. méxauxe. pres. déa, fut, djow, perf. dédexe. pres. cela, fut. ceicw, perf. oéoeuxa. pres. vedo, fut. vevow, perf. vévevze. pres. tlw, fut. tico, perf. TETLRG. pres. fda, fut. Sooo, perf. Pé8axe. pres. oie, fut. Aovow, perf. Adhovxe. Ul pres. 2tia, fut. arico, perf. wéatuxe. _ - Secondary Verbs. In do; as, tiuéw from teu}, and this from tla; xowdm from *6uy. Th é; as, movéw from abvog, and this from 7é»w ; xowarvéw from xol- Paros, ; 2 eo ; as, xounetdo from zou), and this from 2éunw; dovietw from dvhos. In 60 ; as, otepaydw from otépavos, and this from otégw; dovidw, from dotdoc. : ies Th bo ; as, Taviw from telyw. In fo ; as, oterdtm from orévw ; dogudtm from d@gos. Th (fw ; as, fartite from Pdatw; aydito from fidos. Ih ito ; as, tonito from fonw. Th aie ; as, Onuelym from oiuc. 70tvo from Adds. In byw ; as, I ; . . hw directly, from nouns or adjectives > as, novelido from mouxlhos. 116 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. Arr. XII.—Notice of Prof. Ehrenberg’s Discoveries in relation to Fossil Animatcules ; also Notices of Deceased Members of the Geological Society of London, being extracts from the Address of Rev. Winuiam Wuewett, B. D. F. R. S., President of the Society ; delivered at the Annual Meeting, Feb. 15, 1839. Tue Council have adjudged the Wollaston medal for the pre- sent year to Prof. Ehrenberg, for his discoveries respecting fossil Infusoria and other microscopic objects contained in the materials of the earth’s strata. We all recollect the astonishment with which, nearly three years ago, we received the assertion, that Jarge masses of rock, and even whole strata, are composed 0 the remains of microscopic animals. This assertion, made at that time by Professor Ehrenberg, has now not only been fully confirmed and very greatly extended by him, but it has assumed the character of one of the most important geological truths which have been brought to light in our time: for the connection of the present state of the earth with its condition at former pe riods of its history, a problem now always present to the mind of the philosophical geologist, receives new and unexpected illustra tion from these researches. Of about eighty species of fossil In- fusoria which have been discovered in various strata, almost the half are species which still exist in the waters: and thus these forms of life, so long overlooked as invisible specks of brute mat- ter, have a constancy and durability through the revolutions of the earth’s surface which are denied to animals of a more col spicuous size and organization. Again, we are so accustomed t receive new confirmations of our well-established geological doc trines, that the occurrence of such an event produces in us little surprise ; but if this were not so, we could not avoid being struck with one feature of Prof. Ehrenberg’s discoveries ;—that while the microscopic contents of the more recent strata are all freshW# ter Infusoria, those of the chalk are bodies (Peridiniwm Xanthi- dium, Fucoides,) which must, or at least can, live in the waters of the ocean. Nor has Prof. Ehrenberg been content with exami ing the rocks in which these objects occur. During the last tw° years he has been pursuing a highly interesting series of researches with a view of ascertaining in what manner these vast masses © minute animals ean have been accumulated. And_the result of Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 117 his inquiries is,* that these creatures exist at present in such abundance, under favorable circumstances, that the difficulty dis- appears. In the Public Garden at Berlin he found that workmen were employed for several days in removing in wheelbarrows masses which consisted entirely of fossil Infusoria. He produced from the living animals in masses, so large as to be expressed in pounds, tripoli and polishing slate similar to the rocks from which he had originally obtained the remains of such animals ; and he declares that a small rise in the price of tripoli would make it worth while to manufacture it from the living animals as an arti- cle of commerce. These results are only curious; but his spee- ulations, founded upon these and similar facts, with respect to the formation of such rocks, for example, polishing slate, the siliceous paste called keiselewhr, and the layers of flint in chalk, are re- plete with geological instruction. As the discoveries of Prof. Ehrenberg are thus full of interest for the geological speculator, so they have been the result, not of any fortunate chance, but of great attainments, knowledge, and labor. The author of them had made that most obscure and difficult portion of natural history, the infusorial animals, his study for many years; had travelled to the shores of the Med- iterranean and the Red Sea in order to observe them; and had published (in conjunction with Prof. Miller) a work far eclipsing any thing which had previously appeared upon the sub- ject. It was in consequence of his being thus prepared, that When his attention was called to the subject of fossil Infusoria, (which was done in June, 1836, by M. Fischer) he was able to. produce, not loose analogies and insecure conjectures, but a clear determination of many species, many of them already familiar to him, although hardly ever seen perhaps by any other eye. ‘The animals (for he has proved them to be animals, and not, as others had deemed them, plants) consist, in the greater number of exam- Ples, of a staff-like siliceous case, with a number of transverse Markings; and these cases appear in many instances to make up Vast masses by mere accumulation without any change. Whole Tocks are composed of these minute cuirasses of crystal heaped together. Prof. Ehrenberg himself has examined the microscopic Products of fifteen localities, and is still employed in extending PN est Se aides ec Sl * Abhandl. Kén. Ak. Wissensch. Berlin. 1838. 118 Ehrenberg’s Discoverics—Notices of Eminent Men. his researches; and we already see researches of the same kind undertaken by others, to such an extent, as to show us that this new path of investigation will exercise a powerful influence upon the pursuits of geologists. We are sure therefore that we have acted in a manner suitable to the wishes of the honored Donor of the medal, and to the interests of the science which we all in common seek to promote, in assigning the Wollaston medal to Prof. Ehrenberg: for these discoveries. Although it is not necessary as a ground for this adjudication, it is only justice to Prof. Ehrenberg to remark, that his services to geology are not confined to the researches which I have men- tioned. . His observations, made in the Red Sea, upon the growth of corals, are of great value and interest; and he was one of the distinguished band of scientific explorers who accompanied Baron von Humboldt in his expedition to the Ural Mountains. AndI may further add, that even since the Council adjudged this med- al, Prof. Ehrenberg has announced to the Royal Academy of Sci- ences of Berlin new discoveries ; particularly his observations on the organic structure of chalk; on the freshwater Infusoria found near Newcastle and Edinburgh, and on the marine animalcules observed near Dublin and Gravesend ; and, what cannot but give rise to curious reflections, an account of meteoric paper which fell from the sky in Courland in 1686, and is found to be composed of Conferve and Infusoria. I now proceed to notice some of the most conspicuous names, both among our own countrymen and foreigners, which have been removed by death from our lists since last year. ais4 In Sir Abraham Hume the Society has lost a member who was at all times one of its most strenuous friends and most liberal sup- porters, and especially in its earliest periods, when such aid was of most value. Indeed he may ina peculiar manner be consid- ered as one of the Founders of the Society. English geology, 4° is well known, evolved itself out of the cultivation of mineralogy; —a study which was in no small degree promoted, at one time; by the fame of the mineralogical collections of Sir Abraham Hume and others. 'The Count de Bournon, exiled by the French revolution in 1790, brought to England new and striking views of crystallography, resembling those which Hairy was unfolding in France; and was employed to arrange and describe the mine! alogical collections of Sir John St. Aubyn and Mr, Greville, and Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 119 especially the collection of diamonds of Sir Abraham Hume, of which a description, illustrated with plates, was published in 1816. Some years before this period a few lovers of mineralogy met at stated times at the house of Dr. Babington, whose influ- ence in preparing the way for the formation of this Society was mentioned with just acknowledgment in the President’s Address, in 1834, by Mr. Greenough; and certainly he, more fitly perhaps than any other person, could speak of the merits and services of his fellow laborers. Of the number of these Sir Abraham Hume was one; although not, I believe, one of those who showed their zeal for the pursuits which associated them by holding their Meetings at the hour of seven in the morning, the only time of the day which Dr. Babington’s professional engagements allowed him to devote to social enjoyments of this nature. Out of the meetings to which I refer this Society more imme- diately sprung. The connection of mineralogy with geology is somewhat of the nature of that of the nurse with the healthy child born to rank and fortune. -The foster-mother, without being even connected by any close natural relationship with her charge, Supplies it nutriment in its earliest years, and supports it in its first infantine steps; but is destined, it may be, to be afterwards left in comparative obscurity by the growth and progress of her vigorous nursling. Yet though geology now seeks more various and savoury food from other quarters, she can never cease to look k with regard and gratitude to the lap in which she first sat, and the hands that supplied her early wants. And our warm ac- knowledgments must on all due occasions be paid to those who zealously cultivated mineralogy, when geology as we now under- Stand the term, hardly existed; and who, when the nobler and mote expansive science came before them, freely and gladly trans- ferred to that their zeal and their munificence. The spirit which prevailed in the infancy of this Society, and to Which the Society owed its permanent existence, was one Which did not shrink from difficulties and sacrifices ; and among the persons who were animated by this spirit Sir Abraham Hume was eminent ; his purse and his exertions being always at the SetVice of the body. He gave his labors also to the Society by taking the office of Vice-President, which he discharged with diligence from 1809 to 1813. He died in March last at the great age of ninety, being then the oldest person both in this and in the Royal Society. - 120 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. Mr. Benjamin Bevan was a civil engineer, and throughout his life showed a great love of science, and considerable power of promoting its purposes. He instituted various researches, theo- retical and practical, on the strength of materials ;* and it was he who first proved by experiment the curious proposition, that the Modulus of Elasticity of water and of ice is the same. In 1821 he wrote a letter to the secretary of this Society, recommending that the form of the surface of this country should be determined by barometrical measurements of the heights of a great number of points in it,—the barometer which was to be used as a stand- ard being kept in London. Mr. Bevan and Mr. Webster were commissioned to procure a barometer, and Dr. Wollaston recom- mended one of Carey’s barometers, but it does not appear that any further steps were taken. I may remark that recent researches have further confirmed the wisdom of Mr. Bevan’s suggestion, that heights should be measured, as all other measurements are made, from some fixed conventional standard, instead of incurring the vagueness and inconsistency which result from assuming the existence of a natural standard, such as the level of the sea. Nathaniel John Winch was born at Hampton Court in the year _ 1769, and after a voyage into the Mediterranean, and travels im various countries in Europe, settled at Newcastle-upon-T'yne as @ merchant. He had early paid great attention to botany, which he continued to cultivate during a long life, and kept up a corres pondence with all the leading botanists in Europe. He was one of the earliest, and always one of the most active members of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle; and, in coD- junction with a few of his friends, gave to that town a scientific and cultured character, which still distinguishes it. He,was one of the honorary members of this Society; and contributed to its meetings, in 1814, “ Observations on the Geology of Northum- berland and Durham,” and in 1816, “ Observations on the Easter? Part of Yorkshire,”+ which were printed in the fourth and fifth ih * To Mr. Bevan our Journal is indebted for many valuable communications.— Ep. Lon. Phil. Mag. t Besides these papers, Mr. Winch published: ‘“ The Botanist’s Guide through the Counties of Northumberland and Durham. By N. J. Winch, J. Thornhill, and R. Waugh.” 2 vols. 1805.— Flora of Northumberland and Durham.” !” the Transactions of the Newcastle Natural History Society, vol. 2.— Essay 0 - Geographical Distribution of Plants through the Counties of Northumberland, Dur- a ee LEE Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 121 volumes of our Transactions. In these he stated his object to be to combine with his own observations much interesting informa- — tion on the subjects of the quarries, and coal and lead mines, of those districts, which had long been accumulating, and was widely diffused among the professional conductors of the mines. And these memoirs, though not containing much of originality in their views and researches, were, at the time, of considerable utility. He died May 5th, 1838, and, by his will, left to this Society a very considerable and valuable mineralogical collection, now in our Museum. Mr. William Salmon of York, was one of the persons who was most zealously and actively engaged in the examination of the celebrated Kirkdale Cavern. He measured and explored new branches of the cave in addition to those first opened, and made large collections of the teeth and bones, from which he sent speci- meus to the Royal Institution of London, and to Cuvier at Paris. The bulk of his collection was deposited in the Philosophical Society at York, then newly established. _ T now proceed to notice our deceased Foreign Members. : Frangois-Dominique de Reynaud, Comte de Montlosier, was — born at Clermont in Auvergne, April the 16th, 1755, the year of the celebrated earthquake of Lisbon. He was the youngest of twelve children of a family of the smaller nobility of that prov- ince, and was remarkable at an early age for the zeal with which he pursued various branches of science and literature. Count Montlosier must ever be considered as one of the most Striking writers in that great controversy respecting the origin of basaltic rocks, which occupied the attention of mineralogists du- "bg the latter half of the last century ; and to which, in so large # degree, the progress and present state of geology are to be as- ctibed. The theory of the extinct volcanos of Auvergne, the Subject of his researches, was the speculation which gave the main pulse to scientific curiosity on this point. It is true that he Was not the originator of the opinions which he so ably ex- pounded, Guettard, in 1751, had seen, vaguely and imperfectly, that Which it now appears so impossible not to see, the evidences ham, and Cumberland.” First edition, 1820; second edition, 1825.— Contribu- HONS to the Flora of Cumberland.” 1833.—“ Addenda to the Flora of Northum- berland and Durham,” 1836. Vol, *xxvit, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 16 122 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. of igneous origin in the rocks of that district: and the elder Des- marest, whose examination of them began in 1763, had made that classification of them, which is the basis, and indeed the main ‘substance, of the views still entertained with regard to the struc- ture of that most instructive region. His map of the district, pub- lished in 1774 (in the Transactions of the Academy of Paris for 1771, according to a bad habit of that body still prevailing, ) ex- hibits the distinction of modern currents of lava, ancient currents, and rocks fused in the places where they now are, which distine- tion supplies a key to the most extraordinary phenomena, while it reveals to us a history more wonderful still. But striking and persuasive as this view was, and fitted, apparently, to carry with it universal conviction, the theory which it implied, collected, as it seemed at the time, from one or two obscure spots in Europe; was for a while resisted and almost borne down by the opposite doctrine of the aqueous origin of basalt; which came from the school of Freyberg, recommended by the power of a connected and comprehensive system,—a power in science so mighty fot good and for evil. Montlosier’s Essay on the Volcanos of AU vergne, which appeared first in 1788, was, however, not written with any direct reference to this controversy, but was rather the exposition of the clear and lively views of an acute and sagacious man, writing from the fullness of a perfect acquaintance with the country which he described, in which, indeed, his own estate and abode lay. In its main scheme, although Desmarest’s is men tioned with just praise,* the object of this Essay is to criticise and correct a work of M. Le Grand d’Aussy, entitled Voyage en Au- vergne. But as the main additions to sound theory whieh this work contains, (a point which here concerns us far more than its occasion and temporary effect,) we may, I think, note the mode in which he traces in detail the effects which the more recent currents of lava (those which follow the causes of the existing valleys) must have produced upon the courses of rivers and the position of lakes ; and the idea, at that time a very bold and, I believe, a novel one, that lofty insulated ridges and pinnacles of basalt, which tower over the valleys, have been cut into thei present form by the long-continued action of fluviatile watel, is ee * After mentioning Guettard, he says, “ Les mémoires de M. Desmarest, publi¢s quelques années aprés, entrainérent tout-dfait opinion publique.” (p. 20- Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Noatices of Eminent Men. 123 aided by a configuration of the surface very different from the present. ‘The striking and vivid pictures which Montlosier draws of such occurrences, are to the present day singularly instructing and convincing to those who look at that region with the geolo- gist’s eye. After publishing this essay, M. Montlosier, a man of varied and commanding talents, became involved in the political struggles of his time, and was an active member of the National Assembly, to which he was sent as Deputy of the Noblesse of Auvergne. In his place there he resisted in vain the proposals for the spoliation of the clergy; and one speech of his on this Subject was very celebrated. After witnessing some of the chan- ges which his unhappy country had then to suffer, he became an exile, and resided in London, where for some years he was the editor of the Courier Francais, a royalist journal. Under the empire, he returned to France, and was employed in the Foreign Office of the Ministry, but recovered little of his property except @ portion of a mountain, which was too ungrateful a soil to find another purchaser. The situation however could not but be con- genial to his geological feelings; for his habitation was in the ex- tinet crater of the Puys de Vaches. The traveller, in approaching the door of the philosopher of Randane, had to wade through sco- tie and ashes; and from the deep basin in which his house stood, 4 torrent of lava, still rugged and covered with cinders, has poured down the valley, and at the distance of a league, has formed a dike and barred up the waters which form the lake of Aidat Pet 4 Spot celebrated by Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont in the fifth century, as the seat of his own beautiful residence, under the name of Avitacus. It is curious to remark that Sidonius does hot overlook the resemblance between his own mountain and Vesuvius: “ ZEmula Baiano tolluntur culmina cono, Parque cothurnato vertice fulget apex.” In this most appropriate abode M. de Montlosier was, in his old 48e, visited at different times by several distinguished English 8eologists, some of whom are now present ; and invariably de- lighted them with his unfading interest in the geology of his own fegion, his hospitable reception, and I may add, his lofty and vig- Srous Presence, according well with his frank and chivalrous de- meanor. His ardor of character had shown itself in early age: From my first youth,” thus his Essay opens, “I occupied my- . 124 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. self with the natural history of my province, in spite of repulse and ridicule.” The same spirit involved him in other struggles to the end of his life; and, indeed, we may almost say, beyond it. He took a prominent part in the political controversies of his day ; and few works on such subjects, which appeared in France in modern times, produced a greater fermentation than his “ Meé- moire a consulter” on the subject of the Jesuits. In this work he maintained that the position of the Jesuits in France was danger- ous and illegal; and he must be considered as the originator of that movement in consequence of which their body was, a few years later, suppressed by the government. 'The expression of his opinions respecting the conduct and influence of the clergy of his country was condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities, and was deemed by them of a nature to exclude him from that recog- nition of his being a son of the Catholic Church, which is implied by the performance of the funeral rite according to its ordinances. This, however, did not prevent the inhabitants of the neighbor- hood and the military stationed at Clermont from showing the re- gard which his intercourse with them had inspired, by attending his sepulture in great numbers. He was buried in a spot pre- viously selected by himself, in the crater of the extinct volcano in which his abode was, in the middle of the scenes which he had from his earliest years loved and studied, and taught others to feel a deep interest in. He died at the age of 83, on his way to Paris in order to take his seat in the Chamber of Peers, of which a member.* : Anselme-Gaétan Desmarest, honorary member of the Royal Academy of Medicine, and Professor of Zoology at the Royal Veterinary College of Alfort, was the son of Nicolas Desmarest, who has just been mentioned as the predecessor of Montlosier in his theory of the volcanic origin of Auvergne. 'The son also em- ployed himself upon the same district; and published an enlarged ee * Besides his “ Essay on the Extinct Volcanos of Auvergne,’ M. de Montlosier was the author of the following works: ‘Mémoire a consulter sur un Systeme Religieux et Politique tendant 4 renverser la Religion, la Société et le Trone’ (1826.) “ Dénonciation aux Cours Royales rélativement au Systéme Religie et Politique signalé dans le Mémoire A consulter,” (1826.) “ Mémoires de M- le Comte de Montlosier sur la Révolution Francaise, le Consulat, |’Empire, et Jes principaux Evyénements qui ont suivis 1755-1830.” Of this work two volumes have appeared, which bring the narrative down to the author’s quitting the Na- tional Assembly in 1790. Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 125 and improved edition of his father’s map of Auvergne ;—a work which is still spoken of with admiration, for its fidelity and skillful construction, by all who explore that country. But the labors of the younger Desmarest were principaily bestowed upon the other parts of natural history. We possess in our Library, extracted from various journals, and presented us by the author, his ‘“‘ Notes on the impression of marine bodies in the strata of Montmartre,” published in 1809; his “Memoir on the Gyrogonite,” published in 1810; to which he added, 1812, the recognition of the analogy of this fossil with the fruit of the Chara, pointed out by his brother-in-law M. Léman; his review of a work by M. Daudebard é Ferussac, on the Fossils of Freshwater Formations, in 1813; his memoir on 'T'wo Genera of Fossil Chambered Shells, in 1817 ; and his “ Natural History of Proper Fossil-Crustaceans,” published in 1822 along with M. Brongniart’s “ Natural History of Fossil Trilobites.” In the Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle,” the arti- cle Malacostracés, which contains a complete account and classi- fication of Crustaceans, is by M. Desmarest, with others on the “ame subject. In this work all the articles on Crustaceans had orginally been assigned to Dr. Leach; but when the lamented illness of that distinguished naturalist prevented his finishing this task, it was committed to Desmarest, who carefully studied the labors of his predecessor ; and, with most laudable industry and self-denial, made it his business to follow his method as closely 4S possible. He also published a separate work on Crustaceans In 1825, ; _ Count Kaspar Sternberg was one of ‘those persons, so valuable in every country, who employ the advantages of wealth and rank in the cultivation and encouragement of science. He belonged 0. @ younger branch of one of the best and oldest families in Bo- emia; and was closely connected with the persons of most eleva- ted station in that country. He was born the 6th of January, 1761, and received a distinguished education at Prague ; not only, *S Was then common among the Bohemian nobility, through pri- Yate tutors, but by following the public course of the university. © Was created Canon of the Chapter of the metropolitan church % Ratisbon, which, obliging him to receive the lower degree of holy orders, bound him to celibacy. At Ratisbon, then a consid- “table Place, and the seat of the Diet of the German empire, he formed friendships with several eminent persons, and especially 126 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. with Count Bray (afterwards Bavarian minister at various courts,) a man of letters, and a distinguished botanist. Count Sternberg also cultivated botany, and became an active member of the Bo- tanical Society of Ratisbon. During the time that Germany was a prey to the miseries of war, he retired to his hereditary country seat Brzezina, in the circle of Pilsen, in the northwestern part of Bohemia. Here his attention was early drawn to the coal forma- tion, of which mineral he possessed an extensive estate at Radnitz. He soon formed the intention of publishing representations of the fossil vegetables belonging to the coal strata. These had already ‘begun to excite the attention of geologists. Some of these works, containing notices on such subjects, preceded the existence of sound geology, as the Herbarium Diluvianum of Scheuchzer, the Sylva Subterranea of Beutinger, and the Lapis Diluvii Tes- tis of Knoor.* At the beginning of the present century, Faujas de St. Fond had published in the Annales du Muséum some im- pressions of leaves, not indeed belonging to the coal, but to a later formation. 'These impressions were examined and determined by Count Sternberg, in the Botanical Journal of Ratisbon, if 1803. In the following year appeared the first truly scientific work on this subject, the “ Fora der Vorwelt’”’ of Schlotheim, @ which the great problem which was supposed to demand a solu tion was, Whether the vegetables of which the traces are thus eX hibited belong to existing or to extinct kinds? Count Sternberg was in Paris when he received the work of Schlotheim, and he studied it carefully by the aid of the collections which exist 2 that metropolis. He published in the Annales du Muséum a 20 tice on the analogies of these plants, but concluded with observ ing, that a greater mass of facts was requisite; and that, these once collected, the general views which belong to the subject would come out of themselves. Bearing in mind this remark of his own, when fortune, after the storming of Ratisbon in 1809, set him down in the midst of the great coal formations of Bohemia, he proceeded forthwith to man age the working of his mines, so as to preserve as much as po* sible the most remarkable impressions of fossils. Combining his Sh orale ee ie _* To the earlier works on this subject we may add Martin’s Petrificata —_ sia, published 1809; and Parkinson’s Organic Remains, (1804,) which conta many plates of vegetables. re ee Ehrenberg's Discoveries—Notices of E’minent Men. 127 own specimens with those found in-other places, he began to publish, in 1820, his “Essay towards a Geognostic-botanical Representation of the Flora of the Pre-esisting World.” In this work he not only gave a great number of very beautiful colored engravings of vegetable fossils, but also attempted a systematic classification of them. But he stated, in the first portion of his work,* that the problems, important alike for botany and geology, which offered themselves, could only be solved by combined la- bors on a common plan; and after mentioning the various Euro- pean Societies to which he looked for assistance (among which he includes this Society,) he adds, ‘‘ Bohemia and the hereditary states of the Austrian empire, I am ready, with some friends of science; to make the subject of continued investigation.” The specimens of which he published representations, with many more, formed the Count’s collection at his castle of Brzezina; but he declared in the outset, that as soon as the National Bohe- mian Museum at Prague was provided with the means of receiv- ing and displaying this collection, the whole should be transferred from Brzezina to the capital. This was afterwards done; and in this and other ways he was one of the principal founders of the Museum at Prague. He also gave notice, that while the collec- “ion continued in his own residence, it was open to the inspection of every lover of science, even in the absence of the Count himself. The publication of Sternberg’s Flora der Vorwelt went on till 1825, after which it was discontinued till 1838, when two parts appeared, terminating the work. In this last publication he states ‘hat he is compelled to give up this undertaking, having been in * great measure deprived of sight for two years, so that he was obliged to devolve the greater. part of such labors upon MM. Cor- da and Presi, His hearing also failed him. He adds, however, ~ though thus no longer able to pursue the path which he has tedden for twenty years, he shall not fail to render to the science, “which he was one of the founders, any service which may be in his power, This publication was the crowning labor of his life, for he did not long survive it; he retained, however, to the last elasticity and activity of his mind. He died very suddenly — Country seat already mentioned, on the 20th of December, 838, being carried off by apoplexy in his 78th year. Sanaa eget * Erster Heft, p 16. 128 Ehrenberg’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. In his own country his influence was highly salutary: he di- rected his attention especially to the improvement of the national education ; and we cannot be surprised at finding such a person very soon at the head of nearly all the institutions for literary and public purposes. He founded the National Museum of Bohemia, of which he was the President ; gave to it his library and his va- rious collections, and further enriched it at various periods of his life. He was, indeed, zealous in all that concerned Bohemian - nationality, and was an accomplished master of the language and literature of his country : since his death I am assured that there is hardly one Bohemian of any class who does not mourn for him as for a most respected benefactor. "Throughout Germany, he was looked to by all who felt an interest in science with a respect and regard which he well merited. The emperor Francis held him in the highest esteem; he gave him the title of Privy Cout- cillor, and the Grand Cross of St. Leopold, held in that monarchy as a distinguished honor. In the preceding sketch I have mentioned Schlotheim as one of the predecessors of Count Sternberg in fossil botany. Although this writer died in 1832, and was an honorary member of this So ciety, he has never been noticed in the annual address; I may therefore here add. a few words with reference to him. Baron F. von Schlotheim was Privy Councillor and President of the Chamber at the court of Gotha, and his collection of Petrifactions has long been celebrated throughout Germany. Besides his Flora of a Former World, or Descriptions of remarkable Impressions of Plants, which appeared in 1804, he published, in 1820, ‘ Petrifac- tenkunde, or the Science of Petrifactions according to its preset condition, illustrated by the Description of a Collection of petrified and fossil remains of the animal and vegetable kingdom of a for- mer world.’ And in 1822 and 1823 he published Appendixes to this work. His collection was also further made known by att cles in Leonhard’s Mineralogical Pocket Book and in the Isis. After his death a new description of this collection was announ- ced, but whether it appeared I am not able to say. Schlotheim’s introduction to his account of his collection contains some extel sive geological views. It is only justice to M. de Schlotheim to add here what is said of him by M. Adolphe Brongniart, whose own labors on fossil ve- getables have been of such inestimable value to the geologist, and Ehrenbere’s Discoveries—Notices of Eminent Men. 129 are every year increasing in interest. ‘“ Almost half a century,” he says, “elapsed, during which no important work appeared on this subject. It was not till 1804 that the ‘ Flora of the Ancient World’, by M. de Schlotheim, again turned the attention of nat- uralists to this branch of science. More perfect figures, descrip- tions given in detail and constructed with the precision of style which belongs to botany, and moreover some attempts at compar- ison with living vegetables, showed that this part of natural history was susceptible of being treated like the other branches of science: and we may say, that if the author had established a nomenclature for the vegetables which he described, his work would have become the basis of all the succeeding labors on the same subject.” The following gentlemen were elected, Feb. 15, 1839, Officers and Council of the Society for the year ensuing. President.—Rev. W. Buckland, D.D., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Vice-Presidents.—G. B. Greenough, Esq. F.R.S. and L.S.; Leonard Horner, Esq. F.R.S. L. & E-; Charles Lyell, jun. Esq. F.R.S, & L.S.; Rev. Adam Sedgwick, F'.R.S. and L.S., Wood- Watdian Professor in the University of Cambridge. Secretaries —Charles Darwin, Esq. F.R.S.; William John Hamilton, Esq. Foreign Secretary.—H. 'T. De la Beche, Esq. F.R.S. & LS. Treasurer.—John Taylor, Esq. F'.R.S. Council.—Professor Daubeny, M.D. F.R.S. & LS. ; Sir P. Grey Egerton, Bart. M.P. F.R.S.; W. H. Fitton, M.D. F.R.S. & LS.; Prof. Grant, M.D. F.R.S.; Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S. ; W. Hopkins, Esq. M.A. F.R.S.; Robert Hutton, Esq. MP. ¥ -LA.; Sir Charles Lemon, Bart. M.P. F.R.S. ; Prof. Miller, MAL; R. 1. Murchison, Esq. F.R.S. & L.S. ; Richard Owen, Esq. F.R.S.; Sir Woodbine Parish, K.C.H. F.R.S. ; George Rennie, Bsq. F.R.S.; Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S. Vol. xxxvir, No, 1.—July, 1839, bis. 17 130 _ Meteor of Dec. 14, 1837. Arr. XII.—Account of a Meteor seen in Connecticut, December 14, 1837 ; with some considerations on the Meteorite which ex- ploded near Weston, Dec. 14, 1807; by Enwarn C. Herrick, Rec. Sec. Conn. Acad. On the evening of Thursday, the 14th of December, 1837, a meteoric fire-ball of great splendor, was seen by many persons in this vicinity. At the time of its appearance, Mr. A. B. Haile and myself were abroad here, engaged in making observations on shooting stars in concert with Messrs. I", A. P. Barnard, J. D. Dana, and J. H. Pettingell, in New York. Our attention was exclu- sively directed to the northeastern part of the heavens, and the western quarter, in which the meteor appeared, was unfortunately concealed from view at our station by a contiguous building. A brilliant flash suddenly illuminated the roof on which we stood, and concluding at once that the unseen source of the light must be a meteor of uncommon splendor, we noted the time. It was 7h. 39m. 32s. P. M. I was not able, after much inquiry, to ascertain the position of _the meteor at its first appearance. The testimony of two inde- pendent witnesses several rods distant from each other, near the middle of this city, coincided as to the azimuth of the point of extinction, and furnished me with data for fixing it at 8. 89° W. _ The altitude was less certain, but appeared to be about 9°. The meteor was much more splendid than Venus. It was ap- parently, according to the estimates of different observers, from one fourth to three fourths as large as the full moon. It mov downwards from a point between S. and W. at an angle of from 30° to 50° with a vertical, to the point before indicated, where it appeared to explode, and to throw down one or more large frag- ments. ‘The time of flight was 1 or 1.5 seconds. It was attended by a long and broad train of scintillations, some part of which re- mained visible for about ten seconds, and of course, long after the meteor was extinct. It is uncertain whether the report of the explosion was heard here. If audible at this distance, the sound would not have arrived until two or three minutes after the disap- pearance of the meteor, and unless very heavy, it might easily have passed unnoticed amidst the noise of the city. Meteor of Dee. 14, 1837. | 131 Thinking it probable that some portion of this meteor had fallen in the southwestern part of this State, I made inquiries by letter in Various towns in that region. At Wilton, (28 miles, about W. by S. from this city,) the meteor was scen by several persons, and their testimony was kindly collected for me, by Mr. Hawley Olm- stead. Mr. Edward Baldwin, one of the observers at that place, has given me some additional details. For observations at a spot about seven miles S. W. from Wilton, I am indebted to Rev. Theophilus Smith of New Canaan. At Wilton, the meteor pas- sed a little south of the zenith, in a westerly direction. It grad- ually enlarged until just before the explosion, and at the largest, it was of “the magnitude of one fourth of the moon.” The bril- lianey of the meteor was exceedingly great, and rendered minute objects on the ground distinctly visible. Its light was so intense that it arrested the attention of a person engaged in study in his fom with two candles burning before him. The train was long, and remained in sight several seconds after the explosion. When 25° or 30° above the horizon, the meteor exploded with a heavy report, which, according to the mean of various estimates, reached the ear in about thirty seconds afterwards. One or more of the observers saw luminous fragments descend towards the ground. ost of the witnesses imagined that they heard a whizzing noise, 4 the meteor passed over their heads; but this could not have been noticed until several seconds after the meteor’s passage. After collecting numerous observations from witnesses in vari- ous places, I found that they were not sufficiently exact and con- cordant to enable me to give a satisfactory account of the meteor, and I was for some time uncertain whether it was worth while to Publish them. ‘The following are the results which were ob- ined. The direction of the path of the meteor while visible, Was probably one or two degrees N. of W. and inclined down- wards. The length of its path, and its relative velocity, can only be roughly conjectured, as I do not find that any one saw the Meteor at its earliest appearance. Its path while visible may ve been from 15 to 20 miles long. Ou account of the direction of the earth’s motion at the moment, the relative velocity of the Meteor was probably less than the absolute, but how much less cannot be determined, as we do not know the angle which its Path made with our horizon. When it exploded, it was three or Sur miles above the surface of the earth, and probably over the 132 Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. town of Poundridge, Westchester County, N. Y.* The fragments which fell, doubtless lie buried somewhere in that region,—to be discovered, perhaps, in future ages. The larger part of the me- teor appears to have passed on, in its path around the sun. The size of the meteor can be ascertained in the present instance with about as much certainty as in most similar cases. Respecting this particular there is always abundant room for fallacious results. The observer is commonly too unskillful to make a just com- parison of the angular size of the meteor with that of any celes- tial body ; and he is moreover, without being conscious of it, often prone to exaggeration. He rarely sees the bare nucleus, but only the envelope of flame and sparks, and that, greatly en- larged by irradiation. Hence, there is danger of making the size of the body much too large, especially when the calculation 1s based on observations taken at the distance of 50 or 100 miles. The nearer the observer is to the meteor, the less is the probabil- ity of error in this respect. In the present instance, an estimate of the apparent size of the meteor by an observer at North Bran- ford, (nearly 40 miles from the place of explosion, ) would make the diameter of the meteor ten or twelve times as great as that re sulting from the observations at Wilton, only about six miles from the place of explosion. The data from Wilton make the diameter of the meteor about 150 feet, and it was probably a little less than this. The distant observations on the apparent size of the me- teor must be rejected, On the velocity of the Weston Meteorite. The meteor which cast down stones in several places in and about Weston in this State, on the morning of Monday, Decem- ber 14, 1807, excited uncommon attention far and wide, and full accounts of its interesting phenomena, were published in the highly valuable memoirs of Professors Silliman and Kingsley;t and of Dr. Bowditch.t To the elaborate calculations of the lat * T did not succeed in obtaining any observations on this meteor from the State of New York, but I was not able tomake thorough inquiry in that quarter. t Trans. Am, Phil. Soc. v1, 323; Mem. Conn. Acad. 1, 141; Med. Repos: xt; 202. See alsoa paper in the Churchman’s Monthly Mag. New Haven, ¥; « : count by Messrs Bronson and Holley in N. Y. Spectator, Jan. 2, 1808; Med. Repos., x1, 418; ib. xiv, 194, (1811.) } Mem. Amer. Acad. 11, 213, Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 133 ter we are indebted for our knowledge concerning its height, di- rection, velocity and magnitude. The case of the Weston meteor is one of exceeding impor- tance, because it is probably the only instance where a meteor from which stones are known to have come to the earth, has been sufficiently well observed for the determination of its velo- city. This element is of great value, on account of its bearing on the relation between meteorites and shooting stars. There can indeed be no reasonable doubt, that many of the meteor which have been seen and heard to explode, and whose phenom- ena have been submitted to calculation, were true meteorites; but this is a case where there is absolute certainty. Dr. Bowditch ascertained that the course of the Weston me- teor “was about S. 7° W., in a direction nearly parallel to the surface of the earth, and at the height of about eighteen miles.” {twas about a mile further from the earth’s surface when it ex- ploded, than when it first appeared. The length of its path from the time it was first seen until it exploded, as determined from the observations made at Rutland, Vt., and at Weston, was at 107 miles. This space being divided by the duration of the flight as estimated by two of the observers, viz. thirty seconds, We have for the meteor’s relative velocity, about three and a half miles a second. 'The observations made at Wenham, Mass., are Ptobably less exact in this respect, and need not be mentioned here, Every one accustomed to observations on meteors, knows how difficult it is accurately to determine the duration of their visible flight. An inexperienced observer, however intelligent, will frequently give the time, ten or even twenty fold too large. he apparent motion of the Weston meteor, was probably much Slower than that of most meteors, but it seems to me highly im- Probable that its visible flight could have exceeded fifteen or twenty seconds. Mr. Page, the observer at Rutland, Vt., says,— “motion very rapid, probably thirty seconds in sight.” The ry rapid, probably “e traversed by the meteor as there seen, Was not over 15 de- fees. Now it is scarcely credible that any man could consider *Svery rapid, the motion of a meteor at the rate of one degree in 'Wo seconds of time. It will perhaps be deemed improper to Mtroduce here, at this distant period, the recollected observation ne not unversed in science, who saw the meteor from a spot a few miles northwest of this city, and who is confident that it Could not have been in sight as long as ten seconds. I will 134 Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. therefore make no further use of his testimony. There are, how- ever, two considerations which may throw some light on this " point. 1. The meteor if a satellite, must have moved with a velo- city greater than three and a half miles per second, because if it did not, the earth’s attraction would soon have brought the whole mass to the ground. But it is certain that much the greater portion passed on. In order to have done this, through the air, at the height of eighteen miles, it must have had a velocity not less than five miles per second. ? 2. According to Mr. E. Staples, (one of the observers at West- on,) “when the meteor disappeared, there were apparently three successive efforts or leaps of the fire-ball which grew more dim at every throe, and disappeared with the last.”* Soon after the meteor disappeared, were heard three principal heavy reports, which “succeeded each other with as much rapidity as was col- sistent with distinctness, and all together, did not occupy three seconds.” Professors Silliman and Kingsley, who thoroughly examined the region where the stones fell, a few days after the event, say, “ We think we are able to point out three principal places where stones have fallen, corresponding with the three loud cannon-like reports, and with the three leaps of the me teor.” The account given by Mr. Isaac Bronson, of an investiga tion made Dec. 19, 1807, by himself and Rev. Horace Holley, confirms this position. (1.) The most northerly fall was in Huntington, on the border of Weston, near the house of Mr. Merwin Burr. (2.) The see ond principal deposit was near the house of Mr. William Prince “in Weston, distant about five miles in a southerly direction from Mr. Burr’s.” (3.) The third and probably the largest col- lection, fell near the house of Mr. Elijah Seeley, “at the dis tance of about four miles from Mr. Prince’s.” Although it is not certain that these several masses came i0 the same direction from the meteoric body, yet until the contrary 4P” pears, it may, not unfairly, be assumed that they did; an ° sequently the interval of space at which they struck the earth, , ke * Observers in Wallingford, Meriden, Cheshire, &c., “ all agree that its motion was not uniform either in velocity or direction, but that it seemed to bound, of ” one of them expresses it, to move scolloping.” Ch. Mo. Mag., v. 36. This ni probably due to the resistance of the air, which, in such cases, must be exceedingly great. i | | Weston Meteorite of Dec. 14, 1807. 