THE AMERICAN JOURNAL . SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN AND BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr. VOL. XLL—OCTOBER, 1841. (TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.) NEW HAVEN: Sold by B. & W. NOYES.—Philadelphia, CAREY & siege J.8. colar and ORRIN ROGERS, No. 67 So. Second St.—Baltim —New York, CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, estate tt PORTED. corner of John St. and Broadway, and G. S. SILLIMAN, No. 49 Wall St.— Boston, C. C. LITTLE & Co.—London and New York, WILEY & PUTNAM No. 35 Paternoster Row, London, and 161 rier New York.—Paris, HECTOR PBR eg & Co., No. 11, Quay Voltaire. Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & PRINTED BY B. L. HAMLEN. git Arr. I. Ik Il. I < CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLI. NUMBER I. Second Letter to Prof. Faraday; from Prof. R. Hare, M. D. On the Magnetical Dip in the United States ; by Prof. Joun Locke, M Otmerration on nibs Mélaniang of hemiyek’ by S. S. Hat- 3 Phas aeons of Luntiden Fossil Kieles ; by W. Cc. ‘tes FIELD, Ve Goaiceibationa to English Leidengraphy ; by P rof. J. W. Vi. VII. rs Gunns, the Names of Beasts, Birds we Tobie: i Prof. JW. Gib TBBS,; See: . Abstract of the Procouliigs bf ie “Tenth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Remarks relating to the Tornado which visited New Beatie: wick, in the State of New Jersey, June 19, 1835, with a . Plan and Schedule of the Prostrations observed on a sec- tion of its track; by W. C. Reprrexp, Esq., . Notice of a Model of the Western portion of the Schuylkill or Southern Coal-Field of Pennsylvania, in illustration of an Address to the Association of American Geologists, on the most appropriate modes for representing Geolo- gical Phenomena, with a Plate; by Ricnarp C. Tayzor, . A Notice of Indian Cyprinide, being the second part of the nineteenth volume of Asiatic Researches, by Mr. John M’Clelland. Read Feb. 17, 1841, to the Boston Society _of Natural History ; by D. Humpureys Srorer, M. D., . Des Moulins’ General Considerations on Restricting the number of Species of the genera Unio and Anodonta; translated from the French, by Pumir H. Nicky, A. M., & 8 & & 104 lv CONTENTS. XII. Description of an American Spider, constituting anew sub- genus, of the tribe Inaquitele of Latreille; by Prof. N. M. Hentz, ; ‘ ; , : ‘ ; : XIII. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism—No. IV. On Electro-Dynamic Induction; by Prof. Joszerpn Henry, LL. D., XIV. A Brief Prelieninat Ackiwan of the Teiabaie sie ssid its Parasites; by Epwarp C. Herrick, XV. Proceedings of Learned Societies : I. Association of American Geologists, II. Boston Society of Natural History, Miscetianres.—Proceedings of the Geological Society, 190.—The former existence of Glaciers in Scotland, 191.—Red Color of the Salt Marshes of the Mediterranean: New Observations on the Infusoria of Rock Salt: Ornithological Gallery of the Brit- ish Museum, 193.—Prof. Agassiz and his Works, 194,—Sketch of the Geology of North America, 195.—Outlines of Anat- omy and Physiology, translated from the French of H. Milne Edwards, 199.—Voleanic Phenomena in Hawaii: Manilla Hemp, 200.—National Institution at Washington for the pro- motion of Science, 203.—Fossil Turtle : Fossil Saurians: Mi- croscopical Observations and Microscopes, 205.—Geological Drawings, ae etait Moraines, foe : British uAeioria- tion—Mr. Murchisoneaiil ¥ to tl : Opinions, &c., 207 Dion OF Bait al he Produc- tion of ‘cua from Paracyanogen, ee heen Boring at Paris, 209.—The Theory of Horticulture: Correspond- ing Magnetic Observations, 210.—Fossil Foraminifera in the Green Sand of New Jersey, 213.—Discovery in Virginia “4 the regular Mineral Salt Formation, 214.—Proceedings of th Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 215.—A Tree. tise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, adapted to North America, 216. NUMBER II. Art. I. Notice of the late Sheldon Clark, Esq. of Oxford, Connec- ticut; by Prof Smuman, . iI. First Anniversary Address before the Association of Amer- ican Geologists, at their second annual meeting in Phila- Page. CONTENTS. delphia, April 5, 1841; by Prof. Eowarp Hirencock, IIE. Notice of a Flora of North Soildlakc by Cs WT cuaxy, M. D., F. L. 8. &c., and Asa Gray, M. D. &c., . IV. A Sketch of the Laldeoris, of the family Bacillaria, with some account of the most interesting species which have been found in a recent or fossil state in the United States ; by Prof. J. W. Bauey, Ve costing on Bills of Mortality, with a oa for their improvement ; by James Meass, M. D., &c., VI. Meteorological Observations made at Fisidetss: Ohio, dttrisip the years 1838, 1839 and 1840; by Prof. Exzas Loomis, VII. Meteorological Summary of the Weather at Montreal, ~ Province of Canada; by J. S. M’Corp, Esq., ‘ VIIE? Observations on the Secondary and Tertiary Daimensiinin of the southern Atlantic States; by James T. Honce. With an Appendix; by T. A. Conrap, TX: Analysis of various Ores of Lead, Silver, Cirsee: Zine, Tron, &c., from King’s Mine, Davidson peed North Carolina ; by Prof. Jamzs C. Boorn, $ 4 1 “fi a f iJ i te Fe views cise : XII. Steam Navigation to the Pacific ere i isthieuree Panane and along the Western Coast of South America, . , XIII. Bibliographical Notices:—A discourse on the character, properties, and importance to man, of the natural family of plants called ee or True Grasses, 365.—Lecons de Botanique, la Morpholosie Végétale, "la Terminologie, la Botanique- Comparée, PEx- amen de la valeur des Caractéres dans les diverses famil- les or eg Pe —Genea Plantarum secundum A ita: Nomenclator Botanicus, seu synonymia poate -universalis enumerans sestle al- habe tum ars cifia, — a Linneano ee a recentioribus de re botanica 373. . tHe, + Supplemeste der Ricdgrisee (Carices) zu ‘hikeeat Mo. nographie, &c.: Hooker and Arnott’s Botany of Capt. Beechey’s Voyage: Elémens de Tératologie Végétale, ou oo — [~~] vi CONTENTS. Histoire abrégée des anomalies de l’Organisation dans les Végétaux, 374.—A Manual of Botany, 375.—Report on the Manufacture of Iron, 376.—Report on the Inverte- brate Animals of Massachusetts: Reports on the Herba- ceous Plants and Quadrupeds of Massachusetts, 378.— _ Boston Journal of Natural History: Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 382.—First Annual Report on the Geology of the state of New Hampshire, 383.— Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, 384.— Fifth Annual Report on the Geology of Pennsylvania, 385.—A sketch of the Geology of Surrey, 386.—Popular Lectures on Geology: Notice of the Relation between the Holy Scriptures and some parts of Geological Sci- ence, 387.—Astronomy for Schools: Pantology, or a Sys- tematic Survey of Human Knowledge, 389.—Notes on Gun powder, Percussion powder, Cannon and Projectiles : Army Meteorological Register for the years SSO, se . 390, i aR eT ee a eh eee i ea oS Ae = eee eR Bids XIV. Proceedings of Learned Societies :-—British Assocation ; Sor the Advancement of Science, 1 Micewtariis —Observations on the Shading Gai of Res. 9 anit 10, 1841, 399.—American Polythalmia from the pes Mis- sissippi, and also from the Cretaceous Formation Missouri, 400.—On New Substances foes he- Gilding by Electrography, 402.— ‘St 7, 1838: Scientific visit of Charles Lyell, Esq. of Pinion ¢ to c the United States: Shower of red matter like blood and mus- cle, 403. 2 ERRATA. : In Mr. Hodge’s article on the tertiary of the Southern se are the following mistakes.—For Cytherea reporta, passim, read pect rl repos ‘ Plagiostoma palagicum, read P peli, pa. $37.1 Wandil. ** that the home-made, read and the home-made, pa. 341 1. 11 fr. bot. “ Venus mercinaria, read V. mercenaria, pa. 344], 7 fr. bot. ee 4 } . j 3 Eee ates ee for edpar ee ae OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. ~ CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN AND BENJAMIN SILLIMAN 3 bape! by A. H. MALTEY and 8. & W : NOTES. — S. LITTELL and ORRIN ROGERS sds, CAREY & | a Se Bale more, goes HICKMAN.—New York, C ARVILL & cc ‘Ne. ee — s enh wane DORE. FOSTER, eorter of fehs St amd. Broadway, 3 rail Boston, ITTLE & LIMAN, No. 49 W: c.e,. Eg ra York, WILEY & PUTNAM, revoking =a > Broadwa: , HECTOR 80: Valtai . NESTE way, New Fork-—Paris Me ASSARY OF D. MATHEWS, | Burlington, Wis. t is expeeted that the borrower will | urn his boek within a proper time, thou nder any pretext, re-lending —— TO CORRESPONDENTS. Gray, Prof. E. Loomis and J. M. M’Cord, Esq_, Prof. j. C. Booth and others, wil pear in our By Saas: ieee been received from Mr. Hom € Samuel Adams, Mr. TF. L. K are and We have received the ee valuable works and reports, notices of piers: © Which were prepared for the present number, but have been crowded out. 2 Three Lectures on Agriculture pre at Oxford in 1840 and 1841, by Charles oF Daubeny, M. D. ERS Se. Sibthorpian Profesor of Rural Economy in the Uni- ae 5 versity of Oxford. — a = Cooma oS Report on. thie ‘nia foctiere of fron, by order of the Senate of Maryland, wide . to the Coreen: by J. i. Alexander, Topographical engineer to the State ; — olis, 1840. This is an ‘important report and will come under further consideration - Report of the + ete at of Virginia, for the year 1840, by Prof. Wm. B : 3. 1, pp. 1 ie ioe Report on : Pundits, 1840, pp. 30 Annual seseyte on hg eso of Maryland for 1840, Baltimore, 1841, pp be Treost’s fifth Geological Report to the prema: Tennessee. ———— 1840, pp. 75. mee ee Flora of North America, by Dr. John Torre Discourse by Dr. Darli on the: of the natural family of The titles of u and wa Sais Seen ee ways ‘specify at the heiidiof oe an the number of extra pies 3 econo whieh they may wish to have printed. Return proofs, not to be sealed, or inscribed with any thing except corrections. ae to . given when communications sent to ee Journal, have =e oe Also in A dion Journals. a. r PUBLISHED QUARTERLY AT Terms, $6 per annum in advance. Postage paid by the Editors to all who take the work direct of them, by mail, and whose ac- counts are square. To meet the heavy charges of this work, prompt payments are in- dispensable. tc Postmasters can frank all remittances. Nou Hoven, Ma, wit 18 4¢ TO B. SILLIMAN, (Senior Editor and Proprietor,) For the American Journal of Science and Arts. GN FL S IF FY at / 3 Dolls. Me wee Dr. = : TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF F. ANDREW MICHAUX,) =e |plete, as far as possible, the requisite information on this important! subje : I> [Since closing our Advertising Sheet, the following important saps) _ jhave been received from Mr. Judah Dobson, which are now given in a separate form.—Eps.] Preparing for Publication, a New Edition of the NORTH AMERICAN SYLVA, OR A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST TREES) OF THE UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND NOVA SCOTIA; Considered particularly with respect to their use in the Arts, and their introduction into Commerce ; with a Description of the most useful of the European Forest Tress. Illustrated by 156 finely colored Engravings. Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. &c. Ke. To which will be added an additional volume, containing all the Forest Trees discovered in the Rocky Mounrarns, the Ter- RITORY OF OrEGon, down to the shores of the Pacirie and into the confines of Cautirornia, as well as in various parts of the Unitep States. Illustrated by finely colored Plates. . - BY THOMAS NUTTALL, F.L.S., Member of the American Philosophical Society, and of the Academy of Natural _ Sciences of Philadelphia, &c. &c. Ke. The figures will comprise about forty Plates, finely colored, most- ly of new subjects, or such as have not been before published in the Sylva, executed with the strictest fidelity to nature, under the eye of the Editor. Additional remarks on the uses and economy of the Forest Trees of the United States, will also be given, so as to com- : It is quite unnecessary to say any thing in praise of Mrcwaux’s| magnificent work on the Forest Trees of our country ; the well es- tablished reputation of Mr. Nutra, the editor of the additional part of the work, is a sufficient guaranty for its accuracy and the style of its execution. The Plates, which will amount to about 200, will be finely and carefully colored. It will be published in four volumes, in imperial octavo. The first volume is expected to be ready in July, 1841, and the succeeding volumes at short intervals, so that the whole shall be completed during the present season. The price of the whole work, with the Plates finely colored, will be thirty dollars—the first and second volumes, eight dollars each ; ; and the third and fourth, seven dollars each ; payable on delivery of each volume. With the Plates uncolored, the price will be five dollars per volume. Those persons who possess the former edition of Michaux’s work, can procure the additional volume separately, and thus complete their copies. Price with colored Plates, seven dollars ; with Plates uncolored, five dollars. They are requested to transmit their names as early as possible. A list of the subscribers to this splendid work, will be published in the last volume. ubscriptions received by the Publisher, or at the office of the American Journal of Science and Arts, New Haven, Ct. J. DOBSON, No. 106, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. J. DOBSON has also in course of Publication, MonoGrapPHy oF THE FAMILY Unionipa, or Natapes or Lamarck, (fresh-water bivalve shells,) or Norra America—illustrated by figures drawn on stone from nature, and finely colored. By ‘T. . Conrav, Curator of the Academy of — Sciences of Philadelphia, &c. &c. &c. Of this work, Nos. 1 to 12-have been published—each number contains five finely colored Plates ; price per number $1. Also, by the same author, Fosstus or tae Mepiat Tertiary or THE Unirep States. Of this work =< been published No. J, containing 17 Plates, ators $1.50—and No. 2, containing 12 Plates, price $1—to be pleted in four numbers. A SOMABAATH or THE Limniapes, or Fresu-Warer Univatve ELLs or Norra America, by S. S. Harpeman, Member of i Academy of Natural Sciences. Nos. 1 and 2 published, each containing 5 most splendid colored secs price $1 each, to be completed in about eight numbers New and most important work for all those con- cerned in Iron Works. J. DOBSON, No. 106 Cuestnutr Srreer, PHILADELPHIA, Proposes to publish by subscription, the following most important work, A COMPLETE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. It is scarcely necessary to speak of the value of a work such as this, which must be of the greatest interest to the Practical Iron Master, as well as to every one concerned, either directly or indi- rectly, in this most important subject. be great French work of E Branc and Water, being confessedly the most complete that has yet appeared, it will be reproduced in this, with additions—the Plates are all drawn to a scale, which will enable any one to con- struct, by their means, whatever may be required. The Essay on the Smelting of Iron with Anthracite Coal, by Mr. Roserts, will be found very interesting; it is the production of a gentleman of talents, and of sound judgment and unwearied research, who, highly favored by his position, has given the subject much attention. The numerous Analyses of the Coal and Iron Ores, ‘both of our own 7 country and Europe, will afford much interesting and useful infor- mation; while the statistical portion will be drawn from the most authentic sources. Ricuarp C. Taytor , Esq., a gentleman well known for his talents and accuracy in research, has promised his valuable assistance t is also intended to give abstracts of the most important sain patents relating to Iron, accompanied with critical remarks whole forming ‘the most complete work on the subject that has yet been published i in any country—and the only one of the kind in the English language. CONDITIONS. The work will be put to press as soon as there are 150 subscri- bers—and but a limited edition will be published. It will be published in 8 parts, each part to contain 8 or more very large folio plates, with the accompanying text. The price per part will be five dollars, payable on delivery. As it is desirable to put the work to press as early as possible, gentlemen who may wish to subscribe, will confer a favor by trans- mitting their names to the publisher without delay. B. & W. NOYES, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Pusuisners of Bakewell’s Geology, 8vo, $3.50. Dana’s Min- eralowy, 8vo. $83.25. Pitkin’s Statistics, 8vo. $3.00. Baldwin’s Yale Colleve, Svo. $1.25. Bacon’s Poems, 8vo0. $1.50. Konus- ley’s Tacitus, 12mo. $1.00, Kinysley’s Cicero de Oratore, 12mo. 75 ets. Day o n the Will, 12mo. 50 cts. Crocker’s Catastrophe of the Presteptatinn Church, 12mo. SS cts. Excerpta Latina, 12mo, 38cts. Gibbs’s Hebrew Lexicon, 8vo. $2.00. Tablesof Logarithms, used in Yale Colleve with Day’s Mathematics, 8vo. $1.00 Scho ol wr 18mo. 25 cts. Discount 20 per cent. so six months red Books wholesaled and retailed at the most reduced prices—a catalogue of which is abet with prices and discount, for gratui- on distribution: SP romptly executed. w Haven, June 25, 1 Jory, 1841. ADVERTISING SHEET OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. GEOLOGICAL DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Mr. ROBERT BAKEWELL would inform Professors of Col- leges, Principals of Academies, Lyceums, and other Literary Insti- tutions, that he keeps on hand Drawings and Diagrams, illustrative of the science of Geology, comprising Stratification, Metallic Veins, Organic Remains, Active and Extinct Volcanoes, &c. &c. The drawings are if desired fixed on rollers, adapted for lectures. Letters addressed to R. Bakewell, Instructor of Drawing and Per- spective in Yale College, at Mr. Ebenezer Johnson’s, Chapel street, New Haven, will be duly attended to. Drawings and Plans of every description copied with dispatch. New Haven, June, 1841. Mr. Bakewell’s drawings are excellent.— Eds. In press and will shortly be published, by LITTLE & BROWN, Bosron, THE PHILOSOPHY OF STORMS, BY JAMES P. ESPY. In one volume octavo, with Maps and Illustrations. Esry’s Purtosopuy or Storms, contains an entirely new theory of atmospheric phenomena, explaining, from a few elementary laws, with almost the simplicity of the law of gravitation when applied to the planetary motions, the various phenomena connected with storms, such as the formation of clouds, the cause of the change of wind and cross currents of air, the fall of the barometer in the storm and the rise above the mean around its borders, the cause of the trans- lation of storms along the surface of the earth, the direction in which they must move in some particular latitudes, and the means by which it may be known in what direction they move in all latitudes and in 2 2 Advertising Sheet of the all seasons. Mr. Espy has devoted many years to this subject, and has fortified his doctrine by a vast body of facts, which will be de- tailed in the present work in so simple a manner, as to be intelligi- ble without much previous mathematical knowledge. It is indeed intended to be eminently a practical work—useful to all classes of citizens, especially to the navigator. Mr. Espy does not come before the world with crude, unformed theories, but by a patient induction from facts, he brings out a beautiful system, which one of the most illustrious philosophical bodies in the world—th Institute of France, in a report on the subject says, “ satisfies alone the phenomena,” and moreover they declare that “ for physical ge- ography, agriculture, navigation, and meteorology, it gives us new explanations and useful indications for further researches, and cor- recis many prevailing errors. They also express the earnest desire that Mr. Espy may be put by the government of the United States in a position to pursue his important labors, and to complete his theory, already so remarkable, by all the observations and experi- ments which his deductions may suggest to him, in a vast country where enlightened men are not wanting to science, and which is, as it were, the native country of these formidable meteors.” Mr. Espy has lectured on this subject, not only in all the large cities of the United States, where he has been received with great favor, but he has visited Europe, and lectured to enthusiastic audi- ences formed of the most intelligent citizens in Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, York, Edinburgh, Belfast, Dublin, and Paris, and he has every where excited a strong desire to know more of his beau- tiful subject. Why should it not beso? The laws of nature, from their sublime simplicity, are always captivating to the mind of cultivated man ;—and here is a law newly discovered, by which any careful observer may know in what direction a great storm is raging, wheth- er he is at sea or on land, while it has not yet approached within several hundred miles of him. Mr. Espy has permitted many such predictions to be published in Philadelphia even when the weather was clear there, and his predictions were always verified. oston, June 19, 184]. oe... R. CHILTON, PRACTICAL CHEMIST, &c., No. 263 Broapway, New York, tions, and every thing necesssary for the study of Chemistry and other branches of Natural Philosophy—among which are the fol- lowing : American Journal of Science. 3 ble of supporting from 20 to 3000 Ibs. ge’s Comrounp Maaner and Etecrrorome, for producing brilliant sparks and powerful shocks. The same instrument, with a contrivance attached by which the intensity of the shocks can modified at pleasure, which renders it one of the most convenient instruments for the application of electricity as a remedial agent in the cure of disease, and for physiological experiments. Small working models of Evectro-MaGnetic Macuines, o different kinds, and a great variety of Execrro-Macneric Instrv- meNTS for the purpose of illustrating the theory of Execrro-Mac- M. Gatvanic Bartertes on Prof. Faraday’s plan, and others, for deflagration, &c. Catorimo‘ors of different sizes. G ELL Guassgs, plain and stoppered, Grapuarep Be. GuasseEs, Tuses, &¢.—Woutr’s Apparatus, Guass Aemsics, Stoprperep Funnets, Precipitating Jars. Nooth’s Apparatus for impregnating water with carbonic acid. cid. Apparatus for solidifying carbonic aci LAss ConDENSING SyRINGEs or Fire Pumps—Maerec Lan- TERNS, with Asrronomicat and other Surpes—Acare and Sree. Mortars. Porcetatin, Wepewoop, Hessian, and Buacx Leap Cruci- BLEsS—Mourrtes and Curre.s. Berzelius’s Spirit Lamps, with Sranps and Rives, Grass Srir- iT Lamps—Mopets of Crysrats in woed, in boxes containing one hundred different forms—Dacuerreotyre AprParatus complete. An assortment of Platina vessels, such as CrvciBies, Capsues, Spoons, Forcers, &c.—Pratina Wire, For, &c.—Sets -of Biowrire Apparatus neatly fitted up. A large collection of Minerats, for sale by the single specimen or in sets. OF Particular attention paid to the analysis of ores, minerals, mineral waters, &c. New York, June 19, 1841. 4 Advertising Sheet of the ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS. Pror. Eowarp Hitcucock’s Appress before this Association at their second meeting in Philadelphia, in April last, has been pub- lished by the subscriber in an 8vo. pamphlet of fifty pages, on fine paper, in accordance with the resolution of the meeting. Members of the Association and others who wish this address, can have it forwarded to them by mail, or as they may direct, by in- forming the subscriber of the number of copies they want The subscriber has also published in Svo. on fine paper, pp. 82, a small edition of the Address, with the proceedings of the Associa- tion at their two meetings, (viz. in Philadelphia, April, 1840, and April, 1841,) as they are published by the Secretaries in the Amer- ican Journal of Science, with a list of the members of the Associa- tion: these two under one cover. Prof. Hitchcock’s address will be sold to members at one dollar for six copies; to non-members at one dollar for four copies, or 25 cents each. It is expected that the money will accompany the orders. ‘The Address and Proceedings, under one cover, will be sold at one dollar for three copies, or singly, at fifty cents each. Either of the above may be ordered through any of the book- sellers who act as agents for the American Journal of Science. B. Situman, Jr., One of the Assistant Secretaries. The eleventh meeting of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, will be held in Plymouth, commencing on Thurs- day, July 29, 1841, and concluding on "Wednesday, August 4, Joun Taytor, F. R.S., General Treasurer. James Yares, F. R.S., Secretary to the Council. London, April 26, 1841. Association of American Geologists. Tus body holds its third annual meeting at Boston, commencing on Monday, the 25th of April, 1842. Officers for the meeting in Boston : Samuet Grorce Morvon, M. D., &c., Chairman. Cuarves T. Jackson, F. G. S., (France,) M. D., &c. Secretary. Prof. Epwarp Hircucocx Dr. Cuarves T. Jackson, + Local Committee. Mr. Moses B. Witu1ams, Prof. B. Siruman, LL. D., &c. to deliver the opening address. American Journal of Science. 5 American Journal of Science and Arts. Tue following numbers of this Journal are wanted by the Editors, who will pay for them $1 each, or give in exchange current num- bers as they appear. Vol XI. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. Riker 1,2 1 i: 1 1,2 Entire No. ay A. RT, 29. 31. 33, 34. Vol. XVI. XXII. XXVI. AAVEL 5 - ASE AL. Number is 2. 1,2 7" ie Entire No. 35. 45, 46. 54. 55, 56. 59, 60. 81. B. & B. Sutumay. New Haven, June 23, 1840. Notice to Agents of the American Journal of Science. Herearter one dollar per number is all that will be allowed on account, for numbers of this en returned in good order from agents, except by special 08 agreem ntire sets of the A racial of Science and Arts, from its commencement to the ‘pions time, can be had of the inal bers in numbers or eon B. & B. Sitiman. New Haven, June 23, 1 Scale of charges on the pegs wg Sheet for the American Journal of Science. 15 lines or one third of a Page, - - - w z ‘ $2 00 One half of a page, - - - - : s 3 00 nN i 5 00 Charges on the cover.—15 lines or one third of a page, - $3 00 0 wis of a page, ait 4 00 | ae tah ely 00 For every insertion after t a Shap e half the above rates. Advertisements| ‘must be accompanied with eas as = the number of insertions. | — l GREAT BOOK SALE AT HAMBURG. The auctioneer, Brédermann, will sell on the 27th of September,| 1841, at Hamburg, a very valuable collection of Books in every branch of Laseature: chiefly i in Theology and Philology. It con- tains rece works long since unknown in trade, and comprises 4500 ‘rare volum | Letters rl ae orders and references for this country, will re- _ ceive attention if addressed, post paid by steam ship via Eng before August, to a Nestler & Melle, Hamburg. } 6 Advertising Sheet, §c. | WORKS ON NATURAL HISTORY, | BY Pror. LOUIS AGASSIZ, OF NEUCHATEL, IN SWITZERLAND. To be had of Jent & Gassmann, Soleure. I. Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles—1st to 13th Livraison. Text in 4to., Plates in fol. Price of each Livraison, 36 frs. 14th Livraison is in the press ; the 15th will appear at the end of the year, (1840. Il. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons d’Eau Douce de l’ Europe | Centrale—Ist Livraison, 27 Plates in fol. with text in French, Ger- man, and English. Price of the vellum copy, 75 fr.; of the su- perfine a ae with great care, 100 fr. ; of the edition in carton vélin, This work wil — in 5 or 6 Livraisons, with 90 Plates in all in folio, and two stout volumes of text in 8vo. The price of the Livraisons will depend on the number of Plates. The first Liv. con- tains the genera Salmo and Thymallus; the second division will contain the Embryology of the Salmones. Ti. 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Agassiz in America, and will procure any of the foregoing. Art. I. . On the Magnetical Dip in the United States ; by Prof. Joun al pS XII. CONTENTS. Second Letter to Prof. Faraday; from Prof. R. Hare, M.D. Locke, M. D., ; (Se on the Metitilaia of Lamarétts by Ss. s. Hare DEMAN . Short Notices of Anteiotn Fossil Fishes: by W. Cc. hin FIELD . Contributions to English Lexicography; by Prof. J. W. (BBS, . Origin of the Names of eests: Birds and Last: by Prof. J. W. Gisss, . Abstract of the Prtoesitings of the ‘Tenth sicaing of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, . Remarks relating to the Tornado which visited New Bruns- wick, in the State of New Jersey, June 19, 1835, with a Plan and Schedule of the Prostrations observed on a sec- tion of its track; by W. C. Repriexp, Esq., . Notice of a Model of the Western portion of the Scbuylkil or Southern Coal-Field of Pennsylvania, in illustration of an Address to the Association of American Geologists, on the most appropriate modes for representing Geolo- gical Phenomena, with a Plate; by Ricuarp C. Tayzor, . A Notice of Indian Cyprinide, being the second part of the nineteenth volume of Asiatic Researches, by Mr. John M’Clelland. Read Feb. 17, 1841, to the Boston Society of Natural History ; by D. Humpnreys Srorer, M. D., - Des Moulins’ General Considerations on Restricting the number of Species of the genera Unio and Anodonta; translated from the French, by Paitie H. Nicxury, A. M., . Description of an American Spider, constituting a new sub- genus, of the tribe Inequitele of Latreille; by Prof. N. . Hentz Contributions to Houciniey ina Wapvitinen Ne. Iv. On Electro-Dynamic Induction; by Prof. Josera Henry, Page. 1 g 104 117 © CONTENTS. XIV. A Brief, Preliminary Account of the Hessian ae and its Parasites; by Epwarp C. Herrick, XV. Proceedings of Learned Societies : I. Association of American Geologists, II. Boston Society of Natural History, Miscei.anies.—Proceedings of the Geological Society, 190.—The former existence of Glaciers in Scotland, 191.—Red Color of the Salt Marshes of the Mediterranean: New Observations on the Infusoria of Rock Salt: Ornithological Gallery of the Brit- ish Museum, 193.—Prof. Agassiz and his Works, 194.—Sketch _ of the Geology of North America, 195.—Outlines of Anat- omy and Physiology, translated from the French of H. Milne Edwards, 199.—Volcanic Phenomena in Hawaii: Manilla Hemp, 200.—National Institution at Washington for the pro- motion of Science, 203.—Fossil Turtle : Fossil Saurians: Mi- croscopical Observations and Microscopes, 205.—Geological Drawings, 206.—Glaciers, Moraines, &c.: British Associa- tion—Mr. Murchison—His Journey to the Ural mountains— Opinions, &c., 207.—Dr. Brown of Edinburgh on the Produc- tion of Silicon from Paracyanogen, 208.—Artesian Boring at Paris, 209.—The Theory of Horticulture: Correspond- ing Magnetic Observations, 210.—Fossil Foraminifera in the Green Sand of New Jersey, 213.—Discovery in Virginia of the regular Mineral Salt Formation, 214.—Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 215.—A T'rea- tise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, adapted to North America, 216. ERRATA, VOL. XL. . 309, |. 23, for Ergrinum read Erysinu Page. 189 a ) P.. 388, 1. 5, dele of the hyoid bone ; |, 22, for edentata read edentula ; |. 23, for namycush read namocush. * w a, AMERICAN | _ FOURNAL ¢ OF SCIENCE, &. r “ - , oot ee L_ Second ve to Prof. Faraday ; from R. Hare, M. D., Se. J 4 ARE Se Wa: cise in the ‘University of Pennsylvania. . ? ‘ Be: 3 £. Philadelphia, heee. 1841. »~ + TO PROF, FARADAY. gs Ps _ My dear Sisco the month of July last I had she scale to read, in the American or of Science, your letter in reply to one which I had addres to you through the same channel. I should sooner have this letter, but that. meanwhile I have had to republish two of my text-books, 1, besides, could ¢ not command, until lately, a complete copy o —_ numbers of your bdienirelseas to which you have relolea - The tenor of the language with which. your fects dotdidion! re ces realizes the hope, which I cherished, that my strictures would call forth an amicable reply. Under these circumstances it would grieve me that you should mouatee amy part of my language as charging you with -inconsiste contradiction, as if it could be my object to put you i in 1 the wrong, farther than mig be necessary to establish my ion of the truth. Certainly * it has been my wish never to gc Depend gbe Sentiment; ‘ “* Amicus Plato, sed magis a ica Bite » Tattach high i nee to the facts established by your “ Researches,” which can only be _ appreciated sufficiently by those who have experienced the labor, corporeal and mental, which experimental investigations require: ~ » Tam moreover gratefal for the disposition to do me justice, man- -ifested in those researches ; yet it may not always. be possible for _ me to display the eer — I i ee entertain. ea all _ Vol, mynttes — 2 Second Letier from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. ‘aware that when in a discussion, which due attention to brevity must render unceremonious, diversities of opinion are exhibite much magnanimity is requisite in the party whose opinions are assailed ; but I trust that both of us have truth in view above all © other objects, and that so much of your new doctrine as tends to promote that end, will not be invalidated by a criticism which though free, is intended to be perfectly fair and friendly. ~ In paragraph (ii,) your language is as follows, “my theory of induction makes no assertion as to the nature of electricity, nor at all questions any of the theories respecting that subject.” Ow- ~ ing to this avowed omission to state your o of the nature — of electricity as preliminary to the statement of your “theory,” — c was unable to reconcile that theory with those pre- viously accredited, I received the impression that you claimed no aid from any imponderable principle. It appeared to me that _ there was no room for the agency of any such principle, if induc- tion were an action of contiguous ponderable particles, consisting of aspecies of polarity. It seemed to follow, that what we call electricity, could be nothing more than a polarity, in the ponder- able particles, directly caused by those mechanical or chemical frictions, movements, or reactions by which ponderable bodies are electrified. You have correctly inferred that I had not seen the fourteenth series of your researches, containing certain para- graphs. From them it appears that the polarity, on which so ‘ much stress has been laid, is analogous to that which haslong been known to arise in a mass, about which the electric equilibri- um has been subverted, by the inductive influence of the electri- _ city accumulated upon another mass. ‘This is clearly explained in paragraph iv of your letter, by the illustration, agreeably to which three bodies, A, B, ©, are situated in a line, in the order in ~ _ which they are named, in proximity, but not in contact. “Ais — j electrified positively and then C is uninsulated.” It is evident that you are correct in representing that under these circumstan- ces the extremities of B will be oppositely excited, so as to have — _ @reaction with any similarly excited body, analogous to that uch takes place between magnets ; since the similarly excited * o ‘a ne ‘extremities of two such bodies, would repel each other; while those dissimilarly excited, would be reciprocally attractive. Hence ‘i _ no doubt the word polarity is conceived by you to convey an idea If I may be allowed to propose an | ro of the state of the body B. 4 ae - Esl # - ae. Be gee aE ° ee ? Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. 3 epithet to convey the idea which I have of the state of a mass a state of electropolarity. a Rom, _ It does not appear to me that in the suggestion of the electro- polarity which we both agree to be induced upon the body B, (iv,) so long as it concerns a mass, there is any novelty. ‘The only part of your doctrine which is new, is that which suggests an analogous state to be caused in the particles of the bodies through which the inductive power is propagated. Admitting each of the particles of a dielectric, through which the process of ordinary induction tak ; to be put into the state of the body B, it does not appe: e to justify your definition of electrical induc- tion. Lconceive that consistently with your own exemplification of that process, you should have alleged ordinary induction to be productive of an affection of particles causing in them a species of polarity. In the case of the bodies, A, B, C, (iv,) B is evidently passive. How then can we consider as active, particles repre-— sented to be in an analogous state? If in B there is no action, how can there be any action in particles performing a_ perfectly similar part ? Moreover, how can the inductive power of an elec- . trical accumulation upon A, consist of the polarity which it indu- ces in B? £ esti oa Having supposed (viii,) an electrified ball, A, an inch in diam- eter, to be situated within a thin metallic sphere, C, of a foot in diameter, you suggest that were one thousand concentric me- tallic spheres interposed between A, and the inner surface of C, the electropolar state of each particle in those spheres would be analogous to that of B already mentioned. Of course if there be an action of those particles, there must be an action of B; but this appears to me not only irreconcilable with any previously existing theory, but also with your own exposition of the process _» by which B is polarized. rm us 7 Supposing concentric metallic hemispheres were interposed only upon one side of A, you aver that agreeably to your experi- ence, more of the inductive influence would be extended towards. that side of the containing shell than before, (xiv. ) Admitting ~ this, I cannot concede that the greater influence of the induction, _ resulting from the presence of the metallic particles, is the conse- quence of any action of theirs; whether in contiguity or in proz- - # My % ~ accumulated in this sphere, and that existing in, or about, the a. a be 4 Scout Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. imity. Agreeably to my view, the action is confined to the elec- “ trical accumulation in the sphere A. Between the electricity intervening ponderable particles, there may be a reaction ; but 7 evidently these particles are as inactive as are the steps of a lad- der in the scaling of a wall. : : Suppose a powerful magnet to be so curved as to have the terminating polar surfaces parallel, and leaving between them an interval of some inches. Place between these surfaces, a number of short pieces of soft iron wire. These would of course be mag- netized, and would arrange themselves in rows, the north and — south poles becoming contiguous. Would this be a sufficient reason for saying that the inductive influence of the magnetic poles was an action of the contiguous wires? Would not the phenomena be the consequence of an affection of the contiguous — pieces of wire, hot of their action ? ~~ As respects the word charge, I am not aware that I have been in the habit of attaching any erroneous meaning to it, as your efforts to define it in paragraph iii would imply. Ihave | been accustomed to restrict the use of it to the case which you ~ distinguish as an inductive charge, illustrated by that of the Ley- en jar. ‘To designate the states of the conductors of a machine, ~ ] have almost always employed the words excited or excitement. a In my text-book, these words are used to designate the state ¢ glass or resin electrified by friction, while that of coated surface whether panes or jars, inductively electrified, has been designate by the words charge or charged. oe ge I understood the word contiguous to imply contact, or con tiguity, where, as it seems that it was intended by you to con= vey the idea of proximity. In the last mentioned sense it is not inconsistent with the idea of an action at the distance of half an ¥g inch: but by admitting the word contiguous to be ill chosen, you have, with great candor, furnished me with an apology for having — mistaken your meaning. bale ~~ 8 Any inductive action which does not exist at sensible dis- _ / tances, (xx,) you attribute to ordinary induction, considering the “a eg _ case of induction through a vacuum as an extraordinary case of induction. 'To me it appears that the induction must be the same in both cases, and that the circumstances under which it acts, are = Second Letter Srom Dr. Hare to Prof Fara aday. 5 ‘emi which may. be considered in the one case as ordinary, i in the , vers extraordinary. Thus, take the case cited in your reply, = (viii, ix, x.) Does the interposition of the spheres alter the char- acter of the inductive power in the sphere A? Hither the force exercised by the charge in A, is like that of gravitation, altogether independent of the influence of inter- vening bodies ; or, like that of light, it is dependent on the agency of an ininoeerding matter. Agreeably to one doctrine, the matter, by means of which luminous bodies act, operates by its transmis- sion from the luminous surface to that illumined. Agreeably to another doctrine, the illuminating matter operates by its undula- tions. If the inductive power of electrified bodies be not anal- ogous to gravitation, it must be analogous to the power by which light is produced so far as to be dependent on intervening matter. But were it to resemble gravitation, like that force it would be uninfluenced by such matter. If your experiments prove that electrical induction is liable to be modified by intervening matter, it is demonstrated that in its mode of operation it is analogous to light, not to gravitation, It is then proved, that, agreeably to your doctrine, electrical induction requires the intervention of matter, but you admit that it acts across a vacuum, and of course, _ acts without the presence of ponderable matter. Yet it requires . 7 intervening matter of some kind, and, that> ‘matter oe i — it must of necessity be imponderable. en 1s communicated from a luminous body in the centre of an’ a ted sphere, agreeably to the undulatory hypothesis, its otc” vis de spendent on the waves excited in an intervening impondera- _» ble medium. Agreeably to your electropolar hypothesis, the in- _ ductive efficacy of an electrified body in an exhausted sphere would be due to a derangement of electric equilibrium, by which an electric state opposite to that at the centre would be produced at the surface of the containing sphere, (xxvi, xxvii.) This o case you consider as one of extraordinary induction, but when air is admitted into the hollow sphere, or when concentric spheres 2 are interposed, you hold it to be a case of ordinary induction. . t us then, in the case of the luminous body, i imagine that con- centric spheres of glass are interposed, of which the surfaces are roughened by grinding. In consequence of the roughness thus produced, the rays instead of proceeding i in radii from the central a : 6 Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. ; ball would be so refracted as to cross each other. Of the two q instances of illumination, thus imagined, would the one be de- — scribed as ordinary, the other as ertraordinary radiation? But if these epithets are not to be applied to radiation, wherefore un- der analogous circumstances are they applicable to induction ? Wherefore is induction when acting through a plenum to be called ordinary, and yet when acting through a vacuum to. be called extraordinary ? In the well known case of the refracting power of Iceland spar, light undergoes an ordinary and extraordinary refraction ; not an ordinary and extraordinary radiation. The candle, of which, when viewed through the spar, two images are seen, does not radiate ordinarily and extraordinarily. If there be occasionally, as you allege, (xxi,) large intervals between the particles of radiant heat, how can the distances between them resemble those existing between particles acting at distances which are not sensible. The repulsive reaction be- tween the particles of radiant caloric, as described by you, (xxi,) resembles that which I have supposed to exist between those of electricity ; but I cannot conceive of any description less suitable for either, than that of particles which do not act at sensible dis- tances. F & Aware that the materiality of heat, and the Newtonian the- | ory, which ascribes radiation to the projection of heat or light — fecduting particles, have been questioned, I should not have ap- led to a doctrine which assumes both the materiality of heat, © and the trath of the Newtonian theory, had not you led the way; — but, agreeably to the doctrine and theory alluded to, I cannot ac- cord with you in perceiving any similitude between the processes of conduction and radiation. . Consistently with the hypothesis that electricity is material, you have shewn that an enormous quantity of it must exist in metals. ‘To me it seems equally evident that, agreeably to the idea that heat is material, there must exist in metals a proportion- ably great quantity of caloric. The intense heat produced when wires are deflagrated by an electrical discharge, cannot otherwise ; be consistently accounted for. Agreeably to the same idea, every metallic particle in any metallic mass, must be surrounded by an atmosphere of caloric; since the changes of dimension conse- 3 quent to variations of temperature, can only be explained by cor- responding variations in the quantity of caloric imbibed, and in = 7. ; a Ge 4 Fens i , Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. an $ _ the consequent density of the calorific atmospheres existing in the mass which undergoes these changes. Such being the constitution of expansible bodies, agreeably to the hypothesis in question, it seems to me that the process, by which caloric is propagated through them by conduction, must be extremely different from that by which it is transmitted from one part of space to another by radiation. In the one case the calorific particle flies, like a cannon ball, with an inconceivably greater velocity, which is not sensibly fetarded by the reflecting | or refracting influence of intervening transparent media: in the — other case it must be slowly imparted from one calorific atmos- & phere to another, until the repulsion sustained on all sides isin — equilibrio. It is in this way that I have always explained the s fact that metals are bad radiators, while good reflectors.+ * *T subjoin the language which I er held respecting the constitution of expan- sible solids, during the last twent “The expansion of matter, whether solid, ‘nt or aériform, by an increase of pune may be thus explain ned. “In proportion as the temperature - within ; ey space is raised, there will be more calorie i in the pred of the particles of any mass contained in the space. The more caloric may abound in the vicinity of the particles, the more of it will com- bine with them ; sti in to the quantity of caloric thus combined, will they be actuated by that reciprocally Foon power, which, i In proportion toits intensity, re their distance from each other. e “ There may be some analogy between the mode i which each ponderable atom is wsiiietiadild by the caloric which it attracts, and that in which the earth is rounded by the atmosphere ; and as in the latter case, so probably in the the density is inversely as the square of the distance. ‘“ At a height at which the atmospheric pressure does not exceed a grain to the supply of air from some remote region ; is it not evident that a condensation would ensue in all the inferior strata of the atmosphere, until the pressure would be doubled throughout, so as to become at the terrestrial surface, 30 Ibs. instead of the present pressure of 15 Ibs.? Yet the pressure at the point from which the change would be propagated, would not exceed two grains per square inch. In like man- ner, it may be presumed that the atmospheres of caloric are increased in quan tity and density about their bec nati atoms, by a slight increase in the calorific ten- sion of the external me t I will here quote the pactahe which has been given in my lectures for the last twenty years. ‘“ Metals appear to consist of particles so united with each other, or with caloric, as to leave no pores through which radiant caloric can be projected. Hence the only portion of any metallic mass which can yield up its rays by radia- tion, is the external stratum. < On the other hand, from its porosity, and pro oric within its pores tenaciatisly as an ingredient in its composition, ~~ oppet * ses but little obstruction to the passage of that subtile principle, when in the radi- ant form ; and hence its particles may all be simultaneously engaged in radiating ie ae M ‘ : Second Letier fant Dr. Hare to Prof Faraday. ; ee 3 fy es (xxv,) you allege that conduction of heat differs i om. electrical induction, because it passes by a very slow pro- ss; ° while induction is in its distant influence simultaneous i ree at the place of action. How then can the passage a “of b % by conduction, be “a process precisely like that of radia- 2 er (xxi,) which resembles induction in the velocity 3 with th whol @ uence - reaches objects, however remote ? A ough, Go a you appeal to the “ modern views s respect- in radia and cond ae of heat,’’ in order to ) illustrate your | oe the co hit of the particles of bodies subjected "<. to induction, yet in (xxv, oe object to th reference which I had _ | ae ade to these views, in r to shew that the intensity of elec- a “tropolarization could not be inversely as ‘the number of particles ‘ ‘ erpose between the “inductric” surfaces. Let us then resort es ove suggested, “of the influence of the poles of a mag- — ee intervening pieces of iron wire. In 1679, 14th series, — : you sug ggest this as an analogous case to that of the process of _ ss ee ap electrical induction, which we have under consideration. auld there be in the one case a thousand pieces of wire inter- sed, in the second an hundred, will it be pretended that the in- raueuy of their reciprocal Soden’ reaction would be invers * as the number; so that the effect of the last mentioned num! ; of wires would be eqitivalent to that of the first?) Were inter- vals to be created between the wires by removing, from among a number first mentioned, alternate wires, it would seem to me that the diminution of effect would be commensurate not only — with the reduction of the number of the wires, but likewise with ‘ the consequent enlargement of the intervals. m ee :; . any excess of this principle with which a feeble affinity may have caused them to z be transiently united, or in receiving the rays emitted by any ee body, to a ~ emanations from weliich they may have been exposed. “We may account, in like manner, for the great radiating power of earthen ware” ‘ and wood. * “ For th that calorifi b jected from the interior of a metal, they cannot enter it when projected against it from without. On the contra- ry, they are repelled with such on as to be reflected without any perceptible diminution of velocity. Hence t = slants of metallic reflectors. “It would seem as if the lone all which are condensed between those of = seu psepet any: — —, ose heir reere Heat may radiate towards nsue ; wise, on account of me- *ibeeal imperfpctions, easily discernible siale the aid a a microscope, mirrors would not be as efficacious as they are found to be in concentrating radiant heat. Their influence, in this respect, seems to result from the excellence of their eral contour, and is not poy impaired by blemishes.” ¥ i ae 4 best attained. 'That bul being interposed, I & - . ~~ % mee < Second Letter fiom Dp Hare to Prof. Faraday. &, ” . If as you ast, the interposition | of ponderable petioles hid ; pm oe any tendency to promote inductive influence, (xiv,) there | be some number of | such particles by which this effect, will “o how the intensity of a - electro-polarity, thus gene in re ervening particles, can, by a diminution of their a “quire a proportional i increase ; wine rip in no can t versely as the ‘squaresiof the. distances, jes correc y a the aggregate influence of an electrified ball, B, situa ai a centre of a hollow sphere, C, will be a constant quantity, ie oe ever may be the diameter of C. This is perfectly analogous to" the illuminating influence of a luminous body situated, at the 2 5 centre of a hollow sphere, which would of course receive the whole of the light emitted whatever mi be its diameter, pro- vided that there were nothing interpose to intercept any ee of the rays. But in order to answer the objection which | advanced, that the diminution of the density of a.“ dielectric” ‘ is ale be compensated .by any consequent increase of inductive n intensity, it must be shown in the case of several similar hollow spheres, in which various numbers of electrified equidistant balls should exist, that the influence of such balls upon each other, and upon the mite of the spheres, would not be directly as the number of the balls and inversely as the size of the containing spaces. Were gas lights substituted for the balls, it must be ev- ident that the intensity of the light, in any one of the spheres, would be as the number of lights which it might contain. Now . one of your illustrations (viii,) above noticed makes light and ' electrical induction, obey the same law as respects the influence * of distance upon the respective intensities. - From these considerations, and others above stated, I infer, that if electrical induction were an action of particles in prox- imity operating reciprocally with forces varying in intensity with the squares of the distances, their aggregate influence upon any _ surfaces, between which | they might be situated, would be pro- portionable to their number; and since experience demonstrates that, the inductive power is not diminished by the reduction of the number of the intervening pane I conclude that it is in- Vol. xx1, No, 1,—April-June, 1841, 10 Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. dependent of any energy of theirs, and proceeds altogether from that electrical accumulation with which the inductive change is Be to originate. In paragraph (xxxi,) you say * « that at one time there was a quibetion between heat and cold. At present that theory is done away with, and the phenomena of heat and cold are referred to the same class, and to different degrees of the same power.”’ _ In reply to this I beg leave to point out, that although, in ordi- nary acceptation, cold refers to relatively low temperature; yet we all understand that there might be that perfect negation of _ heat, or abstraction of caloric, which may be defined absolute cold. I presume that, having thus defined absolute cold, you - would not represent it as identical with caloric. For my own part this would seem as unreasonable as to confound matter with nihility. Assuming that there is only one electric fluid, there appears to me to be an analogy between caloric and electricity, so far that negative electricity conveys, in the one case, an idea analogous to that which cold conveys in the other. But if the doctrine of Du Fay be admitted, there are two kinds of electric matter, which are no more to be confounded than an acid and an alkali. Let us, upon these premises, subject to further examination your argument (1330,) that insulation and conduction should be iden- tified, “since the moment we leave in the smallest degree per- fection at either extremity, we involve the element of perfection at the opposite end.” Let us suppose two remote portions of space, one, replete with pure vitreous electricity, the other with pure re-— sinous : let there be a series of like spaces containing the resinous _ and vitreous electricities in as many different varieties of admix- ture, so that in passing from one of the first mentioned spaces, through the series to the other, as soon as we should cease to be exposed to the vitreous fluid, in perfect purity, we should begin to be exposed minutely to the resinous, or that, in passing from the purely resinous atmosphere, we should begin to be exposed to a minute portion of the vitreous fluid; would this be a sufficient reason for confounding the two fluids, ind treating the phenomena to which they give rise as the effect of one only ? But the discussion, into which your illustrations have led me, refers to things, whereas conduction and insulation, as I un- derstand them, are opposite and incompatible properties, so that, .:, Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. 11 in as much, as either prevails, the other must be counteracted. Conduction conveys to my mind the idea of permeability to the electric fluid, insulation that of impermeability ; and I am unable to understand how these irreconcilable properties can be produced by a difference of degree in any one property of electrics and conductors. If, as your infer, glass have, comparatively with metals, an almost infinitely minute degree of the conducting power, is it this power which enables it to prevent conduction, or in other words to insulate? Let it be granted that you have correctly supposed conduction to comprise both induction and discharge, the one following the other in perfect conductors within an inex- pressibly brief interval. Insulation does not prevent induction ; but, so far as it goes, it prevents discharge. In practice this part of the process of conduction does not take place through glass during any time ordinarily allotted to our experiments, however correct you may have been in supposing it to have ensued before the expiration of a year or more in the case of the tubes which you had sealed after charging them. But conceding it to have been thus proved that glass has, comparatively with metals, an_ infinitely small degree of the conducting power; is it this minute degree of conducting power, which enables it to prevent conduc- tion, or in other words to insulate? — Induction arises from one or more properties of electricity, in- sulation from a property of ponderable matter; and although there be no matter capable of preventing induction, as well as dis- charge, were there such a matter, would that annihilate insula- tion? On the contrary would it not exhibit the property in the highest perfection? As respects the residual charge of a battery, is it not evi- dent that any electrical charge which affects the surface of the glass, must produce a corresponding effect upon the stratum of air in contact with the coating of the glass? If we place one coating between two panes, will it not enable us to a certain ex- tent to charge or discharge both? Substituting the air for one of them, will it not, in some measure, be liable to an affection simi- lar to that of the vitreous surface for which it is substituted? In the well known process of the condensing electromoter, the plate of air interposed between the disks is, I believe, universally ad- mitted to perform the part of an electric, and to be equivalent in its properties to the glass in a coated pane. * 12 a Ltier from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. When I adverted to a gradual relinquishment of electricity by the air to the glass, I did not mean to suggest that it was at- tended by any more delay than the case actually demonstrates. It might be slow or gradual, compared with the velocity of an electric discharge, and yet be extremely quick, comparatively with any velocity ever produced in ponderable matter. That the return should be slow when no coating was employed, and yet quick when it was employed, as stated by you, (xxxviii,) is pre- cisely what I should have expected; because the coating only operates to remove all obstruction to the electric equilibrium. The quantity or intensity of the excitement is dependent alto- gether upon the electrified surfaces of the air and the glass. You have cited (1632,) the property of a charged Leyden jar, as nsually accoutered, of electrifying a carrier ball. This I think sanctions the existence of a power to electrify by “convection,” the surrounding air to a greater or less depth; since it must be evident that every aérial particle must be competent to perform the part of the carrier ball. Agreeably to the Franklinian doctrine, the electricity directly accumulated upon one side of a pane repels that upon the other side. You admit that this would take place were a vacuum to intervene; but when ponderable matter is interposed, you con- ceive Bech particle to act as does the body B when situated as described between A and C, (iv.) But agreeably to the view which I have taken, and what I understand to be your own ex- position of the case, B is altogether passive, so that it cannot help, if it does not impede the repulsive influence. Moreover it must be quite evident, that were B removed, and A approximated to C, without attaining the striking distance, the effect upon C and the consequent energy of any discharge upon it from A, would be greater instead of less. If in the charge of a coated pane the intermediate ponderable vitreous particles have any tendency to enhance the charge, how happens it that, the power of the ma- chine employed being the same, the intensity of the charge which can be given to an electric is greater in proportion to its tenuity ? In reference to the direction of any discharge, it appears to me that as, in charging, the fluid must always pass from the cathode to the anode, so in reversing the process it must pursue, as I have alleged, the opposite course of going from the anode back to the cathode. Evidently the circumvolutions of the circuit are as un- * i > e Second Letter pas Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. 138 important as respects a correct idea of the direction, as dha length has been shown by Wheatstone, to be incompetent to produce any perceptible delay. The dissipation of conductors being one of the most prominent among electrical phenomena, it appears to me to be an objection to your theory, if, while it fails to-suggest any process by which this phenomenon is produced, it assumes premises which seem to be incompatible with the generation of any explosive power. I discharge only involves the restoration of polarized ponderable particles to their natural state, the potency of the discharge must be proportionable to the intensity of the antecedent polarity ; yet it is through conductors, liable, as you allege, to polarization of comparatively low intensity, (xxxi,) that discharge takes place with the highest degree of explosive violence. Having inquired how your allegation could be true, that dis- charge brings bodies to their natural state and yet causes con- ductors to be dissipated, you reply (xxxiv,) that different effects may result from the same cause acting with different degrees of intensity ; as when by one degree of heat ice is converted into water, by another into steam. But it may be urged, that althoug] in the case thus cited, different effects are produced, yet | ; of hydrogen which pe se constiontal the solid called ice, should by one degree of calorific repulsion have the cohesion of its par- ticles so counteracted as to be productive of fusion; and yet that a higher degree of the same power should impart to them the re- pulsive quality requisite to the aériform state. In order to found upon the influence of variations of temperature, a good objection to my argument, it should be shown, that while a certain reduc- tion of temperature enables aqueous particles to indulge their innate propensity to consolidation, a still further reduction will cause them, in direct opposition to that propensity, to repel each other so as to form steam. In your concluding paragraph you allege, “that when pon- derable particles intervene, during the process of dynamic in- duction, the currents resulting from this source do require these particles.” TI presume this allegation is to be explained by the conjecture made by you (1729) that since certain bodies when interposed did not interfere with dynamic induction, therefore a. = 2 14 Second Letter from Dr. Hare to Prof. Faraday. they might be inferred to cooperate in the transmission of that species of inductive influence. But if the induction takes place without the ponderable matter, is it right to assume that this mat- ter azds because it does not prevent the effect? Might it not be as reasonably inferred in the case of light, that although its transmis- sion does not require the interposition of a pane of glass, yet that when such a pane is interposed, since the light is not intercepted, there is reason to suppose an active cooperation of the vitreous particles in aid of the radiation? It may be expedient here to advert to the fact that Prof. Henry has found a metallic plate to interfere with the dynamic induction of one flat helix upon an- other. I have myself been witness of this result. Does not magnetic or electrodynamic induction take place as well in vacuo as in pleno? Has the presence of any gas been found to promote or retard that species of reaction? It appears, that agreeably to your experiments, ponderable bodies, when made to intervene, did not enhance the influence in question ; while in some of those performed by Henry it was intercepted by them. Does it not follow that ponderable particles may im- pede, but cannot assist in this process. n happy to find, that among the opinions which I ex- ressed in my letter to you, although there are several in which you do not concur, there are some which you esteem of impor- tance, though you do not consider yourself justified in extending to them your sanction ; being constrained, in the present state of human knowledge, to hold your judgment in suspense. For the present, I shall here take leave of this subject, having already so extended my letter as to occupy too much of your valuable time. fam aware that as yet I have not sufficiently studied many of the results of your sagacity, ingenuity, and skill in experimental investigations. When I shall have time to make them the sub- ject of the careful consideration which they merit, I may venture to subject your patience to the additional trial resulting from some further commentaries. I remain, with the highest esteem, re- spectfully yours, Rosert Hare. es ‘ae 9 in the United States. 15 Art. I].—On the Magnetical Dip in the United States ; by Joun Locke, M. D., Prof. Chem. and Pharm., in the Medical College of Ohio. TO THE EDITORS, In reply to the article by Prof. Loomis, in Vol. xxxrx of your Journal, permit me to observe by way of narration, that the cor- respondence between him and myself, originated in the following manner. Prof. Loomis being about to republish a chart of the magnetism of the United States, requested as a favor, that I would furnish him with some of the results of my observations. | I cheerfully complied, by sending him the principal ones. When his paper appeared, I saw my results marked “in error” to a con- siderable amount. Upon examination, I found that the expres- sion ‘in error,” meant merely that the observations did not agree with an assumED HyPoTHEsis, by the amount noted. I objected to this mode of expressing differences, chiefly because it would mis- lead popular readers, and with them would do me discredit as an ob- server. My paper on that subject in your Journal, Vol. ae will be found at every point, complimentary to Prof. Loomis. The reader will please to observe that I have not made a single ren on Prof. L.’s own observations. I should have felt great delica 3 especially in undertaking to criticise or point out any errors or faults which I might suppose attended them. This i6°0 task ~ which I conceive belongs to the observer himself, after he shall _ have made all of the comparisons necessary for the labor, and shall have ascertained all of the circumstances possible, which may explain the real or apparent anomalies. A second, per- son may misapprehend many things which the observer himself could have rectified, or explained instantly, and may thus pro- duce injury of reputation, and of feeling, by hastily publishing to the world, a supposed discovery of errors, where none ever ex- isted. Ihave merely sought that my own observations should be presented to the popular reader in such a manner that he should not misapprehend them to my discredit. Prof. Loomis will certainly grant that the notes of an unfinished labor of mine were communicated to him, with a tacit understanding to that effect. I did not in my last paper, presume that he had intended to use them in any other manner, than that which haw be to my honor. 16 Magnetical Dip in the United States. In the paper before me, Prof. Loomis makes a distinct announce- | ment of the “hypothesis” in the following words: Are these differences to be regarded as errors of observation, or as errors of the hypothesis of parallel, straight, and equidistant isoclinal lines ?* 'That is the question, which would have given a clear commencement to the subject. Had the reader been advised that it was upon grounds purely hypothetical, that my observa tions were pronounced in error, it was all I desired. Had Prof. Loomis stopped at this point, the whole thing would have been satisfactory to me; but in the latter part of his last paper, he has made a special effort to discredit my observations. I have great dislike to even the appearance of controversy, especially in such a journal as yours, and were it not that some instruction may” arise to your readers, I would suppress the following remarks. I Fi have been drawn into the subject unintentionally, by an attempt to serve a friend. In the first place, I question the above quoted ‘‘ hypothesis” it- self. It is certainly anti-Baconian, to assume an hypothesis, and then require observed facts to be stretched out, or cut off, by-+ — until they agree with the assumption. We propose first to er the consistency of the hypothesis itself, as used by Prof. © eredit the facts observed by me. In the first group of observa "tions, consisting of mine and his together, he “ adopts as” a cen- — tral position, “lat. 41° 22’, long. 84° 54’,” and by the proper 3 mule, determines “ the. direction of the isoclinal lines* to be N. 80.1’ W.”. “ Computing from these data, the dip at several tations,” he obtains the so called “ errors of observation.” Here we have first the eevee ‘‘ hypothesis,” and secondly an assumed ~ “ central position.” In the second group of observations, consisting of those made ~ by myself in the region of the Mississippi, the central position 7 is “lat. 42° 00’ N. long. 90° 10’ W.” By the formule __ used above, he determines direction of the isoclinal lines in * this group, to be “ N. 65° Ol W.” Again, from these data, he computes the dip, and determines the so called “errors of obser- vation.” Agreeably to these calculations, the lines of equal dip, * Lines of equal dip. & et ie ge ais, in his last paper, and next to reply to his special plead- _ ings, to sustain that hypothesis, in which he endeavors to dis- — Magneticdl Dip in the United States. 17 in the two groups, have bearings differing 19° 53/ from each other. What will be the bearings of those lines in the interme- diate region? Ought the two lines to be produced, the one from Jowa, and the other from Ohio, until they meet? The two would not certainly form one “ straight line,’ which is called for by the hypothesis. Or, ought there to be an intermediate “ cen- tral position adopted,” and a new bearing of the isoclinal line de- termined? 'This would likely give us a polygon. Now “ adopt,” or assume an infinite number of “central | positions,” and: caleu- late as many bearings of the isoclinal or equal dip lines, and the result will be curves, precisely what I contend for. But thisis _ contrary to the “ hypothesis,” which calls for “straight lines.” Here might bea very great modification of the “ computed errors of observation.” My own opinion, founded on observations of considerable extent, is that the lines do proceed in curves which, in the present state of our knowledge, can be traced only by ob- servation. ‘The hypothesis that the magnetical forces proceed in es, less tortuous in their course than observations would seem to indicate, is one by no means of recent date ; for it is found in the philosophical writings of the Baron Suedenbots, together with a very specific account of the a in ‘making observations. ‘The appearance of mat ala : cially under the symbols of modern ¢ 7 Sep inipshing ¢ many a popular reader, who may not refi t all mathemati results are dependent on the data, the assumptions, ses; if these be false or erroneous, the superstructure is but a wreath of mist. Grant the data, and the calculations in t times, are but a schoolboy’s task.* On page 87, Prof. Loomis observes in - iehiahlne to my oben vations, as treated in his previous paper, “ at Prairie du Chien, the discordance is more considerable. The difference [from the hy- pothesis] I now find is —7’.3 ; in my former paper —20’. The discordance is owing in part to the curvature I ascribed to the isoclinal lines, by which most of the observations seemed best represented, though the apparent error of this observation was increased.” All this is perfectly candid. He admits a curvature’ in the “straight lines,” and that the lines are those of his own creation, subject to be changed at pleasure ; not the isoclinal * It is evident from the manner in which Prof. L. uses the hypothetical straight lines, that they were not really the lines of equal dip, Se ae eee those lines. Vol. xu1, No. 1 —April-June, ao * Dog =e 18 Magnetical: Dip in the Omited States. ee. lines marked by the Architect of the Universe. My observations were intended to be tried by no other standard than the last. I come next to Prof. Loomis’s remarks against the truth. of my observations. On page 88, he doubts whether I have abn to reading both ends of the dipping needle, so as to avoid the error “ arising from the eccentricity of the axis of the needle in relation to the vertical circle, on which the readings are made.” He says, “ this error in my instrument, commonly amounts to one or two min- utes, and sometimes to even five or more. It is corrected by reading at both extremities of the needle.” From my saying that I determined the dip by 8 distinct readings, he thinks I “im- plied that I did not attend to the above precaution.” ‘This is all naivete enough. I regret that Prof. Loomis should have formed so low an estimate of my skill, as to suppose I would use a grad- uated circle, where it was possible to obtain the mean of two op- posite readings without doing so,—a thing so obvious that I deemed it unnecessary to say any thing about it. My needle No. 1, when properly adjusted, shows no eccentricity, but reads alike at both extremities. No. 2; has almost uniformly a differ- ence of 5 minutes at the opposite ends. Both ends of both nee- dies were always o red. If such be called a separate reading, then 16 should be substituted for 8 in the quotation above, and my readings should all be counted double: he number which I have assigned to them. 1 The next paragraph is upon “ the uncanny of the readings” themselves.” [should not have known how to reply to that _ expression, but he subsequently becomes more specific. ‘The or arising from friction on the axis,” he says, ‘is exhibited in Prof. Locke’s observations in a striking light.’ 1 find by the subsequent remarks that he refers to an observation at Davenport, as published in Vol. xxxrx, of this Journal, in which there was an erratum, which had been the subject of correspondence be- tween the Junior editor and myself. This erratum was the re- sult of transcription. "The amount of the several items, was cor- rectly written, but one of the items which in the field-book reads 72° 55’ had been transcribed 72° 05’. The Junior editor dis- covered the discrepancy between the items and their amount, and very naturally corrected the latter instead of the former, at the same time kindly addressing a note to me on the subject, which, as I was absent, I did not receive, It went to press in the erro- vat io sidgaalllt in the United States. 19 * neous form, and has been used by Prof. Loomis to show the im- perfections of my observations in a “striking light.” It appears, on page 89, first as — 42’, second corrected to —46/.5, and again, “ By far the greater error here, is —46’.5, which I obtained from the first observation.” Here the whole affair i is of no account, because the datum on which the calculation was founded, had no real existence. ‘The same observation has been corrected by my- self, and was reprinted in the January number for 1841, page 150. This typographical error should have been detected, as such, from its inconsistency with the other items of the same grou Prof. Loomis assumes in the next paragraph, that the differen- ces of the readings with the face of the compass east, and with it west, if they exceed a certain constant quantity by him calcu- lated, and called “twice the zero error of the instrument,” are “errors of observation,” and upon this assumption, makes two tables of errors consisting of 88 items each, at the head of which stands the “ typographical error.” Here Prof. Loomis has fallen into the prevailing sin of mathematicians, the hasty assumption of data, which being granted, they can kill an army “by com- putation.” The proper zero error of tw instrument arises from a want of exact adjustment of the spirit lev graduated circle, and would be a co: also another source of error, arising ment of the agate planes on which the supported ; both of which errors are more or less merged by the reversal of the instrument, as they would be plus with the face of — the instrument in one position, and minus with it in the opposite position. Now this last error is a variable one; being dependent upon the total magnetic force, at any place, which force is va- riable. Probably Prof. Loomis intended by * zero error” ithe conjoint effect of the relation of both the zero of graduation and of the agate planes to the spirit level. A nice calculator, especially when he is pointing out the errors of other people’s labors, should have made a distinction between them, for one is a constant quantity, and the other a variable one. But Prof. L. has treated the whole asa constant. He has also assumed mechanical perfection in the parts of the instrument in contact, the pivots and the agate planes, a condition which never exists in fact. These vacillations in the various reversals which Prof. Loomis has tabulated, were of course known to me, and were always compared during the observations. They were apparent one = ¥ = bs * ¥e ’ ‘ . < * 2 “5. gee ' _* 7 20 Magnetical Dip in the United States. on the face of the. published results and must be apparent by a coup dil to every professional observer. Why then such a la- bored table of them? But they all amount to nothing, literally they amount to nothing ; for in my mode of manipulating, adopt- ed since Sept. 1839, they disappear from the ‘‘ mean results ;” like the zero error they are mostly corrected by the reversals. I could _ point out what I conceive to be the cause of these vacillations, and the mode in which I have succeeded in merging them; but I have neither time nor an inclination at present, to go into details on these points. 1 had intended to publish the result of my ex- perience, but the duty to which I am here called, is very far from that of being an instructor of others. I certainly ought not to be forward in volunteering my services i in that capacity. The evidence which convinces me of the correctness of the mean results of my observations, is of the most popular kind ; a sort of evidence which every body can understand, equally applicable to moral and to physical snbjects, entirely independdlit of hypo- thesis and assumplions of any kind, and as ancient as the penta- teuch. It is simply the agreement of two independent physical — witnesses to the same result, under repeated and varied trials. . The dip is twice taken, at each place, by a mean of 16 readings of two separate needles. Out of 16 pairs of mean results, at differ- _ ent places, published in the last number of this Journal, there were but two, where the separate needles dis d more esi V of a degree. .What is common sense to infer from this? that there is an error of “30 minutes” in any one of. them, both the needles taking a fancy, or go oa to agree to the same false- hood. Prof. Loomis will pute the facts above stated and we > submit the case, whether they do not authorize the cote clusion which I have miei “that the results are true to within 2or3 minutes.” nd Prof. Loomis has taken no notice of, this part of the evidence of the accuracy of the mean results of my observations. What must I infer from this. 7 2* : Lastly, Prof. Loomis cited a diadenay between the dip at Cincinnati, as observed by me in 1837, and the same observed more recently, as proof that my observations are erroneous. I had myself published the fact of that discrepancy, and had it un- - * Should the two needles each have pivots of any other fe et n that er! the c vlinder and be like, and alike placed in reference to the aris 7 nadie, ‘ an erroneous indication. But such a concurrence can remiss hap ee QUARTERLY AT NEW HAVEN, CONN., BY B. & B. SILLIMAN, Terms, $6 ate Sessares m adva payments are in- i Postmasters can frank all remittances. Hea Je4 fare 7 hee TO Bo & Bo SILLIMAN, DY. Fer the Omerican Fournal of Seience and Outs. Se SS AFG at (PU I 72 ‘at On the Melanians of Lamarck. 21 der consideration. Prof. Li. will observe that I have attached no uncommon accuracy to my mean results, until the observation at Davenport i in Sept. 1839, when I changed my mode of using the instrument, The observation of 1837 was the second one ever made by me, the instruments had imperfections since remedied, and the probability is, that the compass had accidentally been turned out of the meridian, a thing specially guarded against in all subsequent researches. Prof. Loomis mentions the “ disheartening anomalies” which he meets with in his own researches, and makes some remarks concerning his own observations. He will perceive by the rules | which I have prescribed to myself, that I can say nothing upon either of those topics. RECAPITULATION. 1. Prof. Loomis has marked the results of res observations in error, by an assumed hypothesis, admitted to be such, himself. 2. He has thought it “ implied” that I did not read both ends of the dipping needle, and that the results were therefore not en- titled to so much confidence. This is not true. 3. He has found a Faaghes in an item of aieitbesr totic ot ed in Vol. is bi Journal. This oe caleulat ee Davenport, as turns out to be pogra the item ought to ave been BAL Sino was 55 minutes. sn e 4. He has tabulated the small vacillations in ie vai of an observation amounting at most to 8’.75 as “errors of observation.” These errors correct each other, and iti hecahiie im ag mean results, é y ried oe Arr. II.—Observations on the Melanians of aged by . HaLpeman. Lamarck included the genera Melania, Melanopsis, and Pirena, in this family, without having had it in his power to examine the animals. F'érussac unites Pirena to Melanopsis, because he has examined P. atra, Lam. preserved in spirits, and finds that it does not differ from Melanops buccinoidea and costata, which he de- scribed from living individuals. Rang takes the same view, and places Melanopsis between Cerithium and Planaxis. Cuvier ad- = 4% v = 22 On the Melanians of Lamarck. mits Melanopsis and Pirena, placing them after Melania and Ris- soa; and before Acteon (Tornatella) and Pyramidella. Deshayes (Lam. vol. visi, p. 488, ) appears inclined to unite the three genera, for besides placing part of Pirena in Melanopsis, he unites the re- mainder to Melania, into which he believes Melanopsis can be merged by the gradual disappearance of its conchological charac- ters. Thus there isa great difference of opinion upon these gene- ra, and much of the confusion can be t a ed to the fact that the characters of the animal of Melania, instead of being taken from an undoubted species, (as M. subulata or Virginica,) have been drawn from Pirena aurita, Miil.; which, although it approaches Melania in its conchological characters, is generically distinct ; so that MM. Deshayes’ and Rang’s generic characters of the former, apply to the latter alone. Pirena aurita, (figured as Melania au- rita, by Rang, on pl. xm of Guerin’s Mag., 1832,) is represented with quite a long foot, which is much extended beyond the mouth, and tapering posteriorly ; the tentacles are not annulated, the head is scarcely proboscidiform ; and the edge of the mantle is fringed—(“ ayant ses bords découpés.”—Desh.) Melania, on the contrary, has the following characters, drawn from M. Vir- ginica. o , . Animal with a truncated proboscidiform head, bearing two annulated tentacles, upon an enlargement of the outside basal portion of whic the eyes are situated, but never beyond the middle of the tentacle; the mouth is provided with a double row of file-like teeth on each side; the footis oval, not extending beyond the muz- zle, slightly thickened, and of medium size ; edge of the mantle continuous and simple. The exposed parts are colored with blackish lines upon a yellowish ground, which run transversely across the rostrum and tentacles.* Oviparous. Thus it will be perceived that this genus has scarcely any es- sential point in common with those mollusca from the rivers of West Africa, of which P. aurita may be considered the representa- tive. Melania is more like Paludina, but the distinctions are suffi- cient to place them in different, though adjoining families. An animal with a fringed mantle can scarcely enter the family of Melanians proper, so that P. aurita and its congeners, must be placed in another, of which this is, perhaps, the most tangible character ; namely, the CeRITHINAE.~ I have never seen a living Melanopsis, but as Deshayes places Anculosa prerosa in this genus, and as Férussac’s description of the animal applies pretty well to Anculosa, I will take it for * Mevani, pl. L, fig. het, of my Monograph of the N. American fluviatile uni- alves. ™ ie G € , On the Melanians of Lamarck. 