135 furnishes some measure of the velocity of the meteor relative to the earth’s surface. The statement will permit us to allow not quite a second of time between each report, and we thus obtain a velocity as great as four or five miles a second. This result is of course no more than a rude approximation to the truth. The velocity thus far spoken of, is only the velocity relative 10 the earth. Here the question arises,—if the meteor was not a satellite of the earth, what was its absolute rate of motion? Now it will be noticed (p. 133, lines 14, 15) that the path of the meteor must have been nearly in the same direction with that of the earth at the time. Their directions in azimuth were almost iden- tical ; the direction of the meteor’s path in altitude, appears to have been a little below that of the earth. If the meteor was mov- ing around the sun, then nearly the whole of the earth’s velocity (at that season) of rather more than nineteen miles a second,— must be added to the meteor’s relative velocity to obtain the true Velocity, In this view, its absolute rate of motion will be found to have been at. least twenty miles a second. Itremains only to inquire, whether it is more probable that the eston meteorite was a satellite of the earth, or a primary body moving around the sun. If this meteor had passed the earth’s surface in the direction opposite to that of the earth’s motion, With about the relative velocity which it exhibited, then we might be compelled to consider it a satellite of the earth. But the pe- culiar direction in which it moved, makes it an ambiguous case. must therefore resort to other instances, for a solution of the qWestion. Numerous observations on meteoric fire-balls which Were without doubt real meteorites, have been made and com- puted. It has most generally been found, that whenever they ‘ome ina direction more or less opposed to that of the earth’s motion, their velocity is greater than ten miles a second; which Proves them to be in revolution about the sun and not about the earth, Their velocity has indeed more than once, exceeded thirty miles a second. It is then from analogy altogether prob- able that the Weston meteor was a body revolving around the Sun, and that if it had approached the earth from the contrary di tection, it would have been found moving with a relative velo- “ity of not less than forty miles a second. New Haven, Conn, 136 Notice of British Naturalists. Arr. XIV.—Some Notice of British Naturalists; by Rev. Cartes Fox, Cor. Mem. of the N. Y. Lyc. of Nat. Hist. Continued from Vol. xxxvr, No. 2, p. 230. Ray had two contemporaries whose names are still remembered with respect. 'T'o the first we owe the origin of British Con- chology. Martin Lister was descended from an old and respectable Yorkshire family ; but his parents, having removed: from their own county, had settled in Buckinghamshire, where he was born in 1638. His earlier education was superintended by his uncle, . Sir Matthew Lister, Physician to King Charles I, and President of the Royal College of Physicans in London. At the usual age he entered the University ; and in 1658, being then but 20 years of age, he took his degree at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Like Ray he appears to have distinguished himself here by his abili- ties and his classical attainments; and two years after, he was created by the royal mandate, a fellow of his College. ‘The pro- fession which he now chose to pursue was that of medicine } and having traveled for some time upon the continent, in order to pel fect himself, as was then usual for persons of his education, about five years after he had become a fellow, he settled at York practice as a physician. Whether he had heretofore, paid avy - tention to the study of Natural History, further than his profession required, does not appear; but it was not till 1671 that he first became an acknowledged writer upon the subject. The only periodical work of importance, the pages.of which were at this time open to accounts of miscellaneous scientific discovers was the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Lon- don. In this work we find Lister’s first paper,—“ Observations on an acid liquor obtained from ants and perhaps other insects. After having thus once began, he was a frequent contributor ; and he appears to have been not only an acute observer, but likewise a careful collector of miscellaneous facts on a variety of subjects His papers in the Philosophical Transactions amount, in tHe whole, to about forty ; several of which are upon antiquities, and one or two upon the anatomy of Testacea. But his princip* works, and those upon which his fame and usefulness as an a" thor chiefly rest, are—I. Historie Animalium Anglie, 74 . Notice of British Naturalists. «137 Tractatus ; Unus de Araneis ; alter de Cochleis, tam terrestribus lam fluviatilibus ; tertius de Cochleis Marinis. Adjectus est quartus de lapidibus ejusdem Insule, ad cochlearum imaginem fig- uratis, London, 1678. Ato. II. Historia, sive Synopsis Con- chyliorum quorum omnium Picture ad vivum delineate, exhiben- tur. Lond. 1685-92, and a third edition at Oxford, 1770. This latter edition consists of 1059 plates, exclusive of the anatomical ones; but there is very little letter press connected with it. Mr. Granger informs us that the drawings were executed chiefly by his two daughters, Anna and Susanna, and some think that these ladies engraved the plates likewise. - Evercitatio Anatomica de Cochleis maxime terrestribus et Limacibus. 1694. 8vo. - £ver, Anat. altera de buccinis flaviatilibus et marinis. 1695. 8vo. V. Exer. Anat. tertia Conchylorum bivalvium. 1696. Ato. The plates are remarkable for their fidelity and excellency. In his first work he confines himself chiefly to the ‘shells of the horthern counties, and describes sixty-three species. In his second Work a large number, not before noted, are added. His other Writings, some of which are upon medicine, are numerous ; but may be said, in general, to be marked with a propensity to hypothesis, and too Strong an attachment to ancient doctrines. He now became Well known in the scientific world; his practice as a physician Was Constantly increasing ; and his fame was generally extended. In 1684 he was persuaded to remove to London, in order that he might enjoy the advantages which the metropolis alone could ord him ; and in 1698 he was sent on an embassy, with the Earl of Portland, to the Court of France. On his return he pub- lished an account of his journey, which was severely satirized, *S containing some things which were supposed to be puerile and frivo us. He was elected a fellow of the Royal College of Phy- Scans; and in 1709 he was appointed Physician in Ordinary to ween Anne. This honor, however, he did not long live to en- Joy } for he died February, 1711,—having reached the highest Point in his profession. | When we read over the list of his nu- Merous Writings, we are surprised at his great and unceasing indus- € isa remarkable instance of what a person may do who makes use of all his time ; for Natural History seems to have Qn but a recreation to him ; and all he did on this subject he Vol, *xxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 18 138 Notice of British Naturalists. appears to have accomplished during his leisure hours. His pro- fessional practice was large; he was by no means unacquainted with the writings of preceding Physicians, and his information on general topics was such as might be expected from one hold- ing the high station in society which he did. What has been justly remarked of those among the ancients who wrote on Nat- ural History, we may apply, without much change, to Lister,— that they were men of enlarged minds, who were far from being confined to one study; that their views were elevated, and their knowledge various and profound ; and that while no object appear ed too minute for their consideration, their depth of thought pre- served them from trifling or unimportant investigations. Lister may be said to be the father of Conchology in England ; and his anatomical examinations prove how correct a view he took of the subject. In these writings he has displayed both great accuracy of observation, and indefatigable industry in detecting the most minute particulars of the economy of this part of creation; and we may still refer to his works with profit, instruction, and in- terest. Sir Roserr Srppatp.—The principal source of information te specting him, is from an autobiography written in 1695, recently published, with other scraps of Scottish history* under the title of “ Analecta Scotica.” He was descended from a noble family of great antiquity, and enjoyed the influence of a judicious and ex cellent mother, who was very careful of his education. He was born at Edinburgh, April 15, 1641, and received his education 1 the high school and university of that city. He then spent tw? years and a half on the continent, studying medicine at Leyden and in Paris, and cultivating the acquaintance of the leading vans of the day. Having obtained a French diploma of medicine he travelled in various parts of France, and returned through Eng- Jand to Edinburgh in October, 1662. ‘There was in those days no public coach north of York, whence he travelled to Newcastle on horseback with a guide, whom he retained through the re- mainder of his journey. On his return to his native country, he projected the plan fot establishing a Royal College of Physicians in Edinburgh, and W active in carrying it into effect. In 1686 he is said to have embra- ced Popery; from which, in a few years, he- again room * Naturalist’s Library, vol. ix, p. 18. Notice of British Naturalists. 139 His practice was extensive, and it was chiefly as a recreation from his severer duties that he pursued the study of Antiquities and Natural History. He was aman ofan active, investigating mind ; he had before him a field hitherto altogether unexplored, and i it his profession, as well as in these pursuits, he rose to eminence. In the latter part of his life he was knighted, and appointed Phy- sician in Ordinary to King Charles Il. He died in 1712. His Writings are numerous, as appears by the following list of his works: » Disputatio Medica de variis Tabis speceibus, Lugduni incor: 1661. 4to, Nancius Scoto Bri tannus; Edin. 1683 An Account of the Scottish Atlas; Edin. 1683. Folio Seotia Illustrata, sive Prodromus Histories Naturalis, &e. Edin. 1684. Folio. Again. 1696. Folio. Pilsncogi Nova, &c.; Edin. 1692. 4to.; reprinted at the instigation of Pen- 773. i aap anent the Xiphias, or Sword Fish, exposed at Edinburgh. An Essa ay concerning the Thule of the Ancients; Edicburgh, 1693. Camden’s Britannia, Additions to edition of 1695. Folio. Introductio ad Historiam rerum a Romanis gestarum, &c.; Edin. 1696. Folio. Auctarium Musi Balfo urani, e Museo pinbelinnts &0u3 ; Edin. 1697. 8vo. Coelii Sedulii Scoti poemata sacra ex MSS. &e.; Edin. 1701. 8vo eorgii Sibbaldi, Regule bene et salubrita Bite bad 3 ee 1701. 8vo. Commentarius in Vitam, G. Buchanani; Edin. The 9 and Independence of the Kingdom ian sciihiek of Scotland Asser- ted. Three Parts. Edin’ pel Answer to the Snr Letter to the Lord Bishop of Carlisle, &c.; Edin. ns Bion poeratis legem et in ejus Epistolam ad Thessalum, &c. ; Edin. 1706. 8vo. ae ty — concerning the Roman Monuments, &c, in N. B.; ' ne © His ories, Ancient ond Modern, of the Sheriffdoms of Linlithgow and Stirling ; Edin. 1710. Foli iy a Account of the Writers, &c. which treat of N. B. Two Parts. Edin. 1710. Visine quedam erudite Antiquitatis, &c.; Edin. 17 0. Reprinted, Cupar Fife; 1803. 8vo Commentarius i in Julii ‘Agricole Expeditiones; Edin. 1711. Fol Bains eetares concerning the Roman Ports, &c. in the Friths of Forth and Tay; in fons, Glosiarii de pes et Locis N. B.; i 1711, Folio ies rerum a Romanis, post avocatum Agricolam, &c.; Edin. 1711. Folio. Description of the Isles of a Bak and ele “Edin, 1611. Folio 140 Notice of British Naturalists. The “ Scotia Illustrated,” although the labor of twenty years, manifests but a small acquaintance with the natural arrangement of the subject ; and it contains many of the errors of system of the older writers. Each general term is not only strictly defined, but each genus and order are traced back to their original cause. Thus we find one chapter, to introduce an account of the Scotch rivers and brooks, headed, “ De aqua dulci”— On Fresh Wa- ter,” and informing us that “the necessity for fresh water is very great, that both men and wild beasts, and even plants themselves, may drink thereof and be irrigated.” Another, the first chaptet on animals, is headed, “ De hominum dignitate et prestantia,” and includes an account of the creation of man, and his superior worth and dignity in comparison with the inferior orders. But Sibbald was not only a naturalist, he was a physician by profession ; and it was not to be expected that he would omit all mention of a subject to which he had dedicated his life. At that time there was scarcely any ,production of the earth, the air, or the water, which was not pressed into service. In this respect, and in this department, we are perhaps more deeply indebted to the new and enlightend laws of science, than in any others whatever. Absurd and ridiculous remedies were still in vogue in the time of Sibbald. Inone instance, he recommends the foam ofa horse, taken fresh from its mouth, and mixed with oil of roses, as 2 cur for.the ear ache. In another, the liver of a mad dog eaten cooked, as a preservative against the fear of water. Again he prescribes the skin of a mad dog in the same rabid state, prepared with ga¥s and alum, as a preventive against the gout. We do not think, that as a science, Natural History owes much to this work ; and it is not only an instance, how little can either be accomplished -without fixed principles ; but also of the many errors into which any one must fall, who for himself neglects 0 reflect upon his own observations. It is interesting to observe the then medical condition of Scotland, when so few appeared to see for themselves whatever is either beautiful or excellent in the world around them, and to form conclusions from their = experiments and remarks. He who has succeeded in exciting a more general attention to any given subject, has opened the WaY ; ; ; 6 to improvement. When men are once induced to think, ee gre will both reason correctly, and strike out new ideas. The : ee ee ee a ee a Notice of British Naturalists. 141 difficulty is to fix their attention, and to give it a particular direc- tion; this once done, the rest must naturally follow. n the patronage of the public, the progress of science must | hecessarily depend. If no one will buy books, none will write them, and where there is no reward, there will be no laborers. We as @ nation aspire to eminence in science, and thus to com- mand the respect of the world, we must as a nation, cherish every species of scientific investigation, and the talents by which they are sustained. A nation is but a collection of individuals, and consequently a degree of this responsibility falls upon each person, in his own ap- Ptopriate sphere. The aggregate of grains of sand forms the beach of the sea, and each globule of water contributes to form the resist~ less wave, that breaks on the shore. It is true that ardent minds, impelled by their own innate energy, will sometimes advance in science without assistance, and that thus talents of a high order and Peculiar cast, may force their way into notice, notwithstanding all discouragements and difficulties; and being wholy dedicated '0 one subject, will finally achieve great results. Intense desire may produce intense action; but minds capable of such excite- ment and energy are rare ; and it cannot be doubted, that had they been encouraged by efficient aid, and warmly cherished by favor, they would have attained still more noble ends. The strength Which would carry them successfully through their journey, is Spent in overcoming the difficulties that thicken in the early part of the Way. Butall the various degrees of mental power are ne- fessary in science ; sound and unpretending as well as brilliant minds may be usefully employed. Most men will however, or only on such subjects as promise them final rewards. Even Senius may encounter peculiar discouragements ; and, necessity often directs its efforts to such pursuits as are most in request ‘mong mankind. It is probable, that even of those few who have, perseveringly labored against hope, there was not one whose Mmagination did not hold out to him, however delusively, honor, _ ‘molument or posthumuous fame, as his exceeding great reward ; Hor perhaps could he without this support have continued to strug- gle with Opposing difficulties. This country is full of active minds, and science commands a Portion of them to labor in its cause. "The names of Wilson, Bar- ’ 142 Notice of British Naturalists. tram, Audubon, Say,* Conrad, Nutall and many others testify to our successful cultivation of Natural History, and the works which have been published within the last few years in the United States, evince an increasing taste for natural science.t We now come to a new era in Natural History. In 1735 Laynexvs published in Sweden the first edition of his ‘Systema Nature.’ The great and most obvious improvements which he made, were the introduction of the binomial nomencla- ture, and the natural classification of all departments of nature, —beginning with man and gradually descending as he could trace similitudes. And here he appears to have had some idea, but which he did not live fully to elucidate, of the circular theory, ‘since brought more clearly into notice by Mr. Mac Lay Mr. Vi- gors, and Mr. Swainson, of London. The discovery of new truths is the peculiar province of an origiN- al genius. Linnzeus, absorbed in the studies of nature, carefully reviewed all former systems, thus laying his foundations deep ; and collecting what he held to be true in each, he then digested, re arranged, modified, and invented, according to one general plan. As the greatest genius is unavailing without strenuous industry; Linneus labored incessantly either in his closet or in the fields. The grandest as well as the most correct views, are those which have been gained by minute observations, and by the application of all the more precise and accurate methods of study. He regarde all Nature asa grand unity, infinite in detail, but consistent in exe- cution and end ; and with Bacon for his guide, he examined each pie Een eo * The greater sari of his library and collections he left, on his death, to the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. We are truly glad to find a late English writer speak as follows of ~_ Tt er ones “ How few vives an adequate idea of oa ardent zeal, th the most de- cumstances, that indefatigable ae in collecting, that laborious @¢ curacy in ota with precision and clearness ; and above all, that hist mo worth, that kindness of heart and gentleness of disposition, wines make Say the object of veneration to all who knew him, and cause his memory to be che orished with fondness by all who had once the happiness of ealling “him their friend.” Doubleday, in Mag. of Nat. Hist., No. xxvi1, new series. + Among the signs of this, whieh we rejoice to see, shy be named the inoremet demand in our great cities, and which con- tains a few circumstances of his private life, and peculiarly shows the bent and tone of his mind. He was born in 1726 at Downing, in Wales. His family was old and respectable, possessing some landed property, and having for some generations held honorable situations under Government. He appears to have been an only child. When properly pre- pared, and at the usual age, he entered Queen’s College, Oxford ; but afterwards he changed to Oriel, and on taking his degree, as- simed the law gown. He is here described as conspicuous for his general intelligence, and for the progress he made in classical Owledge. But his taste for Natural History was formed at a Very early period, and long before he was able to indulge it to the extent which he afterwards did. It is, indeed, not uncommon that those who, when young, have evinced a taste for this sci- ence, neglect it altogether in after life ; their feelings being, in this Tespect, like those of children pleased with the first sight ofa beau- tifal object. It is extremely rare that a person who has neglected this study in youth, becomes fond of it in after years. Pennant “ys, “a present of the Ornithology of Francis Willoughby, when I was about twelve years of age, by my kinsman, John Salisbury (father of Mrs, Piozzi, known as the Biographer of Dr. Johnson, ) "St gave me a taste for that study, and incidentally a love for Natural History in general, which I have since pursued with my Constitutional ardor.” n leaving college he probably returned to his home, and there Pursued his studies in the law. In these, however, he never made much progress. His station in life was one which is, per- haps of all others, the least adapted for nourishing common am- bition, or for stirring up a person to diligence in the business of Ne. It was a saying of the late Lord Eldon, that if a man be desirous of rising to eminence in the legal professon, he should he dependent solely upon his own endeavors for a maintenance. Now the contrary was exactly Pennant’s case. He knew that he Lis Notice of British Naturalists. should inherit a handsome property on his father’s death ; and in the mean time his allowance was such, that while it afforded him a comfortable competence, it prevented his indulging in luxu- ries; or seeking, in a more expensive sphere, for a higher stand- ard of mind. and action. The law he never practiced; anda few years after leaving college, he married, and settled down asa quiet country gentleman. It was not till he was about forty years of age, that he came into possession of his patrimony. His mind however, was naturally active ; and he was constantly employed in laying a foundation, in other studies, for his future eminence in the walks of natural science. Intimate social inter course he appears particularly to have enjoyed. He was far from shutting himself out from the society of his friends; he mixed freely with such as his neighborhood afforded; and with the marked politeness of the old school of manners, he highly relished the company of the fair sex. He has left a few sonnets of his own composing, which he addressed to particular ladies; and while the verse is neither very polished, nor manifests much study or care, the whole is marked by a pleasing playfulness of fancy ; an enlightened conception of the beauties of nature, (the constituents of poetry,) and a high moral delicacy. During this time, his attention seems to have been turned to the prac- tical and economical uses of natural science ; and he thus refers to the subject in his preface to British Zoology ;—“ At a time when the study of natural history seems to revive in Europe; and the pens of several illustrious foreigners have been employed in enumerating the productions of their respective countries, W@ ~ are unwilling that our island should remain insensible to its Pe culiar advantages; we are desirous of diverting the astonishment of our countrymen at the gifts of nature bestowed on other king- doms, to a contemplation of those which (at least with e4 bounty) she has enriched our own. Why then should we neg- lect inquiring into the various benefits that result from these _ stances of the wisdom of our Creator, which. his.divine munifi- cence has so liberally and so munificently placed before us tgs wnt * The study of the economical uses of natural history has been, hitherto, very ; : é : ‘ f little cultivated, and requires more general attention. As a true science it has, ° is e ie S a _ 5 | i] > =] & =a © =] S S © QO s, © 5 = = i - f=] 5 a o> = + ® = — ie S g. ae ad —_ = 2 S —| =] bins > ee Se we = - € , : | Notice of British Naturalists. 149 _ Previous to 1757, his only publications of consequence were two papers in the Philosophical Transactions. In that year, Lin- neus seeing one of the productions, was so much pleased with it as to procure his election as a member of the Royal ‘Society of Upsal; an honor which appears to have had its appropriate effect upon his mind, in stirring him up to still greater endeavors; an this is indeed, the principal benefit of such literary distinctions. In 1761, being then thirty-five years of age, he began his first great work on British Zoology. It was published in folio at his Own cost, and contained one hundred and thirty-two plates. Which they perform in the economy of the world; and the possibility of procuring their assistance, or avoiding their ravages, are all subjects which have been very slightly investigated. Asa singular instance in point, we may mention the eul- tries, to the estin to ide are covered, and carrying it with them into the female fig, produce that natural iti : produ nay farther study. A society, which promises to be successful in its results, as lately been established in London, on this principle, for the introduction in the ? improvement in some branches of mechanics might be expected fi au accurate investigation of this subject. The writer contributed ew years oh an anonymous article to this Journal, (Vol, xxxu, pp on the womical uses of some species of Testacea,’” wit of showing that ®ven in a branch generally supposed to he least capable of any practical benefit, - Principle might be much extended, and greatly carried out; a if so, that nj others, universally confessed to be more capable of it, it need not to be u‘glected for fear of failure. Natural science is, still, too little considered as a 7 It cannot be said by any means yet to have arrived at its climax; but when 'S perfected, it will, it appears to us, combine in one grand circle, natural system- sal arrangement, founded on anatomical distinction ; a minute description of the > individual and social habits of each species; a knowledge of the uses to Which ®y may be made available; the purposes of their creation, and the place ach holds in tite great chain of nature ; a vast mass of materials has been ; but much is still wanting to finish so great a work. Nature is as a whole, but only limb by limb ; and the next great marked im- Nt in this science, will probably be the conjunction of the different parts ne general intimate union; and the combination of the science with the art. 150 Notice of British Naturalists. The profits of it he had dedicated to a Welsh charity school in London, of which he was the patron; but the expense of the undertaking was so great, and the sale comparatively so limited, that he lost considerably by the work. As the editions were mul- . tiplied he added to it, and improved it ; and it was afi terwards pub- lished in octavo with profit. The first one hundred pounds that he realized from it, he presented to the school. ‘'T'wo years after this, his wife, to whom he appears to have been much at- tached, and of whem he speaks in the warmest terms of affection, died; leaving him two young children; and to relieve his mind from the grief natural to such an event, he paid a visit to the continent. We may imagine with what pleasure Pennant, with a mind constituted as his was, found himself surrounded by the great naturalists and literati of his day. Among them he visited, and became intimate with Buffon, Voltaire, Baron Haller, the tw Gesners, and Dr. Pallas. The intimacy thus formed, with Pallas, continued through life; their correspondence was frequent ; and Pennant tells us that to this gentleman he owed the first hint of his Synopis of British quadrupeds. But Buffon was then the most noted naturalist in that part of the continent ; and naturally there- fore, the person in whom Pennant felt the greatest personal interest. He spent a week with him at his country residence. Buffon was born in 1707, of a noble family, and at an early age inherited 4 large property. He dedicated his life to the pursuit of science In 1749 he began to publish his “ Histoire naturelle,” and comple- ted it in 1767. He died about 1780. His talents were original, and of high order; and by the beauty and eloquence of his style, the earnestness with which he insisted upon the advantages of this study; and the magnificence of his published works, he al: tracted great attention to the science. Asa practical naturalist, he was, however, exceedingly deficient. He depended ina great measure upon the information afforded by others; and like Gold- smith, in a somewhat similar undertaking, his brilliant imagin® tion worked this up into an interesting and most popular book He pursued no regular system, although he had his own peculiat views. Whether he already saw the danger which was likely arise from too servile an adherence to Linnzus; or whether It was owing toa want of sufficient knowledge of scientific detail 5 and an affected independence of mind, he merely grouped ms * Notice of British Naturalists. 151 subjects according to a coarse, outward resemblance ; and ridiculed amore accurate system of classification. The mind of man is ever more inclined to follow some one leader, and to lean upon the labors of others, than to strike out truths for itself. Thus it has always happened, that a fondness for certain popular systems has chained down the general intellect toone point. Buffon perceiving the popularity of the writings of Linneus, foreseeing to what it would lead, and endeavor- ing to avert this evil, in this way rushed into the contrary ex- treme; he thus discarded all system but what he chose to call the natural one, “ ne seroit—il pas,” says he, “ plus naturel, et plus vrai de dire qu'un dne est un dne, et un chat, un chat que de vouloir, sans savoir pourquoi, qwun ane soit un cheval, et un chat un loup—cervier ?” On Pennant’s return home in 1767, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; and in 1768, we find him engaged in pub- lishing a second edition of his British Zoology. Like Ray, he was, throughout life, celebrated for his frequent tours through Great Britain, accounts of which he published from time to time. His object in these journeys was to study natural history in the different parts of the country; but he paid attention to every thing of interest; and especially to antiquities. In 1770 he vis- ited Scotland, with the condition of which, strange as it may Seem at the present day, the English were then almost unac- quainted. “] had the hardiness,” says he, “to venture on a Journey to the remotest part of North Britain, a country almost 8s little known to its southern brothers as Kamtschatka. I brought home a favorable account of the land. Whether it will ank me or not, I cannot say, but from the report I made, and showing that it might be visited with safety, it has ever since ®en inondée with southern visitors.” In 1772, he made another Visit to that country, and went as far as the Hebrides. His only Companion in these journeys was a self taught artist, whom he “upporied, and who illustrated his different works with views, ®ngraved in a very excellent style. Besides these trips to Scot- land, he visited Ireland, as well as the north of England and Wales, and published an account of the Topography of London. All these tours he performed on horseback ; a mode of travelling to which he attributed the excellent health which he enjoyed through life. ¥ thus moving about, he acquired much information for his va- 152 Notice of British Naturalists. rious works; and he discovered many novelties, which perhaps were novelties only, because no one had hitherto taken the trouble to look for them. Since his day, England has been diligently explored, and he is fortunate who succeeds in discovering there any thing new. In this country there is altogether as good a field, if not better, for original discovery, as Pennant enjoyed ; and the experience of our travelling naturalists and of the scientific and exploring expeditions proves sufficiently, that he who takes the trouble of observing, will be fully rewarded for his pains. ‘The accounts which Pennant published of these tours, are perhaps the most instructive and interesting of the kind which we possess. It is a common remark, that the climates of both Europe and America are gradually changing. 'T’o decide whether this is the case or not, or whether the difference arises only from a higher state of cultivation, is a work of great difficulty. The data on which to proceed, are in a great measure wanting. Well con- ducted meteorological observations, although we now have some of great value, have not been recorded in numerous places and for a sufficient length of time, to form the basis of general con- clusions ; and without some such certain and well known expetl- ments, from which sound deductions may be drawn, it is not pos sible to arrive at any satisfactory opinion. It is a circumstance worthy of observation, that both in the United States, and in Great Britain, many birds appear to have changed their habitations within the last one hundred years. 1 his first tour to Scotland, Pennant visited the Fern Islands, 4 group of barren rocks off the Coast of Northumberland, and there found the little Auk, (Mergulus alle, Selby,) and the Black Guil- lemot, (Uria Grylle, Lath,) not unfrequent ; while, according to Mr. Selby, the first dees not now occur at all, and the latter is only occosionally met with in that location, Another instance 18 that of the Crane, ( Grus cinerea, Bechst.,) which, according ' Ray, was in his time found, in some counties, in large flocks, but which now ranks among the rare visitors. Others again, once scarce, have taken their places, and become comparatively COM mon; among which we may particularly remark, as of very ' cent date, the Honey Buzzard, (Buteo Apivorus, Ray.) A long list of such changes might be given. We must now revert 4 few years, to trace Pennant’s literary labors. | Notice of British Naturalists. 153 In 1769, he published a volume on British fishes; and in the same year he began a work on Indian Zoology, which however, proceeded only to twelve plates, and was afterwards republished in Saxony. Of this he observes:—“my mind was always in a progressive state; it could never stagnate ; this carried me fur- ther than the limits of my own Islands; and made me desirous of forming a zoology of some distant country, with which I might relieve my pen by the pleasure and variety of the subjects.” In 1770, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Dron- theim. In 1771, the honorary degree of doctor of law, was con- ferred upon him by the University of Oxford. About this period, he married a second wife ; the fortune he now possessed, allowed him to indulge his natural taste for hospitality; and being thus comfortably settled, he entirely lost, as he informs us, his desire of rambling. In 1785, appeared his great work on the “ Arelie Zoology ; which was shortly after translated both into German and French. He was now elected a member of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, an attention which was peculiarly gratifying to him; and he observes on the occasion, at “there science of every kind began to flourish, and among others of natural history.” From this time he continued to print other occasional works ; among them a pamphlet entitled, ‘ American Annals ; an incite- ment to Parliament men to inquire into the conduct of the com- manders in the American war ;' and he was now much engaged In his duties as a magistrate and a landlord. His health continu- ed good till within two years of his death, when, in 1798, he quietly sank into the grave at the age of seventy-two. In person ~ Was rather above the middle height, well proportioned, and Somewhat inclined, in the latter part of his life, to corpulency. His complexion was fair; and his countenance peculiarly open and benignant, hile many may stand higher in general estimation for their genius and abilities, few surpass Pennant in his unceasing indus- ty and his continual endeavors to be useful to his fellow men. Mild and amiable in temper he avoided politics as far as he could, an age peculiarly subject to political excitement ; and this, re- fined a disposition originally tender and gracious. He fulfilled his domestic duties in a manner truly exemplary ; and his writings Und in passages which prove that he never forgot his con- hie Xxxvir, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 20 154 Notice of British Naturalists. stant dependence upon his Creator. The distresses in which his poor neighbors were involved, gave him unfeigned uneasiness ; and he endeavored to relieve them by every means in his power. His name was long remembered by them with love and respect. But we cannot do better than to let him speak for himself, as re- gards his occupations and character. ‘TJ still haunt the bench of justices (1793). Tam now active in hastening levies of our gen- erous Britons into the field. However unequal, I still retain the same zeal in the services of my country, and have grown indig- nant at injuries offered to my native land; or have incited a vig- orous defence against the lunatic designs of enthusiastic tyranny; or the presumptuous plans of fanatical atheists to spread theit reign or force their tenets on the contented moral part of theit fellow creatures.” “I am often astonished at the multiplicity of my publications, especially when I reflect on the various duties which it has fallen to my lot to discharge, as a father of a fam- ily, landlord of a small but very numerous tenantry, and not an inactive magistrate. I had a great share of health during the lit erary part of my days: much of this was owing to the riding eX ercise of my extensive tours, to my manner of living, and to my temperance. I go to rest at ten; and rise, summer and winter, at seven ; and shave reguilarly at the same hour. I avoid the meal of excess—a supper; and my soul rises with vigor to its employ- ments, and I hope does not disappoint the end of its Creator.” “Thus far has passed my active life, even to the present yeal, 1792, in which I have passed half way of my sixty-seventh yeal. My body may have abated its wonted vigor, but my mind still retains its wonted power, its longing for improvements, its wish to receive new lights through chinks which nature has ma a In his zoélogical works he includes the whole of the British vertebrated animals—testacea, crustacea, &c. His arrangement is founded upon that of Linnenus; but he occasionally alters his plan to that which seemed to him better adapted to the subject. instead of confining himself to mere description and classification, which was a prominent fault in previous works on natural history; and one which has not been avoided by succeeding British Natt ralists, he, as far as he is able, both introduces notices of habs and manners, and indulges in detail. His writings are still con sidered as standard works, and are still constantly referred to a0 quoted. In some departments, very little has since been added, Notice of British Naturalists. 155 but of course in the more intricate subjects we can scarcely ex- pect to find him perfect. The plates are numerous, and executed with great fidelity. Those of the Testacea have seldom been surpassed. From his life we may learn that the busiest station does not preclude attention to this study ; and while it relieves and graces narrow. circumstances, it adds increased lustre and honor to the highest stations. The British Conchologists of this period were Emanvet Men- Drs DA Cosra, who published at London, in 1778, a very beauti- fully executed quarto volume under the title of ‘ Historia natu- ralis Testaceorum Britannia ; or the British Conchology, con- laining the descriptions, and other particulars of the Natural History of Great Britain and Ireland? The plates are very faithful, and are colored. The text is both in French and Eng- ish. His system was peculiar to himself, and has never been adopted. It was in conformity to a system which he had pro- Posed shortly before in a thin octavo volume, called ‘ Elements of Conchology.’? His work is still often referred to for the plates. The other writer, who is less generally known, is WALKER, who published a volume in 1784, on the intricate subject of the Minute British Shells. ‘ T'estacea minuta rariora.’ Ten years before Pennant’s death, in 1788, appears the first edition of Rev. Gisert Wurte’s ‘ Natural History and Antiqui- ties of Selborne;’ a work which ever has been, and ever will be, tead with pleasure. Born in 1720, at Selborne, a little country Village, the surrounding scenery diversified with hills and woods, he passed through the ordinary routine of education ; and in due time became a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford ; and one of the Senior Proctors of the Univerity. “Being of an unambitious temper, and strongly attached to the charms of rural scenery, he early fixed his residence in his native village, where he spent the steater part of his life in literary occupation, and especially of the ‘tudy of Nature. This he followed with patient assiduity, and a mind ever open to the lessons of piety and benevolence which such 4 study is so well calculated to afford. ‘Though several oceasions Offered of settling upon a college living, he could never persuade self to quit his beloved spot, which was indeed a peculiarly happy Situation for an observer. He was much esteemed bya Select society of intelligent and worthy friends, to whom he paid 156 ~~ ~=«O'Notice of British Naturalists. occasional visits. ‘Thus his days passed tranquil and serene, with scarcely any other vicissitude than those of the seasons, till they closed at a mature age, on the 26th June, 1793.” His work, consisting of letters addressed to Mr. Pennant, and which, in the original edition, is a thick quarto volume, illustrated with plates, is a singular instance how much may be effected in a very small sphere by a joint habit of observation, and of noting down every thing as it occurs. We lose constantly many interesting pal- ticulars, from neglecting to make a memorandum of them at the time ; they may at the moment appear to be of very slight im- portance, but each year will add to their value, and each separate circumstance connects the foregoing with some general principles. He who tries this plan is soon surprised to discover what a large mass of curious information he brings together. It is the founda- tion of the success of fictitious writings, that human nature, de- picted exactly as it is—the manners and sayings either of indi- viduals or great classes of men, faithfully recorded—always prove highly interesting and popular. This, if the description be but graphic and faithful, is equally true as regards the habits and in- stinets of the inferior creatures ; and what White di¢, all persons of any literary taste are equally capable of accomplishing. As# clergyman, confined to his parish, which he seldom appears ' have left, and diligently engaged in his duties, the only time in which he could indulge this taste, was during the hours of te laxation and exercise; and having once attained the habit of daily making notes, the time required for doing so was very little and such as every one has at his disposal. It is to such observa tions, rather than from the labors of professed naturalists, that for the present at least, we must look for the progress of natt history in this country. We must depend upon individual effort for combined results; and it is an encouragment that one need not be an accomplished naturalist, or one by profession, in order ! make useful observations. Pennant, in a short essay attached to his zodlogy, has particularly pressed the attention of clergy- men to this study. There certainly is no reason why they sho neglect, and there are many cogent reasons why they shoul cultivate it. Country clergymen often enjoy many facilities for its successful prosecution ; while classical knowledge and literary habits render them peculiarly fit for making discoveries 4” ae Notice of British Naturalists. 157 improvements. It falls in very happily with their professional knowledge. 'The mysteries of the creation of God, as well as his attributes, and his government of the world in his dispen- sations to man, it is their duty to study and to exemplify; but | while they confine themselves to the revealed word alone, they shut out of sight a volume which speaks not less forcibly of the love and excellencies of the Creator, and of his mighty wisdom and perfections. 'There is no reason why persons of this profession should’ be less sensible to, or less well informed in regard to phy- sical objects, than the other educated classes of society, but rather the contrary ; and the greater their knowledge is, the greater likewise will be their capabilities of fulfilling the end of their lives. The Jesuits,* whose system of education is perhaps, as a means, one of the very best adapted for producing the required tesults, are very far from’ neglecting the study of these subjects; and they have exemplified in practice, what the good George Her- bert has asserted in theory, that “the country parson is full of all knowledge, They say it is an ill mason that refuseth any stone : and there is no knowledge but in a skilful hand,—serves either positively as it is, or else to illustrate some other knowledge. He condescends even to the knowledge of tillage and pasturage, and makes great use of them in teaching, because people, by What they understand, are best led to what they understand not.”’+ Some of the ereatest living naturalists of Great Britain are clergyman, among whom we may mention Dr. John Fleming, Minister of Flisk, Fifeshire, Rev. Leonard Jenyns, and Professors Buckland and Sedgwick, to whom Geology owes much of its Present eminence. The following extracts from White’s original preface, are not Unworthy of repetition :— “The author is also of opinion that if stationary men would Pay some attention to the districts in which they reside, and Would publish their thoughts on the objects which surround them, ftom such materials might be drawn the most complete county Sa ae eee rea ~ Sie etiam quoniam artes, vel Scientia Naturales ingenia disponunt ad Theo- logiam, et ad perfectam cognitionem et usum illius inserviant, et per seipsas ad eundem finem juvant ; qua diligentia par est, et per eruditos Preceptores, in omni- bus “incere honorem et gloriam Dei querendo, tractentur.” Pars4. Cap. XII. §3. s ‘onstitutiones Societatis Je. A Priest in the Temple.” Chap. IV. 158 Notice of British Naturalists. histories which are still wanting in several parts of this country.”* “If the writer should at all.appear to have induced any one of his readers to pay a more ready attention to the wonders of creation, too frequently overlooked as common occurrences ; or if he should, by any means, have lent a helping hand towards the boundaries of historical and topographical knowledge, his purpose will be fully answered. But if he should not have been successful in any of his intentions, yet there remains the consolation behind, that these pursuits, by keeping the body and mind employed, contributed to much health and cheerfulness of spirit, even to old age.” But while writers were thus arising on all sides, and were dil- igently employed in illustrating the zodlogy of their own country, this science could not yet be said to have become, in the propet sense of the word, popular. Illustrated books are peculiarly ne- cessary in the pursuit of this study. Such were still expensive, and difficult of attainment. "The works of Linnzeus were stil concealed in the Latin tongue ; and the majority, those for whom such a refining study is chiefly to be desired, were thus shut out from the most efficient means of acquiring a philosophical knowl- edge of the subject. This difficulty was now to be removed. In 1790, Tuomas Bewicx first appeared conspicuously before the public, both as a naturalist, and the reviver of the art of et graving on wood; and we may justly be allowed to consider the publication of his works as an era inthis science, so far as it ret dered the subject more easily available to the mass of the people. In this year came out the first edition of his ‘General History of Quadrupeds ;) a book which went through nine editions before the year 1824, Although he does not confine himself to British animals, he gives, with his usual accuracy of delineation, eng'® vings of all the species which were then known. The improv ment, however, which he afterwards made in his art, will be readily observed by those who compare his earlier style im this work, with the softness and spirit which characterize his birds 12 the later editions. 'Thomas Bewick was born in 1753, at Chetty” burn, in Northumberland. His parents were far from being 2 ; . The intelligence, accuracy, and fullness of Sir John Sinclair’s great work, The Statistical History of Scotland,’ are well known. It was formed on this pri “ and the account of each parish and district contributed by its respective ister. Notice of British Naturalists. 