23 granted that the two are nearly allied, and discuss the question of the identity of Melanopsis with Melania. If they are connected, it must be by means of Anculosa, which stands between both. The head, neck, and foot of the Melanie, are protruded to a con- siderable extent; they inhabit rivers, in running water, and are - continually moving from place to place, but they are not found in the ripples or more ra ee parts of the stream. The Anculose, on the other hand, live attachec waters ; they are of s sdentary habits, seldom moving, except to leave the water occasionally, by climbing up a wet rock. The animal extends but little beyond the shell, as it would be liable to receive injuries from the rapidity of the current; the foot is very small, discoidal in shape, and adapted to enable the animal to hold with great tenacity. They are thus separated from Melania by habit and structure, and a short shell is necessary, to prevent them from being forced from their position by the current; which would of course, have a greater hold upon a long shell. On this account I think it probable that Pirena atra bears the same anal- ogy to the typical Melanopsides, that Melania does to Anculosa ; and as these differences could not be well distinguished in dead “and contracted specimens, the fact that F’érussac referred the for- mer to Melanopsis proper, is of little account. I accordingly adopt this species as the type of the genus Pirena, as Lamarck and Cuvier have done; and retain it among the Melanians, be- cause the mantle is not Mined but merely sinuated a to the outline of the aperture, as described by Férussac “ Pirena aurita” is not congeneric with Pirena (atra) nor Me- lania, but must be placed in the family Cerithine ; next perhaps to Potamis. The type is distinguished from the typical Melanie by the tubercles, and the sinuated labrum ; and it cannot be sep- arated from its American representatives, Melania undulata, Say, and similar shells, which, although the characters are less highly developed, have been characterized as distinct by Rafinesque and Swainson. The former author asserts that the animals are distinct from Melania, but the shells of several intermediate spe- cies appear to indicate a connection, and if the soft parts present a similar change, there will be some difficulty in pointing out the extent of the genus; and indeed, to separate the Melanians from the Cerithine:. If ‘ Pirena aurita’ be placed in the former, the distinctions between the two families, must be looked for in the animal of Potamis. i Ps i Ea 24 Short notices of American Fossil Fishes. Arr. IV.—Short notices of American Fossil Fishes ; by W. C. Reprieitp, Mem. Yale Nat. Hist. Soc., &c [Received March 15, 1841, and read before the Yale Nat. Hist. Soc. April 28,] Tue limited attention which is given nmposutalists to the fos- _ sil fishes of the United States, is probably rare occurrence of these fossils in our | oc] Hitherto, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Jerse The earliest notices of these fossils sooiee to have been given by the late Dr. Mitchill, Prof. Hitchcock, and Dr. Dekay. Ata later period, some imperfect specimens and drawings of American. species received the notice of Prof. Agassiz: to whose invalu- able labors this department of science is so greatly indebted. T'wo species from the Connecticut sandstone have been noticed _ by my son, Mr. John H. Redfield, in the Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History. The existence of fossil fishes in the rocks which overlie the bituminous coal deposit near Rich- mond, in Virginia, had also been casually noticed, in the Ameri- can Journal of Science. More recently, it has been made known that these fossils are also found in the red sandstone of New Jersey.* With the partial exceptions above stated, there appears to have been no attempts to characterize or describe these interesting fos- sils. I venture, therefore, to notice and designate, provisionally, the several: species which, within a few years past, have fallen under my observation. All the species hitherto found in the ‘shave named formations are distinguished, like other ancient fishes, by angular or rhom- boidal scales covered with bony enamel: and hence they belong to the order Ganoides, in the, arrangement of Agassiz; a living type of which is found in the Hsox osseus or bony pike of our pa and western waters. They are also included in the ly Lepidoides ; and are referable to at least two distinct gen- era. * —_ * Remains of one or two species of Holoptychus have been found recently i in the old red sandstone beneath the coal measures, at Blossburg in Pennsylvania. Mr. Conrad has specified the H. oe oasetag See a Jour. of Science, Vol. XXXVI p- 89. al = * Short notices of American Fossil Fishes. 25 Genus I. Pataroniscus, or Agassiz. In this genus the dorsal fin is found opposite the center of the interval between the ventral and anal fins ; and many species have been described by Agassiz, in his great work on fossil fishes. An imperfect speci greater or less deg ee, te genus, and would perhaps warrant their separation from the Pa- laeonisci. 'The raylets or armatures attached to the anterior mar- gins of the several fins are also strong, few in number and of un- equal length and inclination. The scales, and apparently, the vertebree, are prolonged into the upper lobe of the tail ; but toa more limited extent, than in the European species of the genus. 1. Palaeoniseus fultus : Agassiz.—The specimen figured by Prof. Agassiz, is destitute of ae and head, as well as the upper portion of the body. The length was probably about four and a half inches ; but this is often exceeded in other specimens. The fins and their bony insertions appear stouter than in the P. latus, but_less stout than in some other species.* Found at Westfield,+ Middlefield,+ and Durham, in Connecti- cut; Sunderland, in Massachusetts; and Boonton, in New Jersey. 2. Palaeoniscus latus: J. H. Redfield—Broad Palaeoniscus. The common length of this species is from four to five inches ; and its width from one and a half, to two and a quarter inches, It is figured in the Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, Vol. tv. . °” Found at Westfield, Middlefield, and Durham, Ct., and Boon- ton, N. J. 3. Palaeoniscus macropterus: W.C.R.—Long finned Palae- oniscus. This species is distinguished by the longitudinal exten- sion of the dorsal and anal fins; which thus seem to present a remote resemblance to the wings or forked tail of the common swallow. Its length is commonly from five to seven inches; and its width from one and a half, to two inches. * Another specimen shown in the drawings of Prof. Agassiz, was copied from one of the early and imperfect figures published by Prof. Hitchcock. . _ + Westfield and Middlefield are outlying districts or parishes of the township of Middletown, in Connecticut. a Vol. x11, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 4 i ae 26 Short notices of American Fossil Fishes. Found at Westfield, Middlefield, and Durham, Ct. ; Sunder- land, Mass. ; and Boonton, N. J. 4. Palaeoniscus ce: : W.C. R.—Large Palaeoniscus. To this, which is the largest of the American species yet discov- ered, I propose to affix the name of this distinguished naturalist. Its length, in the specimens hitherto obtained, varies from seven — and a half, to ten inches, and its width fre The fins, with their armatures and i remarkable thickness than in the species large scales or plates which belong to the anterior portion of the dorsal line, are commonly found doubled together at their lateral edges, by the incumbent pressure, which gives them the appear- ance of short spines, or flattened rays ; and hence these are some- times mistaken for an anterior comb-like dorsal. The same appearance is found, not unfrequently, in some of the smaller species above noticed, andi in two of the figures which were published by Prof. Hiteheock, these narrowed and erected scales are made to appear as a fringe-like dorsal fin. Prof. Agas- siz has been led to place one of the figures thus drawn, in his ge- nus Hurynotus, under the name of. Ei. tenuiceps. The speci- men thus figured, was probably a P. datus, or perhaps belonged to another undescribed species. a three to four inches. 5. Palaconiscus ovatus: W. C. R.—Wide, or round-shaped Palaeoniscus. ‘This species is shorter than P. Agassisii, and ex- ceeds all the known American species in the comparative width or roundness of its form; and is also remarkable for the large size of its scales. It is of rare occurrence, and owing probably’ to its great thickness, is seldom obtained ina perfect form. This fossil also exhibits the — erections of the dorsal scales which have been noticed abov Found at Westfield and Middlefield, Ct. ; Sunderland, Mass. ; and Boonton, N. J. Genus If. Caroprerus, or J. H. Reprieiy.* This genus is characterized by the backward position of the dorsal fin, which is nearest the caudal extremity and opposite to the anal fin. It is also distinguished by the articulated and delicate form of the rays which compose the several fins. The anterior margins of the latter are fringed with numerous small ray- * Described in the Annals of the New York Lyceum of Nat. Hist. Vol. rv. & Short notices of American Fossil Fishes. 27 lets; which presenta finely serrated appearance. The scales and vertebrae appear to extend into the upper lobe of the tail, but ina more limited degree than appears in most of the older fossil fishes of es The following species may be assigned to this ge- nu L Catopterus gracilis: J. H. R.—Larger Catopterus. The length of this species varies from near seven to nine and a half inches ; its width is from one and a half to near two inches. 'The _ dorsal fin is-small, nearly triangular, and is placed opposite the center of the broad and flowing anal fin. The pectoral fins are of an elongated form, and are strengthened on the anterior margin by one or two large and partially flattened rays, to the front of which, the fringe of fine raylets is attached. Owing to this peculiarity of structure, the smallest section of the pectoral fin will often serve to identify this species. Found at Westfield, Middlefield, neers and Southbury, Ct. ;* Sunderland, Mass. : ; and Bétiiton, N 2. Catopterus sruscmuress : W.C. caetliatan finned or Virgin- ia Catopterus. This beautiful species is distinguished by its broad and flowing fins; of which the anal is so extended as to be nearly joined to the sesndied fin. The latter is finely extended. The length of this species is from’ four to five inches ; its width from one and one eighth, to one and three eighth inches. The fringes of raylets on the anterior margins of the fins are remark- ably fine and beautiful. The posterior margins, of the scales seem to be curled slightly outward, giving the surface a somewhat ‘roughened appearance. Found in Chesterfield county, Virginia ; twelve miles from Richmond. Parts of near twenty specimens were found ona single piece of the rock which was presented to the New York Lyceum, the extreme length of which did not exceed twelve inches. — 3. Catopterus anguilliformis: W.C. R.—Eel shaped Catop- -terus. This remarkable species, as hitherto found, is from seven to near ten inches in length; width from half to three fourths of aninch. It has a finely forked and extended caudal fin of deli- cate structure ; a well extended dorsal ; and all the fins are fring- * The Palaeonisci are also found at Southbury, in the red sandstone basin of the Housatonic valley, as appears from some fragments obtained by Mr. J. H field ; but no distinguishable specimens have come under my observation. ie . ¥ Z ¥ 28 Contributions to English Lericography. ed with the fine raylets which pertain to this genus. ‘The impres- sions of the fins are, usually, but faintly visible ; owing, probably, to their delicate structure. The scales are equally indistinct ; and the impression of the head is seldom visible. Found at Westfield and Middlefield, Ct.; Boonton, N. J.; and, as [have been informed, at Sunderland, Ms. Ps 4, Catopterus parvulus : W. C. R.—Litile Catopterus. This small and delicate fossil is but obscurely developed in the few specimens which have been obtained. 'The extremely fine spread caudal and other fins; with their slender frontal raylets; serve to mark it as a merither of the genus: although these raylets ‘are fewer in number and of greater and more unequal length than in the other species. In the few specimens obtained, the ‘caudal — is commonly found in a bent or half twisted positio Fottnd at Middlefield, Ct.; Sondiiand, Ms. ; and Boonton, New Jersey. te In view of the paucity of organic remains in the red sand- stone rocks of New England and New Jersey, geologists will ap- _ preciate the value of these fossils, as indicating the comparative age or identity of the formations in which they are found. The rocks containing these fossils, also exhibit peculiarities of stratifi- cation, dislocation and lithological appearance, as well as a simi- larity in other small but undetermined fossils, which tend to es- tablish the cotemporaneous character of these formations. ‘New York, February 3, 1841. » Arr. V.—Contributions to English Lexicography ; by Prof. J. W. Gisss. No. II* Account of some American Indian Words found in English. * Cacao, (probably an American Indian word ;) the chocolate-tree, a species of the T'heobroma, a native of the West Indies. Cacique, (from the native Mexican and Guatemalan languages through the French ; comp. Span. cacique, Port. cacico, Fr. ca- cique ;) the title of the native chiefs in Mexico, Guatemala, and perhaps other parts of America, at the time of the conquest by the Spaniards, a * For No. I. see Vol. xxxiu, p. 324. : Contributions to English Lexicography. 29 Calumet, (thought by Dr. Duponceau to be derived from Fr. chalumeau, a reed; but more probably an American Indian word, see the quotation from a French writer below;) an Indian pipe for smoking tobacco, the accepting of which, with proper cere- monies, was a sign or symbol of peace and friendship, and the rejection of it, a symbol of war. “Tls [les eaveizes] ont comme les autres lusage de la pipe, qu ils ” appellent calumet.”—Father G. Marest in Letir. Edif. rv. 21. Cariboo, (probably an American Indian word ;) an animal of the stag kind. Chocolate, (Mexican, chocolati, probably connected with seb which see ;) a paste or cake composed of the kernel of cacao, with ; other ingredients. Hackmatack, (thought by Dr. Dwight to be an American In- dian word,) the popular name of the red larch, Pinus microcarpa. Hommoce, (thought by Dr. Webster to be an American Tndian word ;) a hillock or small eminence of’ a conical form. Hommony, (Powhatan, homony, broken maize ;) maize hulled and broken, but coarse, prepared for food by being mixed with water and boiled. Herite a vulgar comparison in many parts of this — “ as coarse as hommony.” Inca, or Ynea, (Peruvian, king or lord, comp. Chaainns tage, father ;) an appellation given to a dynasty of Peruvian, kings and to the princes of the blood, before the conquest of that | try by the Spaniards, and to the descendants of these kings since. ze, (probably an American Indian word ;) Indian corn, or the native corn of America, Zea Mays. Moccason, (a word derived from the Massachusetts Indians, but found in most of the languages of the Algonkin-Lenape fam- ily ; as, Knistinaux, moscasin ; Algonkin and Chippeway, maki- sin me" maukisin ; Scofii, masteshun ; Souriquois, mekezen ; Abenaki, mkessen ; Massachusetts, mohkissonah ; Narraganset, MOCUSSINASS ; Mobinnn, mkissin ; Delaware, maksen ; Nanticoke, meckissius ; Pamptico, moggison ; Powhatan, mockasin ; Miami, m’kasiu ; Illinois, mahkissina ; Menomeni, maukahshen : some of which have a plural termination ;) an Indian shoe or covering for the foot. Mohawk or Mohock, (the native name of one of the Iroquois tribes of Indians ;) an Indian of the Mohawk tribe ; by extension, a ruffian in the streets of London. sil: .. : oe 30 Contributions to English Lericography. Moose, (a word derived from the Algonkin-Lenape family of * languages; as, Narrag. moosquin, a fawn; moose, the skin of the red deer ; Miami, musuoh or mohsokeh, a deer ; Ulinois, mousoah, a deer ;) an animal of the genus Cervus. Mush, (according to Dr. Webster from Germ. mus, pap; per- haps a corruption of the _—— word maize ;) the meal of maize boiled in water. Netop, (Narraganset, netop, a friend ;) a friend or crony, said by Dr. Pickering to be used ' some of the interior towns in Mas- sachusetts. * * What cheares, nétop, is the general salutation of all the Eng- lish towards them, [the Indians. ]”—Roger Williams, 1643. Papoose, (Massachusetts, pappouse ; manag. -tstad Mohican, papoose ;) an Indian child. Potato, (Amer. Ind. batatas ;) a plant and esculent root, of the genus Convolvulus, a native of America. Powwow, (Massachusetts, powwow ; Narrag. meine; - an In- dian priest, exercising also the offices of physician and conjurer. — Quahaug, (thought by Dr. Webster to be an Amer. Ind. word ;) a species of clam. Sachem, (a word derived from the Massachusetts Indians, but found in many of the languages of the Algonkin-Lenape class ; as Knistinaux, okemow ; Chippeway, ogima or okimau; Ottawa, okemah ; Algonkin, okimaw; Abenaki, sangman; Etchemin, sockum ; Massachusetts, sachem or sagamore; Narraganset, sd- chim ; Delaware, sakima ; Shawno, okema; Menomeni, okomow ;) an Indian chief or prince. 3 Sagamore, (merely another form of the word sachem, which see ;) according to Dr. Dwight, an inferior sachem, but probably synonymous with sachem. Sagoin, (probably an American Indian word ;) an animal of the P emg Simia. * amp, (Massachusetts, nasampe ; Narraganset, nasaump ; see the quotation from Roger Williams below ;) maize boiled with milk. “ Nasaump, a kind of meale pottage, unpartch’d. From this the English call their samp, which is the Indian corne, beaten and boild, and eaten hot or cold, with milke or butter, which are mercies beyond the Natives plaine water, and which isa dish exceedingly wholesome for the English bodies.” —Roger Wil- pms, 1643. @& + ce 4 q Re Cor tributions to English Liesdbogten he 31 Sapajo, (probably an American Indian word;) an animal of the genus Simia, found in America. Squash, (according to Richardson, a pumpkin which is Fetsity squashed, but more probably an American Indian word, comp. Narraganset, askutasquash, a vine apple; see the quotation be- low ;) a plant of the genus Cucurbita. “Askutasquash, a vine apple. Which the English from them [the Indians] call squashes about the bignesse of apples of severall colours, a sweet, light, wholesome, refreshing.”—Roger Wil- hams, 1643. Squaw, (a word derived from the Massachusetts Indians, but found in most languages of the Algonkin-Lenape family; as, Knistinaux, esqui ; Ottowa, uque; Algonkin, ickweh ; Sheshata- poosh, sehquow ; Abenaki, naukskoue, girl; Massachusetts, squau or eshqua; Narraganset, syuaws ; Mohican, peesquasoo, girl ; Long Island, squah; Delaware, okhqueh or khqueu ; Nanticoke, _ acquahique ; Ulinois, ickoe ; Shawno, gy Sauki, kwyokih ;) ~ an Indian woman. Succotash, (an American Indian word, Webster ;) food of green maize and beans boiled together. Tobacco, (Haytian, tabaca, a pipe for smoking ; ) ‘the name of various species of the Nicotiana. Tomahawk, (an Algonkin-Lenape word ; as, Micmac, tomeha- gan; Abenaki, temahigan ; Massachusetts: togkunk ; Mohican, tumnahecan ; Delaware, tamahicun ;) an Indian hatchet. Tomato, (thought by J. Thomson to be an American Tedian word ;) the love-apple, Solanum oes originally from 8. America. Wampum, (a contraction of Massachusetts, wampumpeaze, Indian money, thought to be connected with Massachusetts, wompi, white, or Iroquois, wampum, a marine shell ;) shells or strings of shells used by the Indians for money. Wigwam, (an Algonkin-Lenape word; as, Knistinaux, was- ky Yegun ; Chippeway, wikiwam ; Ottawa, wigwauk ; Algonkin, wikiwam ; Micmac, wigwom ; Abenaki, wigwam ; Massachusetts, wikwam ; Mohican, nsekesdihene; Delaware, wiquoam ; Miami, wikameh ; Ulinois, ouitiame; Shawno, wiggewoam ; Menomeni weekeewaum ;) an Indian hut or cabin. Yankee, (according to Heckewelder, Sadan Yengees, a cor- ruption of the name English, which the Indians applied to the people of New-England ;) an inhabitant of New-England. . + * 32 Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insect: ¥ Arr. VI.—Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects ; by Prof. J. W. Grsss. Tue later Terestigntiot in comparative philology, it is thought, enable us to give, with more precision and plausibility than has been usual, the origin of the names of certain animals, and at the same time to throw light on the origin of common nouns gener- ally. : The names of beasts, birds, and insects, are formed I. By derivation ; 1, From the verbal root, by change of vowel or internal inflec- tion merely ; as, © oa Ape, (Anglo-Sax. apa, Germ. affe, Old Germ. affo;) from Old Germ. +/ av or af, to imitate; as if the imitator. _— Buck, (Germ. bock, Old Germ. pocch ;) from the root of Old Germ. puhhan, to thrust, and Eng. to poke; as if the thruster. Ps Bull, (Germ. bull;) from the root of Germ. bellen, to bark, Anglo-Sax. bel/an, to roar, and Eng. to bell, (to cry as a hart,) or to bawl ; as if the roarer. a‘ Chough, (Anglo-Sax. ceo, Fr. choucas and chouette ;) from the root of Eng. to caw or to haw ; as if the cawer or hawer. Cow, (Sansc. go, Germ. kuh, Old Germ. chua ;) from the root of Germ. kauen, Old Germ. chimvan, and Eng. to chew or to chaw; as if the chewer or chawer, that is, the rwminator. — Crab, (Gr. xégafoc, Lat. carabus, Anglo-Sax. crabba 3) from the root of Anglo-Sax. creopan, and Eng. to creep ; as if the creeper. Crow, (Germ. kriihe, Anglo-Sax. crawe ;) from the root of Germ. kréhen, Anglo-Sax. crowan, to crow, croak, and Eng. to crow ; as if the croaker. Duck, from the root of Eng. to duck ; as if the plunger. Flea, (Lat. pulex, Germ. floh, Anglo-Sax. flea ;) from the root of Germ. fliehen, Anglo-Sax. lean, and Eng. to flee ; as if the fleer. Fly, (Germ. fliege, Anglo-Sax. fleoga ;) from the root of Germ. Hliegen, Anglo-Sax. fleogan, and Eng. to fly ; as if the flyer. For, (Germ. fuchs, Old Germ. vuhs ;) from Old Germ. «/ vt; yellow ; as if the yellow-colored. Frog, (Anglo-Sax. froga or frocga, Germ. frosch, Old Germ. vrosc;) from the root of Eng. to frisk; as if the leaper. Hare, Anglo-Sax. hara, Germ. hase, Sansc. sasa ;) from Sans. . sas, to spring; as if the springer. =~ se oh ¢ of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. 33 Hen, (ene henne and Old Germ. hehnes fem. of Germ. hahn and Old Germ. hano, a cock ;) from Old Germ. 4/ han, (=Lat. / can,) to sing; as if the singer. Horse, (Old Germ. hros, Germ. ross ;) from Sage: 7 résh, to — neigh ; as if the neigher. Hound, (Sansc. swan, Gr. xtw», Lat. canis, Goth. hund ;) from the root of Goth. hinthan, and Eng. to hend, (in apprehend,) to seize ; as if the seizer. Lop, a flea, (Anglo-Sax. loppe ;) from the root of Anglo-Sax. hleapan, and Eng. to leap ; as if the leaper. Midge, (Anglo-Sax. myge, mygge, or micge, Germ. miicke, Old Germ. muccha ;) from the root of Old Germ. muhhon, to swarm over; as if the overswarmer. Mouse, (Gr. wiz, Lat. mus, Germ. maus ;) from Sansc. W/ ihitah, to rege as if the pilferer. Nag, (Old Dutch negge ;) from the root of Anglo-Sax. hnegan and Eng. to neigh ; as if the neigher. Oz, (Sansc. ukshan, Goth. auhsa, Old Germ. ohso, Germ. ochs ;) from Sanse. / vah, (=Lat. / veh, Eng. wag,) to draw or carry ; as if the drawer. Ram, (Germ. ramm, Anglo-Sax. ram ;) from the root of Germ. rammen, to push, and Ring to ram ; as if the the pusher. Snake, (Germ. schnake, Anglo-Sax. snaca,) from the root of Anglo-Sax. snican, to creep, and Eng. to sneak ; as if the creeper. Comp. Germ. schlange, a snake, “aK schlingen, to wind; as if the winder. Snipe, (Dutch, snip, Germ. schnepfe, Old Germ. snepha ;) from Old Germ. 4/ snap, (=Dutch and Eng. snip ;) as if the nipper. Swan, (Germ. schwan, Old Germ. suan ;) from Old Germ. 4/ sun, (=Sansc. ./ swan and Lat, »/ son,) to sing ; as if the singer. There are some swans that sing. Toad, (Anglo-Sax. tade, Dan. tudse;) from the root of Dan. tude, to grumble; as if the grumbler. Wether, (Germ. widder, Anglo-Sax. wether ;) from the root of Germ. wideren and Anglo-Sax. withrian, to oppose; as if the butter. Whelp, (Anzlo-Sax. hwelp ;) from the root of Anglo-Sax. gil- pan, to ery out, and Eng. fo yelp ; as if the yelper. Wolf, (Goth. wulfs, Germ. wolf, oe wulf;) from the root of Goth. wilwan, to tear; as if the tear a Vol. x11, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 5 * yt 34 Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. 2. Other names are formed by derivation from the verbal or nominal root, strengthened or increased by suffixes which have no apparent significancy. (1.) Mf strengthened by a labial } or p; as, Lamb, (Goth. lamb, Old Germ. lamp, Germ. lamm ;) from the root of Old Germ. limmen, to bleat; as if the bleater. (2.) Lor r strengthened by a polatal ge or ke, which in Eng- lish passes into ow ; as, Sparrow, (Goan sperling, Old Germ. sparo, Upper Germ. sperk, Anglo-Sax. spearwa ;) from the root of Germ. sparen, An- glo-Sax. sparian, and Eng. to spare ; as if the layer up. Swallow, (Low Germ. swaalke, Anglo-Sax. swalewe,) from the root of Anglo-Sax. swelgan or swilgan, to swallow, and Eng. to swill; as if the swallower. (3.) M strengthened by se; as, Breeze, (Germ. brehme or bremse, Old Germ. premo, Anglo- Sax. brimsa or briosa ;) from the root of Old Germ. primman and Germ. brummen, to buzz; as if the buzzer. (4.) The root strengthened by el ; as, Snail, (Germ. schnegel, Old Germ. snekil, Anglo-Sax. snegl ;) from the root of Old Germ. snahhan, Anglo-Sax. snican, to creep, and Eng. to sneak ; as if the creeper. Weasel, (Anglo-Sax. wesle, Old Germ. wisala, Germ. wiesel ;) from Old Germ. wisa and Germ. wiese, a meadow ; as if the mead- ow animal. (5.) The root strengthened by en ; as, Raven, (Anglo-Sax. hrefen, hrefen, and refen, Germ. rabe ;) from the root of Lat. rapio, Anglo-Sax. hreafian or reafian, Germ. rauben, and Eng. to rob; as if the — (6.) The root strengthened by et ; Cricket; (Dutch kriek or krekel, Fr. cranes ;) from the root of Eng. to crick or to creak; as if the creaker. Emmet, or by contraction ant, (Germ. ameise, Anglo- Sax. @met or emet ;) from Old Germ. +/ am, to labor ; as if the laborer. Linnet, (Anglo-Sax. linetwige, Fr. linot; se from the root. of Anglo-Sax. linet, Eng. lint, Fr. lin, and Lat. linum ; as if the flaz-bird. 3. Other names are formed by derivation from nea verbal or Sominn root by means of significant suffixes. _ (1.) By means of the suffix ard, (=Germ. hart or yee hard,) hel ampliatives ; as, oo LOR ‘ pea oe. Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. 35 Bayard, from Eng. bay ; as if the great bay one. | Buzzard, (Germ. busshard, Fr. busard ;) from Fr. buse, losing its ampliative signification. (2.) By means of the suffix el, forming diminutives ; as, Cockerel, from Eng. cock ; as if the young cock. -Hoggerel, from Eng. hog; as if the young hog, but applied only to a young sheep. ; Spaniel, (Fr. épagneul, comp. Espagnol, Spanish ;) from Fr. — Espagne and Eng. Spain, losing its diminutive signification ; as if the Spanish dog. (3.) By means of the suffix en, forming diminutives ; as, Chicken, (Anglo-Sax. cicen, Dutch kieken or kuiken, Germ. kiichlein ;) from Anglo-Sax. coce and Eng. cock; as if the young cock. Kitten, (Fr. chaton, Germ. kitzchen ;) from Fr. chat, Germ. katze, and Eng. cat; as if the young cat. (4.) By means of the suffix er, denoting the personal subject ; as, Beaver, (Lat. fiber, Fr. biévre, Germ. biber ;) from the root of Germ. bauen, to build; as if the builder. Chafer, (Anglo-Sax. ceafor ;) from the root of Anglo-Sax. ceo- wan and Eng. to chew or chaw ; as if the chewer or chawer. | Plover, (Fr. pluvier ;) from the root of Lat. pluvia, rain; as if the rainbird. Skimmer, from Eng. to skim. ead 2 Spinner, a spider, (Germ. spinne ;) from the root of Germ. spin- nen and Eng. to spin. (5.) By meatis of the suffix ster, denoting the subject, whether male or female ; as, Hamster, a species of rat, (Germ. hamster ;) from Old Germ. / ham, to hide ; as if the hider. Lobster, (Anglo-Sax. loppestre ;) from the root of Anglo-Sax. hleapan and Eng. to leap ; as if the leaper. (6.) By means of the suffix ling, denoting the subject ; as, Sanderling, from Eng. sand ; as if the sand bird. Starling, from Eng. stare, losing its peculiar significancy. (7.) By means of the suflix th, forming abstract nouns; as, Sloth, from Eng. slow ; as if by metonymy, the slow one. (8.) By means of the suffix am or ant, (Lat. anus, Provencal 4, fem. ana, Ital. and Span. ano, Portug. ano and do, Fr. an, ain, ien, Walach. én, an,) forming gentile nouns; 4s, * # ce monet * 36 Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. Pheasant, (Gr. gaoverds, Lat. phasianus, Fr. faisan, fem. fai- sande, Germ. fasan ;) from the river Phasis ; as if the Phasian. (9.) By means of the suflix ent, (= Lat. ens, gen. entis,) form- ing participial adjectives ; as, Serpent, (Sansc. sarpa, Gr. igneriv, Lat. serpens ;) from Sansc. V/ srip, (=Gr. +/ ign, Lat. ./serp ;) as if the creeper. (10.) ~By means of the suflix on, (Gr. wy, gen. ovros, Lat. 0, gen. onis ;) forming participial adjectives ; as, Dragon, (Gr. deéxnv, Lat. draco, Germ. drache ;) from the root of Gr. dégxm, to see ; as if the sharpsighted. / Lion, (Gr, déow, Lat. leo, Germ. léwe, Old Germ. lewo or Aliuwa, Anglo-Sax. /eo ;) from the root of Old Germ. liuwon, Anglo-Sax. hlewan or hlowan, and Eng. to low ; as if the lower. (11.) By means of the suffix on, denoting the subject; as, Capon, (Gr, *swr, Lat. capo, Fr. chapon, Ital. cappone ;) from the root of Gr. xdarw, and Fr. couper, to cut or mangle; as if the mangled. Falcon, (Lat. faleo, Germ. falke, Old Germ. valho, Fr. faucon, Ital. falcone ;) from the root of Old Germ. valo, Germ. fahl, Fr. fauve; and Eng. fallow ; as if the fallow-colored. Griffon, (Gr. ygsw, Lat. gryps, Fr. griffon, Ital. griffone, Germ. greif;) from the root of Germ. greifen and Eng. to gripe; as if the seizer. Pigeon, (Fr. pigeon, Ital. ptccione ;) from the root of Ital. pic- care and Eng. to peck ; as if the pecker. Comp. Fr. beccasse, from bec, a beak. _— . Staliion, (Fr. étalon, Ital. stallone;) from the 1 0t | the stall horse. : (12.) By means of the suffix ock, forming diminutives; as, Bullock, (Anglo-Sax. bulluca, Germ. bullochs ;) from Eng. bull; as if the young bull. 4. Other names are formed by derivation from verbal or nomi- nal roots, by means of prefixes; as, .* Antelope, from Gr. dvr, equal to or resembling, and Magos, a stag ; as if stag-like. _ 6, Other names are formed by onomatopeia, or derived from the natural sound of the bird or insect. (1.) Where there is a repetition of the natural sound; as, Cuckoo, (Sanse. kékila, Gr, xéxxvé, Lat. euculus, Fr, coucou, Span. and Port. cuco, Germ. kuckuk, Dutch koekkoek, Old Slav. Ri. me k % > & 2 Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects, 37 gzegzolta, Lithuan. geguze ;) formed from the sound, with re- markable uniformity, in languages very remote. Hoopoo, (Gr. toy, Lat. upupa, Fr. huppe, Port. poupa, Dutch huppup ;) from the root of Eng. to whoop ; as if the whooper. Owl, (Lat. ulula, Germ. eule;) from the root of Lat. ululo, Germ. S eulen, and Eng. to howl; as if the howler. : _ (2.) Where there is considerable fancy in the representation of the sound ; as, Katydid, the popular name of an American insect, the Ptero- phylla concava of Say. Whippoorwill, the name of a bird. (3.) Where a suffix is added ; as, Turtle, (Lat. turtur, Fr. tourterelle, Ital. tortora, tortorella, and tortola, Anglo-Sax. turtle ;) from Lat. turturilla, diminutive of turtur, and that formed onomatopoetically. II. The names of beasts, birds, and insects, are also formed by composition. 1. By imperfect composition, the two words denoting distinct attributes of one and the same object, and their syntactical connec- tion being that of the conjunction and ; BAG Camelopard, (Gr. xayrlonégdales, Lat. camelopardalis, Germ. kameel-pardel ;) from Gr. xéuyios, a camel, and aéedahs, a panther ; as if combining the attributes of the camel and panther. Leopard, (Gr. ieénagdos or ‘heovrémagdoc, Lat. leopardus, Germ. leopard ;) from Gr. idov, & lion, and wégdos, a panther; as if com- = bining the qualities of the lion and panther. 2. By perfect Composition, the two words forming one complex idea. (1.) The two parts of the composition being in apposition or concord with each other; as, Bitiour or bittern, (Low Lat. botaurus, Fr. butor, Span. bitor, Dutch butoor ;) from Lat. bos, an ox, and tawrus, a bull; as if the bull oz. Cormorant, (Fr. cormoran, Span. cuervo marino ;) from Lat. corvus, a raven, and marinus, belonging to the sea; as if the sea raven. Comp. Welsh morvran, i. e. sea raven, denoting the same ird : rd. Ostrich, (Gr. orgoviés, Lat. struthio, Span. avestruz, Port. abes- truz, Fr. autruche, It. struzzo, Germ. strauss ;) from the root of Lat. avis, a bird, and of Germ. strotzen or Eng. to strut; as if the \ strutting bird. : fie 38 Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. Porcupine, (Ital. porco-spinoso ;) from Lat. porcus, a hog, and — spinosus, thorny ; as if the spinous hog. So blackbird ; bluebird ; grossbeak, (asif grossbeaked ;) hum- minghird ; redbird ; redbreast, (as if redbreasted ;) redstart, (as if redtailed ;) redtail, (as if redtailed ;) wryneck, (as if wrynecked.) (2.) One part of the compound standing in rection or govern- — ment in reference to the other ; the latter part of the composition — expressing the principal or leading idea, and the former part some modification thereof. (a) Where the first term expresses the dative case or the case of participation ; as, Squirrel, (Gr. oxtovgos, Lat. sciurus, dimin. sciuriolus, = wae reutl ;) from Gr. oxé, a shade, and ovgé, a tail; as if having tts tail Sor a shade. (b) Where the first term expresses the accusative case or the relation of the object; as, Moldwarp, (Germ. maulwurf, Old Germ. mulwerf ;) from Old Germ. mul or Eng. mold, and Old Germ. werfan, to turn; as if the mold-turner. Ossifrage or ospray, (Lat. ossifraga, F'r. ossifrage or orfraie ;) from Lat. os, gen. ossis, a bone, and /frango, to break; as if the bone-breaker. Oystercatcher, the name of a bird. Woodpecker, a bird that pecks holes in trees. (c) Where the first term expresses the modal case or the rela- tion of the mode or manner; as, = Crossbill, as if having a bill like a cross. Spoonbill, as if having a bill like a spoon. (d) Where the first term expresses the locative case, or the relation of the place where or time in which; as _.. Grasshopper, which needs no explanation. Comp. Germ. heu- schrecke, from heu, grass, and schrecken, to spring, the name of the same insect. May-bug, as if the bug appearing in May. May-fly, as if the fly appearing in May. Nightingale, (Germ. nachtigall, Anglo-Sax. nihtegale ;) from Germ. nachti or Anglo-Sax. nihte, in the night, and Germ. giillen or Anglo-Sax. galan, to sing; as if the night singer. Woodcock, as if the cock living in the woods. i Origin of the Names of Beasts, Birds, and Insects. 39 _ (e) Where the first term expresses the instrumental case, or the relation of the place by or through which; as, Snowbird, as if the bird that appears souk the snow. pnt ) hing the first term expresses the Gere or adnominal algbird, Ladybug, Ladycow, Ladyfly ; as if the bird, bug, cow, fly, of the Virgin Mary. 3. By inverted composition, the order of the terms being con- _ trary to that just exhibited. =o # (1.) In words peculiar to the English language; as, Cutwater. Wietoi. 7 ae Gr. sidPidhi aerootga, aeroonvyis, Lat. motacil- la, Low Sax. wippsterz. (2.) In words derived from the French ; Chanticleer, from Fr. chanter, to crow, fo: clair, clear; as if the loud crower. (3.) In words derived from the Greek ; as, Hippopotamus, (Gr. innoxbrauos ;) Soil Gr. faz0s, a horse, and motauds, a river; as if the river horse. — If. The names of animals are often derived from remote lan- guages. . 1. From East Indian dialects; as, zebu.. 2. From Shemitish dialects; as, ass, camel, veda cen goat, jackal, kid, scorpion. 3. From Mongolian dialects ; as, argali, yak. 4. From Malay and Oceanic dialects; as, babyrousa, kanga- roo, orang-outang, wom 5. From African dialects; as, chimpanzee, gnu, kobe; korin, zebra, zerda. . From American Indian dialects; as, aia, capibar, carcajo, cariboo, moose, paca, sagoin, sapajo, tapir, tamarinunau, wapili. # ca a AO Proceedings of the British Association. Arr. VII.— Abstract of the Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting of the British Association for the advancement of Science. Concluded from Vol. xx, p. 345, Cox. Sykes communicated the contents of a letter from India, from Capt Aston, on the subject of a recent singular shower of grain. He stated that 60 or 70 years ago, a fall of fish had oc- curred during a storm in the Madras Presidency. This fact 2 recorded by Major Harriott, in his “ Struggles pace Life,” a within the last ten years, so many other instances have acm wit- nessed, and publi ttested, that the story is no longer doubted. The sdeevter of grain above mentioned, took place March 24, 1840, at Rajket in Kattywar, during one of those thunder storms to which that month is subject, and it was found that the grain had not only fallen upon the town, but also upon a considerable extent of country round the town. Capt. A. collected a quantity of the seed, and transmitted it to Col. Sykes. The natives flocked to Capt. A. to ask for his opinion of this phenomenon : for not only did the raining of grain upon them from heaven, excite terror, but the omen was aggravated by the fact that the seed was not one of the cultivated grains of the country, but was entirely un- known to them. The genus and species was not immediately recognized by some botanists to whom it was shown, but it was thought to be either a Spartium, or a Vicia. A similar force to _ that which elevates fish into the air, no doubt operated on this . oceasion, and this new fact corroborates the phenomena, the ef- ~~ of which had been previously witnessed. he Secretary read two papers from Mr. Rowall, on Rain, and on the cause of the Aurora Borealis, and Magnetism. His hypothesis is, that each particle of vapor in rising through the air carries with it its portion of electricity, according to its ex- panded surface ; that if condensed within the electrical attraction of the earth, ‘the extra quantity of electricity i is withdrawn, and the vapor falls and becomes dew ; but if it rises beyond the elec- trical attraction of the earth, and is then condensed, the electri- iy ry - » es é e ss > - Proceedings ? the British scat. Al any being insulated, forms an atmosphere around each particle of ' vapor: which surcharge of electricity not only suspends the va- por by its lightness, but also repels the ‘neighboring particles of va- por, and prevents the formation of rain ; and on the removal (by any cause,) of the electricity including the vaporous particles, the repulsion is removed, and the particles of vapor then attract each other, and form rain. Another cause of the formation of rain he believes to be the pressure of gravitation: thus if a oe begins to form, the accumulation of vapor is on every side, goed from, above, and clouds are often seen piled to a great ily diapered. through the whole mass; would become of the’ same density as the mass, and would take its level according to its density in the atmosphere, if not prevented by the space being occupied, and would therefore press e vapor below it; and although the repulsion of the particles of vapor be sufficient to prevent the formation of rain at the edges and thinnest parts of the cloud, the pressure at the greatest depths of the cloud may be sufficient to overcome the repulsion and form rain. Concus- sions, he conceives, such as those of thunder, would aid the pro- cess, and cause heavy rain. He entered into proof of these po- sitions in the papers. They account in his opinion, for the fact observed by Prof. Phillips, that more rain is received in gauges near the ground than in those higher up. He conceives a test of this theory may be had by raising conductors to clouds by the aid of balloons, discharging their electricity: and thus he thinks rain might be produced exactly when needed. His views re- specting the cause of the Aurora and of magnetism are conse- quences of his theory of vapor and rain. ‘The particles of vapor ~ most expanded on rising from the earth, would carry with them a greater quantity of electricity, and would be buoyed up by the electricity to a greater height in the air than that which rises ina less expanded state. 'Thns, in the tropics, through the action of a vertical sun, vapor would rise to a great height with a great accumulation of electricity: this vapor, carried by the superior trade winds toward the poles on each side, there would be a con- stant circulation of electricity, a continual rising of vapor, -espe- cially in the tropics, carrying a great accumulation of Wercte A to the coldest parts of the earth, — the ibe: tic es- Vol. x11, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. e 42 Proceedings of the British Association. _ capes to the earth, and rushes along its surface, with the vapor in the lower parts of the atmosphere, towards the equator, and is again carried back by rising vapor to the poles in constant succes- sion, interrupted only in part, by the intense cold of the polar re- gions, causing the air to be then comparatively dry. The least disturbance then, taking place in the highly charged vapor, (either by part of the electricity being drawn off to the earth, or by vapor _ diffused from the more temperate regions, or by the accession of vapor either more or less charged with electricity,) must cause an instantaneous flash to pass through the whole mass of vas by ing phenomena, polarity, daily PE acaba and constant oscillation of the etic nee Mr. Espy read ca to shot that the four fluctuations of the barometer which occur daily, are produced entirely by the in- creasing and diminishing elasticity of the air due to increasing and diminishing temperature. When the sun rises, the air be- gins to expand by heat; this expansion of the air, especially of that near the surface of the earth, lifts the strata of air above, which will produce a reaction, causing the barometer to rise; and the greatest rise of the barometer will take place when the increase of heat in the lower parts of the atmosphere is the most rapid, probably about 9 or 10 A. M. The barometer, from that time, will begin to fall; and at the moment when the air is part- ing with its heat as fast as it receives it, the barometer will indi- cate the exact weight of the atmosphere. The barometer, how- ever, will continue to descend on account of the diminished ten- sion of the air, and consequent sinking upon itself, as the evening | advances; and its greatest depression will be at the moment of the most rapid diminution of temperature, which will be about 4 or 5o’clock. At this moment the barometer will indicate a less pressure than the true weight of the atmosphere. The whole upper parts of the atmosphere have now acquired a momentum downwards, which will cause the barometer to rise above the mean, as the motion diminishes, which must have taken place some time in the night. This rise will be small, however, com- pared with that at 9 or 10 A.M. As the barometer now stands above the mean, it must necessarily descend to the mean at the : Proceedings of the British Association. 43 moment when it is neither increasing nor diminishing in tempe- rature, which will be a little before sunrise. If this is a true ex- planation of the four fluctuations of the barometer ina day, it will follow that the morning rise ought to be greater at consider- able clowhions, provided they are not too great, because some of the air will be lifted above the place of observation ; and such was found to be the case by Col. Sykes in India. As this morn- ing rise of the barometer depends on the increasing elasticity of the air, and this increasing elasticity, on heat, Mr. E. proposed to the mathematicians to calculate how much the whole atmosphere is heated from sunrise till the time when the barometer stands highest, the actual rise of the barometer being given. In this way meteorology may assist astronomy. Prof. Forbes doubted the correctness of Mr. E.’s views of the great daily fluctuations of the barometer at elevated stations: for, towards 2 or 3 o’clock the heat being greatest, its effect in lifting up the inferior air to and above the elevated station, should then be greatest, whereas that time of the day was nearer to the time of minimum height of the barometer than of itsmaximum. After the announcement of the titles of a few other papers, the business of the Section was concluded. Sect. B. Chemistry and Mineralogy. A paper on some electrical phenomena, and on a supposed new substance, was presented by Dr. Schénbein. It is well known to electricians that in certain electro-chemical decompositions a peculiar odor is evolved, very analogous to that produced by com- mon electric sparks, or by the working of an ordinary electrical machine in the air. Dr. 8. has undertaken a series of experi- ments in order to ascertain the circumstances under which this electro-chemical odor is evolved, the causes which influence its production, and if possible, the principle to which its appearance is to be attributed. This peculiar odor is evolved at the anode or positive surface, when certain aqueous solutions are decompo- sed by the passage of a voltaic current. The oxygen gas which is then evolved has a strong and peculiar smell, which is perfectly similar to that which is always perceived when an electrical ma- chine is worked or sparks passed through the air. M. Schénbein has: observed that the odor is evolved on the decomposition of water, dilute sulphuric acid, solutions of phosphoric and nitric er oe 4A Proceedings of the British Association. | . acid, potassa, and many oxysalts; dilute sulphuric acid yielding it in the greatest quantity, while no smell whatever was perceiv> ed on the decomposition of solutions of hydracids, chlorides, bro= ~ " mides, or iodides, which not only did not evolve it mselves, but by their presence, even in small quantity, prevented its evo- lution from solutions which would otherwise have produced it abundantly. He found, on collecting the oxygen gas evolved at the anode, from a solution capable of evolving the odor, that the odor might be preserved for some time, by enclosing the gas in” well-stopped bottles. From the characters possessed by this oxy- gen, he was led to consider the odor due to the presence of a minute quantity of anew and hitherto wholly unknown sub- stance, of considerable importance in many natural phenomena, and he has therefore named it from its most evident character, ozone. Its properties are briefly as follows: it is evolved only from solutions containing it, by perfectly clean electrodes of pla- tinum or gold; whilst charcoal and the more ‘oxidizable metals are unable to cause its appearance. It can be obtained only from a cold solution, as heat prevents its evolution. When a piece of one of the oxidizable metals, such as zinc, tin, iron, mercury, &c., or a few drops of solution of the protochloride of tin, or proto- sulphate of iron, are placed in a portion of oxygen impregnated with ozone, that peculiar substance is almost instantaneously ab- sorbed ; and the oxygen becomes inodorous. When perfectly clean and dry plates of gold or platinum are immersed in oxy- gen containing ozone, they acquire a negatively electric state of polarity: silver and copper also become thus electric, but in a far less degree than gold or platinum. The plates thus polarized re- tain their electric powers in air for a considerable time, but rapid- ly lose it when plunged into h drogen gas, in which, if retained a sufficient time, they acquire an opposite state, becoming posi- tively polarized. He then compares these effects with those pro- duced by the odorous matter peculiar to common electric sparks and brushes. When a perfectly clean and dry plate of gold or platinum is exposed to an electric brush issuing from a charged and conducting point, it becomes positively polarized, and the — degree of polarity depends on the nature of the point and the time which the plate has been exposed to the influence of the brush issuing from it. He shows that the power is not due to the mere current of electricity escaping from the point, but to = # Proceedings of the British Association. 45 - some substance produced or evolved by it; because if the point ‘be moistened, the electricity still continues to be given off asa ‘brush, but the power of polarizing the gold or platinum plates is lost. A. e thus charged, is perfectly similar in its electrical powers charged or polarized by immersion in oxygen impregnated with ozone. Heat or exposure to hydrogen, which destroys or inverts the electricity of such a plate, exerts a pre- cisely similar action on plates polarized by exposure to the brush; and likewise, if the plates are not perfectly clean and dry, it is equally impossible to charge them, either by exposure to the brush, or by immersion in oxygen containing ozone. He sup- poses that there exists, both in the air and water, a very minute quantity of an electrolyte or compound substance, which when decomposed by electricity, evolves, as one of its constituents, the peculiar odorous matter called ozone. He observes, that both from its electromotive power, and likewise from its strong affinity for metals, it is evidently similar to chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Its non-appearance when water is decomposed by elec- trodes of the more oxidizable metals, he attributes to its entering immediately into combination with those metals: and he con- siders that when the solution is heated, the affinity of the ozone for metals is so much increased, that it is even able to combine with gold and platinum, thus accounting for its disappearance when heated. By this theory, all the phenomena attendant on its evolution may be easily explained, and it hence becomes very interesting to search for traces of this widely diffused substance. M. Schonbein considers that the smell perceived whenever bodies are struck by lightning, is probably due to asmall portion of ozone being set free ; and relates a recent case within his own observation, of a church struck by lightning, in which the sur- rounding buildings-to a considerable distance were filled with a bluish vapor having a peculiarly pungent odor. Even in this early stage of the inquiry, it will readily be seen that many cu- rious and unexplained phenomena might be accounted for, if the existence of the supposed electrolyte be proved. Mr. S. proposes devoting all his leisure to the prosecution of this inquiry. Mr. E. Solly proposed the following mode of bleaching veget- able wax. The wax must be melted, a small quantity of sulphu- “ric acid is poured in, composed of one part of oil of vitriol to two of water, and then a few crystals of nitrate of soda stirred in, the 4 * A6 Proceedings of the British Association. whole is then agitated with a wooden stirrer and kept heated. Nitrie acid is thus evolved in considerable quartity and: purity, from a large surface, and in such a manner that all the acid evol- ved must necessarily pass through the melted wax. This method answers the purpose very completely ; the process i$ cheap and | rapid, and the residuum, being merely a little solution of sulphate of soda, is easily removed. When it is desired to employ chlo- rine in place of nitric acid as the bleaching agent, the same pron cess may be adopted. Prof. Gregory read a paper on the ON: AO of urea in urie acid. By the action of peroxide of lead on uric acid, Liebig and Wohler obtained from it oxalic acid, allantoine and urea, and they considered the latter as existing in the uric acid, combined with urile. ‘The author having found that urea, unlike most or- ganic substances, resists the oxidizing agency of permanganate of potash, thought that if urea could be obtained from uric acid by the action of that salt, the argument for its preéxistence would be much strengthened ; as, if only the elements of urea were pre- sent, the oxidizing agency of the permanganate would most likely prevent its formation. On trying the experiment, a large quantity of urea was obtained, along with oxalic acid, and a new acid probably formed by the oxidation of allantoine. ‘The au- thor further described the acetate of urea, a salt formed in his ex- periments. Prof. Gregory then exhibited a new process, communicated by Prof. Liebig, for preparing the very singular and beautiful com- pound termed murexide by Liebig and Wohler, and purpurate of ammonia, by Prout. The process is quite certain, and very pro- ductive. It consists in adding a boiling solution of 7 grains of © aloxan, and 4 grains of aloxantine in 240 grains of water, to 80 grains of a cold and strong solution of carbonate of ammonia. The mixture instantly acquires a deep purple color, and on cooling, deposits the golden green crystals of murexide. On the relation of form to chemical composition, by Dr. Schaf- haeutl. The object of this paper is to explain the circumstan- ces under which certain modifications of form take place in Gra- phite, (as also in others generally considered to be elementary,) and to prove their SraneriPe with changes of an entirely chemi- . cal nature. * : ~ Proceedings of the British Association. AT Account of a new compound of arsenious and sulphuric acids ; by Dr. Schaffaeutl. This was obtained from the escaping smoke of copper calcining furnaces near Swansea, in South Wales. ‘The new compound was another singular instance where an anhydrous crystallized body was deposited under the presence of water only, and was a remarkable proof of the un- limited number of different forms of combination which might be produced even in inorganic substances in contact under vary- ing circumstances. 'The copper ores smelted in South Wales were chiefly copper pyrites, mixed with iron pyrites, gray copper ore, &c.; in fact, a mixture in which the sulphurets of copper, iron, arsenic, antimony, cobalt, nickel, zinc and tin were invaria- bly found together. The sulphur and arsenic escape from these ores during the calcining process, as sulphurous and arsenious acids, and have been found to destroy all vegetation for miles around the copper works, without affecting animal life in the slightest degree. By bringing the escaping fumes in contact with steam, and forcing it through burning charcoal, or subject- ing it only to a great pressure in ‘contact with steam, the new solid compound was deposited on the cool surfaces of the cham- bers connected with the calcining furnace. It was deposited in beautiful crystallized leaves or tables, perhaps belonging to the same class as Wohler’s dimorphic modification of the crystalliza- tion of arsenious acid, the regular form of which belongs to the octahedron. It was found to consist of = Arsenious acid, - - - - - 68.250 Sulphuric acid, - - - - - 27.643 Protoxide of iron, - . . - 3.029 Oxide of copper, - - - - 0.420 Oxide of nickel, - - - = 0,656 99.998 These crystals attracted moisture from the air with great ra- pidity and with evolution of heat, corroding animal and vegeta- ble substances as powerfully as concentrated sulphuric acid. One of the remarkable changes during the formation of this com- pound, was the conversion of sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, as well as the presence of iron, copper, and nickel, in a deposit from gaseous matter. No other definite compound of arsenic acid with another acid seems to be known, except those with the organic tartaric and paratartaric acids. = — a 48 Proceedings of the British Association. ‘ Prof. Thomas Thomson communicated an account of the most important chemical manufactures carried on in Glasgow and the neighborhood. 1. Jron. The quantity of iron smelted here cannot be much less than 200,000 tons, nearly a fifth part of all the iron smelted in Great Britain. The ore employed, is the car- bonate of iron, or clay iron-stone. The rapid increase of iron- smelting has been the consequence of a discovery of Mr. Neilson, manager of the gas works. This is now universally known un- der the name of the hot blast. The air is heated to more than 607° before it enters the furnace, by passing through a range of heated pipes. Under this treatment, coals may be used without previous coking, and instead of seven tons of coals for every ton of cast iron, three tons or even two and a half, will suffice. 2. Sulphuric acid. The manufacture of this acid was begun by Dr. Roebuck, at Prestonpans, about 1763, but it is now more than 20 years since his manufactory was abandoned. The sulphuric acid works, at St. Rollox, on the banks of the Monkland canal, were begun about 45 yearsago. They were at first upon a very small scale, but they are now probably the largest of the kind in Europe. ‘The size of the leaden chambers was gradually increa- sed, and the substitution of steam for the water formerly placed at the bottom of the chambers, was a vast improvement. ‘The — sulphur is burnt over a stove, and an iron eup containing the re- quisite quantity of saltpetre, mixed with the requisite quantity of sulphuric acid, is placed over the burning sulphur. By _ this contrivance the sulphur is completely converted into sulphurous acid, and the whole of the nitric acid carried along with it into the leaden chambers. The acid which collects at the bottom of the chambers, has a gravity of 1.75; or it isa compound of one atom anhydrous acid, and two atoms water. This acid is concentrated by heating it in a platinum still, till the second atom of water is driven off. When in full work, the quantity of sul- phuric acid made in it, exceeds 300,000 pounds avoirdupois per week. Forty five years ago, it cost eight pence per pound; the present price is under a penny a pound. 3. Bleaching pow- der. One of the great purposes to which sulphuric acid is ap- plied at St. Rollox, is the manufacture of bleaching powder, or chlorite of lime, as it is now called. The requisite mixture of * common salt, binoxide of manganese, and sulphuric acid, is — put into a leaden still, and the chlorine evolved passes through git “— vs & # t Proceedings of the British Association. 49 leaden tubes into air-tight stone chambers, the bottoms of which are covered with a stratum of slacked lime several inches thick. The lime absorbs the gas as it passes into the chamber, and the process is continued till the absorption is reckoned sufficient. _ Pure bleaching powder is a compound of Chloride of calcium, < *" > “Seo! 255%, Chlorite of lime, - - S20 ee IG, Water, - . - - of 3.376 . a 20.375 Half the lime loses its oxygen and combines with chlorine, constituting chloride of calcium. The oxygen combines with chlorine, which in the state of chlorous acid, combines with the other half of the lime, constituting chlorite of lime. Two atoms of the water were in the slacked lime. ‘The third atom must have come along with the chlorine gas, or been absorbed from the atmosphere. 4. Carbonate of soda is obtained from the se- mi-liquid mass remaining in the still, and consisting partly of the impurities of the manganese, and partly of sulphate of soda, and sulphate of manganese. 5. The manufacture of alum is carried on at two establishments, one at the Hurlet, about six miles S. W. by the Paisley canal; another at Campsie, about eight miles off, near Kirkintulloch, on the great canal, and near the foot of the Campsie Hills. The alum is made from the shale, which ex- ists in great abundance in the exhausted coal beds. This shale is a clay mixed with some coal, and with that variety of iron py- rites which undergoes decomposition, and is converted into sul- phate of iron, by exposure to the air. ‘The sulphate of iron thus formed, acts slowly on the clay, and finally converts it into sul- phate of alumina. The alum-maker washes this altered shale, and obtains a solution of sulphate of iron and sulphate of alu- mina. ‘The liquor yields an abundant crop of sulphate of iron, which is removed, dried, and sold ata cheap rate. The sulphate of alumina does not crystallize till it is mixed with sulphate of potash or sulphate of ammonia; because ammonia is a double salt composed of three atoms of sulphate of alumina and one atom of sulphate of potash or sulphate of ammonia. 6. At Campsie alum-works, is prepared the prussiate of potash,a well known beautiful yellow salt, crystallizing in truncated octahedrons. The manufacture of this salt on the large scale began here. Before - 7 Vol. xt1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. . “+ ‘ + Mo, Bot. Garden, # ¥. ¥ 50 Proceedings of the British Association. that time it was prepared only in laboratories for scientific purpo- ses, and sold ata high price. Mr. Mackintosh introduced it to the calico-printers, who use it extensively, to produce very beautiful blues and greens. It is prepared by burning the hoofs and horns of cattle with potash, and some iron in iron pots. The hoofs and horns of a hundred head of cattle are consumed in the works ev- ery day. After combustion the residue is lixiviated with water, and when the solution is sufficiently concentrated, the prussiate of potash crystallizes. Connected with this manufactory is one of Prussian blue. It is made by mixing sulphate of iron, alum, and prussiate of potash, and precipitating the whole by an alkali. ‘The precipitate is at first light blue, but it is washed with new portions of water every day for several weeks. At every washing the color deepens, and when it has acquired the requisite shade, the, Prussian blue is allowed to subside, the water is drawn off, and the powder permitted to dry. The color varies according to the propor- tion of alum employed, and it has the finest color of all, with the coppery lustre which is so much admired, when no alumina what- ever is mixed with it. 7. Bichromate of potash, a salt very much used by calico-printers, and forming the finest and most in- delible yellows, oranges, and greens, is made at the manufactory of Mr. White, at Shawfield, near Rutherglen, about two miles from Glasgow. Jts introduction constituted quite an era in cal- ico-printing. It formerly cost a guinea an ounce; it is now sold at two shillings a pound. Tartaric acid is also made here. It is largely used by the calico-printers, chiefly to disengage the chlo- rous acid from bleaching powder, and enable it to destroy the co- lor on particular parts of the cloth, either that these parts may re- main white, or that some other color may be superadded. It is obtained from cream of tartar, by throwing down the tartaric acid by means of lime, and afterwards decomposing. the tartrate of lime by means of sulphuric acid, and crystallizing the tartaric. At the same manufactory the carbonate of soda is converted by exposure in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, into sesquicarbonate. It is chiefly used by the makers of soda water. Among other manufactures and processes carried on at this place, were men- tioned acetic acid from wood ; iodine; soap; bleaching of cot- ton cloth; Turkish red dyeing ; ; culido-peinting: ; glass rive? ; starch making, &e ‘ Pee" , =e o : 7 ey i d pes Proceedings of the British. Association Arthur Connell:communicated some additional — on the voltaic decomposition of alcohol ; his experiments appearing to him to prove that water exists as ihe] in absolute alcohol. On the compound or radieal called kakodyl, by Prof. Bunsen of Marburg. Thisisanew radical resembling alcohol, in which arse- nic replaces the oxygen of that compound. © The oxide of kako- dyl has so great an affinity for oxygen, that when exposed to the air it immediately inflames. The bodies produced by the com- bustion are arsenious acid, carbonic acid, and water. By the fur- ther oxidation of the oxide of kakodyl, kakodylic acid is produ- ced. 'The sulphuret of kakodyl is similar in composition to the oxide, and participates in many of its properties. The telluret, selenuret, iodide and bromide of kakodyl were also examined. The danger attending these experiments is very great, and the poisonous effects produced by the inhalation of the vapor, were described as dreadful. Kakodyl is produced from the liquor of Cadet, and is extremely interesting as being a link connecting organic and i inorganic chemistry. Prof. B. is engaged in fartfler experiments on this subject, and has already obtained many new —— of preparing Morphine and its salts, by Dr. Mobs, of Coblentz. This mode of separating morphine from. nar- ing it in an excess of caustic lime, and precipitating it by mu- riate of ammonia. . This method of precipitation is in principle cotine, and all. other: heterogeneous substances, consists in dissolv- very similar to the precipitation of alumina, from a solution in caustic potash. The process is as follows: the opium is boiled in water, in which it readily dissolves; the decoction is strained through a linen cloth and the dregs are pressed ; this operation of boiling and straining is repeated twice on the same quantity of opium, and the solution of the whole concentrated until its weight is four times that of the opium employed. The concen- trated solution is, while still warm, mixed with milk of lime, pre- pared with a quantity of dry lime equal to the fourth part of the weight of the opium. The mixture is heated till it boils, and is filtered through linen while hot. The filtered liquor has a light brown yellow color. While still hot it is mixed with pulverized sal ammoniac in excess; the lime is saturated with muriatic acid, ammonia is set free, and the morphine is precipitated. When the solution is greatly concentrated, the precipitation is instantaneous, att ek Ne a a i, i “ a . * * ‘ ge + * % 52 lings 5 the British Association. . and is almost cl in volume to ha ft ae solution. When the _ solution is less concentrated, there is at first no precipitation, but ~ as the liquor cools open needles ap ar, and at a certain point a ~ large mass of precipitate is suddenly formed. 'The peculiarity of this process is, that it affords a well | ‘96 aR and fine product of morphine, without the use of:alcoholy .This is due to the fact that the ammonia is not added in 1 free state, but is genera- ted in immediate contact with: the ae: to be acted upon. The morphine is nearly colorless: by dissolving it in muriatic acid, and crystalliz we obtain ‘pure muriate of morphine in white crystals. The milk of lime, it is to be observed, must not be added to a boiling hot solution of the crude opium, for then the precipitate adheres to the sides of the vessel, and does not af- terwards 2B perfectly. The liquor containing the mor- phine should t be cold or only lukewarm, when the milk of lime is added to it. If it is boiling hot, it must be mans to the ~ milk of lime, and not vice versd. . Schafhaeutl read a paper on anew method of photogenic drawing.—Prof. Graham gave an abstract of Prof. Liebig’s new chemical views relative to Agriculture and Physiology.—Prof. Playfair read.a statement of Prof. Liebig’s new views on bee _, subject of poisons.—Dr. P. gave an account of a new fat acid.— * Mr. J.J. Griffin read a paper on a new method of crystallographic notation. He classes the planes of crystals into seven elementary _ sets; which he calls forms; and entered into various details to "prove that.the occurrence of planes not representable by one or * other of these seven forms, is a mathematical impossibility, and that the proposed system of notation is amply sufficient for all the purposes of the chemist and mineralogist, while it has over other systems of crystallography, the advantage of requiring but asmall amount of mathematical knowledge. ~ Prof. F. Penny communicated details and results of his exper- iments on the action of nitric acid on the chlorates, iodates, and bromates of potassa and soda.—Dr. R. D. Thomson gave his views on the tests for sulphuric acid when thrown upon the per- son.—Prof. Johnston stated his experiments on the resin of sarco- colla.—Prof. 'T. Thomson enumerated the minerals found in the neighborhood, among which were nine species of lead ore, and numerous minerals of the zeolite family. Sulphuret of cadmium had been lately discovered along with prehnite, at Bishoptown: = * nF *e, y &** = $ * Png of the ad Assocition. it was rare, and. gle xg sold at £10 each.—Prof. Andrew Buchanan telated te method arating, by filtration, the co- ‘ blood.—Dr. Clark, of Aber- — a pais portions of arsenic.— tainin. expériments made by him while resident in ee firmar of Glasgow, which showed that the per centage carbonic acid thrown off from the lungs is greater in disease than in health:—A paper by, Messrs. Redten- bacher and Varrentrapp was read, on the constitution and products of the distillation of fat bodies. Prof. Bu stated his new mode of estimating nitrogen in organic analysis. He introduces the substance to be analyzed, after having mixed it with oxide of copper, into a glass tube. A few r slips of metallic copper are then added, and the tube is fixed to Dobereiner’s apparatus for producing ny deqpes ~ This gas is conducted through it until all the atmospheric air is expelled, giving the tube at the same time, a rotary motion, in order to dislodge any air which might be re- tained between the particles of the oxide of copper. The tube is now hermetically sealed, and introduced into an iron vessel, __ filled with moist gypsum. Thus prepared it is introduced into he common oven used for organic analysis, and surrounded with . red-hot coals. If the tube is of strong green glass, it never b ie When the combustion is completed, the tube is placed Ait graduated glass receiver standing over mercury, and the point cut ~ off. The gas, which had a pressure of several atmospheres, now rushes into the jar. The carbonic acid is absorbed by a ball a hydrated potash, which is introduced into it, and the remaining: — gas must be nitrogen, for all the hydrogen must have been pn a : verted into water by the oxygen of the oxide of copper. Th x results obtained by this method agree with theory to the second and often to the third decimal place.—Prof. Penny gave an ac- count of a new salt obtained from iodine and caustic soda, which” he names the sesquiodide of iodate of soda.—Prof. Johnston read a paper on resins, containing the following results. 1. The resins differ from each other in the quantity of oxygen they contain. 2. Those in which the atoms of oxygen is the same, may vary in the hydrogen, which is another cause of difference in properties. 3. In all the song hitherto analyzed, the number of atoms of car- bon is constant. 4. The resins, as a natural family, may be rep- resented by a . formula containing two variables. 5. The = és - . , ; — y occedings of the British Association 60 : Proceedings of the British Associa tic gee: the masses of ice, not being there confined between two sides of a valley, their movements were in some respects different,—the boulders not being connected in continuous ridges, but dispersed singly over the Jura at different levels. Prof. A. conceives that at a certain epoch, all the North of Europe, and also the North of Asia and America, were covered with a mass of ice, in which the ele- phants and other mammalia found in the frozen mud and gravel of the arctic regions, were imbedded at the time of their destruc- tion. He thinks that when this immense mass of ice began quickly to melt, the currents of water that resulted, transported and deposited the masses of irregular rounded boulders and gravel which fill the bottoms of the valleys; innumerable boulders hav- ing at the same time been transported together with mud and gravel, upon the masses of the glaciers then set afloat. Prof. A. announced that these facts are Pxplained nt length in the work which he has just published, ‘ Etudes sur les Glaciers de la Suisse,’ illustrated by plates. ; Mr. Jeffreys detailed an experiment he had made on a very great scale, to decide the question, whether silicious matter could be dissolved largely by water, or what is the same thing, by its va- por. ‘This experiment formed the subject of a paper, read some months ago before the Royal Society, and by the experiment a solution of more than 200 lbs. of silica was effected in steam, at @ heat exceeding that of fused cast-iron. ‘The steam was not un- der pressure, but was conducted into a large kiln used for stone pottery. The silica was not only dissolved, but carried away in the vapor, and some pounds weight of it were deposited from the vapor, before it issued from the kiln, like ahoar frost, upon some ar- ticles in the kiln, where the temperature was not above a red heat. The following papers were also read, but our limits permit us te, ive only their titles. 1 the relative level of — and sea, at on the alteration of the east coast of bared, by Mr. Steven “ the superficial beds in the neighborhood of Glasgow ; by Mr. Smith of Jordan : on the Geology of Canada; by Capt. Baddeley. On the Silurian rocks of ae ge 53 on a rr of igneous rocks on the east re of the Berwyn range} neient sea cliffs and needles in ihe chalk of the valley of the Seine, in ae euindy “. Charles Lyell. ~ On the geology of the island of Arran; by A.C. sig" On the So of Castle Hill, seen | by tele: On the value of topographical maps an s, ae a map of the county of Mayo, in Ireland; by Mr. Bald. * ~*~» Si we ceedings of the British Association. 61 Additional Notes on the Wadi el Arabah, in Syria; by Rev. E. ene of rk. Some observations on relief maps ; by Mr. A. Ravenstei me On the stratified deposits which constitute the —— and Central regions of Russia ; by Mr. Murchison and M. E. de Verneui On the coal formations of the West of Scotland i Mr, Craig. On earthquakes in Scotland ; by Mr. Milne. n the occurrence of two species of Shells of the genus Conus, in the lias or inferior oolite, near Caen, in Normandy ; by Charles Lyell. On the wathivn sandenson of the carboniferous limestone series of Ireland; by Mr. Griffith. On a Pleistocene tract in the Isle of Man, and the relations of its Fauna to that of the eee sea; by Mr. Edward Fothes: e old red sandstone of the Northern Counties of Scotland ; by Mr. Mur- ed On the geology of Ceara, North Brazil; by J. E. Bowman. On the Vale of Solway and Closeburn Basin; by Mr. Knipe. Sect. D. Zoology and Botany. r was read, entitled “ Queries respecting the Human Race, to be addressed to travellers and others, drawn up by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Sci- ence, appointed in 1839.” At the meeting at Birmingham, Dr. Prichard read a paper on the extinction of some varieties of the Human Race. He pointed out instances in which this extinc- tion had already to a great extent taken place, and showed that many races now existing are likely, at no distant period, to be an- nihilated. Science must sustain an irretrievable loss, if so large a portion of the human race, counting by tribes instead of indi- viduals, is suffered to perish before many interesting questions of a psychological, physiological and philological character, as well as many historical facts in relation to them, have been investiga- ted. The Association voted £5 to be expended in printing a set of queries to be addressed to those who may travel or reside in parts of the globe inhabited by declining races. The paper now presented was the result. The subjects embrace a wide field of inquiry, and the queries alone fill thirteen closely printed octavo pages. hey refer specially to the stature and weight of the people,—any prevailing proportion between different parts of the ® body—the complexion—the color and character of the hair and eyes—the formation of the head and face—the skull and all phys- ical peculiarities—the effect of intermarriage where it prevails— a planger ys physical and imsolleatual sriet= ois VUAVLEIVILIDD TMUVat —— 62 Proceedings of ‘the British Associations 4 —nature of sickness—inferior animals associated with man—cer- emonies con with marriages, births and burials—notions of a future state—habitations of the people—monuments—remains of skeletons—tools and instruaments—form of government—food —mode of cooking—clans or castes—laws—geographical limits and character of the region—population—teligious observances. A memoir was read on the Pollen and Vegetable impregna- tion; by Dr. Aldridge, of Dublin. The author having discover- ed that nitric and other inorganic and organic acids produce the . dehiscence of pollen-grains, in the same manner as if placed on the natural stigmatic surface, instituted experiments, of which the following are the general results. 1. The spore of crypto- gamic vegetables, which some botanists consider analogous to pollen, do not dehisce under the influence of acids. 2. The pol- len of the grasses is spherical, both when dry and when placed in water; with acid it bursts, protruding one long, cylindrical mass, which remains afterward unacted upon by the liquid. .3. The pollen of the Aroideze, Colchicacee, Smilacez, Liliaceze, Comme- linaceze, Bulomacez, Amaryllidaceze, Iridaceze and Conacex, are, when dry, oval, and marked with a dark neutral line ; but become, when placed in water, more broadly oval or circular, the long diameter remaining the same, and the opake line disappear- ing, after the addition of acid; the external membrane of the pollen or peripollen dehisces by a chink or suture sufficiently broad to permit the contents or endopollen to escape without any alteration in its form, after which the endopollen remains unacted upon by the liquid. 4. In the Salicinew, Salicarie, Legumino- se, Rosacez, Crassulacee, Saxifragacee, Hypericacen, Rutacez, Hippocastanesr, Resedacez, and the tribe Helleborez of the Ra- nunculacez, the pollen when dry, oval and marked with a dark central line, becomes when placed in water, round or nearly so, the dark line disappearing ; and when acted upon by acids, as- sumes a triangular form, and protrudes at three equidistant points cylindrical or club-shaped masses very similar at the origin to tubes, and presenting the appearance of being enveloped by 2 membrane. 5. In the greater number of the remaining Dicoty- ledons examined, the hed pollen is ee and either broadly oval or spherical. 6. In the Ericacee and Epacridacew, the pollen grains when dry, appear triangular or oval in some instances, tri- angular or rhombic in others, according to the position in which ean, a tt Z _ Proceedings of the British Association. 63 they are examined. Having ascertained the results of acids on the pollen, the author was induced to examine t} ma, and in every case found that the stigmatic tissue gave indications of an acid reaction upon litmus paper. The next question is, in what manner is the fertilizing influence of the male organs communi- cated to the ovale? After quoting the opinions of Amici, Brown, Fritzche, Corda, Treviranus, Brongniart, and others, the author came to the conclusion that the boyaus or intestine-like protru- sion from the pollen-grains is the result of the action of acids upon the fluid which contained the fovilla in the pollen-grain ; and he inferred this from the fact that this tube or boyau is never found when the pollen-grain is placed in water, but is constant when the grain is placed in acid. After describing and explain- ing the an s character of the pollen-grains in Orchidacez, Fumariacee, Asclepias, &c. the author gave the following con- clusions as the results of his researches. 1. The stigma is inva- riably acid. 2. It is in consequence of this acidity that the pol- len bursts. 3. By the same means the fluid contents of the pollen become coagulated, enveloping the fovilla, and assuming, according to the method of dehiscence, different and very re- markable forms.—The memoir was illustrated by an extensive series of drawings. A paper on the Alpaca was read. by W. Danson. Since the meeting at Birmingham, about twenty of these animals had been imported into Liverpool. The alpaca is remarkable for its ex- traordinarily long wool, the staples being from twenty to twenty four inches in length. e wool is naturally free from grease, in which respect it differs materially from the sheep, attributable to its not perspiring through the skin, and consequently not re- quiring the artificial protection of smearing with tar and other substances injurious to the wool, as far as the manufacture is con- cerned ; and in shearing, the animal requires no washing prepar- atory to the operation. The alpaca is hardy, flourishing under the line of perpetual snow, in the mountains of the Andes, (Peru, ) and has a peculiar coat of silky wool, which proves a complete protection against an atmosphere at all times excessively humid, and against the deluging rain which continues to fall more than four months in the year. The animal is not-only capable of un- dergoing great fatigue, but moreover lives on mountain herbage, little better than a kind of withered grass, and in times of scar- 64 Proceedings of the British Association. city has been ages ‘several days without water, taking only a handful of r eir flesh is considered equal to venison, _ being common . sa by the Peruvians, who state the slaughter of them for food to be about four millions annually. ‘The impor tation of the alpaca wool in 1839, is stated at one million pounds, — and within the last year at three millions. — It seemed, however, doubtful whepher the animal could be made to ee in Great Britain. Prof. Agassiz made a communication on b+ He fied in Red Snow. He stated that Shuttleworth had lately demonstrated that a the Protococcus nivalis, the red snow penipiiest sev- , produto and that the so-called Protococcus ni s the ova of a species of rotiferous animal called by Ehrenbe hilodina ro- seola. This animalcule he had found dead in the red snow, and abundantly in ditches in the neighborhood, at the bottom of which its ova produced a red deposit. Under the microscope the colored ova in the ovaries could be distinctly observed. He had also seen the infusoria described by Shuttleworth. The following papers were also communicated to this Section. On the preservation of animal and vegetable substances; by Prof. Henslow and the c ee. Further Msc on the British Ciliograda; by Edward Forbes and John On the plants and animals found in the sulphureous springs of Askera and Har- rowgate, Yorkshire ; by Dr. Lankesier. n the structure of fishes; by Dr. Macdonald, On the regeneration of lost organs discharging the functions of the head and viscera, by the Holothuria and Amphitrite, two marine animals; by Sir John G. Dalyell Report of a committee eaauaiers to dredge various parts of the Coasts of Great Britain for marine anima On an anomalous asin of the plum observed in the gardens of the province of New Brunswick ; by Prof. Robb. On the identity of the fish called the parr with the fry of the salmon ; by Messrs Shaw and Wilso On the true shes of discovering the natural system in Zoology and Botany ; by Hugh Strickland. On the organs of sense in the Salmon ; by Dr. Liz On a new Salmon-stair, with a model; by Mr. Smith, of Deanston On the development of the embryo in the ova of Rahéa, more ‘apecially of the family Salmonide ; by Prof. Agassiz. On a new genus of Ascidians, viz. Pelonaia ; by Messrs. Forbes and Goodsir. pie as Meduse ; by Mr. Patterson. various: es of fishing employed by Indians in the West of Guiana; by "i. Schomburg & e of Pa * é ge “* Pivceniiings of the British, Association. | 65 Repéitina the Irish Fouediancl cluding only the Vertebrata; by Mr. Thomson committee engraving skeleton maps, for recording the distei- bution of plants and anit Bos On the migration a ae of the coast of Ireland; by Sir Thos. Phillipf. 4° ae? Remarks on the sy f some South African nel of Plants ; by Dr. W. Further | a on ae ones of a a whats found in 1839 in Ry of Durham Castle ; by G. 'T. Fox. The letter dated 1661, which ca to clear up this fact, proves to he 4. (See Vol. xxxvurz, p. 130. : nm the growth of Cotton by Dr. Lankester and Mr. Felkin. On India Cotton ; by Dr. Alexande? Burn. On the first ohatges } in the ovum in mammiferous animals; by Dr. Martin — Sect. E. Medical Science. conglobate glands; by Dr. Jeffrey. usion of contagious fevers, es laws tron govern them, and the aes “es which they ar e communicated ; J. Perr he Sede sero and et of the Mati tias Bark; by Dr. McKay. ects of Croton oil in certain affections of the nerves, by Dr. Ne amputations ; by Dr. Lawri ad eh me = action of bromine and its compounds ; 3 by Dr. R. M. Glover. -R oi thet ti anner in which vital actions stipes in Asphyxia; by Dr. John Reid. On the subserviency of the fifth pair of nerves to the adjustments of the organs of sense, and ofa retransmission through its nasal branch and the lenticular gan- glion to the iris ; by Dr. R. Fowler. Notice of Bonten d’Alleppe and Bagdad boil in the East; by Dr. — i Bell. On the effects of air when injected into the veins; by Dr. J. re Cor On the anatomy of the Medulla Oblongata; by Dr. John Rei On the connexion between the nervous system and bioeldti contractility ; by Dr. John Reid. On the structure oft the Gastro-intestinal mucous membrane; by Prof. Allen Thomson. On local inflammatory ye ae the effusion of coagalable lymph, formation of pus, &c.; by Dr. Perry. On Pertussis; by Dr. Hanna ay. On Mnemonics; by Dr. McDonald. Sect. F. Statistics. The following communications were presented to the Section. Report on the state of crime within Gl salam and city police jurisdiction, with observations of a remedial n 3 by Cap On the population, trade an collins merce * he sci of Glasgow ; by Dr. Pos Vol. xu1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. af ‘ Be *% 66 Proceedings of the British Association. On the Glasgow Asylum for the blind ; ay Mr. Alston. On the application of Statistics to iodral. and ; by Dr. Chalmers. Illustrations of the practical opepaee of the Scottish aitiens of the manage- _ r. Alis ment of the poor; by D On the comparative ial waite of Edinburgh and Glasgow: by Mr. Watt. On the bill circulation of Great Britain ; by Mr. Leat n the excess of population, and on emigration as a ba. for it in the High- lands of Scotland ; by Prof. Ramsay. On the vital statistics of Glasgow ; by Dr, Cow On the state of education and crime in England se Wales ; by Joseph Bentley. On Pawnbroking in Ireland; by Mr. Porter, - Tables containing a comparative view of the state of crime in London, Dublin and Glasgo On dhe state of crime in the borough of Calton; by Mr. Rutherglen. the state of crime in the district of Gorbals; by Mr. Richardson. the state of crime in the suburban burgh of Anderston ; of ae Findlater. eport of the Manchester Statistical Society on the stat e cation in the borough of Kingston-upon-Hull. 4 On the population of certain parts of Africa; by Mr. Saxe Sect. G. Mechanical Science. Mr. Wallace offered a paper on extinguishing fire in steam vessels. This he proposes to effect by steam itself. The plan has been some time before the public, and many successful ex- periments have been made in the presence of scientific men. Among the most important was the following, made on board the Leven steamboat :—On the cabin floor, a space of 10 feet by 14 was covered with wet sand, on which were laid iron plates, and on these a fire was kindled with about 4$ cwt. of very com- bustible materials, such as tar barrels, &c. A hose 34 feet long and 24 inches in diameter, extended from the boiler of the engine to the cabin, and when the fire had been sufficiently kindled, so that the panes of glass in the windows of the cabin began to crack by the heat, the steam was let in, and the doors of the cabin shut. The fire was extinguished in about four minutes. Several trials were made, and all with like success. On another trial, a metal pipe of a greater diameter than the hose was con- nected with the steam-boiler, and extended into the cabin. A small square hatch was cut in the deck, immediately above the cabin, and through this opening were lowered down into the cabin two movable grates, each containing a blazing fire, well kindled, of about 1 ewt. of coals. The hatch on the deck, and the cabin doors were then shut, and the steam let in, and in fif- teen minutes the small hatch was opened, and one of the grates “—— up, when the whole mass of coal and cinders, which | had ag * Proceedings of the British Association. 67 before formed a powerful fire, was found to be completely extin- guished. 'Thisexperiment was twice repeated, with equal success. - On the application of Native Alloy for Compass pivots, by Capt. E. J. Johnson, R. N. Among those portions of a ship’s compass which most affect its working, are the pivots and caps on which the needle and card traverse, and which like the balance of a chronometer (but of far more importance to the practical navigator) should not only be fitted with the most scrupulous attention to accuracy, but be made of materials capable of maintaining a given form under the trials to which such instruments are necessarily exposed. Hav- ing examined a great variety of compasses which had been used at sea, wherein Capt. J. noticed that the pivots were generally injured, and often by rust, he searched numerous records of ex- periments for its prevention, and for improving the quality of steel in other respects, by means of alloys of platinum, palladium, sil- ver, &c., (alluding particularly to the experiments of Dr. Fara- day and Mr. Stoddart,) and Mr. Pepys having obligingly sup- plied Capt. J. with specimens of similar kinds of steel to those used by them, these examples, together with pivots made of the ordinary kind of steel, and hardened and tempered in the manner recommended by eminent instrament makers, were placed ina frame for experiment; and to these again Capt J. added certain contrivances of his own, such as rubbing a steel pivot with sal- ammoniac, then dipping it into zinc in a state of fusion, and af- terwards changing the extreme point. Some specimens he coated with a mixture of powdered zine, oil of tar, and turpentine; and others again were set in zinc pillars having small zine caps, through which the extreme point of the pivot protruded, after the man- ner of black lead through pencil tubes. ‘The whole of the spe- cimens were then placed in a cellar, occasionally exposed to the open air, examined from time to time during more than half a year, and their several states, as respected oxidation, duly regis- tered. The general result was, that not any of the kinds of steel pivots used in this trial, except such as were coated with zinc, re- mained free from rust, while the pivot made of the native alloy which is found with platinum, completely retained its brilliancy. Capt. J. then applied to this singular substance a more severe test, first by placing sulphuric acid, and then nitro-muriatic acid upon it; but even under this trial he could not observe that any change had been effected, although the blade of a penknife subjected to a ~ 68 Proceedings of the British Association. a similar process, was rusted to the centre. Having enumerated the facts respecting the trials to which he had subjected this cu- rious material, Capt. J. stated the conclusion that he had come to, viz. that it is sufficiently tough not to break, and hard enough not to bend, under the trials to which it would be Jairly exposed : and that being alike free from magnetic properties and liability to oxidation from exposure to the air, it possesses the qualities requi- site for the pivot of the mariner’s compass: and he anticipated that when fitted with a ruby cap to correspond, it would be found greatly to improve the working. Besides the use of this sub- stance for compass pivots, Capt. J. stated that it might probably be found advantageous for other instruments, and especially for the points of the axes of the dipping needles, fitted on Mr. Fox’s plan, for use on shipboard.—Mr. Hawkins has used this native alloy for several years in tipping the points of pens, and nota single in- Stance exists in which any of these pens shows the least symp- tom of wear. He tried native alloy ona cap, in comparison with ruby, when he found that in the same circumstances, the ruby was ground away with diamond dust twice as rapidly as the na- tive alloy. He had made engravers’ tools of the same metal, and when made too sharp they cannot be blunted on the Turke stone, but only by diamond dust. yi The following papers were also read. On safety-valves for steam-boilers ; by Mr, Galline. On wheels of Locomotive engines; by Mr. Grime On the temperature of most effective condensation in steam vessels; by J. Scott Russell. On warming and ventilating buildings; by Mr. Ritchie. On timber bridges of a large size, in special reference to Railways; by Mr. Vignoles. Experimental inquiry into the strength of iron, with respect to its application as a substitute for wood in ship-building ; by Mr. Fairbairn, On raising water from low lands; by Mr. Fairbairn. ‘ Additional notice concerning the most economical and effective proportion of engine power to the tonnage of the hull in steam vessels, and more especially in those designed for long voyages; by J. Scott Russell. On the action of air and water on iron; by Mr. Mallet. On the turbine water-wheel; by Prof. Gordon. * On producing true planes or surfaces on metals; by Mr. Jos. Whitworth. Report of the Committee on the best form of Vessels. On the economy of railways in respect of gradients; by Mr. Vignoles. On the fan-blast-as applied to furnaces; by Mr. Fairbairn, On new rain-gauges ; by Jas. Johnston, and also by Mr. Thom. Ona Revolving Balance ; by Mr. Lothian. On the bustion of coal and the prevention of the generation of smoke in furnaces; by Mr. Williams. adh S. -3 © On the Whirling Action, S¢c. 69 Art. VIII.—Remarks relating to the Tornado which visited New Brunswick, in the State of New J rsey, June 19, 1835, with a Plan and Schedule of the Prostrations observed on a section of its track ; by W. C. Reprietp, Esq.* [From the Lond. Phil. Mag. and Jour. of Science. Revised by the Author.] In a paper printed in the American Journal of Science, in which I referred to the support given by Prof. Bache to Mr. Es- py’s theory of storms, at the meeting of the British Association in 1838, founded upon observations made on the New Brunswick tornado, I have stated, that in my own examinations I had ob- served numerous facts which appear to demonstrate the whirling character of this tornado, as well as the inward tendency of the whirling vortex at the surface of the ground; and further, that the direction of rotation was towards the left, as in the North At- lantic hurricanes.t It was due to Prof. Bache that my observa- tions should be brought forward; a task which has been too long delayed, partly from a desire that he would revise his former con- clusions. 'The facts now presented form part of the evidence to which I then alluded. If the effects which I present for consideration be due to “a moving column of rarefied air without any whirling motion at or near the surface of the ground,” as maintained by Professor Bache,{ we might expect to find a relative uniformity in the effects on the two opposite sides or margins of the track. How far this is the case may be seen by inspecting the observations which are found upon the annexed plan of prostrations. The occurrence of these tornadoes appears to have been noticed from the earliest antiquity ; and their violence has been consid- ered as the effect of an active whirling motion in the body of the tornado ; this peculiarity of action having often been supported by the testimony of eye-witnesses. ae eae a. ae * [Communicated by Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.] This paper was intend- ed by its author to have been read at the late meeting of the British Association in Glasgow, but was unfortunately detained.—J. F. W. H. é t Amer. Jour. of Science, Oct. 1838, vol. xxxv, pp. 206, 207. _ + Transactions of Amer. Phil. Society, vol. v, p. 417, New Series. 70 On the Whirling Action of the The whirling motion, however, has not been recognized by Prof. Bache, Mr. Espy,* or Prof. Walter R. Johnson,+ in their several accounts of the New Brunswick tornado; these writers having been led to adopt or favor a theory of astehiling columns in the atmosphere, founded on the supposed influence of calorific expansion accompanying the condensation of vapor. It is remarkable that previous to this period the evidences of the rotation or other characteristic action of tornadoes appear not to have been duly examined-and recorded, nor even to have re- ceived the distinct consideration of scientific observers. We are therefore left. to seek out the peculiarities of their action, by ex- amining the direction of the prostrations and other effects of the wind; and from a careful induction from the effects which are thus registered as by the finger of the tornado, we may hope to arrive at satisfactory conclusions. the erous prostrations of trees and other objects, which may be observed in the path of a tornado, be the effects of a vio- lent whirlwind, it appears most reasonable to infer that this whirl had the common properties which may be observed in all narrow and violent vortices, viz. a spirally descending and involuted mo- tion of the exterior and lower portions of the vortex, rapidly quickened in its gyrations as it approaches toward the centre or axis of the whirl, and thence continued (in the case of the whitl- wind) spirally upward, but gradually expanding in its spiral course by an evolute motion in ascending towards the extreme height of the revolving mass. If we now contemplate the action of this whirling body, while in a state of rapid progression, on the several objects found in dis- tinct portions of its path, we may expect to witness effects of much complexity, particularly as regards direction ; and, also, that amid this apparent complexity, some clue may be obtained that will serve to indicate or establish the true character of its action. Some of the effects which may be expected or observed, will be here considered. 1. We may expect to find, in the path of the wiiiwiad, strong evidence of the inward or vorticular course of the wind at the earth’s surface ; the violence of which inward motion is clearly - * Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, vol. v, New Series. t Journ, Academy Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia, vol. vii, part ii. New Brunswick Tornado. 71 indicated by the force with which various objects, often of much weight, are carried spirally upward about the axis of the revolv- ing body. : - Now the effects of this inward vorticular motion at the surface of the ground, are clearly manifested in the cases before us; and- are also well illustrated by Prof. Bache, in his paper on this tor- nado, although referred by him to a different action.* — 2. As the effects which may be observed at various points in the track were produced at different moments of time, and by forces acting in different directions, as well as of various intensi- ties, we may expect to find great diversities in the several direc- tions of the fallen trees and other prostrated bodies ; and further, as all the forces, in addition to their inward tendency, have like- wise a common tendency in the direction pursued by the tornado, we may expect to find, also, full evidence of this — force y in the direction of the fallen bodies. These effects, I need hardly state, are distinct] rved in the case before us; and appear likewise from the observations of Prof. Bache. The results already noticed have been observed also in the tracks of other tornadoes: so that a general inclina- tion, both inward and onward, amid the various and confused di- rections of the fallen bodies, is distinctly recognized by all parties to this inquiry. a 3. It has been often noticed, that where two fallen trees are found lying across each other, the uppermost or last fallen points most nearly to the course pursued by the tornado. In view of the facts above stated, much pains have been ta- ken to establish, by induction, a central and non-whirling course in the wind of the tornado ; first inward and then upward, like that resulting from a common fire in the open air. I do not pro- pose to notice the insuperable difficulties which appear to attend this hypothesis. It is important to state, however, that all the above mentioned effects, when theoretically considered, are, at least, equally consistent with the involute whirling action of an advancing vortex. This important consideration I have not seen recognized by the advocates of the non-whirling theory; and it seems proper, therefore, to point out, as we proceed, other and more distinguishing effects of the whirling action. mi ell lla Se ie pian: * Transactions of American Philosophical Society, vol. v, N.S. 72 On the Whirling Action of the 4. It has been noticed, also, that the directions given to bro- ken limbs and other bodies, by the successive changes in the di- rection of the wind as the tornado passed over, have been found in opposite courses of change, on the two opposite sides of the track. : This fact, too, has been strongly urged as disproving a rotary motion. But, unfortunately for the objection, this effect accords fully with the rotary action of a progressive mass of atmosphere; as is well known to all who clearly understand the theory of ro- tary storms. In all such whirling masses the successive changes in the di- rection of the wind, result solely from their progressive motion, and necessarily take place in opposite directions or courses of - change on a two opposite sides of the advancing axis. ‘This indicati ils, therefore, as a theoretic test; and I now proceed to notice , which are peculiar to a peogtedsive whirling ac- tion. £ 5. In considering further the effects of such action, we may . expect to find that the greatly increased activity of gyration which is always observed near the centre of a vortex, will be indicated by a more violent and irregular action in and near the path pursued by the axis of the whirlwind, than is found under its more outward portions. This effect is often strikingly exhibited in the path of torna- does ; while, in the supposed ascent of a non-whirling column, it would seem that no part of the surface would be so much ex- empted from its action, and particularly from its power of prostra- tion, as that lying near its centre. 6. As the effect of rotation must be to seotkticd, on one side of the advancing axis, a reverse motion which is contrary to the course of the tornado, it is evident that on this side the prostrating power will be much lessened ; that the cases of prostration, there- fore, will be here less numerous ; and that some of these, at least, will be produced in a backward direction, more or less opposite to the course of the tornado. By this criterion, not only the whirling movement, but the direction of the rotation also, may be clearly ascertained. This effect is best observed by comparing the two opposite margins of the track, and is strongly exemplified in the case be- fore us. Here we find, that most of the trees prostrated within ou. New Brunswick Tornado. 73 five chains (110 yards) from the northern or left-hand margin of the track, lie in directions which are more or less backward from the course of the tornado. The prostrations in this part of the track are also for the most part less ge than on the opposite side of the axis,* a greater portion of the trees being left standi It sometimes happens, owing perhaps to the inward or uli motion having exceeded the progressive motion at a particular point, that some inclination backward will be found in the pros- trations on the progressive side of the whirl, as seen on the sketch, Nos. 77 to 80. But these unfrequent cases by no means compare with the numerous backward and sometimes outward prostrations, found on the reverse side of the whirl, as illustrated by Nos. 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, &c. on the left side of the track. Thus we find here a satisfactory indication that this tornado was a whirlwind; and that the course of its rotation fe to the left in front. 7. It is also apparent, that the prostrating po a whirl- wind on the side of its reverse motion as just considered, will be limited to a shorter distance than on the opposite or progressive side of its axis. This is seen in the more limited extent of the prostrations on the north or left margin of the track, as compared with the ex- tent of those which incline inward on the right side of the appa- rent axis. ‘There were many trees standing beyond the northern border of the track, but none had fallen. _ 8. It follows, in like manner, that on that side of a whirlwind in which the rotary motion coincides with the progressive move- ment, the prostrating power will not only be increased in its in- tensity, but will also be effective over a wider space ; and that few, if any, of the prostrated bodies will be found to have been dato backward. In the case before us, as may be seen in the sketch, the pros- trations are found to cite on the southern or right side of the apparent axis to a distance nearly twice as great as on the left side. 'The same general result has also been noticed in the tracks of other tornadoes which I have examined. . * There was a vacant space in the belt of wood, immediately to the right of the line ¢ ¢ or axis of the tornado, owing to which the effect mentioned does not ap- pear so obvious in the figure ; Vol, xxi, No, 1.—April-June, 1841. 10 ne # be 74 On the Whirling Action of the The facts here considered are too important to be overlooked, and seem fully to establish both the whirling action and the course of rotation. 9. If a rotative action be exhibited, the mean directions of all eno on each of the two opposite sides, will differ ‘greatly in their respective inclinations to the line of progress, and the mean direction of those on the reverse side will be found more backward than on the opposite side, where the rotative course coincides with the progressive action. In the case before us, the mean direction of all the prostrations on the right side of the track is found to incline 52 degrees in- ward from the line of progress. The course of the tornado is here taken to be east ; although for the last half mile its course had been a little north of east. On the left side, the mean direc- tion is found to be 8. 3° W., or 93 degrees inward and back- ward ; a difference in the mean inclination from the course on the two sides of 41 degrees.* If we now take the indications afforded by the two exterior portions of the track, to the width of five chains on each side, where the effects are more distinctive in their character, we find on the right side a mean inward inclination of 46 degrees, the mean direction being N. 44° E.; while on the left side of the track the mean inclination is not only inward but 48 degrees backward, the mean direction on this side being S. 48° W. We have thus a mean difference in the inclination of the fallen trees, on the two exterior portions of the track, of no less than 92 degrees. These indications seem conclusive, also, in favor of the whirl- ing action in the direction from right to left. 10. Although of less importance, it should be mentioned that the diminished action of the tornado which is commonly ob- served on the hillsides and summits over which it passes, and the greatly increased action in the bottoms of the valleys, and even in deep ravines, afford a strong argument against ascribing the effects to the ascent of a non-whirling rarefied column ; as the latter, it would seem, must act with greater force on the hillsides and summits than in the bottoms of valleys. The general cor- rectness of the observation above stated cannot justly be ques- tioned. * The inclinations of the fallen trees from the course, on both sides the axis, are reckoned inward and backward. New Brunswick Tornado. 75 11. The sudden and extraordinary diminution of the atmos-— pheric pressure which is said to take place at the points succes- sively passed over by a tornado, causing the doors and windows of buildings to burst outwards, an afford strong confirma- tion of a violent whirling motion; for an effect of this ki necessarily due to the centrifugal end upward force of the vorti ular action in the interior portion of the whirlwind. There are no other means known by which such an abstraction of pressure can be effected in the open air. An increase of calorific elasti- city, if such were produced, either generally or locally, would not greatly disturb the equilibrium of pressure, being resisted by the surrounding and incumbent weight of the entire atmosphere. Besides, the immediate effect of such increased elasticity might. rather be to burst inward the windows and doors of buildings exposed to its action. Some of the more important indications mentioned above ap- pear also from an examination of Prof. Bache’s observations ; although the latter are not definitely located by him, as regards the extreme borders of the track. Thus, in Fig. 7 of Professor Bache’s paper, assuming the course of the tornado to be east, and rejecting a few observations near the centre, to avoid error, we find in twenty observations on the right side of the track, a mean inward inclination of 64 degrees; and for nine observa- tions on the left side, a mean inclination, reckoned inward and backward from the course, of 104 degrees, being 14 degrees backward. It is stated by Prof. Bache, “that the trees lying perpendicu- lar to the track of the storm, are not those furthest from the cen- tre of that track.” This generalization accords with my own observations; but can hardly be reconciled with an inward non- whirling motion in the tornado.. It may appear to some, that in the case of a whirlwind the greater portion of the prostrations on the reverse side of the axis should be found in a backward direction; and so they would undoubtedly be found, were it not for the inward and the pro- gressive action. But the force is here so far lessened by the re- verse action above noticed, that in most cases only a small portion of the trees exposed will be thus prostrated; while the greatest force of the whirlwind, on this side, is felt near its last or closing portion and towards the apparent axis, where the inward, together bs a... On the Whirling Action of the with the rotative and progressive forces, seem to combine their influence in the closing rush towards the heart of the receding . Vortex. This appears to account for the nearly opposite direc- tions of prostration found-on this side, and it is apparently by this More violent closing action, that many trees which were first ‘overthrown in a direction nearly across the centre of the path, Were again moved from their position, or swept onward nearly in the course of the tornado. It is proper to remark here, that an attentive examination of these effects has served to convince me that on the right and more central portions of the track the pros- trations for the most part take place either at the outset or under the middle portions of the whirlwind; while on the left or re- verse side, up to the line of the apparent axis, and even across the latter, they occur chiefly under the closing action of the whirl, as above described. The violent effects of this central and clos- ing action are more clearly seen as we advance from the left-hand margin towards the centre or apparent axis of the path. F'rom the causes to which I have just alluded, the effects are usually more violent on and near the line passed over by the axis, than in other portions of the track. This line of greatest vi0- lence is found to coincide nearly with the line which separates the inwardly inclined prostrations of the two Opposite sides of the track.* e latter line or apparent axis of the track is some- times called the line of convergence, and is indicated on the fig- ure by the line and arrow ec. Along this line, from the causes just mentioned, aided also by the elevating forces about the axis, many of the trees are swept onward, and left with their tops in a direction nearly parallel to the course of the tornado ; forming an apparent, but not a just exception, to the more lateral direction which pertains to most of the trees prostrated by the onset of the whirlwind, near the central portions of the track. Indeed, the central or closing violence of the advancing whirl is here so great, that the trees are not unfrequently torn out of the ground and carried onward to considerable distances. It is proper to state here, that in the tracks of all the tornadoes which I have had opportunity to examine, and in some, at least, * The line of greatest violence, for the most part, is found somewhat to the right of the line of convergence. spe * ; & Mee New Brunswick Tornado. 77% of those examined by others, the course of rotation has been found the same as in the case before us.* In order to make a just and satisfactory examination of the effects of a tornado, it appears necessary to select portions of the track where the extension of wood or single trees, on each side, is found sufficient to mark clearly the exterior limits of the pros- trating power, and where the effects on both sides of the axis are also clearly developed. Our next, care should be to ascertain, as near as may be practicable, the line which separates the opposite convergence of the two sides, noticed above as the axis or line of convergence. We should then determine the general direc- tion of this line and of the track at the place examined; which — being done, we may proceed to measure the distance to which the prostrations are extended on each side, and then carefully to take the position and direction of prostration of each and of all of the fallen bodies, noting with care, also, any other phenomena which may serve to aid our inquiries. We may thus obtain val- uable materials for future analysis; and this course of investiga- tion, if faithfully pursued, will, it is believed, remove all reason- able doubt of the rotative action of these tornadoes. An exam- ination of their probable origin, and the causes of their enduring activity and violence, belongs not to the present occasion. New York, February 5, 1841. ¥ * As in the tornado which passed through Allegany county, New York, July 25th, 1838; described by Mr. Gaylord in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXvii, p. 92. + a et. gat SCHEDULE OF THE rfoncamen ne Observed on a Section of the Track of the New-Brunswick Ti do, of June 19th, 1835. No. a Direction of Prostration: jinclinatinn. No. | Direction of Prostration. | Inclination, TABLE IV. Left side of the e track to the line pat an eve “— bal berm aie line W BE oo do chains. ‘ a |Tree lies S. 20° W. . 110° || 49 Tree ter 67° E. 93 Pe ae 168. SO Ws. 170 ) rhe Be 45 Pe aa NGF Wee ts 903 a oe $22. Be whine 3 Gee. ae er pr 90 ia lee Regs i kee tele y Rene ee: W. for tee: 130 ie es ae! eo ree ee ) Be Uae 18. 80. Wi = 6 170 ee ee ay || Ss oe 80 5 oe ee S. 40 W... 7 130 ee oe Seo 4) E. . . oo 6) wings. 8.40 Wis os 130 Ree ees: ee 90 7 5 pa Se eee 170 a ea -10 E. Pa é Oe OSS Ie Ba aes 80 ay ere eS ne é é 9 ee os 8. 50 Ww. . . 140 ) ee oe » 40 E. . . 40 10°) sé ee SO ee 140 Bite eee EEE o.% ) Tl we et EW es 116 *? eee en eee ) 12 |. 6020 BBO EES 140 oe Sea ee Fete ee ) 13 bv a S366 Wes 155 O41 35S N40 Boot. ) 14 ee we Sou . . > » oe os is ) E. . . | Mean direction, 16 cases, S. ‘ Ort as oe 0 Es " | Mean inclination from course, in- { by F; Wop ag ward and backward,138 degrees.| ‘: pte ge ae E. TABLE Il. Py te ay Sy ene aa Left cpg of the shar yee ~— ne line} he Ses ee: Bes - 15 ‘ate lies 8. Or as 88 28 Bhat OB -¢ : ay Sey é 16 = 8.19 W.. 2 | 102 #3 Sere BO me , are Be Boe. 68 Se po TE Bs ; iy sy BB. 28 os oe. Morea (two) ‘ Wie 3 BES 65 ses Oe ade ‘ a eae x . Mg ; 190 Se . 20 W. dapat 110 . C. ‘ 70 94 fs Ss 3 oe oe ) Ww. 25 eee 10 | 79 ) W. 120 fs) oe oe - 45 E. . 45 — — : ah go || 80 | -- +» N.10 W. 100 7 | oe. ongtd Es esc: fey abe ieee E. pe Ol}. a 8.20 Bx MR Paget Micelle be RES 29). .« S60 E. . . 30 Mean inetination exses, ees, fees . Soe 30 seine TA BLE Vv. “ ok Pa egal E. gute : Right side of track, from line aato 33 S56 E. ty 34 63 Tice lier Nar ttion= Sih, 05 25, belonging by its aE pares 4 83 pion Ce ae) eee 45 3 Suse dirsetion. ii coad m = %. 3% 00 84 os oe N. 40 a . 50 |Mean inclination on inward, 53 deg. oy ors NO Bes 35 a So} ee ae N70 -E 20 = — vow apparent — = ringeaien ersiomiics W E—3 chai 87 ad o* N. 31 E. . . 59 21 Tree. ‘ee N. 56° E Se ee Tas ee NORE a 70 22 a .. N.60 E. 90-4 OD) ce es BM Ewes 68 34 ates N. 80 E. Saas 10 os oe oo N. 10 E. . > po bs its inclination to oe oe +e Nor eee Sou eek- - | tec eee te BT | oe oe ra (two) « . OTe ta 4 RS Rs 35 338 ne eg ae Ge ga “ ete 5B Difference of _— inclination on the Bl et RE. 50 ia te 41 — isan Seniiiaa+* N.60° E: ifference of op pai marginal sections Moon inclaation inward, 0 dog. il > 1 82 de, egrees. = (Plate I) NEW-BRUNSWICK TORNADO. a ea eee . % NEES? ae = i q R a} % & 4 et 4g SES Ra: ; Den ee 8 8 ‘ _ " 9 7 —— ee = 8 Ua Na\s [5 ee — ~ == e E BW T Ase mn i|™ , i ‘ Sketch of the Prostrations found on a section of the Track of the Tornado of June 19, 1835, on the bank of the Raritan, opposite the City of New Brunswick, in the State of Netw-Jersey. ExpLanations.—The east bank of the river is here covered with a belt of wood; the latter having a very irregular outline on the east, where it is bounded by a clear field. The line ¢ ¢ represents the apparent course of the axis of the tornado: W. west, E. east. Tho large dots on the several figures show the root ends of the trees, which were chiefly a species of cedar. In all these cases of prostration, part of the roots were still fast in the ground. Course of the tornado east. The approximate positions of the several trees are in manv cases slightly changed in the sketch, for the purpose of a distinct exhibition of each. Note.—This bank of the river is intersected by small ravines with wooded margins, one of which is nearly opposite to chain 5, and another is near chain 13, and which cause most of the irregularity in the wooded outline. ~ the Geological Society o a i 80 Notice of a Geological Model. Art. [X.—WNotice of a Model of the Western portion of the Schuylkill or Southern Coal-Field of Pennsylvania, in illus- tration of an Address to the Association of American Geolo- gists, on the most appropriate modes for representing Greologi- cal Phenomena; by Ricuarp C. Taytor, Member of the ~ Amer. Phil. Soc.; Fellow of the Geol. Soc. of London, and. of other Societies in Europe and the United States. Read 9th of April, 1841. On the 18th of June, a I had the honor of presenting to London, and of reading a concise de scription of two models and sections of part of the mineral basin of South Wales, in the vicinity of Pontypool. On the present occasion I take the liberty of exhibiting to the Association of American Geologists, at their second annual meet- ing, a model of the western half of the Schuylkill coal-field, in ~ Pennsylvania. This is, in all Eine OG first geological model that has been constructed in the U; States; as was, believe, that of the Welsh mineral district, the earliest of its kind; _ and as such was received in the exhibition of the Society of Arts.* I have felt anxious, I may say ambitious, to introduce the first American geological model to this Association. It seems neces- sary to the occasion to make a few explanatory observations, and I desire especially to address some general remarks to this meet- ing, on the available methods of geological illustration. Before proceeding to the descriptive details of the present work, . the region which it represents, I would advert to the ex- ‘eme applicability of the science of modelling to the purposes of geological elucidation. : During a somewhat active life, embracing thirty six years of al connected either with the superficial features of our zarth’s surface, in various climates, or with investigations of the positions of rock formations, the modes of representing the prin- cipal phenomena, and the different systems resorted to for prac- tical illustrations, have, of course, been long and frequently under deliberation. The result, it need scarcely be added, is an increas ing conviction of the vast superiority of that method which ad- ae P ro ———————— * The gold Isis medal being awarded to the exhibitor in 1830. De ee Notice of a Geological Model. 81 mits of shewing the objects solidly, in relief; and according to their actual proportions, whene ever practi icable. I mean the pro- cess of modelling areas of country, in preference to any other method of representation; whether by drafts, diagrams, tables, maps, sections or other customary means. Under this impression, and with a view to convey these sentiments in a useful direction, [ have made some exertion to complete, for this occasion, a spe- cimentit the art, illustrative of several hundred square miles of interesting country in the interior of this state; but have only during the intervals of the present meeting of geotniaiate, found time to re and commit to paper the following observations. _ With the best assistance which art can confer, by means of horizontal or vertical or concentric shading, or by the most elabo- rate arrangement of lines upon a plane surface, to produce the effects of light, shadow, height, depth and perspective, such pro= cesses, it is universally conceded, fail to accomplish what is sim- ply effected by es If to these desiderata in geological to represent the courses and the inclination of strata, and the breadths and separate characters of formations, the difliculties attendant on lucid illustration are mneneeen, in any process short of modelling. Whenever the scale, upon which a given area is protracted, is sufficiently large to permit an approximate correspondence be- tween the horizontal and the vertical admeasurements, the effect is perfect. ‘The utility of the work is enhanced, in as much as it combines the exhibition of both transverse and oe sec- tions on the field of survey ; and illustrates not only the e features and physical geography of the district, but enables the interior structure, the grouping of its mountain masses, a nations, bearing, direction, contortions and dislocations of the strata into which those formations and masses are subdivided, to be exhibited in a simple yet very striking and appropriate manner. With the addition of superficial coloring, the pictorial character of the region represented, can be as accurately depicted as ina highly finished landscape. Perhaps even more so; in as much as the positions of all surrounding objects, and of all accessory de- tails, are defined with geognostic accuracy in the one case, rather ines which are indispensable to _ we add those which are inten- * than imperfectly traced in the other, however experienced may — Vol. xu1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. * F 82 Notice of a Geological Model. be the hand and the eye of the artist. The interesting and ac- curate effect incidental to a picture, thus formed in relief, is appa- rent enough when the observer brings his eye to the level of any ‘point whatever on the model ;—the summit of a mountain, the point of a bluff, or the curve of a river, for instance,—from whence all that he needs in obtaining at ease and convenience a view of the surrounding scenery, is accomplished. For topographical observations, for rapid reconnoissances, for tracing routes for railroads, for canals, or for ordinary roads and communications, the model system presents facilities for number- less practical purposes, and may be the means of saving a great of preliminary labor and expense, on such occasions, in a mountainous or forest district. In all such regions, it is common to adopt as the best, because they are the most natural and the most permanent, lines of de- marcation, the elevated chains, the elongated ridges, the ranges of highlands or platforms which divide the sources of rivers and influence the descent of drai or to constitute the rivers themselves, as they flow betwe ithesi ges, the boundaries. of local and territorial jurisdictions. All of these are particularly and necessarily prominent features in a model; and these, the most sublime and most imperishable eioensgsibii in all countries, have with propriety been selected as the most fitting for such conventional purposes. Had a model, however roughly con- structed, been in existence to illustrate the physical geography of what is termed “the disputed territory” in the northeast, half a century of embarrassment and conflicting opinions, and local dif ficulties, might have been saved to the interested parties. It is ni late, even at this hour, to exhibit in this way, all the topegrebaicn! characters of that region; to represent those great natural features, suggested for lines of international boundary. All details applicable for this purpose are but now in progress of collection. From their arrangement we may expect to result the clearing up of existing obscurities ; a more accurate construc- tion of terms, and the adjustment of important points, now at issue. Models are peculiarly adapted to the exhibition of geological phenomena. For ordinary convenience of transportation and — portability, no doubt maps are best adapted, for the library, or for the use of the traveller. But for public and more enlarged ob- ‘ - adorned with instructive Notice of a Geological Model. 83 jects, and for scientific institutions, the more permanent and pon- derous form of representation, such as that we have now under consideration, does appear to possess stronger.recommendations. We would desire to extend the principle so far as to introduc@ it in the final elucidation of state geological surveys; convinced that the greatest advantage would result from it. There exists no remarkable or insurmountable difficulty in thus exhibiting, in the distinctest form, the most prominent geological features of the states around us. ‘There appears to be no practical or scientific reason, (pecuniary considerations aside,) why the results of those labors which have proceeded so successfully, and are still prose- cuted so satisfactorily, in most of the States in the Union, by gentlemen of high professional eminence, a large proportion of whom are now assembled here,—there appears no reason, [ re- mark, why the vast mass of facts which they have thus so in- dustriously accumulated, should not finally receive this mode of representation. The capitols of Harrisburg, of Richmond, or of Albany, and other seats of geal moi might be honorably zical models of their respective states; and in due time when the great work has so far proceeded in advancement, the Capitol of Washington itself might be en- riched by one superb model, in which shall be concentrated those results which so much combined talent has brought to light and re- duced to order, and the usefulness of which has been demonstrated. The illustration of physical geography by means o has long been practiced in the admirable representations of moun- tainous regions in Southern Europe, by skillful artists. Many of the European museums contain extremely beautiful models of alpine districts. Some of these even embrace a large portion of Southern Europe; constituting, in fact, maps in relievo, elabo- rately executed and truly valuable as works of art. For the most part they are designed as pictorial representations of highly inter- esting regions; without particular reference to their geology, or to the interior structure and arrangement of their elevated masses. Although these much prized models obtained a place in the Eng- lish collections, as splendid specimens of a peculiar art, the appli- cation of that art to economic geology, and to kindred subjects, for which it is especially adapted, has been but little employed in England and its introduction is of comparative recent date. The geological model, for which the Society of Arts conferred their - 84 ' Notice of a Geological Model. gold medal, in 1830, was the first which had been exhibited in been exhibited in London; the one represents the field and battle & that excellent institution. A recommendation to adopt the more frequent application of the system, has been occasionally urged y prominent geological authorities. Since the date referred to two most elaborately executed models, on a very large scale, have of Waterloo, the other depicts the beautiful lake scenery of the north of England; both of them the result of vast labor and sin- gular perseverance. Those models which, in Germany and some other mineral countries, represent the itera economy of the mines and mining operations, belong to a class extremely useful, but different to that which has given rise to the present memoir. We come now to the consideration of the model before us. In point of mineral value, of geological peculiarities, of statistical intricacy, and of highly picturesque features, the district here ‘ represented in miniature, yet with sufficient faithfulness as re- gards characteristic distinctness, has perhaps no equal, within a similar area, in America. Itsa proximation to the tide waters of the Atlantic coast, moreover, ers upon it a commercial val- ue, in connection with the sources of industry and of remunera- tion for labor, manifestly within its limits. We are justified in adverting to these circumstances, because the useful results, and the beneficial application of science in economic geology, form legitimate objectae of associations like oa which I have the honor a seven hundred and rile sth forty five miles, and in width sixteen mails. It states in Tenia from four miles above Harrisburg, northward, to Millersburg on the Susquehanna, at the junction of the Wiconisco railroad. In length it reaches from the western extremity of the Cove mountain, on the west side of the Susquehanna to within eight miles of Pottsville. It comprises the two forks into which the Schuylkill coal-field sep- arates, opposite to Pinegrove, in the Swatara region. 'The north- ern fork or branch extends to the Wiconisco Coal Company’s mines at Bear Gap, and the southern branch stretches towards the Susquehanna in a southwest direction, to within about a mile of that river. The coal formation along several miles of the western portion of this lower fork, is reduced to a narrow ridge, _ which can scarcely be expected to contain coal to any valuable ad Notice of a Geological Model. 85 extent. Both the branches alluded to are bounded or enclosed > by corresponding mountain ridges; the,strata of which, composed of the inferior red shales and of a numerous series of sandstones and conglomerates, underlie the coal measures and the upper red shales. he coal strata in these separate branches or basins dip, “a for the most part, to their respective centres. The horizontal area is protracted as a scale of two inches to a mile; the data for which have been derived from a variety of public and local surveys. In the vertical scale we have been en- abled to approach so near to the horizontal as two of the former to one of the latter; an approximation which is more close than is usual in such works. And here it may be permitted to apply some remarks on the construction of diagrams. It has been customary with most geologists, and I believe almost universally with civil engineers, where the bases of their sections are considerably extended, to adopt a much larger scale for the perpendicular than for the longitudinal dimensions. Consequent- ly, the diagrams, so drawn, amount to absolute distortions, and manifestly convey very inaccurate ideas. The proportions of relative heights and lengths are thus so grossly caricatured, that they bear but distant resemblances to what is intended to be rep- resented. ‘The inclinations of strata are changed from moderate angles almost up to vertical; the altitudes of hills are stretched to the eminence of lofty peaks; rounded dary i ires; gentle u surface of a S thus met- assume the form of atten craggy steeps, and the o amorphosed into a region ha alpine crests, and steep and fathomless gulfs—a hideous burlesque upon the actual aspect of the district represented, or rather mis- represented. ' In constructing geological diagrams I have, for some time, ceased to make any difference between the horizontal and verti- cal scales. At any rate I have endeavored, as closely as may be, to adhere to that principle. If the drawings be executed with delicacy they rarely require a deviation from the rule; and I would respectfully recommend an adherence to it, among my ge- ological friends, particularly in relation to the state surveys, where comparisons of sections are continually needed. We shall then, and not till then, possess something like uniformity in the repre- sentations o similar things. So long as the distorting principle = cad arts ¢ +. 86 Notice of a Geological Model. is tolerated we shall continue to convey and to view every thing under a false medium, and shall describe objects under every shape but their real one. Geological sections, if drawn with suit- able care and with the nicety that such works demand, particu- larly if they be engraved rather than lithographed, may be made perfectly distinct at a very small vertical scale. Detailed sections of particular portions, on a larger scale, can readily accompany and elucidate the general section. The present writer has con- structed sections of many hundred miles in this country upon a scale, both vertical and horizontal, or very nearly corresponding, as small as five miles to an inch, and yet has exhibited all impor- tant features therein. 'The system is clearly the right one, and ought to be followed. It is the only one, in fact, which can be made to exhibit the true inclination of the strata, the real bearing, position and magnitude of the formations and their relation to each other, and furnishes the means of measuring the thickness of those masses. In modelling also, although not always attain- able, it would be equally desirable to approach as nearly as possi- “ble to the same rule. I have dwelt the more strenuously upon these methods of illus- trating geological phenomena, with a view to attract the attention of gentlemen who are about to place before the public, for the benefit and ale of us all, the result of their respective would take the liberty of earnestly solicit- n v ve all admit is extremely amely, uniformity in rocess and modes of rep- resentation. Wherever it is possible, let similar scales be em ployed for the geological sections af different states. Wherever it is practicable, and to a very great degree it already is, let simi- lar colors represent similar formations, wherever they occur. at this stage we cannot yet settle that extremely difficult point, that “consummation devoutly to be wished,” a common nomen- clature, let us approach it as near as we can, by the use of com- mon symbols, as a temporary substitute for a common language I think these are matters on which the present meeting might, with perfect propriety, enter. Let it be borne in mind that the accumulation of facts is one thing—a desideratum of primary im portance, certainly. But the science of putting together those materials—the exemplification of those facts—to effect the pur poses of geological elucidation, to reach the understanding, Notice of a Geological Model. 87 impress on the mind and memory, is no mean part remaining to be performed. Let it be remembered that facts are comparatively useless without arrangement; that they are valueless if they are not presented to the senses in an intelligible and accurate form. The elements wherefrom to erect a geometric figure may be be- fore us, but until we have truly constructed that figure from those elethents, our impressions as to its form and proportion are neces- sarily vague and feeble. The materials wherewith to construct a house or a ship may be all prepared with strict regard to their individual dimensions, but as separate members they convey to us no idea of the actual form of that house or that ship. It is the art of the builder then to put together those materials; and, in like manner, the geologist, or the geological draftsman, or the modeller, has to exercise his art, in putting together and exhibit- ing in correct forms, the details he has labored so hard to collect. Above all things, let him avoid distortions in drawing. It is in- cumbent upon those who undertake to enlighten and instruct others by diagrams, to exhibit those diagrams in true, and not in false proportions. The master can no more hope to convey to his” pupil a right idea of a cube or a square, for instance, by repre- senting in his diagram its height four or five times its breadth, than can the draftsman in our science, expect to convey correct notions of geological arrangement by a similarly defective process. ° Returning to the model before us. The local elevations above the level of tide, have been ascertained at a sufficier points, particularly in the coal districts, to convey the prevailing characters of the country. A number of these heights, are marked on their proper sites upon the model. All of these were found by spirit level and positive admeasurements. ‘The Pennsylvania canal on the east bank of the Susquehanna river, where it cuts through the second mountain, is three hundred and twenty seven feet above tide level in Chesapeake Bay. The Swatara river, above Pinegrove, passes through the same mountain, thirty one miles to the eastward, at the height of six hundred and nine feet above tide. The prevailing elevation of the ridges which form the north and south edges of the southern coal basin, is sixteen hundred: or sixteen hundred and fifty feet above tide water. As a general remark, when casting a glance over the area here repre- sented, we cannot but be struck with the comparative uni- formity in their elevations, and the extensive maintenance of 88 Notice of a Geological Model. those levels along the crests of the ridges, when not broken by transverse fissures. The Blue or Kittatinny Mountain, the south- ernmost of these nearly parallel ranges, is probably the highest. The coal range is next in elevation, and there is some lofty ground, forming Short Mountain, between Peter’s and Berry’s mountains. ¥ Geological F'eatures.—Under this head we shall here be very brief; because that subject is not the primary object of this ad- dress ; and because the region has received or will receive, ample investigation by the state geological survey, with all the combined advantages resulting from the official resources, the science and the experience of its able conductor. The results of that great work it would be premature to anticipate. The positions of the various formations and of the respective members of the groups of strata, within these limits, have already been indicated in the annual reports of Professor Rogers. In contemplating this region, it appears to us that its most inter- esting features are attributable to the undulating and broken or upheaved character of the formations, by which process some of them are repeatedly brought to the surface, in long elevated ridges, and again dip at high angles and form basins which en- close or support the superior strata—the carboniferous series being of course the highest. These circumstances confer a remarkably picturesque character upon the scenery, particularly where these parallel ridges are intersected by the Susquehanna, the Juniata, and the Swatara rivers. No part of Pennsylvania is so rich in pictorial beauty as the borders of the noble Susquehanna, or has furnished so many subjects for the skill of the painter. The spectacle here presented, by this river, cutting across in its singular passage, nearly at right angles, through so many ridg- es of extremely hard rocks, would of itself furnish a theme for geological speculation. Phenomena like these are well illustrated by the mode of representation we have adopted. The numerous cross fractures marked by the frequent gaps through the moun- tains and by the remarkable ramifications of the Swatara, in the Pinegrove coal region, could by no other process of exhibition be rendered so intelligible. The Coal Formation.—It forms no part of the plan of the wri- ter to encumber this communication with minute details. With regard to the southern branch, more especially, it is the less neces- 90.4. ‘Notice of'a-Geological Model, kill coal basin, between the coal beds and the red shale, has thin- ned out and'at some points appears to be altogether absent. The greatest amount of coal which has been proved at this branch, is at Blackspring gap, where eight southern and seven northern seams have been explored, the aggregate thickness of which is “ninety feet. gps! Passing over to the northern branch of the main coal-field, a fine series of beds occurs, some of them being of considerable thickness. The anthracite here is of excellent quality. From the Swatara region eastward for several miles, there has been but little exploration of the numerous coal seams known to exist there; there being no convenient mode of communication, by canal or railroad, completed in that quarter. Argillaceous carbonate of iron, in beds and detached masses, prevails in this coal region ; to what extent, however, we cannot say, as their investigation has hitherto been but a secondary object. The foregoing notes are, it is conceived, sufficiently explanatory of the prevailing characters of the district. Did it possess no other peculiarity or attraction than that derived from the remarkable arrangement, or rather derangement, of the formations which it comprises, it might still claim your attention, as an area of high geological interest. Viewing it with reference to its growing im- portance as a mineral country, favorably circumstanced, we have little cause for apprehension that the labors of the artist have been employed on a barren and profitless field. Already have nine or ten chartered companies for coal and mining operations located themselves here. Already several furnaces and forges have been established in its vicinity... The Pennsylvanian, the Wiconisco and the Union canals, traverse within its limits. Two or three ilroads are already in full communication with its collieries, and charters for five or six others have been procured from the legis- lature. As relates to the region we have been considering, we » are but on the threshold of improvement. The industry of man has but recently been put in requisition within its borders. But experience has already informed him that the once despised, cha- otic, impassable wilderness, teems with treasures more precious to him, perhaps, than gold. The labors of the geologist, be they local or general ; be they for private or for public objects; for indi- viduals, for associations, or for the community at large,—cannot . fail to develop new and beneficial results wheresoever directed, in ‘Such a field. To have had some share in the attaining and the SL IYDIE fn: 2 a. ote oe we gk ing SAD P10 FT st oa & DIS pLI4 of A000/ we jf BOO0L y s Em = bd cs UUM AEC ‘s a a “ben greong 2 7 Tae Se a ee - ni tp r a ea ee pH O080L SIDIC pT aves Sen Wn. aan ann nn = ee ar. p11 pm a ey ‘ “4 9O0F Es a_i. YRS afpIg prty191 OPT LY INE TSE CATO BeN TIX IOA IOS ‘YoOFr WY _my possession, and for the most part prepared fro sane Notice of a Geological Model. am 91 distribution of this knowledge, and to have contributed any aid to the great cause of economic geology, is a gratification which is worth no small exertion to acquire. It has proved, let me add, in all sincerity, the strongest inducement to perseverance in the work now before the association. At the request of some members of the associaten, I have an- nexed to the foregoing memoir a few illustrative sections con- structed on a variety of small scales, with the intention of exhib- iting the practicability of using even minute vertical scales, in geological demonstrations. They are as follows: Fig. A, is a section whose horizontal scale is three miles to an inch, and the vertical scale 5280 feet to the inch, being in fact in the proportion of 3 to 1. This, to the section B beneath it, where the proportions are equal, the horizontal line and the area illustrated being similar. Fig. B. Section at three miles to an inch, both vertical and horizontal, of the same ground as Section A, and in fact a ah erse section oF the model, which has been described i in ne foregoing paper. ig. C. Section pr ed at four ellen to an inch, both wibiial and horizontal It shews the peiton of eg 4 the apres Pennsylvania bituminous coal basins. Fig. D. iles to inch. Here there is a trifling increase, s- amounting ae one "half sa in the Petia} scale, viz. 14 to 1. It also exhibits two detached coal basins in Pennsylvania. ‘ Fig. E. Section at two miles to an inch, on equal scales. This Periertion is sufficiently large to admit of characteristic details. ra is a a profile of the Alle- ghany mountain, descending eastward ; also in As I have not conveniently at hand, ae sections hav-- ing the altitudes above tide level, drawn by other authorities, it was necessary to resort to the fiintoctate “which happen to be in personal ob- servation. I hope they are sufficiently accurate for the purpose designed. - To render these experimental siete ae useful for com- parison I have inserted Professor H. D. Rogers’s numbers of the respective formations. With regard to the colors adopted, they are not proposed as standards, but are simply those which I have been accustomed to employ ; differing very ast I perceive, from the extreme clearness of its details. 3 ‘ _ While these observers are ‘read to the Asiatic Society in Sept., 1838, and published in their : * 9 —- A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. Art. X.—A Notice of “ Indian Cyprinidae,” being the second . part of the nineteenth volume of Asiatic Researches, by Mr. John M’ Clelland. Read Feb. 17, 1841, to the Boston Society of Natural History, by D. Humpureys Storer. vont We are almost entirely ignorant of the fresh-water fishes of ma- ny of those countries, whose marine species are tolerably well known, to ichthyologists.' The reason is obvious—the smallest sea-port has its market constantly supplied with those species which are used for food—the great proportion of such species, are taken along the shores of the different countries, and but very few fluviatile fishes are considered of sufficient value to be procured— so that, we are compelled to learn from the zealous naturalist, who is actuated by other motives than the expectation of pecuniary reward, the characters and habits of such species as inhabit the streams and rivers and lakes. He therefore who attempts to elu- cidate a subject so desirable to be known, recommends himself by the'mere effort, to our regard—should he succeed in his attempt, ‘we ought not to withhold our gratification. _ Agassiz, whose name is a guarantee of the value of his labors, is at this moment preparing a magnificent work upon the “Pois- sons d’Eau Douce de Europe Centrale.” In our own country, _ Dr. Kirtland, like a true naturalist, with an enthusiasm propor- you with the “ Fishes of the Westar Waters” arid I feel confi- dent, when his entire paper shall be published, although future research may, and undoubtedly will point out errors, that it must be invaluable to the American ichthyologist. ile rosecuting their enquiries, we are sur- prised to receive an elaborate paper upon the “Indian Cyprinidz,” — tionate to the obstacles he encounters. is endeavoring to present “Researches” the following year. This paper, to which I wo now call your attention, was prepared by Mr. George M’Clellai assistant surgeon in the Bengal medical service. Our auth induced to undertake the elucidation of this subject, by pere that Cuvier had adopted only such of the Indian Cy prini a as were figured in Dr. Buchanan’s work on Gangetic Fishes—leav- ing the remaining three fourths of the species described in that we i ‘ yy as not well determined—and feeling satisfied that these - ° . * me ¢ A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. = 198 descriptions of Buchanan were so general that they could not by any one be distinguished, he resolved to make the attempt to identify them, by collecting all these species and minutely study- ing their charactéts: “After perseverance for the better part of three years,” to use the words of our author, “occasionally giving it up in despair, I succeeded in identifying most of the species unfigured by Bu@hanan, as well as in having made two series of finished drawings of them, one set for England and one for India.” After his paper was ready for publication, our author learned that some of Buchanan’s drawings of his Gangetic Fishes, were in the government house at the botanie garden in Calcutta—and upon investigation, found a collection “amounting to one hundred and _ fifty beautifully executed, and including nearly all the unpublish- ed species on which my painters had been so long employed, with the specific names in Buchanan’s hand-writing marked under the figures, so as to leave no doubt or difficulty in referring them to corresponding descriptions in the Gangetic Fishes.” Fortunate indeed was it for science, although gross injustice to Buchanan, that these drawings should have been thus long concealed ; had all the figures appeared in his Gangetic Fishes,” they would? have supplied the deficiency in his descriptions, and the rich vol- ume before us, would have never been undertaken. Now, after having for years examined the swamps and stagnant pools; and the mountain streams of India—after having enlisted his numer- ous friends in his service, and possessed through their efforts and his own, not merely all the species described by Buchanan, but many previously unknown—Dr. M’Clelland is not satisfied merely to cry out evgyxe, but embodies here a - great amount of informa- tion obtained during his researc 1d throws new light 8; a ichthyology of the east. * The Cyprinide, are arranged by Cuvier in the “ Regne Ani- mil ” as the first family of the Malacopterygii abdominales—and ~ = mm Jags thus—they are “recognized by the slightly cleft ath ; weak jaws, generally edentated, and whose border is - vy the intermaxillaries; by the deeply dentated pharyngeals ich compose the trifling armature of the jaws, and by the small mber of the branchial rays. Their body is scaly, and they have no adipose dorsal, such as we shall find in the Siluri and in the Salmons. Their stomach has no cul-de-sac, neither are there any cecal appendages to their pylorus. Of all the fishes, “= ~ e: + ca 94° A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. are the least carnivorous.” This family is divided by Cuvier into seventeen genera, characterized for the most part by the form of the mouth, and the position of the dorsal fin. After a minute examination of the digestive apparatus of these fishes, Dr. M’Clel- land has pointed out a natural arrangement, which goes far to simplify their study. He ascertained that upon the greater or less development of the intestinal canal, he covild determine the food taken by the different genera—whether it was animal or vegetable ; and that the position of the mouth corresponded with this arrangement of the canal. That such of the family as lived entirely upon vegetable food, possessed the greatest development of the intestines—and their mouths were horizontal or directed downwards; and that those which lived upon insects, had the least development of these organs—and their jaws were directed upwards. He has accordingly formed three subfamilies, into which he divides the Cyprinide. The first, he calls Peonomine, or her- bivorus Cyprins—from poionomos, that feeds on herbs. This subfamily is thus characterized—* mouth slightly cleft, either horizontal or directed more or less downward. The stomach is a lengthened tube continuous with a long intestinal canal; colo- rus plain; three rays in the branchial membrane. Obs. Theit food consists chiefly of confervoid plants and other productions of the vegetable kingdom.” The Peonomine contain five long established genera; viz. Cirrhinus, Barbus, Cyprinus proprius, Gobio, and Gonorhynchus.. From the Barbels, our author has formed a subgenus, which he calls Oreinus, from Oreinos, per- taining to mountains. & _ The second subfamily is called Sarcoborina, from agxofog0s; carnivorous. This subfamily is composed of five genera. ‘Two of these genera were previously established, viz. Leuciscus, (Klein,) and Abramis, (Cuv.)—three other genera are formed by our author. The first of these, he calls Systomus, from Systo- mos, that has a narrow mouth. Characters. “ Intermaxillaries protractile, dorsal and anal short, the former opposite to the veu- . trals and preceded by a spinous ray ; body elevated, and marked by two or more distinct dark spots, or diffuse spots either on the fins or opercula, prominence on the apex of the lower jaw ob- scure.”’ = “ & A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. . 95 The genus Perilampus, from Heguiaunw, to irradiate, or shine brilliantly, is thus distinguished. ‘Head small, obliquely raised above the axis of the body; dorsal placed opposite toa larger anal; apices of the jaws raised to a line with the dorsum, which is straight; the ventral margin is much arched; sides usually streaked with blue; fins without spinous rays. Obs. In this genus the intestine is small, and very little longer than the body. ‘The species all subsist exclusively on insects, which they seize by leaping above the surface. They vary from two to four inches in length.” The third genus of our author, is Opsarius, from owaguy, pisci- culus, a small fish; its characters are thus defined. ‘“ Mouth widely cleft; body slender, and usually marked with transverse green streaks or spots; dorsal small without spines, and placed behind the middle, and long, lower margin of the body more arch- ed than the upper. Obs. Intestine very short, and extends al- Most straight from the stomach to the vent.” In the genera of this subfamily, the mouth is situated directly Opposite to the position it had in the former. They are all insec- tivorous—the Opsarions, which also devour smaller species of fishes, particularly gudgeons, are so voracious, that ‘it is no un- common thing to find an Opsarion so overgorged that the tail of its prey remains protruding from the mouth, to be swallowed after that portion which is capable of being received into the capacious Stomach is sufficiently digested to admit of the introduction of the remainder.” Another striking distinction between the indi- viduals of these two subfamilies, is pointed out to us in their colors. ‘“'The whole of the subfamily Peonomine are remark- able for their unifornily plain colors, consisting of olive green, bluish gray, or brown, extended along the back, and softened off on the sides so as to leave the lower surface of the body an im- pure white, partaking more or less of the colors of the back.” “Of the species, not one possesses a brilliant spot of any pure Color.” But as we leave the herbivorous group and enter the Carnivorous, we find numerous bright, dark spots, and the oper- cula and fins to be stained with yellow and red, in deep and natu- tal tints; and the more carnivorous the genera the more remark- able is the brilliancy of their colors. The third subfamily, is called Apalopterine, from axclos, soft, and ategoy, a fin or wing. It “consists of those genera, the spe- hy = z, 96 A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. cies of which pom ter elongated cylindric bodies or flat heads, as the Loaches and Pecilia. They are without spinous rays in any of the fins, the intestine is short, and enveloped in a copious mucous secretion ; three to six rays in the branchial membrane.” There are four genera. The first genus of this subfamily is called Platycara, from _platus, broad, and kara, head. Its characters are “ head flat, with the eyes placed on the upper surface, fins thick and opaque, pec- torals large, anal small, caudal bifid, mouth without teeth and pla- ced on the lower surface of the head, three rays in the branchial membrane. Obs. The stomach and intestine form a continuous fleshy tube, not much exceeding the length of the body; they are found in elevated mountain streams.” The second genus is Pszlorhynchus, from psilo, thin or attent- ated, and rynchus, a snout or beak. It is distinguished by ‘‘ muz- zie elongated and flattened, eyes placed on the edges of the head, mouth small and suctorial without cirri, opercula small, caudal bifid, dorsal opposite to the ventrals.” ‘The third genus Pecilia, includes the genera Pecilia, Lebias, Fundulus, Molinesia, and Cyprinodon, contained in the ‘‘ Regne Animal.” A single subgenus is formed from this genus, which is called Aplocheilus, from Anihos, simple or single, and yevhos, the lip, and having the following characters—‘ intermaxillaries fixed, apices of the jaws broad, flat, and directed upwards; five rays it the branchial inerhbrane’ sion transparent. Obs. A short dorsal is placed opposite to the last ray of a long anal, the ventrals are very small ; the intestine and stomach form together a small tube scarcely eacen than the body.” The fourth genus Cobitis, (Linn.) is divided into two subge- nera ; the first, our author calls Cobitis propria—here, we find the “caudal entire, large, and ornamented as well as the dorsal, with bars or spots; prevailing color of the body, various shades of brown, disposed in more or less dense nebule.” ‘To the se cond subgenus, our author has given the name of Schistura, from Xyortos, split or separated, and ovge, cauda. Its characters are “caudal bilobate, dorsal and ventrals opposite, and short; with or without suborbitar spines ; sides ornamented with fasci@- ted bars, mostly green. Obs. The intestine is somewhat longer than that of the true Loaches, (Cobitis propria, ) cts usually reflected once upon the stomach.” bs A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. 97 We have thus exhibited a mere outline of the important im- provements proposed by Dr “M'Clelland in the natural arrange- ment of the Cyprinide ; but besides his classification, our author has presented us a general synopsis of the species, and illustrated them with lithographic figures, from drawings mostly his own, all of which are sufficiently well executed to convey accurate ideas, and many of them are highly creditable. Besides furnish- ing nineteen colored plates, containing nearly one hundred figures, the volume before us is also enriched by a single plate, exhibiting the peculiar forms of the jaws in several genera of the subfamily Peonomine, and the differences of form and proportion of the alimentary canal in each of these great subfamilies. Almost one half of the entire volume is devoted to an “ac- count of the species,” and it constitutes by far the most interest- ing portion. We here find, not merely a scientific description of each fish, with its Latin and native name and its geographical locality, but its habits are elucidated with great clearness and evident acquaintance; its value as an article of food, from its delicacy or abundance, and the possibility and importance in ma- _ ‘hy instances of its being transported from one locality to another for economical purposes, are pointed out with the zeal of a phi- lanthropist ; while the perseverance and fidelity with which our author has studied the minute anatomy of his subjects, must claim from all readers their admiration. Published as this treatise is, by a society whose “Transactions” have become so voluminous, and are with difficulty procured, it cannot be extensively circulated or known among American nat- uralists ; I would notice therefore a few points of general inter- est, selected from the portion of this paper just referred to. In some parts of India, many of the species of fishes are found inimmense quantities. Our author, after describing Cyprinus- chola, remarks: “ Casting a net into a pond in Middle Assam, not Presenting any remarkable appearance of containing fish, about one hundred and twenty were brought up at a single draught”— (nine Species captured are here mentioned). “ The extent of the pond may have been four hundred yards, and that of the net three yards; and supposing half the fish to have escaped from _ Under the net, the number in the pond would have been thirty two thousand. When we consider the vast extent of surface occupied by waters equally productive, both in Bengal and As- Vol. xt1, No, 1.—April-June, 1841. 13 . 98 A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. sam, we may forma conception of the inexhaustible supply of fish that might be procured for consumption in other parts of the country where they are less plentiful.” p. 384. Several species are useful not merely as an article of food; speaking of Cyprinus cursis, Dr. M’Clelland observes, “It is a beautiful fish, common in Bengal and Assam as high as Sudyah, but being full of bones, is little valued as an article of food. If it be less useful in this respect than other Cirrhins, it is more serviceable than we are aware of, in common with the numerous Gudgeons, in clearing the indolent waters of the plains from a redundancy of vegeta- tion with which they would otherwise be choked up.” _ p. 330. Many of the species are of great value as excellent and nutritious food, and might be rendered infinitely more so, could they be salted when taken, or be transported and allowed to propagate in other portions of the country. Thus the Barbus megulepis, which is an admirable fish, is “peculiar to remote, unpopulated districts, where no attempts are made to cure; they are con: sequently lost to the wants of other places, where an unlimited demand for dried fish must prevail at all seasons, but particularly during the rains and hot weather, when fresh fish become scarce. There can be no doubt that if some relaxation of salt duties could be made in favor of those who would embark in such 4 business, a profitable and useful trade might be established to 4 far greater extent than we can at present form any notion of. The season for fishing is short, and without the means of saving more than can be consumed when fresh, the fishermen have nothing to stimulate them to any exertion beyond that of earn ing during their brief season, a sufficient sum to support them during the rest of the year. Had the fisherman the means of pre- serving the results of his labor, his chief market would commence when the fishing season ends, and his industry would then be- come a permanent benefit to himself and to the country at large. Sea fisheries would be of still higher importance, although nei- ther should be neglected. The cold season, from November to February, is the time at which fishes are chiefly taken; the wa ters being then low, the fish are confined to narrow channels, and are often completely cut off from the larger streams and left in pools, in which they are easily secured. When passing Sola- no Mookh with the Assam deputation in January, I saw boats Jaden with most of the five kinds of Barbels just described, from A Notice of Indian Cyprinidae. 99 one to two and a half feet in length ; but as Suddyah, the nearest market at which they could probably be disposed of, was thirty miles distant, and a strong current to be opposed in reaching that place, and no means of curing the fish, the owners entertained little hopes of realizing any thing whatever by them.” _p. To the important subject of transporting fishes from one pond or river to another, our author has given much attention, and his suggestions are worthy the notice of the government of India. We are told, that “throughout the Mysore country, as well as in many of the western provinces, large tanks or reservoirs occur, many of them from three to thirty miles in circumference, and being indispensable for irrigation, may be supposed to be nearly universal in all populous districts not watered by rivers. These reservoirs are considered by the honorable Col. Morison, C. B. as among the greatest national monuments to be found in India. They are capable, according to Buchanan, of supplying water for from eighteen months to two years, and thus of maintaining the surrounding crops should no rain fall within that period. “They are drained by an ingenious system of sluices and aque- ducts of the most simple but complete construction, which afford a perfect control over the distribution of the water. During the dry season they are all pretty much exhausted, and may, if ne- Cessary for repairs, be left perfectly dry. This would afford an excellent opportunity for destroying crocodiles and all the various destructive fishes, sparing only the more profitable kinds, which are limited to two or three species only; and by repeating this Operation for several seasons, or as often as may be necessary, all but those we wish to propagate would soon be exterminated. “ By a wise law of nature, the carnivorous animals of every class are less prolific than the harmless, and may therefore be the more easily subdued. Nearly all the destructive fishes are viviparous, bringing forth comparatively few young ; whereas, the more pro- fitable kinds, or those which should be the objects of our care, are all oviparous, and bring forth their young from spawn. “A single female carp weighing only nine pounds, has been found by Dr. Locke to contain no less than six hundred thousand ova; and by Schneider, one, ten pounds weight, was found to contain seven hundred thousand ova or eggs. “The fecundity of the Ruee, Catla, and Mrigala, has not yet been ascertained, but from their close affinity to the carp we may + 100 A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. suppose them to correspond in this respect with that species; the question, however, is one that may be easily ascertained by weighing a grain of the roe and ascertaining the number of glo- bules it contains, while these will be to the whole roe what one grain is to its entire weight. The result will show that these species are capable of yielding, by their extraordinary fertility, a source of food as inexhaustible as the sands of the ocean, could we only bring their propagation and the safety of the young suf- ficiently within our control. “In the reservoirs above described, we have every facility for effecting this object on a scale of great magnitude, without in any way interfering with the other uses of the water.” p. 458, et seq. ‘The only alteration in the present form of the reservoirs to adapt them to the purposes in view, would be to enclose the lowest portions of the bottom of each with stakes long enough to reach above the highest surface of the water, and close enough together to prevent the entrance of crocodiles, otters, and the like, should any such exist in the neighborhood. The spawning sea- son of the Ruee and other Cirrhins, appears to be in the dry ‘weather ; the contrivance here suggested would therefore protect them at that time, and if there should be any danger of the whole of the water drying up, wells of sufficient size and depth might be formed within the enclosure, to which the fishes would retire during droughts, while the shallow waters around the wells would afford space enough for the deposit of spawn. “Much of our success would depend on keeping those enclosures as free as possible from all but the species we desire to propagate. At the commencement of the dry season, before the fish begin to enter the enclosure, the interval between the stakes might be closed with straw, and as the water becomes sufliciently low without, most of the rapacious kinds may be removed or destroy- ed; none should be allowed to remain but that species alone which may be the object of our care. This done, the only fur- ther attention necessary, would be to save the fish in the enclo- sure from birds during the remainder of the dry season. “Should our success be complete, from every moderately sized female Ruee we should have, on the commencement of the rais, from five to ten hundred thousand fry, which, as the waters rise, would be quite able to take care of themselves till the next sea son, when it would be necessary again to destroy the rapacious A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. 101 kinds as before.” ‘On the fishes of Bengal, Assam, and other provinces subject to the inundations of the larger rivers, we can exercise no control, nor is it desirable that we should, even were it in our power, the supply of fish being plentiful and constant enough ; but in the higher parts of the plains, near the foot of the mountains, where the larger Cirrhins and Barbels retire du- ring the dry season for the purpose of spawning, fisheries might be carried on with advantage to a considerable extent.” p. 461. As some species of the Indian fishes are found only in clear and rapid streams, they would not probably thrive well, if at all, in tanks where the water would be still. Should it be consid- ered desirable to propagate to any extent such species, our author suggests, that “the most suitable vivarium for such species might be formed by stopping upa clear mountain stream to a certain depth, and filling the irregularities of the bottom with sand, gravel and stones; there should be a current in the water, and to prevent the escape of the fish, a grating should be fixed below; at the opposite end a stronger grating, if necessary, to prevent the intro- duction of rubbish during floods, as well as, the escape of the fish, should the fall not be sufficient for the latter purpose.” _p. 347, Occasional remarks are found. relating to the altitude at which fishes are known to live in India. Speaking of the Orei- nus guttatus, Dr. M’Clelland observes, it is found “in rivers in different parts of Boutan, between the elevation of two and five | thousand feet. It may occur higher, but Mr. Griffith remarks, that in valleys above five thousand feet, though fine, clear streams are common, yet fishes of any kind do not occur in them, and the natives assured the mission to which he was attached, that no fish existed at such elevations.” p. 345. The Gonorhynchus petrophilus “inhabits streams in Kemaon at an elevation of six thousand feet above the sea, and has been observed by Lieut. Hutton at similar elevations in the mountains north of Simla, as well as by Dr. Campbell in Nipal.” _p. 371. And again, “whether any other kind of fishes may yet be found in still higher altitudes. than those at which the Gono- thynchs and Mountain Barbels disappear, is a problem in the dis- tribution of this class of animals, that travellers in the Himalaya and other lofty regions must decide._In the limpid streams which Mr. Griffith passed. with Capt. Pemberton, at elevations of from six to eight thousand feet in.Boutan, no inhabitants were found ; ce 102 A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. and both here and at Simla, as well as in Kemaon, the Gono- rhynchs and Mountain Barbels have not been found at greater altitudes than six thousand feet above the level of the sea, where we may presume they disappear; but from that altitude down- wards to the plain, they constitute the prevailing forms that have hitherto been met with in the waters.” p. 369. It is well known that several of the marine fishes, under pecu- liar circumstances, produce derangement in the systems of those who eat them; it appears that similar affections are the result of feeding upon some of the Indian Cyprinide. Thus we are told “that many of the natives abstain from the use of the Cyprinus cursis, imagining that if eaten on the same day with milk it will occasion a disease called elephantiasis.” p. 35 The Oreinus progastus “is said by the natives of Assam to occasion swimming of the head and temporary loss of reason for several days, without any particular derangement of the stomach. It is the most herbivorous of the Barbels, and like some of the Gudgeons, tends rapidly to decay after death, and in the abdom- inal cavity a copious oily secretion is found, which is probably the cause of its bad effects.” p. 344 Our author observes, that in some species “the whole of the abdominal viscera float in a dark, oily kind of fluid ;” and he re- marks, “that either this fluid, or the great proportion of vegeta- _ ble matter contained in the intestines of the gudgeon and Gono- rhynchs, tends rapidly to putrefaction ; to which cause, as well as to the neglect of removing the viscera from those species imme- diately after they are caught, I ascribe the bad effects which have by some been observed to result on certain occasions from their use.” “Mr. Bruce, of Assam, also mentioned to me, that he knew of instances of indisposition supposed to be occasioned by a variety of Bangon. All Bangons and Gonorhynchs should therefore have the viscera removed soon after they are taken, and the dark, oily fluid washed away; when, if it be necessary, they will keep fresh as long as any other kind of fish ; but if this be neglected, the stomach rapidly putrefies, in which state, if it be necessary to use these fish, the thin parts adjoining the ventral fins should be removed.” p. 371. I might proceed to point out much, which could not fail to interest you, but it was not my intention to present an elaborate paper. I wished merely by glancing generally at the work before A Notice of Indian Cyprinide. 