159 affluence, and moved in a humble although respectable station of ive. At an early age he was sent to a dame’s school, and he af- terwards completed his English education under a better instruc- tor. Here he strongly manifested his love for the picturesque, and his taste for drawing. So evident, indeed, were those traits of character, that his father was induced to bind him, at the age of fourteen, an apprentice to a copper-plate engraver, at Newcastle upon Tyne. Of this part of his life nothing particular is known, except his dislike to his business, which was chiefly the coarse and dirty work of cutting brass dial-faces for clocks; but he ap- pears to have worked industriously, and to have been steady and diligent in his habits: In 1770 he first proved his talents for Wood-engraving, while his employer was engaged in executing the cuts for Hutton’s Monsuration. The mathematical dia- grams requiring greater correctness than could be attained by the use of the ordinary chisel, he invented a double-edged instrument which answered every purpose in making a very fine and straight line. His attention once turned in this direction, he made rapid Progress. 'Till 1787 he was employed in illustrating some vol- umes of fables, and other small books; and, as in such works, birds and animals were the frequent subjects of his graver, he ac- quired an excellent accuracy in their delineation. By degrees he Improved. With this progress he made new experiments and in- Ventions, and with the growing facility of execution, his mind Was daily more fixed upon his subject. In 1786 he was married; and in 1789 he published his cele- brated print of the Chillingham wild Bull, the largest and most highly finished wood engraving which he ever executed. Tn 1790 he published, as we have said, his work on quadrupeds ; and in 1797, after nearly six years of constant labor, the first vol- ume of his ‘ British Birds’. appeared. After the lapse of nearly 8 similar period, in 1804, the second volume, that on water birds, Was presented to the public—the whole term proving, if any proof Were wanting, his great perseverance, and that the work was not hastily nor crudely executed. 'The book went through six edi- lions before 1826. ‘The Wycliffe or Tunstall Museum, of which We have already made mention, was the occasion of this popu- Work ; for Mr. Tunstall perceiving Bewick’s great abilities as an engraver, first proposed the subject to him, and offered him all = facilities of which he afterwards made use. While this gen- Man lived he was the constant and liberal patron of Bewick. 160 Notice of British Naturalists. From this time he was chiefly occupied in adding to, improving, and carrying through the press the various editions of his works on natural history ; but he likewise found time to illustrate ma- ny smaller and less popular books for the publishers. He died in 1823, at the age of seventy-five. His character as’ a naturalist cannot be rated very high. Nearly all that he knew of natural history he derived from the observation of others ; and his education had not been such as to prepare his mind for pursu- ing the subject philosophically. He possessed a strong love for nature, but he expended it, in a great measure, on drawing and engraving the dead specimens. We owe but few original remarks to his works. For the greater part of his life he resided in Gates- head, the suburb of Newcastle upon Tyne, and consequently he had fewer opportunities of personal investigation, than if his life had been passed in the country. In appearance and character he was not unlike the celebrated Dr. Johnson. Large and uncouth in person, unpolished in his manners, and, at times unpleasantly rough in his demeanor ; he was yet possessed of strong good sense ; much perseverance and ingenuity; and in all his actions and all he said, there were 4p parent a sterling warm-heartedness, and a talent for wit and hu mor which could not fail to please. ‘ When animated in conver sation, and he was seldom otherwise, his eye was peculiarly fine, and imparted a vivacity to his countenance very difficult to de- scribe or forget. There was more of intelligent benevolence and candor init, than I ever saw in another ; but it was mixed with an earnest gravity, almost bordering on severity when speaking in disapproval; and with the brightest animation, when discus sing the beauties and wonders of nature, or subjects of equal in- terest. His humanity was very extensive, cherishing continu- ally some scheme for the improvement of his fellow creatures; the better treatment of the animals intrusted to them. His lan- guage was extremely forcible ; and the words he made use of, those calculated in the plainest and most familiar manner to con vey his meaning ; but unfortunately this love of simplicily, of tentimes led to a degree of coarseness which no one could heat Without reprobating.”* His dialect was broad Northumbrian. * Mr. George Atkinson, in the Transactions of the Natural History Society Newcastle upon Tyne and Durham. Notice of British Naturalists. 161 ‘He mixed a rough, sound good sense, and some times an orig- — Inality of remark in his conversation, which always rendered what he said interesting. His pleasantries were less remarkable for true wit and delicacy, than for the union of strong sense an honest merriment. éf His engravings are distinguished by their extreme fidelity, and for the truth with which he has caught and transferred to paper the peculiar air and habit of his subject; while he reduced it from its natural size to a small wood cut. But his-improvements in the art of cheap and correct engraving, have had a much more | extensive influence than in natural history. Those who may | temember, or have seen the books put into the hands of children during the last century, will perceive how much, in the present day, this all-important class of books owes to Bewick; and how the distorted representations of nature, have given place to correct : and graceful figures; and those who reflect upon the variety of | subjects which now owe their illustrations to the art, will feel in- clined to give Bewick the credit of being truly a benefactor of Mankind. He left several children. One of his sons is now an artist of no small ability. In 1800 appeared Turron’s translation of Gmelin’s edition of the Systema Nature of Litmeus. This work is printed in Seven thick octavo volumes; but at a comparatively low price ; and although it is now fallen both in value and estimation, yet at the time it did great good in opening the science to the mere En- glish reader. It has been accused, and justly, of faults, both de- Tived from Gmelin, and from its own author. Varieties are given #8 species, synonyms as distinct species, and hypothetical and fab- ulous animals are occasionally obtruded as existing. ‘Too much dependence was placed upon preceding writers. But consider- ing the vastness of the work; the difficulties to be encountered ; and the doubt which hung over many parts of it, it is well exe- cuted, It is now of value only to the historian of science, the ‘nnalist, or the professed system maker ; being as faithful a record the errors, as of the real science of its period. Wittiam Turron, M. D., was through life, a zealous naturalist ; and besides this book, he published some smaller volumes on con- chology. His favorite pursuit was the investigation of British Shells. Fig industry and perseverance were great ; but his cir- : ae seine narrow, and he not possessing much originality s > No. 1—July, 1839, bis. 21 162 _. Notice of British Naturalists. of thought, he was unable to take a high stand in the scientific world. He died in Cornwall, where he had chiefly resided, about 1834, at an advanced age. f ‘In 1802, appeared the “ Ornithological Dictionary,” of that most industrious observer and writer, Col. Gecrer MonracvE, of Knoule House, Devonshire. We have in vain searched for any biographical notice or memoir of him ; and it is much to be de- sired, if materials exist, that some account of his active and sci- entific life might be given to the public. This work is only upon. British birds ; and the plan is well adapted for reference, as he threw his materials into the form of an alphabetical catalogue. He presents much original information, the greater part of which he collected himself. His object was to render the subject popu- lar ; and he appears to have written expressly for “ such as might wade through columns, before they could find the object of their inquiry, but who are desirous of being better acquainted with the most beautiful part of the animal creation.” He corresponded with the most eminent naturalists of his day. He was the first to observe, as British, several birds which had previously beet overlooked; among which we remark the Macroramphus gris eus,* (Leach.) of the United States and the Ardea lentiginosa, (Mont.) which naturalists have hitherto been in the habit of com sidering the Ardea minor, ( Wils.) likewise of this country: In 1813, Montague published a supplement to his dictiona'y, which is nearly as large as the original book. But his great work was that on British conchology, “ Testacea Britcnntt, or natural history of British shells, marine, land, and Sresh water, including the minute, &c,” a quarto volume of upwate of six hundred pages, and published in London, in 1803. This is an invaluable work. As a describer of shells, he probably stands at the head of English writers on the subject; and his book is still unsurpassed. He spared neither pains nor expense in procuring specimens; and he was enabled both to add many new species, and clearly to distinguish between such as had bith erto been considered merely as varieties. In 1808, he published a supplement, in which many new species are given. He fol- lows in general, the Linnean arrangement, but has made one new Re ne * Scolopax Novoborocensis, (Wils.)—Eps. BE SERIES SET OO Rage ee eee a ee ee eee eee esl genus, (Balanus,) and followed Pennant in some cases in pref- erence, _ The only other work of which he appears to have been the author, is entitled,“ Te Sportsman’s Dictionary, or Tractate on unpowder,” which we have never seen. His collection of shells, is, we believe, now deposited in the British Museum of London. : | In 1804, appeared the “ Natural History of British shells, including figures and descriptions of all the species hitherto dis- covered in Great Britain, systematically arranged in the Linn~ @an manner, with scientific and general observations on each, by E. Donovan, in five octavo volumes. This is a beautiful work, and was among the first of the kind which was issued in period- ical numbers. The figures are the size of life, well engraved on Copper, and faithfully colored. 'The letter press is, however, of Comparatively small value; and the volumes are chiefly referred fo at present, for the plates. He describes in all, two hundred and nineteen species.* ag Shortly after, in 1808, there followed by the same author, “The Natural History of British fishes, including scientific and Seneral descriptions of the most interesting species, §c.” 'This Work is likewise in five octavo volumes ; and as he appears to have limited it to that number, he excluded many of the com- moner Species. The figures are one hundred and ten in all, whereas tt is ascertained that tvo hundred and twenty-six exist in the itish seas and rivers. The work is beautifully executed, and ~© Sate remarks as are made on the above may apply to this. area pe ae SC * The researches of Lea, Conrad, Say, Totten, Morton, Vanuxem, Binney, Cou- thouy, Kirtland, Ward, Hildreth and others, in relation to our recent and fossil “onchology, have disclosed most interesting treasures, and we highly appreciate their labors : while it is still much to be desired, that some general work on the ®Nchology of this country were published ; were it bat a list of what has already been described, with references to the periodical works in which the descriptions found. As j the student is without a guide to American econchol- + Agr Collect the Scattered fragments, and as this is in the power of very few, an insur- Mountable barrier is thrown in the way of farther improvement, Species, have, we bilicte.{ eds’ descubad a¢ belonging to the United States ; the Number might, we well know, be greatly increased ; but from want of an acquaint- ance with what has hitherto been noted, every student is at a loss whether to con- * the species he may find as new, or at present known. Would not such a Notice of British Natur livia? Sees Sea 164 Notice of British Naturalists. _ From this period, for several years, we have no great work es pecially dedicated to British Zoology. In 1815, Lamarck, by the publication in Paris, of his Histoire naturelle des animauz sans vertébres, created a new interest in this study, and placed conchology on a new basis; one, however, of which Lister pre- viously appears to have seen the propriety. In 1817, appeared, likewise in Paris, Cuvier’s Regne Animal. So strong a hold, however, had the system of Linnzeus taken on the minds of the British naturalists, that neither of these great works was as €OI- dially received as they ought to have been; and it has required some years fully to attract attention to them; and to show the effect which they have produced on the study of the natural sci- ences. While therefore, this study was gradually gaining ground in England; materials were being collected, and many provin-_ cial museums and societies, were both formed, and maintained with spirit. We must pass on to the year 1825, when Mr. Prr peux Joun Sexsy, published the first volume of his magnificent work on British birds. It isin large folio. The plates are drawn from nature ; frequently from the living specimen, and are lith- ographed. Where the dimensions will admit of it, the figures are of the size of life; and all are beautifully colored with much precision and accuracy. ‘T'wo volumes of letter press accompa ny this work. These are confined chiefly to the mere deserip- tion and habitat; nor indeed, however much we may lament that the admirable sketches, which Mr. Selby is capable of giv- ing, should be omitted, was it intended to be otherwise. For he says in the preface, “I have contented myself with referring by occasional notes, to any anecdotes particularly interesting 4 to the species under consideration.” In the first edition of his first volume, he had chiefly followed the natural arrangement proposed by the celebrated French ornithologist, M. Temminck ; but finding it to be imperfect, and not adapted to the natural, of der, at least of British birds, in his second edition he has rewritten the work, and had adopted that system which is proposed by Mr. Vigors. Mr. Selby is living, and is still ardent in his favorite pursuit. He is a gentleman of property and of education ; and his unr ing “industry is manifested by the various works which he has either edited or published, and the various papers which he bas = Notice of British Naturalists. 165 supplied for the transactions of different scientific bodies. But he is scarcely less celebrated among those who knew him, for his thorough knowledge of British ornithology, than for his lib- erality of feeling ; and many of the museums of his neighbor- hood are indebted to him for valuable and rare donations. He resides at "['wizel House, Northumberland; a situation well adapted from its neighborhood to the sea, for observing and pro- curing rare birds. He established, two years since, in conjune- tion with his brother-in-law, Sir William Jardine, Bart.—likewise zealous naturalist,—the “ Magazine of Natural History,” a periodical work which has presented some valuable essays on the subject. He is also editor of the “ Library of Natural His- tory.” In 1828, appeared the “ History of British Animals,” by Joun Firmine, D. D., minister of Flisk, Fifeshire, a synopsis, printed in one thick octavo volume, chiefly a compilation from previous wniters,* In 1835, Rev. Leonarp Jenyns of Swaffhaur Bulbeck, near Cambridge, published a “ Manual of British Vertebrate ani- mals, or descriptions of all the animals belonging to the classes Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, and Pisces,’ &c. He had previously published in a pamphlet form, a “ Systematic cat- aogue,” containing the ground work of this larger book. The materials are nearly all original; on the subject of classi- fication, no individual author has been rigidly adhered to; al- though he tends towards the opinion held by Mr. Mac Leay, of the circularity of natural groups. He was much assisted by Mr. Yarrell, as well as by Mr. Gray of the British museum, so that he had every facility for producing correctness, and performing the work in a good manner. Besides those species now found, he enumerates all the extinct species. “The object of the au- ‘hor is to present naturalists with a manual in this department of Our, Fauna, adapted to the existing state of our knowledge, and Such as shall be calculated to meet the wants of science in that advanced age, to which it has attained since the publication of former works of this nature. In furtherance of the end, two Sirti ae ae "I should desire to speak more particularly of this gentleman and his work, but am unable to find any particulars concerning him ; and I have it not in my power to meet with a copy of the book at present. Itis, in part, superseded by the later Work of Jenyns, 166 | Notice of British Naturalists. points appeared necessary to be attended to. One was to ascer- tain, as far as practicable, the additions which had been made, of late years, to our list of British animals. * * * The other important point, was to take care that the descriptions should, as far as possible, be obtained from the animals themselves, and nothing inserted upon the credit of other writers, which was capa-— ble of being verified by personal observation. 'The day is forever gone by, in which unscientific compilations will be thought to be of any service to Zoology; so far from advancing its progress, it may be said unhesitatingly, that they tend only to retard it.” _ Hitherto, however much the birds themselves might have been attended to, their eggs and nidification, had been ina great meas- ure neglected. Beautiful as are the former, and wonderful in their construction as are the nests; no one had as yet thought this branch worthy of separate attention. A French writer had, we believe, attempted a work, on this portion of the natural his- tory of his own country ; but had never completed it ; and it was left to Mr. Wituiam Hewrrson, to present the public, with the first original and well executed book, on this interesting topic. About 1831, he began to publish by subscription, in numbers; “ British Oology, being illustrations of the eggs of British birds,” &c. It is in octavo, and consists of colored lithographic plates of the eggs, each one the natural size, and colored with great fidelity. A short description of the nest and eggs, accom- panies each plate. ‘To draw an egg, so that on paper it may ap pear natural, is no easy task, but being an excellent artist, he has accomplished his labors with great credit. The work now fin- ished, is in three thin volumes, and contains all the British eggs: with the exception of a few of the very rarest. Mr. Hewitson, who is still a young man, is descended from a old and highly respectable family in Newcastle upon TyD® Whena mere child he manifested a strong taste for drawing, and was fond of copying the figures and vignettes in Bewick’s works. To these books, thus early put into his hands, he owes, we believe; his fondness for this science. He had the advantage of a liberal education, and became a civil engineer. Ashe grew up, his taste for drawing connected with natural history increased, and all his leisure hours he spent in the fields and woods. Like most boys he was fond of taking birds’ nests; but unlike most boys, he be came intimately acquainted with the species and varieties, and he tetera se gele “gate ai Notice of British Naturalists. 167 turned this knowledge to a good account. When he entered up- on his profession, although his time was chiefly occupied with that, he yet found or made leisure not to neglect that which had afforded him so much satisfaction in his youth; and what time he could spare was spent in this absorbing pursuit. While enga- ged in publishing his work on Oology, he made a tour through Norway, for the purpose of procuring the eggs of such birds as are only migratory in Great Britain, and added several important facts to those with which we were already acquainted. : Although, as we have seen, Pennant had figured and described Many of the British fishes, Mr. Donovan had given about one half of the species, and Mr. Jonathan Couch, of Cornwall, had estab- lished a high reputation as the Ichthyologist of that county ; yet no one had hitherto treated this branch as one altogether national ; and this is the more surprizing, when we consider that this country is entirely surrounded by the sea, that these animals form avery important part of food, and that the coast is comparatively Very limited in extent, and unchangeable in climate. For many years Mr. Wittiam Yarrewt, of London, had been forming a collection of Fishes; and his possessing the advantage of being able to search the London markets, put him in possession of all such species as are more common, and many of the rarer ones. In 1836 appeared the first number of his ‘ History of British Fishes,” which is completed in two thick octavo volumes. While this work is altogether popular, and the price moderate, as a scien- tifie production it is invaluable ; and it contains all that is known Upon the subject, including a great variety of curious, and origi- nal information. It is printed in the same shape and style as Bewick’s works, and each species is illustrated by a wood cut, €xecuted in a manner perhaps unsurpassed in this art. ae Mr. Yarrell is still alive, and is well known, equally for his ur- banity of manners, his connection with science, his very valuable — Ptlvate collection in some branches of natural history, and his pa- Pers in the Linnzan and other Transactions. He is now engaged in publishing, in the same form as his volumes on fishes, a gen- eral work on British birds. About the same time Dr. Brut, of London, published in like *m a volume on the ‘ British Quadrupeds’ which includes all i are known, with a great variety of information concerning mh. y 168 Notice of British Naturalists. The last writer upon British Testacea is Mr. Josuva Awper, of Newcastle upon T'yne, in the Transactions of the Natural His- tory Society of Northumberland and Durham. He describes 71 species of land and fresh water shells as belonging to his neighbor- hood, many of which are new. We have thus traced the gradual progress of natural science, as connected with Great Britain, from the days of Ray to our own times. We have seen how by degrees it has gathered strength, and how accuracy and scientific power also advanced. We have likewise seen that nearly all which has been accomplished has been done by those who had higher and more important duties to fulfil, but who, when weary, refreshed their minds by the observa- tion of the works of God, instead of wasting in idleness or frivo- lous amusement, these their leisure hours. A complete account of the higher order of the zoology of that country, it is now i0 _ the power of any one to possess; and as regards the mammalia and- birds, little probably remains to be added. But when we consider how each successive writer has thought that he had ex- hausted the stores of nature; how Ray supposed that the world did not contain above 150 species of beasts and reptiles, 50 of birds, and 500 of fishes, although now, in our own days, we have described 1200 species of mammalia, 6500 of birds, 8000 fishes, and 1500 reptiles, we may justly suppose and hope, that maby more both of shells and fishes may be added to the list of the British Fauna. And as regards the United States we may lear how much is to be accomplished ; although much has been done, and from what we do know, we may be incited to additional en- deavors. Of this we may be assured, that as this study becomes more popular, so shall we see the mind of the people improving; simplicity of heart, and love of the works of God multiplied ; 4" a thousand intellectual pleasures opened to those who, under Providence, are obliged to spend a larger part of their lives in har- rassing and fatiguing employments. We shall find that this study forms a bond of union between the lower and the highet classes of society,—the practical mechanic and the man of scl ence ; that it increases human happiness, by enlarging the sphere of intellectual pleasure; for every new development of intelli- gence is a source of pure enjoyment. The bond of union will be the love of knowledge. ‘There is an equality in science, for the great requisite is not the amount of information, but the 4 sire to be informed. - ey a, ee ' nN * Miscellanies. | 169 MISCELLANIES., DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. Pictorial delineations by light; solar, lunar, stellar, and artificial, called Photogenic and the art Photography. nark.—The great interest excited by this subject induces us to post- Pone the greater part of the miscellany which we had prepared and even set up for the present number, that we may make room for general Rotices from foreign Journals—detailing the history of the processes as far as known, and the most perfect state of the art, as far as it has gone. I. Photogenic Drawings.* by the publication of a series of experiments made by our countryman Mr, Talbot, directed towards the same object, and producing nearly simi- lar results, In describing this interesting invention it will be well to ommence with the first discoveries made by Mr. Wedgwood about the Year 1800, and afterwards extended by Sir Humphry Davy. ase _ The attention of these two eminent chemists was directed to the sub- ect by the extraordinary effect produced by light upon the nitrate of silver, Which led them to hope that the purposes of the artist might be assisted by the Susceptibility of the metallic oxide. The first experiment was made by Mr. Wedgwood for the purpose of copying paintings upon glass, and was eminently successful ; the copy obtained possessing all the fig- utes of the original, in their native shades and colors ;.it was also in a high degree permanent, so long as it was preserved from the action of the light, The same gentleman discovered that the shadow of an opaque ob- Jct thrown npon the paper was copied in outline with great correctness ; ut though both these celebrated chemists were constant and persevering their endeavors to render the drawing permanent, they were entirely uasuccessfal ; the lighter shades darkening by exposures and thus oblit- “rating the impression, eet : Their failure in this important object was published with their expert- ments in the Philosophical Transactions, and both having given up the attempt, their discoveries have since remained unimproved. But in the meanwhile M, Daguerre, it appears, struck by some hints he had received ma friend, has steadily pursued his experiments for the last twenty 21 ep eae ae * Foreign Quarterly Review, No. 83. Vol. *xxv1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. a 170 M iscellanies. years, and having at length attained his object has declared his discove- _ ries and claimed the invention as his own. Full and satisfactory deserip- tions are promised by M. Arago and two other scientific engineers ap- pointed to report on the subject, and in the interval a slight outline has been given in the French papers, fiom which the following account is tak ; en. A polished metallic plate is the substance made use of, and being pla ced within the apparatus is in a few minutes removed and finished by a slight mechanical operation. The sketch thus produced is in appearance something similar to aquatint, but greatly superior in delicacy ; and such is the extraordinary precision of the detail that the most powerful micros- cope serves but to display the perfection of the copy. The first efforts of the inventor were directed towards architectural subjects, and a view of the Louvre and Notre Dame are among the most admired of these engra- vings. In foliage he is less successful ; the constant motion in the leaves rendering his landscape confused and unmeaning ; and the same objection necessarily applies to all moving objects, which can never be properly de- lineated without the aid of memory. But in the execution of any station ary subject, buildings, statues, flowers, the leaves of plants, or the bodies of animals, the fac-simile is perfect; and the value of the invention may therefore be easily conceived. Several eminent artists have examined the designs, and were equally delighted with the precision and delicacy of the representation. Am the sketches exhibited by the projector was a marble bas-relief and plas ter imitation; the first glance was sufficient to detect the difference be- these two; and in three views of a monument taken in the morlr ing, noon, and evening, the spectators easily distinguished the hours at which they were executed, by the difference of the light, though in the first and last instances, the sun was at an equal altitude. But perhaps the anatomist or zoologist will derive the greatest advan- tages from the discovery, the form of the animal being as easily studied from the drawing as from the original, and the most powerful microscopes not having hitherto detected the smallest deficiency in the details. Not is the invention devoid of interest to the astronomer, for the light of the moon is sufficient to produce the usual results, requiring only additional time for its operations. The following extract from “ Le Commerce” 18 sufficient to substantiate its value in this respect :—‘ The experiments on the light of Sirius have confirmed the testimony of natural philosophy, and abundantly proved that the stars are bodies of the same nature as the sun ; at the request of M. Biot, M. Daguerre has submitted his apparatus t0 the influence of the light of the moon, and has succeeded in fixing the image of that luminary. We observed that the image had a trail of light some thing like the tail of a comet, and we ascribe it to the movement of the body during the operation, which is of much longer duration than that + the light of the sun.” piss Miscellanies. 171 In the spring of 1834, Mr. Talbot began a series of experiments, with the hope of turning to useful account the singular susceptibility evinced by the nitrate of silver when exposed to the rays of a powerful light; but not being acquainted with the researches of former chemists on the subject, he commenced with the same disadvantages which had baffled the skill and perseverance of Sir Humphry Davy. The plan he at first proposed Was, to receive a well-defined shadow upon a sheet of paper covered with asolution of nitrate of silver, by which means the part shaded would re- main white, while the surrounding portion was blackened by exposure to the light. But he was well aware that the sketch thus obtained would re- quire to be protected from the rays of the sun, and examined only by an artificial light. ~ He had carried these inquiries to some extent, and be- Come possessed of several curious results before he learned the steps which others had taken to attain the same object: and the decided terms in which Sir Humphry Davy expresses his failare might perhaps have dis- couraged his less experienced follower, had he not fortunately already ©onquered the difficulty which had destroyed the hopes of the former chemists, Mr. Talbot continues :—“ In the course of my experiments directed to that end, I have been astonished at the variety of effects which I have found produced by a very limited number of different processes when com- in various ways; and also at the length of time which sometimes : elapses before the full effect of these manifests itself with certainty. For T have found that images formed in this manner, which have appeared in 800d preservation at the end of the twelve months from their formation, have nevertheless somewhat altered during the second year.” He was ‘ induced from this circumstance to watch more closely the progress of this change, fearing that in process of time all his pictures might be found to deteriorate ; this, however, was not the case, and several have withstood the action of the light for more than five years. The images obtained by this process are themselves white, but the stound is differently and agreeably colored ; and by slightly varying the Proportions, and some trifling details of manipulation, any of the following Ors Were readily obtained :—light blue, yellow, pink, brown, black, and * dark green nearly approaching to black. The first objects to which this process was applied were leaves and flowers, Which it rendered with extraordinary fidelity, representing even the veins and minute hairs with which they were covered, and which wit frequently imperceptible without the aid of a microscope. — Mr. Tal- bot Ses on to mention that the following considerations led him to con- felve the possibility of discovering a preservative process. Nitrate of sil- Yer, which has become darkened by exposure to the light, is no longer the “ame chemical substance as before; therefore, if chemical re-agents be *Pplied to a picture obtained in the manner already mentioned, the dark- 172 Miscelianies. ened parts will be acted upon in a different manner from those which re- tain their original color, and after such action they will probably be no longer affected by the rays of the sun, or, at all events, will have no ten- dency to assimilate by such exposure; and if they remain dissimilar, the picture will continue distinct, and the great difficulty be overcome. The first trials of the inventor to destroy the susceptibility of the metal - lic oxide were entirely abortive; but he has at length succeeded to an extent equal to his most sanguine expectations. ‘The paper employed by Mr. Talbot is superfine writing paper; this is dipped into a weak solution of common salt, and dried with a towel till the salt is evenly distributed over the surface: a solution of nitrate of silver, is then laid over one side of the paper, and the whole is dried by the heat of the fire. It is how- ever, necessary to ascertain by experiment the exact degree of strength requisite in both the ingredients, for if the salt predominates, the sensi- bility of the paper gradually diminishes, in proportion to this excess, till the effect almost entirely disappears. In endeavoring to remedy this evil, Mr. Talbot discovered that a Te newed application of the nitrate not only obviated the difficulty, but ren- dered the preparation more sensitive than ever: and by a repetition of the same process the mutability of the paper will increase to such a degree, as to darken of itself without exposure to the light. This shows that the attempt has been carried too far, and the object of the experimenta- list must be to approach, without attaining this condition. Having pre- pared the paper and taken the sketch, the next object is to render it per- manent, by destroying the susceptibility of the ingredients for this purpos® Mr. Talbot tried ammonia and several other re-agents with little success, till the iodide of potassium, greatly diluted, gave the desired result; this liquid, when applied to the drawing, produced an iodide of silver, @ sub- stance insensible to the action of light. This is the only method of pre serving the picture in its original tints, but it requires considerable nicetY, and an easier mode is sufficient for ordinary purposes. It consists 12 immersing the picture in a strong solution of salt, wiping off the super fluous moisture, and drying it by the heat of the fire; on exposure to the sun, the white parts become of a pale lilac, which is permanent and immoveable. Numerous experiments have shown the inventor that the depth of these tints depends on the strength of the solution of salt; he also mentions that those prepared by iodide become a bright yellow under the influence of heat, and regain their original color on cooling. Without the application of one of these preservatives the image will disappe by the action of the sun ; but if inclosed in a portfolio, will be in no danget of alteration: this, Mr. Talbot remarks, will render it extremely cnr nient to the traveller, who may take a copy of any object he desires, apply the preservative at his leisure. In this respect Mr. Talbot's syst™ is greatly superior to that of M. Daguerre, since it would be scarcely PO Miscdllantea 173 sible for a traveller to burden himself with a number of metallic plates, which in the latter process are indispensable. An advantage of equal importance exists in the rapidity with which Mr. Talbot’s pictures are executed; for which half a second is con- sidered sufficient; a circumstance that gives him a better chance of success in delineating animals or foliage; and although our countryman has not thought it necessary to adorn his invention with his own name, hor to keep it a secret till he could sell it to advantage, his claim to origi- nality is equal to M. Daguerre’s, and can only be rivalled by that of Mr. W gewood, the real discoverer and originator of the art. Since the publication of the above discoveries, numerous candidates have appeared in the field, all claiming the palm of originality, while Philosophers of every grade and county have eagerly pursued the investi- gation of the subject. The first we shall notice is M. Niepce, who claims priority even over M. Daguerre; and the account he publishes, if correct, will undoubtedly determine the question in his favor. A letter from M. er is the principal evidence for M. Niepce, who it appears mentioned his discovery to this gentleman in the year 1827, while on a visit at Kew, and by the advice of his friend he drew up a memoir on the subject, and Caused it to be forwarded to the Royal Society. This document was, however, returned, it being contrary to the rules of the Association to Teceive accounts of scientific discoveries unless they detailed the process employed. M. Neipce shortly afterwards returned to France, having pre- Sented to his friend several specimens of the newly discovered art, which are still in the possession of M. Bauer. The pictures taken, are of two kinds, copies from engravings, and copies from nature; the best of the former is in the possession of M. Cussel, and is considered nearly equal 0 those of M. Daguerre, with suitable allowance for twelve years’ expo- Sure; the specimen taken from nature, is however, by no means so suc- ‘essful, and is considered inferior to the earliest attempts of his country- man. There can be little doubt that the principle of both processes is Precisely the same, though greatly improved by diligent experiments, the material employed in each being a metallic plate, apparently covered with transparent varnish; but whether intended to receive or to fix the impres- S1on is not at present made public. We now come to a statement of M. Bauer, Which, if not founded on error, will raise the invention of Niepce far above those of both his rivals; he distinctly asserts that he ies of engravings produced solely by the action of light, which were ®apable of being multiplied in the same manner as an ordinary copper- Plate ; if this be the case, the greatest secret still remains unknown, even =. Daguerre hi e* ted that M. Niepce did imself. It is much to be regret ep Not at once publish his extraordinary discovery, with a full detail of the Process employed, as he would then have retained the indisputable right to the merit of the invention, but having preserved the secret so long, and 174 Miscellanies. the process being in every respect so different, we cannot see that it in any way interferes with the position of Mr. ‘Talbot. We must leave this question and now proceed to analyze the claims of two of our countrymen, Messrs. Havell and Wellmore, who are said to have introduced an important addition to the process pursued by Mr. Talbot, a full description of which is contained in a letter to the editor of the Liter- ary Gazette. The first attempt of this gentleman was directed towards an etching, by Rembrandt, of an old man reading, and the result was a rever- sed fac-simile; a negro face surmounted by locks of silver; the disappoin- ted artist discovered that a second transfer entirely destroyed the spirit of the picture. To remedy this evil he had recourse to a new process, by which this defect was indeed removed, but the great merit of the art, name> ly, self-acting power, was lost. A thin plate of glass was laid on the subject to be copied, upon which the high lights were painted with a mixture of white lead and copal varnish, the proportion of varnish being increased for the darker shading of the picture. The next day Mr. Havell removed the white ground with the point of a penknife, to represent the dark etched lines of the original, and a sheet of prepared paper having been placed behind the glass and thus exposed to the light, a tolerable impression was produced ; the half tints had, however, absorbed too much of the vi ' ray, an imperfection which was remedied by painting the parts over with black on the other side of the glass; if allowed to remain too long exposed to the sun’s rays the middle tints became too dark, and destroyed the ef fect of the sketch; about ten minutes in a powerful sun was consid- ered sufficient. Another method employed by Mr. Havell was to spread a ground composed of white lead, sugar of lead, and copal varnish, over * plate of glass, and having transferred a pencil drawing in the usual man ner, to work it out with the etching point till it bore the appearance of @ Spi ted ink drawing, or in the hands of an engraver a highly finished engt® ving. The above process Mr. Havell made public under the impress! that it had been hitherto overlooked, but Mr. Talbot, hearing that he ~ about to apply for a patent, laid claim to the improvement as his ow, and not only pointed out some parts of his former memorial where it wa5 a tinctly mentioned, but also produced several drawings made precisely 1 the manner described; he has also laid before the Royal Society me method of preparing the sensitive paper, which consists in immersINg in a solution of nitrate of silver, and after washing it with bromide of al tassium, the nitrate of silver is again applied, the preparation being dried by the fire between each operation; the paper thus treated 15 eX tremely sensitive, changing with the feeblest daylight, first to @ on green then to olive green, and finally to black. A letter to Mr. Talbot from his friend M. Biot has also been published, and contains many interesting experiments. After commenting 0? © value of the discovery, he continues—* The interest with which I viewed OTE ES Pr nee oe ee ee aa Miscellanies. 175 this circumstance, engaged me to make some experiments upon your pre- paration, in order to vary its application to the researches in which I am occupied. First, I wished to know whether the change of color was in any degree influenced by the paper itself; I therefore spread the sub- stance on a piece of white unglazed porcelain instead of paper, taking care to operate by night, and drying it each time at the fire, as you say, I thus obtained a dry solid coating upon the porcelain, which I shut up in adark place until the morning. In the morning I took it out, and found it of a pale sulphur yellow color: I then presented it to the daylight at an open window looking north; the weather was then very cloudy; yet no sooner had I so presented it than already it was turned green, and Soon afterwards it became black. I then wished to know whether the preparation would succeed equally well if not dried at the fire; I there- fore, in a darkened room, mixed the aqueous solution of bromide of po- tassium with that of nitrate of silver; a precipitate fell, which I spread on a porcelain plate and left it to dry in the dark; the next day I wrapped it in several folds of paper, and brought it into another room to show it to a friend ; but having taken off the covers in a dark corner of the room in order to exhibit the original color, pale lemon yellow, instantly we saw lls tint become green, and I had hardly time to present it to a window opening to the north before its color had passed to dark olive green, after Which it almost immediately became nearly black. I do not think it pos- sible to find any substance more sensitive to light.” Had M. Daguerre or M. Niepce published their experiments at the commencement, Mr. Talbot would have appeared merely as an improver of a foreign discovery. We must notice here that, by possibility, this art may not be altogether unknown to jugglers in India. It is many years since an offer was made, our presence, by one of them, to show any gentleman his portrait taken by a single look alone. The master of the house, however, deeming the Proposal an insult on the credulity of the company, ordered the man of “lence to be instantly expelled with the rattan. mes hotographic processes, by Andrew Fyfe,* M. D., F. R.S. By §e- Photography may be divided into three parts: the preparation of the Paper,—taking the impressions,—and preserving them. : 1. Methods of preparing the Paper. Though paper besmeared with solution of lunar caustic is darkened oy €xposure to light, it is by no means sensitive + other methods have therefore been recommended for preparing it for photographic purpo- Ses. That originally given by Mr. Talbot is to soak it firstin a weak | si Read before Soc. of Arts Edinb. Mar. and Apr. 1839, From the New Edinb. eal. Jour. April to July, 1839. 176 Miscellanies. solution of sea-salt, and when dry, to rub it over on one side with so- lution of Junar caustic, by which chloride of silver is formed, and adheres to the paper. As thus prepared, it acquires a dark color on exposure to light; the depth of color depending on the strength of the solutions ; hence it may vary from lilac to deep purple, approaching to black. In preparing paper by this method, it is very difficult to get the chlo- ride uniformly spread over the surface, and accordingly, when exposed to light, it often gives a variety of shades; indeed, in many places it continues white. It was this that induced me to try the use of other salts of silver; and the one which I have found to answer best is the phosphate, procured in the usual way, by the addition of the phosphate of soda to the solution of lunar caustic. In preparing the paper by this method, I generally employ one part of phosphate of soda dissol- ved in about eight of water, and the nitrate of silver dissolved in about six of water. The paper is first soaked in the phosphate, and then dried, after which the nitrate is put on on one side by a brush, the pa per again dried and afterwards again put through the salt, by which any excess of silver is converted to phosphate. As thus prepared, it acquires a yellow tinge, which becomes black by exposure to light It is equally sensitive as the chloride, and, in my opinion, gives 4 much more pleasing variety of shades. Instead of preparing the paper by the process described, I frequently employ the phosphate precipitated before applying it, for which pur pose the nitrate solution is dropped into that of the phosphate of soda, the yellow precipitate is allowed to fall to the bottom, and the supe! natant fluid is poured off; what remains must be kept in stone bottles or in a dark place, as it isextremely sensitive to light. In preparing the paper with it, it is put on with a broad flat brush, and then dried in the usual way. Though there is a little difficulty at first in getting the phosphate uniformly spread over the surface, yet by a little practice a uniform ground is easily given, and when once acquired, the metho has the advantage of being much cheaper than those previously sieth commended. I sometimes add a little mucilage to the fluid, whi keeps the phosphate suspended in it. There are other methods 0 preparing the paper, which though they do not give it so sensitives ye are cheaper than those stated; I allude to the use of the phosphate " solution in ammonia, or, which is cheaper, in the carbonate of ammo- nia which is procured by adding concentrated solution of carbonate of ammonia to the phosphate collected by precipitation as already de scribed. A still cheaper fluid may be prepared by adding a strong Lat lution of nitrate of silver to’a concentrated solution of carbonate of ammonia, by which a carbonate of silver is obtained in solution Miscellanies. ' 177 which can be applied to the paper on one side by means of a brush. ‘Paper thus prepared is white; it has the advantage of being easily prepared, and of giving, on exposure to light, a uniform ground which is of a brownish color.