103 me, to show you how creditably the author has performed his task ; he deserves, and will I trust, receive in the pages of the scientific journals of his native country, a faithful critique. Before closing this report, I would revert to a single circum- stance which is highly honorable to Dr. M’Clelland. It appears that Dr. Buchanan, during a long residence in India, had made a large collection of papers and drawings illustrating the natural history of that country, which were taken from him, as he was about to leave India, by the Marquis of Hastings, and deposited in the government house at the botanic garden in Calcutta—so that he was obliged when he reached Edinburgh, to publish his Gangetic Fishes without most of his plates. Dr. M’Clelland, when he finally knew of the existence of these drawings, was sur- prised to ascertain that Hardwicke in his “Illustrations” had freely copied many of them, without giving the slightest credit to Bu- chanan, and had even annexed to them new names, although the names of their discoverer were attached to the drawing, and in his own handwriting. But the names were not merely changed ; “during the twenty years Buchanan’s drawings lay at the botanic garden, before they were transferred to Hardwicke’s Lllustrations, many of the colors appear to have undergone a change, such as light blue and green becoming dark brown ; not aware of this, the copyist has not only imitated the altered colors, but added a little to their intensity ; the consequence of which is, that the figures thence obtained in the expensive work referred to, are made to appear in black, when they should only be a pale grey or green.” p. 355, note. Mortified to find, that a departed natu- ralist had thus been robbed of a portion of his well earned fame, and proud to be the means of rescuing from oblivion. the labors of Buchanan, Dr. M’Clelland has not only in every instance, when practicable, referred to his plates in the most generous man- ner, but has even presented us with some of the original plates, although he had made similar drawings previous to their discov- ery. His whole conduct in this transaction is noble and disinter- ested; and while the naturalist, after reading this volume, ae knowledges his obligations for the information received, he will also feel for the author a deep and abiding esteem. 104 Des Moulins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. Art. XI—Des Moulins’ General Considerations on Restricting the number of Species of the Genera Unio and Anodonta ; trans- lated from the French, by Purr H. Nicxuin, A. M. Prefatory Remarks by the Translator. Te paper of Mr. Charles des Moulins, now offered in an Eng- lish translation, possesses merits of a very high order. It criti- cises without acrimony, and praises without flattery ; it is scientific without pedantry, and philosophical without obscurity. It is imbued throughout with the enlightened spirit of catholic Chris- tianity, which does honor to the writer, and is a favorable symp- tom of the moral condition of the scientific world. Mr. Des Moulins was the predecessor of Dr. Graleloup in the presidency of the Linnean Society of Bordeaux, and is doubt- less a naturalist of a high order. On the presentation of the 2nd~ volume of Mr. Isaac Lea’s Conchological Observations to the Linnean Society, Mr. Des Moulins requested of the Society to be charged with the ‘ Rapport,’ on account of his familiar know- ledge of the English language, acquired during a long residence in Great Britain. In a letter to Mr. Lea he observes, “as I felt obliged to speak my thoughts plainly in the rapport, I ventured to give an explanation of the principles and method on which I would rely, for an enucleation of the true species from amidst the mere forms and differences of sex and age, and in short from all sorts of varieties. This theoretical part of my paper, the Lin- nan Society have judged fit to be printed in their transactions.” “As for the second part of my work, which was plainly the Re- port on your volume, it was not admissible in such a kind of re- view as our transactions, where original writings only can be ad- mitted, and it is not worth my sending a manuscript copy. Let me only tell you that I gave a numerical account of the species of each genus you described, that I criticised your changing the Lamarckian generic name Fridina* for Platiris, and the specific one of Iridina rostrata, Rang, for celestis, while it remains evi- * If ‘Tridina’ had been retained for the genus, it would have been necessary to strike from Lamarck’s generic description the following phrase, “ per longitudinem tuberculosus, subcrenatus ; tuberculi inequalibus, crebris 3” because the Iridina rubens and its fellows, now forming Mr. Lea’s subgenus Spatha, do not fulfil that cardinal condition: it was therefore manifestly proper to adopt a new name for the Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. 105 dent by your own plate, that the shells are exactly the same. I did specially point to your excellent anatomical researches on the animals of Naiades, and to that valuable Synoptical Table, on which you must have toiled so long and so hard, to enubilate the tremendous synonomy of those poor shells. Lastly, after some other analytical details, I ended my report as follows: “Tel est Messieurs, le bel ouvrage dont votre bibliothéque vient d’étre enrichie par la générosité d’un des plus laborieux de vos correspondans. Favorisé par toutes les circonstances qui fa- cilitent et encouragent les travaux du naturaliste, Mr. Lea vous donne l’espoir de voir les siens se multipliér chaque année, ainsi que ses titres a la reconnaissance des savans. T'émoignez-lui la votre, Messieurs, par l’organe de M. le Secretaire Général, car elle est bien méritée, et je le demande comme justice, a la Soci- été Linnéenne, en terminant ce rap u The paper of Mr. Des Moulins, though critical, is highly hon- orable to the labors of our countrymen, shewing that they are casting their mites into the general treasury of the world’s know- ledge. ‘The tribe of the Naiades is one of the most interesting of Nature’s families, dwelling in cells of pearl, adorned within, with all the hnes of flowers and brilliant rainbow dyes, jabunhicines ev- ery crystal Jake and running stream of this terraqueous globe. Man doth press with wandering foot no river bank, nor margin of translucent lake, but there a lovely Nais doth wait and woo his admiration ; —* candida Nai Pallentes violas et summa papavera”’ ji en Virg. Ecl. 2, 1. 46, This is more abundantly the case in our own youthful country, which, as Mr. Des Moulins justly observes, is “‘évidemment la patrie privilégiée des Unios et des Anodontes;” it is therefore not surprising that our young naturalists should have directed their researches with great enthusiasm towards that interesting branch of natural history, in the beautiful subjects of which our country abounds so much more than all other parts of the world, r. Des Moulins arrives at a just conclusion, when he says, “ Il vaut probablement mieux lacher encore les rénes, pendant quel- genus, and to use Lamarck’s name Iridina for the subgenus, in which are arranged all the species which conform to his eae Se hi It would not have been a to make two genera, because an are sup- poesd.2 —Translator’ nearly dentical.— i Vol. xx1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 14 106 Des Moulins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. ques années, aux collecteurs, aux observateurs, aux faiseurs d’es- peces méme, pour ne pas les decourager; et pour laisser ainsi s’augmenter notablement la masse des matérianx ;” so that, when the heap of knowledge shall be thus ‘“ notablement augmentée,” some future classifier, endowed perhaps with a Linnean power of generalizing, may extinguish the superfluous species, and arrange the remainder in exact scientific order. Mr. Des Moulins wears his Christian mantle with so much grace and courage, that he has even quoted Saint Augustine for a profound generalization of the works of God. And perhaps in this matter the saint has excelled the savant ; for the latter oflers the following exposition of the three kingdoms : ineralia crescunt, Vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt, Animalia crescunt et vivunt et sentiunt ; but the former says: uedam sunt, i. e. Mineralia ; Quedam sunt et vivunt, i. e. Vegetabilia ; Quedam sunt, vivunt et sentiunt, i. e. Animalia. Mr. Des Moulins seems to be in error in making growth a pred- icate of minerals. He applauds Linneeus for having borrowed “presque tertuellement & Saint Augustin les trois premiers ter- mes de cette magnifique progression dinstitution divine,’ and yet himself departs from the Augustinian text by substituting crescere for esse ; and as he departs, so far he errs. The Linnean scheme is as follows : Lapides corpora congesta, nec viva, nec sentientia. Vegetabilia corpora organisata et viva, non sentientia. Animalia corpora organisata et viva et sentientia, sponteque sé moventia. Minerals are bodies aggregate, not living nor perceiving. Vegetables are bodies organic and living, not perceiving. — Animals are bodies, organic, living and perceiving, and moving of their own accord. The schemes of the two modern philosophers, when compared with that of the ancient divine, seem to be deficient in severity and precision. Young naturalists will find Mr. Des Moulins’ paper an interest ing and improving study; and the application of its principles need not be restrained to the branch of natural history in discus- ol Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. 107 sion in its pages. The important question, “what is species ?” which he asks but does not answer, seems to present itself at the beginning of every arrangement; and that naturalist would be canonized who should answer it in a manner acceptable to all. The definition given by Milne Edwards in his Elémens de Zoologie, seems to be sufficient for the purpose of arrangement : “On donne le nom d’espéce a la réunion des individus qui se re- produisent entre eux avec les mémes propriétés essentielles.” od Philadelphia, April 10, 1841, General Considerations on the Reform which ought to take place in restricting the number of Species of the genera Unio and Anodonta. Presented to the Linnean Society of Bordeaux, at its sitting of the 5th of July, 1839, on the occasion of the pub- lication of Mr. Isaac Lea’s second volume of Conchological Observations. By Cu. Des Movurins, Member of the Linnean Society of Bordeaux, &c. Gentlemen—An able designer had arranged, in a hundred ad- joining compartments, a hundred figures, of which each one dif- fered so little in appearance from its neighbor, as to be indistin- guishable at the first glance. The first was the figure of the pollo Belvidere, the last was that of a frog. This curious com- parison shadows forth a relation little flattering to the physical man, but of much importance in a philosophical* point of view, in the sense now attached to this word. — It is the graphic repre- Sentation of the celebrated maxim of Linneus, Natura non facit saltum— Nature makes no leaps.’ a Bat really, gentlemen, what is nature? Nature, ac ing to the notion of Linnaeus, in the opinion of Christians, in truth is nothing else than the whole of those laws, or material order, which od imposed on physical things when he created. them. Now gentlemen, this saying of Linnzeus is admirable, it is profound, it is true in the material order, the object at once of the study and teaching of the Professor of Upsal ; and the more worthy it is of our respect, the greater is the necessity of adding to ita commen- tary, restraining its scope within the bounds contemplated by its immortal author. _ ™ The use of this word often appears to me grammatically absurd ; sometimes, instead of it, we ought to say physiological, but oftener ‘metaphysical ; but unfor- tunately the latter frightens children, even children of all ages. we *. 108 Des Moulins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. This saying is true; observe its justness from kingdom to king- dom ; behold the close connexion of the mineral with the vegetable kingdom, in those innumerable crystals which form the micro- scopic quasi skeleton of the stem of the Cacteza, and of so many other plants ; behold it also, though in a different form, in those Chara, so delicate as to be always protected by a stony covering ; observe the relation between the mineral and the animal king- doms, in those curious madrepores, of which the frame-work, en- tirely mineral, is secreted by a feeble living jelly ; behold, finally, that of the animal with the vegetable kingdom, in those corals which unite the essential composition of the former with the flex- ibility and the appearance of the laws of growth of the latter: Natura non facit saltum. Let us proceed, and this maxim will shed more light. It is not a simple line of junction that marks the boundary between the inorganic and the two organic kingdoms; they go even to a su- perposition, or if I may invent a term to express my idea, to a superaddition, so constant as to form one of the essential laws of the physical world. Nothing is purely animal, nothing is purely vegetable, since every organic substance is reduced, by analysis, to inorganic elements. The mineral or inorganic kingdom is, then, the primary matter of the physical world—matter which its Creator has set in action and modified by superadding other principles entirely foreign to it: Natura non JSacit saltum. But observe, gentlemen, this wonderful concatenation: the in- organic kingdom, which enters into the composition of all phys- ical things, is subject to all universal laws, and is limited by God works again, but in another direction, and superadds the principle still more mysterious and sublime, of animal life, of sensation, of volition: ANrmaLta CRESCUNT, VIVUNT ET SENTIENT. Here you still perceive, Natura non. facit saltum. The naturalist stops here ; he stops where stopt the mind of the great classifier of material things, at the bound which neces- sarily limited the extent of his immortal maxim. Linneus, after having borrowed, almost in very phrase from Saint Augustine, the first three terms of this divinely instituted magnificent pro- fe Cm ; Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. . 109 gression, stops before the fourth term,* which did fot concern him at that moment, or rather he transfers to another place its expression, and guided by his sublime genius, and still more by the bias of his religious heart, places it in the specific name which he has given to man: Homo Saptens. Aud now, gentlemen, behold the curtain is raised; for in this double name is fully expressed the double substance of the priv- ileged being. By one of his two essences, he stands on the sum- Quedam enim tangist ut sint, non Some things thou commandest to be, tamen ut vivant, sentiant et dbaitoant; but not to live, perceive, and under- quedam verd tangis ut sint et vivant, stand ; some thou commandest to be and mi - - . . sentiant, non tamen ut discernant ; que- perceive, but not to understand; and dam verd tangisut sint, vivant,sentiantet some thou commandest to be, live, per- discernant.—Aveusr. Medit, Cap.29,§3. ceive, and understand. And lest it should be supposed that such a passage could flow from his pen un- — and without sufficient reflection and long meditation, I 0 here what Saint Augustine says upon the same subject in apt of his works. ag a creasti me; nihil fueram, was and thou createdst me; I etde nihilo me aliquid fecisti. Quale bad bees eve and of nothing thou autem aliquid? Non stillam aque, non madest me something. But what? not ignem, non ayem vel piscem, non ser- a drop of water, not fire, not a bird, nor pentem, vel aliquid ex brutis uniseiiimad a fish, not a serpent, nor gh ‘stelionnl non lapidem vel lignum, non ex eorum animal; not a stone, no ock, nor genere que tantum habent esse, vel ex any of that kind which can pete ae nor €orum que tantum esse possunt, et cres- of that which can only be and grow ; cere; non ex eorum genere que tantum nor of that which can only de, and gr €sse et crescere et seuure possunt; sed and perceive ; but above all these, shotl super omnia he x his hast willed me to be of those which can que habent mre quia sum ; et ex his be, because I ee a of those which Sentiunt, quia sum, cresco et sentio; et thas af for Lam, do grow, and do om ; ho quia rationem te cognoscendi, cum ipsis lower than the angels, because in com- te communem accepi.i—Aucust. So- mo n with them I have received reason, lilog. Cap. 7, § 4. by tick I am able to know thee. aint ‘Adgustine ? is one of the most astonishing phenomena in the history of the human mind. With what power of observation and reasoning must this African bishop lave been gifted, who being neither evangelist no or prophet, but merely a doctor of the church, yet aided by the Bible, advanced fourteen hundred years beyond his age in scientific discovery ! t Ihave not rendered the verb tangere by its common English equivalent to touch, because it is plain that things must first be created before they can be touched, and because the Bible informs us that God created all things by his word. — Au- ine uses it to express the action of creative power.— anslator’s s 110 Des Moulins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. mit of thé ladder whose descending steps degrade him to a frog; and by a further descefit even to a monad: by the other, he is placed on the lowest rung of the sublime ladder of created intel- ligences. But, let us speak to our senses: there is a point, in the hundred compartments of which I first spoke, where the homo sapiens finishes, a point where the brute begins; there is the impracticable leap, the gulf without a bridge, which separates the immaterial from the physical creation: there is the immense, the impenetrable abyss, which the hand of the Almighty has left between the Apollo and the frog. t may seem that these reflections are too high, or too abstruse if you will, to serve as the preamble to a critical examination of certain new species of shells. I do not think so, gentlemen; we can only judge piecemeal; and when the subject is intellec- tual, the pieces are principles. I thought a full explanation ne- cessary, that you might the better appreciate the elements of the discussion which I propose to submit to your consideration. From what I have stated, I now proceed to draw the single rule that will serve as the basis of my labors. Between the first and the last of our hundred compartments, there is a point where the man ends, where the brute begins; @ point at which, notwithstanding the imperceptible deterioration of external form, there is a change of nature, a change of mate- rial classification, a change of order, a change of class, a change of family, a change of genus, a change of species. ‘This consid- eration is enough for my purpose; without illustrations, its an- houncement is here sufficient. ; gentlemen, the most eminent zoologist now living in , (M. de Blainville,) stated twelve or fifteen years ago, that in considering the embarrassing variety of forms then known in the genera Unio and Anodonta, he felt the necessity of enqul- ring, whether, if the two genera* were joined again into one, as their comparative anatomy requires, that one should present ‘@ the classifying naturalist, an almost endless series of really dis- tinct species, or only one species infinitely variable in its forms. *In March, 1829, the translator expressed the opinion, “ that the seven genera, now referred to the family of Natades, are founded in artificial distinctions, aod not in nature ; and that in fact the family contains but one genus.’’—Trans. of the . Phil. Soc., Vol. 3, p. 398. & Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. lil I do not think that M. de Blainville, seeing the ict materials since published by Mr. Isaac Lea, would fiow feel’a similar hesi- tancy. It may be supposed, that in a series of specimens more or less numerous, selected with care from thé different domestic and foreign forms, the passage may be almost insensible from»the immensely large cardinal teeth of the Unio crassissima to the toothless hinge of the Anodonta cygnea. But if a hundred spe- cimens be necessary to pass through all these successive grada- tions; I dare say another series of different specimens quite as numerous, would be required to pass insensibly from the very round form of the Unio circulus to the linear form of the Unio rectus, exhibiting successively all the modifications of form con- tained between these extremes; and I warrant that still new se- ries almost as numerous, would be necessary to form a commu- — nication between the most solid and stony species of the United States, and the Unio levissimus ; which is so thin that atmos- pheric drought makes it split ; or to pases on whose form is almost as compressed as that of certain Lutrari@, with those Whose three diameters are nearly equal. In fine, I do not think that a single series, however numerous, can exhibit at once all these combinations, with all these various conditions of gradation. And since it required ninety eight designs, almost entirely imagi- nary, to make an uninterrupted chain between the Apollo and the frog, what would the number be, when we should find our- selves engaged with nature herself, so rich in resources, so abound- ing in ornament, so inexhaustible in the variety of forms that she exhibits to our admiration. ; ut in the same manner, (and even oftener than the ladder of - ninety eight steps which separates the Apollo from the frog,) Comparative anatomy, (which also offers us a clear scale of per- ceptible gradations,) discovers to us the successive and gradual changes of orders, of classes, of families, of genera and of spe- cies ; and it is enough to cast the eye over a rich collection of Naiades, or over the magnificent figures contained in Mr. Lea’s two volumes, to perceive there at the first glance, a certain num- ber of typical forms, distinct, and each surrounded by derivative forms, more or less numerous; which are too closely connected % With them to be separated from them, or even to form connecting links between them and.other types entirely different. & a 112 BE Moutins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. The truth, in this matter, seems to me then, intermediate to two extreme propositiofis, between which M. de Blainville seemed to pause some years ago. Yes, I can confidently say, that there really exist several) species, nay, many Species in the great genus formed by the union of the Anodonte with the Uniones. But I may add with equal confidence, that authors have too greatly multiplied these species. Does this criticism apply also to our howorable correspondent, Mr. Isaac Lea? in my opinion it does. The more of peculiar importance that I attach to these types, s0 well defined, so perspicuous, so distinguished by their forms, of which, the American authors above all, and Mr. Lea more than any of them, have discovered to us the existence, the more I am convinced of the necessity of degrading to the rank of varieties, and often to that of deviations, (as our learned colleague, M. Cas- imir Picard of é beville says, ) those variations of form typically finition of species, but a definition assented to by all. Defiui- tions, indeed, are not wanting; but common assent sanctioning Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. i 113 one exclusively, is entirely wanting, and will perhaps always be so, if I am right in classing among impossibilities, the only means of bringing about such assent. What is to be done, then, in the midst of all these difficulties ? How shall we escape the horns of this dilemma; reform is twant- ed, but permanent reform is at this time impossible ; nevertheless, on the other hand, i is absolutely necessary to classify the a already known, and those which are discovered ever day. There is nothing but provisional arrangement, nothing but system, (and system is artificial method,) which can rid us of this embarrass- ment. Let us, then, consult theory, experience, analogy, that we may labor to come at the truth. Theory says, that there are essential differences between genus and genus, between species and species. ji Experience tells us, that dissimilar animal are sometimes found in similar shells, and animals almost identical in shells, apparently very different. e Analogy proposes, under these premises, to draw inductions from the mass of discoveries already made. — Let us take then this immense group, such as MM. de Blain- ville and Deshayes understood it a few years ago; this group, Whose animals they then believed to be generically identical ; let us begin by lopping off, finally, with M. Deshayes, the ridin, with M. D’Orbigny the Castalia, of which the shell alone did not permit a rational distinction. : Then let us reduce, with Mr: Lea, all the other genera of the Naiades,* to the simple im- portance of subgenera or sections, waiting always to withdraw from these, all those species whose anatomical characters when ~ known, shall be found to differ from those of the studied type, in like manner as the Iridine and Castalia, and we shall have a genus which will possess only a supposed unity in its essential characters, but which on that very account will be conditionally, and therefore theoretically, exact. — Arriving at species, we would proclaim as irrevoca ) mous, those which offered no specific anatomical different 8, 8 as the form of the ovaries studied by Mr. Lea in the Unio irro- ratus, ochraceus, cariosus, retusus, in the Anodonta undulata and - al *T say nothing here of the genus Mycetopoda of M. d’Orbigny, which I have Not at present an opportunity of studying. Mr. Lea does not admit LL any more than that of Castalia. : Vol, xu1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. vas 114 Des Moulins on the genera Unio and Anodonta. fluviatilis ; ; such as the form of the foot or of the ones of the mantle in the Unio radiatus, &c. Secondly, we will take for our guide that very saneutii pub- lication which Mr. Lea is at present making of observations made by Dr. Kirtland and himself on the dioicity of the Naiades, and on the variations of form which it produces in individuals of the same species, and we should thus arrive at the certain and ra- tional extinguishment of many species that authors have estab- lished, as Mr. Lea admits, solely upon their external character. Thirdly, we will apply most rigorously the luminous and solid principles that M. Casimir Picard, of Abbeville, is going to pub- lish, 1 hope, in a short time, upon the deviations or pathological malformations of the Naiades; and many more species would disappear in we of this physiological scrutiny. . Fourthly, ill examine the laws of the geographical distri- bution of animals i different classes, and, governed by anal- ogy, we will not nit cosmopolitan species, except with the greatest reserve ; but e will take equal care not to give too much specific importance t a difference of —— or of habitat withit the limits of the same zoological regio By means of these four parnidarelenal we shall have exhaust ed all that experience and analogy offer as wea? theory ; and it will remain for us, gee Fifthly, to resort to artificial method to fi ch pg nae with all proper reservations, this great work of ref Here we shall be helped in the choice of one he the aid of consideration and combination ; Ist, of the general form regarded as the generatrix of the modiGeations which will constitute sim- ple varieties ; 2dly, of the pallial and muscular impressions, and of the ligament ; 3dly, of the general system of structure of the appendices of the shell, whether nuil, pliciform, nodulous, spt nous, symphynote or not, (these ingenious divisions are due to Mr. mo Athly, of the essential and constant character of the re of the hinge; Sthly, of the thickness of the shell; nd finally, of the general system of coloring ; for we must, . Lea has done in many cases, deny specific value to epider- ~ mal coloring, and still more to rays so variable in form, in mag- nitude, and in the different ages, and especially to the superficial eo “ the nacre. Translated by Philip H. Nicklin. 115 I shall cite as examples of this mode of judging, the entirely peculiar system of coloring of the Unio irroratus and cylindricus ; the unique form of the appendices in the Unio spinosus and in the Symphynota bialata (Lea, 1st volume ;) the peculiar form of the tubercles in the Unio lacrymosus and apiculatus, &c. By combining all these means of exact judgment on the one part, and of logical induction on the other, I am satisfied that we shall recognize in the group of the Naiades, as experience has taught us in others, the truth of that observation, whose expres- sion is recorded in the maxim, Natura non facit saltum, viz. that exterior unlikeness does not exclude autonomy, and vice versd ; or, in other words, that two beings inseparably connected by their essential characters, are often much more unlike in their external appearance, than two beings entirely different in essential charac- ters. 'The demonstration of this proposition is found by the zool- ogist, in the races, so abounding in varieties, of the dog, the ox, the cock, of man himself compared with the real species but little removed, of the quadrumana, the rodentia, the motacille, the accipitres, etc. The botanist finds it, in comparing the races so prodigiously varied of the pears, the roses, the carnations, of the cereal plants and ‘pot-herbs, with the true species, although differ- ~~ ing little in appearance, of the genera Ranunculus, Galium, Ar- ‘are, Bromus, etc. 'The mineralogist and the ‘every one knows, at every step of their inves- Such, gentlemen, are the principles, upon which, (in default of absolute certainty, perhaps not attainable,) I would reform the de- marcation of the species of the family of the Naiades. And I must say, that no philosopher seems to me at the same time more able, and better situated to accomplish it than Mr. Lea himself. But has the time arrived in which he can thus occupy himself usefully? I think not yet. Possessing the richest of special collections, Mr. Lea has not yet, however, had the opportunity of inspecting al/ the nominal species. America, where he lives, is evidently the privileged country of the Uniones and’ Anodonta, considered with respect to the number of species; but America has not yet been so entirely explored in this point of view, as not to leave a great number of links wanting in that chain, (which should be unbroken if possible,) upon which the reformer should mark his divisions. It would probably be better, still to'loose the 116 Description of an American Spider. reins for some years, to collectors, to observers, and even to mak- ers of species, in order to encourage them, and thus induce them to increase greatly the mass of materials. In this latter relation, no author has rendered more eminent services to science than Mr. Lea, i in his first volume, which is already in your library, and also in his second, of which I am going to exhibit to you briefly, the contents. Cu. Des Movutins. ” Art. XIIl—Description of an American Spider, constituting a new sub-genus, of the.tribe Inequiiele of Latreille; by Prof. N. M. Hentz, Florence, Ala. [Read before the Yale Natural-History Society, April 28, 1841.] Tue genus Aranea of Linneus, like most of the genera estab- lished by that great man, is now in fact an extensive family of the animal kingdom. Walckenaer and Latreille subdivided it, and at once classified the numerous species known to them, in an admirable order. We may add the species since discovered and such subgenera as were not known to those authors, without ma- terially altering. their superstructure. But when the work is ac- complished, and all nature is described by man, the number of and Latreille could easily have doubled a - EeBlogns, if the number of species had been mentioned in the last edition of the Regne Animal. The writer of this paper, in the course of twe- ty years, has, at stolen hours, collected and described 147 species; but he is convinced. that fifty more could be added; as he has not explored the vast peninsula of Florida, nor any portion of Lou- isiana. Two hundred species, therefatl, would be a low esti- mate of echo number of spiders inhabiting the United States, net ludin: ss ; nt to more than two thousand, when the natural history of all countries is complete. It i is equally obvious that the rapidly increasing number of new when it is practicable to make them. The subgenns now proposed is indis- pensableyas the species cannot be classed under any existing ge0- Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. 117 eric name. It will be placed in a natural order immediately after Puo.cus. Subgenus SpermornHora. Eyes, six, in two clusters, oneon 4 each side of the cephalothorax, thus ~ = ——™~ Legs, the first pair longest, then the fourth and second, nearly equal, the third pair shortest. Length moderate, slender. Lip, wide, triangular. é Mazille, tapering towards the point, inclined over the lip. Mandibule, short, conical, with very small fangs. The characters derived from the trophi, are nearly those of Pholcus, but the absence of the two eyes in front of the cephalo- thorax, would alone, remove this spider from that subdivision. Moreover, the legs, which in Pholcus are excessively long, are here of amoderate length. ‘This spider, which is wholly of a pale hue, makes its very loose web in dark places, under rubbish. ‘The female carries in its mandibles its eggs glued together without any silk, until they are hatched. Inhabits Alabama. This species, the 137th of my MS. catalogue, is there named Spermophora meridionalis. Of the 147 species comprised in this catalogue, there are not ten mentioned in European works, besides those described by Bose, whose manuscript was never printed.* Florence, Ala., ea 2, 1839. Arr. XIIL.—Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism.— No. IV. On Electro-Dynamic Induction ; by Josern Henry, LL. D., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the College of New Jersey, Princeton. Read June 19, 1840.7 ze MiContinued from p. 243, Vol. xxxvitt, No. 2, of this Journal.) ‘INTRODUCTION. ¥ L. In the course of my last paper, it was stated that t inves- tigations which it'detailed were not as complete in so teshadies I could wish, and that I hoped to develop them more fully in iE eg dee ei cat ee ee * A valuable catalogue and description by Prof. Hentz, of the aE of Ara- neides found in this country, was published in this Journal, Vol. xx1, p. 100—109, t From the Tienes of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 8, N. e * # * 118 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. another communication. After considerable delay, occasioned by alterations in the rooms of the physical department of the col- lege, I was enabled to resume my researches, and since then I have been so fortunate as to discover a series of new facts belong- ing to different parts of the general subject of my contributions. Those Tw announced to the Society at different times, as they were di red, and I now purpose to select from the whole such portions as relate particularly to the principal subject of my last paper, namely, the induction at the beginning and ending of a galvanic current, and to present them as a continuation, and, in a measure, as the completion, of this part of my researches. The other results of my labors in this line will be arranged for publi- cation as soon as my duties will permit me to give them a more careful examination. 2. In the course of the experiments I am about to describe, I have had occasion to repeat and vary those given in my last pa- per, and Tam happy to be able to state, in reference to the results, that, except in some minor particulars, which will be mentioned in the course of this paper, I have found no cause to desire a change in the accounts before published. My views, however, of the connection of the phenomena have been considerably mod- ified, and I think rendered much more definite by the additional light which the new facts have afforded. 3. The principal articles of apparatus used in these experiments are nearly the same as those described in my last paper, namely, several flat coils and a number of long wire helices. (III, 6, 7; 8.)* Ihave, however, added to these a constant battery, on Pro- fessor Daniell’s plan, the performance of which has fully answered my expectations, and confirmed the accounts given of this form of the in strument by its author. It consists of thirty elements, formed of as many copper cylinders, open at the bottom, each five inches and nd a half in height, three inches and a half in diam- eter, and placed in eart en cups. A zine rod is suspended in each of these of the same length as the nders, and about one inch | in diam er. The several ele x ents are connected by a thick cop per wire, soldered. to the copper eylin | “6 one element, and dip- .. Ping into a cup‘of mercury on the zin ‘the: next. The cop ay ‘numerals IT or III are included in th > parenthesis, reference is made i ka contributions, 3 “ we : : E a : a z is i * ad — + é On Ellectro-Dynamic Induction. 119 per and zinc as usual are separated by a membrane, on both sides of which is placed a solution of one part of sulphuric acid in ten parts of water; and to this is added, on the side next the copper, as much sulphate of copper, as will saturate the solution. The battery was sometimes used as a single series, wit its ele- ments placed consecutively, and at others in two or series, arranged collaterally, so as to vary the quantity and sity of the electricity as the occasion might require. 4, The galvanometers mentioned in this paper, and referred to in the last, are of two kinds; one, which is used with a helix, to indicate the action of an induced current of intensity, consists of about five hundred turns of fine copper wire, covered with cotton thread, and more effectually insulated by steeping the instrument in melted cement, which was drawn into the spaces between the spires by capillary attraction. The other galvanometer is formed of about forty turns of a shorter and thicker wire, and is always used to indicate an induced current, of considerable quantity, but of feeble intensity. The needle of both these instruments is Suspended by a single fibre of raw silk. 5. [should also state, that in all cases where a Saisie spiral is mentioned in connection with a helix, the article is formed of a long, fine wire, making about one hundred turns around the axis of a hollow piece of straw, of about two inches and a half long: also the spiral mentioned in connection with a coil, is formed of a short wire, which makes about twenty turns around a similar pieee of straw. . The reason of the use of a 2 two instruments in these two cases is the same as that for t galvanometers, under ilar circumstances, namely, the helix ensity, but of small quantity, met the coil gives a current of i SIT) whee = one of conside is -nacad but of fee , dsecrestiih is 1 oi aia On the Inti the ie Beginning of @ Galvanic | 6 Ie wil bo'tosleets ployed in my last series o! at the moment ieiaking the galvanic circuit, d that the arrangement of apparatus em- f experiments gave a powerful induction t the effect at making the same was so feeble as rg se and tit ” ee & « ee % * a . ~" ie * 120 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. or fourth orders from the beginning induction, and its action was therefore supposed to be so feeble as not materially to affect the results obtained. . Subsequent reflection, however, led me to conclude, that in order to complete this part of my investigations, a more careful study ot th induction at the beginning of the current would be desirable, and accordingly, on resuming the experiments, my at- tention was first directed to the discovery of some means by which the intensity of this induction might be increased. After some preliminary experiments, it appeared probable that the de- sired result could be obtained by using a compound galvanic bat- tery, instead of the single one before employed. In reference to this conjecture the constant battery before mentioned (3) was constructed, and a series of experiments instituted with it, the results of which agreed with my anticipation. 8. In the first experiment, coil No. 2, which it will be remem- bered (ILI, 7) consists of a copper riband of about sixty feet long, and coiled on itself like the main spring of a watch, was connec- ted with the compound battery, and helix No. 1, (IIL. 8,) formed of one thousand six hundred and sixty yards of fine copper wire, Fig. 3. ‘ 7 7 @ represents coil No. 1, 6 helix No. 1, and c, d, handles for receiving the shock. was placed on the coil to receive the induction, as is shown in figure 3, which is again inserted here for the convenience of the reader. This arrangement being made, currents of increasing intensity were passed through the coil, by constantly retaining one of its ends in the cup of mercury forming one extremity of the battery, and successively plunging the other end into the cups which served to form the connections of the several elements of the battery. With the current from one element, the shock at _ breaking the circuit was quite severe, but at making the same it was very feeble, and: ived in the fingers only of through the tongue. With two elements in the circuit, the shock * te On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 121 at beginning was slightly increased ; with three elements the in- crease was more decided, while the shock at breaking the circuit remained nearly of the same intensity as at first, or was compar- atively but little increased. When the number of elements was increased to ¢en, the shock at making contact was found fully equal to that at breaking, and by employing a still greater number, the former was decidedly stronger than the latter, the difference con- tinually increasing until all the thirty elements were introduced into the circuit. 9. In my last paper, a few experiments are mentioned as being made with a compound battery of Cruickshank’s construction ; but from the smallness of the plates of this, and the rapidity with which its power declined, I was led into the error of supposing that the induction at the ending of the current, in the case of a short coil, was diminished by increasing the intensity of the bat- tery, (see paragraph 19, of No. ILI,) but by employing the more perfect instrument of Professor Daniell in the arrangement of the last experiment, I am enabled to correct this error, and to state that the induction at the ending remains nearly the same, when the intensity of the battery is increased. If the induction de- pends in any degree on the quantity of current electricity in the conductor, then a slight increase in the induction should take place, since, according to theory, the current is somewhat in- creased in quantity, in the case of a long coil, by the increase of the intensity of the battery. Although very little, if any, diffe- rence could be observed in the intensity of the shock from the secondary current, yet the snap and deflagration of the mercury appeared to be greater from the primary current, when éen ele- ments of the battery were included in the circuit, than with a single one. The other results which are mentioned in my last Paper in reference to the compound battery are, I believ €, cor- rectly given. eee). 10. The intensity of the different shocks in the foregoing ex- periments was compared by gradually raising the helix from the coil, (see Fig. 3,) until, on account of the distance of the con- ductors, the shock in one case would be so much reduced as to be scarcely perceptible through the fingers or the tongue, while the shock from another arrangement, but with the same distance of the conductors, would be evident, perhaps, in the hands. The same method was generally employed in the experiments in which Vol. xx1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 16 * 122 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. shocks are mentioned as being compared, in the other parts of this paper. 11. Experiments were next made to determine the influence of a variation in the length of the coil, the intensity of the bat- tery remaining the same. For this purpose, the battery consist- ing of a single element, and the arrangement of the apparatus as represented in Fig. 3, the coil was diminished in length from sixty feet to forty five, then to thirty, and so on. With the first mention- ed length the shock, at making contact with the battery, was, of course, very feeble, and could be felt only in the tongue ; with the next shorter length it was more perceptible, and increased in intensity with each diminution of the coil, until a length of about fifteen feet appeared to give a maximum result. 12. The diminution of the intensity of the shock in the last experiment, after the length of the coil was diminished below fif- teen feet, was due to the diminution of the number of spires of the coil, each of which, by acting on the helix, tends to increase the intensity of the secondary current, unless the combined length of the whole is too great for the intensity of the battery. That this is the fact is shown by the following experiment: the helix was placed on a single spire or turn of the coil, and the length of the other part of the copper riband, which did not act on the be- lix, was continually shortened, until the whole of it was exclu- ded from the circuit; in this case the intensity of the shock at the beginning was constantly increased. We may therefore state generally, that at the beginning of the battery current, the induc- tion of a unit of its length, is increased by every diminution of the length of the conductor. 13. In the experiment given in paragraph 11, the intensity of the shock at the ending of the battery current diminishes wit each diminution of the length of the coil ; and this is also due to the decrease of the number of the spires of the coil, as is ev dent from an experiment similar to the last, in which the helix was placed on a coil consisting of only two turns or spires of cop- per riband; the shock at the ending, with this arrangement, was comparatively feeble, but could be felt in the hands. Different lengths of coil No. 2 were now introduced into the same circuit, but not so as to act on the helix; but although these were varied from four or five feet to the whole length of the coil, (sixty feet,) not the least difference in the intensity of the shock could be per- On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 123 ceived. We have, therefore, the remarkable result, that the in- tensity of the ending induction of each unit of length of the battery current is not materially altered, at least within certain limits, by changing the length of the whole conductor. From this we would infer that the shock depends more on the intensity of the action than on the quantity of the current, since we know that the latter is diminished in a given unit of the conductor by increasing the length of the whole. 14, We have seen (8) that with a circuit composed of ten ele- ments of the compound battery and the coil No. 2, the shock, at the beginning of the current, was fully equal to that at the end- ing. It was, however, found that if, in this case, the length of the coil was increased, this shock was diminished; and we may State, asan inference from several experiments, that however great may be the intensity of the electricity from the battery, the shock at the beginning may be so reduced by a sufficient in- crease of the length of the primary circuit, as to be scarcely per- ceptible. 15. It was also found that when the thickness of the coil was increased, the length and intensity of the circuit remaining the same, the shock at the beginning of the battery current, was somewhat increased. This result was produced by using a double coil; the electricity was made to pass through one strand, and immediately afterwards through both: ‘the shock from the helix in the latter case was apparently the greater. . 16. By the foregoing results we are evidently furnished with two methods of increasing, at pleasure, the intensity of the in- duction at the beginning of a battery current, the one consist- ing in increasing the intensity of the source of the electricity, and the other in diminishing the resistance to conduction of the circuit while the intensity remains the same. F 17. The explanation of the effects which we have given, rel- ative to the induction at the beginning, is apparently not difficult. The resistance to conduction in the case of a long conductor and a battery of a single element isso great that the full develop- ment of the primary current may be supposed not to take place with sufficient rapidity to produce the instantaneous action on which the shock from the secondary current would seem to de- pend. But when a battery of a number of elements Is employed, _ the poles of this, previous to the moment of completing the cir- * 124 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. cuit, are in a state of electrical tension; and therefore the dis- charge through the conductor may be supposed to be more sud- den, and hence an induction of more intensity is produced. 18. That the shock at both making and breaking the circuit in some way depends on the rapidity of formation and diminu- tion of the current is shown by the following experiment, in which the tension just mentioned does not take place, and in which, also, the current appears to diminish more slowly. The two ends of the coil were placed in the two cups which formed a? the poles of the battery, and permanently retained there during the experiment; also, at the distance of about six inches from say the right hand end of the coil, a loop was made in the riband, which could be plunged into the cup containing the left hand end. With this arrangement, and while only the two extreme ends of the coil were in connexion with the cups of mercury, of course the current passed through the entire length of the riband of the coil, but by plunging the loop into thé left hand cup, the “whole length of the coil, except the six inches before mentioned, was excluded from the battery circuit. And again, when the Toop was lifted out of the cup, the whole length was included. — In this way the current in the coil could be suddenly formed and interrupted, while the poles of the battery were continually join- ed by a conductor, but no shock with either a single or a com- pound battery could be obtained by this method of operation. 19. The feebleness of the shock at'the beginning of the cur- rent, with a single battery and a long coil, is not entirely owing to the cause we have stated, (17,) namely, the resistance to con- duction offered by the long conductor, but also depends, ina con siderable degre, if not principally, on the adverse influence of the secondary current, induced in the primary conductor itself, as is shown by the result of the following experiment. Helix No. 1 * he ' was 8 it on a coil consisting of only three spires or turns of copper tiband ; with this, the shock both at making and breaking” the circuit with a single battery could be felt in the hands. A compound coil was then formed of the copper ribands of coils No. 3 and 4 rolled together so that the several spires of the two alternated with each other, and when this was introduced into the circuit so'as not to act on the helix by its induction, and the bat- tery current passed through, for example, coil No. 3, the shock at making contact with the pole of the battery was so much redu- ae % a. ¥ a => . \ . On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 125 ced as to be imperceptible in the hands, while the shock at break- ing the contact was about the same as before this addition was made to the length of the circuit. The ends of coil No. 4 were now joined so as to produce a closed circuit, the induced current in which would neutralize the secondary current in the battery conductor itself; and now the shock at making the contact was nearly as powerful as in the case where the short conductor alone formed the circuit with the battery. Hence, the principal cause _of the feebleness of the effect at the beginning of the battery “current is the adverse action on the helix of the secondary cur- rent produced in the conductor of the battery circuit itself. The shock at the breaking of ‘the circuit, in this experiment, did not appear affected by joining or separating the ends of coil No. 4. he > a _ 20. Having investigated the conditions on which the inductive action at the beginning of a battery current depends, experiments » Were next instituted to determine the nature of the effects pro- duced by this induction; and first, the coils were arranged in the B Age described in my last paper, (III, 79,) for producing cur-, ~ _ Tents o f the different orders. The result with this arrangement Was similar to that which 1 have described in reference to the end-» ¥ a + ing induction, namely, currents of the third, fourth, and fifth orders were readily obtained. Dee 21. Also, when an arrangement of apparatus was made similar to that described in paragraph 87 of my last paper, it was found _that a current of intensity could be induced from one of quantity, and the converse. . A ” ad ' 22. Likewise, the same screening or rather neutralizing effect ae biotincallterlien a plate of metal was interposed. between two consecutive conductors of the series of currents, as was de- Scribed (ILI, section 4,) in reference to the ending induction. In short, the ‘ series of induced currents produced at the beginning of the primary current appeared to possess all the properties be- longing to those of the induction at the ending of the same current. 23. I may mention in this place, that I have found, in the course of these experiments, that the neutralizing power of a plate of metal depends, in some measure, on its superficial extent. Thus a broad plate which extends, in every direction, beyond the helix and coil, produces a more perfect screening than one of the same metal and of the same thickness, but of a diameter guy a little greater than that of the coil. icrh 3 : t ; si - ‘ ~ 126 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. 24. The next step in the investigation was to determine the direction of the currents of the different orders produced by the beginning induction, and for this purpose the magnetizing spirals (5) were used, and the results obtained by these verified by the indication of the galvanometer. It should be stated here, as a fact which was afterward found of some importance, that although the needle of the galvanometer was powerfully deflected when the instrument was placed in the circuit of the secondary current, yet a very feeble effect was produced on it by the action of a current of the third, fourth, or fifth order. The directions, however, of these currents, as indicated by the feeble motion of the needle, were the same as those given by the magnetizing spiral. 25. 'The direction of the different currents produced at the making of the battery current, as determined by these instru- ments, is as follows, viz. the direction of the secondary current is, as stated by Dr. Faraday, adverse to that of the primary current, and also, the direction of each succeeding current is opposite to that of the one which produced it. We have, therefore, from these results, and those formerly obtained, (III, 92,) the following P »series of directions of currents, one produced at the moment of & beginning and the other at that of the ending of the battery current. At the beginning. At the ending. Primary current, ot Sea oo ack Secondary current, . . . = t Current of the third order, Si faleanoehe mE: Current of the fourth order,. — Hd Current of the fifth order, . + . — 26. These two series, at first sight, may appear very different, - but, with a little attention, they will be seen to be of the same nature. If we allow that the induction at the ending of a gal- vanic battery should be opposite to that at the beginning of the same, then the sign at the top of the second column may be call- ed minus instead of plus, and we shall have the second series — -++ — + alternating precisely like the first. “. In connexion with the results given in the last two para ‘aphs, it is due to Mr. Sturgeon that I should state that, in a let- ter addressed to me, and published in the Annals of Electricity; he has predicted, from his theory, that I would find on exami- nation, the series of alternation of currents for the beginning induction which I have here given. I may however add, that On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 127 it appears to me that this result might have been predicted with- out reference to any theory. There was no reason to suppose the induction at the beginning would be different in its nature from that at the ending, and therefore the series which would be produced from the former might be immediately inferred from that belonging to the latter, by recollecting that the direction of the induction at the beginning should be opposite to that at the ending. Ido not wish it to be supposed, however, from this remark, that I had, myself, drawn any inference from my exper- iments as to the alternations of currents which might be produ-" ced by the beginning induction; the truth is, that this action was so feeble with the arrangement of apparatus I employed, that I supposed it could not produce a series of currents of the diffe- rent orders. 28. In the course of the experiments given in this section, I have found that a shock can be produced without using a coil, by arranging about ten elements of the battery in the form of a cir- cle, and placing the helix within this. ‘The shock was felt in the hands at the moment of closing the circuit, but the effect at open-— ing the same was scarcely perceptible through the tongue. An attempt was also made to get indications of induction by placing © the helix within a circle of dilute acid, connected with a battery instead of a coil, but the effect, if any, Ha very feeble. i 29. I have shown, in the second number of my contributions that if the body be introduced into a cireuit with a battery of one hundred and twenty elements, without a coil, a thrilling sensa- » tion will be felt during the continuance of the current, and a Shock will be experienced at the moment of interrupting the cur- tent by breaking the circuit at any point. ‘This result is evidently due to the induction of a secondary current in the battery itself, and on this principle the remarkable physiological effects produ- ced by Dr. Ure, on the body of a malefactor, may be explained. The body, in these experiments, was made to form a part of the circuit, with a compound galvanic apparatus, in which a series of Interruptions was rapidly made by drawing the end of a conduc- lor over the edges of the plates of the battery. By this opera- tion a series of induced currents must have been produced in the battery itself, the intensity of which was greater than that of the Primary current. = 3 128 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. 30. In this connexion I may mention that the idea has occur- red to me that the intense shocks given by the electrical fish may possibly be from a secondary current, and that the great amount of nervous organization found in these animals may serve the purpose of a long conductor.* It appears to me, that in the pres- ent state of knowledge, this is the only way in which we can conceive of such intense electricity being produced in organs im- perfectly insulated and immersed in a conducting medium. But we have seen that an original current of feeble intensity can in- duce, in a long wire, a secondary current capable of giving in- tense shocks, although the several strands of the wire are sepa- rated from each other only by a covering of cotton thread. Whatever may be the worth of this suggestion, the secondary cul- _ rent affords the means of imitating the phenomena of the shock from the electrical eel, as described by Dr. Faraday. By immer- sing the apparatus (Fig. 3,) in a shallow vessel of water, the han- dles being placed at the two extreimities of the diameter of the he- lix, and the hands plunged into the water parallel to a line joining the two poles, a shock is felt through the arms; but when the contact with the water is made in a line at right angles to the last, only a slight sensation is felt in each hand, but no shock. 31. Since the publication of my last paper, I have exhibited to my class the experiment, No. Il, Sec. 3d,) relative to the induc- tion at a distance on a muc ger scale. All my coils were uni- ted so as to form a single 1 of conductor of about four hun- dred feet, and this was rolled into a ring of five and a half feet in diameter, and suspended vertically against the inside of the large folding doors which separate the laboratory from the lecture room. On the other side of the doors, in the lecture room, and directly opposite the coil, was placed a helix, formed of upwards of a mile of copper wire, one sixteenth of an inch in thickness, .. and wound into a hoop of four feet in diameter. With this at _Tangement, and a battery of one hundred and forty seven square "feet of zine surface divided into eight elements, shocks were pel si aa the tongue, when the two conductors were separated, to c the di e of nearly seven feet ; at the distance of between three and four feet, the shocks were quite severe. The exhibition was a * Since’ writing the above, I have found that M. Masson has suggested the same tek: in an interesting _ lately published. On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 129 rendered more interesting by causing the induction to take place through a number of persons standing in a row between the two conductors. Section II. On apparently two kinds of electro-dynamic induction. 32. The investigations arranged under this head had their ori- gin in the following circumstances. After the publication of my last paper, I received, through the kindness of Dr. Faraday, a copy of the fourteenth series of his researches, and in this I was surprised to find a statement which appeared in direct opposition to one of the principal facts of my communication. In para- graph 59, I state, in substance, that when a plate of metal is in- terposed between the coil transmitting a galvanic current, and the helix placed above it to receive the induction, the shock from the secondary current is almost perfectly neutralized. Dr. Faraday, in the extension of his new and ingenious views of the agency of the intermediate particles in transmitting induction, was led to make an experiment on the same point, and apparently, under the same circumstances, he found that it ‘makes not the least difference, whether the intervening space between the two con- ductors is occupied by such insulating bodies as air, sulphur, and Shell-lac, or such conducting bod ies 2S Copper and other non-mag- hetic metals.” a ae bs 33. As the investigation of the fact mentioned above forms an important part of my paper, and is intimately connected with al- most all the phenomena subsequently described in the communi- cation, I was, of course, anxious to discover the cause of so re- markable a discrepancy. There could be no doubt of the truth of my results, since a shock froma secondary current which would paralyze the arms was so much reduced by the interposi- tion of plates of metal as scarcely to be felt through the tongue. After some reflection, however, the thought occurred to me» that induction might be produced in such a way as not to be af fected by the interposition of a plate of metal. To understand this, suppose the end of a magnetic bar placed perpendicularly under the middle of a plate of copper, and a helix suddenl brought down on this; an induced current would be produced in the helix by its motion towards the plate, since the copper, in this. Vol. x11, No. 1.—April-June, 1841.17 ¢ os ¥ ‘ 130 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. case, could not screen the magnetic influence. Now if we sub- stitute for the magnet a coil through which a galvanic current is passing, the effect should be the same. The experiment was tried by attaching the ends of the helix to a galvanometer,* and the result was as I expected: when the coil was suddenly brought down on the plate, the needle swung in one direction, and when lifted up, in the other; the amount of deflection being the same, whether the plate was interposed or not. 35. It must be observed in this experiment, that the plate was at rest, and consequently did not partake of the induction produ- ced by the motion of the helix. From my previous investiga- tions, I was led to conclude that a different result would follow, were a current also generated in the plate by simultaneously mo- ving it up and down with the helix. This conclusion, however, was not correct, for on making the experiment, I found that the needle was just as much affected when the plate was put in mo- tion with the helix as when the latter alone was moved. 36. This result was so unexpected and remarkable, that it was considered necessary to repeat and vary the experiment in several ways. First, a coil was interposed instead of the plate, but whether the coil was at rest or in motion with the helix, with its ends separated or joined, the effect on the galvanometer was still the same; not the least screening influence could be observed. In reference to the use of the coil in this experiment, it will be recollected that I have found this article to produce a more pef- fect neutralization than a plate. 37. Next, the apparatus remaining the same, and the helix at rest during the experiment, currents were induced in it by mov- ing the battery attached to the coil up. and down in the acid. But in this case, as in the others, the effect on the galvanometet Was the same, whether the plate or the coil was interposed or not. - : 38. The experiment was also tried with magneto-electricity: ~ For this purpose, about forty feet of copper wire, covered wil » silk, were wound around a short cylinder of stiff paper, and into this was inserted a hollow cylinder of sheet copper, and into this again, a short rod of soft iron ; when the latter was rendered Fs “3 The arrangement will be readily understood by supposing in Fig. 3, the han- dles removed, and the ends of the helix joined to the ends of the wire of a galva- nometer ; also, by a plate of metal interposed between the helix and the coil. On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 131 magnetic, by suddenly bringing in contact with its two ends the different poles of two magnets, a current, of course, was genera- ted in the wire, and this, as before, was found to affect the galva- nometer to the same degree, when the copper cylinder was inter- posed, as when nothing but the paper intervened. 39. The last experiment was also varied by wrapping two cop- per wires of equal length around the middle of the keeper of a horse-shoe magnet, leaving the ends of the inner one projecting, and those of the outer attached to a galvanometer. A current was generated in each by moving the keeper on the ends of the magnet, but the effect on the galvanometer was not in the least diminished by joining the ends of the inner wire. 40. At first sight, it might appear that all these results are at variance with those detailed in my last paper, relative to the ef- fect of interposed coils and plates of metal. But it will be ob- served that in all the experiments just given, the induced currents are not the same as those described in my last communication. They are all produced by motion, and have an appreciable duration, which continues as long as the motion exists. They are also of low intensity, and thus far I have not been able to get shocks by any arrangement of apparatus from currents of this kind. On the other hand, the currents produced at the moment of suddenly making or breaking a galvanic current, are of considerable inten- sity, and exist but for an instant. From these, and other facts presently to be mentioned, I was led to suppose that there are two kinds of electro-dynamic induction ; one of which can be neutralized by the interposition of a metallic plate between the conductors, and the other not. 1. In reference to this surmise, it became important to exam- ine again all the phenomena of induction at suddenly making and breaking a galvanic current.* And in connexion with this Part of the subject, I will first mention a fact which was observed in the course of the experiments given in the last section, on t direction of the induced currents of different orders. It was found that though the indications of the galvanometer were the same as those of the spiral, in reference to the direction of the induced cur- rents, yet they were very different in regard to the intensity of the action. ‘Thus, when the arrangement of the apparatus was such that the induction at making the battery circuit was so feeble * See Contributions, No, Il. 132 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. as not to give the least magnetism to the needle, and so powerful at the ending as to magnetize it to saturation, the indication of the galvanometer was the same in both cases. 42. Also, similar results were obtained in comparing the shock and the deflection of the galvanometer. In one experiment, for example, the shock was so feeble at making contact that it could scarcely be perceived in the fingers, but so powerful at the break- ing of the circuit as to be felt in the breast ; yet the galvanome- ter was deflected about thirty-five degrees to the right, at the be- ginning of the current, and only an equal number of degrees to the left, at the ending of the same. 43. In another experiment, the apparatus being the same as before, the magnetizing spiral and the galvanometer were both at once introduced into the circuit of the helix. A sewing needle being placed in the spiral, and the contact with the battery made, the needle showed no signs of magnetism, although the galva- nometer was deflected thirty degrees. The needle being repla- ced, and the battery circuit broken, it was now found strongly magnetized, while the galvanometer was moved only about as much as before in the opposite direction. 44. Also, effects similar to those described in the last two pal- agraphs were produced when the apparatus was so arranged as to cause the induction at the beginning of the battery current to predominate. In this case the galvanometer was still equally af- fected at making and breaking battery contact, or any difference which was observed could be referred to-a variation in the power of the battery during the experiment. 45. Another fact of importance belonging to the same class has been mentioned before, (24,) namely, that the action of the currents of the third, fourth, and fifth orders produces a very small effect on the galvanometer, compared with that of the sec- ondary current; and this is not alone on account of the dimin- ishing power of the successive inductions, as will be evident from the following experiment. By raising the helix from the coil, in the arrangement of apparatus for the secondary current, the k was so diminished as to be inferior to one produced by the arrange ment for a tertiary current, yet, while with the secondary current the needle was deflected twenty-five degrees, with the tet- Hlary it scarcely moved more than one degree, and with the currents of the fourth and fifth orders the deflections were still less, resem- bling the effect of a slight impulse given to the end of the needle- 2 On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 133 46. From the foregoing experiments, I was the more fully per- suaded that some new and interesting results might be obtained by a re-examination of my former experiments, on the phenome- na of the interposed plate of metal, in the case where the induc- tion was produced by making and breaking the circuit witha cup of mercury; and in this I was not disappointed. The coil, (Fig. 3,) being connected with a battery of ten elements, the shocks, both at making and breaking the circuit, were very se- vere; and these, as usual, were almost entirely neutralized by the interposition of a zinc plate. But when the galvanometer was introduced into the circuit instead of the body, its indications were the same whether the plate was interposed or not; or, in other words, the galvanometer indicated no screening, while, un- der the same circumstances, the shocks were neutralized. 47. A similar effect was observed when the galvanometer and the magnetizing spiral were together introduced into the circuit. The interposition of the plate entirely neutralized the magneti- zing power of the spiral, in reference to tempered steel, while the deflections of the galvanometer were unaffected. 8. In order to increase the number of facts belonging to this class, the last experiments were varied in several ways; and, first, instead of the hard steel needle, one of soft iron wire was placed in the spiral, with a small quantity of iron filings almost in contact with one of its ends. The plate being interposed, the “small particles of iron were attracted by the end of the needle, indicating a feeble, temporary development of magnetism. Hence the current which moves the needle, and is not neutrali- zed by the interposed plate, also feebly magnetizes soft iron, but not hard steel. 49. Again, the arrangement of apparatus being as in paragraph 46, instead of a plate of zinc, one of cast iron, of about the same superficial dimensions, but nearly half an inch thick, was inter- posed ; with this the magnetizing power of the spiral, in refe- rence to tempered steel, was neutralized ; and also, the action of the galvanometer was much diminished. tity . Another result was obtained by placing in the circuit of the helix, (Fig. 3d,) at the same time, the galvanometer, the spi- ral, and a drop of distilled water; with these the magnetizing power of the spiral was the same as without the water, but the deflection of the galvanometer was reduced from ten to about 134 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. — ° four degrees. In addition to these, the body was also introduced into the same circuit; the shocks were found very severe, the spiral magnetized needles strongly, but the galyanometer was still less moved than before. The current of low intensity, which deflects the needle of the galvanometer in these instances, was partially intercepted by the imperfect conduction of the wa- ter and the body. 51. 'To exhibit the results of these experiments with still more precision, an arrangement of apparatus was adopted similar to that used by Dr. Faraday, and described in the fourteenth series of his researches, namely, a double galvanometer was formed of two separate wires of equal length and thickness, and wound to- gether on the same frame ; and also, a double magnetizing spiral was prepared by winding two equal wires around the same piece of hollow straw. Coil No. 1, connected with the battery, was supported perpendicularly on a table, and coils Nos. 3 and 4 were placed parallel to this, one on each side, to receive the induction, the ends of these being so joined with those of the galvanometet and the spiral that the induced current from the one coil, would pass through the two instruments, in an opposite direction to that of the current from the other coil. The two outside coils were then so adjusted, by moving them to and from the middle coil, that the induced currents perfectly neutralized each other in the two instruments, and the needle of the galvanometer and that in the spiral were both unaffected when the circuit of the battery was made and broken. With this delicate arrangement the slightest difference in the action of the two currents would be rendered perceptible ; but when a zinc plate was introduced e0 as to screen one of the coils, the needle of the galvanometer still remained perfectly stationary, indicating not the least action of the plate, while the needle in the spiral became powerfully mag- netic. When, however, a plate of iron was interposed instead of the one of zinc, the needle of the galvanometer was also affected. 52. From the foregoing results it would seem that the secol- dary current, produced at the moment of suddenly beginning ending of a galvanic current, by making and breaking contact with a cup of mercury, consists of two parts, which possess dif- ferent properties. One of these is of low intensity, can be intet- rupted by a drop of water, does not magnetize hardened steel needles, and is not screened by the interposition of a plate of any 2 wee. On Ellectro-Dynamic Induction. . 135 metal, except iron, between the conductors. The other part is of considerable intensity, is not intercepted by a drop of water, develops the magnetism of hardened steel, gives shocks and is screened or neutralized by a closed coil, or a plate of any kind of metal. Also, the induced current produced by moving a conduc- tor towards or from a battery current, and that produced by the movement up and down of a battery in the acid, are of the na- ture of the first mentioned part, while the currents of the third, fourth, and fifth orders partake almost exclusively of the proper- ties of the second part. 53. The principal facts and conclusions of this section were announced to the Society in October, 1839, and again presented in the form in which they are here detailed in June last. Since then, however, I have had leisure to examine the subject more attentively, and after a careful comparison of these results with those before given, I have obtained the more definite views of the phenomena which are given in the following section. Section III. Theoretical Considerations relating to the Phenomena described in this and the preceding communications. Read November 20, 1840. 54. The experiments given in the last No. of my contributions were merely arranged under different heads, and only such infe- rences drawn from them as could be immediately deduced with- out reference to a general explanation. The addition, however, _ Which I have since made to the number of facts, affords the means of a wider generalization ; and after an attentive consid- eration of all the results given in this and the preceding papers, I have come to the conclusion that they cau all be referred to the Simple laws of the induction at the beginning and the ending of a galvanic current. 55. In the course of these investigations the limited hypothe- ses which I have adopted have been continually modified by the development of new facts, and therefore my present views, with the farther extension of the subject, may also require important Corrections. But I am induced to believe, from its exact accor- dance with all the facts, so far as they have been compared, that if the explanation I now venture to give, be not absolutely true, it is so, at least, in approximation, and will therefore be of some 136 Contributions to E lectricity and Magnetism. importance in the way of suggesting new forms of experiment, or as a first step towards a more perfect generalization. 56. To render the laws of induction at the beginning and the ending of a galvanic current more readily applicable to the ex- planation of the phenomena, they may be stated as follows :—1. During the time a galvanic current is increasing in quantity in a conductor, it induces, or tends to induce, a current in an ad- joining parallel conductor, in an opposite direction to itself. 2. During the continuance of the primary current in full quantity, no inductive action is exerted. 3. But when the same current begins to decline in quantity, and during the whole time of its diminishing, an induced current is produced in an opposite direc- tion to the induced current at the beginning of the primary cur- rent. 57. In addition to these laws, I must frequently refer to the fact, that when the same quantity of electricity in a current of short duraton is passed through a galvanometer, the defiecting Jorce on the needle is the same, whatever be the intensity of the electricity. By intensity is here understood the ratio of a given quantity of force to the time in which it is expended ;* and ac- cording to this view, the proposition stated is an evident inference from dynamic principles. But it does not rest alone-on conside- rations of this kind, since it has been proved experimentally by Dr. Faraday, in the third series of his researches. 58. In order to form a definite conception of the several con- ditions of the complex phenomena which we are about to inves tigate, I have adopted the method often employed in physical in- quiries, of representing the varying elements of action by the different parts of a curve. This artifice has been of much assis tance to me in studying the subject, and without the use of it at present, I could scarcely hope to present my views in an intelli- gible manner to the Society. 59. After making these preliminary statements, we will now proceed to consider the several phenomena; and, first, let us take the case in which the induction is most obviously produced in accordance with the laws as above stated, (56,) namely, by im — a Matters into the acid, and also by withdrawing it from sole Wie: igi igleuall * Or more strictly _—— the ratio of two quantities of the same species FeP” resenting the force —————— al sa . eect ie * On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 137 the same. During the time of the descent of the battery into the liquid, the conductor connected. with it is constantly receiv- ing additional quantities of current electricity, and each of these additions produces an inductive action on the adjoining secondary conductor. The amount, therefore, of induced current produced during any moment of time will be just in proportion to the cor- responding increase in the current of the battery during the same moment. Also, the amount of induction during any moment while the current of battery is diminishing in quantity will be in proportion to the decrease during the same moment. 60. The several conditions of this experiment may be repre- sented by the different parts of the curve, A, B, C, D, Fig. 17, in which the distances, Aa, Ab, Ac, represent the times during which the battery is descending to different depths into the acid, Fig. 17. FS eee E ee ae Be D and the corresponding ordinates, ag, bh, cB, represent the amount of current electricity in the battery conductor corresponding to these times. The differences of the ordinates, namely, ag, mh, nB, express the increase in the quantity of the battery current during the corresponding moments of time represented by Aa, ab, bc; and since the inductive actions (59) are just in proportion to these increases, the same differences will also represent the amount of induced action exerted on the secondary conductor during the same moments of time. 61. When the battery is fully immersed in the acid, or when the current in the conductor has reached its state of maximum quantity, and during the time of its remaining constant, no in- uction is exerted; and this condition is expressed by the con- stant ordinates of the part of the curve BC, parallel to the axis. so, the inductive action produced by each diminution of the battery current, while the apparatus is in the progress of being drawn from the acid, will be represented by the differences of the ordinates at the other end, CD, of the curve. 62. The sum of the several increments of the battery current Up to its full development, will be expressed by the ordinate cB, Vol. xu1, No, 1.—April-June, 1841. 18 138 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. and this will, therefore, also represent the whole amount of in- ductive action exerted in one direction at the beginning of the primary current; and for the same reason, the equal ordinate, Cd, will represent the whole induction in the other direction at the ending of the same current. Also, the whole time of continu- ance of the inductive action at the beginning and ending will be represented by Ac and dD. 63. If we suppose the battery to be plunged into the acid to the same depth, but more rapidly than before, then the time rep- resented by Ac will be diminished, while the whole amount of inductive force expended remains the same; hence, since the same quantity of force is exerted in a less time, a greater inten- sity of action will be produced, (57,) and consequently a current of more intensity, but of less duration, will be generated in the secondary conductor. The relative intensity of the induced cur- _rents will, therefore, evidently be expressed by the ratio of the ordinate cB to the abscissa Ac. Or in more general and definite terms, the intensity of the inductive action at any moment of time will be represented by the ratio of the rate of increase of the ordinate to that of the abscissa for that moment.* 64. It is evident from the last paragraph, that the greater of less intensity of the inductive action will be immediately pre- sented to the eye, by the greater or less obliquity of the seve parts of the curve to the axis. Thus, if the battery be suddenly plunged into the acid for a short distance, and then gradually im- mersed through the remainder of the depth, the varying actiot will be exhibited at once by the form of AB, the first part of the é curve, Fig. 17. The steepness of the part Ag will indicate ale intense action for a short time Aa, while the part 2B denotes 4 more feeble induction during the time represented by ac. In the same way, by drawing up the battery suddenly at first, and af- terwards slowly, we may produce an inductive action, such a would be represented by the parts between C and D of the end- ing of the curve. 65. Having thus obtained representations of the different ele- ments of action, we are now prepared to apply these to the phe- 4 * According to the differential notation, the intensity will be expressed by 3, In some cases the effect may be proportional to the intensity multiplied by the quantity, and this will be expressed by ai a and y representing, aa usual, the "= riable abscissa and ordinate. sie On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 139 nomena. And, first, however varied may be the intensity of the induction expressed by the different parts of the two ends of the curve, we may immediately infer that a galvanometer, placed in the circuit of the secondary conductor, will be equally affected at the beginning and ending of the primary current; for, since the deflection of this instrument is due to the whole amount of a current, whatever may be its intensity, (57,) and since the or- dinates cB and Cd are equal, which represent the quantity of in- duction in the two directions, and, consequently, the amount o the secondary current, therefore the deflection at the beginni and ending of the battery current will, in all cases, be nal. This inference is in strict accordance with the results of experi- ment ; for, however rapidly or slowly we may plunge the battery into the acid, and however irregular may be the rate at which it is drawn out, still, if the whole effect be produced within the time of one swing of the needle, the galvanometer is deflected to an equal degree. | : _ 66. Again, the intensity of one part of the inductive action, for example that represented by Ag, may be supposed to be so great as to produce a secondary current capable of penetrating the body, and of thus producing a shock* while the other parts of the action, represented by gB and CD, are so feeble as to affect the galvanometer only. We would then have a result the same as one of those given in the last section, (42,) and which was sup- posed to be produced by two kinds of induction ; for if the shock Were referred to as the test of the existence of an induced cur- rent, one would be found at the beginning only of the battery current, while, if the galvanometer were consulted, we would perceive the effects of a current as powerful at the ending as at the beginning. 67. The results mentioned in the last paragraph cannot be obtained by plunging a battery into the acid; the formation of the current in this way is not sufficiently rapid to produce a shock. The example was given to illustrate the manner In which the same effect is supposed to be produced, in the case of the more sudden formation of a current, by plunging one end of the conduc- tor into a cup of mercury permanently attached to a battery already Pon re ae * The shock depends more on the intensity than on the quantity. See para- graph 13. igen 140 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. in the acid, and in full operation. The current, in this case, rapid as may be its development, cannot be supposed to assume per saltum its maximum state of quantity ; on the contrary, from the general law of continuity we would infer, that it passes through all the intermediate states of quantity, from that of no current, if the expression may be allowed, to one of full development ; there are, however, considerations of an experimental nature which would i us to the same conclusion, (18,) (90,) and also to the farther inference that the decline of the current is not instantaneous. ‘ding to this view, therefore, the inductive actions at the ling and the ending of a primary current, of which the forniifion and interruption are effected by means of the contact “with a cup of mercury, may also be represented by the several parts of the curve, Fig. 17. 68. We have now to consider how the rate of increase or dimi- -nution of the current, in the case in question, can be altered by a change in the different parts of the apparatus; and, first, let us take the example of a single battery and a short conductor, mak- ing only one or two turns around the helix; with this arrange- ment, a feeble shock, as we have seen, (11,) will be felt at the making, and also at the breaking of the circuit. In this case it would seem that almost the only impediment to the most rapid development of the current would be the resistance to conduc- tion of the metal; and this we might suppose would be more rapidly overcome by increasing the tension of the electricity; and, accordingly, we find that if the number of elements of the battery be increased, the shock at making the circuit will also be increased, while that at breaking the circuit will remain neatly the same. ‘'T'o explain, however, this effect more minutely, W® must call to mind the fact before referred. to, (17,) that when the poles of a compound battery are not connected, the apparatus ac- quires an accumulation of electricity, which is discharged at the first moment of contact, and which, in this case, would more t pidly develope the full current, and hence produce the more it- tense action on the helix at making the circuit. 69. The shock, and also the deflection of the needle, at break- ing the circuit with a compound battery and a short coil, (9,) 4P” pear nearly the same with a battery of a single element, because the accumulation just mentioned, in the compound battery, 5 —- almost instantly, and, according to the theory (71) of On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 141 the galvanic current, leaves the constant current in the conduc- tor nearly in the same state of quantity as that which would be produced by a battery of a single element; and hence the con- ditions of the ending of the current are the same in both cases. Indeed, in reference to the ending induction, it may be assumed as a fact which is in accordance with all the experiments, (9, 13, 73, T4, 75, 76, &c.,) as well as with theoretical considerations,* that when the circuit is broken by a cup of mercury, the rate of the diminution of the current, within certain limits, r he same, however the intensity of the electricity or the len, conductor may be varied. Pige18. a b 70. The several conditions of the foregoing examples are ex- hibited by the parts of the curves, Figs. 18 and 19. The gradual development of the current in the short conductor, with a single battery, and the gradual decline of the same, are represented by the gentle rise of AB and fall of CD, Fig. 18; while, in the next Fig. (19,) the sudden rise of AB indicates the intensity which produces the increased shock, after the number of elements of the battery has been increased. 'The accumulation of the elec-— tricity, which almost instantly subsides, is represented by the part Bee, Fig. 19, and from this we see at once, that although the Fig. 19. . Cc BZN Cc Ab aS k D Shock is increased by using the compound battery, yet the needle of the galvanometer will be deflected only to the same number of degrees, since the parts Be and ce give inductive actions in * See the theory of Ohm. : “ ¥ Cc. D a P 142 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. contrary directions, and both within the time of a single swing of the needle, and, consequently, will neutralize each other. The resulting deflecting force will, therefore, be represented by ef, which is equal to Ck, or to bB, in Fig. 18. The intensity of the shock at the breaking is represented as being the same in the two figures, by the similarity of the rate of descent of the part CD of the curve in each. 71. We have said (69) that the quantity of current electricity hort conductor and a compound battery, after the first dis- charg >, is nearly the same as with a single battery. The exact quantity, according to the theory of Ohm, in a unit of length of n m+R sents the number of elements; A, the electromotive force of one _ element ; 7, the resistance to conduction of one element ; and R, the length of the conductor, or rather its resistance to conduction in terms of r. Now, when R is very small, in reference to 7, as is the case with a very short metallic conductor, it may be the conductor is given by the formula In this, » repre- gee RAe on Be : neglected, and then the expression becomes mar Pst and since this expresses the quantity of current electricity in a unit of the length of the circuit, with either a single or a compound battery, therefore, with a short conductor, the quantity of current electti- city in the two cases is nearly the same. 72. Let us next return to the experiment with a battery of a single element, (68,) and instead of increasing the intensity of the apparatus, as in the last example, let the length of the con- ductor be increased ; then the intensity of the shock at the be- ginning of the current, as we have seen, (14,) will be diminished, while that of the one at the ending will be increased. ‘That the shock should be lessened at the beginning, by increasing ‘the length of the conductor, is not surprising, since, as we might suppose, the increased resistance to conduction would diminish the rapidity of the development of the current. But the secon- dary current, which is produced in the conductor of the primary current itself, as we have seen, (19,) is the principal cause which lessens the intensity of the shock ; and the effect of this, as will be shown hereafter, may also be inferred from the principles We have adopted. On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 143 73. The explanation of the increased shock at the moment of breaking the circuit with the long conductor, rests on the assump- tion before mentioned, (69,) that the velocity of the diminution of acurrent is nearly the same in the case of a long conductor as in that of a short one. But, to understand the application of this principle more minutely, we must refer to the change which takes place in the quantity of the current in the conductor by varying its length; and this will be given by another application of the formula before stated, (71.) This, in the case of a single battery, in which m equals unity, becomes r+R? and since this, as will be recollected, represents the quantity of current electri- city in a unit of length of the conductor, we readily infer from it, that by i increasing the length of the conductor, or the value of R, the quantity of current in a unit of the length is lessen- ed. And if the resistance of a unit of the length of the con- ductor were very great in comparison with that of r, (the resist- ance of one element of the battery,) then the formula would A become R oF the quantity in a single unit of the conductor would be inversely as its entire length, and hence the amount of current electricity in the whole conductor would be a constant quantity, whatever might be its length. This, however, can never be the case in any of our experiments, since in no instance is the resist- ance of R very great in reference to r, and therefore, according to the formula, (73,) the whole quantity of current electricity in along conductor is always somewhat greater than in a short one. 74. Let us, however, in order to simplify the conditions of the induction at the ending of a current, suppose that the quantity in a unit of the conductor is inversely as its whole length, or, in other words, that the quantity of current electricity is the same ina long conductor as in a short one ; and let us also suppose, for an example, that the length of the spiral conductor, Fig. 3, was increased from one spire to twenty spires ; then, if the velocity of the diminution of the section of the current is the same (69) nt n, h ever, as shown by the galvanometer, should be ce tnenty ay te 144 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. times less; and these inferences I have found in accordance with the results of experiments, (75.) If, however, instead of placing the helix on one spire of the long conductor, it be submitted at once to the influence of all the twenty spires, then the intensity of the shock should be twenty times greater, since twenty times the quantity of current electricity collapses, if we may be allow- ed the expression, in the same time, and exerts at once all its in- fluence on the helix. If, in addition to this, we add the conside- ration that the whole quantity of current electricity in a long conductor is greater than that in a short one, (73,) we shall have a further reason for the increase of the terminal shock, when we increase the length of the battery conductor. _ 75. The inference given in the last paragraph, relative to the change in the quantity of the induction, but not in the intensity of the shock from a single spire, by increasing the whole length of the conductor, is shown to be true by repeating the experiment described in paragraph 13. In this, as we have seen, the inten- sity of the shock remained the same, although the length of the circuit was increased by the addition of coil No. 2. When, how- ever, the galvanometer was employed in the same arrangement, the whole quantity of induction, as indicated by the deflection of the needle, was diminished almost in proportion to the increas- ed length of the circuit. I was led to make this addition to the experiment (13) by my present views. 76. The explanation given in paragraph 74, also includes that of the peculiar action of a long conductor, either coiled or ex- tended, in giving shocks and sparks from a battery of a single element, discovered by myself in 1831; (see Contrib. No. IL) The induction, in this case, takes place in the conductor of the _ primary current itself, and the secondary current which is produ- ced is generated by the joint action of each unit of the length of the primary current. Let us suppose, for illustration, that the conductor was at first one foot long, and afterwards increased to twenty feet. In the first case, because the short conductor would transmit a greater quantity of electricity, the secondary current produced by it would be one of considerable quantity, or power to deflect a galvanometer; but it would be of feeble intensity, for although the primary current would collapse with its usual velocity, (69,) yet, acting on only a foot of conducting matter, the effect (74) would be feeble. In the second case, each foot et ie he On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 145 of the twenty feet of the primary current would severally pro- duce an inductive action of the same intensity as that of the short conductor, the velocity of collapsion being the same; and as they are all at once exerted on the same conductor, a secon- dary current would result of twenty times the intensity of the current in the former case. 77. 'To render this explanation more explicit, it may be proper to mention that a current produced by an induction on one part of a long conductor of uniform diameter, must exist, of the same intensity, in every other part of the conductor; hence, the action of the several units of length of the primary current must enforce each other, and produce the same effect on its own conductor that the same current would if it were in a coil, and acting on a helix. I need scarcely add, that in this case, as in that given in paragraph 74, the whole amount of induction is greater with the long conductor than with the short one, because the quantity of current electricity is greater in the former than in the latter. e may next consider the character of the secondary cur- rent, in reference to its action in producing a tertiary current in a third conductor. ‘The secondary current consists, as we may Suppose, in the disturbance, for an instant, of the natural electri- city of the metal, which, subsiding, leaves the conductor again in its natural state; and whether it is produced by the beginning or ending of a primary current, its nature, as we have seen, (22,) is the same. Although the time of continuance of the secondary current is very short, still we must suppose it to have some dura- tion, and that it increases, by degrees, to a state of maximum development, and then diminishes to the normal condition of the metal of the conductor; the velocity of its development, like — that of the primary current, will depend on the intensity of the action by which it is generated, and also, perhaps, in some de- gree, on the resistance of the conductor; while, agreeably to the hypothesis we have assumed, (69,) the velocity of its diminution is nearly a constant quantity, and is not affected by changes in these conditions; hence, if we suppose the induction which pro- duces the séebndlii’y current to be sufficiently intense, the velo- nution Vol. xx, No. 1.—April-June, 1841.’ 19 a 146 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. ders, capable of giving shocks or of magnetizing steel needles; the secondary currents from these are always of considerable in- tensity, and hence their rate of development must be greater than that of their diminution, and, consequently, they may be represented by a curve of the form exhibited in Fig. 20, in which there is no constant part, and in which the steepness of AB is Fig. 20. ep sefetkn F: A ob C greater than that of BC. There are, however, other considera- tions, which will be noticed hereafter, (89,) which may affect the form of the part BC of the curve, Fig. 20, rendering it still more gradual in its descent, or, in other words, which tend to diminish the intensity of the ending induction of the secondary current. 79. It will be seen at once, by an inspection of the curve, that the effect produced, in a third conductor, and which we have called a tertiary current, is not of the same nature as that of a secondary current. Instead of being a single development in one direction, it consists of two instantaneous currents, one produced by the induction of AB, and the other, by that of BC, in oppo- site directions, of equal quantities, but of different intensities. The whole quantity of induction in the two directions, will each be represented by the ordinate Bb, and hence they will nearly neutralize each other, in reference to their action on the galva- nometer, in the circuit of the third conductor. I say, they will nearly neutralize each other, because, although they are equal in quantity, they do not both act in absolutely the same moment of time. he needle will, therefore, be slightly affected ; it will be impelled in one direction, say to the right, by the induction of AB, but, before it can get fairly under way, it will be arrested, and turned in the other direction, by the action of BC. This inference is in strict accordance with observation ; the needle, as we have seen, (24,) starts from a state of rest, with a velocity which, a parently, would send it through a large arc, but before it has re shed, perhaps, more than half a degree, it suddenly stops, and turns in the other direction. As the needle is first affected by the action of AB, it indicates a current in the adverse direction to the secondary current. Se : * On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 147 80. Although the two inductions in the tertiary conductor nearly neutralize each other, in reference to the indications of the galvanometer, yet this is far from being the case with regard to the shocks, and the magnetization of steel needles. These effects may be considered as the results alone of the action of AB; the induction of BC being too feeble in intensity to produce a ter- tiary current of suflicient power to penetrate the body, or over- come the coercive power of the hardened steel. Hence, in refer- ence to the shock, and magnetization of the steel needle, we may entirely neglect the action of BC, and consider the tertiary ex- citement as a single current, produced by the action of AB; and, because this is the beginning induction, (56,) the tertiary current must be in an opposite direction to the secondary. For a similar reason, a current of the third order should produce in effect a single current of the fourth order, in a direction opposite to that of the current which produced it, and so on: we have here, therefore, a simple explanation of the extraordinary phenomenon of the alternation of the directions of the currents, of the differ- ent orders, as given in this (25) and the preceding paper. 81. The operation of the interposed plate, (32, 47, 48, &c.,) in neutralizing the shock, and not affecting the galvanometer, can also be readily referred to the same principles. It is certain, that an induced current is produced in the plate, (III, 64,) and that this must react on the secondary, in the helix; but it should not alter the total amount of this current, since, for example, at the ending induction, the same quantity of current is added to the helix, while the current in the plate is decreasing, as is subtracted while the same current is increasing. ‘T’o make this more clear, let the inductive actions of the interposed current be represented by the parts of the curve, Fig. 20. The induction represent by AB will react on the current in the helix, and diminish its quantity, by an amount represented by the ordinate 6B; but the induction represented by BC, will act in the next moment, on the same current, and increase its quantity by an equal amount, as represented by the same ordinate Bd ; and since both actions take place within a small part of the time of a single swing of the needle, the whole deflection will not be altered, and conse- quently, as far as the galvanometer is concerned, the interposition of the plate will have no perceptible effect. oe ee i gas 148 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. 82. ‘But the effect of the plate on the shock, and on the mag- netization of tempered steel, should be very different ; for although the quantity of induction in the helix may not be changed, yet its intensity may be so reduced, by the adverse action of the in- terposed current, as to fall below that degree which enables it to penetrate the body, or overcome the coercive force of the steel. To understand how this may be, let us again refer, for example, to the induction which takes place at the ending of a battery current: this will produce, in both the helix and the plate, a mo- mentary current, in the direction of the primary current, which we have called plus ; the current in the plate will react on the helix, and tend to produce in it two inductions, which, as before, may be represented by AB, and BC, of the curve, Fig. 20; the first of these, AB, will be an intense action, (78,) in the minus direction, and will, therefore, tend to neutralize the intense action of the primary current on the helix; the second, (BC,) will add to the helix an equal quantity of induced current, but of a much more feeble intensity, and hence the resulting current in the he- lix will not be able to penetrate the body; no shock will be per- ceived, or at least a very slight one, and the phenomena of screening will be exhibited. 83, When the plate of metal is placed between the conductors of the second and third orders, or between those of the third and fourth, the action is somewhat different, although the general principle is the same. Let us suppose the plate interposed be- tween the second and third conductors; then the helix, or third conductor, will be acted on by four inductions, two from the sec- ondary current, and two from the current in the plate. The di- rection and character of these will be as follows, on the supposi- tion that the direction of the secondary current is itself plus : The beginning secondary . intense and. . minus. The ending secondary . . feebleand . . plus. The beginning interposed . intense and. . plus. The ending interposed . . feebleand . . minus. Now if the action, on the third conductor, of the first and third of the above inductions be equal in intensity and quantity, they will neutralize each other; and the same will also take place with the action of the second and fourth, if they be equal, and hence, in this case, neither shock hor motion of the needle of the Mar = .* On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 149 galvanometer would be produced. If these inductions are not precisely equal, then, only a partial neutralization will take place, and the shock will only be diminished in power ; and, also, per- haps, the needle will be very slightly affected. 84. If, in the foregoing exposition, we throw out of considera- tion the actions of the feeble currents which cannot pass the body, and, consequently, are not concerned in producing the shock, then the same explanation will still apply which was given in the last paper, (III, 94,) namely, in the above example, the helix is acted on by the minus influence of the secondary, and the plus influence of the interposed current. 85. We are now prepared to consider the effect on the helix (Fig. 3) of the induced currents produced in the conductor of the primary current itself. These are true secondary currents, and are almost precisely the same in their action as those in the inter- posed plate. Let us first examine the induced current at the be- ginning of the primary, in the case of a long coil and a battery of a single element; its action on the helix may be represented by the parts of the curve, Fig. 20. The first part, AB, will pro- duce an intense induction opposite to that of the primary current ; and hence the action of the two will tend to neutralize each other, and no shock, or a very feeble one, will be produced. The ending action of the same induced current, which is represented by BD, restores to the helix the same quantity of current elec- tricity (but in a feeble state) which was neutralized by AB, and hence the needle of the galvanometer will be as much affected as if this current did not exist. These inferences perfectly agree with the experiment given in paragraph 19. In this, when the ends of the interposed coil were joined so as to neutralize the induced current in the long conductor, the shock at the beginning of the primary current was nearly as powerful as with a short conductor, while the amount of deflection of the galvanometer Was unaffected by joining the ends of the same coil. 86. At first sight it might appear that any change in the appa- tatus which might tend to increase the induction of the primary current (16) would also tend to increase, in the same degree, the adverse secondary in the same conductor; and that hence the heutralization mentioned in paragraph would take place in all cases; but we must ject that if a more full current be suddenly formed in a ocmaietce of a given thickness, the ad- 150 Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. verse current will not have, as it were, as much space for its de- velopment, and therefore, will have less power in neutralizing the induction of the primary than before. But there is another, and, perhaps, a better reason, in the consideration that in the case of the increase of the number of elements of the battery, although the rapidity of the development of the primary current is greater, yet the increased resistance which the secondary meets with, in its motion against the action of the several elements, will tend to diminish its effect. Also, by diminishing the length of the pri- mary current, we must diminish (76) the intensity of the secon- dary, so that it will meet with more resistance in passing the acid of the single battery, and thus its effects be diminished. 87. The action of the secondary current, in the long coil at the ending of the primary current, should, also, at first sight, pro- duce the same screening influence as the current in the inter- posed plate ; but, on reflection, it will be perceived that its action in this respect must be much more feeble than that of the similar current at the beginning ; the latter is produced at the moment of making contact, and hence it is propagated in a continuous circuit of conducting matter, while the other takes place at the rupture of the circuit, and must therefore be rendered comparatively fee- ble by being obliged to pass through a small portion of heated air; very little effect is therefore produced on the helix by this induction, (19.) The fact that this current is capable of giving intense shocks, when the ends of a long wire, which is transmit- ting a primary current, are grasped at the time of breaking the circuit, is readily explained, since, in this case, thé body forms, with the conductor, a closed circuit, which permits the compara- tively free circulation of the induced current. 88. It will be seen that I have given a peculiar form to the beginning and ending of the curves, Figs. 17, 18, &c. These are intended to represent the variations which may be supposed to take place in the rate of increase and decrease of the quantity of the current, even in the case where the contact is made and broken with mercury. We may suppose, from the existence of analo- gous phenomena in magnetism, heat, &c., that the development of the current would be more rapid at first than when it approxi- mates what may be called theta of current saturation, or when the current has reached more nearly the limit of capacity of conduction of the metal. Also, the decline of the current may * 2 a. On Electro-Dynamic Induction. 151 ' be supposed to be more rapid at the first moment, than after _ it has lost somewhat of its intensity, or sunk more nearly to its normal state. These variations are indicated by the rapid rise of the curve, Fig. 17, from A to g, and the more gradual increase of , the ordinates from h to B; and by the rapid diminution of the ordinates between © and J, and the gradual decrease of those to- wards the end of the curve. 89. These more minute considerations, relative to the form of the curve, will enable us to conceive, how the time of the end- ing of the secondary current, as we have suggested, (78,) may be prolonged beyond that of the natural subsidence of the dis- turbance of the electricity of the conductor on which this current depends. If the development of the primary current is produ- ced by equal increments in equal times, as would be the case in plunging the battery (59) into the acid with a uniform velocity ; then the part AB of the curve Fig. 17, would be a straight line, and the resulting secondary current, after the first instant, would be one of constant quantity during nearly the whole time repre- sented by Ac; but if the rate of the development of the primary current be supposed to vary in accordance with the views we have given in the last paragraph, then the quantity of the secon- dary current will begin to decline before the termination of the induction, or as soon as the increments of the primary begin to diminish ; and hence the whole time of the subsidence of the secondary will be prolonged, or the length of bC, Fig. 20, will be increased, the descent of BC be more gradual, and the inten- sity of the ending induction of the secondary current be dimin- ished: (see Jast part of paragraph 78.) 90. Besides the considerations we have mentioned, (88,) there are others of a more obvious character, which would also appear to affect the form of particular parts of the curve. And first we might perhaps make a slight correction in the drawing of Figs. 17, 18, &c., at the point A, in consideration of the fact that the very first contact of the end of the conductor with the surface of the mercury is formed by a point of the metal, and hence the increment of development should be a little less rapid at the first Moment than after the contact has become larger; or in other words, the curve should per a little less abruptly from the axis at the point A. Also Pace has stated* that he finds Mii. * Vide this Journal, Vol. xxxv, p. 166. —_ bl 3 " ‘ $ “4 *< * £, Sy «, 7 : = 7 Tagt ; : + Nee —— 7 ’ ; ‘ r= “ Ss ae > ‘152° © Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism. a. 3 é . ” t. 5 » the shock increased by spreading a stratum of oil over the str- , face of the mercury; in this case it is probable that the termina- A , ¥ . tion of the current is more sudden, on account of the preven- Laer tion of the combustion of the metal by means of the oil, and the — oe fact that the end of the conductor is drawn up into a non-con- t, _ducting medium. oe 91. The time of the subsidence of the current, when the cir- cuit is broken by means of a surface of mercury, is very small, -and probably does ‘not exceed the ten thousandth part of a sec- ond, but even this is an appreciable duration, since I find that the _ Spark at the ending presents the appearance of a band of light of considerable length, when viewed in a mirror revolving at the rate of six hundred times ina second ; and I think the variations in the time of ending of the current under different conditions may be detected by means of this instrument. 4 92. Before concluding this communication, I should state tha I have made a number of attempts to verify the suggestion given in my last paper, (III, 127,) that an inverse induction is produced by a galvanic current by a change in the distance of the conduc- tors, but without success. These attempts were made before I had adopted the views given in this section, and since then! have found (80) a more simple explanation of the alternation of the currents. 93. In this number of my contributions, the phenomena ex- hibited by the galvanic apparatus have alone been discussed. have, however, made a series of experiments on the induction from ordinary electricity, and the reaction of soft iron on currents, and I think that the results of these can also be referred to the simple principles adopted in this paper; but they require further examination before being submitted to the public. > “* a “~ : EX A A. «af * . * +» ~* ee < =] aK ”% _ The Hessian Fly, and its Parasites. . 158 F Y; . ae, my ~ . a ‘* oe Po % *s * : a * = Pit i. a 2a ’ Lé _ Arr. XV.—A Brief, Preliminary Account of the Hessian Fly — and its Parasites ; by Epwarv C. Herricx, Mem. Yale Nat. Hist. Soc. . gies os [Communicated to the Yale Nat. Hist. Society, April 28, 1841. —r For several years past I have spent some time in the study of the habits of the Hessian fly, and of the varic insects by which it is attacked. During a part of the period I enjoyed the impor- tant codperation of my valued friend, Mr. James D. Dana, now ~ absent from the country, as one of the scientific corps of the United States South Sea Exploring Expedition. It was, and still continues to be, my intention, to offer an extended paper on this ‘ subject. The investigation is not yet in every particular so com- plete as could be wished, but several circumstances seem to ren- der it advisable to give at this time, a brief abstract of some por- tion of the results. The civil history of the insect, as well as the scientific descriptions, with many other details, are reserved for the final paper. oS m The Hessian fly, which has so long been conspicuous for its depredations on the wheat crops of this country, is.a two-winged insect of the genus Lasioptera or Cecidomyia, (Meig. and Latr.) and was first scientifically described by the late Mr. Thomas Say, (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 1817, i, 45,) who gave it the spe- cific name of Destructor. The popular name was first used’by Col. George Morgan, of Prospect, N. J., on the supposition that the insect was introduced into this country among the straw brought by the Hessian troops who came here in the service of Great Britain, during the war of the Revolution. This supposi- tion has been rejected by most entomologists, chiefly perhaps, because an extensive and apparently thorough inquiry made in Various parts of Europe a few years after, resulted in the uncon- tradicted conclusion that the insect was wholly unknown in that quarter of the world. I am not prepared to assert that this insect Was introduced in the manner above supposed, but it may be shown that it is highly probable that it was unknown here before that time; that it now exists in Europe, and has probably been there for centuries. In the Eléments d’ Agriculture, par Duhamel du Monceau, Paris, 1771, 2 tomes, 12mo., is a statement from M. de Chateau- Vol. xu1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. ™ “<= 2 t , ‘i aft ~ 154 The Hessian Fly, and its Parasites. vieux, of which the following is a translation :—“ Our wheat [in the neighborhood of Geneva] has sustained the present month of May, 1755, an injury, from which the grain cultivated by the new husbandry has not been exempt. We found upon it a num- ~ ber of small white worms, which eventually turned to a chestnut color: they fix themselves within the leaves, and gnaw the stalks. They are commonly found between the first joint and the root: the stalks on which they fasten, grow no more; they become yellow and dry up. We suffered the same injury in 1732, when tebe insects appeared in the middle of May, and did ge that the crops were almost annihilated.” i, 299. This passage ‘ ha ‘as quoted by Col. Morgan, (Carey’s Amer. Mus. 1787, i, 530,) in the belief that the insect described in it was the Hasiahedly. The description is too imperfect to authorize a positive a but there seems to be little doubt that his opin- ion is co In 1833, Mr. ] Dana sailed for the Mediterranean in the U. 8. ship Delaware. oe “An opportunity was thus afforded him to make personal exploration for the Hessian fly among the wheat fields of the old world; a work for which he was well prepared by his thorough acquaintance with this insect in its various stages. His examinations were rewarded with the most gratifying success, for they proved that the Hessian fly is an inhabitant of Europe. On the 13th of March, 1834, and subsequently, he collected sev- eral larvee and pupee, from wheat plants growing in a field on the island of Minorca. From these pupa, were evolved on the 16th of March, 1834, two individuals of an insect which his recollec- tions, (aided by a drawing of the Hessian fly with which he was provided,) enabled him to pronounce to be the Cecidomyia De structor. . More of the perfect insects were evolved in the course of the month, one of which deposited eggs like those of the Hes sian fly. In letters dated Mahon, April 8 and 21, 1834, Mr. D. sent me five of the insects, and several of the pupe. They arrived in safety, and after a careful examination, I saw no good reason to doubt the identity of this insect with the Hessian fly. The Mahonese asserted that the insect had been there from time immemorial, and often did great damage both there and in Spain. On the 28th of April, 1834, Mr. D. collected from a wheat field just without the walls of the city of Toulon in France, several pupe and one larva like those before obtained. 02 The Hessian Fly, and its Parasites. 155 the 4th of June, 1834, he obtained similar pupee from a wheat field near Naples.—About the period of Mr. Dana’s investigations in the south of Europe, attention was turned to the injury caused by certain larvee among the wheat in Hungary. It ap- pears now to be commonly believed, that their parent insect is either our Hessian fly, or an animal very closely allied to it. { have searched in vain for any traces of the Hessian fly in this country before the Revolution. The Rev. Jared Eliot, in his “ Hssays upon Field Husbandry in New England,” Boston, 1760, treats of the culture of wheat, but makes no allusion to any insect having habits like those of the Hessian fly ; neither does Kalm, the naturalist, who travelled in this country about 1750. [am therefore inclined to consider the common opinion of the origin of the insect quite as probable as any other which has been advanced. Ps In this part of our country, wheat is usually sown about the first of September. Soon after the plants are up, the Hessian fly begins to lay her eggs upon them, and continues her operations for several weeks. She deposits her eggs on the upper surface of the leaf (i.e. the ligula, or strap-shaped portion of the leaf) of the plant. The number ona single k saf is often twenty or thirty, and sometimes much greater. In these cases many of the larve must perish. The egg is about a fiftieth of an inch long, and four hundredths of an inch in diameter, cylindrical, translucent, andof a pale red color. In about four days the egg hatches; the young larva creeps down the leaf, enters the sheath, and with the head downwards, fastens upon the tender culm or stalk, gen- erally just above some joint. The larva appears to feed solely on the sap of the plant; it does not gnaw the stalk, and never enters it, but is gradually imbedded in it as the plant matures. Having taken its post, the larva is stationary ; 1t gradually loses its reddish color, becomes translucent, and clouded with white spots, and when near maturity, the central part within is of a greenish hue. In about five or six weeks, (or longer if the season is cold, ) the larva begins to assume a brownish tinge, and soon is of a bright chestnut color, when the insect may be said to have reached the state of pupa. It has then some resemblance to a flax-seed. The outer skin of the larva becomes the puparium of the pues The wheat plant is injured by the loss of sap, but principally by the pressure of the larvee and pupe upon the culm. A single ¥ a 156 The Hessian Fly, and its Parasites. larva will do little harm, (and may even be useful by stimulating the plant to throw out side shoots,) but five or six of them are sufficient seriously to check the growth of the plant, or perhaps to destroy it entirely.* During the winter the insect is in the pupa state, near the root of the wheat plant, and usually a little below the surface of the earth. In April and May we again find the Hessian fly lay- ing eggs on the young wheat, both that which was sown in the autumn previous, and the spring wheat, which is of course re- cently up. The larve from these eggs become pups about the middle of June. es ' There is no difficulty in tracing the insect as far as the state of pupa, and to this point its history is satisfactorily ascertained. Regarding the periods of the evolution of the perfect insect, there is, however, some obscurity, which numerous observations have not whollyfeleared up. The difficulty results in part from the fact that in this region, a very large proportion, probably more than nine tenths, of every generation of the Hessian fly, is de- stroyed by parasites. A great part of the pupe which may be collected will evolve some parasitic insect, instead of the Hessian fly. It is certain that sometimes, the pup, which became so in June, evolve the perfect insect in October following, and that other pupee of the same date will not evolve the perfect insect until October of the year succeeding. The following seems to me the probable history of the matter. 'The pupe, which be- came such in the autumn, evolve the perfect insect, partly during the next spring, and partly in the summer and autumn following. sl ia ot pices “pre eet seior boscy ayaa‘ geil) De * It has been repeatedly asserted that the Hessian fly lays her eggs on the ripen- ing grain. This error has doubtless arisen from mistaking for the Hessian fly, other insects, which in various parts of our country attack the wheat. In the Trans. of the Amer, Phil. Soc., 1771, i, 205, Col. Landon Carter has given some account of'a pale brownish moth, called by him the fly weevil that destroys the wheat, which lays its eggs on the grain. paper on what is probably the same insect, is pub- lished by John Lorain in Mease’s Archives of Useful Knowledge, 1812, ii, 47. The insect is supposed to be that described by Duhamel du Monceau in his “ Histowe Pun Insecte qui devore les Grains de lA insect. It is hardly necessary to say that this was not the larva of the Hessia” fly. A critical investigation of all these insects is very much to be desired- te The Hessian Fly, and its Parasites. 157 The pupx, which became such in and about June, evolve the perfect insect, partly during the next autumn, and partly during the year succeeding. Parasites.—There are in this region, four principal parasites of the Hessian fly, one of which attacks the eggs, and the other three the pup. They are all minute Hymenoptera. 1. The egg-parasite, is a species of Platygaster, Latr., and may prove to be identical with some one of the hundred species of this genus which are described. (Entom. Mag. Lond. iii, 217. Cont: Macl. Lyc. i, 81.) The insect is abundant in the autumn. I first saw it Sept. 23, 1833, in the act of depositing its eggs in the eggs of the Hessian fly. From subsequent observations it appears that four or five eggs are laid in a single egg of the Hes- sian fly. The latter egg hatches, and the animal advances to the pupa state as usual, but from the puparium no Hessian fly ever comes forth. ‘This parasite forms within the puparium, a silky cocoon of a brownish color. 2. This is the chief parasite of the pupa. It is described by Mr. Say, (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. i, 47,) as the Ceraphron Destructor. It appears to me not to belong to the genus Cera- phron, (Latr.) but to fall within the genus E’urytoma, of Illiger. It pierces the sheath of the stalk, (making a hole too small to be detected by a powerful microscope,) and deposits an egg in the — pupa within. This is done chiefly in June. The perfect insect is evolved in the summer and autumn succeeding, eating its way through the puparium and the sheath of the leaf. An insect (of which I have seen females only) very similar to the Eurytoma Destructor, but with mere rudiments of wings, is sometimes evolved from the pupee of the Hessian fly. Iam in doubt whether it should be considered a distinct species or only a variety. The winged individuals never throw off their wings. 3. The next parasite of the pupa, is an insect of the tribe Chaleidie, (Latr. in Cuv. Régne An.) whose genus I have not determined. Its habits are like those of No. 2, but it is evolved ater. Apterous females of this species are also found. 4. Another parasite of the pupa is an insect of the tribe Ox- yuri, (Latr. in Cuv.) whose genus I have not determined. Tn habits it agrees with Nos. 2 and 3, but it is evolved still later in the year. All of these parasites are likewise evolved in the Spring, from Hessian fly pupae of the summer previous. a 158 Association of American Greologists. A few suggestions may be made respecting the best modes of preventing the ravages of the Hessian fly. They have all been published before, by others, but they are of such a nature that there is little probability that any of them will ever exterminate the insect. ‘The stouter varieties of wheat ought always be chosen, and the land should be kept in good condition. If fall wheat is sown late, some of the eggs will be avoided, but risk of winter-kill- ing the plants will be incurred. If cattle are permitted to graze the wheat fields during the fall, they will devour many of the eggs. A large number of the pupe may be ‘oyed by burning the wheat-stubble immediately after hve then ploughing and harrowing the land. This method will undoubtedly do much good. As the Hessian fly also lays its eggs, to some extent, on rye and barley, these crops should be treated in a similar mannet. New Haven, Conn. Art. XV.—Proceedings of Learned Societies. I. Association of American Geologists. Tue second annual meeting of this Association was held du- ting the second week in April, at the rooms of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. The following is an abstract of the proceedings. Monday, April 5th, 1841, 4 o’clock, P. Mi—The Association met pursuant to the adjournment of last year. The regularly appointed presiding officers being absent, Prof. Henry D. Rogers was called to the chair. After the completion of some business arrangements, the Association adjourned until 10 o’clock, A. M. of Tuesday. Tuesday, April 6th, 1841, 10 o’clock, A. M.— The Association met pursuant to adjournment. Prof. Silliman took the chair. _ Dr. L. C. Beck was appointed secretary. Messrs. W. R. Johi son, Vanurem, H. D. Rogers, Mather, and Locke, were appoint ed a committee to report a plan of business for the meeting: € subject of mineral manures having been referred at the last annual meeting, was proposed for discussion. Remarks were offered, and facts stated by Mr. Martin H. Boyé, Drs. Charles T: Jackson, James B. Rogers, J. Locke, and Mr. B. Silliman, Jr Association of American Geologists. 159 Mr. Boyé enquired whether the antacid powers of magnesia, and its effects on vegetation, had been noticed, as it exists in the dolomitic limestone. - Dr. Jackson inferred from his observations, that magnesia is injurious only when used in a caustic state, in the same manner as caustic lime is known to be injurious to vegetation by abstract- ing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and from decomposing vegetable and animal matters. It also acts unfavorably in virtue of its hydraulic power ; rendering in some cases, the soil very hard. He further stated, that when composted with peat and swamp muck it oe these substances phosphoric acid, and thus became the means of conveying to wheat and other ce- real grains the phosphate of magnesia, known to be always found in their ashes. Dr. Jackson further considered the combinations of lime with the organic acids of soils as deserving much atten- tion. He had found subsoils to contain a larger quantity of cre- nates of lime than the soil, and that some streams in like manner contained a larger proportion of soluble crenates than others, and these former are most valuable for the purposes of irrigation. Dr. J. recommends the employment of a compost of lime, swamp muck or peat, and animal manure, and he attributes the benefi- cial effect of this in part to the evolution of ammonia consequent upon the decomposition of the organic matters. = The discussion then turned on the character of hydrated perox- ide of iron on vegetation. It was thought by Dr. Jackson, that the injurious effects sometimes known to arise from it were to be attributed to free sulphuric acid contained in it from the decom- Position of sulphuret of iron.. A marl was cited which at first Produced very luxuriant vegetation, but at a subsequent period Was found to destroy the plants growing where it had been used, OWing to the decomposition of sulphuret of iron contained in it, producing free sulphuric acid, which corroded the plants. Prof: D. Rogers, thought that some of the marls of New Jersey, Contained so much sulphuret of iron as to require more alkaline matter than was to be found in them to neutralize the acid result- ing from their decomposition. Still it was thought that small quantities of sulphuret of iron, in a marl, would by its decomposi- Hon be useful in agriculture. The subject of potash in soils was next brought. before the meeting. Dr. Jackson inquired if any experiments had been i fe 160 Association of American Geologists. made on this subject by gentlemen present. He had digested soils from Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, with boil- ing water, without discovering more than a trace of potash; while the method proposed by Mitscherlich of digesting the soils in free sulphuric acid, always gave decided indications of potash. He was led to infer, therefore, that the mica and other minerals containing potassa.were by this method decomposed. Mr. B. Silliman, Jr. stated, that the soil of the Nile, when treated according to the method of Mitscherlich, gave abundance of potash, but not any appreciable quantity with boiling water ; he was therefore led to believe that the miea, contained abundantly in the soil, was decomposed by the sulphuric acid. Resolved, That a committee be appointed to prepare a detailed report upon the subject of soils and mineral manures, embodying as well the fruits of their own investigations as the results arrived at by others, and that the same be presented at the next meeting. Drs. C. T. Jackson, Robert Rogers, Mr. M. Boyé, Dr. L. C. Beck, Dr. W. Horton, Mr. B. Silliman, Jun., and Prof. Booth, were appointed on the above committee. The committee appointed to prepare a plan of business, made a report, which was adopted, Prof. Mather asked for and obtained leave to defer his report on “ Drift,” until the next meeting of the Association; in the mean time he was requested to make an oral communication on this subject during the present meeting. Prof. Locke read a paper “On the Geology of some parts of the United States west of the Allegany Mountains.” In this paper the author exhibited particularly the points of agreement between the lead region of the upper Mississippi, and that of Derby- shire in England, and between the mountain limestone of Europe and the “cliff limestone” of the west. He showed that the two rocks agree in geological position, in external and chemical characters, in fossil re mains, and in metallic veins ; being both highly metalliferous and abound- ing in lead and zinc ores occupying vertical fissures. He described the upper, middle, and lower beds of the “ cliff limestone” of the lead regio® of the west as differing somewhat in characters and in fossil remains, and suggested the inquiry whether these three beds, together with the blue fossiliferous limestone which underlies them, (the probable equivalent of the Trenton limestone,) and the alternations of the lower magnesian lime stone with the saccharoid sandstone, found at Prairie du Chien, should be considered disti formations, ( eee a : W nn aeeent W UUs bY Association of American Geologists. 161 indicate,) or as different members of one formation—the mountain lime- stone. In reply to some remarks by Prof. H. D. Rogers, Prof. Locke ob- served, that he did not undertake to be the advocate of absolute equiva- lency, but merely to point out the agreement and disagreement of certain formations in America with similar ones in Europe. . He was of opinion, however, that certain points of equivalency must be admitted, as for ex- ample granite, the great coal formations, &c. Prof. Mather proposed the subject of “Joints of Rocks” for discussion during this session of the Association; and Prof. H. D. Rogers proposed that of “ Fossil and Recent Infusoria.” The Association then adjourned until 4 o’clock this afternoon. April 6th, 1841, 4 o’clock, P. M—The Association met pur- suant to adjournment, Prof. Locke in the chair. Mr. William C. Redfield exhibited specimens of fossil shells, from the tertiary marl-beds at Washington, Beaufort county, North Carolina. Mr. R. stated that these beds, which are about sixty miles from the At- lantic, are found from fifteen to twenty feet below the adjacent surface, and two or more feet lower than the usual level of Pamlico river and sound. The fossils are in a good state of preservation, and are supposed to belong to the miocene period. : Prof. Locke read a paper “on anew species of Trilobite, found at Cincinnati, Ohio,” and called by him Isotelus maximus. This species is characterized by its elliptical terminations, and by a thorn-like process about one tenth of the length of the animal, projecting backwards from each angle of the shield, similar to an Ogygia. He ex- hibited casts of one entire specimen, nine and three fourths inches in length, and of a fragment of another of double that size in linear dimen- sions, which of course must have been nineteen and a half inches long— the largest specimen hitherto known to have been found. Dr. Jackson stated that trilobites had been found in the lime- Stone at the mouth of St. Croix river. He then exhibited the following specimens of minerals and fossils, viz. Fossils from the limestone belonging to the red sandstone group of Machias, Maine. A new mineral from Unity, New Hamp- shire, which he has analyzed and proposes to describe under the name of chlorophyllite; it was remarkable as containing a large amount of phosphoric acid. A new mineral from Natick, Rhode Island, described by him under the name of Masonite. ‘Tin ore from Jackson, New Hampshire, near the celebrated gorge of the White mountains. Phosphuret of copper and iron mixed with Vol. xx1, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 21 162 Association of American Geologists. tremolite, from the town of Warren, N. H.; the mass yields from 6 to 12 per cent. of metallic copper. Recent bituminous coal from the vicinity of Newfield, Maine, taken from a peat bed. New red sandstone from Tobig river, in New Brunswick, con- taining about one half its weight of gypsum. Syphonia, a fos- sil-like substance with tubule running through them and assum- ing various forms. They were supposed to be concretions formed around twigs and roots of trees or other organic matter. Dr. L. C. Beck read a paper “On the Sulphur Springs of the State of New York.” . In this paper the author noticed, Ist. The geographical range of these springs, their geological positions and associations. Under this head it was stated that they are found in almost every formation, from the slates of the Hudson river to the shales of Erie and Chatauque county, having a range over nearly the whole state, and being found in almost every county. 2d. The amount of gaseous matter evolved by these springs. This cannot be correctly ascertained, but from many facts stated by the author, there can be no doubt of its vast quantity. Some instances were mentioned in which large streams and ponds were impregnated with sul- phuretted hydrogen. It was also remarked, that independently of the amount of gas which is held in solution by the waters of these springs, there is often a flow of gas which seems to be undissolved or uncombined. 3d. Some facts were stated in regard to the uniformity in the composition of these springs. In all cases in which they have been examined, they contain, in addition to the sulphuretted hydrogen, a small proportion of carbonic acid. The solid matters are almost invariably sulphates of Jime and magnesia, with smaller proportions of carbonate of lime, and occa sionally sulphate of soda. It was especially observed that sulphate of iron is very rarely found among the solid ingredients of these waters. Common salt is often found in the sulphur springs which occur in the vr cinity of the Onondago brine springs. 4th. The author next adverted to the observations which had been made in regard to the temperature of the New York sulphur springs. Although these have not yet been very extensively conducted, those which have been made seem to warrant the inference that the temperature of these springs is somewhat higher (s4Y 1° to 3°) than that of the mean temperature of the localities in which they are found. The author then proceeded to examine the theories which have bee? Proposed to account for the formation of sulphur springs. ‘The decom position of iron pyrites, often assigned as a cause, was objected to on the ground that it was not sufficiently general—that it did not meet thosé cases in which these springs are found in the older rocks—that from what is known concerning the decomiposition of iron pyrites, it seems to be ur & = & au me Association of American Geologists. 163 adequate to account for the enormous quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen which is evolved, and lastly, that the almost entire absence of sulphate of iron in the New York sulphar springs, is irreconcilable with this theory. The author then noticed the two general theories which have been pro- posed in regard to the origin of these springs, and gave the preference to the chemical theory, or that which attributes them, as the products of the great volcanic focus, to a chemical agency, as most consistent with the facts hitherto observed in the State of New York. He proposed, however, to extend the chemical theory so as to include the action of water upon the sulphurets of the bases of the alkalies and alkaline earths assumed to exist in the interior of the earth. _ The Association then adjourned until 10 o’clock, Wednesday morning. ; Wednesday, April 7th, 1841, 10 o’clock, A. M.—The Associa- tion met pursuant to adjournment. Prof. Silliman in the chair. The subject of sulphur springs was discussed by Messrs. H. D. Rogers, Locke, M. H. Boyé, Johnson and Mather. Mr. Va- nuxem.announced his intention of presenting his views in regard to the New York sulphur springs at the next meeting of the association. Prof. Hubbard presented a specimen of the slate found at Waterville, Maine, containing impressions, which in the Geologi- - cal Report of Maine, were described as resembling ferns and fuci, which they resembled more than any thing else that had been found at that time, and of course an error in regard to their nature Was unavoidable. Having received Murchison’s Silurian system about two years since, Prof. H. found that the impressions were true Annelides and belong to the two genera Myrianites and Ne- reites figured in that work ; thus carrying the occurrence of or- ganic life in the New England rocks, one step lower than — heretofore been observed, and showing 4 coincidence between the Waterville slate and the slate containing the Annelides nepeape? by Murchison and included by him among the Cambrian rocks. Dr. Jackson observed that he had received information from other gentlemen, that impressions of ferns occurred in the Water- Ville slate and had stated this in his first annual report of the ge- ology of Maine. He had, however, subsequently visited the local- ity and satisfactorily ascertained that the slates of Waterville do hot belong to the coal formation, and this fact was stated by him in his second report. Dr. J. remarked, that in justice to the gen- emen referred to, it should be observed that Prof. Sedgwick and 164 Association of American Geologists. Mr. Murchison’s report was not then published, and consequently these fossils could not be identified with the Annelides there de- scribed. On seeing this work Dr. J. had been able so to identify them, and he now concurred in the views expressed concerning them by Prof. Hubbard. , Prof. Mather stated that he had found an entire analogy in the fossils of the slates on the Hudson river, in Rensselaer and Sara- aes Mr. W. C. Redfield made some observations concerning the ~ fossils in the flagging slates employed in the city of New York. ‘These slates are generally obtained from the counties of Greene and Ulster, N. Y. He referred to the corner of Cedar street and Broadway, and to the walk in front of the Spring street church, near the Hudson, as exhibitions of these impressions. Prof. H. D. Rogers observed, that the pavement in front of the United States Bank, (Philadelphia,) afforded a similar exh- bition. _.. Dr. Jackson now offered some general remarks upon the ge ology of the states of Maine and New Hampshire. At 12 o’clock the Association adjourned, as a mark of respect .» to the memory of General Harrison, late President of the United States, whose funeral took place at this hour. : April Tth, 1 o’clock, P. M—T he Association met, Prof. Sill- man in the chair. mist the transaction of some ordinary bust ness, aan Mr. W. C. Redfield laid on the table sundry specimens of fos fishes found in the red sandstone formations of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Jersey.* _ Of eight species from these formations comprised in the collection, five . species are found to belong to the genus Paleoniscus, and three species _ tothe genus Catopterus. It is remarkable that nearly all of these several species are common to most of the known localities of these fossils in the above mentioned states. The importance of this fact, as aiding to estab- lish the cotemporaneous character of these formations, induced Mr. R. t place this collection before the Association. ; Mr. R. stated that the lithological appearances of the shales in which J 3 ee Mr. Redfield’s paper, published at length jin the present number of this ae * Association of American Geologists. 165 mined fossils which they contain, are nearly alike in all the localities which he has visited in the above mentioned states. Slight contortions of the strata with small faults or dislocations, which in some cases affect the fossil specimens, are also common to the several localities, and seem to. be referable to like causes. sad + In addition to the above, Mr. R. also exhibited specimens of a- new species of Catopterus from the rocks which overlie the coal mines in Chesterfield county, Virginia. Some remarks upon the elevation of trap dykes were made by the chairman, and Profs. H. D. Rogers, Mather, and Hitchcock. The Association then adjourned until 4 o’elock. oJ April 7th, 4 o’clock, P. M.—The Association met, Prof. Silli- man in the chair. Mr. Vanurem, from a committee appointed at the last meeting of the Association, presented a report in regard to the “ Ornithich- nites or foot-marks of extinct birds in the new red sandstone of Massachusetts and Connecticut,” observed and described by Prof. Hitchcock. ‘This report confirms the opinion respecting these appearances now entertained by Prof. Hitchcock. Report on the Ornithichnites or Foot Marks of Extinct Birds, in the new red Sandstone of Massachusetts and Connecticut, observed described by Prof. Hitchcock, of Amherst. << The undersigned, forming the committee to whom the subject of the origin of the bird-tracks of Prof. Hitchcock was assigned, beg leave to pre- sent the following brief report. a , \ It may be well previously to state, that the object of the meeting in ap- pointing this committee, was founded solely n the desire to produce, if Possible, unanimity of opinion, there being of the members who dissented from the views, published by Prof. Hitchcock. In our try, the subject, as it undoubtedly ought, had attracted considerable ition. It had been very favorably received and republished in Europe, and from its great importance to Paleozoic geology, an attempt should be made to settle the question; for were the views of our highly respected eyed correct, we were made acquainted with the earliest period in piccae ee animals existed whose foot-marks were analogous to, if not identical with, those of the tread of birds. On the contrary, if wrong, we were pre- sented with another class of facts, which show that certain appearances Supposed to belong solely to animal life, were held and presented by the vegetable kingdom likewise. We shall now state, in a few words, what we suppose are the general facts upon which Prof. Hitchcock’s views were founded, and then the facts of those who assumed the opposite opinion. ¥ ow ? 166 Association of American Geologists. The first and most obvious impression upon the mind, on looking at the indentations or marks, is their thin tripartite form, resembling the tread or foot-mark of those kinds of birds which show three toes, the fourth one being rudimental, and are referable to no other known kind of animal. The tracks or foot-marks in several localities are arranged in a determin- ate order, like those of a bird or fowl moving in a straight line, the toes or marks in all such cases being alternate; that is, if the right foot be presented on the rock, the left would next follow, and thus right and left in regular succession, sometimes with many repetitions. In other instan- ces, the foot-marks presented no determinate direction or order, as might naturally be supposed of a bird or any other animal having no particular place or object in view. In all cases where a succession of tracks was observed, there was an uniform correspondence as to size, and considerable regularity as to dis- tance between the tracks. Whatever deviations were observed, they were not greater than might be supposed to take place in animals possessed of voluntary motion. On some surfaces, not unfrequently one or more different kinds of track were exposed, belonging, as was reasonably conjectured, to different spe- cies and genera of ornithichnites. That the slaty material of the rock showed that the impressing body possessed force or weight, for frequently the thin layers or lamine were bent downwards for an inch or more, and that the mud of which the slate was formed was of a highly adhesive or tenacious character. In all cases the foot-marks or part impressed, was the fixed part of the rock ; the part removed when the lower side was turned upwards, shewed the cast or what corresponded with the toes or foot. That no trace of any organic matter could be perceived occupying the cavity or mould, the cast or part in relief being in all respects like the material of the rock of which it formed a part. Finally, that the foot-marks belonged to a group of rocks which must be idered to have been produced by the same general causes which gave rise to the new red sandstone of Europe, and referable only to that sandstone. This sandstone presents foot-marks in many localties, though _ Comparative] y but a few years have elapsed since attention has been call- ed to th Some of the specimens have reached this country, and had they not, the information is well given by Dr. Buckland in his Bridgewa- ter Treatise. The most remarkable of these foot-marks, is that of the chirotherium from the quarries of Hesberg, near Hildburghausen in Sax- ony, and greatly resembles a fleshy human hand. These, in the drawing and in the specimen which we have seen, are alternately right and left. Other foot-marks have been observed by Mr. Linse in the same sand- % Association of American Geologists. 167 of animals, probaly tortoises, were obtained from the same sandstone, but as yet no tracks like those of New England have been discovered. The facts, &&c. which led to a different conclusion are these. First, that the forms assumed by fucoidal plants were numerous and imita- tive, some resembling the tail of a rooster, the cauda galli; another, which was like unto a large claw or paw, and which may have been a Lusus nature, and the two specimens on the table of the Association, which present in relief a distinct tripartite form. These, as they all ap- pertain to rocks of great antiquity in comparison with those of New Eng- land, it appeared more reasonable to believe that there might be resem- blances as perfect, as the fossils with a tripartite character were approxi- mations to the forms in question. That no trace of organic matter could be discovered by the eye in the greater number of the fucoides. In some, such as the Harlani, they have been seen to be made up of small pebbles, presenting no little difficulty, not to the manner only in which the organic matter was replaced, the external form being complete, but the nature of this material, which could make so definite an impression and preserve its form entire. There were other facts which showed resemblances, such as that the part in relief was the part removed when the fucoides was attached to the sandstone at its upper part. It may also be stated, that the appendages to the heel of some of the New England tracks, might have been caused by a bird whose legs were feathered, but not to a wader, and they favored’ their vegetable origin, for the appendages might readily be conceived to — be either leaves or radicals, or both. From a comparative examination of the facts on both sides, your com- mittee unanimously believe, that the evidence entirely favors the views of Prof. Hitchcock, and should regret that a difference had existed, if they did not feel assured it would lead to greater stability of opinion. To lik- €n things to what we know is the nature of mind, the error from this ten-_ dency increases with ignorance, and diminishes as know. dge increases, so that he that knoweth all things, as is self-evident, can commit no error When following this instinct of his being. The discoveries of Prof. Hitch- cock were published at a period when the mind of those who sous reall the negative side of the subject was preoccupied with the anomalous ve F €tation with which many of the Silurian rocks of New York abound, and to which provisionally the name of fucoides had been given. From this IMitative character, and from finding a few specimens presenting a tri- partite or trifurcate form, &c. it appeared not only possible but probable, that the impressions from Massachusetts and Connecticut, were with greater propriety referable to fucoidal bodies, than to those which Prof. Hitchcock had assigned them. : We may here remark how essential it is that truth or the facts which make manifest any truth, should first be presented to us; so readily is the 168 Association of American Geologists. mind impressed when not preoccupied, and when a strong impression — is made, be it ever so false, it is no easy matter to free ourselves from it. From this circumstance we can readily foresee the advantage which fu- ture generations will possess over those of the present and especially those of former times. As the progress of knowledge is certain, each day will lessen error and enlarge the domains of truth, and should man be true to his permanent interests, error finally will cease to have existence. Signed, ~Henry D. Rocers, Larpner Vanuxem, Ricnarp C. Taytor, Esenezer Emmons, T. A. Conrap. Mr. Vanuxem read a paper “On the Ancient Oyster Shell De- posits observed near the Altantic coast of the United States.” Among the unsettled subjects of geology in our country, is the origin of the deposits of oyster shells, (Ostrea Virginica,) observed in many parts of the Atlantic seaboard, of which a few only of those near South Amboy have come under our notice. But the greater number of those of the largest dimensions are in the waters of the Chesapeake. Some of these southern deposits of shells are enormous, covering, it is said, acres of ground, adding no small weight to the truth of that belief that considers them “in situ, as ancient oyster beds, raised from their original position by the uplifting of our coast, of which the fact of their generally holding, if not _ a real, an apparent similarity of level would seem to be ample confirma- tion. This theory of their being in place, is highly satisfactory, being in accordance with the less modern deposits beneath them, adding one more to the number of elevating movements to which our coast has been sub- jected, thus mutually pitming each other, maki ot e certainty of these movements sure. “Sarin . When the nature of | their origin was advanced by Mr. Conrad, I con- fessed a decided bias; for I k 1ew not the facts upon which Dr. Ducatel, ot ¢ geologist of Maryland, maintained the opposite one. None were _ “Known to me adverse to the views of Mr. Conrad, for the history of our country afforded no light that could be recollected, either as to the origin .' oof these oyster shell deposits, or to any extraordinary manifestation of __ gastromic power in the aborigines, in Tespect of this article of diet, which Would lead me to infer their existence, and which the magnitude of some _ Of the deposits required. ’_ The eastern shore of Maryland presents many deposits of these oystet shells, hitherto until recently, unused and little examined, so far as know- ledge has been received this way. Now, as many of the planters in that section of the country are waking from the deep slumber of the past, and turning their attention to the all-important subject of improving their lands by the use of lime, a few of th se deposits have become the sub- ject of investigation, furnishing facts, which, were the same discovered elsewhere, would settle the question of their origin, and in favor of the ~ Maryland geologist. ot * : * ™ ee eT ey eee rs a * a Association of American Geologists. 169 At the mouth of Pickawaxent Creek, about eighty miles below Wash- ington, there is an extensive deposit of oyster shells, at which an establish- ment has been formed, which, in a few months has converted many thou- sand bushels of them into lime. _ Before any excavition of the mass was commenced, I had directed the attention of Mr. Downing—one of the partners concerned—to the doubtful nature of their origin, requesting that all facts tending to throw light upon them should be carefully ob- served and preserved. When Mr. D. first went into the country, he was in favor of the views of Mr. Conrad ; it was only by the examination of the mass at the Pickawaxent, of another not remote from that one, and from subsequent observation in the city of Baltimore, showing the amount of shells which there accumulates, was he assured that their origin was to be referred to man, and not to other | r Epnore elementary powers of na- ture. The first and most important fact sheer observed, was that neither he _hor any of the hands employed in getting out the shells had been able to find any two valves which fitted each | other, €xcepting in one instance ; a waterman having brought the specimen to him. The deposits having the nature of a mass or heap composed of shells whose valves were ta tated before being thrown together. That in many parts of the mass arrow-heads and fragments of patecy, have been found in the progress of excavation—these i in no wise different’ from those fi nd in old settlements of the Indians. in of the bed is formed of the yellow loam or soil of the surface, before ihe shells were Sd u That these deposits are at the mouth the creeks, extending ae creeks, and rarely exten along the river shore, owing, as Mr. ing conjectures, to the excellen hing which the creeks furnish, mal which would give to those who umulated the er es ite: ‘ tage, “ew That the shore i is pea on that side of the river where they are found, and the recent oyster i in great abundance on that shore, whilst the cheng nel is on the Virginia side, and no deposit of oyster shells existed in th Section of country. al That these deposits are of some comparative antiquity, is to be infe om the soil which is found upon them, and the existence of an exceed- ingly old cedar growing upon the his of a mass, and from the silence of ory or tradition respecting them Against these which show an undoubted human origin for these rete of oyster shells, there are others cited by Mr. Conrad. which he me acquainted with, since this paper was written, which either Thad not known or they had epee and are equally con- Vol. xu1y No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 4 e. “ » = , vai, sae ee ; Pee Md y * ze 170 Association of American Geologists. clusive as to the opposite opinion. The facts are, that masses exist com- posed of whole shells, as at Easton, on the eastern shore of Maryland. That in some localities fragments of older fossils are found with them, and which must have been thrown amongst the oysters by the waves of the estuary from their position below. And again that deposits of the shells exist in situations too remote from present oyster beds to have been removed by human agency, such as those in Cumberland county, in New Jersey ; therefore it would appear that both causes have operated to pro- duce them, and that no single generalization can comply with the requi- sition of the facts which they present, leading as they do to a twofold, one from opposite conclusions, one referable to human, the other, to natural causes, and that severally they must be examined in order to ascertain to which of the two causes any given mass is to be referred.* Larpner VANUXEM. Prof. Booth stated that his observations upon these deposits had led him to the same conclusion as that which had been arti- ved at by Mr. Vanuxem, viz. “that they are sometimes referable to human agency, and at others to natural causes.” In answer to an inquiry, Prof. B. observed that these shells reduced to pow- der had been used with great success in the State of Delaware, asamanure. Prof. Hitchcock stated that the fertilizing powers of these deposits of shells had also been tested by experiments on Cape Cod. Facts were stated by the chairman and Prof Mather in regard to beds of oyster shells similar to those descri- bed by Mr. Vanuzem, on the Island of Nantucket, and on Long Island. Prof. Bailey commenced is account of “ Fossil Infusoria,” by an exhibition and description of the microscope employed by him in his resear Messrs. C. Fles B. Trego and B. Silliman, Jun. were ap- pointed assistant secretaries. The Association then adjourned until 9 o’clock, Thursday morning. Third day of meeting, Thursday, April 8, 1841.—The Ass ‘ciation met at 9 o’clock, A.M. Prof. Silliman in the chair. The minutes of yesterday were read and adopted. ES nee the meeting of the Association, TI Fe found on conversing Sith Dr. Du- catel that the i oe bet which I had of his a were founded upon his first re tae of 1834, fo two fold d origin. eae e should wanda this paper + did: We hot seanes a it would be of service Serie _ settles the point in question, which was its object, but it affords # to caution in an expression of the pone of others. a il Association of American Geologists. 171 Peter A. Browne, Esq. laid on the table, for the inspection of the members, a suite of specimens, chiefly fossils, from the chalk basin of Paris, collected and labelled by A. Brongniart. Prof. Locke made some observations concerning the connec- tion of magnetism with geology, ‘mentioning an instance where he found an increase of the dip and intensity as he pperosthed, from south to north, a certain point or meridian line, and a de- Crease as he receded from it; also remarking that a similar change is found upon crossing the Ohio river : querying from this, whether the water of large streams running east and west, has an influ- ence on the magnetic relation. . Dr. Houghton ‘remarked, that in the vicinity of the great northwestern lakes a change in the magnetic deflection was fre- quently found on approaching within a few miles of a large body ol water. 2 Dr. R. EF. Rogers called the attention of the Association to the subject of limestones, observing that he thought a magnesian character of these rocks generally had not received sufficient atten- tion. He stated that he had found, upon analyzing some of the lower limestones of Pennsylvania, alarger proportion of magnesia than is requisite for the formation of a true dolomite, and threw out the query as a point of scientific interest, whether the carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia were chemically cc bined in the proportions to form dolomite, and this mingled throughout the excess of the carbonate which might be present, or whether the two carbonates were mechanically and uniformly intermin- gled. Dr. Jackson stated, that he considered the granular or crystal- lized dolomite to be a regular chemical double salt, consisting of one equivalent of carbonate of lime and one equivalent of car- bonate of magnesia. But he had never found any magnesian limestone to contain more than this proportion of magnesia, al- though he had frequently analyzed limestones containing a less Proportion than one equivalent of magnesia. His published anal- yses will illustrate this remark. _ ‘ Dr. J. inquired whether Dr. Rogers had ascertained if the limestones to which he alluded did not contain the hydrate or silicate of magnesia, mixed with dolomite. If the rock was of the compact variety, this might have been the case. Fis we a ol “172 Association of American Geologists. te é ' Dr. James Rogers thpashe, we must consider dolomite as a true double salt : 1 atom carbonate of lime + 1 atom carbonate of magnesia; the excess of magnesia found in our limestones must be considered a mechanical mixture. communication was received from Peter A. Browne, Esq, expressing a willingness to read before the Association ‘an Essay on Aérolites or Meier mani at the next, , annual session. Laid upon the table. i c Prof. Mather ea verbal ‘communication on the joints in as rocks, particularly as y occur in the primar , transition and sec- +, ondary of this co He found two principal sets of joints "prevail 5 the first had a general direction of north by northeast, ‘perp endicular to the formers-besides e not so smooth andawell mar ed as in oie obse ‘vation was not intended to apply to the te. = Dr. Ja St k titea the joitthe or Scaiene of the fe tem around iaasiies and particularly at Roxbury, Mass., and also: in ‘the island of Rhode Island, at arias called Purgatory, the large _ pebbles are broken by these fractures ae t dislocation or loos+ % ening” from their beds. He supp the parallel and uniform e lime rocks and slates + that country to have con- ion with the different epochs of irruption of the trap, aa Dr. Douglass Houghton inquired of Dr. Jackson if these —- the conglomerate had reference to the line of bearing, ee that in Michigalhthey were nearly at — angles to Purgatory the pe ebbles were ve ares ovate, cameo! with their longer diameters 9 re ( - concre bvichbles of quartz into a firm mass—this ae elu- _— eidate present subject. Specular iron was generally observ- able among the interstices of the. pebbles at Purgatory, and more or less of iron and lead ore was generally to found at the junc- ture ang Soe of the trap ie * ow ‘ eo - : sa vy ~ As, & Association of ee Geologists. 