* 2. Methods of taking the Impressions. From what has been already stated, it must be evident that the most direct mode of taking the impressions is, by placing on the paper the object, the delineation of which is wished, and then exposing it to the light. For this purpose it ought to be kept as close as possible on the paper, and the best method of doing so is to place it in a frame with glass in front, and a stuffed cushion behind it. The time required de- pends, of course, on the intensity of the light, and the density of the object; and it is of the utmost consequence to take care that it is long enough exposed, and that, at the same time, the exposure is not too long continued, for if not long enough, though the outline will be given, yet the representation will not be distinct in all its parts; Whereas if too long continued, the fainter parts begin to darken, and the representation is indistinct. The time required must be found by practice. In bright sunshine one minute will be sufficient for some objects: when there is no sunshine an hour or two may be required, and in this case there is little or no danger of destroying the impression by too long exposure, as the light is not of sufficient in- tensity to darken too much the fainter parts. Impressions from Engravings may likewise be got in the same Way; and for this purpose, instead of using those thrown off on thin Paper, by which it is supposed the light is most easily transmitted, it * Tthink, better to take those on thick paper, because, though the light is not so easily transmitted, yet the impression of the engraving 18 much Bolder, so that a more distinct delineation is given by the Photographic process. Camera Obscura.—The use of the camera obscura for photo- Staphic purposes, has been described by Mr. Talbot. ‘Though repre- Sentations may be got in this way,.yet, so far as I have found, they ave not the minute distinctness of those got by the method already noticed. Owing to the interference of the lens, the light does not act Rearly so powerfully on the paper, as when it has to permeate merely a frame of glass. ‘The same is the case when the light is reflected, 7 creeper tne ‘ "Instead of purchasing lunar caustic of commerce, a cheaper method of procuring tis to dissolye pure silver in‘nitric acid diluted with its own bulk of water, taking “are to have in the vessel more silver than the acid can dissolve ; and after it has *8 Up as much as it can, to dilute the solution with four or five parts of water, or ired 178 Miscellanies. and hence the necessity of getting quit of the mirror placed in cameras, for throwing the representation in such a way as to allow of its being traced by the artist. Hence, in taking impressions by the camera, the prepared paper must be fixed on the back of the box, directly opposed to the lens, and the focus properly adjusted. I have found greatad- vantage, in taking impressions by the camera, in using the paper moist, and keeping it so all the time it is exposed. For this purpose, after moistening it, I place it between a cushion and a pane of glass, tied tightly together, to prevent, as much as possible, the escape of mois- ture. In this way I have succeeded in a few minutes in getting a faint outline of the object exposed to the lens. I may here mention that the camera affords a good method of ta- “king profiles from busts, not by the reflected light from the bust, but by interposing it between the lens and the source oflight. The bust, for instance, may be placed, during sunshine, at an open window, and the image from it thrown on the prepared paper; using the precal- tion, of having the face slightly inclined towards the source of light, 80 as to give its outline as distinctly as possible. Etchings.—A method of taking impressions of etchings on glass by the photographic process was described by Havell of London. For this purpose the glass is covered with etching varnish, and aftet the figure is etched on it, it is smoked, so as to darken the varnish to prevent the transmission of light; of course, the smoke does not adhere to those parts of the glass exposed by the etching needle, and is there fore easily wiped off with a cloth, thus leaving the etching free for the light to passthrough. On exposing this with the prepared paper be- hind it, a beautifulimpression is taken. In taking impressions in this way, the varnished side must be placed next the paper, which must be kept close upon the etching by means of a cushion, otherwise the impression is not well defined. When the glass side is next the pape the impression is very indistinct, owing to the light, when it passes through the exposed parts of the glass, being diffused, and by which the lines run into each other. From the ease with which impressions can be got in this ways curred to me that the process might be still farther extended, 50 ag 1 enable us to take copies of oil paintings, or of drawings on boards, through which the light does not penetrate, and for this purpos¢ have followed different methods. One of these is to cover the glass with a transparent varnish, as with a thin solution of Canada balsam in oil of turpentine, and, after Jaying it down on the oil painting, to etch it out on the varnish, in the usual way; after this, the glass is 10 be slightly heated, so as to soften the varnish, which is then tobe smoked, by holding itin the flame of an argand gas lamp, taking oar? it oc- Oe Miscellanies. 179 not to soften the varnish too much; when cold, the smoke is wiped off with a cloth from the parts of the glass exposed by the etching needle. Another method is to cover one side of the glass with starch solution, of such strength, that. when dry it is transparent, and it is then to be laid down with the glass side next the paintings, which can be traced with a pencil on the starch, and then etched on the other side, as al- ready described. From glass etchings thus procured, impressions are taken in the usual way. This process of transparent etching is applicable to the camera obscura; for, instead of using ground glass, as is commonly done, the Tepresentation may be thrown on starched glass, on which it is traced and then etched on the other side, as above described. Before finishing this part of the subject, I may here allude toa method of taking the impressions, by which I have succeeded in giv- ing them a resemblance to oil paintings. By the method noticed, paper, or some absorbing substance, is used. Thave already stated that the phosphate suspended in water may be employed, which suggested to me the use of the same substance along with a varnish, in the hopes of being able to take the impression on panel-board or metal. Ihave found this to answer as well as with paper. The varnish I have used is Canada balsam and turpentine, with which the phosphate, dried by the cautious application of heat, and excluded from light, is thoroughly incorporated; with this the panel-board, previously prepared as for an oil painting, is varnished ; When dry, the impression is taken on it in the usual way. It will be found to have all the richness of an oil painting. Y this process, impressions equally distinct and brilliant may be ta- ken on metal, Perhaps this maybe of service in saving engravers the time and trouble of laying down on_the metal the figure to be en- gtaved, The impressions received by the modes now described are taken by €xposure to the solar ray. Itis well known that the paper may be darkened by other means, as by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe; but there ne hecessity for having recourse to so intense an artificial light. I have found that, by concentrating the light of a common fire by me- tallic mirrors, the paper is darkened, and the same also occurs with the flame of a gas lamp. Of course, the time required is much longer than when exposed to sunshine. In this way I have succeeded in get- ling impressions of dried leaves alniost as distinct as by solar light; indeed we may dispense altogether with the mirror, for, by exposing the paper with the leaf on it, ima frame, to the light ofa common fish- ‘ail gas-burner, at the distance of a few inches, I have procured speci- Mens, some of which, though on a small scale, have all the richness of 13€ taken by solar light. 180 Miscellanies. The concentration of the rays by a metallic mirror, so as to get quit of the interference of the lens, would no doubt be a great improvement in the camera obscura, provided it could be accomplished. May not something of this kind be the method followed by Daguerre in getting his camera representations? 3. Preservation of the Impressions. It is evident that, as the impression is produced by the agency of light on the compound of silver, when the paper is again exposed, the light will begin to act, and ultimately darken the whole, thus effacing the impression; hence the necessity of a preservative process. Two methods have been recommended by Mr. Talbot, as applicable to the chloride, one by the iodide of potassium, the other by sea-salt. When solution of iodide of potassium is added to that of lunar caustic, a yel low iodide of silver is thrown down. The same is the case when the iodide is put on paper, previously covered with the chloride, and, provided the solution is strong, it acts also on the chloride when dark- ened, thus converting it to yellow iodide, which is not in the least af- fected by light; hence, by putting the paper with the impression through solution of the iodide, provided it is weak, the white chloride only is acted on, and being converted to iodide, is no longer liable to change. As, however, the iodide will act on the dark chloride, itis of the utmost consequence to attend to the strength of the solution, which should be such that it will not attack the faint parts of the impre> sion. After the paper is passed through it, it should be kept for some time in water, to wash off the superfluous iodide of potassium, which, if left on, would gradually destroy the whole of the impression 5 © deed, even with this precaution, I find it extremely difficult to preserve them. The second method recommended by Mr. Talbot is merely immersing the paper in solution of sea-salt. This process does nob however, seem to answer well; I have repeatedly failed in preserving the specimens in this way, and even when they are preserved, they are completely altered in their appearance, and deprived of their original brilliancy. I have already stated, that I prefer the phosphate of silver for 1a king the impressions, not only because it is equally sensitive a the chloride, but gives a greater variety of shades. In addition to it has another advantage ; the impressions are easily preserved. ter various fruitless attempts, I at last found that the darkened pa 0 this phosphate is easily dissolved. I had, therefore, recourse we! “ for their preservation, and though I did not completely meee first, yet Lat last did so, by attending to the precaution of washing he ammoniacal solution, because, when left on, the impression ; these, Miscellanies. 181 ally becomes darker and darker, and is ultimately destroyed, owing to the action of the light on it. The method I now follow is to put the paper into a diluted solution of water of ammonia (one of the spirit of hartshorn to about six of water,) and leave it there till the yellow parts become white, showing that the phosphate is dissolved, after which it is washed with water to carry off the whole of the ammoni- acal solution. It should then, when nearly dry, be subjected to pres- sure till dried, by which it is prevented from wrinkling, and the im- pression retains its original sharpness, which, unless this is done, it is aptto lose, by the fibre of the paper being raised by the repeated moistening. Though the phosphate specimens may be preserved in this way, yet they do not retain exactly their original appearance. Those parts whitened by the ammonia, owing to part of the silver being united With the paper, gradually acquire a faint reddish tinge,—but, though altering the appearance, it does not affect the brilliancy; indeed, in Some cases it rather improves it, by giving a pleasing tint, which con- trasts well with the darker parts, and gives the appearance of color- ing. Ihave also found that carbonate of ammonia answers equally Well, and, being much cheaper, it will of course be preferred. I gen- erally employ a solution, prepared by dissolving one part of salt in about four of water, in which the paper is kept for a minute or so, and then afterwards washed, and subjected to pressure, as already noticed. Impressions thus preserved acquire the same reddish tinge as those acted on by ammonia. Thave before stated that the paper may be prepared by washing it - ver with a solution, procured by adding nitrate of silver to carbonate ofammonia. The impressions taken with that paper are easily pre- Served by merely washing them with water, to carry off the part not acted on by the light, which is another advantage, in addition to those Slated, for using the carbonate solution. Like the phosphate speci- Mens, they also acquire a reddish tint. : Other preservative methods have been recommended, as, by cover- ing the impressions with a yellow color, to prevent, as much as possl- ble, the transmission of the chemical ray of the light; but those above Slated, particularly when the phosphate or carbonate is used, are so Simple and efficacious that it is unnecessary to allude to them. Before finishing this part of the subject, I may here allude to a val- Yable practical application of photography, in diminishing the labors of the lithographer. In communicating the impression of any object 0 the Stone, as of a dried plant, or in copying an engraving, it is ne- Cessary to trace them on paper, and after again tracing them with the ‘ansfer ink, transfer them to the stone. Now, by receiving the im- ; Pression on paper by the photographic process, all the labor of the ~ 182 Miscellanies. first tracing is avoided. But there is no necessity for using paper, as the impression may at once be communicated to the stone, which ea- sily receives the phosphate, and which may therefore be prepared in the same way as the papers, and the impression also taken in the usual manner, after which it is traced over with the transfer ink. By this process not only is a great deal of labor saved, but the representation must be much more exact than when traced ; for though by the latter the outline is correct, yet much is left to be afterwards filled in by the eye, whereas, by the photographic process, every, even the most mi- nute filament, is distinctly and accurately laid down on the stone.” Method of taking Impressions in which the lights and shades are not reversed. By the different methods now described for getting photographic impressions, the lights and shades are always reversed, because, as it is by the action of the light that the compound of silver is darkened, wherever it is prevented from penetrating, the paper retains ils ori- ginal color. Though the impressions thus procured are accurate as t0 outlines, yet in many cases the representation is far from being pleas- ing; it is therefore a great desideratum to have a method of getting impressions in which there is no reverse; in fact, to give a true repre sentation of the object, and in this I have succeeded by the use of the iodide of potassium. I have already stated, that when the darkened phosphate is exposed to the iodide, it is instantly converted to yellow, provided the solution is of sufficient strength ; if weak, the action goes on slowly. In some impressions which I had attempted to preserve in this way, 1 observed that when exposed to light they began to fade, which induced me to try the effect of light on darkened paper, soaked in solution of iodide, of such strength that it just failed to attack it instantly. In my first attempt I succeeded in bleaching the pape but in my next I failed. On considering the circumstances under which these trials were made, I found that the only difference between them was, that in the first the paper was moist, in the last it was ary: Accordingly, on repeating the experiment with the paper moist, I again succeeded in getting a delineation of the object placed on the pa per, as distinct and altogether as brilliant as those obtained by the other process, Pee * For this method of applying the photographic process I am indebted to nt Nichol, lithographer, by whom lithographic impressions, thus taken, were exhibited to the Society of Arts. As a proof of the value of this process, I may also mentions that on the evening of the 17th of April, when I exhibited a photographic of dried ferns, it was, by Mr. Forrester, lithographed, and impressions taseh : it would have te deline® it, in the course of two hours; had this been done in the usual way, required many hours of labor, and after all not have given such accurate | tions. P 5 le [ ae Miscellanies. 183 ‘The method which I now follow is, after preparing the phosphate | paper, to darken it, then immerse it in solution of iodide of potassium, of such strength that it does not act instantaneously, and, when still moist, to expose it to light with the object on it, and continue the ex- posure till the exposed part of the paper becomes yellow. In this case, there is a tendency in the iodide to convert the dark phosphate to yellow iodide, which go on slowly, but is hastened by the light; of course, if the object on the paper is impervious to light, the impres- sion is black throughout, but if it is of different density, so as to allow the light to be differently transmitted, the impression presents the lights ‘and shades as in the object itself; because those places behind the dense pieces retain their original blackness, while those behind the less dense are more or less bleached, just according to the trans- Mission of the light. Whenimpressions thus procured are kept, they begin to fade, owing to the slow but continued action of the iodide of potassium; hence the necessity of a preservative process. After re- Peated trials, I have found, that by far the simplest and the best is _ merely immersion in water, so as to carry off the whole of the iodide — | of potassium notacted on by the phosphate, and by which any farther | action is completely prevented. By this method, the specimens do Not lose in the least their original beauty, and they may be exposed to continued sunshine without undergoing the slightest alteration. Thave succeeded also in taking impressions with the chloride in the same way—but it is necessary for the success of the process, to use the Solution of the iodide much weaker than for the phosphate, be- Cause the chloride is more easily acted on. In both cases it ought to ’@ made of such strength that it just acts, and then, before using it, | it must be weakened by the addition of a little water. For the phos- + phate, it will be found, in general, that 1 of salt to 10 of water, and or the chloride, that about 30 of water, will give a solution of the Tequisite strength. Of course, in preserving the specimens, the pre- Utions as to washing and pressure must be attended to. | HL. Pp erfection of the Art, as stated in Notes on Daguerre’s Pho- : tography. By Sir Joun Roptson.* Sir—Ip compliance with the request, that I should commit to wri- ling and put into your hands the substance of what I communicated ‘0 the Society of Arts in reply to the questions put to me at the last Meeting, I beg to state, that circumstances having led to my be- ng included in a small party of English gentlemen who were lately in- gg Seatetary to Royal Society of Edinburgh, &c. &c. (Communicated by the ty of Arts.) Edinb. Jour. Ps 184 Miscellanies. vited to visit the studio of M. Daguerre, to see the results of his discov- ery; I had an opportunity of satisfying myself, that the pictures pro- duced by his process have no resemblance to any thing which, as far as I know, has yet been produced in this country ; and that, excepting in the absence of color, they are as perfect images of the objects they represent, as are those which are seen by reflection from a highly pol- ished surface. The perfection and fidelity of the pictures are such, that on examining them by microscopic power, details are discovered which are not perceivable to the naked eye in the original objects, but which, when searched for there by the aid of optical instruments, are found in perfect accordance: a crack in plaster, a withered leaf lying ona projecting cornice, or an accumulation of dust in a hollow moulding of a distant building, when they exist in the original, are faithfully copied in these wonderful pictures. The subjects of most of the numerous specimens which I saw, were views of streets, boulevards, and buildings, with a considerable num- ber of what may be termed interiors with still life; among the latter were various groups made up of plaster-casts and other works of art. It is difficult to express intelligibly a reason for the charm which is felt in beholding these pictures ; but I think it must arise, in some measures from finding that so much of the effect which we attribute to color; is preserved in the picture, although it consist only in light and shade; these, however, are given with such accuracy, that, in consequence of different materials reflecting light differently, it is easy to recognize those of which the different objects in the groups are formed. A work in white marble is at once distinguished from one in plaster-of-Parisby the translucency of the edges of the one, and the opacity of the otn@ Among the views of buildings, the following were remarkable: A set of three pictures of the same group of houses, one taken svon after sunrise, one at noon, and one in the evening; in these the change of aspect produced by the variations in the distribution of light, was emplified in a way which art could never attain to. One specimen was remarkable from its showing the progress made by light in producing the picture. A plate having been exposed dur- ing 30 seconds to the action of the light and then removed, the appear ance of the view was that of the earliest dawn of day ; there was grey sky, and a few corners of buildings and other objects beginning to be visible through the deep black in which all the rest of the picture was involved. ks The absence of figures from the streets, and the perfect way 10 which the stones of the causeway and the foot-pavements are Lee dered, is, at first sight, rather puzzling, though a little reflection & - fies one that passing objects do not remain long enough to make any ‘si Sere ight 1M, 5) Me a ee. Miscellanies. 185 perceptible impression, and that (interfering only for a moment with the light reflected from the road,) they do not prevent a nearly accu- rate picture of it being produced. Vacillating objects make indistinct pictures, e. g.a person getting his boot cleaned by a decrotteur gave a good picture, except that hav- ing moved his head in speaking to the shoe-black, his hat was out of shape, and the decrotteur’s right arm and brush were represented by a half-tinted blot, through which the foot of the gentleman was partially visible. There can be no doubt that when M. Daguerre’s process is known to the public, it will be immediately applied to numberless useful purposes, as by means of it, accurate views of architecture, ma- chinery, &c., may be taken, which being transferred to copper or to stone, may be disseminated at a cheap rate; and useful books on ma- ny subjects may be got up with copious illustrations, which are now foo costly to be attainable: even the fine arts will gain, for the eyes accustomed to the accuracy of Daguerrotype pictures, will no longer be satisfied with bad drawing, however splendidly it may be colored. In one department, it will give valuable facility. Anatom- ical and surgical drawings, so difficult to make with the fidelity which it is desirable they should possess, will then be easily produced by a = skill and practice in the disposition of the subjects and of the Ignts, It is a curious circumstance that, at the same time that M. Da- guerre has made this beautifuland useful discovery in the art of deline- ation, another Parisian artist* has discovered a process by which he Makes solid casts in plaster of small animals or other objects, without Seams or repairs, and without destroying the model, (Moulage d’une seule piéce, sans couture ni reparage, et avec conservation parfaite du modele). Tamin possession of several specimens of his work, among Which are casts of the hand of an infant of six months, so delicately €xecuted, that the skin shows evident marks of being affected by some slight eruptive disease. I am, dear Sir, very faithfully yours, Joun Rosison. James Top, Esq., Secretary to the Society of Arts. Edinburgh, 1st June, 1839. 2. Correction of an error—Cinnabar not found in Michigan.—In Vol. » at page 33, of this Journal, it is stated in a letter to Dr. J. L. Comstock yB.F. Stickney, that “a black and garnet colored sand is found on the shores of Lake Erie and Michigan which is a sulphuret of mercury and Yields about 60 per cent. of that metal.” No confirmation of this too Oe ee ee I ‘tlippolyte Vincent, Mouleur, Rue Neuve St. Frangois No. 14 (au Marai). Ol. xxxvi1, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 24 186 Mistellantes. hastily accredited report having been given, we have long supposed that it was a mistake, and that credence had been too easily given by us to a result which if true, would have been extremely important, and which we confess we ought not to have admitted without the most rigorous proof. It is now in our power to settle this matter on the authority of Mr. Stickney himself, and through the kindness of our friend Josiah Thomp- son of Philadelphia, from whom we have received a letter dated June 29, ult., and covering a letter to him from Mr. Stickney dated Dec. 21, 1831, thirteen years after the first publication of the supposed discovery of cin- nabar. Mr. Thompson remarks: “When in the west some years ago I visited the localities mentioned, (on the shores of lakes St. Clair and Erie,) and soon found that the sand in question contained no mercury, but was probably composed of garnets either broken up or in very small crystals. I afterwards wrote on the subject to Mr. Stickney who gave me the su stance of his subsequent researches in the annexed communication.” -“T should not have thought of reviving the thing at so late a period had I not heard it alluded to by a very distinguished scientific lecturer, whose authority for the assertions had been derived from the communications originally appearing in your widely circulated Journal, and which have been transferred to several standard works both American and European.” We now quote Mr. Stickney’s statement: “ Some nine or ten years since I lay wind bound on the western shore of Lake Erie, with a small craft for several days, near the mouth of Otter Creek, a little south of Pleasant Bay, where the black and garnet colored sand is abundant. It struck me as probable, that it was a sulphuret of mercury. I levigated a few grains of the latter between two stones; ¢ bright, opaque, red appearance when broken tended to confirm me in the ‘opinion. Having no other employment, I mixed clay, water, and sand, with my hands and formed it into a retort and receiver; dried them ™ the sun ; and afterwards baked them in the hot sand and ashes when we had a fire on the beach. I then introduced a small portion of the r@ sand into the retort; it could be but a small portion, as it did not more than half a pint. I set up my apparatus with small stones; fitting on and luting the receiver with some of the same clay and sand. Thus prepared, I put charcoal from our fire into the little furnace, and plowed them with a blowpipe made of a hollow weed. After continuing it for 4 time at a low red heat and permitting it to cool moderately, I broke the re ceiver, and discovered, as I then conceived, minute globules of mercury: I now concluded I had determined the presence of mercury in the sa™ I took with me quantities of the sand; and when I returned home I sei mitted some of the red sand pulverised to nitro-muriatic acid, and precPF tating the solution with carbonate of potash, I had a copious white precip itate. I weighed the sand; but having accidentally spilled some of “A solution, I did not weigh the result. I made minutes at the time whic . He +7 i+ > tOgee Ye be5352 Miscellanies. 187 ; Inow refer to. About eighteen months since, making some experiments on iron ore, I obtained a white precipitate,* so near resembling that from the sand, that I was led to suspect my mistake. I now undertook another and more minute examination of the sand. I obtained the same white precipitate, and submitted it to sublimation, but found no mercury, but every appearance of iron. I have examined the sand with the magnet and glasses. The black I think is a rich iron ore, highly magnetic; the red and reddish we may consider, and perhaps with safety, garnet and carnelian. In some places about the shores of these lakes there are large quantities of the black and red sand; some nearly all black, and others mostly red. I have specimens from Lake Michigan that are all black and all magnetic. When we commit an error, it is more important that it should be corrected than to develope a new truth. I therefore have a desire that this correction should be as extensively known as the error.” 3. An Essay on the Development and Modifications of the Ex- ternal Organs of Plants. Compiled chiefly from the writings of J. Wolfgang Von Goethe, for a public lecture to the class of the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science. By William Darlington, M. D.” West Chester, Penn. 1839. 12mo. pp. 38.—The object of this es- ‘ay, is, in the words of its author, to give “an exposition of the views Which are entertained by some of the most eminent naturalists of the #3 'especting the successive development and modification, or trans- formation, of the external organs of Plants; showing that all their ap- Pendages,—from the crude cotelydons of the germinating seed, to the most delicate component parts of the perfect flower,—are nothing but Modified forms of that expansive tissue which envelopes the tender Shoots of plants, and is the principal seat of vegetable life; or, in other Words, that the organized covering, called the bark of plants, is the ori- ginal raw material, (if I may so term it,) from which are formed and elaborated all those multiform organs, or appendages to the stem and branches, known by the names of Leaves, Stipules, Bracts, Involucres, Glumes, Calyces, Corollas, Nectaries, Stamens and Pistils.” The serm of this doctrine is found in the writings of Linneus, but it was _ fully developed in 1790, by Goethe, whose fame as a poet-has eclipsed his reputation as a naturalist. The labors of succeeding bot- aniats have established its truth. Dr. Darlington has presented this “urious subject in an interesting and lucid manner, and with his accus- tomed scientific accuracy. 4, ag of the Essex County (Mass.) Natural Flistory Society, Bro., alem.—T he first number of this Journal was published in 1836, 2 sry OS ei a eaaseae : * An equivocal inconclusive result.—Eds. 188 Miscellatted, and comprises 44 pages. Its contents are: Anniversary Address, by John L. Russell, M.D.; the Act of Incorporation, Constitution and Bye- Laws of the Society; Catalogues of its Officers and Books, and of the Donors to the Library and Cabinet. The second number was published a few weeks since, and extends from page 45 to page 108. It comprises the following papers: 1. Familiar notice of some of the shells found in the limits of Essex County, Mass., with reference to descriptions and figures ; by John L. Russell, page 47 to page 76. 2. Notice of the occurrence of specimens of Vespertilio pruinosus, Say, (Hoary Bat;) by H. Wheatland. 76, 77. 3. A sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of the southern part of Essex County in Mass. communicated to the Essex Co. Nat. Hist. Soc. April 24, 1839; by Wm. Prescott. 78—91. 4. Two new species of Musci, with figures ; by John L. Russell. 92, 98. 5. Remarks on Hyla femoralis, observed in the north parish of Danvers, Mass. ; by Andrew Nichols. 93—96. ; 6. Notice of rare plants; with a description of a curious variety of Cladonia Un- cialis; by John L. Russell. 96—100. F 7. Remarks upon Scarabeus Goliatus and other Afiican beetles allied to it; by Thaddeus Wm. Harris. 101—107. The Society was incorporated in February, 1836, by the Legislature of Massachusetts. From the prefatory remarks in the second number It ap- pears that the institution is in a prosperous condition, and has already collected a considerable cabinet and library. Of the industry and =— gladly welcome every new laborer in American Natural History; withstanding what has been already accomplished, the field of discovery is yet very far from being exhausted, and we hope that the honor of gath- ering in the harvest may not pass from our own shores. July, 1839. 5. “ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia for promoting useful knowledge. Part 2, of Vol. © new series (or Vol. 12, of the entire series) :—p. 155 to p. 337. $10, Philadelphia, 1839. : 4 This part of the Transactions of our most ancient and active — tific body has just made its appearance. It contains several papers ° much importance, and well sustains the high character of the Sociely from which it emanates. We annex a list of all the communication? comprised in it. Art. II. Descriptions of New North American Insects, and Observatio already described. By [the late] Thomas Say. Continued from Vol. p- 470. pp. 155—19 ns on some IV; N. 3 Havana, in the island of Cuba. By Richard Cowling Taylor, and Thom Clemson. 191—196. of the at - Notice of a Vein of Bituminous Coal, recently explored in the vicinity pe PORT, IV. Observations on the changes of color in Birds and Quadrupeds. By John Bachman, D. D.. 197—239. V. Determination of the Longitude of I stations near the Northern Bound- ary of Ohio, from Transits of the Moon, and Moon-culminating Stars, observed in 1835, by Capt. Andrew Talcott. By Sears C. Walker. 241—266. VE. On the magnetic Dip at several places in the State of Ohio, and on the rela- tive Horizontal Magnetic Intensities of Cincinnati and London. By Prof. John ke. In aletter to John Vaughan. 267—273. VII. New formule relative to Comets. By E. Nulty. 275—295. VIII. Account ofa Tornado, which, towards the end of August, 1838, passed over the suburbs of the city of Providence, in the State of Rhode Island, and after- © wards over a part of the village of S t. Also an extract ofa letter on the same subject from Zachariah Allen, of the city of Providence. Communicated by Rob- ert Hare. 297—301. IX. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism, No. III, On Electro-Dynamic Induction, By Joseph Henry. 303—337. 6. Notice of the “ Journal of the Statistical Society of London.” 8vo. 18s. per year.—This society was established at London in the spring of : 1834, and has prosecuted with great vigor the objects for which it was 2 instituted. The journal of the society, (the first number of which ap- , Peared in May 1838) is published monthly, and contains an account of be the proceedings of the Statistical Society of London, and of other socie- } ties, communications on statistical subjects; queries and tabular forms for Prosecuting original inquiries; copies or abstracts of parliamentary re- ee Ports and papers relating to statistics; reviews and lists of new statistical t Works, &c. 'The work is in our judgment, one of very great value : as ; : 4 specimen of the papers contained in it, we may mention the following: + Account of the changes and present state of the population of New Zeal- a and; Statistics of the copper mines of Cornwall, England; Statistical Mustrations of the principal Universities of Great Britain and Treland : Statistical table of crime in Ireland; Moral Statistics of three parishes in t city of Westminster; Account of Algeria, or the French provinces in Africa; Statistics of the city of New York. It is not necessary to say anything here of the importance of authentic statistics to all classes of Philosophic inquirers and men of business. 6 these the work in ques- tion cannot fail to be highly acceptable and useful. We hope it may gain * general circulation throughout our country. - 7. Progress of the U. States Exploring Expedition —The exploring _- “adron, of which we have given accounts in Vols. 35 and 36, arrived at Orange Harbor, Terra del Fuego, on the 17th of February, 1839, in forty days from Rio Janeiro. Commt. Wilkes then transferred himself from the Vincennes to the brig Porpoise, in which, attended by the Schooner Sea Gull, he sailed from Orange Harbor on the 25th February, 1839, with the intention of penetrating as far south as circumstances : 190 Miscellanies. might permit. The Peacock, commanded by Lieut. Hudson, attended by the schooner Flying Fish, departed at the same time, on a similar voy- age, but by a different route. No tidings concerning their success have yet reached us. The Vincennes, under command of Lieut. Craven, is to be employed during their absence, in surveying in the vicinity of Orange Harbor. The Relief, having on board several members of the scientific corps, was dispatched for a like period, on a cruise through the straits of Magellan, but in making the attempt to enter by the Cockburn Channel, she encountered a succession of violent winds, and about the last of March, narrowly escaped shipwreck in a storm near Noir Island. On this occasion the Relief lost four anchors. For this reason she did not continue the cruise, but sailed for Valparaiso, where she arrived on the 15th April, 1839. Throughout the squadron, health and harmony have prevailed, among both officers and men. 8. Cold Bokkeveld Metcorites.—Our last number contained a brief ac- count of the fall of a large meteorite at Cold Bokkeveld, near the Cape of Good Hope, October 13, 1838. By notices in the Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. May, 1839, it appears that instead of a single meteoric mass, great numbers of stones were thrown down, and according to one statement they were scattered in one line of direction throughout the space of 150 miles. The explosion was “louder and more appalling than the strongest artillery, causing the air to vibrate for upwards of 80 miles in every direc- tion.” The following analysis by Sir M. Faraday, of a piece of one 0} these meteorites forwarded to Sir J. F. W. Herschel, was communicat by the latter to the Royal Society, at its session of March 21, 1839.~"~ “The stone is stated as being soft, porous and hygrometric ; having, when dry, the specific gravity of 2.94 ; and possessing a very small degree of magnetic power irregularly dispersed through it. One hundred parts of the stone, in its natural state, were found to consist of the following constituents, namely : Water, - - - 6.50 Alumina, - - - 522 _ Sulphur, - - - 424 is ae 1.64 Silica, - 28.90 Oxide of Nickel, 82 Protox. of Iron, 33.22 Oxide of Chromium, .70 Magnesia, - - 19.20 Cobalt and Soda, a trace. 9. Meteoric Iron from Potosi—H. M. Juben, a lieutenant in the French Navy, among other minerals which had been presented to him, brought from Peru a piece of meteoric iron found near Potosi in Bolivia j was stated to him to be meteoric iron of great purity ; it is cavernous, being filled with vacuities, most of which are irregular, but some have the 10 of a rhombic dodecahedron ; some of them also are filled with a greenish vitreous substance similar to the Olivine of Pallas. No traces Ww - of fusion appear, although the mineral evidently indicates the action of a high temperature. The tenacity of this iron is extremely great, but it is readily hammered and filed. It does not oxidize even when exposed to a analyses performed by M. Morren give us its composition— fron, . note ee ee 90.241 Nickel, - 68 we 1 9959-100, This iron is remarkable on account of the large quantity of nickel; no trace either of copper, cobalt or manganese was discoverable. The spe- cimen is deposited in the museum of Angers.—Chronique Scientifique, #4 Feb. 1839, in Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag. May, 1839. 10. Encke's Comet.—During its recent return to the perihelion, this comet has been carefully watched by observers in various parts of Europe. At Breslau, it was first detected as early as the 19th of August, 1838, by M. Boguslawski. At Berlin, it was first seen on the 16th of September, and in England and France about the same time. At Marseilles, M. Valz observed with much attention the changes of the comet’s dimen- ns: He estimates its volume on the 10th of October to have been 826 limes as great as on 24th of November following. He obtained a view of the body as late as the morning of the 12th of December, two days before its perihelion passage. The differences between the observed and the calculated places of the comet have been found very slight. According 'o Gautier, they indicate that the mass of Mercury was assumed too large ¥ M. Encke. Il. Remains of the Mastodon in Missouri.—In various parts of this "ast continent, remains of the Mastodon have been occasionally disin- terred.* J have recently obtained an uncommonly large, entire, head of the Mastodon, together with many of the other bones. The circumstan- “s attending its discovery are these : . €w weeks since, receiving information from a friend that many bones were found on the land of Captain Palmer & Co., about 22 miles south of St. Louis, I immediately proceeded to the spot; and through the politeness and encouragement of Captain Palmer, commenced Perations, which proved more successful than my most sanguine antic Pations. The outside formation and peculiar construction of the upper Part of the head is different from that of any quadruped in Natural History that I am acquainted with. It is composed of small cells about ree quarters of an inch square, and about three inches deep, covered by * thin Cranium ; attached to the upper jaw is the snout which projects large * ce eS iaeece : ; F We have omitted a few lines in this place as being erroneous in fact, since a entire skeletons have been made up, and an entire head is described and ‘ed in our Vol, 36, page 189. Miscellanies. 191 moist atmosphere. Its specific gravity is 7.736. The mean of three | 192 < “ealientes. about eighteen inches over the lower jaw, and which has never been de- scribed before. The position of the tusks in the head, has been a subject of discussion among Naturalists, and they have been placed in the same manner as those of the Elephant. It gives me pleasure to state, that I can now settle this question—for in the head which I discovered, I found a tusk firmly im- planted in the socket, and had it conveyed with great care to my museum, but owing to the ignorance and carelessness of a laborer, in carrying it up stairs, it was broken off, but its position can be proved by a number of gentlemen of the highest respectability. The tusks are not situated in the same position as those of the Elephant, as was supposed by some. They diverge outwards from the head with the convexity forward, and the point turning backwards in the same plane with the head ; the tusk found in the head measures ten feet one inch, from the base to the tip, following the outside of the curvature, and two feet in circumference near the socket. The other tusk measures only nine feet—part of the roof 18 wanting. When placed in the head in their original position, the dis- tance from tip to tip, measures sixteen feet. I may add, that it required two stout men to carry the largest tusk, and two yoke of oxen to carry the head and tusks from the place of disinterment to the museum. Besides the mastodon’s head, I have found near the same place, several highly interesting remains of antediluvian animals, one of which espe cially merits attention. It is the head of a nondescript animal, which appears to have been superior in size to the largest elephant, and which resembles somewhat the mastodon in the hind part of the head, but ie front part is entirely different; and until it is recognized or proved 0 have been previously discovered, I shall name it Koch's Missourian, in honor of the State it is discovered in, and intend, in a very short time “A give a minute description of it, as well as of a great many relics not herein mentioned. A. Kocu, Proprietor of the St. Louis Museum. St. Louis Com. Bulletin of June 25, quoted in Phil. Nor. Am. July 11, 1839. discovered a new metal. The oxide of cerium, separated from the min eral by the usual process, contains nearly two fifths of its weigh the oxide of the new metal, merely altered by the presence of the ail rium, and which, so to speak, is hidden by it. This consideratio? in duced M. Mosander to give the new metal the name of Jatané or lantan. é It is prepared by calcining the nitrate of cerium, mixed with nitrate of latanium. The oxide of cerium loses its solubility in weak acids» Miscellanies. 193 and the oxide of latanium, which isa very strong base, may be sepa- rated by nitric acid, mixed with 100 parts of water. Oxide of latanium is not reduced by potassium; but by the action of potassium on the chloride of latanium, a gray metallic powder is obtained, which oxidises in water with the evolution of hydrogen gas, and is converted into a white hydrate. The sulphuret of latanium may be produced by heating the oxide strongly in the vapor of oxide [sulphuret?] of carbon. Itis of a pale yellow color, decomposes water with the evolution of hydrosulphurie acid, and is converted into a hydrate. The oxide of latanium is of a brick-red color, which does not appear to be owing to the presence of oxide of cerium. It is converted by hot water into a white hydrate, which destroys the blue color of lit- mus paper reddened by an acid; it is rapidly dissolved even by very dilute acids ; and when it is used in excess, itis converted into a sub- salt. The salts have an astringent taste, without any mixture of sweet- hess; the crystals are wholly of a rose-red color. The sulphate of Potash does not precipitate them, unless they are mixed with salts of cerium. When digested in a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, the oxide of latanium dissolves, with the evolution of ammonia. The atomic Weight of latanium is smaller than that assigned to cerium; that is to say, to a mixture of the two metals. Berzelius has repeated and verified the experiments of M. Mosan- —— Institut, May 14, 1839. Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag., May, 9, 13, Biography of Scientific Men.—Professor Webster of Harvard Uni- Versity has nearl y ready, from the press, a selection from the biographies of eminent scientific men in Europe, more particularly of those who have largely contributed to the progress of chemical science. The work will “omprise translations from the admirable Eloges” delivered before the F tench Academy of Sciences, by Cuvier, Arago, &c., and from the me- olrs published in the various philosophical Journals and Transactions of other learned societies in Europe. A copious list of the writings of the Individuals will be connected with the biography of each, and great facil- Illes be thus afforded to the student for reference to original papers. | The size of the volume will be between four and five hundred pages, and Me price not to exceed three dollars. We cannot doubt that this work Will prove both valuable and interesting. Few persons in this country ®an have access to the original sources of information ; and Prof. Web- ster is therefore performing an acceptable service by bringing the history, the labors, and the personal traits of many eminent men before the Amer- ean public. It is superfluous to add that he will acquit himself with good Vol. sxxvix, No. 1.—July, 1839, bis. 5 194 Miseallaniés. judgment and ability ; and we wish him that full success which we trust he will obtain as he deserves it well. Subscribers’ names will be received by the editor of this Journal, by James Munroe & Co., booksellers, Boston, and §. Colman, 8 Astor House, New York. The volume will contain biographical notices of—Ray, Priestley, Four- croy, Wollaston, Cuvier, Leslie, Van Swinden, Knight, Young, Henry, Peron, Hutton, Playfair, Piazzi, Fraunhofer, Breguet, Fourier, Herschel, Pallas, Count Romford, Vauquelin, Volta, &c. &c. 14. Note by Mr. E. F. Johnson, Civil Engineer.—In the article in the present number of this Journal, entitled “ Mountains in New York,” the angular depression of Whiteface Mountain from Mt. Marcy is quoted erro- neously from the report of Prof. Emmons at 15. The depression of 15° applies according to Prof. E. to Whiteface as seen from Dial Mountain, a high peak situated a short distance S. E. from Mt. Marcy. At the time of writing the article I had not access to the report of Prof. Emmons. The error originated in the use of some rough and imperfect notes in pencil made nearly a year since, and which were in consequence partially defaced. The depression of 15’ of Whiteface from Dial Mt. corresponds very nearly with the difference (234 ft.) in elevation of those two peaks, comparing the height of the latter as given “ approximately by levelling’, by Prof. E., and the former as determined trigonometrically by myself 15. A Northern Lynx taken in Connecticut.