173 i Prof. Hitchcock thought that the steps of the new red sand- stone of the Connecticut valley were the result of the fractures ~~ referred to by Prof. Mather—they were nearly coincident with the strike of the strata, as if caused by elevatory movements. > found difficulty in distinguishing between fissures pr mechanical violence and joints prop rly so called; he aed , those of the a omerate as *mecha anieal, those of the slates as chemical. es occurred to iy as worthy of notice ; the first was ae" a Vipks of greenstone “crossed. by parallel transverse a Planes two or three feet apart and at right les to the strike of ¢ the vein. The second case seeme to throw some light on von ‘ origin of this class of phenomena; ‘occurred ina bed of the — common blue diluvial clay—the horizontal layers were uni Seed, * . a) but some of them were divided into double rhombs. The rene de” iments of Mr. sno of | land, in the la nina ie explain this structure. noc es io great fhe of the Conn t valley. : , Jr. had found thi ‘3% ttton in the argillaceous sandst t Hartford, in necticut, where this variety of sandstone is : used for flagstone. Many of the jo parallel to this on _ structure are filled with carbone of ime. _. Dr. C. T. Jackson stated that the great tapykeaali or is ‘¥ tia had the perpendicular eidicmeenis in a hi, the smaller dykes this structure prevails from sidé to side of the — ayke, rpendicular to the walls. He thought that ll cases an e phenomena were ae De to the way in which the dykes - cooled—the structure being pe fen le to the ae, fas toss the narrow dykes cooled hod to side, and the heavy ones from the upper surface downward. a * Prof. Henry D. Rogers remarked, that the trap dykes of wer Pennsylvania d the megtaing iron ore of Ne io ' * As this paper. of Prof. Bailey is to appear in full, a plates, in the October No. of this Journal, it has bee fompt bere any abate of his remarks before —— 2g a < he “y - + ¥2 a io i _ bate ensu Se wae : ie , , a. 174 Association of American Geologists. Dr. Jackson stated that the mass of infusorial deposit found under peat bogs is hydrate of silica, which loses by being heated to redness from 12 to 15 per cent., principally vegetable matter. Great abundance of this material occurs at Newfield, in Maine, where it covers many hundred acres, and is five or six feet thick. After burning, it is so white and beautiful that it has been fraud- ulently sold for magnesia alba. The ammonia which is evolved in its destructive distillation, is probably derived from the creni¢ and apocrenie acids which it contains. Phosphate of lime and manganese are found in it in small quantities. As a fertilizer of land, it is considered of use when containing in large quantity the juices of plants. ae A memoir from M. Alexandre Vattemare was presented, pro- posing a general system of exchange of objects of nature and art among all nations. It was by motion laid on the table. The subject of bowlders and diluvial scratches was then bronchi discussion by Prof. Mather, and a protracted de- ed, in which many of the members joined. ; __ Prof. Mather inferred from the facts in the case, that the bowlders and diluvial scratches had, in general, come from the north ; those on the east of the Hudson from the northwest, those on the west from the northeast, as by the result of two forces. = The diluvial furrows are, in general, parallel to the valleys in _ which they are found—thus in the small transverse valleys, the # scratches are found parallel to the direction of the valleys—and not coincident with those of the main valleys. All the bowl- ders seem to have been brought from the northwest, both at the east and beyond the river’ St. Peter’s at the west, and very few are found below 38° or 39° of north latitude. The chairman (Prof. Silliman) cited the recorded observa tions of Mr. C. Darwin, naturalist to H. M. ship Beagle, that 1 South America no bowlders occur nearer the equator than about 40° south latitude. : id re Prof. Mather had not seen any bowlders in the coal region of Ohio, and very few in Kentucky. He thought that the bowl ders mentioned by Mr. Hodge in the gold region of North Caro- lina, were not transported masses, but were composed of granite which had suffered decomposition in situ by atmospheric agenCY: : ~ * s e* 4 Association of American bo 175 Prof. Henry D. Rogers said there was need of much caution in the use of the term bowlder, as regards the size of the mass to which it should be restricted ; he was inclined to give the term much latitude. Thus he conceived that a current of drift com- ing from the north and meeting the terraces of Pennsylvania, would there be arrested and deposit its larger masses—an from stage to stage, until the onward current would carry for- ward only the smallest sand; in this way, we may find among the drift of the south, all the materials derived from the northern rocks. He concluded that all the materials of a current of drift, find their resting place in accordance with gravity. Prof. Mather doubted whether the large bowlders found in Long Island, resting on beds of sand or fine gravel, could be thus accounted for, because a current of sufficient force to move such large masses would have carried away the sand. Prof. Rogers replied, that diluvial action could not be restricted to a single epoch. ; : We must find in secular and periodical elevation, the cause of the translation of the beds of infusorial earth recently found in the tertiary of Virginia, which are there covered by the quiet strata of the Meiocene. We have evidence of numerous slight elevatory movements on the eastern coast of North America, and the various terraces of our rivers seem to present the same phe- nomena ; for the source of these elevatory movements we must look to the great volcanic foci of Greenland. 2 Prof. Locke mentioned a locality in Ohio, at which the lime- Stone is ground down to a perfect plane, as if it had been done by 4 stone-cutter by grinding one stone on another, over an extent often acres. Upon this planished surface, lines have been en- gtaved in systems perfectly straight and parallel, running from horthwest to southeast. Some of these lines are fine, as if cut With the point of a diamond, and others perhaps half an inch broad, and one eighth of an inch deep, scaled rough in the bot- tom, as if they had been ploughed by an iron chisel properly set and carried forward with an irresistible force. Prof. L. inferred from the facts of the exact straightness and parallelism of these lines, that they had been formed by a body of immense weight, Moving with a momentum scarcely affected by the resistance offered by the cutting of the grooves. Such a momentum and % oe 4 ; 176 Anictctn of eiiiticin. Gavlasiets. tier actions would be supplied by a floating iceberg, whose lower og should provenygtojecting sharp points of imbedded bowl- ee Mather further stated, that the bowlders of Ohio were in continuous lines and groups, and not scattered promiscuously. On the river St. Peter’s, the bowlders may be seen extending for miles, “as along a coast line; in some situations one might see them bounding the horizon as far as the eye could reach. ® r. Locke, in conformity with Lt. Mather’s statements, men- tioned a region of bowlders in Ohio, extending from the town of Eaton quite across the state ; five miles in width and over forty in extent. Dr. C. T.. Jackson remarked: that the phenomena of diluvial currents were well exhibited in the vicinity of Providence, at Cumberland, R. I. A large mass or mountain of porphyritic titaniferous ion of very peculiar character exists in that place ; to the north of it no bowlders are to be found, but on the south, huge bowlders of it may be seen, and so Rbundastt that the stone are a ilt - them ; and below, at Papoose Squash Neck, small 's of the same characteristic rock are found ; south of New- port, iad: i filtther south, the same are met With of a smaller size, the whole extending from north to south forty miles, and from six to fifteen in width, diverging to the south. The characteristic macle revit Lancaster, Mass., presents sim- ilar phenomena, being found in loose masses to the south as far as Bolton, while none can be found to the north of the locality. He considered the power of the diluvial currrent greater to the north than at the south, since the evidences of it in Maine are much greater than in Rhode Island; bowlders have been found on Mount Katadin as high up as Sins thousand feet ; he thought there was no evidence of any elevation of the coke after the di- luvial current had passed. Mr. Nicollet proposed, at a future meeting, to make some Te- marks upon, and to exhibit specimens from, the cretaceous for mation on the upper Missouri. Mr. Redfield expressed a wish that the attention of the Ass ciation should, at some convenient time, be called to the recent formation along the eastern coast of the United States. Adjourned to meet this afternoon at 4 o’clock, at the rooms of Mr. Richard C. Taylor, for the purpose of viewing a model of * 3 . «& * i Association of American Geologists. 177 the coal region of Dauphin and Lebanon counties, east of the Susquehanna. cli. , Thursday, 4 o’clock, P. Mi—The Association assembled at the rooms of Mr. Taylor, where that gentleman exhibited a highly interesting model in plaster of the Dauphin and Lebanon coal re- gion, embracing, altogether, an area of seven hundred and twenty square miles, showing the range of the mountain elevatio s, with their relative height and position; also their elevation above tide level ; the dip of the rocks, the position of the coal seams, and much other useful information. Mr. Taylor accompanied this exhibition with remarks explan- atory and statistical, in relation to this coal region, and made some observations on the importance of this mode of exhibiting the geological features of a country, expressing the hope that the day would come when models of this kind, representing the sev- eral states, and even the whole United States, shall be constructed. He also enlarged upon the propriety of following, as closely as possible, the actual conformation of the country in drawing sec- tions, and of adopting uniform modes of eas c., and the importance of an equal scale of extension and ele- vation as far as practicable in such sections.* — : Prof. H. D. Rogers followed with observations upon the Pennsylvania coal formations and the range of their underlying rocks, detailing what he conceived to be the cause of the inverted dip observable along the southern border of the Kittatiny series, ascribing it to a great force acting laterally, and folding and crush- ing the axes so as to produce this inverted dip by tossing the Strata many degrees beyond the perpendicular, and thus produ- cing the present apparent dip of the lower stratified or sedimentary rocks beneath the primary. : Adjourned to half past nine o’clock to-morrow morning. In the evening, the members of the Association had the pleasure, in common with a number of citizens, of listening toa very inter- esting and appropriate address from Prof. Hitchcock, embracing all the points at present most interesting to the American geologist.t Mr. Tayler’s article published entire, with a colored section, in the pres- —B * See ent number of this Journal.—B. 8. Jr. eM “ies t As this address is to be published entire by the Association, and it is intended to give an abstract of it in the next number of this Journal, no farther notice of it is inserted here.—B.S. Jr... Vol. x11, No. 1.—April-June, 1841. 23 . e ey. 178 Association of American Geologists. Fourth day of session, Friday, April 9, 1841.—The Associa- tion met, pursuant to adjournment, at half past nine o’clock, A. M. Prof. Silliman in the chair. After the minutes of yesterday had been read and adopted, Dr. Beck moved a series of resolutions, of which the first was adopted, as follows: ee Resolved, That the thanks of the Association be presented to Professor Hitchcock for the interesting and valuable address de- livered last evening; and that a copy of the same be requested for publication. The committee on business reported the following resolutions, which were all adopted excepting the first,—it being laid on the table. | | pe Resolved, 1. That the committee recommend to the Association the first Monday of May as the period for the next annual meeting. 2. That the Association adjourn its present annual session this week. 3. That a committee of five be appointed to draft a constitu- tion and by-laws for the regulation of future proceedings of the Association, and that each member of the committee be recom- mended to draft a plan of organization, to be discussed by the committee. “Sau 4. That at each meeting a local committee of three members, resident at the place of the next annual meeting, be appointed, for the purpose of making arrangements for the reception of the Association. 5. That the members of the “ Academy of Natural Sciences” be invited to attend the present session of the Association, and to participate in its proceedings. Prof. Renwick, Mr. Nuttall, and Dr. Hayden of Baltimore; were recommended as members of the Association. ; Dr. Harlan exhibited models of the fossil remains of the Di- notherium giganteum. € first specimen presented to the view of the Association, was the cast of a small model of the Dinotherium giganteum or the great fossil Tapir of Cuvier—the only model of the kind, which, as far as Dr. Har- lan is aware, has yet reached America. The Paris Garden of Plants, possesses a model of the skull of the size of nature, which is sold by the German naturalists, Messrs. Klipstein and Kaup, for $100. The dimen- sions of this skull are four feet in length, three feet in width, and two feet in height. In peculiarity of structure and colossal dimensions, # * 2 Association of American Geologists. 179 Dinotherium constitutes one of the most curious and interesting animals of an antediluvian Fauna. M. Klipstein, Professor in the University of Giessen, a few years since, discovered a perfectly preserved specimen of the skull on the borders of the Rhine. Baron Cuvier had many years previously described, in his Fossil Animals, some remains of this animal as allied to the genus Tapir. The fragments subjected to his observa- tion consisted only of two imperfect pieces of the lower jaw, and some molar teeth. From such data alone, he was able to represent them as belonging to two distinct species, Dinotherium giganteum and D. Cuvieri, and to estimate the size of the larger species at eighteen Paris feet, which was subsequently proved to be correct. In 1829, Mr. Kaup, director of the museum at Darmstadt, discovered and described numerous portions of this animal, all obtained from the same strata of the tertiary sand of Eppelsheim. The whole animal creation, fossil or recent, presents no parallel to the structure of the lower jaw and tusks of this animal. The anterior portions are recurved downwards, and from which depend two enormous tusks, in a direction downwards and backwards. The upper jaw is destitute of incisors. The configuration of the anterior nares and their vicinity, de- monstrates that the animal was supplied with a proboscis, and like the hippopotamus and tapir, the habits of the animal were evidently aquatic ; and the peculiar arrangement of the tusks was evidently adapted to the nature of the animal’s food and the means of attaining it—they would be very useful in unison with its powerful claws, in eradicating from the mud the thick and succulent roots of aquatic plants, which probably constitu- ted its principal nourishment. A correct notion of the enormous dimen- sions of this animal may be obtained by a view of the models of the tusk after nature, as well as by a series of the molars of one side of the lower jaw. It evidently attained a size far exceeding that of the hippopotamus of our day. The last or ungual phalange, presents so close analogy to that of the Manis or scaly ant-eater, that Cuvier, at first sight, referred this spe- cies to an animal of that genus, and named it Manis gigantea. In offer- ing you my own views of this peculiar specimen of a departed type, it should be stated that various notions exist among different naturalists, as to the real nature and habits of the animal in question. Some German naturalists place it among the Phoce. Blainville took it for a pachyder- Matous animal, closely allied to the elephant. Kaup considered that it might range as a fifth and last family of the class Edentata. Others re- ferred it to the herbivorous Cetacea, &c. &c. : Dr. H. also made some observations upon the remains formerly described by him as belonging to the “ Basilosaurus,” but which he is now satisfied, from the microscopic examinations of a section 180 . Association of American Geologists. of one of the teeth by Prof. Owen, should be referred to a genus of the aquatic mammalia, and which is now named “ Zygodon,” —specimens of the vertebree of which, from the tertiary deposits of Alabama, he exhibited to the Association. = Mr. Nicollet then made some highly interest g remarks upon the geology of the region on the Upper Mississippi, and the cre- taceous formation of the Upper Missouri. 4 He referred to his arrival in this country for the purpose of making a scientific tour, and with the view of contributing to the progressive increase of knowledge in the physical geography of North America. After spend- ing several months in Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, he pro- ceeded through the southern states; explored the south Allegany range, the states of South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas Territory, and Missouri; ascended the Red River, Arkansas river, and to a great distance the Missouri river. Having thus made himself well acquainted with the lower half of the Mississippi, he undertook the full exploration of that celebrated stream, from its mouth to its very sources; the latter of which he succesfully reached near the close of the month of August, 1836. During five joa of unremitted exertions, he took occasion to make numerous observations calculated to lay the foundation of the astronomical and physical geogra- phy of a large extent of country, and more especially of the great and in- teresting region between the Falls of St. Anthony and the sources of the Mississippi. With these labors was connected the study of the customs, habits, manners and languages of the several Indian nations, that occupy this vast region of country, : | Mr. N, acknowledged, in feeling terms, the generous hospitality, on the part of our citizens generally, of the agents of the American Fur Com- pany, the civil and military officers, as well as the kind protection of the government, extended to him on all occasions, so as greatly to facilitate his operations and second the accomplishment of his designs. At the expiration of this long and arduous journey, Mr. N., broken in health, and his means exhausted, returned to Baltimore, where he soon received a flattering invitation from the war department and topographical bureau to repair to Washington. The result of his travels having been made known to these departments and appreciated by them, he was intrusted with the command of a new expedition, to enable him to complete to the greatest advantage of the country, the scheme which he had himself pr jected in his first visit to the far west ; namely, the construction of a map of the region explored by him. This map having been recently submit- ted to ess, the senate of the United States has, unanimously, ordered Its publication under the direction of the topographical bureau. It is to be accompanied by a report embracing an account of the physical geog- — e ‘ete. «® ,# Bs #* . ; Association of American Geologists. — oe . sah of th country represented, together. with the most = minent fea- oO tures in ology and mineral resources of _ sections states not yey eee the limits of the m Mr. N. then went on to give a succinct account of his geological re- e, disclaiming any pretensions to be considered a professed geologist * had felt an irresistible inclination to engage in, as a subject of gaierel and growing interest. ‘This account he offered as a more appropriate theme, in view of the objects contemplated by the pres- ent meeting. Mr. N. said he had traced a magnesian limestone—the cliff limestone of Dr. Owen—which is probably referrible to the mountain limestone of European geologists, over a vast extent of country, within the valley of ur western Owen and Prof. John Locke, and with the observations of Dr. Henry King, during an exploration of the country watered by the Osage river, Mr. N. thought himself warranted in assigning the Falls of St. Anthony on the Mississippi river, as the northern limit of this formation, which to the west, extends to Fort Leavenworth on the Missouri river, and to the south, embraces the metalliferogs region of the state of Missouri. This limestone, containi ilobites, — and other coralline fossils, is the metalliferous rock only in Missouri, but in Iowa and Wisttnsia, from which the lead and Same ores are extracted. The rock interven- ing between it and the coal formation is characterized by the occurrence of the Pentamerus oblongus. In this relative position, also are found thin beds of oolitic limestone, that are perhaps referrible, geologically, to the oolitic limestone of Tennessee, described by Dr. Troost, who indicates the pentremites as their characteristic fossil ; a large number of these fossils, in a loose state, was collected in the vicinity of these rocks. Shallow coal basins Sencently occur in Missouri and the south part of Iowa Ter- ritory ; but on the Mississippi river, the coal disappears, about thirty miles above St. Louis; thence, ascending the river as far as the great Platte river, the cliff limestone and the coal rocks present themselves in alter- nate succession. In the vicinity of the Platte river, as well as at Council Bluff, a limestone containing cyathophylla of large size, encrinites, and other fossils, appears in a position seemingly between the cliff limeatone- and the coal. Near the confluence of the Sioux river and the Missouri, there occurs a formation overlaid by a thick deposit of clay, containing, in abundance, several species of ammonites and baculites, belemnites, ino- cerami, &c. &c., beautifully raised on their exterior and sparry in their interior. Some of them were exhibited to the meeting. These fossils Were identified with similar ones belonging to the green sand deposit of New Jersey, a member of the chalk series; but no true chalk or flint (silex_pyromage) was observed. The occurrence of this formation had * é et tee 182 Association of American G‘eologists. n 7 =" + ' already been indicated, by some fossils that Lewis and Clark and Mr.» Thomas Nuttall had brought along with them from their travels, and which were described by Dr. Morton. Mr. N. exhibited farther, some fossil bones which had been submitted to the inspection of Dr. Harlan, who describes them as belonging to vertebre of a Squalus and of a nonde- script crocodile, also articulated vertebrae of an animal referrible to the order Enalio-sauri of Conybeare. The surface presented by a transverse section of these vertebre, Dr. H. thinks peculiar, as also the mode in which the ribs are attached to a small process in the middle of the infe- rior surface of each vertebra. From their size and unique character, it is quite probable that these vertebra form a part of the skeleton of the Sauro-cephalus lanciformis, (Harlan,) an animal possessing still more of the fish than the lizard, than exists in the organization of the ichthyosau- rus, in which respect these vertebra correspond. According to Dr. Har- lan, similar fossils have been found in the green sand of New Jersey and in the chalk of England. Mr. Nicollet concluded by remarking, that he had followed up and de- scribed this formation, along an extent of upwards of four hundred miles, and from information received and from fossils that had been furnished to him, thinks that it extends to the west at least as far as the sources of the rivers Running Water, White, Shayeune, &c. and northwest along the Missouri probably to the Yellow Stone, being an extent in length of about one thousand miles. Mr. Hodge followed with some observations concerning the secondary and tertiary deposits of the Carolinas. The remarks of Mr. Hodge regarding the secondary and tertiary de- posits of the Carolinas, will be found embodied in the next number of this Journal. He next noticed the deceptive appearance of the bowlders of quartz and primary rocks, scattered over the country north of Columbia, S. C., and extending throughout the gold region of North Carolina, all seemingly referrible to a similar cause with that which covered the hills of the northern states with their bowlders. But according to the previously expressed opinions of Messrs. Vanuxem and Mather, these are considere not to have been transported to any distance, but to belong to the rocks in their immediate neighborhood. He asked attention to the subject of the deposit gold mines; whether these were not still in progress of formation, notwithstanding the opinions to the contrary found in many of the foreign treatises ; mentioning theit occurrence always near the veins of the ore, and of the fact of veins hav- ing been discovered by working the deposits up to them, above which the gold suddenly ceased. Of the power of the freshets, the discovery of the little buried village in Nacochee Valley, Ga., was mentioned 2s ™ markable evidence. His opinion was, that though many of the deposits referred themselves far back to the period when the whole country Wa tee a ¥ ? 4 b. mi Association of American Geologists. 183 ‘ @ + * overspread with diluvium, still that the deposits have been going on ever since. Specimens were shown from, and some remarks made, concern- ing the gold and copper ores of Davidson and Guilford counties, N. C. Veins originally worked for the former, gradually passed into lodes of sulphuret of copper and iron, though these formed a very small part of the veins at the surface. Rich specimens of the double sulphurets from the Harlan mine, Guilford county, were exhibited, in which mine the lode is over ten feet thick, or the depth of one hundred and five feet, and con- sists almost entirely of these ores. Some account of King’s silver mine, Davidson county, was given, and specimens of the varieties of the silver ore shown. The mine was origin- ally worked for lead, the ore being a carbonate, very rich, and in beauti- ful crystals. Native silver was discovered, and the pig lead already made, found to contain a considerable amount of that metal. Phosphate of lead, copper, zinc and sulphuret of iron, were also mentioned as occurring in the lode, which was twelve feet thick. Some of the ore was of a soft light magnesian character, and though its specific gravity could not be twice that of water, yet it was considered a rich silver ore. The lode lies between granite and a magnesian rock above. All the metalliferous veins, it is believed, are found at the point of contact of these two rocks, Peter A. Browne, E'sq. presented to the Association a section of the rock strata on the Schuylkill above Philadelphia, drawn about the year 1825, being the first geological section made in the state of Pennsylvania. ; Dr. Houghton then made some remarks upon the subject of the metalliferous veins of the northern peninsula of Mich- igan, He began by remarking, that that portion of Michigan lying between Lakes Huron and Michigan on the south, and Lake Superior on the north, is known as the upper or northern peninsula, while that portion of the state lying south of the Straits of Mackinac, is more usually known as the southern or lower peninsula. f ; The rocks of the easterly portion of the upper peninsula, for . distance of one hundred and fifty miles, consist of a series of fossiliferous limestones and shales, resting upon sandstones, the whole dipping a few degrees east of south. ‘The limestones appear only on the southerly portion of the pe- ninsula, while the underlying sand-rocks form the immediate coast of Lake Superior. At a point very nearly one hundred and fifty miles west from the east- erly extremity of the peninsula, and near to the immediate coast of Lake Superior, several low ranges of granitic hills make their appearance, which hills are flanked on the south, by quartz rock, alternating with “ s d 184 Association of American Geologists. e mica, talcose and clay slates. These hills have a general easterlyand westerly direction. Northerly from these, other ranges of hills occur, having a similar direc- tion, but in the several ranges as we proceed north, the granitic character becomes less and less perfectly defined, being first sienitic, after this altered sienite, and finally the outer or northern range is made up of % well defined trap. This range of trap hills continues very nearly unbro- ‘ ken for a distance of one hundred and thirty five miles within the limits of Michigan. The trap rock, which chiefly appears as a compact greenstone, 1s nev- ertheless, quite uniformly bounded on the north by an amygdaloid, against or upon which rests a very coarse conglomerate, and upon this a series 0 alternating strata of conglomerate and sandstone, the whole being capped by an extensive formation of red sandstone. The group of stratified rocks referred to, which have an entire thick- ness of several thousand feet, dip very regularly, and usually ata high angle, into. the basin of Lake Superior ; and since the same is the fact in regard to the rocks upon the north coast, that lake may be said to occupy a synclinal basin. After some remarks upon the successive elevation of the several ranges of hills referred to, together with the long intervals of time that would appear to have elapsed between the several uplifts, Dr. H. proceeded to say, that with our present imperfect maps, it would be nearly impossr ble to convey a clear conception of its geographical geology, and that m fact he had made these references, only to render more intelligible what he wished to say upon the subject of the metalliferous veins of the dis- trict. It is a fact well known, that south from the district referred to, tran® ported masses of native copper are occasionally met with, in the dilavial deposits which are so abundantly spread over the country; and wo loose masses are distributed over an area of many thousand miles, inclu- ding southern Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois and Indiana. In northerB Michigan they are still more frequently met with. The great transported mass of native copper on the Ontonagan so frequently alluded to by travellers, and which he, Dr. H., estimated t0 contain about four tons of native metal, was stated to have all the chara’ ters of the other loose masses referred to. The source of these transported masses has, heretofore, been somewhat obscure, although there has been good reason to believe, that most of them had their origin from the trap rocks, but whether from true veins OF oh the mass of the rock itself, was not known. He said that after examining the country with care, he was enabled to state, that without doubt 4 very considerable portion of them had their origin from what may be regarded as true veins. — ; Poe %, river, + Association of American Geologists. 185 Those which were regarded as true veins, were uniformly noticélllte originate in the trap rock, but they were frequently traced across the superimposed sedimentary rocks, to and including the. red sandstone. The direction of the veins across the upper rocks most roqeeaily corres- = ponds to the dip of those rocks. Dykes of trap, traversing the conglomerate and sandstone, were stated | a be of frequent occurrence; but these dykes very rarely cut across the strata of the upper rocks, or in other words, they mostly occupy places cor- responding to the lines of stratification, for which reason the veins referred to, cut across the dykes at very high angles. So far as we are enabled to judge from the examinations which have _ been made, those veins originating in the outer range of trap hills are the “only ones in the district deserving the name of metalliferous veins. Not only do the separate veins vary from a mere line to several feet in thick- ness, but those traversing the several rocks above the trap, are usually very much expanded in their passage across the upper rocks. By far the most important minerals contained in these veins are the several ores of copper. The metal occurs in a native form associated with the grey and red oxides, carbonate and silicate, together with several mixed compounds. Sulphuret of copper is exceedingly rare, and pyritous per has not been found in what was regarded as a true vein, though this last named mineral, associated with the sulpburet and carbonate of lead, was noticed in small ramifying veins, in what may perhaps be re- garded as a distant portion of the range under consideration. Native sil- ver was very rarely seen in the form of specks and strings aemcisiod with the native copper. Most of the ores of copper occur in the greenstone, Pay gelato ahd lower portions of the conglomerate, or at points in near proximity to the dykes before referred to, and they are most abundant at, or near to the junction of the trap and conglomerate, or in immediate vicinity of the dykes, thus nants the general laws respecting the deposits of the me- tallic minera As the veins I iieade from the trap, the place of the copper is frequently supplied by the silicious oxide and carbonate of zinc, together with calca- Teous spar, _ latter usually fills the entire vein in its passage across the sandston The wainainus in those. portions of the vein most rich in the ores of copper is chiefly quartz, and this is frequently filled with minute specks and filaments of the native metal. Dr. H. conceives these to be veins of sublimation, or in other words to be simple fissures filled from below by the metal in a vaporous state, and that | the compounds had their origin from copper in a native form. The conglomerate was stated to have been noticed where the cement consisted Vol. x11, No. 1—April-June, 1841. 24 ¢ eo é * * ri 186 Association of American Geologists. toa large extent of ores of copper, and even of copper in a native state. This was observed only in close proximity to considerable veins. The veins, as well as different portions of the same vein, are very vati- able in their metalliferous character, portions being apparently rich, while others are completely barren. With the present knowledge upon the sub- ject, we can scarcely arrive at safe conclusions as to the value of these veins for the purposes of mining, but upon the whole they may be looked upon favorably rather than otherwise. Adjourned to 4 o’clock this afternoon. Friday, 4 o’clock, P. M.—Prof. Silliman being absent, Dr. Locke was called to the chair. Dr. Jackson gave his views in relation to the construction of geological maps, suggesting the importance of concert and unl formity in design and execution, as regards scale, coloring, sym- bols, &c. on the part of the various state geologists employed throughout the Union. The subject was further discussed by Dr. Locke and Prof. Johnson, who concurred in the views of Dr. Jackson. On motion of Prof. Mather, the subject was referred to a committee consisting of Dr. Jackson, Dr. Locke, and Pro. Mather, who are to report at the next annual session of the As- sociation. Prof. Johnson exhibited a section drawn across the Frostburg coal basin, extending between the Little Alleghany and Savage Mountains, a distance of about four miles. He offered some ob- servations concerning this coal-field, and enlarged upon its value and importance as a coal and iron region. r. Hodge and Mr. Trego, who had explored that portion of this basin which extends into Pennsylvania, also made some Te marks in which they differed from the views of Prof. Johnso0; particularly with regard to his opinion that some of the uppet strata of the carboniferous rocks near the Savage Mountain, rest unconformably upon the lower ones. r. Hodge placed on the table some clay concretions from Kennebec river. On motion of Dr. Beck, Resolved, That when this Associatio? terminates its present session, it adjourn to meet in Boston, on tb Monday in April next. Dr. Jackson, Prof. Hitchcock, and Mr. Moses B. Williams; were appointed a local committee, (pursuant to a resolution te Association of American Geologists. 187 ported by the committee on business,) for the purpose of making suitable arrangements for the next session of the Association. The secretaries were intrusted with the preparation and publi- cation of an abstract of the proceedings of the Association. Resolved, That the chairman of the present session be reques-_ ed to open the next session by an address. Dr. S. G. Morton was then appointed chairman, and Dr. _ Jackson secretary, for the next session. Dr. L. C. Beck, Prof. H. D. Rogers, Prof. Hitchcock, Dr. Locke, and Dr. Jackson, were appointed a committee to prepare a constitution, by-laws, &c. for the government of the Associa- tion, according to a resolution of the committee on business. r. Griscom made a communication respecting the Duane “steel ore” of New York. Adjourned to 9 o’clock to-morrow morning. At 8 o’clock in the evening the Association had the pleasure, in common with a respectable audience of ladies and gentlemen of Philadelphia, of hearing a most interesting and instructive ad- dress from Prof. Silliman, on the general principles of geology, and subjects connected with its progress in America. Fifth day of session, Saturday, April 10, 1841. The Asso- ciation met this morning according to adjournment of yesterday. Dr. Locke in the chair. The minutes of yesterday’s proceedings were read and adopted. Dr. Morton opened before the Association a vessel of earthen ware taken from the Pyramids of Sakhara in Egypt, and for- warded to him by the American cousul at Cairo, which con- tained an embalmed body of the Ibis religiosa, or sacred bird of the ancient Egyptians. The earthen vessel containing this relic of the most remote antiquity, was of a cylindrical or rather a Conical shape, having a lid or cover fixed on the larger end, closely fitted on and luted with a composition resembling common mor- tar of lime and sand. Dr. M. remarked upon the interest attending these relics, owing to their complete preservation—the bones, feathers, and even ani- mal matter being frequently found almost unchanged, except by desiccation. "The specimen opened was one of uncommon interest on account of the great perfection and almost interminable number of the bandages of linen cloth in which it was enfolded, and the high preservation of the most delicate parts of the plumage. The 188 ; Beboiion of American Geologists. position of the bird in the. embalmed specimens is found to be invariably the same. The neck and head: are drawn down be- tween the legs, the lower mandible being presented outward and downward, and the legs drawn forward beneath the body. of the _ bird, as if in asitting posture, with the wings folded over the oe “neck and legs. Some specimens less perfectly bandaged seem 7 have undergone a process of carbonization, and on the removal = of the linen folds crumble into a dark powder, in which the bones appear, though reduced to a brittle state. 7 Dr. Morton. referred to the very recent appearance of the pot tery ware in which these specimens were contained ; notwith- standing their extremely ancient date, which is at least three thousand to four thousand years. -The pyramids of Sakhara are among the most ancient monuments of human art. ‘These cases containing the embalmed. ibis are still found in great numbers, though the traveller, Dr. Pococke, gave his opinion one hundred years ago, that they would probably soon become extinct. Dr. Morton then proceeded to open another envelope contall- ing some unknown embalmed object, which he conjectured to be a mass of snakes or serpents. ‘This was less carefully enclosed than the ibis, being coarsely enveloped in-rags rather than ban- dages, though still covered by hundreds of folds of linen. 'Thes?. being at length removed, disclosed the wing of a bat! The next embalmed. object unfolded was a young crocodile, (Crocodilus niloticus,) about a foot in length, and in good preset” vation. Dr. M. observed that this animal is found in embalme specimens of all sizes, from the apparently just hatched young a those of five feet in length, one of the latter size being at present in his collection. . Mr. Quinby exhibited specimens of silver, lead, and other ors from the Andes in Peru, accompanying them with some obsetv® tions upon their product, situation, &c. Prof. Johnson showed specimens of magnetic iron ore from em _ State of New York, which he had found to contain titanic acl, combined with iron and manganese. » Dr. Locke made some observations on the application of mag- netism to the discovery of metallic veins and deposits. The following resolutions being moved by Prof. Rogers, Wel unanimously adopted. Boston Society of Nawural History 189 4 Resolved, 1. That the thanks of the Association be presented to Prof. Silliman, for the interesting lecture delivered by him last evening. 2. That the thanks of the Association be presented to the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences for the use of their rooms during the. present session. 3. That the sincere thanks of the Association be presented to Prof. Siiliman, for the highly able manner in which he has dis- charged the duties of chairman at the present annual meeting. 4, That the thanks of the Association be presented to Dr. Beck for the able and laborious manner in which he has discharged the duties of secretary throughout the first year, and at the present meeting. Also that the thanks of the Association be given to Messrs. B. Silliman, Jr. and Charles B. Trego, for their valu- able services as-assistant secretaries. On motion of Prof. Rogers, amended by B. Silliman, Jr., it was Resolved, That the Association publish five hundred copies _ of the address of Prof. Hitchcock, under the direction of the sec- -Tetaries, which shall be distributed, as soon as practicable, to all the members of the Association ; and that the expense of publi- cation be defrayed by a pro rata charge on each member, to be paid at the next meeting of the Association in Boston. Such copies as are not distributed to members under eo resolution, to be sold for the benefit of the Association. On motion of Prof. J. C. Booth, it was also Resolved, That the hames of all the officers of the Association, of the local commit- tee, and the names and addresses of all the members of the As- sociation, be appended to the address of Prof, Hitchcock. The Association then adjourned to meet in Boston on the last - Monday in April next, (1842.) © | “ die B. Sutuman, Chairman. L..C. Beck, Secretary. B. Sais, Jr. : Assistant Secretaries. ARLES B. TRreEGo, IL Boston Society of Natural History. At a regular megtne of the Society, held on the 21st day of April, 1841, Br. €..T. go te having announced that at the late meeting in eens of the Association of American geologists, it had 190 ¢: *. Miscellanies. been determined to hold the next meeting of that Association in this city, in the month of April, 1842, it was Voted, That this Society invite the Association of American geologists to make use of the hall of this Society for the meetings of that Association, contemplated to be held in this city in April, 1842, and tender the use of the cabinet and library for the pur- poses of the Association. A true copy of record. Attest, T. Boxrincn, Sec. pro. tem. MISCELLANIES. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC. © 1. Proceedings of the Geological Society, June 10th, 1840.—A paper was read on the polished and striated surfaces of the rocks which form the beds of glaciers in the Alps, by Prof. Agassiz. This paper was accompanied by a series of plates, intended to repre- sent the effect of glaciers upon the rocks over which they move. These effects, consisting of surfaces highly polished, and covered with scratches, either in straight lines, or curvilinear, according to the direc- tion of the movement of the glacier, are constantly found, not only at the lower extremity, where they are exposed by the melting of the glaciers, but also, whenever the subjacent rock is examined, by descending through deep crevices in the ice. Grains of quartz, and other fragments of fallen rocks, which compose the moraines that accompany the glaciers, have afforded the material which, moved by the action of the ice, has produced the polish and scratches on the sides and bottom of the Alpine valleys, through which the glaciers are constantly but slowly descending. It 1s impossible to attribute these effects to causes anterior to the formation of the glacier, as they are constantly present and parallel to the direction of the movement of the ice. They cannot be considered as the effects of an avalanche, for they are often at right angles to the direction in which an avalanche would descend ; they are constantly sharp and fresh be- ‘neath existing glaciers, but less distinct on surfaces which have for some time been exposed to atmospheric action by the melting of the ice. In the valley of the Viesch, the direction of the scratches is from north to _ south, or towards the Rhone ; the direction of those which accompany the glacier of the Rhone is from east to west; that of those beneath the gla cier of the Aar is first from west to east as far as the Hospice of the Grim- sel; and then from east to north, from the Grimsel to the Handeck. If we could account for these scratches by the action of the water, we must im- Misctliniités. *” : 191 —- + agine currents of enormous depth filling these highest Apine valleys, and descending in opposite directions from the narrow crest that lies between them. In the upper part of the valley of the Viesch, is a glacier, beneath which runs a rapid torrent, coextensive in length with the great current to which the above hypothesis would attribute the polish -_ scratches on the rocks of the valley. This small torrent corrodes the bottom of the valley into sinuous fur- rows and irregular holes, and polishes the sides of its bed; but the polish is of a different aspect from that produced by the action of the ice, and of the stones and sand which it carries with it. The polished surfaces be- neath the ice are often salient and in high relief. The sides also of the valleys adjacent tothe actual glaciers, are frequently polished and scratch- ed at great heights above the ice, in a manner identical with the surface beneath it, but different from the polish of the bed of the torrent. The amount of polish and scratches varies with the nature of the rocks. In the valley of Zermalt and Riffelhorn, rocks of serpentine are most ex- ape polished ; so also are the granites on the sides of the glacier of e Aar, where they have not been long exposed to the action of the air. Geiss and limestone do not preserve their polish under similar exposure, but retain it while they are protected by ice or a covering of earth. These facts seem to show that the striated and polished condition of rocks beneath and on the sides of glaciers, is due to the action of the ice, and of the sand and fragments of stone forming the moraines which ac company it.— Extracted from the Annals and Magazine of Natural tory, for January, 1841. 2. The former existence of Glaciers in Scotland. _The late visit of. oa Agassiz to Scotland, during the meeting of the British Association, seems to have set all our geologists off upon a new scent,—glacier hunting. That distinguished zoologist and geologist, by his interesting work and illustrations on the glaciers of Switzerland,* has, we think, proved that they formerly existed at a much lower level than they do now on the Alps of the continent, and anxiety to examine a country where glaciers no lon- ger existed, was the immediate motive of his visit to Scotland during the last autumn. In company with accomplished English and Scotch geolo- gists, the examination was accordingly made, and the same appeara zi which characterize the rocks under the European glaciers being observ 2 in various parts of the higher mountain ranges of Scotland, induced Sg Agassiz to believe that they formerly existed in these mist-clad regions a and that many of the phenomena attributed to the action of water, such as the parallel roads of Glenroy, &c., were caused by their influence ; and he writes thus on the subject to Prof, Jamieson : * Etudes sur les Glaciers, par L. Acassiz, dessinées d’aprés Nature et Litho- graphies, par J. Bettannier, ‘1840, Neuchatel. 192 Miscellanies. “* After having obtained in Switzerland the most conclusive proofs, that at a former period the glaciers were of much greater extent than at the present ; nay, that they had covered the whole country, and had trans- ported the erratic blocks to the places where these are now found, it was my wish to examine a country where: glaciers are no longer met with, but: in which they might formerly have existed. I therefore directed my at- tention to Scotland, and had scarcely arrived in Glasgow, when I found remote traces of the action of glaciers; and the nearer I approached the high mountain chains, these became more distinct, until, at the foot of Ben Nevis, and in the principal valleys, I discovered the most. distinct moraines and polished rocky surfaces, just as in the valleys of the Swiss Alps, in the region of existing glaciers;.so that the existence of glaciers in Scotland at early periods can no longer be doubted. The parallel - roads of Glenroy, are intimately connected with this former occurrence of glaciers, and have been caused by a glacier from Ben Nevis. The phenomenon must have been precisely analogous to the glacier lakes of the Tyrol, and to the event that took place in the valley of Bagne.” : At one of the early meetings of the Geological Society of London, M. Agassiz read a paper, illustrating his views and their application to Scot- land. This was followed on the 4th of November by.a long. paper from Dr. Buckland, on the same subject, and which was concluded on the meeting of the 18th, but reserving its more minute details for a subse quent evening ; while Mr. Lyell has also commenced the reading of a paper “Qn the Geological evidence of the former existence of glaciers in For farshire.” Dr. Buckland, in his paper, gives a general account of his a in Scotland, and among the more remarkable parts of his com- ' munication is the announcement that the traces of ancient glaciers. are. apparent in Crickhope Linn, in Nithsdale, Dumfriesshire, upon the rocks of Stirling and Edinburgh castles, and upon Corstorphine, the Calton, | and Law Hills, near Edinburgh. This theory, as applied to Scotland, ee - comparatively new ; and in the animated discussions to which it has just . given rise, has been combatied, or strictly scrutinized, by Messrs. Gree nough, Sedgwick, Murchison, Whewell, Phillips, and De la Beche. We have no doubt that the traces, as stated by the Professor, exist in all the above named localities ; but while such is the case, it becoties most 1™ _ portant to ascertain if these appearances, at so low an elevation, could aa been produced by any other action than that of ice—F'rom Anne __ and Magazine of Natural History, for Jan. 1841.—On this subject, 5° __ also a paper in the January number of the same Magazine, “ On the Nat ural Terraces of the Eildon Hills, being formed by the action of Ancient Glaciers,” by Mr. Bowman; from which we extract a single paragrapb- ise = In conclusion, Prof. Agassiz informed me that he had traced repeated _». Instances of the various wee ions of moraines in different parts of Scot _ land; also in Ireland, and Sharp and Kendal, in Westmoreland; Miscellanies. * i and he does not doubt that they will be recognized, now that the attention of geologists is directed to the subject, in North Wales, in the Pyrenees, the Appenines, and other high mountain chains. Indeed, he believes, from strong evidences scattered over different countries, that at a recent gids gical period, and not long before the creation of the human race, the whole of Europe, and those parts of Asia and abe which lie north of the parallel of the Mediterranean and Caspian seas, nveloped in snow and ice ; in short, consisted of a series of immense po above which, only the highest hills appeared as islands; presenting a character of scenery to be found in our day only in Greenland or Iceland.” a 3. Red Color of the Salt Marshes of the Mediterranean.—The red color of these marshes, often of a very deep tint, has been for a long time attributed to the presence of a minute crustaceous animal, Artemia salina, Leach. Mons. Joly has last year attended to this subject, and has come to the conclusion that the color is produced, not by the Artemia, but by minute animalcules, occurring in incalculable numbers, and to which he has given the name of Monas dunalii. This is fed upon by the Artemia, to which it communicates its brilliant red color, &c.—From Annals and Magazine of Natural History, for Dec. 1840. 4: Nev observdtions ata Infusoria of Rock Salt.—In the ‘ Comptes Rendus? (March 16,) merition is made. of a note received by the Acade- my of Sciences by M. Marcel de Serres, relative to the observations which — he is making on this subject along with M. Joly. In the specimens rock salt of a tolerably decided greenish color, brought frou Ca (Spain, ) the infusoria appear more rare, smaller, and Jess distinct than in the specimens of a red color before examined. This, says M. Marcel z Serres, finds an explanation in M. Joly’s previous observations on the changes of tint which the infusoria that color our salt marshes undergo by age. These animalcules, which are white at their birth, become gteen in their middle age, and do not till their adult age, take the purple tint which makes them so remarkable. In general, the green infusoria are not so often seen in salt marshes as the red, which seems to indicate that these monads remain but a short time in their middle state. We have found the same infusoria in the argillo-calcareous marls of Cardona beneath the rock salt,..'There they have their beautiful purple tint, but — they are in too small. numbers to communicate it to the mass of marl, Which has remained grayish. This fact also proves, that in the ancient ~~ World, as in the present one, the animalcules were precipitated after their death to the bottom of the waters in which they previously lived —From the Annals and Megane oi: Nat. Hist. oe Sept. 1840. 5. Ornitholozical Gallery of the British . —The eastern n gal lery of the British Museum, which was formerly occupied by the collec- Vol. x1, No, 1 nathigiil-Jeee; 1841. 25 * 194 7 Miscellanies. tions of minerals, having undergone a complete repair, has been lately re- opened to the public, with the collection of birds and shells. Only the passerines, gallinaceous, and wading birds are as yet arranged ; but the remainder will be exhibited in the course of the spring, when this room, which is three hundred feet long and fifty wide, will contain one of the richest ornithological collections in Europe. e cases are all glazed with large panes of plate-glass, with very narrow brass bars; and the smaller birds are arranged on a new plan, on box shelves, each bird hav- ing a background close behind it, so as to show its outline distinctly and relieve its colors; and the shells, which will occupy forty table cases, are exhibited on black velvet, which gives them admirable relief—Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. for Dec. 1840. 6. Prof. Agassiz and his Works.—In former volumes of this Journal, we have mentioned the labors of Prof. Agassiz on the fossil fishes, the echinodermata, and the living fresh-water fishes of Central Europe. 1. His great work on Fossil Fishes. 2. Monograph on the Echinodermata, liv- ing and fossil. 3. On the fresh-water Fishes of Central Europe, Part I. And we both living and fossil, Part I on the moulds of the living Molluscs. 6. Critical Study of Fossil Molluses, Part I, containing the Tri of the Glaciers, 1 vol. 8vo. with a folio Atlas containing thirty two plates. _ The Swiss formations prove to be unexpectedly rich in fossil echino- _ dermata, hitherto undescribed, as appears from the extensive catalogue of those which M. Agassiz has collected. It is his intention (as announ- ced to us in a letter dated Jan. 8, 1841) speedily to publish monographs of all these species as well as of those that are living. ‘Two of these parts have already appeared, and a third part is ready prepared. In his critical study of the Molluscs, the author intends, in like manner, t0 de- scribe the species of these genera that have hitherto been the most neg ected. The first monograph of the Trigonias, now before us, affords a striking example of the great amount of materials which the author has collected. __ Inthe memoirs upon the moulds of Molluscs, we may confidently expect that a new era will open upon conchology, by proving the possibility of ‘The study of the glaciers will probably excite a more vivid interest tha? any of the works of Agassiz, especially since the discovery made by hi™, during a residence of some months in the British Islands, of marks ind eating, that in former ages a very extensive shell or crust of ice eX “O01 Mis YU DSi: Ft im eS ; as ah Miscellanies. 195 over all the chains of mountains in Scotland, Ireland, and England, a dis- covery which brings strong confirmation to his theory. The Atheneum, Literary Gazette, reports of the proceedings of the Geological Society, &c. have given a particular account of his observations, and of those of Dr. Buckland and Mr. Lyell on this subject. We have inserted a notice from the hand of a friend, but had not room in this number for a much fuller account in the reports of the Geological Society. It will be very important that American geologists, guided by the work of Prof. Agassiz, should attentively study the similar phenomena which may doubtless be observed in North America. The works of the author abound with fine plates, and whether of minute molluscs or stupendous icy peaks, and domes or seas of ice, they are highly illustrative and beau- tiful. His works being very expensive, he has been repeatedly aided by funds from the British Association, but several of them have been un- dertaken at his own risk. Most of them are quartos, but the plates are in some instances folios. We invite American naturalists and institutions to encourage these arduous and responsible labors by purchasing the works, which may be obtained through Mr. Augustus Mayor, of New York, No. 63, William st. The first livraison of the fossil echinodermata of Switzerland, costs fifteen francs; the second, twelve francs; the fossil molluscs, twelve francs ; the moulds of molluscs, twelve francs; the glaciers with the splendid atlas, forty francs; the catalogue of the echinodermata, one franc. We are astonished at the variety, precision, and extent of the la- bors of this illustrious naturalist. He proves in his own — possi- bility of cultivating successfully, at the same time, several di nt divis- ions of a great subject, and of bringing them out with almost unprece- dented rapidity, and still without confusion or inconvenient delay. He has already pledged himself to so many important sequences of his begun labors, that we feel equally obligated and disposed cordially to wish him health and long life. 7. Sketch of the Geology of North America, being the substance of a memoir read before the Ashmolean Society, Nov. 26, 1838 ; by CuarLes Davuseny, M. D., F. R.S., &c. Oxford, 1839.—Although some time has now elapsed since the reading and publication of this memoir and since its reception by us, yet as it contains matter of considerable interest, — it may not be amiss (although this notice has been longer delayed than we could have wished) briefly to review its contents, especially as it comes to us from one to whom science is under very many obligations. From the short time which the writer passed in this country, having been absent from home scarcely a year, including a visit to Cuba, it cane hot be expected that personal observation alone would have enabled him to give even a general view of the geology of our country, and we accord- 196 Miscellanies. ingly find, that he acknowledges his indebtedness to naturalists here, and more particularly to the reports which have been made upon the geology of the states, for many of the facts presented. After some preliminary remarks in relation to the space occupied by the country, the advantages to be derived from the geological surveys now making of the several states, &c. the subject of diluvial action or rather of the indication of the action of water upon the continent is taken up, and the phenomena ascribable to this cause, brought to light by the ob- servations of Prof. Hitchcock, Dr. Jackson, and others, are dwelt upon at some length. Reference is also made to.an article in the first volume of the Transactions of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, by Major Bonnycastle, and extracts are given, from which we learn that the same evidence is presented by an examination of the country north of the United States, as has been furnished from within our borders and else- where, of the violent action of running water or moving ice, or of that agent, whatever it was, by which the large masses of rock were moved, and by which the dry land has been generally strewn over with bowlders and debris. The view presented by Mr. Hayes, a few years since, in an article upon the geology of western New York, that the action of the tides and waves alone upon the rocks subsequent to their elevation above the ocean, would account for all the effects usually attributed to the action of run- ning water, does not meet the favor of ourauthor. He thinks that Mr. H. in adopting it; “ overlooked the fact, that the force of submarine cur- rents extends but a little way beneath the surface of the ocean, and that even the Gulf Stream could have no power to move a block of stone along the bed of the sea underneath it so soon as it was once = deposit upon its bottom.” From the consideration of the iets caused upon i. surface of the country by the effects of water, the memoir next refers to those that have resulted from fire, and which by subterraneous action uplifted from be- neath the waves, the great chains of the Alleghany and Rocky mountains, and gave rise to the thermal springs associated with them. In this con- nection is presented an account of the unstratified primary rocks. Cot mencing with those of the Blue Ridge of the south, they are described a5 extending north and east to New York, and into New England, where _ they are the predominating rocks. The two groups of mountains comr posed of these rocks, east and west of Lake Champlain, are mentioned a uniting in Canada, and there blending i in a low chain which crosses the continent northwesterly, the any strata eee: visible until approaching Lake Winnipeg, where they ht of beneath the cretaceous group. This class: of formations is also referred. to as prevailing in the Rocky mountains, travellers there, wherever observations have been made, hav- Ing noticed granite, gneiss, quartz rock, éc. ' Miscellanies. 197 In a wide sense then, says the memoir, it may be stated that the cen- - tral portion of the continent is surrounded on the north, east and west, by a chain of primary formations, and that the entire space included betwixt the Alleghany and Rocky mountains, constitutes the great valley of the Mississippi. In so terming the immense country intermediate between these two ranges of mountains, the reader is guarded against the idea, that this tract is filled up with alluvial or tertiary deposits, or of supposing that it maintains an uniformly low level. This, as stated, can only be said of that portion situated between the Ozark and other hills, and the western side of the Alleghanies, about one hundred miles east and west of the Mississippi. The Ozark hills, Dr. Daubeny, who had an opportunity of examining them in person, describes as consisting of clay slate, quartz rock, and sandstone, except near the mining district of Missouri, where porphyries and specular iron, in immense masses, have been protruded. The several ores of the unstratified rocks are noticed, as are also the other minerals with which they abound. ‘The dykes so common in New England, are mentioned as establishing a distinction between the rocks on the east, and those on the west of the primary chain, and as furnishing evidence of frequent igneous action subsequently to the elevation of the Alleghany mountains. ; ‘ The memoir next proceeds to describe some of the later formations: i. e. the fossiliferous rocks of New York, and those of the same relative posi- tion in the more southern states, with their mineral and paleontological contents. This, although mostly drawn from the able reports of the gen- tlemen engaged in the surveys of these formations, is yet interspersed with much interesting matter, drawn from the observation of the writer. Of this character are the remarks upon the Falls of Niagara, which are well worth the careful perusal of all who feel at all desirous of information in relation to their origin. The difference of level between the country be- low and that above Queenstown, has, it is well known, been generally ascribed to a subsidence of the former. Dr. Daubeny, however, from no- ticing that the strata from this place to Lake Erie appeared to dip some- what south, (a fact, which, as stated in a note annexed, has been since verified by Mr. Hall,) is inclined to the opinion that this portion has been elevated. In relation to the falls, in other than a geological view, Dr. Daubeny, expresses himself as having been at first somewhat disappoint- ed, though subsequently this feeling gave way to others of a different character. His own account is as follows: 3 “With respect to the fall itself, considered in a picturesque point of view, or as influencing the imagination and feelings, it may seem an odd con- fession to make, that my first feelings, on visiting it, were not unmixed With disappointment. Of an object so long known by report, each person before he reaches the spot conjures up in his mind some sort of idea, 198 Miscellanies. ‘ee which in certain respects must differ from the reality, and may therefore lead him to imagine the latter has fallen short of his previous conceptions. Thus I had imagined that the fury of the waters after they had been launched over the cataract would have been more terrific, and was sur- prised at seeing the ease with which an insignificant ferry-boat crossed the stream within a very short distance below. The noise produced by the waterfall itself, I had also conceived would have been more stunning; and it was with a feeling nearly allied to what one might entertain at heat- ing a person of solid weight and character, talked down by a noisy upstart of yesterday, that I found the roar of this stupendous natural phenomenon overpowered by the hissing of a locomotive which was letting off its steam at the railroad station adjoining. “The presence of these evidences of human ingenuity was in other respects also very unpropitious to the feelings which the scene itself was calculated to inspire ; and though no enemy to railroads or manufactories in their proper place, I could have wished all vestiges, both of the one and of the other, banished from a spot where nature ought to be allowed to reign undisturbed and alone. “ But after a time, these first preposséssions wore away, and I then be- gan to feel more impressed with the solemnity of the sound which the cat- aract produces in its descent, than I had expected to have been, by the deafening tumult of waters for which my imagination had prepared me. “In surveying it too under various aspects and at different distances, I found new sources of admiration and astonishment continually presenting themselves, of which I had previously no conception ; nor did the interest of the scene appear to flag, when I turned to contemplate the phenom ena presented in the course of the river both above and below, which may be regarded, either as concomitants, or as consequences of the cata- ract itself.” ¥ This is followed by a graphic account of the various features exhibited by the majestic waterfall at the different points from which it may observed, as also of the scenery connected with it. ; _ Inrelation to the sandstone of the Connecticut river, Dr. Daubeny ™ giving Prof. Hitchcock’s opinion, that it is equivalent to the new red sand- stone of England, merely remarks, that if this be true, it is singular that no salt is found within it, this being its most appropriate position. He visited one of the localities of bird tracks, and compared the specimens OP the surface of the rocks with those in the cabinet of Prof. Hitchcock, and fully satisfied himself that they could have been produced only by “ birds of various sizes treading upon soft and plastic material.” An account is given of the coal fields and brine springs of the United P States, as also of the thermal waters; the last being treated quite at =. af « Mistellanies, 199 Tn conclusion, it may not be amiss to state, that the whole is written in the same easy and agreeable style as the other works of its distinguished author. 8. Outlines of Anatomy and Physiology, translated from the French of H. Milne Edwards, M.D. &c., by J. I. W. Lane, M.D. Boston, Charles C, Little and James Brown, 1841. _ pp. 312.—This treatise was - intended as an introduction to a work on zoology by the same author. It gives us a general outline of the anatomical structure and physiological action of the different systems of organs of which animal bodies are com- posed; also those general characters and properties of living beings which could not with propriety be introduced into the body of a zoolog- ical treatise. It is written in a popular style, and is sufficiently free from technicalities to render it interesting and intelligible to a non-professional reader Before entering into a description of the individual functions and their organs, those properties are enumerated which are common to all living beings, and by which they are distinguished from common inert matter, viz. their mode of origin, structure and chemical composition, powers of nutrition, reproduction, and the definite duration of their existence ; also the characteristics by which animals are distinguished from vegetables, the former having, in addition to the properties parneses by the latter, Sensibility and voluntary motion. The different functions, and the organs by which Gee are perhcrmed, are arranged in three great divisions, viz. those of nutrition, relation, and reproduction, Under the first head, are described the blood, its proper- ties, the apparatus and mechanism of its circulation, exhalation, secre- tion, respiration, animal. ie and digestion: under the second are arranged those organs d functions by which animals are made acquainted with, and are enabled to act upon external objects, viz. the Sensorial, intellectual, motory, and vocal; and under the third head, those which are subservient to the preservation of the species, viz. those of generation. In treating of the different functions first enumerated, it is the object of the author to describe them as they exist in man, and compare with " them those of which the lower orders of animals are the sea In so do- ing, he has placed the subject of physiology under a very attractive form ; and we trust that the work will be extensively circulated, and that it may conduce still farther to develop that taste for the science of which it treats, among the unprofessional public. ‘The translation of the work is in some respects objectionable, the technical words being, in many cases, literally rendered, instead of substituting for them the corresponding English tech- nical expressions. We have no hesitation, however, in saying, that ~ high merit and reputation of Dr. Edwards as a physiologist gist, and the interest which is felt by the public in anatumical peer ~*~ * * « * é ‘, ie z € 7 , ae Fa” 200 Miscellllnice * ‘“ iological sciences, will render the work, at the present time, highly accep- table. ri iJ Hi 7 : Ss 9. Volcanic Phenomena in Hawaii. tet To Pror. B. Sitttman—My dear Sir: You expressed a wish that I might send you an extract from the letter of Capt. Couthouy ; and as my _ way of doing business is never to delay, if avoidable, I send it you. The : letter is dated Honolulu, Oahu, Oct. 24, 1840. - “Visited the great crater at Kirauea or Ka Lua Pele, which is an im- mense pit one thousand feet deep and six miles in circuit, with perpen- dicular walls, except at one point, where it is reached by a steep descent, and the whole of this vast cauldron, full of boiling, bubbling, and spout- ing lava. The surface at one moment black as ink, and the next exhib- iting rivers and pools and jets of a hideous blood-red fluid, that was some- times thrown up to a height of fifty or sixty feet, and fell back with a sul- len plashing that was indescribably awful. - The aspect of the whole was hellish—no other term can express it. By night it was grand beyond description. ‘The frequent lightings up, the hissings and deep muttering explosions, reminded me of some great city in flames, where there were magazines of gunpowder or mines continually exploding. Vesuvius is 2 fool to it. Just previous to my visit, the lava had burst out at a new place, about six miles northeast of the crater, and flowed down to the sea in @ stream of forty miles in length, by from one to seven in breadth. I saw the light one hundred miles off. It reached the sea in five days, threw up three hills (I send a rude sketch, but literally correct, and interesting as iy work of a native) of from one hundred and twenty to two hundred and fifty feet high, gained two thousand feet ut seaward from old line of coast, by three fourths of a mile in width, and heated the water for fifteen miles either side, to such an extent, that the fishes were heaped up 10 myriads on the shore, scalded to death. Its falling into the sea, was ac- companied with tremendous hissings, and detonations like constant nig charges of heavy artillery distinctly heard at Hilo, twenty minutes distant. P iii lan great respect, yours, truly, — D, H. Srorer. a Pie . ‘ 10. Manilla Hemp. i Singapore, May 29, 1840. To Pror. B. Siuuan—Dear Sir : Having had my attention called to the subject of Manilla hemp, and the mode in which it is prepared, I have had the good fortune to receive from a friend on the spot such an account of the matter as may be interesting to some of your readers. My cor ent is T. M. M., Esq., a British merchant in Manilla. His ‘paper is chiefly a translation of Blanco’s Flora Filipina, from page 247 to #90. He has enjoyed the best opportunities for obtaining information 00 +. a Poms, . . - a a os P 201 " eely ae oe aoe et various Spe inet 8 cans, gave ¢ occasion wees them. He has sent me a specimen of some _ of the hemp which he made: himself, while® inspecting the. operation; a portion of which I send yous As apart of og ee is taken up in con- saa a some of the oputidat of Lg recsnaeraey ‘qe Abis; and give that the process on personal observa- euiiechs from Sapiiat Teving. ‘obtained. his consent, you. 2 at ert 2 aps sch usd:of the paper as you judge most suitable. . ae ‘ Yours, &c. Jos. 8. Taavenes. 5 2 aka is abiaioids * tr a species. of plantain, the ‘ Musa Troglo- diiagun. $9 ee and is probably a ipsiety of the Musa a the most, seal ‘ian sais is eonhiznes: with care in the province of Cam- ues and i in other. parts. _ At first sight i it is not different from others of gaps. aie eS, - The fruit is. very small, seldom. exceeding two inches in | = _ The use, he 2 of this plantain de lmninse 5 of it are made wor bet a” cut the tree near the ground at the time.it F the uppe' yor head, re- eknife: ae ble, or ake of pace on whic The sip is vee under th fsa ah oy one end. ™ knife Te 202 moves the skin, and the pressure on the table enables the table to remore the fleshy substance. -It is usually pulled but once; that is to say,” when the strip is placed under the knife ; about two feet. remain on the side of | 3 the operator, which. he grasps to pull it through ; this done, he turnsit, placing the other end under the knife, and grasping the end which now shows only the fibre, he by the second pull finishes. this’part of the pro- cess. The handful of threads or fibres is then placed with others ona branch of tree, or peg, in the side of his hut, till a quantity is accuma- Jated. Hung up in this way for an hour or two, the fibres are dried’and fit for merchandise. 'T. M. M. thinks that very little, at the most_not a he also thinks it undergoes a second process, being passed under a sort of saw. T.M.M. supposes this to be only a bad way of performing the process just described, it being much easier to draw the strip under a saw than under a knife. Butasa much larger portion of the skin is left adhering to the fibres in this way, it is much less valuable. ‘The process by the knife is so tedious, that i men will ay only Sas 0 a, in an ordinary day's work os "The ‘but i the hemp (i.e. plantain) fibres are ver very fine, they place the women who weave it ander a cover or shade, because the. ad easily breaks the stretched out. ‘Although the aac strong, yet it is inferior to linen thread, and to thread of E hemp, both in respect of strength and inthe gloss and touch. Hemp (i. e. of the AP ce RT of good Sears inert -and in other parts, but not equal in ; of C 3 Mis = nits. : 208 The hemp is easily dyed of blue and pink colors. To dye it blue, they still employ, as in the olden times, the leaves of a shrub or twining plant, er in Camarines, is named payanguit and-aringuit, ‘the Mars- denia akar. {Flora Fiepind. p. 118.) An intelligent description of this twinin prone was made to the Politico-Economical Society of Manilla, by ae curious and diligent observer, Padre Jose de Mata, of the order of San Francisco ; and ; it is he, who, in these our days, bas brought this plant to the notice of the European dwellers in the —— ”~ leaves of this plant give blue color in abundance. ~ To:dye the hemp pink, I have heard that in Camarines province a boil the bark of the root of the Morinda (Flora Filipina, p. 148) with a tittle fime or alum, till the desired color is obtained, and with this they proceed todye. But it is better to dye in the same manner as used for cotton thread, which is with a solution of wood-ashes and oil of Sesamum. (Flora Filipina, p. 507.) Additional note by 'T. M. M., 30 Mar. 1840. The hemp of commerce is brought to Manilla handy in native rigged boats of fifty to one hundred tons burthen, termed pontines, from Cama- tines and Albay provinces, and from: Zebu Island. The price paid to the actual producer in the interior of the country, Ido not know; but considering that it is a bulky article, the cost of transportation must be Meery;. as it is a makes ronal ats oe in . ae 3 ee