—A wild animal of the genus Felis, was trapped at Southington, Conn., during the night of Ma - 21, 1839, and was shot the next morning by the person who found it 1 the trap. It weighs thirty-two pounds. Its length is nearly three feet; tail about four inches long and tipped with black. The species to which it belongs is probably the F. borealis, Temm., although it does not em tirely agree with the description given in Richardson’s Fanua Bor aceh Americana. Further investigation is requisite to settle the species sat factorily, especially as the Lynxes of North America are not yet well termined. The animal in question, doubtless strayed from the north, and its like is rarely seen within the limits of this State. E. C. H. 16. Preservation of animal fat for Soap Making, by D. Tomlinso”, Schenectady, July, 1838.—Fat saved for making soap soon passes, — cially in hot weather, to a spoiled and offensive condition ; sometimes with the loss, in this manner, of the fat, or it is devoured by rats. None of these occurrences happen in my house : nor is the fat boiled in lye ws make soft soap. The fat, as it is saved from time to time, is put into 4 prepared cask, and strong lye is added to it. As it accumulates ' quanuty, lye is added, and occasionally stirred by a stick. When the cask is full, the soap is already made and ready for use. The lye cask - Miscellanies. 195 is filled with ashes for leaching, and the lye is drawn off to add to the Soap cask, and more water is added; and thus by filling water and draining, the solution becomes weak, when it is used for bleaching, &c. When the lye cask is emptied, it is filled immediately with ashes, to be used as above mentioned, so that the cask is always in use; by which means it is kept in order, and lasts many years. When left empty, as Some persons practice, it shrinks and soon becomes useless. Some quick lime put into the ash cask, near the bottom, causes the lye to be more Caustic. Cedar and white pine make the best casks for lye or soap. The pine should be free from knots and resin, as the lye will incorporate with the _Tesin, convert it to soap, and leave the wood porous and leaky. When soap has accumulated beyond the wants for soft soap, it is con- Yerted into hard soap, by adding one quart of salt to three gallons of soap; tis then boiled and put into tubs, &c., to cool. It is then cut into pieces, the froth scraped off—then melted again to a boiling heat, leaving out the lye at bottom, put it in a box to cool, and cut into bars for drying. A little rosin or turpentine added before boiling, improves the color and quality of the hard soap. - B. In winter, the leach tub should be set in the cellar, or where it will not freeze—or, when filled, the ashes sh6uld be only dampened with Water, not to freeze, and it should stand till spring, before it is leached, to prevent freezing. omitted to say, that this mode of making soap relieves from the Pagan Practice of boiling soap at a certain state of the moon. _ 1%. Notice of Vespertilio pruinosus* and Icterus Pheeniceus.—Sir :—I improve this opportunity to inform you that on the 8th inst., (July, 1839,) I obtained in my garden the Vespertilio pruinosus, (Hoary Bat,) of Say, and answering perfectly to the description of Dr. Godman in his Natural History, Vol. I, age 68. It is the first instance that I have leamed of its being found north of Pennsylvania.+ . One was captured by Barton some years since near Philadelphia and presented to the museum in'that city, “ Mr, T. Nuttall also observed it at Council Bluffs.” Upon “apturing the animal, I found to my surprise, two young ones attached to € breasts of the mother, nearly equal to her in size. It indeed required * number of violent efforts to shake them off, and they then again immedi- ately attached themselves to the breasts of the mother as before. The atter measured 43 inches in length and 112 inches in alar extent. The “US eee “Extract of a letter from Rev. James H. Linsley, to the junior editor, dated Stratford, July 294, 1839. i © presume our correspondent has not seen the Journal of the Essex Co. Nat. Hist, Soc, No. ii, where a similar occurrence is recorded Vid. this No. p. 187-8, 196 Miscellanies. young measured each 33 inches in length and 3 inches across the wings. The old was a light yellow, and the young about the color of the chin-— chilla, of S. A. I immediately prepared the three for my cabinet, and while so doing, noticed that the stomachs of the young were remarkably distended with milk. Before I close this article, allow me to add that I have observed the red wing (Icterus Pheeniceus) to be carnivorous. No writer that I have seen makes any mention of flesh in describing the food of the red wing, A friend assures me that while riding out the first week in June last, he saw a female bird of this species feeding very intently on the ground, and as he passed near she laid hold of something nearly as long as her own body, and made several unsuccessful attempts to rise with it in her bill. It proved to be the skeleton of a bird completely cleaned of flesh, which by a few of the primaries attached to the wings, appears to have been the semi-palmated Ringed Plover. 18. Malaria.—Thomas Hopkins, Esq., at the conclusion of a me- moir read before the Lit. and Phil. Society of Manchester, England, _Noy. 15, 1838, presents the following summary of the effects of wa- ter in generating malaria. It may be presumed that in those parts of the world which have # high temperature, malaria will be found, and especially when the air has been sometime stagnant, in the following situations, viz: 1. Over the open sea. It will be mild here, because the tempera- ture is not very high. 2. Over slowly moving rivers. They will be somewhat more heat- ed by the sun than the sea is, and will therefore evaporate more freely. 3. Over meadows and woods. The great extent of moist surfaces admits of great evaporation from these. 4. Over shallow stagnant water. The temperature of the water will be high, and evaporation consequently great. 5. Over tide sands and muds. These become very hot, and con sequently evaporate copiously. . Over marshes. These combine great heat, extensive surface for evaporation, and abundant moisture. The author proposes that hygrometrical, barometrical and ere metrical tables should be kept at various places, in order to judge how far moisture and heat with variations of pressure affect the PF duction of malaria. He gives the following table of mortality ! . lustrate local agencies on health. _ “A Table of the Deaths per 1000 of Strength, and the portion of pars who died of Fever, per Annum, of the White Troops in the Indies, being the average of the returns for the Twenty rae Miscellanies. 197 from 1817 to 1836, arranged in the order of: the Mortality. Ta- _ ken from the Official Report from Twenty-two Stations. Deaths in Deaths by 1000, Fever, *"The Bahamas, <5 ss. s. eis ee Pe Me Mevnnnah la Mar, . 0.04088 0 ee o's eS 200 MuMentero Bay, 20s Chemex 178-9 150-7 prmpenich Town. 664. er u* 2 BOER 162-4 141-1 mereobago, ais es ek pee ewes - 152-8 104-1 O-Port: Antonio, . .0.0i- ing too unsettled, the mode in which the as yet enigmatical movement of the glaciers is effected, granting the hitherto gene : Oasar, elongated hills. Purtties, Geol. p. 208. In Swedish as is4 chain of hills, and asar is the plural form and is more properly written osar.—TR. — t Moraine, the rubbish brought down by glaciers and left after the ice has melted.—Tr. ee Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 329 _ tally received explanation of Saussure and Escher, that it is by the pressure of snow on the heights falling down, to be unten- able, still we are justified in asking for analogies, in the coun- — tries where the state of things, which they assume, actually ex- ists. If it requires a fall of temperature of only 6° at the highest _ in order to secure the forming of glaciers at the foot of the higher show mountain ranges, why do so many Alpine valleys, whose annual temperature falls below the requisite degree remain desti- tute of them? Why is not the Altai entirely encircled with ice, Where the temperature of the surrounding lowland scarcely rises above 1°? Why hear we not of such colossal glaciers and im- mense plains in Scandinavia and Greenland covered several thou- sand feet entirely with ice? Why are not Chamouni, Latschthal, Bagne, &c., filled with glaciers? Manifestly the origination of glaciers is not dependant solely on the relations of temperature ; there appears also to be required in order to its being filled with glaciers, a depth and breadth of the valley fixed in relation to the height of the adjacent snow mountain range, which ought not to be passed over. This simple remark must at once have forced itself upon geologists, so.well acquainted with the Alps as those Who have attempted to establish the new theory ; and, apparently in order to meet this objection, Hr. v. Charpentier thought it ne- fessary to make the lowering of the mean temperature cotempo- Taneous with a considerable elevation of the mountain range, in which however, it has not become clear to me, how it is consis- tent that the land should be powerfully swollen by internal heat, and at the same time while this higher heat is streaming out, cover itself with ice? Granting, meanwhile, the possibility of such a State of things, inasmuch as no rise of annual temperature is feported of Scandinavia at the present time in the process of ele- vation, we are obliged again to inquire, here too, after analogies, and the Himalaya at once offers itself to us as a mountain range, Which might well be likened to elevated Alps. This lies, to be Sure, 15° farther south than the Alps, but its summits con- Siderably exceed the height, (about 20,000 feet,) which H. v. ©. requires for the loftiest Alpine top in the diluvial era, and in still stronger. contrast does the elevation of its valley-bottoms and plateaux surpass that (5 or 6000 feet) to which the valley- _ottom of Switzerland ought according to the theory to have been raised at that time. ‘The state of things of the one moun- Vol, Xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 42 330 Prof. Struder on Bowlders. tain will allow of being transferred, with sufficient accuracy for our object, to the other, if we deduct about 3500 feet from the Himalaya heights in comparison with the Alps—which is about the difference of the snow limits on the south slope of both ranges. And what state of things do we find in the Indian Alps? “It is remarkable,” says Rirrer, “ that there never has been any re- port of a single glacier formation throughout Himalaya. The sublime phenomenon of glaciers, which appear to have attained their most perfect development in the European Alp-formation, according to any observations hitherto made, never occurs in the Himalayan Alp-region.” Thus, at first sight we are cut off fromany comparison here and instead of immeasurable fields of ice, many thousand feet thick, which we expected to see, we only meet with snow on the peaks and caps in no greater, rather in smaller quan- tities than on the Alps at their present heights. But a closer view, points out another result, which may be pronounced almost decisive of our question. With the elevation of the ground, all the isothermal lines mount up rapidly in height. On the south slope of the Himalaya, we meet with the extreme limit of culti- vation at 9400 feet; in the deep indented vallies of the interior, it mounts up to 10,700 feet ; on the plateau land, to 12,800 feet; and on the interior table land of Thibet, which can be best com- pared with the upraised lowland of the molasse region, the same appears at 14,000 feet, whence it goes no higher. This eleva- tion would correspond to perhaps 10,000 feet, in our latitude, or to the heights of Diableret and Fitlis. Hence, a rise of ground, even twice as great as that required by H. v. C., never appears t0 produce the formation of such extraordinary glaciers as must be assumed in order for the glacier to have formed the ice-piles of the Rhone-valley, which at the Jura, must have mounted over the valley-bottom about 2000 feet, and which must have extended below to Soleure. We should arrive at still more striking co} clusion, were we to apply the glaciers theory to the Scandinaviay blocks, and yet it is scarcely allowable to explain such similar @p- pearances as occur in North Germany and Switzerland, by tW° altogether different theories. What if in the hill country, at the foot of the glacierless Himalaya, the phenomenon of erratic block should reappear? Several accounts seems to establish the fact beyond a doubt. Prof. Struder on Bowlders. 331 We can avoid a part of these difficult questions, if we assume with HH. Acassiz and Scurimprer a general ice-covering of the earth, a freezing of the water in seas, lakes and streams from the poles to the equator. On the frozen inland sea, which thus in part overspread Switzerland, the Alpine fragments might have been slid to the Jura and to the slopes of the outjutting molasse hills, and in the same manner the Swedish blocks could have been shoved across the Baltic. 'The sudden occurrence of this ice-epoch was the cause of the destruction of the antediluvian animal races and vegetable species, of which not a single sort has survived to our time: and thus even in the earlier geological epochs, the periods of heat and life have been interrupted by pe- tiods of freezing and death. This originally Indian view of na- ture is capable of taking a very poetical form ; and Hr. Schimp- fer has given us a specimen of it. It looses, moreover, with the Sword of Alexander to be sure, several of the most ravelled knots in Geology and Paleontology, but to make it harmonize with facts and with the prose of physical investigations, is a problem Which far surpasses at least my powers —the striking relations between the dispersion of the blocks and the shape of the val- lies, which must ever lie at the foundation of any satisfactory theory, are left in the one lately proposed unregarded and unex- plained. We see not how the blocks could have alighted, as they often have done in great numbers, behind outjutting hills, or pressed in upon the sides of the vallies; why, farther, their zone Tises so high on the Jura opposite the Rhone-valley, and then to- wards Soleure gradually sinks down till it reaches the present valley-bottom ; wherefore in the narrows of the vallies, the blocks are altogether wanting, while on the contrary in the wide portions they occur in the greatest number. But still more difficult is it to see from whence this periodical freezing, this alternation of heat and cold, of life and death, could have been derived. Not from a change of internal heat, for we know from Fourier, that at Present, the influence of the internal heat upon the temperature of the surface scarcely amounts to ;'5° ¢. The warmth in which We live, and which remains constant at different depths of the ground according to latitude, and also agrees with the mean an- hual warmth of the atmosphere, is almost exclusively an effect of. the sun. We might accordingly be referred to a periodical change in the intensity of solar heat,—a problem, with which Herschel 332 New Cobalt Minerals. has recently busied himself without being able to find any ground, in all the depths of astronomy, for a greater change of annual heat than at the highest from 3° to 4°, and besides this change could only have come on very gradually, and could never have produced a sudden destruction of all organic nature. Still less do we find in the unequal temperature of space surrounding the earth, as assumed by Porsson, an explanation of the cause of these changes of heat and cold in terrestrial bodies; for, while a con- siderable increase in the coldness of the space in which the earth moves, would indeed produce a greater dissipation of the warmth of the earth, a lower temperature of the polar nights and more rapid loss of heat in our nights, it could scarcely be the means of freezing over all the bodies of water on its surface; and further- more, these changes could only after a long space of time exert an influence—and that a very gradual one—on the annual tem- perature and organic life. We are thence peremptorily referred to hypotheses to account for that change of temperature, but hypotheses are justly regarded as unproductive, and, although they played an important part in the geology of the last century, yet certainly physical inquirers, who do so much honor to our age as HH. Acassiz and Scuimerer, will again and again visit the smooth worn rocks before they resort to this extreme expedient, and repeat the question to themselves and others, whether this polishing could only be the effect of ice, or whether every possi- bility is cut off, that they may have been produced by water cur rents, as previous to their labors was generally believed. Il. On two new Cobalt Minerals, from Modum in Norway; by Hr. Prof. Dr. Wouter, (with a note by Prof. SueparD,) from a letter to Hr. Dr. Bium. We were too late with our examination of the new Modum Cobalt minerals, which you gave me last autumn. My analysis of them had been completed for some time, and I was about at- ranging the results, when I came across an acticle by ScHEERER of Modum, in the last number of Poggendorff’s Annals, where the same minerals are accurately and fully described.* ScHeeren’s i eee aii ty pepyty aee * The cobaltic a eee cat oe : ae Pd y ScHE ERER, as 0C- curring in two varieties ; one of which is crystallized and pata and as having a LS LT New Cobalt Minerals. 333° analysis agrees quite exactly with mine, and leads to the same formula of composition. The arsenic-pyritical one has exactly the same form as the arsenic-pyrites, and is distinguished from it by a reddish color resembling cobalt-glance ; points it directly to the composition of arsenical-pyrites, wherein a part of the iron is replaced by a quantity of cobalt varying in different individ- uals. From the crystals examined by me, I found the follow- ing compositions : Tron, - - ~ - 30.9 Cobalt, - ~ - - 47 the exact mispickel lustre and crystalline form, even to the piers of the ere Sp. Gr. = 6.23. The analysis of <— foie two to three unex in | ps Sulphur, - Arsenic, - - - - - . - = i ron, “ S » . - - - 26.54 Cobalt, - ‘ - - - - - 8.31 99.97 but that it aids in forming a strictly chemical compound, inas h € replaces the iron. He adds some account likewise of the ee? position of the re with reference to the occurrence of the cobalt mine of Skut . This last forms a vertical bed, or stratum whose direction is north and a and termin- ates Suddenly at the southern declivity of a mountain. Following the direction of this stratum nearly a mile, there is found on the opposite side of the Storcte river, the cobaltic-arsenical- pyrites bed, having the identical arrangement with that af- fording the cobalt glance. It would hence appear that the cobaltic stratum had Supplied cobalt to that containing the mispickel as Jong as the metal held out. he other variety has a tin or silver lustre, si a Sp. Gr. =6.73. Itoccurs com- Pact, with a conchoidal fracture, and a more or less distinet tesseral cleavage : . also in g ingle crystals exhibiting octahedral, sabes rhombo-dodecahedral and icos- itetrahedral faces. According to ScHEERER, it contained, Arsenic, - ue - - - - - 77.84 + Cobalt, - a - “ ~ » - 20.01 Sulphur, - . - “ : " a 0.69 Tron, i F é si - e n Copper, - - . . . ; 100.05 Breirnaupr has described this ore under the name of Tesseralkies—Poacenp, Ann. d. Phys. B. XLU, 8.546 The first mentioned ore here pagel is without doubt, the same substance Which was noticed at Franconia, N. H., in 1824 by Dr. J. F. Dana of Dartmouth College, (Vol. vil, p. 301, this Younsl) Sef icons in 1833 by Mr. A. A. 334 New Cobalt Minerals. Sulphur} - - - - Mit Arsenic, - - - - 47.4 Scheerer found in two crystals 8.3 and 6.5 parts of cobalt. e may name this spieces to distinguish it from the common Arsenic-pyrites, cobalt-arsenic-pyrites. In all the crystals examined by me, a circumstance was re- marked, which Scurerer has not mentioned, that the apparently purest and best formed crystals were more or less penetrated with clear crystalline quartz, the quantity of which in some specimens made up almost a quarter of the weight, in which case the in- ternal structure could be seen on the outside. This comming- ling remained in all the crystalline portions, even when the whole crystal was dissolved in aqua regis. Besides, there remained small black spangles, still undissolved, which had altogether the appearance of graphite, and are in fact nothing else. I have also observed in this undissolved residuum still a third mineral, in very hard, brownish yellow, but quite microscopic crystals, which is certainly not quartz, but nothing could be determined concern- ing its nature. _ The second mineral, with limewhite color mingled with lead gray, very definitely distinguished from that of arsenical-cobalt, and which occurs both compact with scaly grooves and beautifully crystallized in tesseral forms, the crystals oftener growing together with crystals of cobalt-glance, is arsenical-cobalt with $ more arsenic than usual. According to my analysis, it contains, Hayrxs of Roxbury, (Vol. xxrv, p. 387, this Journal.) Dr: Dawa describes it a8 occurring in crystals analogous, if not identical with those of mispickel ; and Mr. Hayes found their Sp. Gr, = 6.214, according to the analysis of the latter 1t contains, Sulphur, - ° : ; ‘ : 4 17.84 Arsenic, -. - ‘ : st $ : 41.44 Tron, - - a e - 32.94 Cobalt, - : ‘ 3 é : ; 6.45 98.67 Loss partly iron partly iro wee Mr. Haves proposed for it, the name of Danaite, Henry examin ; scribed numerous forms of this ore from Franconia (see my treatise.) I h pec 32 no sufficient reason for separating it from mispickel, with which it agrees 1? — respect save in the substitution of a small per-centage of cobalt for iron. as The second variety of cobalt ore, described by ScHEeRER and WouLER not appear to differ from the normal varieties of smalentine Cpe rome Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets. 335 Crystalline, Compact. Cobalt, - 18.5 . - 19.5 Iron, - - 1.3 - - 14 Arsenic, - - 79.2 - - 19. If we assume the trifling unessential commixture of iron to be a substitution for cobalt, then this composition corresponds to the ormula Co As*, a combination, which must contain according to estimate 20.74 parts of cobalt and 79.16 of arsenic. The name proposed by Scueerer for this mineral, arsenic-co- balt-pyrites, appears to me in other respects little appropriate. It is a striking circumstance that neither of these minerals con- fains nickle, which is elsewhere so constant a concomitant of cobalt ; at least, it must have occurred in so minute a quantity as not to be observed in the small portions of the minerals sub- jected to analysis. Arr. VI—A New Method of Making Permanent Artificial Mag- nets by Galvanism ; by J. Lawrence Sarrn, Student of the Medical College of the State of South Carolina. _ Ever since galvanism has been known to produce magnet- sm especially under certain forms of apparatus, it has been a Steat desideratum to retain permanently, the great power that is generated within the limits of a few square inches of metal. few years since, having seen what an intense degree of mag- hetie force could be generated in a bar of soft iron, by passing galvanic currents around it ; the idea (very natural to most persons Witnessing the same experiment) occurred to me, whether this Magnetism conld not in some manner be retained; I was aware that so long as soft iron was made the agent it could not; and if tempered steel was used a difficulty would also present itself, and it was not until about eight or ten months since that the following experiments were put into operation. The object that ad in view, was to substitute for the iron used in the electro- Magnet, red hot steel and cool it suddenly. A few feet of copper wire were coiled as shown in the figure, the arrangement being such, that the galvanism in its circuit Would generate north and south polarities, at the end of the re- ‘ 336 Method of Making Permanent Artificial Magnets. Positive Pole. Negative Pole. 3 Ss N spective coils. The coils were varnished in order that they might be immersed in water, without any interruption taking place in the current of the galvanic fluid. The two extremities of the wire were attached to a battery, consisting of a single pair of plates, each plate of about twelve square inches. A horse-shoe of soft iron was then introduced into the coils to test their magnetic power ; the iron was found capable of sustaining about one and a half pounds. After withdrawing the iron, a piece of steel, of the same shape, made red hot, was introduced and both steel and wire were plunged into cold water, and contrary to my expecta- tion the steel was found to be but feebly magnetic. I then re- peated the experiment, with this difference, that before cooling the steel, I united its two extremities (projecting below the ends of the coils) by a piece of soft iron, which by keeping up the circulation of the magnetic fluid, enabled me to procure a magnet of some power, that is to say, the steel used weighing one ounce, after undergoing this process, was able to sustain six ounces. It must be recollected that the instruments used were of a rude character, and that they could not create a temporary magnet, of more than one and a half pounds power. By this experiment It will be seen that one fourth the maximum power developed was secured permanently, but it is not to be supposed that in all in- stances the ratio of the power secured, to the power developed will be as great as in this, but I believe if proper proportions be observed in the steel used, there will be an approximation to this ratio, even when the magnetic force is of great intensity. This method of making magnets may be of some practical utility, for the apparatus required is of the simplest kind, consist- ing merely of a few square inches of copper and zink, and a few am * iniitertiennn ——aypeaaensttli fein, Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 337 feet of wire; moreover the magnets produced are of a greater power in proportion to the generating energy, than those made by any other process, with which I am acquainted. Twill here mention an experiment which I have tried in com- mon with others, of making magnets by attaching red hot pieces of steel to an artificial magnet, or to the temporary electro-maguet, and cooling them suddenly. To an artificial magnet capable of sustaining eight pounds, I applied a piece of ignited steel weighing one ounce, semicircular in form, and immersed it in water ; it was found capable of sus- taining three ounces, only about one fortieth of the power used, and in no experiment, although many were made, was the ratio between the preduced and the producing powers greater. The reason of this great disproportion appears to be, that when the metal is raised to a red heat, magnetism is not easily induced in it, and that it is ouly when it arrives at a lower temperature in the cooling process, that it receives that magnetic virtue which it retains, and this no doubt also accounts for its inferiority to. the first method mentioned—for there the galvanic fluid is made to _ circulate around the steel : and the current of the magnetic fluid is also. kept continuous by the soft iron uniting the two poles. —S— Arr. VII_— Remarks on-the “ Natural History of the Fishes of M assachusetts, embracing a Practical Essay on Angling ; by Jerome V. C. Smiru, M. D.” Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, March 20, 1839. By D. Humpureys Srorrr, M. “ My report upon the Fishes of our State having been presented to the chairman of the Zoological Commissioners, I feel that, as their ichthyological curator, a duty is expected of me by this so- lety, before ceasing from my labors. In the year 1833, a - ume entitled “ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachusetts Was published by one of our number. To many perenne; ae itaccuracies contained in that work are at once obvious ; by ot - ets, who have a slighter acquaintance with natural history, all is Supposed scientific and true; while if errors really exist, it is cer- tainly the duty of some one-to correct them. I have thought it Vol. xxxvz, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 43 - 338 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. would very naturally be expected of him to whom you have ever entrusted the care of the subjects upon which the work in question treats; and with this feeling, I have thrown together the following observations, which I now offer without further remark. Commencing with the Cartiiacinous Fisnes, the first ten pa- ges are occupied with the history of two foreign species of Petro- myzon, neither of which is found in our waters. The marinus and fluviatilis should have been Americanus and nigricans ; both of which were accurately described by Le Sueur in the “'Transactions of the Philosophical Society” in 1818— fifteen years before the appearance of this work. These two for- eign species are accompanied by figures copied from the German plates of Strack; and one or two points require to be noticed. It is well known that one of the characteristics of this ge- nus is “its seven branchial orifices.” Now it happens, that the engraver of Strack’s plates thought that six would suffice, and accordingly omitted one in his figure. The American copy- ist, while he has attempted to exhibit the very attitude of the fish, has carefully followed his original, and the specimen before us Is minus a branchial hole. The German did however continue the dorsal fin to the caudal, as is natural. The plate before us repre- sents it as terminating at some distance in front of that _ The plate of the second species exhibits in Strack the true number of branchial openings; this copy has but five! I suspect that foreign ichthyologists will scarcely pardon the presumption which would assert that these two species, which are ribed as distinct by Linneus, and have been thus acknowl edged by all ee naturalists, “are to all intents and put- poses the same fish.” The thirty four following pages contain the order SeLacHi. In the prefatory remarks to this order, Dr. Smith observes, that the male shark may at once be recognized by the appendages = the ventrals, though he says “their use is totally unknown.” Had he consulted standard works on the subject, he would have found that these appendages were called “claspers ;” and know- ing that the female did not possess them, their use might with- out much stretch of the imagination be inferred. Eight species of sharks are here catalogued. The Scyllium canicula and catulus 1 have never seen, nor heard of, on our coast, Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 339 rather Spinar acanthias—picked dog fish. Eight pages are appropriated to the Carcharias vulgaris— white shark ; and its history is illustrated by a figure from Strack, while its appearance in our waters remains to be proved. The Carcharias glaucus—blue shark—is evidently confound- ed with the scyllium punctatum—mackerel shark—a common species with us. A species of Zygana is found in our waters ; but as we have no proof given us of its being the vudgaris, our species must be seen and described before it is acknowledged to be that species ; and before we can receive the assertion in the pages before us, that “scarcely a season passes by, in which fine specimens are hot taken in the vicinity of Nahant, about the Cape, &c.” To be sure, we are told that “but a little time since, a sailor offered one, tecently caught, for sale, which he wheeled through the streets of ston on a barrow, attracting crowds of people who gazed upon it in perfect wonder ;” but it was not the specimen of which we have a figure, surely, which created such surprise in this good city, because this is a copy from a German plate! f the species here registered as Nelache maximus—basking shark—J have not been able to obtain the slightest information, and have no doubt that it is the Somniosus brevipinna, (Le Sueur) nurse or sleeper—described from a specimen taken by the fishermen at Marblehead. That a species of Torpedo exists: on our coast, we have un- doubted authority for believing; but as no naturalist has as yet Seen it, the species remains to be distinguished more definitely. We have here an inaccurate figure of the Vorpedo vulgaris copied from Strack to illustrate our fish, when that species has been much more correctly exhibited by Pennant in his “ British Zoology,” Strack is again called upon fora plate of the Rava clavata- thornback. The species called thornback in Massachusetts, I have not had a proper opportunity to examine, having never seen More than one specimen, and that previous to my determination to describe our fishes from recent specimens ; if I am not in error, however, it will prove to be the Raia radiata—starry ray. A species of Trygon is occasionally seen on our coast; but its characters have not yet been pointed out, so that it is premature to They have undoubtedly been mistaken for the Squalus canis or 340 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. introduce it here with a plate of the pastinaca—the European species—especially as other species of this genus have been found on the coast of Rhode Island, to which this is much more likely to belong. An elaborate account of the Stwrgeon—acipenser sturio—ac- companied by a figure, follows the Setacui: the Massachusetts sturgeon is the stwrio oryrinchus. Four species are here included in the Piecroenarur. The aluteres monoceros proves to be a new species to which I have affixed the name of “ Massachusetensis” in my report to the Gov- ernor: neither the ostracion triqueter nor bicaudalis have I ever heard of on our coast. The specimen which Dr. Smith sup- posed to be the latter fish, is a new species to which I gave the name of Yalei, in a communication read to this society in 1836. Under the head of Tetraodon turgidus—swell fish—we find the following sentence, which cannot be passed over unnoticed, however unwilling we may feel to write a line of unmixed cen- su “The only apology we can make for not having dissected one of them with reference to explaining their internal organiza- tion, is the poor one, that there has not been time since the com- mencement of this essay.” Here we see an author voluntarily coming before the public, dedicating his labors to a distin- guished LL. D., and offering as an apology for a neglect $0 palpable that his own conscience accuses him, that he needed time! It is humiliating enough for him who has but a certain time allowed him in which to perform a duty, to be compelled to offer such an excuse, although he has a right to expect the cit cumstances of his case will be considered; but, when an individ- ual to consult his own convenience, chooses to publish a superfi- cial treatise with his name prefixed as its responsible author, such an apology cannot be received by naturalists—regardless as he ap- pears alike of his own reputation and the true interests of science, Although in the LopHosrancun, the Syngnathus typhle 's described, and illustrated by a figure, I have not heard of its having been seen in Massachusetts. 'T'wo species have been sent me by correspondents, both of which are new, and will appear in my report. Having reached the order MaLacopreryGit ABDOMINALES, the genus Salmo, three species of trout are introduced, the “ trut- ta, and “ fario,” and “‘hucho,” while the only one I have been In Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 341 able to learn any thing respecting, after two years’ labor, the “fontinalis,” is omitted altogether. ine pages are devoted to the “ Clipea harengus’—Euro- pean herring ; our species is the “ elongata,’ described by Le Sueur in the first volume of the “Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences.” Upon page 165, we have a figure of the “ Esox lucius’”— pickerel—whose history is spread over nearly twelve pages. Our fish, is the “ reticulatus,” which cannot for a moment be mista- ken for the European species, by any person of common obser- vation : we are here told that Dr. Williams, author of the history of Vermont, states that the pike bears in that state the name of muschilongae :—the maskinongé, is the “ esox estor.” Ihave thought that little if any change was produced in the color of our species by age; the largest I have ever seen was as brilliant as smaller specimens. I suspect the brightness of their coloring depends principally upon the locality ; thus, those brought fom a pond in Brewster upon the Cape, which has a sandy bot- tom, are perfectly beautiful; while those caught at West Cam- bridge Pond, and others in this neighborhood, are far less attrac- tive in their colors. But one species of the genus “ Belone,” the “ truncata,” (Le Sueur,) is found on our coast ; this however is here omitted, and a foreign species is introduced, with a figure as usual from Strack. hat one or more species of “ Hxocetus”—flying fish, are oc- casionally taken on board vessels in our waters is undoubted ; but that the « mesogaster” is one of these species, is far from being proved, The Cyprinus crysoleucas’”’ could not have been known to the writer of the volume before us: he says “‘ Though we have Seen individuals two inches in length, they are oftener less than one.” Of great numbers which have fallen under my notice, the average is from four to six inches. Ess. he “ Cyprinus oblongus” and “teres,” I have not seen: the Writer seems not to have known that there existed more than one Species of sucker ; for he says, “from the earliest period of our yhood, we have been familiar with the fresh water sucker, a lazy, still fish, of a dingy color,” &c. &c. nder the head of “ O'yprinus teres,” the writer speaks of a fish which was taken by the keeper of the Boston light house in ‘ 342 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. a lobster-pot, and calls it the sea-sucker ; he observes, it “has a mouth precisely like the fish above described,” &c. ; and from the fact of its being introduced here, we infer it was considered a neighboring species. The fish here spoken of, formed a part of the collection of fishes purchased of Dr. Smith, and is the “‘ Um- brina nebulosa” described and figured by Mitchill in his “ Fishes of New York.” The author is guilty of a gross and altogether inexcusable error in the following species; he speaks of the “ Abramis chry- soptera”—bream: now the common European bream is the * Abramis brama,” and as yet we know of no “abramis’” with us. The “ Pomotis vulgaris” is generally known as the bream; it is the only species I ever heard of as being called bream in New England, and as the “ Pomotis vulgaris” is not mentioned in the pages under examination, the inference is irresistible that what is here called “ Abramis chrysoptera is the “ Pomotis vul- garis.” So that we have a foreign fish catalogued as being found in our waters, which is included in the family Cyprinrpas, order Mavacopreryen, instead of our own beautiful species, to receive which, a genus was formed by Cuvier, and included in his fam- ily Percomes, order AcanrHorreryenu, showing conclusively, that the common name being given, the scientific name of a foreign species is attached, whose common name was the same as ours. Respecting the four following species, I have only to say, the are all unknown in Massachusetts: the fishes which are known as the “ Roach” and “ Dace” are not the European species “Leu- ciscus rutilus” and “vulgaris,” but undescribed fishes. The “ L. alburnus” and “ cephalus” I have never seen; and as no foreign fluviatile species has as yet been met with in our state, I feel it is just to doubt their existence. That many of the Cyprinipar would thrive in our waters if transplanted to them, may reasonably be concluded from the rapid increase of the “Cyprinus auratus—gold fish, in our ponds; and my friend, Rev. J. E. Russell, of Salem, informs me that an English ged- tleman residing in Newburgh, New York, has stocked his ponds with the Hnglish carp— Cyprinus carpio,” from a few “ imported. On page 189, isa figure of the “ Silurus glanis,” an European fish, copied with considerable accuracy from Strack’s plates, de | Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 343 Signated as the “ Horn pout,” and described as our fish, which belongs to a distinct genus. Dr. Smith observes, “there are — two species (of Silurus) in this vicinity. _I never heard of one. From a careful inspection of our market for two years, and a constant intercourse with fishermen during that period, several of Whom for along time were bank fishermen, | am satisfied the Bank cod—“ Morrhua vulgaris,” is not taken in our waters. I have accordingly described our species in my report under the name of “ M, Americana.” The “ Merlucius vulgaris’ —Hake, is called by our fishermen the “ Whiting ;’ our author, learning therefore that the Whi- ting was found on our coast, has supposed of course that it was the Huropean Whiting, and we accordingly have here an ac- count of the “ merlangus vulgaris,” which is not seen with us. Our “ Pollock” is not the European fish, but the “purpureus” of Mitchill. What can be more amusing than the remarks which we find under the genus “ Raniceps.” The “ Blennius viviparous” and “ Raniceps trifurcatus” are here side by side as synonymes of the same fish—Blenny. 'The one belonging to the order AcanrHo- Tere, family Gosromae; the other, to the order Marac- OPTERYGH, family Gapipar. Thisis notall; a perfect burlesque of the “ viviparous blenny,” appears in the form of a figure copied from. Strack, with these remarks accompanying it; “on ooking over that splendid series of German lithographic plates of fishes, by Dr. Strack, 1828, an exact figure even to the color- ig was noticed, which truly exhibits the blenny of the harbors of Massachusetts, and must therefore, we strongly suspect, have been drawn from the American blenny.” After reading the above, what can the student think, when we tell him that this fish Was never found in our waters; that our blenny is totally un- like the « viviparous,” and instead of being earicatured in “the Splendid series of German plates,” was, years ago, figured by Professor Peck, in the American Academy’s Transactions, as the « anguillaris,” formed by nature. Determined to have a “ Raniceps,” we find that Dr. Smith has here introduced the “ blennioides ;’ the individual which he Speaks of, as “a cream colored fish truly disgusting in appear- ace,” was purchased of him by this society, and proves to be a Specimen with the cuticle abraded, of what he upon page 243 344 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. calls incorrectly “muraena conger ;’ but more of this in its ap- propriate place. Five species are mentioned in the family “ PLEuRoNectes,” but one of these, “ Hippoglossus vulgaris” —holibut, is found on our coast, Under the head of “ Platessa vulgaris,” our compiler gives the appearance and habits of the European flounder, and says “it is one of the most common fish in Massachusetts Bay ;” and for a figure, he introduces a wretched copy of Strack’s plate of the “ P. vulgaris”—plaice ! Two pages beyond, we have a copy of the “ flesus”—“ floun- der, from Strack, described as the “plaice; and both the flounder and plaice described as the “ Platessa vulgaris.” It will at once be perceived that these two copies of foreign fishes should be transposed : the plate on page 214 should take the place of that on page 216, and vice versa. Neither of these species however, the “ vulgaris” nor “ flesus” is found with us. Reference is made on page 216, to a species which is called the “ American turbot,” supposed to be the “ European pears $5 it isthe “ Rhombus aquosus”—* watery flounder.” Neither the “ Solea vulgaris” —* Sole,” nor “ Rhombus maz- imus”—“ Turbot,” were ever seen by any. of our fishermen ‘upon this coast; the opinion was so firmly established, that what is called in our dinar ket the “ turbot” was the same as the foreign turbot, that could not persuade the fishermen that they were not identical ; it was only when two fine specimens were brought here the last season, of the true turbot, from the the coast of “Treland, that they were satisfied of their mistake; and even then, one of the most experienced of their number istered that although they differed, the only difference was this, that wherever a white spot existed in the American fish, a spine took its place in the foreign species, and that opinion he still entertains, although our fish is oblong in its form, and the turbot is nearly circular. The xc Cpclagteiies minutus” is probably the -young of the “vulgaris.” Although the “Echeneis remora,” is here itro- duced with a plate from Strack, it nas not yet been found in our waters. ‘Twenty pages are devoted to the “ “anguilla vulgaris” and “muraena conger,” neither of which is found on the coast of New England. The former has been mistaken for the “7 | Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 345 ena Bostoniensis” of Le Sueur. The latter, is the species unin- jured which when defaced, Dr. Smith called “ Raniceps blen- nioides,” it is evidently a new genus, which, from the appearance of concealed spines distributed over its head, I have called “ Cryp- tanthodes”—and given the specific name of “ maculatus” on ac- count of its mottled surface, arranging it in the family “ Buccoar Loricarar, mailed cheeks.” Our writer seems to have been ignorant of the fact, that the “ Anarrhichas lupus” — Cat fish,” was used as food among us. Many of our fishermen prefer it to any other species. I have eaten it at my own table, and should never wish a sweeter or More delicate meal than that afforded by a young cat fish. It is a little singular, that instead of Pennant’s plate of this species having been copied, which is quite good, and within the reach of all, Strack’s plate which is very incorrect, making the anal fin to appear as high as the dorsal, should have been preferred. Upon page 254, “ Labrus tautoga’’ should be “ L. America- nus ;” we read here that “the Boston market is but poorly sup- plied with them; whenever they are for sale, it seems to be the result of accident.’”” The two last years our market has been Slutted with them, throughout the season in which they are taken. Upon page 259, we have a description of the eunner, or marine Perch as it is often called; and it is surprising that after the author observes, “since the commencement of this little vol- ume, no one species has given us more trouble and perplexity in the classification than this ;’ to find it arranged in a wrong genus, With the sage remark, “ to all appearance the perch or cunner is the tautog in miniature; and if it were black it would be sup- Posed to be the young of that fish!” And this too, while the Preoperculum of the former is strongly denticulated throughout, and the edge of that of the latter is perfectly smooth ! Among the “ Labroides,” we also find the “ squetee” arranged asa“ Labrus,” instead of being placed in the family ‘“ Sctenoo- des” genus “ Otolithus.” Upon page 263, Dr. Smith probably refers to the “ Centro- Pristis nigricans,” when he speaks of the “ Perea varia.” The next eleven pages are occupied with descriptions of nine Species, neither of which is found in Massachusetts. We have Vol. xxxy1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 44 346 Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. neither a “ Scorpaena,” nor a “ mugil,” nor a “ surmudlus ;” and yet here we find an account of each. If instead of copying upon page 273, a plate of the Huropean perch, from Strack, our only species of “ Perca” the “ flavescens” had been delineated, while the writer before us had avoided an error, he would have conferred an obligation. The “ Bodianus leucos”—“rufus’—and ‘ pallidus” are all unknown fishes to me. Six pages are devoted to the “ striped bass” —“ Labraz lin- eata,”’ here incorrectly called “ Perca labrax”—the European species. Our writer observes, “one old fashioned bass only, is known to us from Cape Cod to Maine:” if he will visit Boston market in any of the spring or autumnal months, he may see an- other very common and pretty species of bass—the “ mucrona- tus’—the “smaller American bass,” called by our fishermen * Pond perch.” The probability of the “ Uranoscopus scaber” being found here, may be inferred from the following remark of Rich- ardson in his “Fauna Boreali Americana’—the “ Uranos- copus scaber,” is common to the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, without having been detected in the Atlantic.” We are told by the writer that he had not found the “ 777 gla lineata” in Massachusetts—we have no “ Trigla” on out coast; but the Prionotus strigatus,’ incorrectly called here “ Trigla lineata,” is common at Martha’s Vineyard. Four species of “Cotti”—sculpins,” are here spoken of; one of which, the “gobio,” we are told, “is universally known all over New England ;” another, the “ quadricornus” “is found along the whole coast ;” the “ scorpius” is illustrated by a fig- ure from Strack; and with the “cataphractus” “ the fisher- men are particularly familiar under the name of ruper seulpin —horn sculpin,’ &c. Not one of these fishes is ours—the “ aeneus,” and “ Virginianus” and “ Groenlandicus’’ are common along our entire sea-board, but not one of the above mentioned species did I ever hear of being taken. The “ Batrachus grunniens’” is mistaken for the “ varies tus” of Le Sueur. Under the genus “ Lophius,’ we have an account of the € piscatorius ;” our writer tells us he was fortunate enough to ob- tain one, the body of which, was four feet in length, and “ when SE ktm a tte Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. 