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Ursow, travelling beans fa Tadeabtioot 4DVEMRTISING SHEET oF THE "AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. th conntrie stitched up ‘ol the numbers eared and then, if the publisher. will pay the AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSOR SILLIMAN AND BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jn. VOL. XLL—No. 2.—OCTOBER, 1841. FOR JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, 1811. (TO BE CONTINUED QUARTERLY.) NEW HAVEN: Sold by B. & W. NOVES —Philadelphia, CAREY & HART, J. S. LITTELL —New York, CARVILL & Co., No. 108 Broadway, THEODO S Broadway, and G. S. SELL ‘ corner part St. and Broadway, on and New York, WILEY & PUTN. AM, New York.—Paris No. 35 Paternoster Row. Taal and 161 Broadway, - ‘ HECTOR BOSSANGE & Co., No. 11, Quay Voltsire—Hamburgh, Messrs. NESTLER & MELLE. ; ee ‘PRINTED BY #&. L. HAMLEN. Published at ‘New ‘Haven, October 4, as4l. | LIBRARY OF D. "MATHEWS i lington, Wis Tt is ¢ xpecte d that the borrower will return this book within a — rtime, | | withuuat, under any pretext, re-lent ting g 4 i TO CORRESPONDENTS. Pipes y will appear in our next, from Mr. James Hall, Dr. Asa lay: Pro. Che: : ~~ vel, Dr. Locke, Dr, H.C. Perkins, Prof. G. R. Perkins, Prof. J. W. Bailey, Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, ‘Dr. hs M. Brewer, Mr. S. S, Haldeman, ae. C. Lea, Mr. J. er correspondents for our unfulfilled obligations ; the ples Hitcheoek’ s Address before the J ‘Assosiated Refi has excluded: number of short communications which we had hoped to insert. It is in vain that we en- avor to clear our docket of valuable papers ; 2 our friends must be charitable - enough to believe that the delay which sometimes bere is the nae necessity a and not of intention ao Reply of Sir Mrewiee Finavir to Dr. piskowe have to regret ‘that Jeter addressed to us by Sir Michael Faraday, and intended for this Journal, hy In substance, however, its object was to decline a farther public dit cussion of the points at issue—referring instead to the memoirs already ready published, or which may hereafter appear on the subject. We have learned with regret, that the health of sir Michael Faraday has declined under his arduous labors, and that relaxation His friendly antagonist, Dr. Hare, being now abroad in Earope for similar ‘reasons, we can only wish to them both a speedy ——t - — to Lge gg ‘them fo resume ; ee ipporbas aud successful re searches tae Mest "The @ titles of Ssiaivecrieheasoblh of their [oe must Ao fully oly See Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the number of & te. ape which they may wish to h ake. pee Ps + Ag ME we oe oe a * pene Gua: Seusesl: ‘have been OcrToBER, 1841. ADVERTISING SHEET OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. GEOLOGICAL DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Mr. ROBERT BAKEWELL would inform Professors of Col- leges, Principals of Academies, Lyceums, and other Literary Insti- tutions, that he keeps on hand Drawings and Diagrams, illustrative of the science of Geology, comprising Stratification, Metallic Veins, Organic Remains, Active and Extinct Volcanoes, &c. &c. The drawings are if desired fixed on rollers, adapted for lectures. Letters addressed to R. Bakewell, Instructor of Drawing and Per- Spective in Yale College, at Mr. Ebenezer Johnson’s, Chapel street, New Haven, will be duly attended to. Drawings and Plans of every description copied with dispatch. aven, June, 1841. Mr. Bakewell’s drawings are excellent.— Eis. Just published, by LITTLE & BROWN, Bosron, THE PHILOSOPHY OF STORMS, BY JAMES P. ESPY. In one volume octavo, with Maps and Illustrations. spy’s PurLosopHy oF STORMS, contains an entirely new theory enomena, explaining, from a few elementary laws, licity of the law of gravitation when applied to the planetary motions, the various phenomena connected with storms, such as the formation of clouds, the cause of the change of wind and cross currents of air, the fall of the barometer in the storm and the rise above the mean around its borders, the cause of the trans- lation of storms along the surface of the earth, the direction in which they must move in some particular latitudes, and the means by which it may be known in what direction they move in all latitudes and in Sees i of atmospheric ph «with almost the simp 2 Advertising Sheet of the all seasons. Mr. Espy has devoted many years to this subject, and has fortified his doctrine by a vast body of facts, which will be de- tailed in the present work in so simple a manner, as to be intelligi- ble without much previous mathematical knowledge. It is indeed intended to be eminently a practical work—useful to all classes of citizens, especially to the navigator. Espy does not come before the world with crude, unformed theories, but by a patient induction from facts, he brings out a beautiful system, which one of the most illustrious philosophical bodies in the world—the Institute of France, in a report on the subject says, “ satisfies alone the phenomena,” and moreover they declare that “ for physical ge- ography, agriculture, navigation, and meteorology, it gives us new explanations and useful indications for further researches, and cor- rects many prevailing errors. They also express the earnest desire that Mr. Espy may be put by the government of the United States in a position to pursue bis important labors, and to complete his theory, already so remarkable, by all the observations and expeti- ments which his deductions may suggest to him, in a vast country where enlightened men are not wanting to science, and which is, as it were, the native country of these formidable meteors.” r. Espy has lectured on this subject, not only in all the large cities of the United States, where he has been received with great favor, but he has visited Europe, and lectured to enthusiastic audi- ences formed of the most intelligent citizens in Liverpool, Manchester, er he is at sea or on land, while it has not yet approached within several hundred miles of him. Mr. Espy has permitted many such predictions to be published in Philadelphia even when the weather was clear there, and his predictions were always verified. Boston, October, 1841. Dr. J. R. CHILTON, PRACTICAL CHEMIST, &c., No, 263 Broapway, New York, Keeps constantly for sale at his establishment, a general assort- ment te pane. ape and Chemical Apparatus, Chemical Prepara- lions, every thing necesssary for the study of Chemistry a9 a branches of Natural Philosophy—among which are the fol 8800 ae American Journal of Science. 3 Pixn’s Frencu Atr-PuUMPs, WITH GLASS BARRELS; other air- pumps with brass barrels, single and double, of various sizes, to- gether with the various apparatus used with them Large and small Puate Exvectrrican Macuines, CYLINDER ELecrricat Macuines, and a variety of Execrricat Apparatus. Eectro-Maeners, mounted on frames, of various sizes, capa- ble of supporting from 20 to 3000 Ibs. Page’s Compounp Maenet and. Evectrorome, for producing brilliant sparks and swettal shocks. ‘The same instrument, with a contrivance attached by which the intensity of the shocks can be modified at pleasure, which renders it one of the most convenient instruments for the application of electricity as a remedial agent in the cure of disease, and for physiological experiments. Small working models of Exe cTRo-Ma6Netic Macuines, of different kinds, and a great variety of Execrro-Maenetic Instru- MENTS for the purpose of illustrating the theory of Erecrro-Mac- NETISM. Gatvanic Barrerres on Prof. Faraday’s plan, and others, for ifiaguame &c. Catorimorors of different sizes. pers—Compounp Biowripes—PortaBLe PNeuMma- Beit Guasses, Sie and stoppered, GrapuaTep Bett Guasses, Tuses, &c.—Wovutr’s Apraratus, Grass ALEmBIcs, SToPPERED| Funnets, Precipitating Jars. Nooth’s Apparatus for im Preenating water with carbonic acid. Apparatus for solidifying carbonic a Grass ConpENSING SYRINGES or ye Pumeps—Maerc Lan- TERNS, with AstRonomIcaL and other Siipes—Aaare and Sreen Mortars. Porce.ain, — — and Brack Leap Cruci- IT Lamps— re opets of CrysTats in wood, in boxes conthining one hundred different forms—DacuerReoTyPE Apparatus complete. An assortment of Platina _— such as CructBLes, CapsuLes, Spoons, Forcers, &c.— riley Form, &c.—Sets of Ap : A large collection of pst anne ion gale by the single specimen or in sets. O¢> Particular — see waters, w York, Fins 19, 1841. paid to the analysis of ores, minerals, i acreage remeron ements 4 Advertising Sheet of the Preparing for Publication, a New Edition of the NORTH AMERICAN SYLVA, OR A DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES, CANADA, AND NOVA SCOTIA; (Considered particularly with respect to their use in the Arts, and their introduction into Commerce ; with a Description of the most useful of the European Forest Tress. Illustrated by 156 finely colored Engravings. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH OF F. ANDREW MICHAUX, Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. &c. Ke. To which will be added two additional volumes, containing all th orest Trees discovered in the Rocky Mounrains E RITORY OF OrEGon, down to the shores of the Pacirrc and into the confines of Catirornia, as well as in various parts of the NITED STATES. Iilustrated by finely colored Plates. e€ R- BY THOMAS NUTTALL, F.L.S., Member of the American Philosophical Society, and of the Academy of Natural ciences of Philadelphia, &c. &c. Ke. In consequence of the very numerous additions by Mr, Nurratt to the Norra American Syzva, many more plates and descriptions tis quite unnecessary to say any thing in praise of Mrcwavx’s magnificent work on the Forest Trees of our country ; the well es- American Journal of Science. 5 tablished reputation of Mr. Nurrau, the editor of the additional part of the work, is a sufficient guaranty for its accuracy and the style of its execution. The Plates, which will amount to considera- bly more than 200, will be finely and carefully colored. It will be} published in five volumes, in imperial octavo. The first volume of Micnavx’s Nort American Sytva, containing 50 plates, is now ready ; the second and third volumes will be published at short in- tervals. The first volume of Mr. Nurraxu’s Appitions, (being the fourth volume of the entire work,) to contain 40 plates, is in the hands of the printer; and the second, (being the fifth volume jof the entire work,) is preparing for the press. he price of the whole work, with the Plates finely colored, will be about thirty seven dollars—the first and second volumes, eight dollars each ; and the third, fourth, and fifth, seven dollars each; payable on delivery of each volume. With the Plates uncolored, the price will be five dollars per volume. hose persons who possess the former edition of Michaux’s work, can procure the additional volume separately, and thus complete their copies. Price with colored Plates, seven dollars ; with Plates uncolored, five dollars. ‘They are requested to transmit their names as early as possible. : A list of the subscribers to this splendid work, will be published in the last volume. Subscriptions received by the Publisher, or at the office of the American Journal of Science and Arts, New Haven, Ct. J. DOBSON, No. 106, Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. J. DOBSON has also in course of Publication, |Monocrapuy or THE FamtLy Ustonip2, or Natapes or Lamarck, (fresh-water bivalve shells,) of Norra America—illustrated b: figures drawn on stone from nature, and finely colored. By T. Fossizs or rue Meprat Tertiary or THE Unitep States. O this work have been published No. |, containing 17 Plates, price $1.50—and No. 2, containing 12 Plates, price $1—to be com- pleted in four numbers. A Monocrapn or THE Limniapes, or Fresu-Water Univatve Suetis or Norru America, by S. S. Harpemay, Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences. Nos. | and 2 published, each containing 5 most splendid colored Plates, price $1 each, to be completed in about eight numbers. 6 Advertising Sheet of the | New and most important work for all those con- cerned in Iron Works. J. DOBSON, No. 106 Cuestnur Srreet, Puiwapevruia, Proposes to publish by subscription, the following most important work, A COMPLETE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. Comprising a full account of its different ores, their analyses, &c., the various processes and ample descriptions of the Furnaces, Forges, Rolling Mills, &c. &c., with nearly 70 very large plates, which are all drawn to a scale, and may be considered as working rawings—to include a translation of the whole of the great work on Iron of Messrs. Le Buanc and Watrer, and contain all its nu- merous plates, with additions from other sources, and numerous analyses of the Coal and Iron Ores of this country and Europe, to- gether with the Statistics of the Coal and Iron of the United States, and abstracts of the most important Patents relating to Iron, with critical remarks—also an Essay on the Smelting of Iron with An- thracite Coal, as now practiced in Pennsylvania—by S. W. Ros- ERTS, Esq., Civil Engineer—to be published under the superinten- dence of J. C. Booru, Esq., Professor of Chemistry applied to the Arts, at the Franklin Institute. It is scarcely necessary to speak of the value of a work such as this, which must be of the greatest interest to the Practical Iron Master, as well as to every one concerned, either directly or indi- American Journal of Science. 7 authentic sources. Ricwarp C. Taytor, Esq., a gentleman well known for his talents and accuracy in research, has promised his valuable assistance. CONDITIONS. The work will be put to press as soon as there are 150 subscri- bers—and but a limited edition will be published. Tt will be published in 8 parts, each part to contain 8 or more very large folio plates, with the accompanying text. e price per part will be five dollars, payable on delivery. As it is desirable to put the work to press as early as possible, gentlemen who may wish to subscribe, will confer a favor by trans- mitting their names to the publisher without delay. B. & W. NOYES, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Bo erasutan of Bakewell’s Geology, Svo. $3.50. Dana’s Min- eralogy, Svo. $3.25. Pitkin’s Statistics, Svo. $3.00. Baldwin’s Yale College, 8vo. $1.25. Bacon’s Poems, 8yo. $1.50. Kings- ley’s Tacitus, 12mo. $1.00, Kingsley’s Cicero de Oratore, 12mo. 75 cts. Day on the Will, 12mo. 50 cts. Crocker’s Catastrophe} of the Presbyterian Church, 12mo. 88 cts. Excerpta Latina, 12mo. 38cts. Gibbs’s Hebrew Lexicon, 8vo. $2.00. Tables of Logarithms,| used in Yale College with Day’s Mathematics, Svo. $ 1.00. School Geology, 18mo. 25 cts. Discount 20 per cent. and six months credit. Books wholesaled and retailed at the most reduced prices—a catalogue of which is printed with prices and discount, for gratui- tous distribution.—Orders promptly executed. New Haven, June 25, 1841. Association of American Geologists. This body holds its Third Annual Meeting at Boston, commencing on Monday, the 25th of April, 1842. Officers for the meeting in Boston : : Samuen Georce Morton, M. D., &c., Chairman. Cuarues T. Jackson, F. G. 8., (France,) M. D. &c., Secretary. Dr. CHarues T. Jackson, ”€ Local Committee. Mr. Moses B. WiLu1AMs, E : _ Prof. B. Sinuiman, LL. D., &c. to deliver the opening address. tn Advertising Sheet of the SYLLABUS ON CHEMISTRY, By Pror. SHEPARD. American Journal of Science and Arts. Tue following numbers of this Journal are wanted by the Editors, New Haven, June 23, 1840. who will pay for them $1 each, or give in exchange current num- bers as they appear. Vol. XI. = XT. XIV. XV. XVI. Number 1, 2. 1; 2 x: 1. 1, 2. Entire No. 23, 24. yee 29. 31. 33, 34. Vol. XVII. XXII. XXVI AXVILI. XXIX. @ib. Number 1, 1,2. 2, 1, 2. 1; 2 1 Entire No. 35. 45,46. ‘BA. 55,56. — 59, 60.:- . 81. B. & B. Sitimay. ntire sets of the American Jo its commencement to the present bers in numbers or boun : New Haven, June 23, 1841. Notice to Agents of the American Journal of Science. Herearrer one dollar per number is all that will be crate on account, for numbers of this Journal returned in good order from agents, except by special agreement Scale of charges on the Advertising sheet for the American Journal of Science. lof S "5 lines or one third of a page, . - - - - . $2 sr One half of a page, eee Bis cet : “ 00 e@ page, - - - - - = = - - - 5 Charges on the cover.—15 lines or one third of a page, - $8 re ne half of a page, - 4 ee wc, Rlae a aerees wage ee G0 For every insertion after the first, one half the above rates. Advertisements 8. jmust be accompanied with directions as to the number of insertions. n . urnal of Science and Arts, from time, can be had of the subseri- B. & B. Srium ay. # - American Journal of Science. 9 Lt a ESO © TIA eT oF Ee ee eT TORS ae See OER, ORTHOPEDIC INSTITUTION AT BLOOMIN GDALE, FOR THE TREATMENT OF CURVATURES OP THE SPINE, CLUB FEET, &c. NDER THE DIRECTION OF VALENTINE MOTT, M. D. Division of the muscles, first practiced for wry neck, is now exten- ded to club foot, curvature of the spine, stammering, &e. This undertaking is interesting equally to the medical and the be- nevolent world, and full confidence will be reposed in Dr. Mott—so long and so advantageously known for the successful prosecution of this noble design. A house will be open in the spring on the banks of the Hudson, at Bloomingdale, six miles from New York, where extensive grounds, and a gymnasium for the appropriate exercises, will be attached to the mansion. ny person wishing further information, may apply person- ally, or by letter, addressed to Vatentine Morr, 152 Bleecker- street, Depau Place, New York City.—Eps. Jour. Scr. w York, July 20, 1841. | & ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS, Pror. Epwarp Hircucocx’s Appress before this Association at their second meeting in Philadelphia, in April last, has been pub lished by the subscriber in an Svo. pamphlet of fifty pages, on fine paper, in accordance with the resolution of the meeting. . Members of the Association and others who wish this address, can have it forwarded to them by mail, or as they may direct, by in- forming the subscriber of the number of copies they want, The subscriber has also published in Svo. on fine paper, pp. 82, a small edition of the Address, with the preceene: of the Associa- tion at their two meetings, (viz. in Philadelphia, April, 1840, and April, 1841,) as they are published by the Secretaries in the Amer- ican Journal of Science, with a list of the members of the Associa- tion: these two under one cover ‘Prof. Hitchcock’s address will be sold to members at one dollar for six copies; to non-members at one dollar for four copies, or 25 cents each. It is expected that the money will accompany the orders. The Address and Proceedings, under one cover, will be sold at one dollar for three copies, or singly, at fifty cents each. Either of the above may be ordered through any of the book- sellers who act as agents for the American Journal of Science. _ B. Sruuimay, Jn., One of the Assistant Secretaries 2 10 Advertising Sheet, &c. ANTHRACITE IRON. LITTLE & BROWN, OF BOSTON, Have in press and will shortly publish, an account of the various Iron Works in the United States, at which Anthracite is employed as a fuel in the Smelting of Iron Ores, &c., by Prof. WatTer R. Jounson. This work will embrace a sketch of the history of those efforts, which have at length been crowned with success, to render useful this most important production of our country, and will give a clear and comprehensive view of the situation, construction, and all essential circumstances of each establishment. 1@Comnposl- tion, character, and heating power of several of the principal vari- eties of anthracite will also be given. October, 1841. JORDAN & COMPANY, . |Publishers, General Agents for Reviews, Magazines and Periodi- cals, 121 Washington, opposite Water St., Boston. &. The New York Review, $5; the North American, $5; the Boston Quarterly, $3; the Dial, $3; Silliman’s American Jour- nal of Science, $6. Also, the Ladies’ Book, $3; Graham’s La- dies and Gentlemen’s Magazine, $3; the Knickerbocker, $5; Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine, $5 ; the Christian Family Magazine, $1, and all the Foreign Reviews at $3 each, or taken together, $2. . OF Messrs. J. & Co. give constant employment to intelligent men in the circulation of these and other works. October, 1841 | to 4: eel yee calmed AUTOBIOGRAPHY, Reminiscences, and Letters, of John Trumbull, from 1756 to 1840. New York and London: Wirey & Putnam. New Haven: a Hamien, eer h a lege is volume 50 pages, on a beautiful paper with a type, is illustrated by a frontispiece portrait of tue author, draw? by his own hands, and by more than twenty other prints of Scenery, costume, portraits, mili lans, &c. is 5 work is for sale by Wok 5 Bese New York, re by B. Hamuien, New Haven, and by their agents.—Price 3, iD cloth covers. whom res gen- o 2p uncancelled debt, whose interest they must wig in wor Mr. Sheldon Clark was sage in the town of Oxford, fourteen miles west of New Haven, January 31, 1785, and died April 10, 1840, aged 55 years. His parents and friends were of respecta- ble standing among the farmers of that region, and he havi lost his father when very young, was early adopted by x | gtandfather, the late,’ Thomas Clark, Esq. of Oxford, of whose family he then became a a member, and with whom he remained until the death of. this venerable relative, at the acer April 5, 1811. The grandson, Smeey his minority, manifested a decided incli-, nation for a liberal education, but his grandfather, wishing to confine his attention to rural labors, and the rudiments of acom- mon school education, would not consent to a course whieh ap- « s * x11, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841. 28 218 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. peared to him to involve a waste of time and money; and he does not appear to have granted him any extraordinary opportu- nities for education, except a period of instruction at Litchfield, South Farms, in 1805 and 1806. But the active mind of young Clark could not be restrained, entirely, within the prescribed bounds; he. diligently read suf books as he could find, and early indulged in habits of intellectual exercise—reflecting and reasoning upon a wide range of topics, and often adopting pecu- liar views of his own, in neglect of those more generally received, or.in opposition to them. This independence of thought he carried through life, and it appears to have been the more firmly established, because his solitary walks did not lead him to contend With intellectual rivals and mpetitors 5 ‘he measured himself by in the that by the prudential views of his grandfather, he bad been de- barred from obtaining a liberal education, and ‘eagerly inquired, whether there was any thing in Yale College to which he could have access, without being a regular member of the institution. He was, of course, encouraged to expect the use of the libraries, with access to the lectures on science, and a hope was held out that he = perhaps, by special favor, be admitted to the reci- tations and discussions of the senior class, under the direction of President Dwight. - “The death of his grandfather a short time before, left him the liberty to pursue hi own course, @ and the Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 219 of what he heard, read and saw; the questions agitated in the discussions of the senior class, with the decisions of the president upon them, are recorded in his note-book, as are the texts and doctrines of the sermons in the college chapel ; and. there are memoranda, but less extensive, of the topics canvassed in the lectures on science. Among his numerous manuscripts, recording the Incubrations of his own mind, there is. a remarkable tract, dated at New Ha- ven, January, 1812, during this winter’s residence here, giving an account of a dream or vision of the general judgment. It is not impossible that it may have been suggested by Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress. Without its quaintness, it is written in the alle - is elevated and beautiful, with — corrections, it exhibition of f and town, and erals for Snupentiant; no hind shin 9 what, as wards appeared, was passing in his mind, and which he brought forth in an intelligible form towards the close of 1822, when he called on me, an’ solicited a private interview. “Io this interview, which took place in the office of the labor- atory of Yale College, no one being present but Mr. Clark and Myself, he stated, that the death of his grandfather had put him into possession of about twenty thousand dollars, which, by hi industry and-economy, he had increased to twenty-five t —that he had no family, and might never have one—that his re- lations weré numerous, that were his property divided among them, the dividend of each would be esis and that he was therefore disposed. : : vad fie cxpitaan ti of =o In further re of “e views to t 220 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. scope.* The letter of the class is annexed. I cannot do better, therefore, than to allow him to speak for himself by a quotation from his answer ;—omitting his glowing acknowledgments to the class, he says, Oxford, Nov. 29th, 1832. « Respecrep Frrenps—Man is a child of circumstances. While some are born to ease and plenty, seldom meet with disappointments, are surrounded by benevolent friends, always ready to assist, to com- fort, and to afford them the most ample means of enjoying the highest degree of mental culture; others are born to poverty and servitude, unassisted, even by their nearest relatives, and denied the privilege of obtaining a good common school education, and are often dispirited by disappointments. “It was my destiny to belong to the latter class. Early in life I had a tender father, who was in possession of a large amount of prop- erty..._He intended, and often promised, that I should have a liberal education—but, alas, before I was old enough to prepare to enter Col- lege, he Se and the estate , proved t to be insolvent. “ Thus all my fond hopes of having a liberal education were frus- orl and I was left fatherless and penniless in a hard, unfeeling, sel- fish world, to ‘ate ‘by my own industry, to satisfy those positive wants congenial to poor human nature. It fell to my lot to live, till I stormy days, and’ in the long nights of winter. From these opportu- ns Sancti tae was soon convinced that the power, the honor, and eee Se —_—— kag wu “Yale College, ‘gt A « dhipina Sin—After j } ugh the large ent to the liberal and high-minded sine was deem- pon cements ee AE simple expression of our fecings would ad ‘ lustre to the deed ; but, that you, Sir, might know that your generosity w4s hom bestowed on indi viduals on ungrateful for the the gratification "hich new have expe exalted object, claim the admiration : t ier Sacaleadtiec Gaby admiration bu ut gratitude. sete) considering the the bene fit, cireumstances, where hal we ok one which ea this noble quality i ® : he acted Si lid os * aoe ee committee for the senior class RD ERR Mh rene tying sk "Gone s Van SANTVOORD; Joun c. Bracn. “is Serene Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 221 glory of nations, consisted in, and depended upon, their great men. What has Greece, or Rome, or any nation of antiquity transmitted to posterity, worthy of esteem and admiration, but the achievements of their heroes, and the productions of their artists, poets, and. philoso- phers? And what else can we transmit to succeeding ages, to distin- guish us from the unlettered savages that roamed at large in the uncul- tivated wilds of America when discovered by our fathers? Full of this idea, and animated with an ardent desire to promote the honor and happiness of my own native country, I felt determined to do all I could to patronize and encourage literature and science, to provide the means of affording our literary and scientific genius a finished education. “ Oft when toiling with ceaseless assiduity to accomplish that object, Thave been pointed at, by my fellow-citizens, with the finger of scorn, and taunted by the tongue of ridicule. But for all this I felt a reward in the anticipation of ‘promoting the honor, and glory, and happiness of my beloved country. I never dreamed of personally receiving the teful. acknowledgments of one of the most respectable collegiate re you > my. dear eet isa he the attention of wise ed ntget be being J will be the chief objects of your p t “From the se timents ex- ~ pressed in your kind and interesting ieee I presume shat some 0 0 you are highly ‘gratified with the study of the “ sublime science.” ie ‘Mr. Clark informed me, that the first conception of his. con took place during the season of his residence in Yale College, when he was attending in several of the college class-rooms, and that he had been maturing it ever since. In a rugged country | “ stony hills, he had followed. the plough—he had fattened drov of cattle—he had taught school in winter, and loaned money a all times—not to accumulate wealth for himself, but to promote the good of others. He appealed to me as to the propriety of his views, and it is quite unnecessary to say that I encouraged t remarking at the same time, that he alone must be. the judge of his own obligations to his family friends, with which no one, - and mee not myself, would wish to interfere. Mr. Clark having made up his mind, submitted through me, a proposition to deposit five thousand dollars, to be placed at com- pound interest, until it should become the foundation of a profes- an hs 222 Notice of the late Sheldon Carke. sorship. In his written communication, he requires, that at any: time after the expiration of twenty-four years “from the time of receiving the money, he shall have the right to appropriate the sum of twenty thousand dollars for the establishment of a profes- sorship, either of moral philosophy and metaphysics, of erupts or of natural philosophy, in the college, at his option.” A special meeting of the Corporation of the college was called at Hartford, May 8th, 1823, and the proposition being accepted, the money, or its edui valent, was conveyed, June 10th of the same year, to the Hon. James Hillhouse, the treasurer. Kighteen years of the time have aironty passed away, and six more will finish the allotted term; in 1847, the “Clark professor- ship of moral philosophy and metaphysics,” designated by him subsequently to his gift, must be established on his foundation. The duties of this professorship are at present fulfilled by the president of the college. The community received with much satisfaction, the news of Mr. Clark’s bequest ;—he was of course hospitably received by the president and professors, in their houses, being introduced also to their literary and other friends, and to distinguished strangers. Without doubt, he was much gratified by the approbation and celebrity whieh his donation (then the greatest, save one, that the college had ever received from any private source) procured for him, and he must have differed from other men, if he had not been, on this account, the more eenhenes in his liberal tail poses. » - Mr. Clark was so well satisfied with the ptovision sthich he had inade-for-a professorship, that he soon followed up his first dona- tion, bya second. At a meeting of the corporation of Yale College, in New Haven, Sept. Sth, 1824, it was reported by the treasurer, that Mr. Sheldon Clark had deposited with him the sum of “one thousand dollars for the purpose of establishing a scholarship, oF scholarships, in the institution.” It was stipulated, ‘that the thousand dolars deposited by said. Clark shall be put to interest, upon good security, for twenty-four years from the 10th day of June, 1824, and at the expiration of that time the corporation of the = shall appropriate t the sum of four ane dollars for Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 223 effect in the class that shall be graduated in 1848, the second in 1849—the boon to be conferred on the best scholar, as ascertained: by examination, or by lot in cases of equal merit, among those who apply; each successful candidate to enjoy. the income of two thousand dollars for two years, upon condition of pursuing a prescribed. course of study, and to reside in New Haven nine months in each year,—upon failure of candidates, the income is to be appropriated in premiums for the encouragement of Eng- lish composition, or other branches of learning among the under- graduates of the college. The donor, very wisely, adds a dispen- sing clause, “that the corporation of the college, in whom he reposes special confidence, may, from time to time, make such change in the foregoing regulations as they shall judge best cal- culated to promote the main purpose for which the donation has been made.” Upon thesé conditions, the donation was accepted by the. corporation, and will of course, when the prescribed term be carried into effect. instance of liberality gave additional pleasure to the seieeieat” learning and educati sive tative in favor of the retired individt es hard-working Oxford far- ual—the mer, whose example | had now placed h im at the head of the ben: efactors of an ancient literary institution. Sy Sue aps It appears to. be incident to human nature, that he who has . done either good or evil, especially in a signal manner, is my ’ more prone to go and A likewise again, Mr. Clark, from his acquaintance with the officers of the college, took a partic’ interest in that painful eatastrophe—the wreck of the Liverpool packet-ship Albion, at Kinsale in Ireland, in April, 1822, which deprived the college and the country of a man who, for his early years, left no superior behind him, With the lamented Fisher was lost the large telescope of the college, which he was taking With him to London, to have it put in the best. order, for his. ob- servations on his return. Mr. Clark, on being informed of this loss; conceived the idea of replacing this Se aeeie ae one still better. It was not for him, like a ca na et emporium, simply to will, and then to draw a check for the amount, His contributions (since he did not, in making them, diminish his patrimonial estate derived from | a Sean vere draw results of his own industr ; ped od sums as edt Selon Soarg 224 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. commodities, or collect the dues on outstanding notes. The treasurer’s receipts for the money for the telescope lie before me, and may be worth copying, as an example of the manner in which an industrious and frugal farmer, by the use of moderate means, was able to accomplish an important end. Payments by Sheldon Clark to the Treasurer of Yale sai A for a ge et eee 22d, 1828, - - + ee ‘ March afte, a soda nae $e _ April tt, Be nt 8 May 26th, «ONT a ada aed aaa 50 - October 28th, “ = Ss . a 2 100 se November a Ss ea oe el ee 3 November 11th, “ mre cy = ~ 88 : ts M4 : ¥ fi . 100 : “Seesaees se ee ee ee _«, August 26th, 1829, - - . =. = Bo! $1, 1,200 . Of this donation, nineteen guineas were, by order of the donor, émployed in the purchase of a pair of large globes by Carey; (twenty-one inches in diameter,) one celestial and the other ter- restrial, elegantly mounted and covered. Thé telescope* was ordéted’ of Dollond. ‘Captain Basil Hall happened to be at the college at the time, and kindly volunteered to give his attention, with the maker, to the execution and arrangement of the {fibibinierit Mr. Clark limited a period of two years, within which it was to be done or the money given by him was to be returnéd. It arrived in November, 1829, and was by Dollond to be “perfect, and such an instrument as he was pleased to send as a specimen of his powers.” ‘In a letter of Sep” tember 3, 1835, Prof. Ol Olmsted announces to Mr. Clark 2h ap, ehh ot Sinaia “the donor, is siatagaieil ame of Clark's Telescope.) proves, says Prof. Olmsted, ‘oneniianl instru- nt. Tt has a focal length of ten feet, aud an aperture of five inches. The object- vss is finely achromatic, and thé light is very pure and abundant. For ‘obje¢ Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 225 covery by his telescope of Halley’s comet*—the first observation of this comet that had been made in this country, although as- tronomers in various parts of the United States had been on the look-out, without success; this discovery was justly regarded, “as proof that the instrument was a fine one for observations of this sort.” . Mr. Clark was now fully before the public as a munificent pa- tron of learning, and was justly so regarded, especially if his education, his position, his pursuits and his means are duly con- sidered. His feelings were, in a good degree, identified with the prosperity of the college. . He attended, occasionally, its quarterly exhibitions and its commencements; he passed some days or weeks, every winter in New Haven, frequenting the college halls and the society of its officers and their families, and returned with renewed zeal to his agricultural labors. Mr. Clark was elected by his fellow-townsmen, a member of the State Legislature for 1825, as well as in several succeeding nd served honorably during the sessions at Hartford and New Haven. io Rand pales Ase iniias: mpheet ofr, A portrait of Mr. Clark was requested for the College, and one was presented by him. It was painted by Samuel F. B. Morse, Esq., and was a very successful effort ; the likeness was aceurate, and although painted in 1825, sixteen years before his death, it remained good to the last, except that he had grown corpulent. It hangs in the south room of the Trumbull Gallery. : It appears that Mr. Clark had made up his mind how to dis- pose ultimately of his estate, before he could possibly know the effect of his actual donations on his fame, for his will was made and deposited with me, before the first of those donations had been accepted by the Corporation of Yale College, or made known tothe public. The will, duly executed, bears date March Sth, 1823, just two months before the meeting of the Corporation, at which his first proposition, that for founding a professorship, was bind oni dbl’ language shall explain his views, accepted. Here again his own languag' ' as expressed in that solemn moment, when men look death in the face, and record the purposes that are to be fulfilled when they are in their‘graves. | a a eigenen annen * By Prof: Olmsted and Prof: Loomis, now:of the Western Reserve College at Hudson, Ohio, then a tutor in Yale College. Vol. xu1, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841. 29 226 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. * Knowing the uncertainty of life—thinking that we must al- ways be prepared to die—feeling that it is our duty to do all the good in our power, and believing that part of my property will do more good if given to encourage literature than it would to de- scend according to law, 1, Sheldon Clark, of Oxford, am volunta- rily and of my own accord, disposed to make the following will. “JT wish to be buried in a decent manner, and to have decent grave-stones at the discretion of my executors. It is my will, that my just debts and my funeral expenses be paid out of my movable estate. I give and bequeath to the Corporation of Yale College in New Haven, all my homestead farm where I now live, with its buildings and appurtenances—also, all the land that was . given to me by my grandfather, Thomas Clark, Esq., on theeast side* of the road that runs north and sonth of Mr. Samuel Tuck- er, with its buildings and appurtenances—also, all my land that lies north of the road that runs by where George Drake now lives—also, my meadow that lies a few rods west of Rimmon school-house, and also, all my Red Oak farm, &c. ‘ee “Funds being so liable to be lost by bad security, it is my will, that the lands I have given to said Corporation shall never be sold, but that they shall be let or rented, in such way and man- ner, as the President and Fellows of said Yale College, and their successors, forever, shall judge to be for the best interest of said institution. It is my will, that the annual income of said lands shall be annually appropriated for the advancement: of literature in said Yale College, in such a manner as its President and Fel- lows, and their successors forever, shall deem the best and most beneficial for said institution; but no part of said donation income shall ever be appropriated to erect or repair buildings. — “Talso give and bequeath to the Corporation of Yale College in New Haven, all the money I shall have on hand and all the notes [shall have due me at the time of my decease, (except three hundred and thirty four dollars for Chesnut-tree hill school district,) to be appropriated for the benefit of said Yale College, as its President and Fellows, and their successors forever, ‘think shall be for its best good, and the most conducive to its prosperity and honor.” ing Te = Phe he ah d farm were on the west side of the road. £. oe é Per cheat Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 207 He then gives in form, and with certain conditions, the above named sum to the Chesnut-tree hill school district. He gives also to his three sisters a valuable farm, which fell to him from his and their brother, besides other land acquired after his will was made ; also, all his personal estate* not otherwise disposed of; and on his death bed he expressed a wish, that the sisters should receive each one thousand _— and that the college should pay it.t He named Abel Wheeler, Esq. of Oxford, and Benjamin Sil- liman of New Haven, his executors, and as Judge Wheeler was dead, the duties, of course, devolved on the surviving executor. This will he brought to my house early in the spring of 1823, when he read it to me, and requested me to keep it sacred and secure. 'The lady of the house was also entrusted with this con- fidence, that the will might be found, if I were gone; by his direction I sealed it, in his eeseire and wrote upon the envelope, “the last Will of Sheldon Clark, to be delivered to no one but hina in ee of his — to espe: ay the of Yale College”. It was now placed in a private drawer in my secretary, i the presence of us three only, and there it remained untouched and unknown, until the PRS NE REE His last visit at my house was in the evening of October 8, previo when he was on the door-step taking his leave, I reminded him of the important document, which, sixteen years before, he had confided to me, and offered to surrender it to him, provided his purpose was changed. He replied, “No, I do not wish to make any alteration,” and these (with a warm shake of the hand) were to me his words of farewell. I never saw him more, until I be- held him in his coffin on the 1ith of April, 1840. * Furniture, appare ” ‘tds ene he had been liberal in private benefactions, 4° ae A memorandum in his hand writ ing now lies before me, dated Apri te a i few days after his grandfather’s sch entitled, ee re account of seth te at 0 given to my relations out of my own rnings.” e then. merengss “ssa $200, $150, $100, $100, $53, an 4 365,75, om to $658,75 ~<_ a ¥ April 20th, 1811, and March 20th, 1813, he had given chiefly to 2 chi" Among his receipts also, is one fs fifteen sano h being ina te ee ac te bell in a neighboring Episcopal society. He w - cout Society to which he belonged, as also to the hei Mt Oxi ent donations to individuals. . Cita. hie 228 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. His death was tragical. Being, the preceding evening, ona scaffolding in his barn, moving on his hands and knees—an infirm pole, concealed by straw, suddenly broke ;—being very heavy; a fall.of fourteen feet upon a timber and stones, crushed in the sternum and some of the ribs, and he at once pronounced himself a dead man. With difficulty, aided by the arm of an attendant, he walked into the house, and: lingered fifteen hours in agony, although with a clear disposing mind ; he was able to command his hands to examine his pocket-book and papers—giving perspicuous directions as to his affairs, the college, and his sisters, and then he expired, in the full energy of a strong frame, not so much ex- hausted.even by intense pain, as drowned by the extravasation and.secretion of fluids, impeding, and at length arresting the play of his lungs. Under his extreme sufferings, not a word escaped him as to his future prospects; he remarked only, that he had endeavored to do all the good in his power, and we trust the preceding pages have shewn, that his endeavors were not in vain. - A large concourse of friends and neighbors and people of the vicinage, with several of the officers of the college and the clergy attended him to his last home. A long retinue of rural vehicles wound slowly down the high hills and along the deep valleys to a secluded burying ground, which he had. been instrumental in arranging, ona quiet and beautiful. plain, shaded by pines and watered by the murmuring current of a branch of the Housaton- ick. A neat marble slab records his name as “a distinguished benefactor of Yale College.” Such indeed he was. His bene- factions to the institution, including the funded interest that-had accumulated -to the time of his death, amounted to full thirty thousand dollars—three times as much as any other individual ever gave.* Allowing all that belongs to human nature, of the love of pres- ent or posthumous fame, (and there is no doubt that Mr. Clark fully participated in this common feeling,) still he has set a noble example, which it is equally our duty and our pleasure to presen in strong relief, to our country and the world. In proportion t his means, few have done as much, and it would not be easy ose who have done more.. “ Only one individual, the late Dr: Alffed Perkins of Norwich, gave $10,000 98 a library fund, and there are a few living men who have given from $0000 © Notice of the late Sheldon. Clark. 229 _ The object was not accomplished without a long course of stern self-denial—with great industry and severe economy. . Mr. Clark expended very little on his own personal accommodation. The plain farmer’s house remained as his grandfather left it, without decoration and almost without repair; the furniture was of the humblest kind, but'a warm welcome was given to his friends and to strangers, with ample provision not only of the produce of a farmer’s cultivation and care, but pecapionally, with a free hos- pitality in rarer things. His policy was, to augment as far and as fast as possible, his productive capital; he attempted no improvements in his agricul- ture ; he hardly preserved fences and buildings in statu quo; lit- tle return of manure was made to his hard worked soils, and even his wood and timber, were, to a certain extent, sold for money and cleared | away. for faarlae, by other hands. . He kept his money al- eee the cash he did not need, (and his personal wants were fawe)-reguited his interest and payments at the day —but was Bt cateahe indented & fiaesifah the mieatis of a superior ed- ucation to the children of others, and to jellies yet m po prstaak His mind appears to have been constantly active, and he has left behind him numerous manuscripts—matter sufficient for sev- ral volumes. They are on various subjects: banks, the tariff, the sub-treasury, the currency, political economy, commerce, manufactures and agriculture, but above all, morals and meta- physics ; the nature and immortality of the soul, moral responsi- bility, the agency of God in the affairs of the sack. the nature of sin and future beware. ei i: panienmeniir with numerous ex- tracts from di ] poetical effusions: all these, and many cae more, are among his papers. Nota few of them are. elaborate productions :—manuscripts, carefally copied, sometimes again and again, from less perfect notes and sketches,—in general, written out in a fair and legible hand, With correct orthography and punctuation, and an appropriate selection of words. The writings of Hume, Reid, Stewart, Ed- wards, Franklin, Jefferson, and other distinguished men, seem to have been familiar to him. ‘The metaphysics of morals appear 230 Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. to have been his favorite field of speculation. His writings are often vigorous and acute, and his reasoning ingenious, but not always conclusive. Some of his speculations were printed, and transmitted by himself to eminent men. Among his letters are many replies, some of them of considerable curiosity on account of both the authors* and the sentiments; we shall venture:to cite only one, and that from a man well known to fame. To Mr. Sheldon Clark. ) « Monticello, Dec. 5, *29. ; Sir—I thank you for the pamphlets you have been so kind as to send me; but I cannot comply with your request to give my opinion of them; against this, I have been obliged to protest in every case. I should otherwise, for the last twenty years, have been constantly employed in the trade of a reviewer of books, for which I have neither taste, talent, nor time; and instead of reading according to. my own choice, my course of reading would have been wholly under the direction of wri- ters and printers, on all sorts of subjects. No mail.comes without bring- ing me more than I could review before the arrival of the next. i A second reason is, that I revolt against all metaphysical reading, 2 which class your ‘new pamphlet, must at least be placed. Some ac- quaintance with the operations of the mind is worth acquiring, but any one of the writers suffices for that. Locke, Kames, Hartley, ‘Reid, Stewart, Brown, Tracy, &c., these dreams of the day, like those of the night, vanish in vapor, leaving not a wreck behind. The business of life is with matter, that gives us tangible results; handling that, we ar rive at the knowledge of the axe, the plough, the steamboat, and every thing useful in life; but, from metaphysical spéculations, I have never seen one useful result. psi Your ‘second pamphlet, entitled ‘ Essays, is certainly on important subjects, moral or physical, according to our individual creed. ‘I dipped into them in several places, and found in them views both profound and instructive, and, but for my first reason above stated, | should say more on them. Persuaded that he who wrote them will perceive the reason ableness of my declining this office, | pray you to be assured of my great respect. __ Lon ee Tu. JEFFERSON- © ‘His bounties to Yale College, procured for him applications from other institutions, and a number of students in different cok leges, and other persons, as appears by his correspondence, wer? suitors for his largesses. As there are no records of answers, W° - “ ae ay Pa ewe ie cao | i +ill living. © cases, trom pers ) ving: Notice of the late Sheldon Clark. 231 are left to presume, that the applications were generally allowed to pass sub silentio. As my object in this brief. memoir is to present Mr. Clark to mankind as a liberal patron of good learning, I shall offer no opinions upon his views of moral and metaphysical subjects; but some judgment may be formed of them from the pamphlets which he printed and distributed. It is however probable, that had his warm aspirations after a liberal education been indulged ; had he been disciplined in cour- ses of exact study, in literature and in science ;—had he been brought into conflict with other minds, pushing forward on the same journey—had he been placed under the pressure of able in- structors in the various branches of human learning, and beneath the sunshine of a kindly Christian influence and example, happy fruits would have been gathered from his gifted intellect. In his laborious rural. employments, he sighed for something more liberal and elevated than his daily toil—in his comfortless seclusion, (without 0, more than any other, cheers man’s solitude, and inflneny eae wat he found no favor to his mental ons ab his vigorous and shot in wild luxuriance, with little external siccteaia ane ne ca pruning ae a While therefore his speculati ]y yorndical i i ity, and he. seizes his subject with a vigorous grasp: it is not that he, like many men of higher name, should sometimes have been Sa iwitebanel: in the mazes of his own metaphysics ;—as a pilgrim threading a deep forest, wanders around and around, and emerges at last at a mistaken point, or emerges not at all, but plunges deeper and aise ‘into the 84 of the dark and impervious wilderness. - 232 Address before the Association of American Geologists. Arr. Ir. 7 seinen Address arma the Association ” * American Geologists, at their second annual meeting in Phi- ladelphia, April 5, 1841; by Epwarp Selesceetinnt LL. D., » Prof. Chem. ued Nat. Hist. Amherst College. GENTLEMEN OF THE pre :—It may be sepaiah on this occasion, that I should give some account of the origin and pro- gress of this society. The history is short. -A number of geol- ogists had for years been employed in prosecuting geological surveys in many widely separated states of the Union, and as they were bringing their labors towards a close, they felt a strong desire to compare notes with one another, that they might clear up points obscure in the districts which they had examined, but which might perhaps be fully developed in others, and that more uniformity might be secured in the final results. The gentlemen of the New York survey at length issued a circular, inviting those engaged in similar surveys in the other states, to a meeting in this city a year ago. The number that responded to the invi- tation by their attendance, was not large. But I am sure thatl shall speak the unanimous opinion of all present, when [say that the meeting was most pleasant and profitable. It was’ highly gratifying for those, who had long been engaged in the same work in widely separated fields, and who knew one another only by reputation, to be able to exchange salutations, and hear one another’s voices, and share one another’s sympathies. Particu- larly important was it for those of us who are very much i ted from geological society and counsel, to meet those who could solve our difficulties, and by detailing the phenomena of their own districts, could throw light upon obscurities that hung over our own Uitier these circumstances, it is not strange that the present meeting should have been appointed ; nor that we should have ventured to invite others to join us, who are engaged in similar -oming a not in the state ve i and some - whom Address before the Association of American Geologists. 233 ner. Whatever measures will promote this object, will meet, I presume, the support of the members ;—and whoever has.it.so much at heart, that he is willing to engage in active and ener- getic labors to promote its advancement, will doubtless. be wel- comed to their fraternity. While they acknowledge their indebt- edness to similar associations in Europe, for the example which they have set, and especially to the London Geological Society, the noble mother of them all; they do not aspire to be compared to any of them, until the fruits of their labors shall make such comparisons involuntary. They wish to be known only as an association of geologists, who love their favorite science so well, that they will pursue it with almost equal ardor, whether they. are noticed or unnoticed, whether patronized or neglected. It is their motto, rth : = nae hoc. seer — 0 seems et ae th 1 propose, gentlemen, at. this-time 9 sketch riety the. most attention. In doing this, I must of course give- some he what has been already done im this wide field, And as far ns possible, I shall treat both of» Betbietiesisanets ts Until the commencement aell the present cent y, alr ost noth ing had been done by Americans to- develop 5 our mi alogy or geology. And until the year 1807, although ‘mineralogy. had begun to excite some interest, yet no effort worthy of notice had been made in geology. In that year, William Maclure com- menced, single-handed, the Herculean task of acing out and delineating the great features of our rock formations. This he at length accomplished, after crossing the Alleghany moun- tains in-fifty places. * ‘This pene ine most momathable, (oe ample of persevering devotedness to a hot but. rupee: his" ‘memory i in the-eart of: f every. Amecean go ologist. i » We must not eae from re aioolateth isistmaitey thabang cor- tespondent knowledge of this subject existed at that time in our . On-this point we have the striking testimony of one, who is. still ane us in the vigor of ripe manhood, to witness the | which his own labors and those-of others have Vol. xr1, No, 2. eee a 1841. 234 Address before the Association of American Geologists. curiosity we eyed the bleak, naked ridges which impended over the valleys that were the scenes of our youthful excursions. In vain did we doubt that the glittering spangles of mica, and the still more alluring brilliancy of pyrites, gave assurance of the ex- istence of the precious metals in these substances ; or that the cutting of glass by the garnet, and by quartz, proved that these minerals were the diamond ; but if they were not precious me- tals, and if they were not diamonds, we in vain enquired of our companions, and even of our teachers, what they were.”—Am. Journal of Science, Vol. I, p. 36. is T cannot, on this occasion, go into minute details of the labors, or even of the names of those, by whom this state of things ina few years was entirely changed. In 1810, appeared the Miner- alogical Journal of Dr. Bruce: in 1816, the work of Prof. Cleave- land on Mineralogy and Geology : in 1818, the American Journal of Science was commenced by Prof. Silliman : a work which has always been an efficient instrament in promoting a knowledge of geology as well as other sciences; and which, by great efforts, has now reached its forty first volume! In this connection, the Monthly American Journal of Geology and Natural Science, by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, which reached only its first volume, should not be forgotten. ‘The transactions of several of our scientific so- cieties, especially of the Academy of Natural Sciences in this city, of the Lyceum of Natural History in New York, and of the Amer- ican Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, have contained many most valuable papers illustrative of the geological features of this continent. An American Geological Society was formed in 1818: but it has accomplished little, except that it has a valua ble collection of specimens and books, chiefly through the liber- ality of its president, William Maclure. ‘The Pennsylvania Ge- ological Society was organized in 1832, and published two vol umes of its transactions. Several other societies in the country; of a more local character, have contributed essentially to the pro geology ; he recent organization of the National lustitution for the promotion of science at Washington, and its se much for this branch of knows fe Address before the Association of American Geologists. 235 as peculiarly American, for I'am not aware that any general sur- vey of a large district, had been ordered in any other part of the world, till after it had been done in this country. At any rate, sure I am, that it was entirely original with those wlio introduced it here. North Carolina has the honor of having first directed a survey of her territory. This duty was committed to Prof. Olm- sted, who made a report of one hundred and forty one pages, in 1824-and 1825, upon the economical geology of the state. The year following, South Carolina gave a similar commission to Prof. ,Yanuxem, whose report was published only in the newspapers. - An interval of five or six years succeeded, before Massachusetts engaged in the work. In 1830, she slang a survey ;—in 1832, an annual. report of seventy pages, and in 1833, one of seven hundred pages, with a second edition in 1835, were pub- lished. In 1837, a re-survey was directed; in 1838, an an- nual report of one hundred and thirty nine pages was printed, and the final report of eight hundred and forty quarto pages with fifty five plates, is just completed. ‘Tennessee began the oak only two or three Prof. Troost, who has. published five annual reports Ccomnyhlen of thirty to eighty pages, with a geological map of the state. In Maryland, the work was begun in 1834, and Prof. Ducatel was appointed to execute it, who has made seven annual reports of about fifty pages each, with numerous maps and sections. The survey of New Jersey was ordered in 1835; in 1836, Prof. Henry D. Rogers, the commissioned geologist, made asreport of one hun- dred and eighty eight pages, with extensive sections; and in 1840, his final report of three hundred and one pages, with a ge- ological map-of the state and sections.. The stateof New York was divided into four sections ; and Profs. Pag aye Mather, and Emmons, with Mr. James Hall, as a i pale- on ist, and Prof. L. C. Beck. as..chemist, were. app — survey them. Up to the present time, they have made five reports; the first of two hundred and twelve pages, the se- cond of three hundred and eighty four pages, the third of three hundred and fifty one. pages, the fourth of four hundred and eighty four pages, andthe fifth of one hundred and eighty four pages. The work i is now nearly completed; and the gentlemen eroceeniat The survey of. Vir 236 Address before the Association of American Geologists. has made six reports: the first of thirty six pages, the second of thirty pages, the third of fifty four pages, the fourth of thirty two pages, the fifth of one hundred and sixty one pages, and the ae of one hundred and thirty two pages. Dr. Charles T. Jackson was appointed state geologist of Maiti; in 1836, and he has since made three reports; the first of one hundred and twenty eight pages, the second of one hundred and sixty eight pages, and the third of three hundred and forty pages. He has also surveyed the public lands of Maine and Massachu- setts, and made two reports, In 1839, the same gentleman was appointed to survey Rhode Island; and his final report, of three hundred and twelve pages, with a geological map and sections, appeared in 1840. “In 1840, he was commissioned to survey New ‘Hampshire, and his first annual report will soon appear. ‘The survey of Connecticut has been made by Dr. J. G. Percival and Prof. Charles U. Shepard. The latter made a report in 1837, of one hundred and eighty eight pages, upon the economical-miner- alogy of the state. The report of the former gentleman has not yet been published, but is expected:in the course of the ensuing year. ‘The survey of Pennsylvania was’ begun in 1836, by Prof. Henry D. Rogers, who has made five annual reports; the ~ first of twenty two pages, the second of ninety three pages, the third of one hundred.and nineteen pages, the fourth of two hun- dred and fifty two pages, and the fifth of one hundred and sev- enty nine pages. ‘I'he survey of Ohio was committed to’ Prof. — Mather, as principal geologist, assisted by Dr. S. P. Hildreth, Profs. John Locke and J.C. Briggs, and J. W. Foster. ‘Their first re- port of one hundred and thirty four pages, was made in 1887, and their second of two hundred and eighty six pages, with nu- merous drawings; in 1838. Delaware commenced this work in 1837, under the direction of James C. Booth, Esq., who has made two annual reports of a few pages, and his final report of one hundred and eighty pages, is nearly through the press. In Mich- igan, the survey was committed to Douglass Houghton, Esq. ‘with assistants. His first report ‘of thirty seven pages, was made in 1838, and his three subsequent ones of one hundred and twenty three, one hundred and twenty four, and one hundred and . "ea aa in suecessive’years: In 1837, Dr. D. D. Owen ‘commenced te ge OE | “pages. In. Kentucky, the Address before the Association of American Geologists. 237 work was begun in 1838, but has yet proceeded no farther than a reconnoissance by Prof. Mather. In Georgia, Mr. John’R. Cot- ting was commissioned in 1836; he informs me, that about half the state has been surveyed ; that three section lines, from three hundred to four hundred miles long, have been explored ; that “a-vast amount of interesting materials, both. geological and agricultural, has been collected; and that it is in conte to publish a volume of six handved pages the present year.” “In 1834, the United States government directed Mr. Feather- stonhaugh to examine, geologically, ‘the Territory of Arkansas, and the adjacent public lands.” He has made two reports, one of ninety seven pages, and another of one hundred and sixty eight pages, with numerous sections. In 1839, Dr. D. D. Owen was commissioned to examine. the Territory of Iowa, and his report, in connection with that of. Dr. Locke, made in 1840, contains one hundred and sixty one pages. Mr. Nicollet has also been rveavine phe y g,b pom. y and g y, the northwestern ee eee} 2 Pees BS a ee Sn eee Pe PO ae ar ee in ee Vid ae Mis- pa ee 1 hic win awe ¢ Sor. fos eee: fee age eta SISsIppi; dha eis Now iha urse OF Pf ‘Cation, lta geological section tracing fought not to omit to act of private siettiols occurred before any of the : state sarees were commenced. The late Hon. Stephen Van R vey to be made of the entire route of the Erie-candl, ‘ebsites pers private expense. This work was executed by Prof. Amos Eaton, — who in 1824, published a report of one hundred and sixty three pages, with a section from the Atlantic to Lake-Erie. I might also. mention with propriety, the surveys of several mineral districts by private companies ; such as those of the coal-fields of Pennsylvania, by R. C. Taylor, Esq., and Prof. Johnson ; of the gold region of Virginia, and of portions of the coal-fields of Pennsylvania, by Prof. Silliman ; of the iron region of Missouri, by Prof. Shepard; &e: But time "will not permit me to enter into fuller details. -From these statements it appears, that within the last sixteen or seventeen years, surveys have been commenced in no less ‘than nineteen’ states, and two of the territories of this ca embracing an area of nearly seven hundred thousand squ miles. For the last four or five years, not less than twenty sae Principal geologists, and forty assistant geolog Be elem eax “2 238 Address before the Association of American. Geologists. stantly employed in the examination of this vast region, under the patronage of the state governments or of that of the Union. In three or four of the states, the surveys are for the present sus- pended; not, however, froma conviction of their being useless, but from peculiar circumstances. In Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, and Michigan, zoological and botanical surveys are con- nected with the geological ; in Maryland, Ohio and Michigan, there is a topographical department ;—and on these various sub- jects several valuable reports have already appeared, which this is not the proper place to notice. I ought also to mention here that the British provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, have been geologically examined by Dr. Gessner, who has made reports. I am credibly informed, also, that the governor general of Canada, will recommend strongly to the House of Assembly at their next session, to order a geological survey of that territory, _ Another very important feature of most of these surveys, is the chemical department. In the New York survey, one gentleman devotes himself to it exclusively. In some other states, also, as in Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maine and New Hampshire, laborato- ries for the sole purpose of analyzing the substances discovered, are fitted up, and one or two chemists are employed in them through the year. The number of analyses already executed in these establishments is immense, amounting to several thousands, and when they are all published, it will be seen that they have @ most important bearing, not only in an chopantegls but also in a scientific point of view. The annual reports have been ‘cntieni chiefly to patients geology ;—but it was understood from the commencement, that careful attention should be given to the scientific geology of the regions examined, and that the details should be given in the final reports. An immense mass of materials must now be im hands of the gentlemen concerned in the surveys; and we may anticipate from their publication, most interesting disclosures t€ Speeting the geology of this country. Then too, the extensive and complete collections of our rocks, fossils, minerals and soils, which have been made and will be deposited in the capitals of the states, will prove an invaluable treasure. Another important result, » cana Sen ome consummated, will a alae 8 map of the whole of Address before the Association of American Geolovists. 239 the United States ;—for it can hardly be doubted, that surveys will be soon ordered in the comparatively few states that yet re- main unexamined ;—or if they should not, if I form a right es- timate of the spirit that actuates American geologists, a work of such importance will not be left incomplete. But'the liberal feel- ing that has led so many of our state governments, within a few years, to do so much for geology, forbids the idea that any of this work will be left for volunteer labor. I cannot but feel, that the liberal governmental patronage which geology has of late received among us, and the fact that this patronage has come from all classes in the community, should make us justly proud of the enlarged views and extensive knowledge displayed by our countrymen. I speak advisedly, when I say, that probably our favorite science is now in this country twenty years in advance of what it would have been, if left to individual efforts. ie us now enquire how sant of American geology has been loped by all the efforts that have been made, with and with- n ents upon wh: — me fit 3 eh = 7 I I le noes fall far short of the actast ‘mowledge that is possessed on his mre by individuals. “The primary rocks of this oeertionney: enh senitniond un- Stratified, correspond so exactly with those in other parts of the world, as to be easily identified. For the most ‘part, also, they compose the principal axes of our extended chains of mountains, Thus, we find a range of these rocks, commencing in Alabama, and extending northeasterly, in a belt from eighty toone hundred miles broad, to New York; and thence through New England, Seenpying nearly the whole surface; and probably from thence to Labrador. In the northern part of New York, a range diver- ges from that just described, and extends in a westerly and north- weaporly direction, till it approaches the Rocky Mountains, which are also primary. Thus the vast basin of the Mississippi; is bounded for the most part, on three sides by primary rocks, while the secondary and tertiary strata are found chiefly in that valley, and on the-Atlantic slope, as far north as New York. Only a small portion’of these vast primary deposits has yet been carefully examined ;—nor have many features been discov- red in them that are vit ecema Saami Labra- dor feldspar and of New York, ei 240 Address, before the Association of American Geologists as described by Prof. Emmons, is one of the most interesting. The same gentleman has, also, given us some remarkable details respecting the occurrence of genuine injected veins of limestone in granite, in the county of St. Lawrence. The facts have led him to discuss the question whether all primary limestones ought not to be classed among the unstratified rocks. This question, I apprehend, we have in this country abundant means of deciding, as we have the analogous question respecting serpentine; since we have numerous and extensive beds of both these rocks:associ- ated with the oldest of our strata.. That they are. metamorphic in a high degree, no one can doubt: nor is it less certain that serpentine connected with talcose. slate and gneiss, exhibits nu- merous divisional planes; and often these are parallel to the _ Planes of stratification in the adjoining. strata ;—but the question still remains, whether: that divisional structure may not be. the result.of metamorphic agency instead of original deposition. The northwestern border of the primary stratified belt of rocks, extending from Alabama to Canada, a distance of at least twelve hundred miles, is composed of interstratified beds of taleose and mica slates, gneiss, and granular limestone... I do not doubt (at least, from all that I can learn) that these rocks are continuous over this vast distance ; forming perhaps the longest belt of limestone on the globe. A comsidongbla part of this limestone is more oF less magnesian ; and in many places pure dolomite. | It furnishes; therefore, a fine field for studying the phenomena and the origi of dolomitization. . As to that portion of this field which has fall- en under may. observation, I find, that with one or two unimpot- tant exceptions, all the cases of dolomitized limestone ocett; either in the vicinity, of a fault, or of unstratified rocks, or of the oldest gneiss. The pure dolomite is usually found where there is reason to believe extensive dislocations of the strata occur; and fic marks of stratification in the limestone disappear, nearly proportion to the amount of magnesia which it contains, so that tie dolomite. shows. ienensiaesiey traces tii it. [doubt not 5 similar conclusions w Xa n Address before the Association of American Geologists. 241 Thave noticed another analogous and singular fact in connec- tion with this limestone, and doubt not that it is common through- out its whole extent ; although I have seen it mentioned by no one except Prof. Mather, in his account of the rocks of eastern New York; but am informed by Prof. Rogers that it is common in Pennsgirdnia and Virginia. Where the limestone comes in con= tact with mica and talcose-slates, they are often highly impregna- ted with carbon, for several feet or rods from the line of junction, There can hardly be a doubt that the carbonic acid, which has penetrated the slates, has been decomposed to pusdiden, this result. Farther examination, in other localities, will probably throw addi- tional light on the saabjacts ‘The phenomena of dykes and veins, especially wend the east- em margin of the primary ranges of New Bogland, are of a highly interesting character. Some of the dykes of greenstone appear to be of great size and extent. Dr. Percival has, with great labor, spree cence vathese; ‘through gneiss and mica slate, and Ithink I dateres found - tat. me ; a} 7 ‘ & ee 5 nor do &: doubt that they extend far into Ne wv Hampshire. ae thoea two dykes have been followed nearl P ¥ miles in Jeng th; and they are usually several rods Wides: Their. direction: cides with the strike of the strata. In Maine,. shies hawnchess: found in great number and-extent, by Dr: Jackson, in the primary. Strata, and they have more distinctly the abbas of. stot dykes than in Connecticut and Massachusetts. _- In some of our sienitic rocks, we find a perfect Pron of dries and veins. I have examined one spot in the city of Salem with a good deal of attention, and: I cannot-see why it does not afford Us evidence of the protrusion of. unstratified rocks at eleven dif- ferent epochs; admitting ‘that the intersection of one vein by ‘proves the posteriority of the latter. The dykes at this $ Spot-are varieties of greenstone, and the veins chiefly feldspar...» “Afong the multitude of substances in our primary rocks that deserve further attention, Ican here mention only the oxide of tin... Three localities of this mineral, perme however. only small disseminated crystals, have long been known in Sets. “But within te as ye ‘Prof. Shepard: has. discovered a in New Hampshire. ph Vol. xt1, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841. . a, 242 Address before the Association of American Geologists. this interesting metal will ere long be obtained from our own mountains. You will perceive that under the term primary rocks I have included none that are fossiliferous. The latter, especially those usually denominated transition, have, as is well known, an im- mense developement in our country. A single vast basin, ex- tending from the Apalachian chain nearly to the Rocky Moun- tains, and from the centre of Alabama; in a northern direction, perhaps even to the Arctic sea, not less than two thousand miles long and twelve hundred broad, and consequently covering about two and a half millions of square miles ;—this wide region forms almost one uninterrupted deposit of older secondary or tran- sition rocks; the largest undoubtedly on the globe. Until re- eently, these rocks could be described only under the vague designation of graywacke. But light is beginning to shine in upon the chaos. ‘The upper member, that which embraces the bituminous and anasphaltic coals of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Missouri, seems now to be well identified with the coal measures of Europe. . This forms a convenient starting point, and all that remains is to compare the groups be> low the coal, with those similarly situated in other parts of the world. Professors Henry D. and William B. Rogers have divi ded this vast series into twelve formations; and these, including the coal measures, which make the thirteenth formation, they find to be not less than forty thousand feet thick. Whatever may be their views as to the identity of these groups with rocks described in other parts of the world, they have refrained from expressing an opinion, in their annual geological reports. But other gentlemen suppose they have discovered marks of identity, in respect to several of the groups, too strong to be resisted. It is difficult to read the reports of the Ohio geologists, especially that of Dr. Locke, and those of Dr, Houghton, Mr. Featherston” haugh, Prof: Troost, and that of Dr. Owen on the. mineral-Jands of Wisconsin and lowa, and: that of Mr. Conrad on the New York survey for.1841, without being convinced that the ¢aF boniferous or mountain limestone is extensively developed from: Pennsylvania westward at least fifteen hundred miles; W Adrinées before thé-Association-ef-Aindtioan Geologists. 248 in the western part of Pennsylvania and New York; and this opinion becomes more probable, since the discovery by Mr. Con- rad, of remains of the Holoptychus nobilissimus, a fish very char- acteristic of the old red sandstone in Great Britain. Mr. Hall makes this group four hundred feet thick, lying immediately beneath the coal measures. ‘Strong reasons have been presented by Messrs. Conrad and Va- nuxem, founded upon a comparison of organic remains, for suppo- sing that a large part of the rocks below the old red sandstone, in the vast area under consideration, and especially in New York, are identical with the Silurian rocks of Great Britain. The former gentleman recognizes all the important subdivisions of this group described by Mr. Murchison, except perhaps the Llandeilo rocks, which are the lowest.. The Caradoc sandstone, the Wenlock shale and limestone, and the Ludlow rocks, are distinctly mark- ed.* And in speaking of organi aius, as a means of identi- fying strata, he remarks, that “an instance never occurs in this country, where the species of ont formatic are continued into dispute regarding its geological age. » All the various eras are ad- mirably recorded, each by its peculiar group of animal or vegeta- ble remains; and to him who has carefully studied them, they are quite as intelligible as if the hand of nature had arranged them in a cabinet for his use.”—Am. Journal of Science, Vol. 35, Pp. 237. : yo These suggestions open a wide field for investigation. It is one of the most important problems in American geology ;—and from the immense extent occupied by these rocks, I can hardly doubt that here will be found the most complete type of the tran- sition formations that has yet been deseribed. Accordingly, in his report for 1841, Mr. Conrad ‘says, that “ nature has probably enabled the geologist to apply this classification (of Murchison ) in a-more-clear and satisfactory manner to the rocks of this coun- try than to those of Europe, since the series is certainly more ete, and the organic remains more abundant in species.” [ He says: «the inhabitants of the ‘seas (in which these rocks were de- ee a corse Pe : ded, at five different epochs; and one of these groups is no more to be compared with another, than the oolite wee 244 Address before the Association of American Geologists. rejoice that the work is in such able hands, and that so many ob- servers are busy at so many points, and on different sides of the vast field. es) ee ' Besides the principal basin of the transition rocks just deseri detached deposits are sometimes met with in our country ; as for example, in the eastern part of Massachusetts and Rhode Island;— and I mention this, just to say, that I have recently come to the conclusion, that even that limited district probably contains, ina descending order, coal measures, the old red sandstone, and be- neath these, older transition strata. - Vat Are we to infer that the coal-bearing strata once extended over the immense ‘basin of the Mississippi, and that they have been worn away, except in particular districts? I shall not discuss this question: but if the negative be true, we may still lay claim probably to the Jargest coal-fields in the world. It is a fact of great interest, also, that the coal along the eastern part. of the great valley, or in the vicinity of primary rocks, as has béen abundantly shown by Professors Rogers and Johnson, is almost sandstones and shales, with a predominant red persons 2 Ee ae 3 1 ane Tt di hire = rh ee, - . Chk ae: ee a eer 7 1 wicerhanaeh f most Victou ih VOUS G TUUIAs Address before the Association of American Geologists. 245 tity. Besides, in all of them we find limestones of a similar cha- racter, extensive ridges and dykes of greenstone, and ores of cop- pér, associated with the sandstones and shales ;—so that there can hardly” ‘remain a doubt as to the identity in age of ‘all these de- posits. But’can we determine their true place on the wise scale ? _ The Professors Rogers, who have extensively examined this for- mation in the middle states, have ascertained that it is more re- cent than the coal measures; and with commendable caution, they have called it the middle secondary. With less of pru- nee Llong since ventured to denominate it the new red sand- stone ;—and I hope it is not prejudice which makes the argument in favor of this opinion appear to be now almost complete. A careful comparison of numerous specimens of this formation with a series from the new red sandstone of continental Europe, and Great Britain, shows a striking resemblance in lithological cha- racters.. But the argument { from the organic: remains is the most decisive. formatio pecially in New Eng- land and New Jersey, have*been:-found.-namerous sépeoieens:of fossil fishes of the genera Paleoniscus’ ore egy all of which have heterocereal tails Now in Europe, Prof. Agassiz finds that such fish rarely, if ever, occur in any rock above the new red sandstone. But in that formation he finds not less than a dozen species of the genera just mentioned. » They occur, how- ever, in the coal formations, beneath the red sandstone. But it seems to be admitted on all hands, that the group in our country under consideration, is more recent than the coal measures. And since the heterocercal fishes found in it show that it must be - older than the lias, I see no escape from the ‘conclusion that it is the new red sandstone. There are other arguments to the same point; but they are less decisive. Whether we shall find all the subdivisions of this formation in our country that exist in Ea- rope, ‘remains to be seen. I have little doubt, however, that several of them may be easily recognized ; as, for example, the ar marls and sandstone, the new red conglomerate, (Rothe — ) and the: zechstein. ho have informed by Messrs. Redfield, the father and the son, W maa devoted themselves | to an examination of our dee fishes, that they. have = . oo is a> bd 4 Ap 246 Address before the Association of American Greologists. ’ Thus far, as we have ascended on the scale of rocks, we have found, if I mistake not, so full a developement of the European formations on this side of the Atlantic, that it would not be strange, if at no distant period, this country should become clas- sic ground for their study. But we now reach a wide hiatus of the extensive groups of the lias, oolite and wealden, which haveas yet been scarcely identified on this continent. Humboldt did, indeed, express the opinion, that he had met with the oolite in the equinoctial zone of South America; and Mr. Lea has deseri- bed some fossils from New Grenada, in the seventh volume, se¢- ond series, of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Soei- ety, which he refers to the same formation. But Yon Buch, in his recent splendid work on some of the fossils of South America, regards them as belonging to the eretaceous group. Mr. Conrad, _ however, has just announced the existence “of well characterized and undoubted oolite in the state of Ohio. B-~rullqpoch on the New York Survey for 1841. When we rise still higher on the geological scale, we anil with a remarkable group of rocks, occupying a wide belt from New Jer- sey to Alabama, and much surface also in Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, Arkansas, and, as I am informed by Mr. Nicollet, ex-. tending from Council Bluffs on. the Missouri, several hundred miles westward, nearly to. the Rocky Mountains, all of which was identified, I believe, first by Prof. Vanuxem, with the creta- ceous formation of es although it contains no chalk. The subsequent extensive and accurate researches of Dr. Morton, Mr. Conrad, and others, have completely confirmed this opinion ; it furnishes an interesting example of the value of organic re mains in identifying groups of rocks very much unlike in litho- logical characters. It is another instance, moreover, of the enor mous scale on which geological operations have taken place " this country. Frond the recent memoir of the veteran g' Von Buch, just referred to, it appears that this same. formation ot ahetiaie a considerable portion of South America, and : ly predominates. among the secondary rocks of the Andes slpelly successful, as in the case of the cretaceous rocks, have been the the labors of Conrad, Vanuxem, Morton, Lea, the brothers Rogers and others,’ in developing the tertiary deposits of this are found, is the island of Mastha’s Vineyerd, or perhaps Nantuck- ¥ Address before the Association of American Geologists. 247 et. Thence in passing southerly, we find them occupying Long Island and the eastern part of the Atlantic states, from New Jersey to Florida, and the southern part of the Mississippi valley. These too correspond to the other features of our geology, in being of vast extent and of decided characters. ‘Three principal groups of these strata, as described by Conrad and Morton, viz. the lower or eocene, the medial, and the upper or newer pliocene, seem to be well made out om this side of the Atlantic. The group named post-tertiary by Mr. Lyell, is found also in the northern part of w York and in Canada, containing shells of a more arctic character than those now living in the same latitudes, Excepting the remarkable insulated labors of Mr. Hayden, the drift, or diluvium of this country, has, until recently, received less attention than almost any other formation. The same has been true in Kurope. This results i in-part-from the fact, that it cannot be successfully studied: until the character and limits of all the stents formations: are: well mileicotonods: Phe Hate surveys, however, to show us, that-though a difficult subject, it is one of the most interesting in the whole history of our rocks. -It is an important inquiry, whether. Ueilaliasinnene: ay drift in this country, correspond with those of the eastern continent. Until recently, I confess, I have doubted. whether some of th most striking of these phenomena were not much more. fully here than in most countries of Europe. . I refer par- ticularly to the smoothing, polishing, scratching and furrowing of the rocks in-place, and to those accumulations of gravel, bowlders, and sand, which form conical.and oblong tumuli, with tortuous ridges of the same, and which abound in the northern part of the country; from Nowa: Rania fa the Rocky Mountains. Battherecent ecurate descriptions by Agassiz, Buckland, Lyell, Sefstroom, and others, have satisfied me of the almost:exact identity of the facts in relation to drift on the two continents. . ‘The resemblance, however, seems to be most com- _ plete in» this» respect between Scandinavia and this. country. Except in. Sweden, I have not yet seen evidence that the scarifi- cation of the rocks is as: common in Europe asin New England, where if they were denuded of soil it seems to me, one third of the surface would be found: smoothed and furrowed. But it is now found to be very common in Scotland, England, and espe- at 248 Address before the Association of American Geologisis. ~ cially in Switzerland. It appears too, that those countries abound in those peculiar accumulations of gravel and bowlders to which [ have referred, and which are now regarded as ancient moraines. Bowlders, also, appear to have been dispersed in a similar manner on both continents. If I do not greatly mistake, the drift of this country exhibits usually the following lithological characters and superposition. The principal mass of the drift consists of coarse sand, pebbles, and bowlders, often several feet in diameter, usually mixed to- gether confusedly, but sometimes exhibiting, at least for small distances, more or less of a stratified arrangement. This mass of detritus, not unfrequently one hundred feet thick, occupies the lowest position ; that is, it rests immediately on the smoothed and striated rocks in place. Sometimes there is mixed with it fine sand or mud; and occasionally a limited mass of clay, appearing as if out of its original position. Above this deposit, in most the larger valleys, as those of the Hudson, Connecticut, and Pe- nobscot, and in many smaller ones, we find horizontal layers of fine blue clay, rarely as much as one hundred feet thick. Above the clay, and of less thickness, we have a bed of sand, becoming coarser towards the top, and exhibiting sometimes at its surface, marks of a stronger movement in the waters by which it was de- posited, than could have taken place while the clay was in a course of formation. Scattered over the whole surface, but con- fined chiefly to the region abounding in gravel, we find insulated blocks, sometimes rounded and sometimes angular. ad Now if Ihave not mistaken the recent descriptions of Euro- pean drift, its composition and arrangement correspond with those of the drift of this country ; and scarcely any thing seems wapt- ing to make out a complete identity. — si It is well known that the theory of drift has for some yeas been the most unsettled part of geology. The mass of geolo- gists have, indeed, admitted that in some way or other, currents of water have been the principal agency employed, because they Pape ous ageficy in general. Yet so many difficulties attend-any the we Staccato G in regard to every particular wy that-has been proposed. I con- fess myself to have been re: of that number, - Yet it has seemed to me of useful tendency to make isolated. inferences from the facts developed ; and although they may seem.to fayor rival hy- potheses, and will need modification, as new light falls on the subject, yet they will form the elements out of which a legitimate theory will ultimately spring. Allow me to present for your con- sideration, a summary of the most important of these inferences, as they have been developed to my. own mind in examining the ‘diluvial phenomena of this country. : Inthe first place, these phenomena must have been the result of some very general force, or forces, operating in the same gen- . eral direction ;. that is, southerly or southeasterly. For in a southerly. direction has the drift been so uniformly carried, and the furrows and. seratches onthe rocks. so generally point south- erly, that the f fone paaback produced these effects must have tend- ed thither:» Our valle udeed,» considerably, modified the course.of the drift; but not. er adict the general ee ng eae eee } -should _ not discover hereyas inesheo: ‘Alps and. in- Gn at ‘Syke moving force had sometimes, been exert ted on itwardly_ axes of high mountains. But. 1 am. not aware that as - ret facts of importance in favor of such.an opinion, have been brought tolight. At any rate, the evidence of a foree urging. _ detritus _and bowlders in a southerly, or more strictly-in a southeasterly direction, i is too marked, and has been noticed by too many inde- ‘pendent observers, over a breadth of nearly two thousand miles, “to be doubted ; even though local exceptions | should be discoyer- ed ;—and such a uniformity of, Apes over so. vast an area, in- dicates a very general agency. — » Secondly, this agency has operated me all Foe ye the ~~ sea level, and probably, beneath it, to the height of three housand nd ory four | thousand feet... In oes England, most of our ills and. mountains, not excepting sulated peaks, not higher than three thousand feet, are catieatly smoothed and furrowed on their tops. and netthern slopes, and upon. their east and. west anks, “to the bottom tom of the lowest valleys. Dr. Jackson sup- dele us on Mount. Katahdin, d.dieaores po ns of this ; Ha Vol. xt ‘No. eee 32 " Py Lo 250 Address before the Association of American Ge which are six thousand two hundred and thirty four feet high ; although the nature of the rock there, is most unfavorable for — preserving furrows and markings. Thirdly, the smoothing and furrowing of the rocks oxhibine almost equal freshness at all altitudes, which antares an ap- proach to synchronism in the producing cause. Fourthly, the almost perfect parallelism presetvedl cop the grooves and scratches over wide regions, shows that they were made by the projecting angles of very large and heavy masses of great extent, moving over the surface with almost. irresistible force, by water or some other mighty agent. There is sometimes more than one set of scratches, which intersect one another at a small angle, as has been shown by Prof. Locke to occur in Ohio, but each set preserves its parallelism most perfectly. Even where they pass over high and precipitous mgr; they are ais ane out of their course. Fifthly, this agency ippduts to have been less and less aide ful as we go southerly. We have as yet, indeed, had but few trusty reports on this subject from the southern portionsisf North America ; but had the phenomena of drift been as striking there as in New England, New York and Canada, they would certainly, ere this, have been described. It ought not to be forgotten, how- ever, that De la Beche: hhas described the drift of, Jamaica 2 oti similar to that of New - ! Sixthly, the relative ievels of. ae sata snes not oan’ escent tially changed by vertical movements, since the epoch in whieh this agency was exerted. They could not have been much ed without disturbing the detritus, often fancifully arranged in'the valleys and on the flanks of the hills; nor without some- times breaking up the smoothed and furrowed surfaces of the rocks along their joints or planes of stratification. . But such @ disturbance I have never witnessed. _ Seventhly, the North American coritinent must have pa essentially, » its present height above the ocean, previous to the ex- . ertion of th gency. r all our formati , as high at. least as the eocene tertiary, are-covered. swith drift ; and I know of no ev- idence of any important uplift subsequent to that which has tilted Up our tertiary strata, oP oe Re could not pment pee icon ai af. — a th A ee ae a he as ed 43 a oe ee eee ee > eaQuUuUC! MA Line pee i se ein Pe Ce ae ro . &, : oe ee “ ee ee — “ Address before the Association of American Geologists. 