347 the jaws were open, it could receive a morsel as large as a man’s head.” What excuse then can be offered for his illustrating this species with the plate of a distinct fish—a foreign species—be- longing to another genus, which grows only to the length of ten or twelve inches! the “ Chironectes histrio.” Such negligence cannot be overlooked ; we have the “ piscatorius” in our waters; orhad the author preferred, as he ever seemed to have done, to copy from figures rather than from nature, he could have found a plate of it in any work on Ichthyology. I have no doubt that Cuvier is correct in considering the “ Scomber grex” and “ vernalis” as the same species. Neither the “chrysos” nor the “ plumbeus” do I know. Eight pagesare occupied with the “ Scomber scomber”—“ Euro- pean Mackerel ;” it is not found on our coast. Respecting the “ Surmuilet,’ I would only introduce a single remark of Dr. Richardson. “ Mudllus, in its geographical distri- bution, is confined to the Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Euro- pean Atlantic, including the Baltic.” Upon page 307, we are told that “the spinous fins (of the Tunny) have a yellowish tinge ;” as the finlets are the only por- tions of the fish, which are yellow, they are probably intended. The “ Centronotus ductor” — pilot fish,” may possibly be found within the waters of Massachusetts, although I have never been able to procure one. The “ Zeus JSaber”—common dory, I have never seen, nor heard of as being found in our waters. Although we are told in the volume before us, that the “ Chry- Sotosus luna”—({“ Lampris guttatus,”) “has been taken within a day’s sail of Boston ;? and Richardson in his “ Fauna Boreal Americana” accordingly observes under the head of this fish, that “Dr. Smith enumerates it among the fish of Massachusetts ;” Ihave never been able to learn any thing regarding it, from any of the fishermen, and therefore, although as it is a northern Species, further investigation may establish its existence In our Waters, I should be unwilling to consider the point as proved from the notice here referred to. Dr. Smith, tells us évo species of “ Sword fish” have been discovered : Cuvier knew but one. : The “ Seserinus alepidotus” is here catalogued in the family “Squampenss,” instead of the “ Scomberoides,” as it should have oak Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. been: the only species described, is an inhabitant only of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Under the head of “ Fistularia,” we find the “ tabacaria”’ illustrated by a figure from Strack ; and our writer says, “ had we not two excellent specimens of this fish taken near Holmes’ Hole, its existence would not have been credited so far north of the Equator.” One of these “ two excellent specimens” belongs by purchase to this Society, and is not the foreign fish, but the “ serrata.” Thus have I taken a hasty review of that portion of the vol- ume before us which treats of distinct species : the remainder of the work I have not referred to, determined to confine myself only to what appeared absolutely necessary to be noticed. The remarks upon the “ Anatomy and Physiology of Fishes,” and the “ Treatise on Angling,’ are foreign to my purpose. The ac- curacy or errors of the former, may be ascertained by consulting any standard work on Comparative Anatomy ; of the datter sub- ject I plead entire ignorance. A few words more and my unpleasant task isdone. The 248 pages over which we have thus rapidly passed, contain notices of 105 species, of which 80 are foreigners, and but 25 are found in the waters of our State. Of these 105 species, 36 are illustrated by figures; of these 36 illustrations, but 9 accompany species which are found on our coast; of these 9 figures, 6 are copied from “ Strack’s Plates,” and 3 from Mitchill’s “ Fishes of New York!’ Of the 36 plates contained in this “ History,” not one is drawn from nature. If “the chief value of a written history is in its truth, and next in the evidences of its truth,’”* what reli- ance can be placed in us as naturalists, when one of our number is allowed to publish such a work as this, and it is permitted to circulate for years without a word being said or a line written to point out its inaccuracies? Why should we wonder that Yar- rell, in his “ History of British Fishes,” should really think that the “ Silurus glanis” and * Petromyzon marinus” were foun in Massachusetts, or that Richardson in his “fauna Boreali Americana,” guarded as he generally has been in receiving what is stated here, should almost believe that the “ Lampres gutla- tus,” and “ Clupea harengus,” and “ Merlangus vulgaris,” and PRR oe * North American Review, No. 53, p. 439. Remarks on the Natural History of Fishes. S49 “ Echeneis remora,” were inhabitants of our waters, when not a doubt of the correctness of this compilation is expressed by an American ichthyologist ? I have studiously avoided noticing any of the numerous exag- gerated stories which are so liberally distributed throughout the pages before us, feeling they could not deceive the naturalist, to whom alone I would address myself; but what can be thought of the assertion on page 75, that the “ Astacus Bartonii”—little craw-fish, which measures from “the tip of the rostrum to the end of the tail two inches,” and the “ Astacus marinus” —our common lobster, are the same species! JI will make no comments upon this statement, but beg permission to extract a few lines from the page referred to. “On some of the highest points of the Green Mountains between Massachusetts and New York, in those small basins of water which are formed between different eminences, lobsters are not only numerous, but really and truly formed precisely like those of the ocean ; yet they rarely exceed two inches in length. The question at once arises, how came these animals in that locality, if the ova of the lobster were not conveyed there by some bird? The fresh water together with the climate of those high regions, has prevented the full devel- opment of these miniature lobsters, though in character, habit, and anatomical structure, there is the most perfect resemblance ; and were the ova from the family on the mountain Biacet under favorable circumstances in the borders of the sea, we have no doubt that the progeny would be as large in one or two genera- tions as any specimens which are exhibited from the ocean.” Such is the “ Natural History of the Fishes of Massachu- setts.” | have endeavored honestly to review it. Believing fully the remark of Babbage, “that the character of an observer, as of a woman, if doubted is destroyed,’* I have felt no pleasure in the progress of my examination ; the duty has been performed for this Society, that when ridiculed for the publication of one of its members, they may be able to say, we are aware that these errors exist ; they have been pointed out by him who felt called upon to do so. * « Reflections on the decline of Science in England, by C. Babbage.” p. 182. 350 Electro Magnetism. Arr. XVIIl.—E£lectro Magnetism; by Cuarues G. Pace, M. D., ashington, D. C. In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, of this Journal, I described a revolving armature and mentioned that the plan admitted of enlargement only with the alteration of the mode of revolution. I must pre- mise here, (as I have heretofore expressed myself,) that I do not suppose this power susceptible of infinite increase, and in giving these descriptions to the public, Iam only selecting from the mul- titude of machines I have constructed, such forms as obviously economize a given galvanic power. A number of machines wherein the poles of the magnets were changed, and others where the poles were not changed, but both systems, the stationary and revolving, were rendered magnetic and non magnetic at intervals, have been laid aside as not worth describing. Another form wherein the magnets were made to revolve and attracted by sta- tionary armatures is obviously defective, as will be readily seen by referring to figure 3d, and supposing the systems reversed. If the armatures were stationary, and the charged magnets revolving, the magnets would always be attracted by the nearest armature ; consequently the magnets would be charged only during one half of a revolution. Figures 1, 2, and 3, are modifications on a large scale of the revolving armature described in No. 2, of the last vol- ume of this Journal. In figure 1, } b, are two Electro Magnets Fig. 1. disposed at right angles to each other, and firmly secured to wooden pillars. Where it is practicable, the magnets should be Electro Magnetism. 351 supported by wood, as every piece of metal of any kind surround- ing a magnet, detracts from its action, by reason of closed cur- rents excited by the disturbance of magnetic forces. For the ac- tion of closed currents see Vol. xxxv, No. 2, pages 254 and 5. The armature @, is mounted upon a brass shaft e, as I have here- tofore shown by experiment that an iron or steel shaft detracts greatly from the inductibility of the armature. At e, firmly secur- ed to the shaft is the electrotome or cut-off, the black portions representing the intersections of ivory or other non conducting material. . 'T'wo pairs of plates (compound series) are connected by their poles with the cups p p._ By the revolution of the arma- ture the two magnets are charged in succession, and thus the action is maintained during the entire revolution. Fig. 2. Figure 2, exhibits a machine of more simple construction than the last, or perhaps than any other. It possesses also the advan- tage of straight magnets much preferable to the U magnet. 506 ate wooden frames or braces supporting the straight magnets m m. @ a are the two armatures upon the brass shaft e. The electro- tome constructed upon the same principle as that of figure 1 may o 352 Electro Magnetism. be placed at e, and the wire connexions as before directed. This is at once a very beautiful and simple machine, but in order to re- alize its full power, the two straight magnets should be charged by separate batteries. It cannot be made very large with any economy, and the proportions should be very different from those seen in the figure ; the armatures should be much shorter than the magnets. Figure 3, represents a revolving armature machine, invented in the month of March, 1838. Fig. 3. The magnets b b b b are secured by brass screws to the braces ec. The armatures aa are attached to two arms e e, which in this case may be run upon a steel shaft. The electrotome is sim- ilarly constructed and placed, and the connexions similar to those of figures 1 and 2. This is the last of a series of experiments made with reference to this subject, and after much attention, { am inclined to give it the preference. Soon after this was 1N- vented, a machine of larger size was built by the subscription of several gentlemen in Boston. — It contained eight magnets, four re- volving armatures and the revolving system was one foot in diam- eter. Not being able to be present during its construction, some Observations on Electricity. 353 errors Were committed, and on the first trial it made only eighty revolutions a minute. The remodeling was delayed until fur- ther subscription should warrant the proceeding; and I regret to learn that the recent disastrous fire in Boston has destroyed the machine and batteries. Art. [X.— Observations on Electricity ; by Cuarues G. Pace, M. D., Washington, D. C. It is somewhat singular that the following fact has so long re- mained in obscurity, especially as the Franklinian theory has de- rived its principal support from the converse of this fact: “Ifa pith ball be laid in a groove on the table of the universal discharger, and a Leyden jar or battery be discharged in the direction of the groove, the ball will be propelled in the direction of the passage of the fluid, that is, from the positive to the negative.” It must have happened, that in every case of repetition of this experiment, the jar was charged in the ordinary way, viz. the interior or 2~- Sulated coating charged with vitreous or positive electricity ; for it will be found that if the insulated coating be charged with negative or resinous electricity, the ball will be propelled contrary to the supposed direction of the fluid, that is, it will move from Negative to positive. “If a card be placed upon the table of the universal discharger, and the wires or directors be brought into Contact with the card on opposite sides, but at some distance from each other, the perforation made by a discharge between the points, will be found nearer the negative than the positive wire.” By reversing the experiment the same error will be foun in this statement, If the negative surface be insulated, the per- foration takes place nearest the positive wire. ‘The same correc- tion will apply to the experiment with the flame of a candle be- tween two cups of phosphorus. Curious result from the configuration of the electric spark at the positive and negative surfaces. If a tapering jet from which Issues a stream of hydrogen gas be applied to a conductor charged Positively, the gas will be inflamed nearly every time the spark | is drawn ; but if the conductor be charged negatively, the gas Will rarely be kindled, frequently requiring six or more applica- _ “ons before it succeeds. Vol. XxXv1, No. 2.—April—July, 1839. 45 354 Observations on Electricity. During the month of October last, I made a number of experi- ments with a view to ascertain the utility of presenting points only upon one side of the plate in the electrical machine. My attention was called to this subject by a singular experiment shown to me by Mr. Daniel Davis, which for some time appeared rather enigmatical. A circular plate of glass was charged by movable coatings, and on removing the coatings, it frequently happened that both sides of the plate when presented toa charged électroscope, exhibited signs of the same species of electricity. After numerous repetitions with a very careful examination, it appeared that only the central portion of the negative side was charged negatively, while a considerable annular space exterior to this, was charged positively ; the redundant positive electricity having forced or spread itself over the edge of the plate. On reversing the experiment and making the redundancy upon the negative side, the negative electricity appeared to pervade both surfaces as did the positive before. Some of our instrument makers have been in the practice of placing the collecting points of the prime conductor only upon one side of the electrical plate, finding that they answered better in many cases, than a. row of points upon both sides, although no satisfactory reason has been given for this difference. After witnessing the above experiment, it occurred to me that the difference was owing to the facility with which electricity distributes itself upon glass, especially if it be not entirely clear and dry. Experiment fully confirmed my anticipations, and I was surprised to find to what extent the plate might be discharged by the application of a con- ductor to any part of its charged surface. The prime conductor having been removed, the plate was turned several times and the silk fies: thrown back leaving both sides of the plate exposed in a highly charged state. The hand was then laid upon the plate at some distance from the edge and quickly withdrawn. On ex- amining the plate not only the parts under and contiguous to the hand were discharged, but the whole of that portion directly op- posite to the hand on the other side of the plate was found dis- charged to the same degree, although the distance over the edge of the plate was in some cases fifteen inches. It will be found that single or only two points on each side of the plate and near its circumference will succeed better than numerous points upon one side. Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 335 Arr, X.— Additional Account of the Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838; communicated by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec, Sec. Conn. Acad. Various observations made in this country on the shooting stars of December 6 and 7, 1838, were published in the 72d No. of this Journal. By recent intelligence it appears that this mete- orice display was also noticed in distant regions. 1. Rev. Peter Parker, M. D. in a letter to my friend, Mr. A. B. Haile, dated Canton, China, January 12, 1839, (received here May 3, 1839,) after referring to the observations made there from I2th to 14th November, 1838, states the following important facts: “On the fifth of December, [1838, at Canton, N. lat. 23° 30’; E. lon. 113° 3’] however, the falling meteors were still more abundant, [than on the morning of November 14, 1838,] one hundred and sixty being counted in the space of one hour from eight and a half to nine and a half o’clock, P. M.; anda few eve- nings after this they were much more frequent. have often kept a lookout since, but no recurrence has been witnessed.” ‘The Canton Register of Dec. 11, 1838, gives the following account of the same event: ‘ With reference to the highly interesting me- teorological observations taken on the 12th and 13th ult., we have been informed that a much more remarkable phenomenon was hoticed on the evening of the 5th inst., when from half past eight to nine, one hundred and eight meteors were counted ; and from hine until half past, fifty two; the moon and clouds then inter- Tupted the view.” The number of observers is not stated, but it was doubtless in- sufficient to note all the meteors visible. 'The evening on which the meteors were most abundant at Canton was probably the Seventh or eighth. The earliest observation after the ¢hird of the Month, which the weather permitted us at New Haven, was on the evening of the sizth, about a day and a half later than the first observation at Canton. 2. The London Times of Dec. 11, 1838, contains a letter from Mr. George Jeans, a copy of which is here given, with the omis- Sion of a few unimportant remarks. “Yesterday evening, Dec. 7, as I was amusing the son of a friend in this neighborhood with 4 42-inch telescope, the atmosphere being unusually good for 356 Shooting Siars of December 6 and 7, 1838. telescopic observations, and what light airs there were, being from W. N. W., we were surprised by the frequency of those meteoric exhibitions called falling stars. From 6 to 7 o’clock, five min- utes rarely elapsed without one, and frequently several descended in guick succession, so that by estimation, I should think about thirty were seen in that time. But from 7 to 8, it was very sel- dom that a single minute passed without a meteor, and for a con- siderable time it literally rained [?] without any intermission. After 8 o’clock they became less numerous again, but still equal to what had been observed at first, till half past 9. Nor had they ceased between 10 and 11; and when returning home after mid- night, though the moon was shining brightly, I counted several. They were not of one kind alone, but of all the species usually enumerated ; nor did they fall from one part of the heavens only, but were widely diffused, and took various directions, chiefly to- wards the S. and E., but not always. The mass of them were not brilliant nor rapid, though occasionally there were some splendid specimens of both, and then commonly with a train. Very many of them came apparently from the zenith, faint and blue, and nearly perpendicular. Icannot estimate the number at less than 300; and though it is a mere guess, for I soon found it useless to try and count them, I am inclined to think that below the truth. T'etney, (N. lat. 53° 28’; W. lon. 50”) near Girimsby, Lincolnshire, Dec. 8, 1838.” This account is much less definite than could be desired. The observations appear to have been made chiefly by one person, watching only a part of the time. 3. In a letter dated Savannah, Ga., May 4, 1839, Mr. Thomas R. Dutton communicates the following: “ After I wrote you in regard to the December shower of 1838, I obtained some inform- ation with regard to it from Captain Dyer of the ship Eli Whit- ney. He was then on his passage from Boston to this place, and off Cape Lookout, (about N. lat. 34°; W. lon. 77°). He made no memoranda at the time, and is not therefore certain of the date, but thinks it was on the night of the eighth; [more proba- bly the seventh.) He says, ‘The meteors started, with few ex- ceptions, from the meridian or near the zenith, and moved to the W. and sometimes S. W. I noticed a few, however, moving to the E. A great many I observed to commence their movement a little to the W. of Capella, and others to the W. of Aldebaran, Shooting Stars of December 6 and 7, 1838. 357 and in a few instances from other parts of the heavens. A few left trails of light, but the most of them did not. The greatest number was seen between 8 o’clock and 12, after which compar- atively few were observed.’ Capt. D. informed me that he must have noticed as many as two hundred, during the four hours above mentioned. His testimony is worthy of entire confidence.” None of the observers, whose statements are cited above, were apprised (so far as I can learn) that any thing unusual was expect- ed to occur at the time. On this account, their testimony will perhaps by some be considered more satisfactory. It is to be re- gretted that the observers did not notice, with more attention, the region of the heavens from which the meteors appeared to radiate. In regard to the question of the annual occurrence in December of an uncommonly large number of meteors, I annex the follow- ing extracts. 'The evidence which they contain is quite indefi- hite, and each one may allow them what importance he pleases. (1.) “The meteors called Falling-stars were much more fre- quent during this winter than we ever before saw them, and par- ticularly during the month of December,” [1824, at Port Bowen, N. lat. 70° 20’; W. lon. 80° 40]. Then follows a particular ac- count of several meteors observed on the 8th, 9th, 12th, and 14th December. Compend of the Journals of Capt. Parry’s Three potas to the Arctic Seas, (5 vols. 18mo, Lond. 1828, ) vol. 5, p. 9, & , &e, (2.) M. J. Milbert, in chap. 3, of his Voyage Piitoresque a ['Ile de France, etc. (Paris, 1812, 8vo,) gives a sketch of the meteor- Slogy of that island, (S. lat. 20°; E. lon. 57° 30’.) In his ac- count of the character of the month of December, he states that this season is the time in which luminous meteors are seen trav- etsing the heavens.* It cannot be determined whether his state- ment refers to any particular part of the month. (3.) “During the severe concussions [of the earthquake] of the 4th and 5th, [December, 1809, at the Cape of Good Hope, | the Watches and clocks lost a good deal of time, a fire-ball was ob- —___ ** Cette saison brdlante est celle aussi ou les méteéores brillent dans le ciel et se Présentent quelquefoi un énorme globe de feu ou comme une longue fusée {Ui traverse lentement l’espace, jetant une lumiére trés vive ; d'autres fois ils pro- duisent une détonation aussi forte qu’un coup de canon; il n'est pas rare de voir paraitre tout-’-coup dans le ciel ces jets de lumiére qui, parfois, se divisent aprés Vexplosion, en laissant une trainée blanchatre qui forme un léger nuage, et bient6t ui se perd dans l'espace.” Tome 2, p. 83 \ 358 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. served over the mountains in the west; various shooting stars appeared ; the firmament was completely free of clouds, &c.”— Edinb. Ann. Reg. for 1809. 8vo, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 509. (4.) In an anonymous table of the dates at which unusual numbers of meteors have been seen, contained in the London Monthly Chronicle, (vol. i, No. 9, Nov. 1838,) the sixth of De- cember, 1826, is given. What authority there is for it, [ do not know. The table seems to be derived chiefly from a similar one published by M. Quetelet, with additions from various papers which have appeared in this Journal. New Haven, Conn., May 15, 1839, Arr. XI.— On the Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803, with an account of observations made on and about the 20th April, 1839; by Epwarp C. Herrick, Rec. Sec. Conn. Acad. Ir is generally known that in April, 1803, a remarkable shower of shooting stars was witnessed throughout a large part of the United States. In order that an account of this interesting event may be placed on permanent record, I have collected for this Jour- nal the following statements concerning it. As hypotheses which I do not credit, are often interwoven with the testimony cited, I take occasion here to express my entire dis- sent from the suppositions that shooting stars, whether single or in showers, are connected, either as cause or effect, with earth- quakes, pestilence, electrical discharges, winds, seasons of heat or cold, or any particular sort of weather; or that the movements of these meteors have any correspondence with the direction of the wind, or with lines of magnetic dip or declination. That they are connected with the causes of the Aurora Borealis, is quite doubtful, yet it is well worthy of notice, that very brilliant dis- ig of the latter have often occurred about the 13th of Novem a I. Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 1. General account.— The newspapers from North Carolina, Virginia, and New Hampshire, contain accounts of a remarkable exhibition of meteors, or of shooting stars, seen at Raleigh, [N. C.| Richmond, [Va,] and Portsmouth, [N. H.] towards the end of Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 359 April, 1803. The beholders have, in several places, given certi- ficates of what they witnessed. They declare that night the heavens seemed to be all on fire, from the abundance of lucid me- teors. ‘They passed over head in all directions, and were too > numerous to be counted. One witness counted one hundred and sixty-seven in about fifteen minutes, and could not then number them all. This luminous display continued from one until after three o’clock in the morning. Part of the time the light was so great that a pin might be picked up on the ground. The modern opinion of these appearances is, that they consist of phlogistous gas, (inflammable air) catching fire in the upper region of the atmos- Phere. But it is not easy to explain wherefore the air of so many parts of the continent was so over-charged with hydrogenous va- por so early in the season.[!!] |The coruscations are stated from all parts to have been unusually frequent and brilliant.” —Medical Repository, (8vo, New York,) 2d Hex. vol. i, 1803-4, p. 300. 2. Observations at Richmond, Va., N. lat. 37° 32/; W. lon. 17° 26. “ Shooting Stars.—This electrical phenomenon was ob- served on Wednesday morning last at Richmond and its vicinity, ma manner that alarmed many, and astonished every person who beheld it. From one until three in the morning, those starry meteors seemed to fall from every point in the heavens, in - Such numbers as to resemble a shower of sky rockets. 'The in- habitants happened at the same hour to be called from their houses by the fire-bell, which was rung on account of a fire that broke out in one of the rooms of the Armoury, but which was speedily extinguished. Every one, therefore, had an opportunity of wit- Hessing a scene of nature, which never before was displayed in this part of the globe, and which probably will never appear again. Several of these shooting meteors were accompanied with a train of fire, that illuminated the sky for a considerable distance. One, M particular, appeared to fall from the zenith, of the apparent size of a ball of eighteen inches diameter, that lighted for several sec- onds the whole hemisphere. During the continuance of this re- markable phenomenon, a hissing noise in the air was plainly heard, and several reports, resembling the discharge of a pistol. Had the city bell not been ringing, these reports would probably have seemed louder.. The sky was remarkably clear and serene, and the visible fixed stars numerous the whole night. We are anxious to know at what distance from Richmond this phenome- 360 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. non has extended. It is hoped that persons who have remarked it in other places, will not neglect to inform the public of the par- ticulars; as such information may add in a great degree to the knowledge of meteorology. “ Since writing the above, we have been informed that several of the largest of these shooting meteors, were observed to descend almost to the ground before they exploded. Indeed, many of those which we saw, appeared to approach within a few yards of the house tops, and then suddenly to vanish. ‘Some persons, we are told, were so alarmed, that they imagined the fire in the Ar- moury was occasioned by one of these meteors, and in place of repairing to extinguish the earthly flames, they busied themselves in contriving to protect the roofs of their houses from the fire of heaven, | “This circumstance of the shooting stars descending within a short distance of the ground, is, however, a fact highly important to be known ; as it has been generally supposed that meteors only proceed in a horizontal direction and never fly perpendicu- larly upwards or downwards. Those which we particularly re- marked, appeared to descend in an angle of sixty degrees with the horizon ; but as the smaller ones were so numerous and crossed each other in different directions, it was only possible to ascertain with any precision, the paths of the largest and most brilliant.” —Quoted in N. Y. Spectator, of April 30, 1803, from the Vir- ginia Gazette, of Richmond, April 23, 1803. 3. Observations in Schoharie Co., N. Y. N. lat. 424°; W.- lon. 743°.—* In the Balance of the 17th ult. we republished from the Virginia Gazette, an account of a remarkable phenomenon which was observed in Richmond. ‘The same appearance of in- numerable meteors or shooting stars, has also been announced from various parts of Massachusetts; and we have just received a communication from a gentleman of veracity and respectability, who resides in Schoharie Co, in this State, which gives in sub- stance the following particulars, He was returning home from a journey, late in the same night that the meteors were observed at Richmond, when he was astonished at the immense number of shooting stars which fell in all directions around him. Some of them approached so near the earth, that he could plainly distin- guish them between the high hills on the east and west sides of him, which were distant not more than half a mile. ‘Those that Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. 361 seemed to fall nearest were apparently as large as a barrel [!] and had tails from 12 to 20 feet in length. He judges there was no intermission (as to numbers and motion) for two hours, during which time the whole hemisphere was illuminated.”— The Bal- ance, (Hudson, N. Y.) vol. 2, p. 205, June 28, 1803. 4. Observations at Wilmington, Del. N. lat. 39° 41’; W. lon. 75° 28’-—* On the 16th and I7th [April, 1803] we ‘ok a brisk storm with torrents of rain and lightning ; and early in the morning of the 20th, electrical meteors were surprisingly numer- ous and vivid. Newspaper accounts since inform us that the Same phenomena were observed over a great part of the country.” —Dr. John Vaughan, in N. Y. Med. Repos. 2d hex. vol. 2, (1805) p. 140. These are all the accounts of the display which I have been able to procure. They give no information concerning the point of radiation, or the hour of the greatest abundance. ‘The radiant point was doinbtless north of the ecliptic ; and it is perhaps not unreasonable to conjecture that it was (as seen in this latitude) near the region of the heavens where it appeared to be on the morning of the 19th of April, 1839.* This meteoric shower appears to be the legitimate successor of those which occurred April 4th, (morning of 5th,) A.D. 1095, and April 5th, (morning) A. D. 1122, (both of the pie style, corresponding nearly to the 11th of the Gregorian.) [I have not Succeeded in finding any meteoric shower in April, between 1122 and 1803, and can not determine whether there has been a regu- lar progression in the time of the recurrence of the phenomenon. No evidence has come to my irre ag that any such display Was seen in April, 1830. IL. Observations on shooting stars, on and about April 20, 1839. 1. New Haven.—On the morning of Friday the 19th, Mr. Francis Bradley and myself watched from midnight until 3 e idea advanced by M. Valz, (Com. Ren. Acad. Sci. 1838, 2d sem. p. 977,) ta ls meteoric displays of the same name, in any two successive years, the meteors appear to move in contrary Rreenney: is irreconcilable with various obser- and it is. quite improbable, viewed theoretically, A short time will determine the question. 25,1095, in Com. Ren. 1836, 2d sem, p. 145, from Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 46 362 Meteoric Shower of April 20, 1803. o’clock. The sky was clear, and the moon interfered only until about 1 A.M. One watched in the North quarter, the other in the South. During the three hours, we observed fifty eight me- teors as follows: From Oh. to lh. A. M. in N. nine; in S. nine = 18 “ 2 4 eleven; <“ six: .-h? mei 3 4 “ thirteen; “ten. = 23 Several of the meteors were large, and left trains, but there was nothing remarkable in this respect. One apparently as large as Jupiter, fell near the horizon in the N. W. about a quarter past two o’clock, which as it burst, shot forth three red fire-balls. The times of flight were generally less than half a second. | Soon after we took our stations, we noticed that the apparent paths of the majority of the meteors, if traced back, would meet in a spot somewhere between « Lyre and ; Draconis, (about R. A. 273°, N. D. 45°,) and the radiant did not appear to change its place among the stars as they moved westward. On the morning of the 20th, Messrs. C. P. Bush, M. Canales, J.T. Seeley and myself, began observations at fifteen minutes past midnight. During the hour next following, we observed nine- teen meteors. The radiant could not be so well determined as on the morning previous. The time was unfavorable :—the moon (then near the first quarter) interfered, and the sky was partially clouded. In good circumstances, we should probably have seen double the number. Considering this quantity as only about equal to the yearly average, we concluded to abandon the field. An accident entirely prevented any further observation on my part, for several days succeeding. 2. Hudson, O.—The observations of four members of Western Reserve College were obtained, through the kindness of Prof. Loomis. On the 19th, from 2h. to 3 h. A. M., two observers, looking from E. to W. by way of S., saw thirteen meteors ; from 3h. to 4h., twelve. On the 20th, two observers, saw, from 2 to 3h. A. M., dwelve; from 3h. to 4 h. thirteen. 3. Geneva, N. Y.—Mr. Azariah Smith, Jr. watched at various times on the mornings of the 16th, 19th, and 20th. He saw several meteors, (two of unusual splendor on the 19th,) but the number was not above the average. All, or nearly all of them, came from the head of Draco.—Observations at Rochester, N. Y. and at Claiborne, Ala. detected nothing unusual. ‘The news- SE i ha OTN Ah ct enemy alii cchimeemimaioeti cabs, — Report on a re-examination, §c. 363 papers mention that at Charleston, S. C., at 10 o’clock, P. M. of. the 20th, a fire-ball of great splendor was seen in the North. The details above given lead to the conclusion, that no unusual display of meteors was visible in this country on the mornings of the 19th or 20th: April, 1839. It is to be regretted that no thor- ough observation was made on the mornings of the 21st and 22d. It deserves to be mentioned, that the meteoric shower of April, 1803, is by European writers, almost universally referred to the twenty-second day of the month. ‘The documents which I have quoted, compel the belief that the true date is the twentieth. The only ground for suspicion concerning it, is the apparent failure on this day, for two successive years, of any recurrence of the shower, Arr. XII.— Notice of a Report on a re-examination of the Eco- nomical G'eology of Massachusetts ; by Epwarp Hircucocs, Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst Col- lege. Boston, 1838. Communicated by Professor C. U. Suzparp, at the request of the Editors, Tue objects aimed at in the undertaking, were Ist, the collec- tion and analysis of soils, with a view to their amelioration on chemical principles; 2nd, the discovery of coal, marl and ores ; 3rd, a more accurate determination of the boundaries to the vari- us rock formations ; 4th the scientific geology, and lastly to pro- cure additional specimens for the illustration of the geology and Mineralogy of the State. rof. Hrrcncock confines himself however, in the present re- port pretty nearly to the first and second topics above enumer- ated, and dwells particularly upon those developements of valu- able materials within the commonwealth, which have been ef- fected since the publication of his earlier reports. As a preliminary to the consideration of soils, he classifies the different kinds observed as follows : l. Alluvium from rivers, do. peaty; 2. Tertiary soil, do. Sandy ; 3. sandstone soil, red, do. gray; 4. Graywacke soil, con- glomerate, do. slaty gray, do. slaty red; 5. Clay slate soil; 6. imestone soil, magnesian, do. common; 7. Mica slate soil; 8. 364 Report on a re-examination of the Talcose slate soil; 9. Gneiss soil, common, do. ferruginous; 10. Granite soil; 11. Sienite soil; 12. Porphyry soil; 13. Green- stone soil. The principal deposites of the 2d variety of soil occur in the valley of the Connecticut river, and in the counties of Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket. ‘‘ The surface on these places is usually covered with a white or yellowish silicious sand, which forms one variety of these soils. Where the sand is washed away, a deposite of clay is exposed, white, or whitish in the southeastern part of the state, but bluish on Connecticut river. This is the other variety of tertiary soils. Either of them in a pure state, is exceedingly barren ; but duly mixed, they form a very productive soil.” (p. 10.) The limestone soil is confined to the county of Berkshire. It is thus denominated because it contains more of the salts of lime than any of the other soils of the state, although the calcareous earth even in the limestone soil, is by no means abundant, it hav- ing, in the opinion of Prof. H., been partially withdrawn by cul- tivation. The specimens of soil for analysis were taken in nearly every instance from cultivated ploughed fields, and when practicable, from land which had been long enough under cultivation to cause the decay of all coarse vegetable fibres. Care was observed to avoid on the one hand, rich soil situated near to houses, and on the other, worn out and neglected fields. The samples were obtained at a depth of three or four inches below the surface ; and in the selection, roots, undecayed manure, and large pebbles were rejected. After having been previously spread for several days upon boards, during the dry days of October, they were transferred to tin canisters. A portion of each specimen was withdrawn for analysis, and the remainder was enclosed in @ glass bottle, which is intended for preservation in the State col- lection. One hundred and twenty such bottles were collected, besides fifty others, containing marls, clays, muck-sand, marsh- mud, ochres, &c. In proceeding to the analysis of these numerous specimens, Prof. H. remarks, that the objects were, ‘ first, to ascertain the na- ture and amount of the earths that form the basis of the soils. Secondly, the nature and amount of the salts that act as stim= ulants to vegetation; and thirdly, to determine the amount Economical Geology of Massachusetis. 365 condition of the organic matter which constitutes the nourish- ment of plants.’ _ The time at his command, however, was inadequate to a rigid analysis of these soils, according to the rules laid down for the nicest processes of quantitative research. Being forced to con- duct many analyses contemporaneously, the use of silver and - platinum vessels was of necessity out of the question; nor was there room to verify results by repetition; still he believes that a Sufficient approximation to the truth was secured, to answer the purposes intended. The almost total absence of carbonate of lime is a remarkable feature in the soils of Massachusetts. But seven specimens of the whole number effervesced with hydrochloric acid, when ex- amined with the utmost care to observe this phenomenon; nor did either of these examples afford carbonate of lime in a higher ratio than about 3 per cent. It was a leading object in the research to determine the quan- tity of finely divided matter in the soil, since the best soils are usually characterized by their fineness. Prof. H. thinks the main defect of their soils to consist in the coarseness of their tex- ture, and this he very properly attributes to the circumstance of their originating, for the most part, directly from primary rocks. The salts soluble in water, equalled from 1 to 2 parts in a thousand of the soil, and in every case it was believed to contain Sulphate of lime (gypsum:) Carbonate of magnesia was also very frequently an ingredient, though in mere traces. ‘The pres- €nce of soda and potassa was not determined. The peroxide of iron exists from 1 to 4 per cent., and upwards in few instances. tof, H. regards this last asan useful ingredient in soils. The ra- tio of the alumina to the other. ingredients varies from 1 to 18 Per cent. The instances are common in which he found it above 10 per cent., which is beyond what might have been supposed for a region where the argillaceous formations are so uncommon as they are in Massachusetts. In respect to the earthy ingredients of a soil, it is undoubtedly true that a very wide diversity of constitution is compatible with fertility, provided the mechanical condition, and the proportions of salts and organic matter are propitious. Prof. H. is of opinion that ‘the salts especially admit of but little variation without Producing sterility, either by their deficiency or excess; and ‘ 366 Report on a re-ecamination of the hence to determine their amount is an important point in agricul- tural chemistry. And the differences which are so obvious in soils derived from different rocks, do not depend entirely upon the different proportions of the earths which they contain. ‘For. the quantity and nature of the salts resulting from the decompo- sition of rocks are considerably different. 'Thus we should ex- pect, that the gneiss and granite soils would contain a larger amount than usual of the salts of potassa, and where sulphuret of iron prevails, of the salts of iron; the porphyry soils, of the salts of soda; the graywacke and sandstone soils, of the salts of lime, magnesia, and perhaps potassa and soda; the mica slate soils, of the salts of magnesia and potassa; the talcose slate soil, of the salts of magnesia: or perhaps more commonly we should find the lime and magnesia uncombined with an acid,’ (we do not perceive how this can be.) ‘Such differences as these in the constituents of soil, will un- questionably affect their fertility; and it would be desirable to ascertain how far they exist in the soils of Massachusetts. Ihad hoped to accomplish this object ; but it will require a great num- ber of delicate and accurate analyses, demanding far more time than has yet been allowed me. As will be seen in the sequel, I have attempted to determine the amount of the salts of lime in all the soils that I have collected; but it will need comparative trials by the ordinary modes of analysis before the peculiar char- acteristics of the different classes of our soil can be pointed out ; and besides I have made no attempt to determine the existence and amount of potassa and soda in my specimens.’ p. 27. Prof. H. next proceeds to the developement of a new method of analysis derived from Dr. Samven L. Dana of Lowell, Mass., and which Prof. H. regards as a most important contribution to agri- cultural chemistry. The account is prefaced by the following remarks from Dr. D. * Geine forms the basis of all the nourishing part of all vegetable manures. The relations of soils to heat and moisture depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under its three states of ‘ vegetable extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould,’ the principle which gives fertility to soils long afier the action of common manures has ceased. In these three states it is essentially the same. ‘The experiments of Saussure have long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. of all the problems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and insoluble geine 1 soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and propor tions of the earthy constituents and soluble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation } i é | ; \ H f Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 367 of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as undervalued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the labors of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, pub- lished in the books, to see that fertility depends not on the proportion of the earthy Ingredients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are these ; that a soil, whose earthy part is composed wholly, or chiefly, of one earth ; or any soil, with excess of salts, is always barren; and that plants grow equally well in all soils, destitute of geine, up to the period of fructification,—failing of geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, all that is essential ; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with the first. . The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of plants. The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury. The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve all into ‘ granitic sand ;’ by which I mean the finely divided, almost impalpable mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica slate, sienite, and argillite; the last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic principles constant constitu- ents—silica, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphuric and phos- ave been overlooked from the known difficulty of detecting phosphoric acid. Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with mucilage or gelatine, that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless the good effects, the lasting effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to ~ which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar form - ations; but all our granitic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic Principles which plants demand. This’is so true, that on this point the farmer al- Feady knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows: soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture, but the best possible Mixture does not give fertility. That depends on salts and geine. If these views are correct, the few properties of geine which I have mentioned, will lead us at once toa simple and accurate mode of analysing soils,—a mode, which determines ®t once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable nutriment,—a mode, requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental tact,—one, which the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy ; and, With a little modification, perfectly within the reach of any man who can drive a team or hold a plough.” 368 Report on a re-examination of the Rules of Analysis. . “ Sift the an through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; dake it just up to Bick, tie se paper 2. Boil 100 ; grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or carbonate of soda, in 4 ounces of water, for half an hour ; ; let it settle; decant the clear ; wash the grounds with 4 ounces boiling water ; throw all on a ihe fil- ter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil, (1); wash till color- ss water returns Mix all these liquors. It isa brown colored solution of al] the soluble geine. Al] sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any phosphates, are on the filter. Dry therefore, that, with its contents, at the same heat as before. Weigh—the loss is soluble geine.” “Tf you wish to examine the geine ; pracipitate the alkaline solution with ex- atl ime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if lime-water aes has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colorless. Collect the geate of lime on a filter; wash with a little oane or very dilute muriatic acid, and you have geine quite pure. Dry and weig 4. “Replace on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents; wash with 2 rams muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold-water. Wash till tle oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touche salts of lime Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in boiling water. The insoluble will be phosphate of lime. Weigh—the loss is the sulphate of lime; (1 make no allowance here for the difference in atomic weights of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.)”” _ 5. “ The earthy residuum. if of a greyish white color, contains no insoluble geine —test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel—if the odor of burn- ing feat is given off, the presence of insoluble geine is indicated. Ifso, calcine the earthy residuum and its filter—the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine ; that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegeta- ble food. fla ny error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate, if one be present. but these exist in too small quantities in ‘granitic sand,’ to affect the result. The actual weight of the residuary mass is ‘ granitic sand.’ “ The clay, mica, quartz, &c. are easily distinguished. which may be easily tested by acids ; then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the Joss of weight is due to the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron may be so considered ; for the ulti- mate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime. “ Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as before, to determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter.””* 32-35. pela a CRS Pel P sete * In applying Dr. Dana’s rules given in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several processes to- gether. T accordingly made ten nce esi upon a table, each pro vided with If your soil is calcareous, at chen a The sand bath was also made large enough for aerate 3 the ten flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes with almost as great facility as one could have been carried forward in the usual way | | Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 369 A tabular view is given in the report of 125 analyses of soils, conducted on the principles above laid down. The first column of the table gives the soluble geine, the 2d, the insoluble geine, the 3d, sulphate of lime, the 4th, the carbonate of lime, the 5th, the phosphate of lime, the 6th, the granitic sand, the 7th, the moisture absorbed in 24 hours by 100 grs. of the soil previously heated up to 300° F., the 8th, the absorbing power in propor- tional numbers, and the last, the specific gravity of the soil. Notwithstanding the expedition with which examinations ac- cording to the foregoing rules are capable of being made, we can- not but express our astonishment at the zeal and patience with which the author must have labored in order to bring forward so many results. And whatever may be the value which the chem- ical reader may attach to the formula by which they are conduc- ted, taken as a whole, still, in regard to the columns of organic matter, of absorbing power and specific gravity, no objections are likely to be urged. Of Dr. Dana’s hypothesis respecting the state in which vegeta- ble and animal matter exists in the soil, and the changes through which it passes before being taken up by the roots of the plants, it is exceedingly doubtful whether the progress of organic chem- istry will ever raise it to the character of chemical theory. Re- cent researches would rather lead us to regard soluble geine as Composed of at least three vegetable acids, viz. the crenic, apo- crenic, and ulmic, together with a black matter called by Her- MANN (Journ. d’ Erp. t. 12, p. 277,) earthy extract: while the insoluble geine is ulmic acid mingled with undecomposed veg- etable remains. HERMANN gives the following view of the con- Stitution of the above acids. Crenie. Apocrenic. Ulmic. Carbon, 535. (= Tatoms.) 1070.1(= 14 atoms.) 6190. Hydrogen, 99.8(=16 “ ) 87.3(=14 “ ) 431 Nitrogen, 88.5(= 1 “ ) 265.5(= 3 “ ) 1108. Oxygen, 600. (= 6 “ ) 600. (= 3 “ ) 2274 1323.3 (combining weight. ) 1722.9 (combining wt.) 10000. What therefore Dr. D. considers a simple salt, (a geate, ) is more Probably a family of salts, viz. a crenate, an apocrenate, and an ulmate, with the addition moreover of earthy extract. How these Principles become the nutriment of plants is yet far from being Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 7 370 Report on a re-examination of the cleared up, although there remains the best reason for supposing that it chiefly depends upon their capacity to afford carbonic acid. The more alkaline the bases united with these acids in a particu- lar soil, the more favorable are the conditions for vegetation, a fact which is apparently connected with the superior solubility of alkalescent salts. It may be doubted whether the steps directed to be taken in the analysis for the determination of the salts of lime are free from all objection. The treatment of the soil after being freed from geine, with dilute hydrochloric acid, must necessarily take into solution aluminium and iron, beside rendering a portion of the silicic acid soluble. On evaporating the fluid to dryness as di- rected, and treating the mass with boiling water, it would there- fore follow that a residuum of alumina and sesquioxide of iron, (owing to the partial decomposition of the chlorides of aluminium and iron from evaporation to dryness,) together with some silicic acid (rendered insoluble by the same treatment,) would go to in- crease the weight assumed to be pure phosphate of lime. As might be anticipated therefore, we find the ratio of phos- phate of lime in the soils of Massachusetts exceedingly high, va- rying from 0.5 to 2 per cent. Growing out of the same procedure, it appears also, that the proportion of sulphate of lime must generally be rather too high : for if, as we suppose, the hydrochloric acid attacks the aluminium and iron, the aqueous solution regarded in the formula as chlor. calcium only, must contain also the chlorides of iron and alu- minium, as well as some silicic acid. Consequently, we find the sulphate of lime quoted in some of these analyses at 3 p. ¢., and even higher in a few instances. The foregoing inadvertencies (as they strike us) in Dr. Dana’s rules of analysis, are not conceived to vitiate in an important man- ner the results contained in the report, nor do we mention them because we imagine they were unperceived by the inventor of the formula or by Prof. H.; but through a desire to induce these gentlemen to obviate, if possible, the objections urged against it, and still preserve its claims to convenience on the ground of fa- cility of working and accuracy of result. The report contains the following remarks respecting the re- sults of these analytic investigations. “4 commen Vesontite rtm tt Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 371 They show us the amount of nutriment in the soils of Massachusetts ; also how much of it is in a fit state to be absorbed by plants, and how much of it will need further preparation. As this is probably the first attempt that has b de to ob tain the amount of geine in any considerable number of soils, we cannot compare the results with those obtained in other places. They will be convenient, however, for comparison with future analyses; and we learn from them, that geine, in both its forms, abounds in the soils of the state, and that it most abounds where most attention has been paid to cultivation. It ought to be recollected, that I took care not to select the richest or the poorest portions of our soils; so that the geine in this table is probably about the average quantity. It is hardly probable that the number of specimens analysed from the different varieties of our soils is sufficiently large to enable us to form a very decided opinion as to their comparative fertility, in som especially when we recollect how much more thorough is the cultivation arts of the state than in others. It may be well, however, to state the average quantity of geine in the different geological varieties of our soils, which is as follows ; Soluble Geine. Insoluble Geine, lluvium, 2.25 - ere cet Tertiary argillaceous soils, oo ee eo Sandstone do. 3.28 - - - - 2.14 Gray wacke do. $3.60, <5 -= - - 4.00 Argillaceous slate do. 5.77 - - - - 4.53 Limestone do. 3.40 - - - - 4.04 Mica slate do. 4.34 - - - - 4.60 Talcose slate do. 3.67 “ - * * 4.60 Gneiss do. AD nae se Granite do 4.05 + . . * 3.87 Sienite do. 4.40 ety ae . - 4.50 Porphyry do. G97. ae et ee Greenstone . do C56 ss - - - 6.10 One fact observable in the above results may throw doubts over the fundamen- tal principles that have been advanced respecting geine ; viz. that it constitutes the od of plants, and that they cannot flourish without it. It appears that our best alluvial soils contain less geine, in both its forms, than any other variety, except those very sandy ones that are not noticed in the above results, because their num- is so small. Ought we hence to infer that alluvium is a poor soil? I appre- _ hend that we can infer nothing from this fact against alluvial soils, pt that they are sooner exhausted than others, without constant supplies of g For if a soil contain enough of this substance abundantly to supply a crop that is growing upon it, that crop may be large although there is not enough geine to ki Now analysis shows that our alluvial soils contain enough of g gree of fineness that they allow air, moisture, and lime, rapidly to convert vegeta- ble matter into soluble geine, and yield it up readily to the roots of plants : but I Presume that without fresh supplies of manure, they would not continue to pro- duce as long as most of the other soils in the state. A considerable part of our al- luvia are yearly recruited by a fresh deposite of mud, which almost always con- tains a quantity of geine and of the salts of lime, in a fine condition for being ab- 80rbed by the rootlets of plants. And on other parts of alluvial tracts, our farmers, I believe, are in the habit of expecting but a poor crop unless they manure it yearly. Yet so finely constituted are these soils, that even if exhausted, they are more easi ¥estored than most others; so that taking all things into the account, they are 372 Report on a re-examination of the among the most valuable of our soils; and yet I doubt whether they produce as much at one crop as many other soils; though the others perhaps require more labor in cultivation, amount of soluble and insoluble geine obtained by Dr. Dana’s method of analysis, ought to correspond pretty nearly with the amount of organic matter ob- tained by the old method ; and by comparing the two tables of results that have been given, it will be seen that such is the fact. Several circumstances, however, e errors of analysis, will prevent a perfect agreement. In the first place, by the old method of analysis, 100 grains of the soil are weighed before expelling the water of absorption ; but by the new method, not until after its expulsion. Again, by the old method only the very coarse parts of the soil are separated by the sieve : but a fine sieve is used by the new mode, and this removes nearly all the vegeta- perfect agreement in the results of the two methods. The three next columns in the Table contain the salts of lime in our soils. have already described the infrequency of the carbonate ; but very different is the ease with the sulphate and the phosphate which were found in greater or less quantity, in-every soil analysed. In respect to the sulphate of lime, or gypsum, it may not be unexpected that we should find it in all soils, since we know it to occur in all natural waters throughout the state ; and we cannot conceive of any other source from which the water could have derived it, except the soil. But the phosphate of lime has generally been supposed to be much more limited, nay to be scarcely found in soils, except where animal substances have been used for manure. It is possible that in all the soils which I have analysed, such might have been its origin, though not very probable. Yet there is strong reason to believe, that this salt is a constituent of all soils in their natural state. The arguments on this sub- ject are stated so ably by Dr. Dana that I need only quote from his letter. * When we consider that the bones of all graminivorous animals contain nearly 50 per cent. of phosphate of lime, we might be at liberty to infer the existence of this principle, in the food, and, consequently, in the soil, on which these animals raze. If we look at the actual result of the analysis of beets, carrots, beans, peas, potatoes, asparagus, and cabbage, we find phosphate of lime, magnesia, and potash, varying from 0.04 to 1.00 per cent. of the vegetable. Indian corn too, by the anal- ysis of the late Professor Gorham, of Harvard College, contains 1.5 per cent. phos- phate and sulphate of lime. It may be said that this is all derived from the manure. We shall see by and by. Let us look at the extensive crops often raised where man has never manured. Rice, wheat, barley, rye, and oats, all contain notable portions of phosphate of lime, not only in the grain but in the straw, and often in the state of superphosphates. The diseases too, ergot and smut, show free phospho- ic acid. Can it be that, owing to certain electrical influences of the air, in partic- ular seasons, lime is not secreted by the plant to neutralize the free acid? May not this be a cause of smut and ergot? Does it not point out a remedy ? Take too the cotton crop of our country. What vast quantities of phosphates do we thus annually draw from the soil? Cotton gives one per cent, ashes, of which 17 per cent. is composed of phosphate of lime and magnesia. The like is tue of tobacco. It contains 0.16 per cent. of phosphate of lime. If we turn to the analysis of forest trees, we find that the pollen of the pinus abies, wafted about in clouds, is composes of 3 per cent. phosphate of lime and potash. May not this too be one of nature s beautiful modes of supplying phosphoric acid to plants and to soils? If, as the late experiments of Peschier have proved, sulphate of lime, in powder, is decomposed growing leaves, the lime liberated, and the sulphuric acid combining with the | | | | 7 | | Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 373 potash in the plant, why may not phosphate of lime, applied by pollen, act in the same way? At any rate, the existence of phosphate of lime in our forest soils is proved not only by its existence in the pollen, but by its actual detection in the ashes of pines and other trees.—100 parts of the ashes of wood of pinus abies give 3 per cent. phos. iron; 100 parts of the ashes of the coal of pinus sylvestris give 1.72 phos. lime, 0.25 phos. iron; 100 parts of ashes of oak coal, give 7.1 phos. lime, 3.7 phos. iron ; 100 parts of ashes of bass wood 5.4 phos. lime, 3.2 phos. iron; 100 parts of ashes of birch wood 7.3 phos. lime, 1.25 phos. iron ; 100 parts of ashes of oak wood 1.8 phos. lime ; 100 parts of ashes of alder coal 3.45 phos. lime, 9. phos. iron, “These are the calculated results from Berthier’s very accurate analyses, and those very curious crystals—detected in some plants—the ‘ raphides’ of DeCandolle, are some of them bibasic phosphates of lime and magnesia. Phosphate of iron, we now, is common in turf; bog ore, and some b d acid soil their-acidity to free phosphoric acid. If we allow that our untouched forest soil contains phos- phate of lime, it may be said, that this, being in small quantity, will be soon ex- hausted by cultivation, and that the phosphates, which we now find in cultivated fields, rescued from the forest, is due to our manure ;—I give you the general result of my analysis of cow dung, as the best argument in reply. My situation and du-— Hes have led me to this analysis. I give you it, in such terms as the farmer may comprehend : water, 83.60; hay, 14. ; biliary matter, (bile resin, bile fat and green resin of hay,) 1.275; geine combined with potash, (vegetable extract,) 0.95; albu- men, 0.175,’’ “The hay is little more altered than by chewing. The albumen has disap- peared, but its green resin, wax, sulphate and phosphate of lime remain, and when We take 100 parts of dung, among its earthy salts we get about 0.23 parts phosphate, 0.12 carbonate, and 0,12 sulphate of lime. Now, a bushel of green dung as evacua- ted weighs about 87.5 Ibs. Of this only 2.40 per cent. are soluble. Of this portion only 0.95 can be considered as soluble geine.’’—pp. 43-47. acidity For the sake of comparison, Prof. H. has subjected a few spe- cimens of soil taken from fertile western lands to the same kind of analysis. | 2 S leslgclo ls gg\esles|38| 28/38/22 Sa ilcalertenisalse|ss Remarks. Bo (So |S" | Sl Bs [e758 RR = 3 z 2 ee |" ee a Rushville, — Llinois, 7.4 | 2.5|3.4 | 0.6/ 1.5 84.6, 6.3 | Sangamon co. do 5.6] 1.2| 0.4/1.3 /86.6| 6.3 lor Apparently never “a sha ; S ihivaled: Peoria county, do. | 3.1} 4.8] 3.5 | 1.0 87.6 5.7 Cultivated 14 years i ee of carbonate of lime to convert more insoluble into soluble geine, whenever occa- pare the p ling analyses with some of those that have been given of the Massachusetts soils, the superiority of the western soils will Not appear as great as is generally supposed. And there is one consideration re- sulting from the facts that have been stated respecting geine, that ought to be well 374 Report on a re-ecamination of the considered by those who are anxious to leave the soil of New England that they regions which have not been cultivated: and for many years, perhaps, those re- gions will produce spontaneously. But almost as certain as any future event can be, continued cultivation will exhaust the geine and the salts, and other generations must resort to the same means for keeping their lands in a fertile condition as are now employed in Massachusetts, viz. to provide for the yearly supply of more geine and more salts.—pp. 47,48 Next follows some remarks upon the power of soils to absorb water. This is conceived to depend principally upon the organic matter they contain, and next upon the proportion of alumina, after which cabonate of lime is considered favorable to the imbi- bition of moisture. These ingredients of soil being essential to fertility, the absorbing power, if correctly ascertained, becomes to some extent a measure of its productiveness. Prof. Hrrcencocx’s method of determining the problem in question, was to expose 100 grs. previously heated to 300° F. in a cellar for 24 hrs. on a small earthern plate. At the end of this period, the plate was again weighed and the increase ascertained. The power of a soil to absorb moisture is no doubt a very important consideration to the agriculturalist ; and it appears to us to depend upon several conditions beside those above hinted at. For example, the mechanical condition of the soil must materially influence its capacity for acquiring moisture. A finely comminu- ted soil will absorb in a higher ratio than one which is coarse or gravelly. The presence of carbonate of potassa, or chloride of calcium, by their deliquescent properties will also powerfully aug- ment the absorbability of a soil. It is in part owing to the alka- line carbonate referred to, that the light soils in and near New Milford, (Conn.) possess such superior qualities for agriculture. This carbonate is supplied without interruption from the decom- posing state of the feldspar in the granitic gneiss hills (called Can- dle Mt. range) situated west of the village, and which run north- ward to Cornwall. We know also, that wood-ashes constitute the best amendment for light silicious soils, rendering them pro- ductive in almost every species of crop, even when applied with very small quantities of other manure. Illustrations of this fact -are frequent upon Long Island and the dry sand soils of the Con- necticut valley. Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 375) A new method for learning the absorbing qualities of soils has lately been practiced by M. Berruier,* which appears to us as particularly deserving of notice. It consists in filling a small filter with the dry soil, and then thoroughly moistening it until water drops from it; when the water has ceased dropping, the filter with its contents is transferred to one cup of a balance and a moistened filter of the same size to the other, when the gain in weight is noted. The following are some results obtained in this way by Berruier: A vegetable soil from Ormeson, near Nemours, of a pale ochre yellow color, taken from a vineyard and considered of excellent quality, absorbed 0.36 its weight of water. Quartzy sand of Nemours, such as is employed in the glass fac- tory of Bagneaux, absorbed 0.227. Quartzy sand of Aumont pulverized in a mortar, absorbed 0. 30. The kaolin of Limoges, absorbed 0.46. The chalk of Meudon, when purified and in the condition of Spanish white, gained by the process 0.35 its weight. The report contains likewise several interesting experiments directed to the converse of this problem, viz. to ascertain the ca- pacity of soils to retain water, which is by no means proportional to their powers of absorption: for these results we must refer the teader to the report. Prof. Hitchcock comes at the following very just conclusions. in respect to the soils of Massachusetts, viz. that the grand desid- erata in them are carbonate of lime and an additional supply of geine, or organic matter. He then proceeds to point out nu- merous sources of these materials in different sections of the state, many of which have been brought to light in the progress of the survey. An extensive bed of marl is pointed out as existing in the horthwest part of Stockbridge, in Berkshire county, on land of Mr. Buck, a second in the same town, four miles from the court house in Lenox, a third in the northeast part of Lee, (the thick- hess of which in some places is ten feet,) also several beds in West Stockbridge. Numerous other beds have also been noticed in the neighboring towns. The purest of these marls when dry, are white and much lighter than the common soil, and they ea- * Ann. des Mines, t. xiv, 1838. 376 Report on a re-examination of the sily fall to powder. They abound in small fresh water shells. They contain from 50 to 90 p. c. of carbonate of lime, with con- siderable organic matter and traces of phosphate of lime ; and can- not fail of proving an invaluable application for the adjoining The clay-beds of the state are described as frequently contain- ing calcareous matter, particularly those which give rise to those curious rounded and flattened concretions, called clay-stones, and which often consist of carbonate of lime in the proportion of 50 per cent. Calcareous diluvium abounds in Springfield, West Springfield, and South Hadley. It consists of the detrital mat- ter from a red slaty rock, which originally contained a few per cent. of carbonate of lime. ‘The lime serves as a cement, and imparts to the aggregate the firmness of a rock; but on being ex- posed to the weather, it finally crumbles down and in this condi- tion may be conveniently spread upon land. The composition of the various limestones in the state is also given, from which research it appears that they are chiefly dolo- mitic. Several new localities are moreover added to the list ; and what to us was quite unexpected, two deposites of green sand, one at Marshfield (in a region of granite) and the other at Gay ead. Hydrate of silica, or the light silicious soil which under- lies peat-deposits is also used as a fertilizer to some extent in the state, and no doubt with good reason, inasmuch as its animal orl- gin, (having composed originally the skeletons of infusoria,) 1ts impregnation with peat juice, and its favorable mechanical condi- tion, must each contribute to render it highly serviceable. - _ Prof. H. next points out the sources of geine, or vegetable neu- triment with much particularity and good judgment; and finally concludes this part of his subject with the following remarks : Though I have dwelt so long upon the analysis and improvement of our soils, it will be seen that I have touched only a few of its more important features, and that even these are but imperfectly considered. Many minor points, of no small im- portance, however, have been wholly passed over, or only alluded 10 5 and sensi- ble that I cannot do them justice at present, I shall not attempt to discuss them. My great object has been, after ascertaining the greatest deficiences in our soil, to satisfy the Government that we have the means of remedying them and of nvekang great improvements in them, by the aid of chemistry. If I may hope that I have accomplished this object, then I take the liberty to inquire, whether it be not 1m- portant enough, and whether there is not enough still left to accomplish ES an it, to make the appointment of a State Chemist desirable? We ought to have cH further experiments made on the subject of geine, and the salts, which the se 4 Economical Geology of Massachusetts. 377 contain: also accurate analyses of the crops grown on soils with different manures ; seg erersigations as to the manner in which calcareous matter acts upon vegeta- | substances : as also experiments directed by an able and experienced Bon on the best mode of bringing into use the vast deposites of geine and ve- getable fibre which our state contains. And since we have chemists of this char- acter among us, why should not the services of at least one of them be secured for this object? The geological surveyor might often collect substances for analysis ; but if obliged to go as thoroughly into the chemistry of the subject as is necessary to valuable results, he cannot within any reasonable time accomplish the more ap- propriate objects of his appointment. In at least one state of the Union, where geological surveys are in progress, one gentleman is appointed, whose time and at- tention are exclusively devoted to the chemical examination of the soils, ores, &c., collected. And I would fondly believe, that Massachusetts will not rest satiety till this work is done at least as thoroughly as in any other state. I believe there is abundant labor for an experienced chemist upon our soils alone: but many other > gig found in the state, ought to be analysed, that their real value may be own. Among the secondary considerations relative to the soils of Massachusetts, yet unsupplied in the report for want of time, we presume, are descriptions of the subsoils, (or bottoms on which the cultivable lands immediately rest,) the topographical situations of the soils in respect to a supply of water from springs, lakes and tivers, and accurate tables of the rain-guage and thermometer du- ting the warm season; all of which points are entitled to attention among the elements for determining the agricultural capabilities of a country. Since the publication of Prof. H.’s first report, the prospect of discovering workable beds of anthracite coal in the region of greywacke where it was predicted to exist, has become strongly heightened. The Mansfield coal company have sunk a shaft to the depth of 84 feet, from which a drift is worked horizontally to short distance into a bed of coal about ten feet thick. Its spe- Cific gravity is 1.79. It consists of carbon 96. alumina, iron, &c. The railroad from Boston to Providence passes within 80 rods of this mine. No attempts have of late been made to re-work the coal at Wor- cester, which is situated in an older class of rocks. Its specific gravity is 2.12. It contains water 3. carbon 75. earths and ox- Ides 20, Small and irregular veins of a very superior bituminous coal are found in the sandstone of the Agawam River in West Spring- field. It is in fragments mingled along with calcareous spar and Pleces of the sandstotie rock, from which circumstance Prof. H. Vol. xxxvi, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 378 Report on the re-examination, §c. thinks it may have been formed by sublimation, and accordingly he infers that coal may exist beneath this spot, and that the por- tions visible have been volatilized by the agency of trap, which rock he supposes, from the situation of the sandstone, lies at a depth of between one and two hundred feet below the bed of the river. If Prof. H. is right in his conjecture, the coal must be reached before the above mentioned depth is attained. Under the head of ores, we make the following extracts: 1. Carbonate of iron at Newbury. Sp. gr. = 2.94. Consists of Carbonate of lime, = - - - - 45.67 - magnesia, - - - 8.97 iron, - - - - 21.76 " manganese, - - - 16.10 Silica and alumina, - - . 3.34 - - - - - . 4.16 Loss It is very ‘Wbtindaaté, 2. Magnetic tron in Warwick. It is very abundant, but is not worked on account of difficulties experienced in its reduction. Sp. gr. = 4.47. Analysis. Oxides of iron, - - ~ - . 66.4 Oxide of manganese, - - - - 16.6 Silica and alumina, = - - 17.0 3. Chrome iron ore. This ee ore is found in Chester, where it occurs in serpentine, in covches from 5 to 18 inches wide. According to Dr. Hotcanp it contains traces of platinum. 4. Limonite( Hematite). This is abundant at several places in Berkshire County, where Prof. H. admits that the beds extend downwards into, and are embraced by the older rocks. 5. Copperas. The amount of this annually manufactured at Hubbardston is seventy-five tons. Several new localities of galena, blende and copper-pyrites are indicated ; and the report concludes with brief notices of ochres, clays, water-cement, soap-stone and serpentine-marble. On the whole, the present work will be found to sustain the character of the more voluminous report by which it was prece- ded, and cannot fail of advancing the agricultural prosperity of the state, to an elevation corresponding to that which she has reached in the arts and manufactures. i ete Scientific Proceedings, §. 379 MISCELLANIES. DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN. 1. Scientific Proceedings of the Boston Sgciety of Natural History in the months of June, July, and August, 1838; drawn up from the Records of the Society, by Avcustus A. Goutp, M. D., Recording Secretary. He who makes a valuable discovery and refuses or neglects to impart it, robs mankind of a blessing, and himself of the honor that is his due. So it is with scientific bodies. The toilsome and ingenious labors of Many an original discoverer, though gratifying to him in their pursuit, gain him no lasting credit; and he will be supplanted by some succeeding as- Pirant, because he fails to promulgate his discoveries. None are so likely to have the fruits of their labors usurped as scientific men in America, where the means of disseminating researches are so limited. In view of this, and from the consideration that our members are entitled to the credit of the description of many objects previously un- known to science, the following abstract of its proceedings, in the manner of the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London” has been drawn up by the direction of the Society. It is offered for publication, With the intention that, should it receive a place in the American Journ of Science, it should be continued from time to time. It may be proper, by way of explanation, to say, that it is the custom to commit the objects presented at the semi-monthly meetings to members, Who are to report on them at a subsequent meeting. It may be further added, that most of the new species mentioned in this paper, in which only short, specific descriptions are given, are described at length and illustrated by figures in the “ Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. II, 0. 2,” recently published. May 16, 1838.—Gro. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson, reported upon some specimens of limestone from the Welland Canal, presented by Srerpsen Wurre, Showed it to be a carboniferous limestone filled with fossil shells, identical With those in the limestone found on the Aroostic River, Maine ; and of fered reasons for supposing that there was a continuous bed from Quebec to the Aroostic. Dr. J. announced that three cases of minerals, collected by him on the public domain in the State of Maine, had been ordered by his Excellency, Gov. Evererr, to be deposited in our Hall, with the State collection of the Minerals of Massachusetts. Rev. F. W. P. Greenwoop and Dr. A. A. Gouxn, reported upon a pa- Per read at the last meeting by Jos. P. Covrnovy, Esq., on a species of 380 Scientific Proceedings of the Thracia named by him Thracta Conradi. It had been previously re- garded as Th. corbulvides, Deshayes, and is also described and figured by Mr. Conrad as Th. declivis, of authors. From the muscular and palleal impressions, the contour and surface of the shell, they were satisfied that it is a new species. They also reported at some length on the confused synonymy of the dif ferent species of the genus T’hracia, and showed that recent authors, es- pecially Kiener, had increased, rather than diminished, the confusion pre- viously existing. Rev. Mr. Greenwoop reported upon several fruits from Burmah and Siam, recently presented by Rev. H. Malcom. Among them were the Tamarind, (Tamarindus Indica,) which is also found in the W. Indies, where it is named 7". occidentalis, although the differences in the two hemispheres, if any, are very slight; also the Anona squamosa, the sweet sop of the English, which also grows in the W. Indies. He also presented the fruit of the Mamea Americana, from the nut of which the peculiar flavor of Noyeau is said to be derived. Mr. Eowaro Tuckerman, Jr., presented specimens of the Geaster quadrifidus of Persoon, and read a paper upon it. He considers it a new addition to the Flora of North America, as Schweinitz, the only person who mentions it, says “nondum Pennsylvaniz.” It was found on the sands beyond Mount Auburn, in company with G. hygrometricus. This last is found on the bare conde only; while G. 4-fidus is found in firmer earth under trees. The name 4-fidus is very far from specific, the number of divisions into which it splits being wholly accidental. The specific name, fornicatus, Hudson, is better. At this locality he ound more lichens than at any other place of the size, he had ever examined. T'he reindeer moss (Cenomyce rangiferina) here grows to the length of five inches, eight inches being the usual length in Lapland. A large number of species of the genera Cenomyce and Par- melia are found here, some of the last genus of unusual size and lux- uriance. Mr. J. E. Tescnemacuer, presented the palatal tooth of the Ptychodus polygyrus, Agassiz, an extinct species of shark. The strength and effi- ciency of t deren viewed as instruments for crashing shells and crus- tacea, are very remarkable. The palatal teeth of this genus are very rare, though the incisor or jaw teeth are common. Only a very few, and most of those imperfect, are yet found in European cabinets. Mr. T. had seen but two in England. r. D. H. Srorer read a letter from J. G. Anrnony, Esq., ‘of Cincin- nati, in which he states that in his researches among the organic remains of that vicinity, T'rilobites with antenne occur; and requests the Society to cooperate in the investigation of this curious genus. The letter and subject were committed to Mr. Teschemacher. nian | ; * : 2 é Boston Society of Natural History. 381 Dr. C. G. Pace, of Salem, through Dr. Wyman, presented a specimen of Lilium with very extraordinary markings, found in company with La- lium Philadelphicum, and probably a variety of that species. June 6, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. Joseru P. Cournovy, Esq., presented two species of Cidaris, and ac- companied them with a written paper on the generic distinctions of the Echinodermata, especially on those of the genera Echinus and Cidaris. This paper was rendered peculiarly interesting by the writer’s personal acquaintance with the economical value of these animals, and by his amu- sing description of the manner in which they are served up and devoured on the Mediterranean coasts. Mr. C. also read a paper on the genus Patelloidea of Quoy and Gai- mard, (Lottia of Sowerby,) a genus which is not to be distinguished from Patella by the shell, but in which the animal is very essentially different. His principal object was to show, and to illustrate by living specimens upon the table, that the Patella amena of Say, and Patella alveus, Con- rad, both belonged to this genus. He conjectured that the P. cerulea and P. pellucida of Europe, would also be found to come under this genus. He showed that in the animal, the anal and genital orifices are not situa- ted, as stated by Quoy and Gaimard, like those of Patella, just back of € head and near the right tentacula, respectively ; but that they are sit- uated at the bottom of the cervical sac, near the base of the branchiw, He described a thin, subtriangular, corneous plate, situated perpendicu- larly on each side of the lingual ribbon, of which he had nowhere seen any mention. He had constantly found it both in Patella and Patelloidea, and thought it should constitute a part of their generic characters. t. W. Wurrremore, had found Planorbis armigerus, Cyclas similis, and Physa heterostropha of Say, in a small pond in Cambridge, speci- mens of which he laid upon the table. Dr. Jererizs Wyman, made a report upon an anomalous substance resembling bone, recently committed to him. On submitting a definite portion to fire, it gave out the odor of burnt leather, leaving a mass of the Same magnitude, but with a loss of 25 per cent. in weight, effervescing With sulphuric acid. He remarked, that although concretions had been found in nearly every cavity of the body, none of so large a size had been found except in the alimentary canal or the urinary organs. Its rough Prominences forbade the idea that it was derived from the former, and hothing of an analogous character had been taken from the human uri- nary organs except in one instance, Its structure was laminated. | The only conclusion to which he could arrive was, that it was formed in the animal economy, and probably in the system of some of the lower orders of animals, 382 Scientific Proceedings of the Dr. W. also made some remarks upon a skeleton of the sloth (Brady- pus tridactylus) prepared by himself. The following are some of the pe- culiarities in its structure, viz. its three toes; its walking upon the side of the foot; the divergence of the posterior extremities from the pelvis ; the articulation of the fibula as well as of the tibia with the astragalus; the length of the anterior extremities, so that the fore arm, as well as the hand, is planted upon the ground in walking, so as to bring the body into a horizontal position; the extensive codssification which takes place in all the bones of the hand and foot; the peculiar lateral disposition of the claws, and the source of the deception in President Jefferson’s notions of the Megalonyx, so philosophically and decisively controverted by Cuvier ; the bifurcation of the zygomatic process; and especially the existence of nine cervical vertebra instead of seven, as found in all other animals. This last point, he observed, was still controverted, it being contended that what appears to be a transverse process only, does in fact bear the rudiment of arib. Dr. W., however, has been unable to detect any thing like an articulating surface in this specimen, an old one, by long macera- tion of the bones. The eighth vertebra also has a distinct circular fora- men for the vertebral artery, which is the distinctive character of the cer- vical vertebra. Dr. J. B.S. Jackson remarked, that in regard to the transverse process bearing a rudimentary rib, something analogous was found in the human foctus, the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra being a sep- arate piece which afterwards becomes codssified. Dr. Srorer stated, that he had received another letter from J. G. AN- “tHoNY, Esq., of Cincinnati, communicating the discovery of a new ge- nus of the Trilobite family, and that he had submitted it to Mr. Tesche- macher ; : June 20, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. Josern P. Cournovuy, Esq., began the reading of a monograph of the Family Osteodesmacea of Deshayes, embracing the genera Thracia, Ana- tina, Periploma and Osteodesma. He commenced with the genus Thra- cia, and shewed the great confusion which now exists in respect to bot the generic and specific characters. This had arisen partly from British writers having confounded the type of the genus, Anatina declivis, Pen- nant, (Anatina myalis, Lam.) with another species, Mya declivis, Donov. (Anatina convera, Turton,) and more especially by Blainville supposi™g a shell before him to be Anat. myalis, which was not so, but W nat. trapezoides, and which he consequently removed from the genus Thracta and made it the type of Osteodesma, which genus again, he erroneously considers to be synonymous with Periploma, Schumacher. originated numerous other mistakes in subsequent writers. deavored at great length to reconcile the synonymy of the following spe- cies, and the following are the results of his research. i | i i Boston Society of Natural History. 383 Turacta pusescens, Leach. Mya declivis, Pennant, Maton and _Rackett, Wood, Dillwyn and Brown; a wi _Brown ; Mya pubescens, Pulteney, Montagu, and Tur Thracia pubes- cens, Blainville, Deshayes, Kiener ; Anatina ania, Lam. “Bainville It is believed that this shell has never been found on our coast; the shell which Mr. Conrad supposed to be identical with it, hese on fur- ther examination, to be a distinct species: Turacia convexa, Couthouy. Mya declivis, Donovan ; Mya con- vera, Wood, Turton; Anatina convera, Turton, (Brit. Biv.,) Brown; Ligula distorta? Montagu. THRAcIA corsuLoipes, Deshayes, Blainville, Lamarck, Kiener. The exterior surface of the valves is not smooth, as described by Deshayes, unless when the granular asperities have been accidentally effaced: Turacia piicata, Deshayes, Lamarck, Kiener. Turacia pHAsgoLina, Kiener; Amphidesma phaseolina, Lam. THRACIA SIMILIS, Couthouy. Th. testa ovato-oblonga, aspera, al- bida vel cinerea, subdiaphana, inequilaterali, latere postico lon- giore, truncato et subcompresso, angulo obtuso ab apice ad mar- ginem infero-posticam decurrente; cardine foveolé subtriangu- lari, valva utraque ligamento externé prominulo; intus alba, im- pressionibus muscularibus anticé elongatis, quasi clavatis, posticé rotundatis ; saree pallii posticé valdé excavata; an ossi- culum? Length 32, height 44, diameter ,% of an inch. Hab. Coast of Brazil, not far from Rio Janeiro, whence it was brought by a seaman, containing the animal, In general aspect and its surface it closely resémbles Th. corbuloi- des ; but it is destitute of the prominent ridge in the centre of the valves, it is much less inequivalve, and its ligamentary apophysis is much shorter, broader and more triangular, and its anterior muscular impression is simple instead of double, as in that species. In outline it approaches to Th. phaseolina, but is revise cosdiges by its rough sur- face and by its very marked striz of growt Turacia Conran, Couthouy. Th. testa “albicelnerartente: ovato- transversa, ventricosa, subequilaterali, fragili, paullum hiante, margine sinuato, anticé rotundata, posticé subtruncata, carina ob- tusa ab apice ad marginem infero-posticam decurrente, ligamento externé prominente, interné callo nymphale valva utraque inserto, Length 212, height 2,4,, diameter 1,8 inches. Inhabits probably the whole coast of New England. This shell was described and figured by Mr. Conran, in his “ Ameri- can Marine Conchology,” as 7's. declivis, under the supposition that it was identical with Mya declivis, Pennant; and besides mistaking ours 384 Scientific Proceedings of the for the British shell, he has given as synonyms the names of three distinct species. In the “ Catalogue of the Animals and Plants of Massachusetts,” in Prof. Hitchcock’s Report of his Survey of Massachusetts, it is set down as Anatina convera, Wood. In Dr. Storer’s excellent translation of Kie- ner’s “Iconographie,” it is regarded as identical with Th. corbuloides, Deshayes. From this it differs, however, in several important particulars, such as its less elongated form, less truncated extremity, smooth surface, and above all in the palleal impression forming posteriorly a deep and al- most acute angle instead of the semicircular one of Th. corbuloides. The only locality where this shell has been found alive is believed to be Chel- sea Beach. Mr. C. conjectured that Mya (Ligula) distorta, Montagu, referred by Kiener to Th. corbuloides, would prove to belong among the perforating Corbule ; and to these also he was disposed to refer Anatina truncat1, Turton. Both of them have similar habits of burrowing in the limestone of the British coast. July 18, 1838.—G. B. Emerson, Esq., President, in the chair. Mr. Cournovy, continued his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and made remarks upon the following species. PerreLoma TRAPEzowES, Deshayes. Periploma inequivalvis, Schum. ; Anatina trapezoida, Lam.; Osteodesma trapezoidalis, Blainville. Blainville was led into the error of placing this shell in the genus Os- teodesma from supposing it to be identical with Lamarck’s Anatina my- alis, But he has committed another serious error in his generic descrip- tion, which has been adopted by Rang in his ‘‘ Manuel des Mollusques.” He says the shell is “ inéquivalve, la valve gauche plus bombée que la droite,” whereas the right valve is more convex than the left. Perhaps they were misled by the peculiar position of the ligament, which is re- markable for being placed anteriorly instead of posteriorly, as in most other shells; a fact not noted in any description. In the very perfect spe- cimen under observation the ossiculum is nearly a complete semicircle. Deshayes speaks of it as triangular. OsreopesmA nyattna, Couthouy. Mya hyalina, Conrad. : The genus Osteodesma, Deshayes, will doubtless prevail over Lyonsia, Turton, and Magdala, Leach, MSS., all of which are founded on Mya Norvegica, Chemnitz, the Amphidesma corbuloides of Lamarck. The name is expressive of the distinguishing feature of the shell. Blainville and Rang were led into the error of supposing Periploma and Osteodesma to be identical ; and Deshayes, though he notices the mistake and refers to his article on Osteodesma in the Encyc. Method. for its actual charac- ters, yet by a singular oversight that article is entirely omitted. mig quently, it is to be found only in his recent edition of Lamarck. In Se “Catalogue of Animals and Plants of Massachusetts, 1834," it 1s not Boston Society of Natural History. 385 as Amphidesma corbuloides, Lam.; but the European shell is twice the size, more elongated, more besaaly truncated, more inequilateral, — and covered with a much stronger and more opaque epidermi Gould noticed the peculiarity of the ossiculum several years since, and consequently referred the shell to the genus Lyonsia. r. Cournovy, also read the description of a new species of Eolis lately found by him, and which he name Eotis piversa. E. corpore limaciformi, posticé acuto, diaphano, lu- teo-rufescente, capite distincto, sub-orbiculato, depresso; tentaculis gracilibus elongatis duabus instructo, duabusque brevioribus ad par- tem posticam capitis positis; branchie aurantiace seriebus binis la- teribus dorsi dispositis. Orrificia ee i magna, juxta collum ad Jatus dextrum, ano paullum pone; pede supra laciniato. h $*, breadth 35 of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay, Chetek each, Found among the roots of Laminaria saccharina. In its color and general aspect it resembles E. salmonacea, Nobis, but differs in the form and position of the tentacula and genitalia. In E. salnonacea the lateral tentacula seem to be a prolongation of the fleshy lips, instead of being placed near the neck; the superior ones are long, somewhat compressed, and as it were serrated at the edges, while in E. diversa they are short, smooth and round. Dr. Jerrries Wyman, reported upon a collection of fossil bones from the Brunswick canal, Georgia, presented by Mr. Cooper. It consisted of eighteen bones béldaging to the genera Bos, Elephas, and probably Mas- todon. Among them were the atlas of a ruminant, of gigantic size; me- tatarsal bone of right foot of genus Bos, about twice the size of the cor- responding bone of the common ox which he exhibited by its side, and Similar to it in every particular; several vertebre of a Mastodon; portions of a tusk and teeth of an Elephant. These teeth resemble those of an In- dian elephant, but the layers of enamel are more numerous and closer. An 0s calcis having the hinder portion broken off, but which is now mee than that of our elephant, though not so massive. Dr. W. had also examined some fossil hones brought from Burmah by Rev. H. Malcom. They consist of a portion of the brim of the pelvis, Probably of a Mastodon; tooth exhibiting the longitudinal crescentic lay- ers characteristic of a ruminant, and corresponding with a figure by Mr. Clitt in the Trans. of the Geol. Society, vol. vii, of the tooth of a deer from the same locality ; »ertebra of a Saurian, also resembling a figure by Mr, Clift, and which he regards as the vertebra of a crocodile, with all proba- bility of truth. This locality on the river Trawaddy, below Ava, is the Only locality known where the bones of mammalia and saurians are found associated, Vol. xxxv1, No. 2.+April-July, 1839. 49 386 Scientific Proceedings of the Dr. Wyman had also examined the recent elephant’s tooth brought from Singapore by Mr. Malcom. It indicates greater age than any other tooth on record. The successive teeth have 4, 8, 12, 15, &c. transverse plates of enamel, up to the eighth set which has 23 plates, which is the greatest number heretofore recorded. But this tooth bas 26 plates firmly solidified, and some others are broken off from the anterior extremity; indicating a very great age for the animal. Mr. Tuomas M. PRrewer, alluded to a remark at a former meeting when speaking of the cow blackbird. He had said that its eggs could not be hatched by the golden-finch, because that bird had not been eb- served to breed before the first of August, which is later than the breeding season of the cow ie This remark had nearly proved false. At a part of June,@Mr. B. had discovered two pairs of finches build- ing their nest:, and they had nearly completed them when the weather suddenly became very warm, the nests were deserted and the birds disap- peared. As yet, therefore his former remark holds good. . A. A. Gouin, had examined the marine production presented some time since by Mr. Bullister, and commonly called Neptune’s Goblet. He had not been able to find any mention of it in Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, or in any scientific work, except in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv, p. 180, where it is described and figured by Col. Hardwicke under the name of Spongia patcra. It is not a true sponge however, although it belongs to the family of sponges. It is common in the vicinity of Singapore. The President, (G. B. Emerson, Esq.,) read a report on the specimens of paper and pasteboard manufactured from the Beach grass, and pre- sented by its inventor, Mr. Sanderson, of Dorchester. The plant is the Arundo arenaria, Lin. It is placed in the genus Calamagrostis by With- ering and Decandolle, Ammophila by Hort and Hooker, Psamma by Palissot de Beauvais, Torrey, Eaton and Beck, Phalaris by Nuttall. It is called sea-reed or mat-reed, in England, and is found on all the shores from Iceland to Barbary, and all the Adantic shore from Greenland as far south as New Jersey, at least. Its principal use heretofore has been a negative one, connected with the very terms of its existence. It effect- ually secures the shifting sands on which it grows; and for that purpose large sums are annually appropriated by government, that by its cultiva- tion important harbors may be preserved. Mr. E. had not succeeded in finding the ingenious gentleman who had converted the otherwise useless stalks of this plant to so valuable a pur pose. The paper is not even, but it is smooth, sofi, and pleasant to write upon, and takes ink well. It is firm and very strong, and may be whitened readily. The pasteboard appears to be specially valuable. Mr. Sanperson has thus opened a new source for industry to the en: terprising inhabitants of the most barren parts of New England; and if he is a benefactor to his race who makes two stalks of grass to grow where resi asinine cdeainbaeestinsee Boston Society of Natural History. 387 but one grew before, surely he deserves well of his country, who indi- rectly converts barren sands into fruitful fie August 1, 1838.—Mr. J. E. Tescuemacuer, in the chair. After the reading of the records of the preceding meeting, Rev. Mr, Malcom who was present, remarked in relation to the fossils brought by him from Burmah, that they are found only at a small stream below the city of Ava, where the region is perfectly sterile. The soil is clayey, and the bones are very numerous and lie in abundance upon the surface. The place abounds with petroleum wells, and this article is the only pro- duct from whence the inhabitants derive their support. He remarked that the Spongia patera was found only at Singapore, and always grows below low water mark, and is fished up by divers. A specimen of Burman tea was presented by him. It is raised in the interior and compressed into globular masses of four or six inches in di- ameter, some substance, said to be blood however, being mixed in to cause their cohesion. These are brought to the sea ports on the backs of mules and sold at ten cents per pound. The Burmans use no other tea, and yet Mr. M. found it to be unknown at Calcutta. He pronounced it an excellent tea. Mr. C. B. Avams, read a paper entitled “‘ Remarks on some species of Shells found upon the southeastern shore of Massachusetts.” ‘They were the results of his observations in several visits to that region, and contain many interesting facts as to the habits, localities, and varieties, and sev- eral important characteristic additions to the original descriptions. Cotumpetia avara, Say, Differs a little from Say’s description ; Coste 14 to 18 on the body whorl; young shells are carinate at the ter- mination of the coste. Found at New Bedford and vicinity, Falmouth, Nantucket, Martha’s Vineyard, but not north of Cape Buccinum visex, (Nassa vibex, Say.) Number of revolving lines on the body whorl more frequently 9 or 10; as many as3t» 5 teeth on the inner side of labrum. Rare. He had found five specimens about New Bed- ford. Mr. P. G. Seabury had found others. They are all old and some- what cretaceous, but in some the rufous bands are distinctly marked. It has not been found north of Cape Cod. Buccinum trivirrarum, (Nassa trivittata, Say.) The two u bands of rufous are double, being on each side of one of the peeckving lines, and the third is often triple; the upper band is darkest, but in many- cases the bands from which the speci#s derives its name are wanting. It is generally covered with a dirty cinereous pigment. Abundant at Nan- tucket, not eee at New Bedford, and occasionally found living at and near Boston B. osso.etum, (Nassa obsoleta, Say.) The cancellate and granulated appearance iientioned both by Say and Kiener (B. oliviforme) is not a 388 Scientific Proceedings of the constant character except in the adult shell; the white band upon the inner side of the labrum is usually well defined. Inhabits not only our es- tuaries but our ocean shores, though it seems to prefer places not exposed to the surf. The finest specimens grow at Nantucket, where they are abundant. In winter he had observed them to collect together in heaps, filling up slight depressions in the flats, Purpura tapittus, Lam. He had not seen this common species at New Bedford, Wood’s Hole, or Nantucket; but had found Fusus cinereus in situations where he expected to find that species. Ranewua caupata, Say. Well described by Mr. Say; the canal is not longer than the spire, but equal or shorter. It is rare, and not found north of Cape Cod. Fusus cinereus, Say. The fauces are not unfrequently white ; some- times there are bands of purplish red in the fauces; the transverse coste are often nearly obsolete. Generally found clinging to the wet sides of rocks near low water mark. Mr. Avams also read descriptions of the following shells recently discovered by him in the waters of Massachusetts. AMINIA SEMINODA. J. testa parvula, acuto-conicd, nitida, albida, sub-translucida; anfractibus septem convexis, decusatim granulosis; anfractu postremo infra striato; apertura elliptica, basi effusa; colu- mella reflexa, uniplicataéa. Length .15, breadth .07 inch. Inhabits Dartmouth harbor. Only four specimens were found, about five feet below low water mark, on valves of Pecten concentricus. In size and figure it resem- bles Actgon trifidus, Totten, but differs in its convex whorl, granu- lous surface, and more distinct and uniform revolving lines; also in its less rounded and more effuse aperture. Pyramis Fusca. P. test& parvuld, conicd, decisa ; epidermide fusca, nitida; anfractibus sex, convexis; sutura impressa, sub-dupli- cata; apertura ovali, supra angulata, infra rotundata; labro tenuis columell4 convexa, reflexa, haud duplicaté. Length .15 inch, breadth O07 inch. Inhabits harbors of New Bedford and vicinity. Cerituium Emersonu. C. test& parva, conica, elongata, longi- tudinaliter rugosa, lineis granulatis cineta; anfractibus septemdecim, planulatis ; apice acuta; sutura sub-impressd, ampla; apertura sub- quadrata; labro pectinato ; columella in spiram ducta; cauda recur- vata. Length .45 inch, breadth..12 inch. Inhabits New Bedford harbor on the Fairhaven side, avd Nantucket (?). A variety has the granules obsolete, or coalescing into simple elevated, revolving lines CERITHIUM NiIGRocINCTUM. C. testA parvul4, conico-cylindricas granulosa, nigro-rubra; anfractibus tredecim, sinistrorsum volventt- bus; spira elongata, acut&; sutura sub-duplicata ; apertura sub-ellip- Boston Society of Natural Hitory. 389 ticd, parva; caud& recurvata. Length .3 inch, breadth .08 inch. Inhabits Dartmouth harbor, clinging to sea-weed. Differs from C. perversum, Lam., in the black sutural ridge, and in the position of the middle series of granules; and from Murex ad- versus, Montagu, in its recurved canal, its distinct suture and its color. Mr. Couthouy concluded his paper on the Osteodesmacea, and also instituted a new genus to include shells formerly embraced in genus Anatina, but which, having a spoon-shaped hinge, are destitute of an ossiculum. He thus characterized it. Genus CocHLopEsma. Animal oval, compressed, enveloped in a thin mantle, closed by a meibrane in front, except at the anterior inferior extremity, where it Opens to give passage to a broad compressed foot, extending alon the whole inferior surface of the abdominal mass, which is inconside- Table; edges of the pallium thickened, and a little rugose ; siphons long, slender, divided in their whole extent, and opening separately into the branchial cavity. Shell transversely oval, thin and fragile, sub-equilateral, convexo- depressed, slightly gaping at both extremities, inequivalve, right valve more convex, beaks moderately prominent, inchning a little back- wards, summits cloven and sub-nacrous posteriorly ; extremities rounded, Ligament double, the external very slight and membra- hous, the internal received into a horizontal, spoon-shaped process on each valve, supported by one or two divergent falciform cost, pro- jecting from it obliquely and posteriorly ; muscular impressivns su- perficial, remote, the anterior elongated-oval, the posterior smal] and Sub-triangular, united by a palleal impression profoundly indented pos- teriorly, The Anatina Leana, Conrad, is the type of the genus; and the Anatina pretenuis, Turton, probably belongs to it. Mr. Couthouy then read descriptions of the following new species of shells UCULA NavicuLaRis. N, testa parva, levi, fragili, ovali, sub- ®quilaterali, luteo-virescente, anticé rotundata, posticé truncatula, herding dentibus octodecim, intus albo-nitescente. Length 41, height zo breadth 3, of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay, vicinity of Plymouth. Beaks more central and basal outline much more strongly curved, than in N. myalis, Couth. Buiia tineotata. B. testa parvuld, oblongo-ovata, ferrugined, transversim obliqué frequenterque striata, spira, prominula, apertura Magna, ad basim valdé dilatat4 et sub-effusd, Length ;4,, breadth 7 390 Scientific Proceedings of the #y of an inch. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay. Taken from a fish’s stomach taken off Race Point, and resembles B. lignaria in min- lature. Burts ntematis. B. test perparva, hyalina, globosa, convoluta, eel a tenué striata, spird unlla, apertura ad basim valdé dila- ta epgth ;, of an inch, breadth about the same. Inhabits Mas- sutbingiatts Bay. Butta Govipu. B. testa parva, ovata, convoluta, fragili, alba, transversim tenué striata, spira depressi, imperforata, interdum pro- minula, anfractibus quatuor, superné rotundatis, suturis impressis, apertura mre anaes versus basim dilataté, columella arcuata. Length }3, diameter ; of an inch, nearly. Inhabits Massachusetts Bay. In size and she much like B. insculpta, Totten, but is smoother, more solid and not umbilicated. Often the outer volution forms an elevated, rounded ridge, encircling and rising above the others. PLevrotoma prcussaTa, P. testi parvula, ovali, fusiformi, al- bida, anfractibus quinque convexis, longitudinaliter plicatis, trans- versé striis frequentibus tenuibus decussatis, aperturi elongato-ovali, basi sub-canaliculata, labro tenui, levi, superné indentato, columella nitida, depressd arcuata, ad basim sinistrorsum divergens. Opercu- lum rudis. Length 3, diameter 3, of an inch. Inhabits Misetiee setts Bay. Distinguished from Fusus harpularius by its color, the greater convexity of the whorls, and the angular sinus at the junction of the lip. ANCULoTUS DeNnTATUs. A. testd rotundata vel sub-conici, irregu- lari, olivaceo-nigrescente ; anfractibus quinque, ultimo magno, ventri- coso, sepe fasciis duobus aut tribus radiis cincto; suturis impressis, spira obtus4 plerumque eros’; apertura eros4, basi effusa ; columella atra arcuata, depressa, ad basim cower posticé excavata, intus vi- rido vel fusco-albescente. Operculo corneo, unguiculato. Length 22, diameter }1 inch. Inhabits the rapids of the river Potomac, Va. Greatly ciaeanbiin A, monodontoides, Conrad, but is distinguished by the peculiar flattening of its purple columella, the remarkable fossa in the umbilical region, and its more obtuse tooth situated nearer the base. Dr. T. W. Harris, made some remarks on the difficulties met with by himself and others in the study of Botany, on account of the want of strict accuracy in our books. Thus, in Bige ow’s Florula, Vaccinium 1s placed in Octeandria, while all our species are invariably 10-androus, and are so arranged in all more recent works. Menyanthus has the stigma rifid oftener than bifid, and sometimes quadrifid. Cheledonium, which belongs to Polyandria, has only 8 to 12 stamens; while Crataegus, which belongs to 20-andria, is found with only 10 stamens. - ’ | . : Boston Society of Natural History. 391, Dr. H. had recently found a Si/ene growing on earth thrown out from a newly dug drain, and had since observed it on the corn-fields, near by.. It proves to be Silene noctiflora, Sowerby. It flowers in the evening, and Mr. Sowerby says the same flowers open for several successive evenings until they are impregnated. Do H. nds this to be not true. Eaton says the teeth of the calyx tube are equal; but they were alternately longer and shorter. This plant may be considered as naturalized among us. Beck pronounces the Lathyrus maritimus, Bigelow, to bs Pisum mari- timum ; but Dr. H. is confident that Dr. Bigelow is corre r. A. A. Haves, presented a specimen of native nitrate of soda from Tamarugal in Peru. It contains sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, Lo- date of soda, and chloriodide of sodium. In presenting this specimen With its analysis, Mr. Hayes makes the first public announcement of the discovery of Iodate of soda, as a new chemical species. Mr. C. B. Apams, enumerated the minerals in the collections from Cal- ifornia by Mr. Kelly, and from Nova Scotia by Rev. Mr. Prior, and made various remarks respecting them, to designate their peculiarities and value. August 15, 1838.—Dr. T. W. Harris, in the chair. Dr. Jerrrizs Wyman, exhibited a foetal kitten contained in its mem- branes, showing the peculiar manuer in which the placenta encircles the fetus like a zone. Also the uterus of a mouse, showing its bead-like ap- pearance when impregnated. Also the egg of the snapping turtle near the close of incubation, showing the passage of the umbilical vessels through a hole in the sternum. These are finally cut off and the aperture closed by a peculiar muscle. r. T. M. Brewer, remarked further on the goldfinch alluded to at a preceding meeting ;—that on 22d July he again observed the bird at its nest, where there were four eggs. This was three weeks earlier than usual, and the cow-bunting leaves us three weeks earlier still. Mr. E. Tuckerman, Jr., presented some plants not yet catalogued, as belonging to this country, they were Cladonia vermicularis, Cetraria valis, 2 ne a Parmelia, all from the White Mountains. . W. Harris read a paper entitled ‘‘ Remarks on the N. Ameri- ma insects belonging to the genus, ae hrus of Fabricius, with descrip- tions of some newly detected species.” He proceeded to show that the ge- hus Scaphinotus, Dejean, is established on very insufficient charaaere Those of Spheroderus are somewhat better. The same also with Mr, Newman’s genus Jrichroa. He concludes that the insects placed in Cy- chrus, Spheroderus, Irichroa and Scaphinotus, are more closely related to each than to any other genus, a can constitute merely subgenera. The following are si new species Cycurus ANDREWS! ck ; sborhs deep greenish blue, heart-shap- ed, narrowed behind, aa slightly margined at the sides; elytra deep blue, 392 Scientific Proceedings, §c. lines. Inhabits North Carolina. Resembles C. marginatus and more nearly still C. cristatus from Oregon. Cycurus Leonarpu. Black ; head transversely striated ; thorax viola- ceous, subquadrate, narrowed behind ; elytra broad ovate, carinated at the sides, bronzed violet, deeply crenato-striated. Length, including mandi- bles, from 11 to 13 lines. Inhabits northern and western parts of Massa- chusetts and New Hampshire. Hitherto confounded with C. viduus, from which it essentially differs in color and its more dilated form. Cycurus Tusercucatus. Black opaque; bead rugose and with two longitudina] impressions on the front; thorax rugose, truncato-cordate, contracted behind; coleoptra ovate, very convex, granulated, with a triple series of smooth tubercles on each elytron; epipleura rugosely punctured. Length 7 to 8! lines. Inhabits Oregon. Cyrcurus ancutatus. Black; head carinated; thorax angulated at the sides, much contracted behind; elytra violaceous-brown, somewhat flattened, crenulato-striate ; legs brownish-piceous. Length 6 lines. Inhabits Oregon. Cycurus cristarus. Black; head carinated; thorax cordate, con- tracted behind; elytra crenato-striate, with a narrow, blue margin. Length 5: lines. Inhabits Oregon. Dr. Harris exhibited specimens of Nymphea odorata (var. sanguinea) from the Botanic Garden, Cambridge; and remarked upon the tendency, strongly exhibited in these specimens, which all the parts of the flower have, to become leaves. | r. Goutp remarked that this lily was originally brought from Mossy Pond, in Lancaster, where it grows in one small spot. He was inclined to _ regard it as a distinct species, having constantly fonnd the angles of the leaves more prolonged, the color darker and the size smaller than in N. a Mr. C. B. Anams, had spent a day at Fresh Pond, and gave an account of the shells he had found there. They were the following species, V2. : Unio nasutus, complanatus, and radiatus; Anodonta implicata, Say; Cyclas similis; Planorbis trivolvis, bicarinatus, deflectus? and hirsutus, MS.; Valvata tricarinata; Succinca ovalis; Lymnea heterostropha, col- umellaris, catascopium, Physa heterostropha, Paludina decisa, hus rica? Of Unio nasutus only one specimen was found, U. radiatus was abun- dant, clean and beautiful. From one of them dropped a beautiful pearl in the form of a flattened sphere, .16 inch in the longer and .11 inch in the shorter diameter. Of Anodonta implicata, Say, he said, that a com- parison of adult shells only, with specimens of A. cataracta from other calities might lead to the conclusion that they were distinct species ; but an examination of them in every stage of growth from the size of the lo- ne a ne j i | | | | ; Miscellanies. 393 thumb nail upwards, renders it probable that they are only a variety of A. cataracta. An undescribed species of Planorbis was found abundantly. He first found it in Mansfield, and it has since been found by Dr. Gould in Dedham, and he proposes to describe it under the specific name hirsutus. It resembles the European albus in the revolving lines of hairs by which it is covered, A minute species of Paludina seems also to be new, 2. African Meteorite—(From the London Nautical Magazine.) —Ex- tract from a letter, dated Nov. 24, 1838, written by a gentleman (on whom reliance may be placed) residing at the Cape of Good Hope. “T have taken the liberty to transmit under your charge, for Sir John Herschel, the accompanying aérolite, another portion of an enormous aérolite, that exploded in the department called the Cold Bokkeveld, about 112 miles N N. E. of this place, on the morning of the 13th October, (1838,) and which for magnitude ranks with the largest on record of undoubted au- thority. Judge Menzies, returning from circuit, saw it traversing the at- mosphere about 60 miles from the estate, where it exploded with a report equal to the discharge of some heavy pieces of artillery, to the great as- tonishment of the inhabitants, one of whom had a narrow escape from be- ing destroyed by it. I am making strong efforts to secure a piece, said to have made a hole in the ground that would admita dining table! ‘This may be exaggerated. A man declares the hole is three feet in diameter. Also to collect information regarding its velocity, course, altitude, &c.” 3. New species of Argulus; notice from Dr. T. W. Harris.—It may interest some of your readers to be informed of the discovery of another species of Arcutus in this country. It was found in the gills of a her- ring, caught upon Brighton bridge from Charles river, during the month of June last. It differs from Arautus foliaceus of Europe, and from the species described in a former number of your Journal, vol. xxxiv, p. 225, in the size and form of the body, and in the shortness of the legs. Hav- ing presented the specimen to Dr. A. A. Gould, for description, I shall not attempt to oe him by giving a detailed account of its specific char- acters at this Cambridge, ia Feb. 8, 1839. 4. Cabinet of Minerals for sale—The Cabinet of Minerals of the late Dr. Young, of Edenville, N. Y., is offered for sale. This collection was selected with great care by Dr. Young, and embraces the rare and beau- tiful productions of Orange county, N. Y., and Sussex county, N. J. Its crystals of spinelle, corundum, Franklinite, Brucite, Troostite, melanite hornblende, bronzite, idocrase, &c., &c., would be an invaluable eter Sition to any public cabinet. It has been generally pronounced by min- ol. xxxv1, No. 2.—April-July, 1839. 50 394 Miscellanies. eralogists to be one of the most select and beautiful collections ever formed in this country. Edenville, April 12th, 1839. 5. Correction.—In Vol. xxxv, No. 2, p. 375, we mentioned the suppo- sed spontaneous crystalization of liquid carbonic acid in one of Dr. Tor- rey’s tubes. Ina letter from him dated New York, March 1, it is re- marked that the crystals which we had observed were sulphate of ammonia, which was formed by the combina- tion of sulphuric acid with ammonia during the decom- position of the carbonate to obtain the carbonic acid gas for condensation. He adds, “a very good method of showing the rapid condensation of the carbonic acid, and its ebullition at the same time, is to surround the upper part of the tube with a freezing mixture. Place the mixture (ice and salt) in a bottle, the bottom of which is cut off. The mouth is furnished with a perforated cork, through which the upper part of the tube is thrust. “IT have been shooting with a kind of air gun, using my liquified carbonic acid for throwing the balls, and [ hope soon to emulate Perkins’ steam gun.” carbonic acid. sulph. ammo- nia. 6. Footsteps and Impressions of the Chirotherium, and of vart- ous Animals, in sandstone.—The readers of this Journal are familiar with the reports made by Professor Hitchcock, on the foot marks of birds and perhaps quadrupeds upon the sand stone rocks of the val- ley of the Connecticut River. See vol. xxix, p. 307, and vol. xxxil, p- 174. We have cited also those observed ten years ago at Corn- cockle Muir in Scotland, vol. xv, p. 84; and more recently near Hild- ~ burghausen, in Germany, vol. xxx, p. 191. We shall now, from the reports of the doings of the Geological So- ciety of London, cite some other facts of this class, We allude to the now famous quarries of Storeton Hill, near Liverpool, England. We have recently received from Prof. Buckland fine copies of these impressions, and it is no more possible to doubt the genuineness of their originals, than those of the must recent impression of a foot made in any yielding surface of the present hour. The same is true of the impressions of Prof. Hitchcock, whatever doubt may have been felt by some persons who have never examined them. : The communication which we now cite was made to the Geological Society by the Natural History Society of Liverpool, with drawings by John Cunningham, Esq. ac eee ' i i i Miscellanies. 395 In the early part of last June, there were discovered in the Store- ton quarries, on the under surface of several large slabs of sandstone, highly relieved casts of what the workmen believed to have been hu- man hands; and the circumstance having been made known to the Natural History Society of Liverpool, a committee was appointed, who drew up the report communicated to this Society. The peninsula of Wirral consists of new red sandstone; and to- wards the northern extremity, the formation may be separated into three principal divisions. The lowest is composed of beds, slightly inclined towards the east, of red or variegated sandstone, occasional- ly abounding with pebbles partly derived from the coal-measures ; and in the bottom strata‘either angular or little water-worn. Seams of marl are very rare in this division, the argillaceous matter being con- fined to nodules or concretions of clay of the same color as the sand- stone. The middle division consists of white or yellow sandstone, in some places argillaceous, and frequently containing round concretions of clay, and pebbles. The strata are separated by seams of white or mottled ve anit almost imperceptible, but sometimes seve- ral inches t The siietaael division is formed of red or vate gated sandstone, inclosing also nodules of clay and pebbles of quartz; and it abounds With strata of red marl. The Storeton quarries are situated in the middle division; and the casts which have hitherto been noticed, occurred on the under sur- face of three beds of sandstone, about two feet thick each. Strata incline 8° to the northeast, but they are traversed by several faults, which range in the strike of the beds. The authors of the re-_ port are of opinion, that each of the thin seams of clay in which the sandstone casts were moulded, formed successively a dry surface, Over which the Chirotherium and other animals walked, leaving im- pressions of their footsteps; and that each layer was submerged by a depression of the surface. The lowest seam of clay was so thin, that the marks penetrated into the subjacent sandstone. The following account is then given of a hind foot and a fore foot, selected from slabs in the Museum of the Royal Institution, Liverpool. Hind Foot, consisting of five digits; one of which, from its resem- blance to a human thumb, has been generally distinguished by that designation. Total length from the root of the ihe to the tig of the se- cond toe Extreme brandi tis the point ‘ot the thumb to ‘the point of the fourth toe . . : Inches. 396 Miscellanies. Inches. Breadth across the toes . ‘ . , ee Breadth across the palm Length of the curved line se i Pom the cont = the thamob to its point . " 64 Breadth of the ball of the Popes P «Ak Relief of the ball of the thumb from the Skew of the slab ee Length of the first toe from the root to the point. . 5} Length of the second ditto , ‘ ; ; ° , By Length of the third ditto . . ° 4 Length of the fourth ditto ‘ ; 2L Average breadth of the first three sais ; ‘ ° et 1 Average breadth of the fourth tue rather Jess ee P Relief of the second toe, which presents the greatest prominence is One hind foot has been observed which measured 12 inches in its greatest length. Judging from the appearance of the casts, the sole of the foot must have been amply supplied with muscles, the casts of the ball of the thumb and the phalanges of the fingers being prominent. The digit which has been called a thumb, is of a tapering shape, and is bent backwards near the extremity, where it ends ina point. It is extremely smooth, and there is no satisfactory evidence of either @ nail ora claw. The toes are thick and strong, and had probably three phalanges each, and at the terminations are traces of stout, CO- nical nails or claws. The sole of the foot is supposed to have been covered by a slightly rugose skin, the folds of which are stated to be distinctly visible in the casts of the toes. Fore Foot. Perfect impressions of the fore feet are extremely rare, owing either to the animal having ased those feet lightly, or to the impressions having been obliterated by the tread of the hind feet. The best preserved cast exhibits a thumb and three toes, being defi- cient of the fourth. The dimensions, which are generally half of those of the hind foot, are as follows: Inches. Length from the root of the thumb to the point of the second toe Total breadth not ascertained in consequence of the absence of the fourth toe ‘ ; : . . ‘ Breadth of the palm. : ; : : é : . : Length of the thumb * é : . , : Breadth of the ball of the ‘Coast ; a . : ; : Length of the first toe. : . . . ‘ : ' Length of the second toe . : : . . ‘ P . Length of the third toe. ! ‘ . ; . . Greatest breadth of the toes. ; : . . : ue 2 ad mt Ore a cian noes Miscellanies. 397 The thumb is slightly bent back, and pointed, and the toes were armed with nails. Traces of one animal have been observed in a continuous line on aslab ten yards long. The length of the step varies a little, but in general, the distance between the point of the second toe of one hind foot and the point of the same toe in the hind foot immediately in advance, is between 21 and 22 inches. Each fore foot is placed di- rectly in front of the hind, and the thumbs of both extremities are always towards the medial line of the walk of the animal. Some further observations are given by the authors with respect to the pro- gression of the animal, on the supposition that the digit conjectured to be a thumb, was rearly the first. Conceiving such to be the case, they state, that the animal must have crossed its feet three inches in walking, for the right fore and hind feet are placed 14 inch on the left side of the medial line, and the left fore and hind feet 14 inch on the right side of the same line. The casts of the Chirotherium, although the most remarkable, are by no means the most numerous, which exist on the Storeton sand- stones. Many large slabs are crowded with casts in relievo, some of which are supposed to have been derived from the feet of saurian rep- tiles, and others from those of tortoises. Occasionally the webs be- tween the toes can be distinctly traced. “It is impossible,” say the authors of the report, “to look at these slabs and not conclude, that the clay beds on which they rested, must have been traversed by mul- titudes of animals, and in every variety of direction.” A note by Mr. James Yates was then read, giving a brief account of sketches of four differently characterized footsteps, traced from casts procured at Storeton, each of which is distinct both from the casts of the Chirotherium and the web-footed animal mentioned in the preced- ing report. A paper was afterwards read “ On two Casts in Sandstone of the impressions of the Hind Foot of a gigantic Chirotherium, from the New Red Sandstone of Cheshire,” by Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.G.S These specimens first came under the notice of Colonel Egerton, about 1824, and they were placed in the author’s cabinet in 1836; but it was not until the recent discovery of the Chirotherium at Store- ton, that their true nature was suspected. The exact locacity, at which the specimens were discovered, is not known ; but it is proba- able, that they were obtained from the neighborhood of Colonel Eger- ton’s residence, near Tarporley, and from one of the beds of sand- stone, which alternate with the red and green marls in the upper part of the new red system in that part of Cheshire. 398 Miscellanies. The casts, which consists of a rather soft and coarse sandstone, were evidently formed in the impressions of two hind feet; and though they have suffered from exposure to the weather for twelve years, yet they are sufficiently perfect to have enabled Sir Philip Eger- ton to take the measurements of the different parts, and draw up the accompanying comparative table. Itis necessary to state, that though he preserves the use of the term thumb for the convenience of com- parison with previous descriptions, yet he is of opinion that the mar- ginal digit which has been so designated, is not the representative of the fifth, but of the first toe. : Large Chi- Hessberg Storeton rotherinm Direction of the Measurements. Chirothe- Chirothe- from near ium. rium. Tarporley. Length from the maak to the point of the ‘ ae ge eee Fr Length from the heel to the point of the 3 thumb - - - Length from the heel to the angle between ? 4 the Ist and2nd toes - - 2nd and 3rdtoes 4 3rd and 4thtoes 4 e 5 Breadth from the thumb to point of 4th toe 6 Breadth across the sole below the thumb 3 Breadth from Ist toe-point to 4th toe-point 4 6 .. . From these measurements it appears, that considerable differences exist in the three specimens of Chirotherium. Upon comparing the footstep from Hessberg with that from Storeton, it will be found, that the former is thicker and more clumsy than the latter; that the sole is shorter and broader, and the toes wider and longer. The most im- portant discrepancy, however, is in the position of the thumb, which is placed much nearer the heel in the Hessberg specimens than in those from Storeton. The cast from near Tarporley resembles the latter more than the former; it nevertheless differs considerably in the proportion of the breadth to the length of the sole, which is greater; and in the proportions of the length of the toes to the length of the sole, which is less than in the Storeton specimens. It is also distinguished by the greater divergence of the toes from each other. From these differences and the gigantic size of the Tarporley spe cimen, the author conceives that the animal which made the im- pression was a distinct species; and he proposes for it, in compli- ance with the adage ex pede Herculem, the name of Chirothertum Herculis.—Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., Jan., 1839. of 10 — 2 an 8 OC&F Or OO ~» PWD A -P TN OH ooo Oo HN WD ® fe) Miscellanies. 399 7. New Works received. From motives of convenience we have omitted, on the present occasion, our usual list of acknowledgments ; but we are unwil- ling to postpone the mention of the following works, which have been presented since our last number. 1. Geological Report on the State of New York, continued from last year, being State Document, No. 275; communicated to the Legislature of the State, by Gov. Seward, Feb. 27, 1839. pp. 851. Copies from L. Vanuxem, E. Emmons, and B. D. Sil- liman. 2. Geological Report on the State of Michigan in continuation, Doc. No, 23, Feb. 4, 1839, by Douglass Houghton, State Geolo- gist. pp. 123. From A. Sager, and a second copy to the Yale Nat. Hist. Society. 3. Second Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Ohio, by W. W. Mather, and several assistants. Colum- bus. 1838. From C. B. Goddard, Esq. 4, First and Second Annual Reports on the Geological Sur- vey of Virginia, for 1836 and 7, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Ro- gers. Univ. Virg. pp. 87. 5. Report on the Geological Survey of Virginia, Doc. No. 56, in continuation, for 1838, by and from Prof. Wm. B. Rogers. Univ. Virg. pp. 32, quarto. 6. Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland. 1838. pp. 33. 7. Report on the Geology of Indiana, 1837-8, by D. D. Owen, State Geologist. pp. 54. 8. Third Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Pennsyl- Vania, by and from Prof. H. D. Rogers, State Geologist. 1832. pp. 118. 9. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. Phil. Vol vi, Part I. 1838. p. 152. From the Society. 10. Third edition in quarto of the catalogue of shells in the collection of Dr. John C. Jay, N. Y., 1839. 2 copies. From the author to B. Silliman, Jr., and to the ¥ale Nat. Hist. Society. 11. The Silurian System founded on Geological Researches in the counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Montgomery, Caer- marthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Worcester, 4 400 Miscellanies. and Stafford, with descriptions of the coal fields and overlying formations, by Roderick Impey Murchison, F. R. S., F. L. $8., Vice President of the Geological Society of London, &c. &c. &c., in two parts. Part I, containing over 600 pages, large and full quarto, illustrated by 112 wood cuts and a map; with [3 pictur- esque views, generally colored, and several of them folded. Part If, Organic Remains and Sections, over 200 pages quarto, making more than 800 for the entire work. There are 27 lithographic plates for the organic remains, containing nearly 700 figures. The colored sections are nine, generally taree folded, and con- taining 111 distinct sub-sections. The country described by the author, after seven years of arduous exertion among the mountains and in the cabinet, is rep-_ resented on a splendid colored map of five feet by three, after the three sheets of which it is composed are duly joined. At the bot- tom of this map is an ideal colored section, representing all the rocks which are described by Mr. Murchison. For this magnificent work we are indebted to the accomplished author, who has achieved a signal triumph for British Geology and for the scietice itself. 12. Seventh Report of the British Association for the advance- ment of science, Vol. vi, pp. over 700—over 500 for the general meeting, and about 200 for the sections, &c. &c.,— illustrated by thirteen plates and maps, several of them folded. From the Asso- ciation. 13. British Annual and Epitome of Science, for 1839, edited by Robt. D. Thomson, M. D. From the editor. : 14. Annual Reports for 1838 and 9, of the Royal Institution of Civil Engineers London. From the Institution. 15. Journal of the Statistical Society of London, for 1838, January to December inclusive—except August. From the So- ciety through R. K. Kennett, Covent Garden. INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVI. A. Account, saditiony) of shooting stars of of Dec., 1828. 355. Acknowledgment of new works, 399 Adams, C B., on shells. found on shore of Mas grt Bits of pe ond, 393. Pog works of N. Y, iron of, ex- perimented on, 4. Agates, cause of red color of, 207. as s HS nions atte to bowlders'' quot ge Win , statement of circular whirl-}! lee ryta and pac Senge by Chromate Potassa ‘Barytes, sulphate of in N. Y., Batteries, galvanic, the baien, ~ fresh & immersion of, 137 Beck, Dr. L. C., notic oo mee SPP, ores of paper, nN. J., 107. N Brunswick Tor- nado or Water: ae oF 1835, 115. ralogical and chemical ‘se eke. of ‘State 0 Berthier, M , mode of ascertaining the ioaicbeat qualities of —- by him, 375 ‘Berzeliu of Sweden, ermal waters of, mig Amphibia, Kisericatt Dr Sager on, 320. Analysis of acidu lous or carbonated! Springs, 8. i: b Dr Hayes, of cobalt ore from of two cobalt ores, 332-3, ques- tioned, 332. ‘ofiren ores in Mass., of native iron from radian Af- rica, 213. of meteoric iron, 81. of marl from Farmington, Ct., 176. Per of Salt springs at Onondaga and ae N'Y , 3, 5, 6. ciple a ort kit of soils, rules fr, 368. Angling, practical sea. om ie Anthony, J.G. discription a fossil, 106. Argulus, new species of, an anounced, 393 Ashvill i from 203 tralia, a weapon by natives of, 64. Aus deiirilie d,1 B. Baer, ine on depth of frozen ground in } | ra Prof. F. W., pp topped of paral- | Jax peated ‘Cygni by, 200 hof, Dr. G., get eo of volea- earthquakes, 230. ptiggr i ge of wood in the human sharia, erratic, 21). recent ee of. 325. Boiling a Sg — of, 253, 4, 5, 6. Boom bia: tp of, 164. f Nat. History, paper read minutes of their proceedings, ~ 379. *| Bowditch, Dr. notice of, 214. Bowlders and + bs miichon 39, 44. Brewer, T. 7 on the et ‘blackbird and gold dfach, : -91 Bricks, quantity made in N Y j aL. Brine springs in N. Y., British naturalists, some notice of, 217. British Association, 7th report of, ack- nowledge , 399. Annual received for 1839, R. D. Thoms on’s, 400. Brunswick, N , Terakad P1686, | Buckland, Prof , Calymene omen catalogue of shells, 3d edi-/|M occurring in Mass., 3 sig ! rol giganteum, hea 9. ifoas on, W. R. ph gee on two va-||Marcy, Gov. Wm. ological rasa — of Essex 94 communicated él him, agrey © Jones, Rev. & ¥ oualas view of price of Mather, W. W., t on e first dis- fe else et of N. ~ yes ogical verve, 15. ournal, Slatiiby ological, 78, 165. McCord, J. Met . Register kept at Judson, D., on use of n nitric acid in pul- Montreal ~ ‘him monat , 191. Mea ae nates of Lebanon que K. ns Bi sg gy N. C., 81. ston or ng, notice of, 164. showe vy. 1833, ia hee in . Booman = Rng = classification of hot Euro 179. ger: os 7, 1838, 355. oe deans relative : * INDEX. pee shower of nee 20, 1803, 358. eorite, African, 343 Treinget Poked abstract of, 78. Register kept at Montreal, 1838, 180. table and register, by Prof. E. Loomis, 165. Register and Sci. Journal, edited by James H. C a — offered for sale, 393 Volborthite, 187, ral, ne Miscellanies, domestic and foreign, 174, Montreal, Met. Register kept at in 1838, ne of Goce county, 23. aised, 264. Mountain leather, 114, mies at Durango, Mexico, 200. — Silurian System "received, Mussime, mode of preparing fish skins nt) Musical echo in Va., 174. N. “\ maemt a notice of, 2 Natiy and ores of, in New Jer- 405 F. Page, C. G., og gelyenie. bests 137. failure Fao wie i Page. Charles G., on wn loctré-tiaponlieae, pager “a on electricity, 353. n musical echo in Va, 174, Palodiitalogicn! department of survey on N. ad, 12. , by T. A. Conr Parallax of the star 61 Cy 'ygni, 200. Patton, J. H., account of hurricane in cominnicaied by him, 71. India Peat t occurring Pe br in aN. 'Y. and Va. ;(note) 12, Petrifying’ springs in N. ¥ ., Jetter_on gee ‘revival of letters in ees oe Postscript to p. 71 ’|| Potassa, shores of an agent to distin- uish between baryta ta and betes. 183. Prejudice against pure gyps Price of labor and subsistence ‘in certain parts of Taroge Proceedings a the the 5 Society of at His Progress of U. 8. ta expedition, 195. pay ue Hist. of fishes of Mass. ., reviewed, Navigation, steam, 133. New York geological —s 1. New works rec d, Nitric acid in puloeuat diseases, bees Pe ae springs in N. 7 ee alys Norton, Prof. A., treatise on rine at ly Note on New Brunswick tornado, 113. Notice, iin of Hon. Stephen Vas) Renssel 156. oO. Obituary rh of the Hon. Stephen Van Rensse laer rici “ity 353. Sey Phespen rescence of, Officers of Lyceum of ae Hist. N. ; Oiler f wine, ira we of, 76. Manes jhtro duc my, Onondaga, salt Sp “, analy, 6. Ontario, Lake, its small ey nid into, 4 xi cree of, and height of wa globules a blood, 6. Q. Quantity of salt in sea water, 188. R. a solar and terrestrial, 182, Rai a clear sky, Raleigh : 3 Ty foon of ‘Aug. 5th and 6th, 1835, os biography of, 223. Reclamation of M.A Warder, 187. co are! in ip anion. 207. Red pin pleat, 6. Reid ia W . of colu goa whirlwinds necenanpt y fires additional facta Raley igh’s pat in “Chiskas sea, Of Red oxide, co Ae in, 'N. Jerse rsey, 109, ed rp arr of De la Beche , 68. Reference line for ante geologists, 61. ind caused by fires 56. Remarks by the os to subscribers and readers, 4), 165, and 6, 216. — on the Nat it of the fishes ass., aes caused by voleanos, Ons of oper in a Jersey, 107. » al bod ine, chemistry of, 202. Ornithology of U.S., by J. K. Towns- nd, 201. Outlet of small lakes into Ontario, 42. 251. Report the geology of Maine and Rais s 4 43. ass , Revival of letters in eres 192. Rides - a Ontario, 40, Ripple sanke, 46. | 406 INDEX. 8. ey Abrm. on American amphibia, Salt, quantity of in sea ae ae Salt, oe of, in 1000 p Salin aniivs is of several, 3, 5, 6. Sandstone of Potsdam, N. Y., 25. red, fossil ches in, "136. hite se siliceot 3, 2k. Shepard, C. U., ‘on meteoric iron from Buncombe ae ee N.C oor a report of, on the economical ieology of Mass., alysis of Warw ickite, 85. n ite to Wohler’s analysis of cobalt ores, eo 33. ec, 1838, additional to Sho wer, Tm of April 20th, 1803, 358. April 5, 1095 and 1122, 361. Siberia, depth of frozen oauadge , 21 0. Silurian System by Murchison, acknowl- , Junius, on steam ships and navi- par oe — Janes L., on chrom. potassa as al da aot iled,366. Soils, oes os hong i analysis, how t n, 364. T in Kings, Queens, oe Richmond, : “of Mass. table of geine contained in, f absorbing arg 374. brthe West analyzed, 373. lar and terrestrial radiation observed at Montrea it catalogue of the N. American, Sprin bier “22: Sach carbonated, at Ballston and Saratoga, 8. Springs, "bine, ik Springs of nitrogen in N. Y., 7. pe trifying, | in ,N..¥. fil. thermal, of North America, no- dant shooting, account of, 179, 355, 358, 361. State chemist propaged for Mass., 376. Statement of s lost by a whirlwind agen Pode ea action, 241. rig if - failure of water in, de- tected, maximum, elasticity of, 242. stipe and navigation, 13. Steel, Dr , analysis of Caoeans spring, 8. Strokr, aopount of, « Struder, P rof. Ps ,on erratic blocks, trans- i: , arks on “natural his- vry of fishe Fue) Massachusetts, 1 S3es Subuitdinate rocks of Subsistence in continental ‘Europe, price of, 176. Subterranean temperatures, 204. urvey of N. , geological, 1 et seq. ileontological, Sussex, duke of, notice of Dr Beciintl ee _— aad Synopsis of the families and genera of Lepidoptera, 2¢ om of salt in 100 parts of Onondaga d foreign salt, rabolar view of oe price of labor in cer- Pec arts of espe Noy ope, 176. emperature of the ea of the nate. in a. ia, 205. increasing, the cause of vol- canic action, 239. Temper pains, ’ subterranean, 204 wells in N’ + 25. ertiar me 4g L. Cha i ain H , on palatal tooth a tychodus pete tes rus, 380. Thermal springs, ae Nidda’s classfica- tion of, Thermal ‘seater of N. America, noticed Prof. C. Daubeny, homson, T., chemistry of organic bod- ies Tongueless dog retaining power to bark, 194. Tornado of N. Brunswick in 1835, 115. Townsend, J. K., ornithology of U.S. Fiat ailoes from Prof. Struder’s account of erratic ks, 325 g: ee Jr. My on Geaster quadri- Tuckerman dus, Turpin M., memoir by, on red globules in bl ood, 206. nN. hot, in Iceland, 253, et seq. Tyfoon of “Aug. 1835, in China seas, facts concerning, 59. INDEX. | V. Van Rensselaer, Hon. 8., obituary no- tice of, 156. Vanoxem, L., on 3d geological district of | Variation of ate needle, 28. Vv sar , theory and aa of 327. Polborthive e, a new min Volcanic action, how paihaat by Davy, 132, and 6. wi 407 wae spout at New Brunswick in 1835, Water i in steam boilers, failure of, detee- ted, 141. Webster's manual of chemistry, new edi- ion, Wells, frozen, noticed, 184. Whirlw om 8, columnar, by W. C. Red- eld, 50 Whislrind of 8th April, 1838, India, no- ida ‘occasioned by circular fires, 50. by ra 939 indore a, bituminization of, in ham: man depth of, 24 of by Gay Lus c, 236. Works. received and acknowledged, oer and ‘arcuakuk natural his- tory of, 230. Wray, dss ie agent sketch of, 223. Buch, L., on nature of volcanic od Wyman, Dr. J., aeomaloes sub- nena, stance resembling aio Von PBue h, L. , Opi nion on formation of n foss ae from Georgia certain congione rates, 266 and Huiinah, 335. servations on volcanic erup- on a fetal kitten, 391. tion in island of Lancerote, 260, recent tooth af elaphait from observations on Pa Ima and Singapore, Gran pri vnc on the skeleton of Sloth, 382. n formation of volcanic cones, 273. ¥. as Yellow pte ore, 1 Walferdin ication on subter- Young » his phat of minerals for ranean aut 204. sale, Warder, M. A.,r reclamation of, 187. Z. Warwickite analyzed, Si ‘ > Water ned awe 46. oe ayaa on construction of galvanic es of access pe Cleats fires,| magnets, 124. 262, passim electro-magnetic rotations, 129.