251 _Eighthly, water must have been one of the forces employed in this agency. The regular deposits of clay and sand which form the upper part of the diluvial deposit, must surely have been accumulated at the bottom of bodies of water, which have subsequently been drained off. Much, also, of the fiver part of our drift is more or less stratified, and exhibits that oblique lamin- ation which is peculiar to aqueous deposits. Nor can I conceive of any other mode in which detritus has been transported hun- dreds of miles, as ours has been, but by the aid of water; al- - though this alone could not do it. In New England, we have been able to trace erratic blocks not more than one hundred or two hundred miles, because we then reach the ocean. But in the central parts of the country, I am informed by Prof. Mather, that the primary bowlders from Canada and the western part of Michigan, are found.as far south as the river Ohio ; which would en their‘maximum, transit from four ‘hundred. “ five hundred ye have been carried into Gi _ What agency tien pies eval ve ected ach a nsjoration? ha HE reed Net It is very natural, also, to doa einen: ing of the rocks to the action of water. raps in vain ex- amined the beds of our mountain torrents and the shores of the Atlantic, where the rocks have been exposed to the and everlasting concussion of the breakers, and can find nome trition that will compare at all with that connected with drift ; and I am eapaenetes n- qe it we ii RAR ae agency. Ninuily,4 ice must have baits sath pees biniiged: to pro- duce the phenomena of drift. What else could have transported large blocks and gravel over such a wide space as has been men- tioned, and have lodged them ee —_— the a oe — one ipitous ridges; and especially, what o agent cou samen those singular mounds and:petuliar ridges'of ‘gravel and bowlders that meet us in so many places? -Tenthly, thisagency must have been exerted mater = to the existence of man. upon this continent, and have been of such a nature as to destroy organic life almost entirely. » For the remains of —— nna other existing. animals have. not been found 3 in pete! sega and sand a aren a Scarcely contain a species of animal or plant. 252 Address before the Association ¥ American sein Yet eleventhly, this agency must have’ spats comparatively. recent. For the disintegration of the surface of the smoothed and furrowed rocks to: the depth of half an inch, would vane] obliterate all traees of their erosion. Yet in how many — does this effect appear as distinct as if a ion the pres- ent century! we Finally, this agency must have been. along more sell than any now operating upon the globe. In the language of Prof. ‘ John Phillips, which he applies to the phenomena of drift in general, “such effects ate not at this day in progress, nor can we conceive the possibility 6f their being produced by the operation of existing agencies anne with their present intensities and in their ne ee on Geology, Vol. 1, P — # nk - Beyond idk eidepeuilen ‘bAdlaioe: as these, I confess I poor been of late yeate Unwilling: to go; and have regarded the nu- ies of dil action, which have recently appeared, only as Siep enioine: nelentony Bat it is well known: that. the Glacier Theory, originally suggested» by M. Venetz; and subse- quently adopted by M. Charpentier, and more fully. developed of late by Agassiz, is now exciting great interest in Europe.” ae say nothing of geologists in this»country who have expres themselves favorably towards it ;* it is surely enough to recom- _—~ it ‘e mengalacyi examination, to learn that such men as Agas* siz, B Murchison, after long. examination, have more or less tie adopted it; although on the other hand, it ought to be mentioned, that such geologists ‘as Beaumont, Sedgwick wgewelty Mantell, and others, still hesitate to receive it. ~ In a country like ours, where no glaciers exist except in Very high latitudes, and with the very defective accounts which have hitherto been given of those in the Alps, it is not strange that the attempt to explain the vast phenomena of. diluvial action by such an agency, should appear at’ first view, fanciful, bape Puerile. But the recent 1 : rk of Agassiz, entitled Hiudes sur 4 subject. It is the result 2 ones made during ‘five lehicis tine in the Alps, especially sent: stat whieti so! mcl has been Sid, but cam eee Saar ee | lg Se ese : se ian ‘ + v4 a ; ae o * ; ; ‘ Address before the Association of American Geologists. 253 cerning which so little of geological importance has been known. Henceforth, however, glacial action must form an important chapter in geology.. While reading this work and the abstracts of some papers by Agassiz, Buckland and Lyell, on the evidence of ancient glaciers in Scotland and England, I seemed neler ac- quiring a new geological sense ; and I look upon our : and striated rocks, our accumulations of gravel, and the. tout: en- semble of diluvial phenomena, with new eyes.* The fact is, that the history of- glaciers is the history of diluvial agency in miniature. The object of Agassiz is, first.to describe the minia- ture, ee to ei the picture till it reaches around the globe. » ~The ile are vast masses of ice, often leagues in extent, dived of melting and freezing snow, which are sent out from the summits of the- a ae oy the force of expansion into the _ below, often sone ovinabe or t fifteen miles. she re ke eee ROMRE T Poon evated le plateaur, ins land -Mers de Gace, hikes Pe a a ee se en eS oe oe Ata ee ds keen Oo a sh HEIs 5 me Je4) Pee spe eta ee ‘: 4 or sie t the l s es Ti , ar the grand source or birthplace, of th glaciers. In their d 2 they plough their Way through th e soil, pil : I Pp bble , eee oS along their sides and at their mit bit , and eve upon their backs; which, upon the retreat, ~ CO! ‘tute moraines, and correspond arom in ‘composition and shape to those accumulations of gravel and ‘ctibed to diluvial action. ‘The stones and sand frozen into their lower surface, also, like so many fixed diamonds, smooth and fur- row the surface of wressannets presisely shesaine nner as they —_—— $$$ trust that. the cane of the Association ‘will pardon me for, having made some Salone tet in the form, though not in the leadin ing ng aan part “why ‘Address, since it was delivered. They will sac ‘that w Very favorable opinion of the Glacial Theory, so as Lun pa io I sears Thad n« ot seen the work of Agassiz named. in nse text. Throug en at kindn Prof. Sillim an, I have since been favored with the perusal o Ae copy of thi thi “work which’ With its splendid alpine illustrations, he received nt at author. S am rain edy ate to Dr. J. Pye — of London, for an abstract of the papers of Agassi re the London Geological Society last au- A flood of light having bis theory have — marist. jin slr tie eet =e alias ied that it will need important : modifications. 254 Address before the Association of American Geologists. are abraded over all northern countries. Vast blocks of stone are likewise conveyed without abrasion, by the advance of a ciers, and lodged in peculiar situations. From year to year, the evidence has been increasing, of the prevalence of intense cold in northern regions in the period im- mediately preceding the historic. The elephants and rhinoceros found, undecayed, in the frozen mud.of Siberia, the arctic charae- ter of the few organic remains found in the post-tertiary strata of Scotland and Canada, and described by Lyell and Bowman, and of the borders of Lake Champlain, as described by Emmons and Conrad; and the great extension of the ancient moraines in the Alps, are the evidence from which Agassiz infers that in that period, all northern countries were covered with a vast sheet of ice, filling the valleys and extending southerly as far as diluvial phe- nomena have been observed. Glaciers would then be formed on ‘mountains of moderate altitude ; and, indeed, he supposes that all the northern parts of the glohe might have constituted one vast Mer de Glace, which sent out its enormous glaciers to the south; thus giving the same direction to the drift and the strie on the rocks. As these vast masses of ice melted away, when the temperature was raised, immense currents of water wé the result, which would lift up and. bear away huge igebergs, whereby extensive erosions would. be produced, and_ blocks of stone be transported to great distances. . Subsequently, er would be formed where moraines had produced barriers, clay and sand would there be quietly deposited, and the waters be ultic mately drained by the wearing down of the barriers of detritus. -It is doing injustice to this theory to attempt so brief a descrip tion of it. A detailed account of existing glaciers, which cannot here be given, forms the best preparation for a just appreciation the theory. Admitting its truth in the main, let us see how i applies to the. phenomena of drift in this country. In the first place, it explains satisfactorily, the origin is those singular accumulations of gravel and bowlders, which we meet be sy ye ied fare northern ane of our country- - rt Tepktctir en 24 pain > ogee ht seo he tan the ry coat ha Address before the Association of American Geologists. 255 ice melted away.* ‘The lateral moraines are perhaps most com- mon, especially if, with Dr. Buckland, we regard our terraced val- leys as modifications of these; but I am confident that in our mountain valleys, the teignuieval and the medial moraine are not infrequent. Ihave long been convinced that the agency of ice was essential to explain these accumulations ; but I was not aware that their antitypes existed in the moraines of the Alps. "In the second place, this theory explains in a most satisfactory manner, the smoothing, polishing and furrowing of the rocks at different altitudes, All these effects are perfectly produced be- neath the glaciers in the Alps; nor can I conceive of any other agent by which the work could be executed. It certainly was not done by currents of water alone. One has only to cast his eye upon the splendid plates by Agassiz, of the polish and strie produced by the glaciers, to be satisfied that the multitudes of sane of pe Sox IO New England, and in New In the third er it explains the ransforttion of bowen and their lodgment upon the cre tains, and that often without having ee neles roun ‘ In the fourth place, it accounts for plier iit wie of clay and sand above the drift. For it furnishes the requisite’ quantity of water to fill the — and the means se —— up their outlets for a season. — In the fifth place, it shows us- ne sions deposits of clay and Sand are almost completely destitute of organic remains, either of animals or plants, although signee aroncere must: have ~—_ Consumed in their formation. — “In the sixth place, it accounts Sertintns wind il sieiiiieghel nomena connected with diluvial action, which seem to me inex- Plicable on any other known principle. I shall name only two. The first is, that the northern slopes of some of the mountains of New England, although quite steep, and» their summits vexhibit _— and furrows which commence several ip cript of sme sb eset ageriy will be ‘foals hopetsne on the Geology. of ‘me tts, publis . but more numerous descriptions vings are given in: ti a Repro just published. See especially Figs. and 74, of the ‘wood cuts, a 2 3 of the lithographs. — | 256 Address before the Association of American Geologists. hundred feet below their tops, and pass over them without los- ing their parallelism; and yet the situation of the drift shows that these markings were made by an ascending and not.a de- scending body. Such might be the effect, if the whole surface _ of the country were covered “4 a thick sheet of ice irs . a southerly direction. Of the. other case, I have met with two examples in- New England, and know not that they have been noticed elsewhere. In these cases, the perpendicular layers of argillaceous: and horn- blende slate, covered in one place, by fifteen or twenty feet ‘of drift, have been fractured to the depth of ten to fifteen feet, soas - to be more or less separated, producing horizontal fissures, whieh are filled by mud, while the laminzare inclined, at: various angles: In short, it seems as if an almost incredible force had been exet- ted upon the surface in an oblique direction. Such a force. might be exerted by an immense mass of ice in the process of expan~ sion ; but I know of no other source from which: it ieee have been derived.* © tire On the other hand, there are fentines in Ne ihenoenet of di luvial action in this country, which are explained by this theory in a much less satisfactory manner. One is the southerly di tion which our drift has taken, and the great distance to’which tt has been carried. Tt cannot be conceived that’ any single glaciet ‘ole NS PHUUUMLU LiadVO tion, especially « over a sited which could have had scarcely any southerly slope. Even if we admit a Mer de Glace in:the north -ermregions so lofty as, in the beginning of the work, to send gla ciers a vast distance, yet the force seems to have continued: to operate in the same austral direction, even to the bortomalt™ valleys. It is, however, probably true, that the great mass” drift will be Saat within fifteen or twenty miles from i Place ; and that which occurs at greater distances, may Hd have been transported by powerful currents of water. risa most certain that the sheet of ice which covered the sige agi ose peearapisa “aletpn Wb shor 2 de cach ce gram nth ramp «Dative ad sch th ca he od at Address before the Association of American Geologists. 257 very sudden, why may not the return of the heat have been equally sudden? If so, the most powerful debacles must have been the result ;* and as the ice would disappear most rapidly along its sonshaie border, perhaps in this way a current in that direction may have been produced. And yet, I confess that I re- gard this theory more defective in not furnishing an adequate cause for the southerly course of our drift, than in any other point. I find another difficulty in explaining satisfactorily by this the- ory, how drift could have been often carried from lower to much higher levels; as it has been sometimes if I am not greatly mistaken, . Thus, the Silurian rocks of New York, and the quartz rock in the valleys of western Massachusetts, have been carried over, and left upon, Hoosac and Taconic mountains and the Highlands of New York. It is easy to conceive how an im- mense sheet of .ice, by its expansive power, should force portions of its mass to ascend moderate declivities, of a few hundred feet, but not so.easy to imagine them thus forced upwards one thou- sand or two csineniownes sashannelonitarighare homi in Newt Sry res ote _ Another difficulty reuheé.droiesinetaet. that some of Pie most remarkable of our moraines are found, not in valleys, but on the sea coast, some of them fifty, and others one hundred miles dis- tant from any mountains much higher than themselves. — Ir to hese. remarkable conical and oblong tanned gaia * A curious example illustrative of this point has just been communicated to me by Rey. Justin Perkins, American missionary in Persia, not, far from Mt. Ar- arat, in a letter dated at Ovoromiah, Nov. 6th, 1840. In giving an account of two ve Ww erful earthquakes experienced od oer and around that mountain in the sum- : oh . ast accumulation of snow which had been in- creasi many centuries, was. into pieces, and_parts of it shake mense ghia that (it being mi ; , and suddenly melting.) torrents of wa’ Riiciaainiensia dete mountain, and flooded the plain for some distance around its also, the drift has been carried “ from lower to higher in the north of wheat n; and he imputes the strie to * icefloes and levels,” according to d grating upon detritus, ‘set = motion the elevation of continental masses, an = bottom / fd by the Geological Structure of yer and Central Russia, SS &c., by pans and Verneuil, p.13. London, 1341, p- 16. Very soon the Gla- cier Theory may need some analogous wisdificanion eeneest aa and yet it seems to me that expanding ice:ia'n for moro powerful *gent ree tritus up an inclined p. Jane, than currents of water. Vol. x11, No. 2 July Sept 1841. 33 258 Address before the Association of American Geologists. more than two hundred feet high, which occur in Plymouth and Barnstable counties in Massachusetts. I see nothing in this the+ ory that will explain such astonishing accumulations in such cir- cumstances ; and yet their existence may not militate against its truth. . For even the present mighty glaciers of the Alps, may give us but a faint idea of the effects of the advance and retreat of a sheet of ice thousands of feet thick. We have no evidence in this country, that any of our mountains have been elevated since the glacial epoch ; as seems to be proved to have been the case with the Alps, and this circumstance may have produced a considerable modification of glacial action on this continent. Ido not mention these difficulties (to which I might add more,) as any strong evidence against this theory. For so remarkably does it solve most of the phenomena of diluvial action, that J am constrained to believe its fundamental principles to be foundedin truth. Modifications it may require: for it would be strange enough if it had already attained perfection, even in the skillful hands that have thus far framed and fashioned it. But I ean hardly doubt that glacio-aqueous action* has been the controlling power in producing the phenomena of drift. Having hovered so long over the shoreless and troubled ocean of uncertainty aud doubt, I may be too ready to alight on what looks like terra firma. But should it prove a Delos, I have only to pluses see — again, when it sinks beneath the waves. I have dwelt long on this subject; its great importance, its in- teresting aspect at this time, and its wide developement im our country, must plead my apolog _ In referring to our alluvial Yrhlsrioeis T shall call your atten- tion only to a single subject, and that is, microscopic palaon tology. The splendid discoveries of Ehrenberg in this depart ment, were yet fresh among us, when Prof. Bailey demonstra- ted that similar relics abound in this country.. They form eX tensive deposits, covering many acres, and sometimes seve! feet thick, beneath our peat-bogs. The substance appears to be e Bergn amehl, or mountain. bg Sossil farina, of the Germans, ~ is mostly composed of the Shields or Carapaces of the family @. Some do, ane yet doubt the animal origit of = rt co Lmean the, jriota sation of desing wi has ex d the +e ioe and wanes eax Address before the Association of American Geologists. 259 this family ; but the weight of opinion seems to be on the other side. Hitherto I believe, in this country, these relics have been found only in primitive regions ; but as it is not always the case in Kurope, (Am. Journal of Science, Vol. xt, p. 177,) we may believe it is not so here. Over the primary regions they have been found from Maine to Wisconsin, and south to Virginia. So humerous are the localities, that in New England at deast, am confident they may be found in nearly every town based on pri- mary rocks. ‘The report on the geology of Massachusetts is en- riched with a valuable paper on the fogsil infusoria of that state, by Prof. Bailey ; and a memoir on the same subject, embracing the whole of the United States. may soon be expected from that gentleman. It will give some idea of the wide field which the microscope: has opened to palzontology in this country, to state, that in a single a panittvent of fossil farina from West Point, Ehren- has detected fe f siliceous infusoria. Besides, it can hardly be doubted that, our iron ores and other eee in “ae to the mcaneteis will afford these remains. Pome interesting te by Prof. W.B. Rogers, in the cdugunee Virginii as announced in his Geological Report of 1841, of a. E setiotei of these infusoria. It is composed almost entirely of their ir siliceous shields, occupies areas of considerable extent, attains the enormous thickness of twenty five feet, and is rarely less than twelve feet thick. If such is the beginning, pee tlemen, will be the end of this infinitestmal geology! — seem fast advancing towards a realization of the proverb, inate calx e vermibus, omnis silex e vermibus, omne ferrum e vermibus. - Having thus ascended to the top of the scale of Ameri¢an rocks, ‘and briefly shown how far their characters have been fixed, and their equivalence to European strata demonstrated, : ‘al few miscellaneous topics only remain for examination, ~~ --One of. these subjects is that of concretions. And it petniete nie that it needs to have light thrown upon it as much as any in the whole range of mineralogy and geology. It needs a second Haiiy to develop the fundamental principles of coneretionary structure. - Brongniart, De la Beche, and Fitton; have, indeed, thrown out many valuable hints on the subject, and rendered it probable that -coneretions result from segregation by means of elective affinity. But why the particles should arrange them- 260 Address before the Association of American Geologists. selves in curved rather than straight lamina, and why the eurves should differ from one another, does not appear. ‘The siliceous limestone of Fontainbleau contains more sand than the caleare- ous concretions of this country, called claystones; and yet the former assumes a polyhedral and the latter a spheroidal form. » These claystone concretions, which abound in our diluvial clays, seems to me to afford a better opportunity than any other for studying this subject. They appear to consist of the clay containing them, cemented by carbonate of lime, which usually forms about fifty per cent. of the mass; although I doubt whether it exists in definite proportion. I-have found in them, also, both in. those of New England and in specimens from the diluvial clay of Sweden, a small amount of organic matter, very prob- ably resulting from the crenie acid, which existed in the water when the clay was deposited. I am informed, however, by Dr. Tamnau, of Prussia, that ‘the Swedish scientific men believe these. claystones to be something of organic remains :—some sort of mollusca, which were more or less wrapped in a male tle.” But even if we admit ‘that some soft animal formed the nucleus; it is impossible to doubt that the ¢laystones have as- sumed their present forms as the result of a concretionary agen cy. Those forms are often so very regular, and furnish such mimic representations of numerous artificial objects, that we need not wonder they should be regarded, both in this country and in England, as the work of art ; that among us, they should be im- puted to the ingenuity of the aborigines; and in England, be supposed to have been turned in a lathe, as a substitute for me tallic coin, and have taken the name of Kimmeridge coal money: An examination of numerous. specimens from New England, has led me to the conclusion that certain predominant forms may be discovered, which they affect; although between them ale humerous intermediate varieties; and sometimes there would peter to have been a struggle between two of these forms for the These inant forms are the sphere, the oblate there, the prolate spheroid, the annulated, the lenticular, and the cy lindrical. The first: is the most important, though bien ewe Ap ego may be conceived to sm tom it. I think that if we may su the clay to pi a ake nota fluid 4 st, as to admit of “ae ey ee . wig Address before the Association of American Geologists. 261 ent centres of attraction existed in the clay, it is not difficult to conceive how. all the varieties-of form assumed by the concre- tious, may have been produced by a modification of circumstan- ces. I find, that as in crystals of minerals, certain forms predom- inate at particular localities, so it is with the claystones. And finally, I am led by all the facts to the conclusion, that these con- cretions are produced by laws as fixed and definite as those of crystallography. To discover and develop these laws, therefore, must be an object of great interest. There is another interesting concretion in the same diluvial clay, in all parts of our country, consisting generally of concen- tric alternating layers of clay or loam, and the same material more or less colored and consolidated by the hydrate of iron. The axis consists usually of the root of a vegetable, or some other organic dy. Portions of the same clay are sometimes crossed by par- allel divisional ‘planes, so as to: produce. rhomboidal prisms, pre- cisely like those in the older consolidated rocks, which have usu- ally been referred: to the: agency of heat. Bae this clay - probably, never have be must resort to some other explanation of this jointed PO ‘And since the experiment of Mr. Robert Weare Fox ‘OX upon the in- fluence of galvanism upon clay, I can hardly doubt but this agen- cy might have produced it, and also the ferruginous concretions that have been described, and perhaps have aided in forming the claystones. But to settle these points will require numerous ob- servations and experiments; and my chief object in these re- marks is to show that this is a ——- page long ac ceecigre field of research. wiitis, incase in } many of aes state surveys, that: particular at- tention will be given to the connection between geology and ag- ticulture. T'o-do this, the geologist is obliged to callin the aid of organic and analytical chemistry; obviously the most difficult branches of that most useful science. Hence the analysis of Soils, of the plants which they produce, and of the various fertili- zers which are applied by the farmer, as well as of the rocks whose disintegration produces the soil, ought to form the objects of a commission distinct from that of ordinary geology : and I hope the time is not far distant, when such an office will exist in all the states of the Union. For although we ought not to look foristriking benefits fromsuch-a work so soon as from a geologi- 262 Address before the Association of American Geologists. cal survey, yet, with sufficient time given to a geological chem- ist, there can be no doubt but most valuable ultimate results would follow his labors. Although the science of agricultural chemistry had a vigorous commencement in the labors of Davy and Chaptal, yet its subse- quent progress has not been correspondently rapid; and it must yet be regarded as in its infancy. Hence too much has been ex- pected from the analyses of soils in our country, anda conse- quent disappointment has been felt. Distinguished chemists are not yet agreed in respect to some of the fundamental principles of the science. The recent able work by Prof: Liebig on organic chemistry, affords evidence of the truth of this statement in the nu- merous new views which it presents, and which he declares to be different from those usually maintained. Many of these views will be adopted at once, as original discoveries ; but in regard to others, it is not to be expected that chemists will receive them without discussion. With Raspail he maintains, that plants are nourished solely by the absorption of carbonic acid from the at mosphere and from soil; whereas, the prevailing opinion is, that they derive their support partly from carbonic acid and partly by the direct imbibition of organic matter in some of the forms of humus, by their roots. ‘He supposes that the humus acts no other part than to furnish carbonic acid by its decompositiol- Others maintain that some of it is taken up in a state of solution, by capillary attraction, or by galvanic action. And as all chem> ists were not convinced by the arguments of Raspail, they may not be satisfied with the more able reasoning of Liebig, on the same subject. His views of the*agency of nitrogen in vegetable nutrition,—his discovery of ammonia in the atmosphere, and his _ many new views respecting the agency of salts upon vegetations and on other subjects, will render this work a most valuable ad- dition to agricultural chemistry. ” The earlier agricultural chemists laid by far too much stress upon the mineral constitution of soils, and disposed of the orgame atte ne simple act of combusti But more recent expe _— found; that th 1position and condition of the or ganic matter are of the highest importance in relation to vegeta tion, and they have made great efforts to ascertain the true character of mould or humus. [It is agreed on all hands, that Address before the Association of American Geologists, 263° ing their nature we find, as we might expect, that distinguished ehemists differ somewhat in their conclusions. Berzelius in- cludes all the organic matter of soils under the term humus. In this he supposes that he finds crenic, apocrenic, and humic acids, with extract of humus and humin. This was his’ view of the subject, if I understood it, in 1840; and it does not differ from his views seven years before, except in substituting recently the term humic acid for geine, and humin for carbonaceous mould. In this country, Dr. 8S. L. Dana employs the term geine in two senses. When he speaks agriculturally, he means by it “all the decomposed organic matter of the soil,” which he divides into the soluble and insoluble; and in this sense he regards cre- nic and apocrenic acids, humin and extract of humin, as forms of geine. When he speaks chemically, he regards geine as a distinct compound, the same in composition as the substance denominated geine by Berzelius in 1833, and humic acid in 1840 ; although : en ah. | Oe Ce ep SR | mt ' Poet: Sets anes 1 e . 4% ~ 5 : a - g tinct compound, and that it is essentially composed of crenic and terest. Iam too well acquainted with the gentlemen who have adopted different views on these subjects, not to believe that they will thankfully accept of light from any quarter, and consider it an honor, rather than a disgrace, to give up opinions which’ exper- iment or sound argument shows to be untenable: For they well know, that in a progressive science, like agricultural. chemistry the honor of original discovery belongs to him who makes an ad- Vance upon his predecessors ; nor can it pluck the laurel from his brow, although others aided by his labors, should subsequently go beyond him. In the present case it may be thought, that rules for the analysis of soils, founded upon different views of the char- acter of their organic matter, must be useless. But I must ex- press the opinion, that the agricultural value of analyses, conduct- ed according to these conflicting views, cannot be very different ; and in a scientific respect, in the present. state of agricultural istry, analyses performed in different 1 must be an im- ¢ Sg a ee a eee ; i stidechies ‘ > ) + teccth oa ern . Ld 264 Address before the Association of American Geologists. The remarkable fertilizing power of green sand, first discov- ered in this country, has raised another question in agricul tural chemistry, of great practical interest, concerning which, there is not so much of an opposition, as of an unsettled state of opinion. The question is, which of the ingredients of this sab- stance produce the fertilization. All will agree, probably, that the potassa found in some green sand, acts an important part. But if this is the only ingredient, then the green sands of New Eng- land and old England, will be of no agricultural valne, as they are destitute of potassa: But others suppose that the. iron exerts a favorable influence ; and others, that the minutely divided state of the silica is jebicntatates asit seems to be in the Bergmehl, which is-also useful in agriculture. But I have time only to ex- press the confident expectation; that some of the gentlemen we hear me, will, ere many years, clear up this subject. ~ Had not these subjects been so intimately connected with sev- eral of the state surveys, they might scem irrelevant on this occa sion. I return, therefore, to one more appropriately geological. But little has yet been published respecting the. anticlinal atid synclinal axes and their correspondent systems of strata in our country ; although I doubt not that numerous facts on the subject are in the note-books of our geologists, in respect to the particu- lar sections of country which they have examined. But this 1s one of those subjects upon which, as upon diluvial action, gene ral results, applicable to the whole country, can be made out’ after long examination ; it is one, therefore, peculiarly proper for such an association as I now wildeese ;—and I predict, that when the facts from different parts of this continent are collated and compared, it will be found that we have some of the most fe markable and magnificent systems of elevation and depression on the globe. There is no small reason to believe, indeed, that on the western side of this continent, from Cape Hora to the tic Ocean, one vast anticlinal axis exists, along the crest of the Andes ai the Rocky Mountains. Subordinate and _ Perhaps g systems of strata will undoubtedly be found long this extended line ; but this appears to be the great con tolling and probably the ‘most. recent uplift on the continent. The occurrence of voleanie vents along the whole line, W probabl 7 e th at the form has b upheaved at a later epoch thaa Address before the Association of American Geologists. 265 the latter. But there is another fact that makes this almost cer-" tain, or it shows at least, that the western, and particularly the southwestern part of the continent, has been raised to a much greater height than the eastern side. It is well known that the cretaceous formation of North America passes under the Atlantic Ocean near New York, with its superincumbent tertiary strata. The latter reappear on Long Island, and in great distinctness on Martha’s Vineyard, near the coast of Massachusetts, beyond which they are no more seen south of Greenland. But as we go southwesterly from New York, the chalk formation gradually rises, and. between Council Bluff and the Rocky Mountains, as I am informed by Mr. Nicollet, it sometimes reaches the height of two thousand feet, which is much higher than on the Atlantic coast. It appears, also, from the recent memoir of Von Buch, on the petrifactions of South America, that the same formation exists extensively developed in the Andes, from 10° north to 15° south latitude. It there attains the astonishing height of thir- teen thousand feet above the ocean. Subsequent to the cretace- ous period, therefore, the Andup, Rov ; ‘hawe:sieen: to; that i while the coast of New Ei d th states has been elevated only a few hapteed: fonts mS the southern st states aa - lift appears to have been still less. * | The Appalachian range of mountains pepe a ousiak tidge, extending northeasterly through New England, and not improbably to Labrador. The rise of this chain elevated the eretaceous and tertiary rocks on the Atlantic slope, as well as the new red sandstone, and tilted up the southeastern margin of the transition rocks in the valley of the Mississippi. The uplift of the Rocky Mountains raised the western side of the same rocks, and produced the easterly slope of the strata extending to the Mississippi. That river, therefore, flows through a synclinal val- ley, and it was the existence of that valley which determined its course. . The same is true of the river Ohio, which, according to Dr. Hildreth, flows through asynclinal valley. The sections given by Prof. Emmons, show that the same is true of the St. Lawrence. From the last report of Mr. Houghton, it appears that Lake Su- perior occupies a synclinal valley, and not _improbably a valley of elevation. East of Little Falls, according to Mr. Conrad, the Mohawk flows many miles through a valley of depression. In New. England, the primary strata ensemnele the Connecticut Vol. xx1, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841. 266 Address before the Association of American Geologists. river on both sides, at least through a considerable partiof its course ; and there is evidence, also, that a» extensive fault in the primary rocks runs through that valley. Prof. Mather describes “a line of fracture and anticlinal axis” as passing a little west of the Hudson river, as well as numerous joints and fractures in the valley of the Hudson, which not improbably may bea valley of dislocation. Indeed, I doubt not that in most of those cases where rivers have found their way through gorges of lofty and precipitous ridges, it will be discovered that a break previously existed in the strata. To give an example :—the great western railroad, leading from Boston to Buffalo, and destined, ere long, to reach St. Louis, and ultimately perhaps the Pacific Ocean, is car- ried across the. Hoosae range of mountains through a deep cut made across the ridges by Westfield river ; and in no other place, probably, could it have been. carried urcaghe: But I have re- cently satisfied myself that the course of that river was deter- mined for a considerable distance, at least, by the existence of a wide fissure in the primary strata, which was subsequently filled in part by an enormous vein of granite. Is not this a beautiful example of prospective benevolence on the part of the Deity; thus, by means of a violent fracture of primary mountains, to.pro- vide for easy intercommunication. ) through alpine inal less ages afterwards! ‘These slight sketches are sufficient to show that the great and striking features of our country are dependant upon a few extend ed axes of elevation and depression; and that probably. subordi- nate anticlinal and synclinal lines will be found connected with most of the minor features of our surface. To trace them all out will bea great, yet most interesting work; as it will beto ascertain the systems of strata connected with them. Of the , latter, we have in New England no less than five or six distinctly marked. They are all of them of ancient date, and most of them very ancient. The oldest, which may be called the oldest mer dional system, because it runs not far from north. and- south, 8 composed chiefly of gneiss and mica slate; and crosses Masst- chusetts near its. centre, including, although this is not certall, ova the most elevated ena in New Heslend The second, 1e em, because it runs Address before the Association of American Geologists. 267 direction with that of the Alleghany mountains, and probably forms a part of their most easterly ranges. It extends, also, through almost the whole of Maine. It is‘composed chiefly of primary rocks. The third system, I call the east and west sys- tem. It is composed of primary and the oldest fossiliferous rocks ; having a northerly dip. It occupies ho great space in New Eng~ land. But perhaps the east and west ridges of mountains de~ scribed by Dr. Houghton, on the south side of Lake Superior, may belong to the same system ; although I think we ought to be very cautious in referring the rocks of widely separated regions: to the same’ system ; especially if their strike is merely parallel, and not upon the same continuous line. The fourth system em- braces the rocks from gneiss upwards, so as to include most of the clay slate and Silurian groups. The strata have a perpendicular or inverted dip... I-call it the Hoosac or Green mountain system, because it embraces most . of those subietains : but if I mistake , it extends + S of the Apr hian chain of i Ase tains, ee Pe ee ee = apy ee ey Re ie to which Isl dll ¥ shectly call- your’ drsancrnes ‘ 1 system only the new red sand as Pa may be called the new argent ye Bat I am in doubt whether it ought not to be embraced it m. sixth system I call the northwest and sovethectut:siyshore such is its strike, with a small northeasterly dip. It occurs-in: Rhode Island, the southeast part of Massachusetts, and south west part of Maine: but it is very limited, unless it should be found that the four ranges of mountains, described by Dr. Richardson, in the extreme northwesterly part of this continent, belong to it. regard it as the most recent system in New England ; although composed of gneiss and the older slates, it co in strike and dip, with the eocene tertiary on Martha's Vineyard and probably both were elevated at the same time. = > ~The whole number of systems of strata, etictelpaiigii pn general strike and dip in this country, will undoubtedly be found to be much greater than those now described. Nor should I have mentioned these, which have been observed in a limited district, had I not great confidence in the uniformity and great extent of SS so that if we find a par- trict, (we:may ers SO ‘Upon th These 5 0 - eiested ie the land. r ~ TR ee a ee t Wesswe }' 268 Address before the Association of American G'eologists. hints, therefore, may afford some feeble aid in the great work of tracing out the systems of elevation that exist on this continent. - Lhave alluded to some peculiarities in the Green Mountain sys- tem of strata; and if I may venture a little longer upon your pa- tience, I will ask a few moments’ attention to what I must regard as one of the most remarkable features in American geology. Sull, [have so imperfect a knowledge of the subject, as to be conscious of venturing forward with few landmarks to guide me, into an almost unknown region. I am aware, also, that there are gentlemen before me, who have given the subject more atten- tion than I asatie and gee are ~/ abiegas prepared for its full — opement. We havé all teed vis 7 enormous dislocations and inversions of the:strata of the Alps; and similar phenomena are said to exist in the Andes. Will it be believed, that we have an example in the United States on a-still more magnificent scale than any yet described? Ihave mentioned in another connection, a series 0 strata, consisting of gneiss, mica, talcose, and argillaceous slates, with limestones and Silurian rocks, extending from Canada, along the western side of New England and the eastern side of New York, to the Highlands on Hudson river, and thence southwes- terly through the Appalachian mountains as far as Alabama; a distance of at least twelve hundred miles. Along a large part of this distance, a remarkable apparent inversion of the: dip exhibits itself ; so. that the newer rocks appear to pass beneath the older ones ; and that too over a great width of surface. Certainly this is the case from Canada to New Jersey, and thence through Pennsylvania and Virginia, I infer from the reports of the Profes- sors Rogers, that similar phenomena occur, which thése gentle- men have been studying with great care and success; and the results, I learn, will soon be given to the public. ‘The effects of the extraordinary agency under consideration, has not been sim- ply to toss over the strata, so-as to give them an inverted dip, but in general to. produce a succession of folded axes, with a gentle _ Slope and dip-onstheiz eastern sida and a. a dip, or more fre- quently an inverted one, on their western Such a disturbance as this would be far Teite: scenadiaini' were _ Wnt so extensive. I cannot describe the width of the belt that Gane mene, except in that portion of it which has _ fallenvunder my notice. It appears to me, that in the latitude of Address before the Association of American Geologists. 269 Massachusetts, at least all the strata between the Hudson and Con- hecticut rivers, and probably a little west of the Hudson, about fifty miles in breadth, were affected by this disturbance. The first ridge, in going viitenly from the Connecticut to Hudson river, is Hoosac mountain, and its eastern slope is gentle, while its western side is very steep, and the strata are nearly perpendicular, or ra- diate from the axis of the mountain. This appears to have been the principal axis of elevation. Next succeeds a deep valley and “hen the Taconic range of mountains, which also slopes gently on its east side, while its west side is very steep, and its crest very narrow. ‘The dip ef the strata is also small on the east side, and high on the other. Between this ridge and the Hudson, are no tanges of mountains very well marked, but the same large in- verted dip continues, and probably more than one folded axis may be found in this space. Whether the belt of strata that have been subjected to this singular disturbance, is as broad, north or south of Massachusetts, I have no certain ranma oh but pre- sume it to be as wide and probably wider. Tam aware that some able geologists,* whisde opinions % highly respect, and who have carefully observed these phenomena, en= deavor to explain them by supposing that we have mistaken the secondary divisional planes of the rocks for true planes of strati= fication ; or that the character of the slaty and calcareous rocks of Sieonis and Hoosac mountains has been misunderstood; and that they are in fact more recent than the fossiliferous rocks near the Hudson ; in other words, that they are metamorphic. But for reasons that cannot now be given, for want of time, I have been forced to relinquish all these modes of explanation; and al- though I will not say that I fully adopt, yet I cannot but look With a favorable bias upon the only remaining solution of the problem already hinted at, that the strata have ay been toss- ed over from their original position. ‘Let us suppose the strata between Hudson and Connecticut tivers, while yet in a plastic state, (and the supposition may be extended to any other section across this belt of country from Canada to Alabama,) and while only slightly elevated, were acted Upon by a force at the two rivers, exerted in opposite directions. If powerful enough, it might cause them to fold up into several : See Prof. Emmons and Mather’ s views i in the reports of the New York sur- vey for 1837, p. 232, and for 1841 . 92 270 Address before the Association of American Geologists. ridges ; and if more powerful along the western than the eastern side, they might fall over so as to take an inverted dip, without producing any remarkable dislocations, while subsequent denuda- tion would give to the surface its present outline. e Now in support of such a supposition, it may be said, first, that it would satisfactorily explain the present position of the strata. , For if they could now be lifted up and made to dip in an opposite direction, every thing, for the most part, would be brought right ; that is, the natural order of superposition would be restored. -Se* condly, this supposition explains the moderate dip of the rocks in the valleys, and the gentle slope of the mountains on their east- ern sides, and the abrupt escarpment of their western sides. Thirdly, the occurrence of thermal springs along many of these folded axes, as is the case in New England and Virginia, and the extensive dolomitization of the limestone in the valleys, afford presumptive evidence of long lines of fracture, just where, by this hypothesis, they ought to exist. Fourthly, we should readily ad- mit that such a plication and inversion of the strata might take place on a small scale. If for instance, we were to press against the extremities of a series of plastic layers two feet long, they could easily be made to assume the position into which the rocks under consideration are thrown. Why then should we not be equally ready to admit that this might as easily be done, over a breadth of fifty miles, and a length of twelve hundred, provided we can find in nature, forces sufficiently powerful ?. Finally, such forces do exist in nature, and have often been in operation. After we have admitted, as every geologist does admit, that the exist- ing continents and mountains: of the globe have been elevated from the ocean’s bed, there is scarcely any effect, short of an im- possibility, which we may not impute to the same agency. Merely for illustration, without maintaining its truth, let us suppose with Beaumont, that the vertical movements of our continents result from the shrinking of the internal parts of the earth, which cal ses a plication of its crust, simply by the force of gravity. And Suppose the present crest of the Appalachian and Green moun- tains to have formed the line of least resistance on this continent Is it difficult to conceivé, that by such a power, a broad belt of the earth’s crust, more than a thousand miles long, might have been ridged and overturned, with just as much facility, as a S€¢- tion two feet long, with the force which a man could exert? ! Address before the Association of American Geologists. 271 apprehend that the chief difficulty is to bring the mind up to a realization of so mighty an agency. In other words, the diffi- culty lies in the narrowness of our views, rather than in the in- adequacy of nature. I confess, that as I have sometimes stood upon-some of our loftiest mountains, that seem to have been over- turned, and looked. into the valleys, from one thousand to two thousand feet deep, and abroad upon the vast ridges that stretch- ed away far as the eye could follow them-on every side, and then tried to conceive of them extending from Canada to Alabama, and to have been ridged up and thrown over, my mind has stag- gered under the mighty thought, and I have involuntarily ex- claimed, that such a work could have. been performed only .by the immediate agency of Him, who meted out heaven with a Span, and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in-a balance. - _ But-T must not dwell longer upon this fascinating theme :—and I must desist also, not for want of materials but for want of time, from pointing out other objects of interest in American geology that deserve the special attention of this Associati o _ And now, on looking back upon over, I am astonished and delighted at the progress of American geology, and it seems to me more like-a dream than the reality. Only twenty five years ago, when first my attention was turned to the subject, excepting the grand but rough outline sketched 1 Maclure, and a few insulated efforts by Professors Silliman, Cleave- land and Eaton, and Dr. Hayden, all was darkness and perplexi- ty. A geologist was as rare as an oasis amid the sands of Africa ; and to be seen accoutred geologically, with hammer and knapsack, would subject one to ridicule, if not to a suspicion of insanity. But how changed the scene! From the top to the bottom of the Series, the principal groups.of our rocks seem now to be nearly Settled and identified. And as the rapid rise and developement of this great nation is a spectacle of deep interest and sublimity, So our geologists find a correspondent grandeur in our rock forma- tions... Now too, nearly all the state governments of this country extend their patronage to geological researches ; lectures upon ge- cology are demanded and given in all our larger towns ; and the Wonders of this science form the theme of discussion in the draw- ing-rooms of taste and fashion. wg a2 ni? * 272 Address before the Association’ of American Geologists. You perceive, therefore, gentlemen, that in the work which we have undertaken, we are urged forward by powerful motives ;— and although much has been done, still more remains to be ac- complished. Indeed, the enterprise is as yet only just begun. Even when the state surveys are completed, there will be abun- _ dant opportunity to gather fresh laurels in the same field. For, then the way will be prepared to go into particular districts, un- incumbered by horses and carriages, and spending time enough there on foot, fully to explore and understand their structure; a work, which can hardly be done, except in a few instances, du- ring the limited time devoted to the state surveys. A multitude of points in our geology, also, are yet only dimly seen, or impet- fectly.settled. In fixing these, and developing new discoveries, there will arise differences of opinion, and we may expect to fall into frequent perplexities and mistakes. But let not such differ- ences generate distrust and alienation, among those who have an important comrhon cause to sustain, and an interest as well as fel- low-feeling i in sustaining one another. Let discussion be as free as air; and let every man keep his mind open to conviction ;— but anette geologists, above all other scientific men, have no time for personal altercation. They have too great a work before them ; they are scattered over so vast a field, that it will be difli- cult to interfere with one another ; and all of them, I doubt not, would welcome other laborers, to aide in gathering the amen harvest I aii these remarks, not because I have observed among our geologists. any peculiar tendency to alienation and controversy, but because I have witnessed the reverse ; and, therefore, such -remarks may have some influence in preserving them from those jealousies and personal altercations that have too often broken up the harmony of scientific associations. _ As motives to continued exertion I have mentioned the arora government, and the just estimation in which the c beginning to hold our favorite. science. But there are ae siderations of a mueh more elevated character, to urge onward the genuine student of nature. The cultivation of this science carries with it its own reward, It is continually disclosing to 1's votaries, facts and inferences of most thrilling interest. How eagerly does the antiquary unroll the newly discovered papyt™S that reveals an earlier chapter in a nation’s history, or the exist Address before the Association of American Geologists. 273 ence of some hitherto unknown race! The farther back the new record carries him, the deeper is his interest and enthusiasm. Such developements of lost races and lost ages in the world’s history, are continually rewarding the labors of. the geologist ;— and in point of antiquity, I had almost said, that the most ancient event in chronology, the six days’ work of creation, is the most recent in geology. From that beginning of registered time; we wander back through cycles of duration, which we can measure only by a succession of events, and not by chronological dates, except to be assured that they are inconceivably long ;—and yet, the relies of those early periods are as fresh as if entombed yester- day. The fossil reptile, or fish, or shell,—nay, even their most delicate parts, are as perfect as when alive; although tens, and perhaps hundreds of thousands of years have rolled away since they died... We see their footmarks following one another in reg- alan succession; a8 distinet as "those: of living animal’ upon the nathan. is shower, that. fell thousends.ef ages ago; is as fresh before us, as if every drop had been instantly petrified... ort, there-passes before us a series. of distinct. creations of gani : bei gs; adapted to: the negiang condition of our planet ; each successive gro ate wea mi ing more a and more perfect, until thing in nature ws existing races, with man as the crowd: of ine. & ets csieemanes Such developements as these are no: longer to be the dreams of disordered fancy, but-as the sober ee legitimate deductions of science. And what large and refreshing views do they present of the plans and the benevolence of the Deity! They open back a vista as farand as wide into the arcana of time, as astronomy discloses into the arcana of. space. They show us that the brief space of man’s existence on the globe, is but one of the units of a vast series of cycles that have passed already away ;—and the time ist hand, when. geology, ee with astronomy, will be celebrated for its power of hi mind-and filling it with noble:conceptions of the universe Per Infinite. Author. Surely, in such ennobling thoughts, the sedlo- gist finds a rich reward for all his toils. - L know indeed, that our science has been ie as coming into: collision with that sacred sins to which, - as Christians, We are bound to bow as the invariable standard rd of religious | truth. Geologists, too, have been represented | Vol. xt1, No. 2.—July—Sept. 1841. 35 274 Address before the Association of American Geologists. any proof from their writings, as exulting in the supposed collis- ion ;—but I am happy to believe, that such apprehensions are rap- idly passing away. Theologians of enlarged and impartial minds are beginning to study geology ; and instead of finding its truths hostile to revelation, they find, that it furnishes them with new and interesting matter, such as no other science can, for illustra- ting the perfections and: government of Jehovah ;—and such men as Drs. Chalmers and Smith,* have already reaped from it a rich harvest. I trust that the day is not distant, when the supposed geological objection to. revelation will be as little remembered, as is now the analogous objection derived from the Copernican sys- tem of astronomy ; and which, two or three hundred years. 95°, was supposed. to be fraught with so much danger. Another mode in which practical. geology carries with it ne own. reward, is by bringing us into constant communion with unsophisticated nature, in her most sublime and interesting as- pects. It is hardly possible to place the geologist in any spot on the globe, where he does not witness around him the marks of mighty agencies and revolutions, that are unheeded by the com mon mind, but which furnish him with a rich fund for reflection. But his most appropriate place is among the wildest scenery of ature ; now, plunging into the deep cavern, studded with glit- tering spars, aud perhaps the charnel-house of the antediluvian world ; now, tracing his way. through the dark gorge, with jutting rocks rising around him, as if they formed the battlements of heaven ; now, mounting: the lofty ridge and drinking in the glo ries of the vast landscape ; and now, standing upon the edge of the yawning precipice, to witness the roaring cataract, as the ‘waters thunder down their steep and rocky bed, until, —- from their narrow passage, they flow out quietly, as the calm Majestic river, to fertilize and beautify the extended plain. ser all these scenes, he sees the arm of Omnipotence laid bare; a Die 8 Lctseaiis on the Relation be? parts of Geo gia Science, An able va nons of Rev. Mr. Melville, of London, V8 wee ite Notice of a Flora of North America. 275 all the fluctuations and calamities of life cannot. deprive him. Other sources of happiness, as circumstances change and age ad- vances, will pass away. But, a genuine attachment to nature dinpinig to the heart will buoy it up, when the powers begin to fail, and the floods of affliction to roll over us; and like the vol- cano surrounded by polar snows, the flame will seem more bright and beautiful amid the frosts of age. Hee studia adolescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis perfu- gium ac solatium prebent ; delectant domi, non impediunt foris ; pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur. (Cicero, Orat, pro Archia. ) Gentlemen, in these remarks I am confident that I am deseri- bing your own experience. For this love of nature, and not governmental or individual patronage, has been your chief stim- ulant in geological. research. Should that patronage, which is now extended to your efforts, be withdrawn,—of which I have little fear,—and: should ‘the tide of popular favor turn against — tbat yout will not, therefore, be diverted from your favorite pursuit. let us ra to more vig- orous iaes in this noble enterprise, which has already done so much, and is destined todo much more, to develop the re- sources of our beloved country ; so much to awaken youthful genius; so much to promote our personal happiness ; so much to enlarge the boundaries of science ; and, above all, so much to un- fold the glories and illustrate the perfections of the Inrinire has: ILl.— Notice apa: Flora at iil diteishais 8 Joun Torrey, M.D. F.L-S. &e.,and Asa Gray, M.D. &c. Vol. Il, Part 1. May, 1841. New York: Wiley & Putnam. Tete years have now dhignalt since the eomadisieniaann this truly national work, of which the first volume was completed in the past'summer. ‘The fifth number, being the first of the second volume, is now before us, and in presenting our readers with a brief analysis. of its contents, we do not pretend to do 276 Notice of a Flora of North America. seem extraordinary, that this undertaking, which. has attracted so much attention amongst European naturalists, should have excited so little comparative interest amongst those of our own country, for whom it is more especially designed. We are not inclined to ascribe this indifference to any contempt for the branch of natural science of which it. treats, since botany is very extensively taught amongst us, and forms, indeed, part of the regular course of instruction in most of our high schools and colleges ; but we are persuaded, that the low standard adopted by our professors, has induced the prevalent opinion that it is of very subordinate importance. Indeed, if we were to judge from the manner i in which it is commonly taught, it might be doubted our actual knowledge of this eminently progressive science has materially increased within the last ten or twenty years. A few general principles, with an exemplification of the classes and orders of the artificial system of Linneus, by means of which the Latin names of plants may be obtained without difficulty, i is the usual amount’ of ‘botany taught in our ries, and it is not surprising’ that the community should lightly estimate the value of the acquisition. Vegetable physiology; connected with an actual, practical knowledge of the natural affinities of plants, with their respective qualities and value to mankind, is scarcely, as yet, beginning to be taught to the youth of our country, nor'can we hope to see botany elevated to its due rank, amongst us, until its professors direct the attention of their classes to the philosophy of the science, rather than to tech- -hical rules, and long catalogues of unmeaning names. For this purpose, many of the manuals, local floras, and popular treatises, in common. use, are utterly insufficient ; and we.require the intro- duction of simple, yet Pe earch text-books, aerer fone American student. . _ wotany 1 ae the only science in shies as taught with us, itl eyond-the mere ‘names of things, is sought to be conveyed; and hence:it arises,:that a sound physiological: work; RM being in advance of the general standard 0 have studied bota th iner in which it is shite The few who ean estimate the labors of Drs. "Torrey 8; in i of their ea sp Notice of a Flora of North America. 277 exert a beneficial influence on the botany of our country. We shall notice, very cursorily, the contents of the recent number, which commences the Monopelalous Hxogenous plants, and com- prises the orders Caprifoliacea, Rubiacea, Valerianacee, Dip- sacee, anda part of Composite ; viz. the tribes Pibessuliondets Eupatoriacea, and the first subdivision of the tribe Asteroidee. In Caprifoliacez, we have two new species of Symphoricarpos, collected at California, by Mr. Nutttall, and described from his MSS., a new species of Lonicera, from Arkansas, and a species of Sambucus from Oregon. The order Rubiacee, consists of three sub-orders, being, 1. Stellatew, R. Br.; 2. Cinchonea, (ord. Cinchonacee, Lindl: ;) and 3. Leganiee, R. Br. «In the first sub-order, two new species of sei pee are descri- bed ; and in the second, a species of Spermacoce, also a species of Bares and a new Hledgatiss (2) from ital which, on account of the } ers, our authors are inclined to consider as the type rola mew gems With reference to the or is —— se “In thus apppading igi ron, mw pone Glies 6 Rublacor, (which seems inevitable when we compare Ophiorhiza with Mi i itreola, a portion of Hedyotis with Calostylis, &c.,) we trust we are follo ig the indications thrown out by the most profound botanists v who | rOposec the order or tribe, (Appendix to F linders, 2, p. 564, and Tuckey's Congo, p- 448 ; ;) although it is still no less true than when Mr. “Brown first made the remark, that there are no satisfactory characters known to distinguish Rubiaceae from ws eb oe ag Now, if it be difficult: to assign any arbitrary 8 Sil by which Rubiacee may be decidedly distinguished from nace, it certainly does not seem desirable to keep up a -diatines order, intermediate between the two, and, in this view, we think the arrangement of Drs. Torrey and Gray very judicious. - It may be said, that, upon this principle, Spigelacee must be -re- united with Gentianacee, and that even the latter are very hearly related to Apocynacee, though possessing sufficiently ob- vious distinctions... We do not pretend to anticipate what course ‘May be taken by the authors, when these orders are under their consideration ; but we incline to the opinion that there is, upon the whole, Jess. one inconvenience »in regarding all. very close alliances, suc such, at least, rged, in the in- it, as they hai 278 Notice of a Flora of North America. stance before us, as sections of one large family, than in endeavy- oring to circumscribe them as separate orders, where no sufiicient natural characters appear to exist. We feel convinced, indeed, that the onward progress of the science will have a tendency rather to diminish than increase the number of orders, which have been so largely multiplied since the days of Jussieu.» Nor is it surprising that such should have been the case, since the introduction of ‘new plants irreconcilable with the characters of any of the families indicated by that great physiologist, required, from time to time, the establishment of such additional orders as appeared to limit and define their respective properties and pecu- liarities. But with our increased, and daily increasing, knowl- edge of vegetable forms, we become acquainted with genera so exactly intermediate in character between what have been regarded as separate groups, or orders, existing in nature, that we are compelled to view the dividing lines as of secondary, of subordinate value ; and hence, we conceive, will arise the neces sity of reuniting some, perhaps ultimately many, orders considered as distinct. It is in this way only, that pane of plants can be preserved as natural alliances ; and any approach towards artificial arrangement will be deprecated by every true botanist, who feels that his province is limited to the observation of kindred tribes, and the elucidation of such characteristics as they are severally found to present. No doubt the types of new and very distinct orders are yet to be discovered, but we repeat our conviction, that for the present, at least, the number will, “pao the whole, be rather reduced than augmented. _ Under the sub-order Loganiew, is described a second species of the very interesting genus Celostylis, 'T. and Gr., collected in. Texas by the late Mr. Drummond. In Valerianacea, We have a new species of Valeriana from the West, and two neW species of Fedia; collected on the plains of Arkansas, by Mr. Nuttall. pa ae an interesting, forming @seP} rate secti fa NX (phon: li ») which ‘jg almost € De Candolle, having t seein. of the former, ih the it stamens and stigmas. of the latter.” The genus Va is accordingly reduced to a section of Fedia. Pass pees ee incwhichinwe> have. — — Notice of a Flora of North America. 279 posite, which is justly termed by De Candolle, “Ordo omninmn naturalissimus et vastissimus et idéo difficillimus,” and which, Drs. Torrey and Gray, following in that respect the arrangement of Lessing, divide into three sub-orders, comprising, together, eight tribes, which are of very unequal importance in respect to the number of genera which they embrace. The first tribe, Vernoniacee, is very small, being limited to six genera, of which Vernonia is the most important; and we notice a new species from: Florida. The second tribe, Eupatoriacee, comprises twen- ty-one genera; none of much importance, (within the geograph- ical limits of this work,) except Liatris and Eupatorium. Of the former genus, a new species is introduced from Georgia, and three species, as heretofore characterized by botanists, are now temoved to the genus Carphephorus, established by Cassini on the Liatris squamosa, Nutt., our authors observing, that “on ex- oe the athied: species of Reidiris,: we find that all those with eads ¢ eym ida, and a well known cipher is species of Ageratum is reco for the first time, as a native of mE ed S « Dhe:#ithors temark, that these two genera are not wscenly aes “We further notice, in this tribe, a new species of ' . from the interior of Texas. We now come to the: sieadsaliehie ttibe Asteroidee, of which the first subdivision (Huasteree) oc- cupies nearly one half of the present number. This section is confined to the several genera, and sub-genera, comprehended under the popular name of Asters, which have so long been the terror and stumbling-block ‘of American botanists. It appears, from an introductory note, appended to'the genus Aster, that Drs. Torrey and Gray have enjoyed great advantages in the study of this most difficult tribe, being “ greatly indebted to several bota- Rists and public institutions in this country, for the use of their entire collections of American Asters ; and we would especially tender our acknowledgments to Sir Wm. Hooker, who, by most liberally entrusting to our care his vast materials in thisand — allied genera, has afforded the most important assistance.” * * * “The original genus Aster, of Tournefort and Linneus, has sue -subdivided by modern botanists, and, according to their arrangement, is made to consist of some eight of ten genera. 280 Notice of a Flora of North America. These are distinguished by characters of greater or less impor- tance, and, in so extremely natural a group, it follows, almost of course, that in some instances they are incapable of any very precise definition. Following the order of our authors, we have one, or possibly two, species of G'alatella, Cass., though appa- rently very rare, and even doubtful natives of the United States. It is remarked, that “ Galatella scarcely differs from Linosyris, except by the presence of (white or blue) rays; and these, ac- cording to Ledebour, are sometimes wanting in G. dracun- culoides : the two genera have also nearly the same geographical range. The sterile rays chiefly distinguish it from Aster $? Orthomeris, (species of Calimeris of authors ;) to which Aster nemoralis, Ait., belongs.” The genus Sericocarpus, of Nees; consisting of five species, is retained by Drs. Torrey and Gray, and it forms, no doubt, a natural group, distinguished by habit, the densely silky achenia, &c., but, as both they and Mr. Nuttall remark, so neatly connected with Aster, through A. gracilis, that we should, upon the whole, have preferred seeing these plants reunited to that genus, though, perhaps, the distinetive characters may be a shade more important than those of Biotia and T'ripolium, which are both described under different sec- tions of Aster, and from which, we think, they cannot conl- veniently be separated. Afterall, it is a matter of small mo- ment, practically considered, whether the subdivisions recogni zable.in large and very natural genera, be ranked as sections merely, or as independent generic forms; the sole difference being the value and importance of the discriminative characters which they respectively present; and upon these points, W™ vary materially in different families, the most profound botanists are hot unfrequently at issue. But, in such genera as Aster, Sas- ifraga, (nothera, and some others, in which we cannot but notice the continual recurrence of intermediate forms, connect ing the subdivisions with each other by characters possessed by them in common, we prefer a combination of the whole, by the larger and more comprehensive generic type, under which, as it appears to us, the sub-genera or sections may be studied with equal, if not greater facility. Under the several subdivisions the genus Aséer, Drs. Torrey and Gray enumerate, in all, ove ‘hundred and thirty-one species, of which number eight are DoW scribed for the first time, whilst nine species, said to have 5: ga mt have. tose ‘ institute, w oe Notice of a Flora of North America. 981 been founded on native specimens by European botanists, are unknown to our authors; and no less than twenty-two species, professedly described originally from garden specimens, (some of them of doubtful origin,) have not been identified with native cane On this subject, Dis. Torrey and Gray remark: . “Tt is well known that many of the enumerated species, both of earlier and later authors, have been described from plants long cultiva- ted in European gardens, where they have doubtless undergone great alterations in appearance ; to’ say nothing of the strong probability of occasional hybridization. A large and indeed increasing num these are only known as garden plants; and it is probable that many will never be identified with their original types ; even supposing them to have been derived in all cases from this country, which is by no means certain: As we have ‘chiefly directed our attention to the indi- genous plants, and have drawn our. descriptions from these alone, we have thought it.advisable to bring together, at the close of our account of the proper. Asters known tous, those species of garden origin which w re specimens. _ identified with nati A fuller compar- eee. their number. ference of soil, exposure, ‘season, ape be. rez at numerous reductions of species, ‘which others may think v ranted. We have only to say, that we have ‘seldom | ventured onal such reductions, ‘except on the authority of a full suite, of specimens afuller series, and thus’ loses its value as a means of distinction ; but the claims of a genuine species are generally confirmed by a numberof specimens. It. sities however, be admitted, that in this as in all large and natural genera, several species which we cannot but consider as distinct, ( sei Pasi instance as A. cordifolius and A sagitti- folius,) do frequently present very puzzling intermediate forms; and that an apparent transition is not always Teal. Yet it is better, per- haps, to hazard the occasional reduction of even true species to varie- ties, than to multiply species which we. are confessedly unable to de- — . a We may remark i in conclusion, that we are the more inclined to act pon our own convictions, on account of the very Frequent and wide disagreement avert of the highest authorities upon! wad genus.” eae mpm es pHa a inten SiN i aides dienianess ; | vations a yi d wi has xut, 9 eesti a. 282 Notice of a Flora of North America. nists who have had the courage to attempt for themselves the study of this vast and most intricate genus, and its congener Soli- dago. We entirely approve of the reduction of many doubtful species to mere varieties of a recognized type ; and it appears that in many cases the approximation of forms wastoo close to admit even of this distinction: thus, under A, levis, Linn., we have nine synonyms! whilst only two marked varieties of the plant occurred to the authors, who say, “'The large suite of specimens before us have been named for the most part by several distin- guished botanists, whose determinations so seldom accord, te we feel the greater confidence in our own opinion.” * *— Now, we are very far from feeling any surprise that these. = tinguished botanists should not have understood each other in such cases, as indeed their laborious volumes sufficiently prove; and we should have esteemed it very marvellous had it been otherwise. A variety (perhaps in the first instance accidental) is introduced into some one of the botanical gardens of Europe, where it is carefully propagated by division of the root, and in time distributed generally amongst them. It is not difficult to perceive, that such characters as it originally presented are thus perpetuated throughout the series, and the peculiarity of form becomes known, whilst the slight modification of the origi type, from which, 4 was derived, is not susceptible of precise definition in terms. Indeed, it may be said, that the characters relied upon for the discrimination of even ” acknowledged and understood species, are but modifications, more or less marked, of the same general structure, and hence the many difficulties which t have wheel and the perplexed and egiigy te sn Notice of a Flora of North America. = —- 283 arbitrary arrangement of them in separate series. In some sort, these do no doubt exist, but the differences are scarcely more than matters of degree, and hence, where extensive means. of comparison are not within reach of the student, the appreciation of the terms necessarily employed to describe these variations, becomes mere matter of opinion, and therefore open to misa hension. These difficulties, inseparable from the nature of the Case, are not within the control of any systematic writers, and we believe that the present arrangement will not disappoint the: hopes of the authors, who “trust that most of our indigenous. Asters may be satisfactorily identified by the student.” .* * We shall only further notice the kindred. and very difficult genus Lrigeron, which we shall do in the succinct and philo- nei observations of Drs. Torrey and Gray : “Tt appears — to us impossible to effect generic divisions among these plants, by characters derived from the single or double series of rays, or r fro the simple or double pappus, or by any combination of these. or Aster ; but the alpigenous Asters almost aes two genera.” jal et “The genus has been entirely remodelled, and bears ample ¢ es. timony, no less to the science than to the unwearied | patience which have been devoted to the subject. We feel justified in- deed, in extending this encomium, not merely to the last num- ‘, but also to the entire work of Drs. Torrey and Gray, so far as | it is before the public ; and we trust, for the sake of natural science, more especially that branch of it so much below its Just - appreciation in our own country, that this most valuable contri- b ation towards its elevation, may be carried to completion by pe laborious and talented authors. TC. ; i hci tit ail sa Arild z Joe ais < hie pth SRD CO Se ee Gy Ba ae . 284 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. Arr. lV. —A Sketch of the in faterin, of the family Bacillari, with some account of the most interesting species which have been found in a recent or fossil state in the United States ; by J. W. Battery, Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, and aaa ogy, in the United States Military earner Tose organized beings which Ehrenberg has placed ananey the Infusoria, in the family Bacillaria, present almost equal claims on the attention of the zoologist, botanist, and geologist: Con- taining, as this family does, those obscure organic bodies which form, as it were, the connecting links between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and which appear to possess characters be~ longing to both, the student of either zoology or botany must examine them, and in fact the very simplicity of their structure renders them peculiarly proper for the observation of many phe- nomena of great physiological interest. The geologist must attend to them, for the discoveries of Kut- zing, Fischer, and especially. of Ehrenberg, have shown that many of these minute bodies possess siliceous coverings, which oceur in vast abundance in the fossil state, and which Lomteiie. minutest, and yet not the least important nor least inter the series of “ nature’s medallions.” Believing that some account of the structure, elamsiicatiows &c., of this family would be acceptable to many in this country; and that figures of our most remarkable species would be of in- terest to the students of this family, both in this country and i a” Europe, T have devoted for some time past the very few lei hours at my command, to the preparation of the following sketch. As an apology for the very imperfect state in which I now pre- sent it, I must state that my knowlege of the labors of others is necessarily very slight, as it is almost impossible to procure ia this country any works relating to this branch of natural history: Of the many European works which contain figures of th obscure beings, scarcely one has been at my command, and as 10 one in this country has previously studied this subject, I have had to trust almost entirely to my own observations. To avoid the risk of adding to the already burdensome syn00- ymy, I have not attached any names to the species which I be- lieved new, or which I could not determine satisfactorily, an¢ Sketch of the Infusori of the family Bacillaric 285 shall merely refer to them by the numbers given to the figures representing them. I hope that these figures’will enable some of the learned students of this family in Europe to decide which species are new, and perhaps if this paper should meet the eyes of Ehrenberg, he may oblige us by furnishing for this Journal the authentic names of the species I have represented in the ac- companying plates. For what relates to the classification and synonymy of this family I am chiefly indebted to an abstract of Ehrenberg’s work on eee which is appended to Mandl’s Traité pratique du cope. The generic and specific characters which I give are in most cases literal translations from this work. I have also studied with much profit Kutzing’s Synopsis Diatomearum inthe Linnea for 1833. 'The plates accompanying Kutzing’s memoir have decided many doubts forme. Ehrenberg’s great work.on Infusoria I have not yet seen. Without further preface, Tshall eins — a translation of pa see? te e a age 3 BACILLARIA. sis Shemitlce Sees “ Polygastric (distinctly or probably*) without intestinal canal ; appendices (distinctly or probably ) variable, undivided, body ard tiform ; carapace often prismatic and siliceous, with One or seve- ral openings, often having the form of articulated polypi doms, in consequence of imperfect, spontaneous (longitudinal) division. % Ehrenberg divides this family into the following groups, viz. Desmidiacea, having the carapace simple, free, and univalve, (not usually. siliceous.) Naviculacea, with the carapace simple, fre, with two or more valves, (siliceous. ) Echinellea, with the carapace simple, fixed, (siliceous. ) Miatotnais,. with the carapace double, ano, and enveloped in tubes or gelatine.) He separates the Closteria as a distinct family, but this genus isso closely allied to Euastrum, that I cannot hesitate to follow the example of most writers upon the eabjoetes and to class them with the Desmidiacez. fT gen a» the cornea of Ehrenberg i with regard to the SweeLie y OP 286 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. The following analytical table of the genera of mein ” translated from Ehrenberg. A. Carapack sImPLe. ree. , a. Univalve, - « . . Desmidiacea. 1. Trilateral, . : : : : fe 3 Desmidium.* — 2. Quadrilateral, . . »« 5 « pee’: Stemrasioumacs Ce a er Round. ‘1. Smooth. Oe aa. Poly giteet moniliform, ‘ : , . "Tessararthra: » cciform, . Spherastrum.- A - with projections, Rag Gee Sh tthe "aire of band eis _ aa. Serrated oy Not serrated, . i SF et i. ‘ . _. Arthrodesmus.* ‘ Odontella.” °. Tsolated i in pats, ge aes Sia ae | Microtheca. ~ b. Two or more valves, . Naviculacea, phigh 8 f a. Round. 1. Globular, eee - j Pyxidicula.* 2. Forming. ees ox a ied ala aa. One cell, stele filiform, : A < Gallionella.* . Several concentric ¢ die,” pee eee Actinoeyclus.” b, iniesigi: hs 1, Division perfect, never forming bands. at aa. With six (?) mgs Aa Spas et Navicula.* ae bb. With four ‘our openings, ; ; Eunotia.” ae Tela? al tes Te Fein ‘ Meridion.” , al i SP See a Synedra. i . ” P pie be pee * a » peer snr Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 287 izes’ 3, Fixed obliquely. ; . a aa. Opening in the m iddle, ne aa Achnanthes.* iol Without opening in the middle, - Striatella.* B. Carapace povs Lacernata : _. A. Surrounded ‘ns an amorphous ecltinow mass. a, Scattered, _ abies Ssrnielia, i b, Joined in rings, 1 SPCR: Syneyelia. B. Surrounded by iudiabtinbas wined — e - a. Tubes separate. ; a. Frustules strait, 42 ped ee a . ~ Naunema.* og 1 eerie aon peere Raa - Gloenema. @, Fasciculate, Fa. ae Sey rompers b. Branching romega. The marked a (*) have: ines Spinetaits in the United Sina, Ehrenberg remarks of this family, that “the organization is difficult to tage in consequence of the hardness and refraction of the ca- rapace. . None have yet been found with calcareous coverings, but they are either hard and siliceous, (sometimes containing a little iron,) or membranaceous without silica. The differences observed in the in = hyaline vesicles of variable form; these are colorless, and resemble the stom achs of the Polygastrica, and in recent expe hens less granules, forming two or four groups, ¥ middle of the body, as in Navicula, Cocconema, aaeoas ec. Yio eggs are frequently divided into several globular groups which finally unite in a cruciform manner (Achnanthes) or which become confound- ed together, before being emitted, (Gallionella, Pyxidicula, Isthmia, &e. ;) at other times they appear under the form of a tube enveloping ae stomachs and other organs, (Xanthidium, Euastrum, Fee sige scorn genera Micrasterias, Arthrodesmus, Tessararthra and Xanthidium, have organs which may be compared to seminal vesicles. Spontane- ous division produces much variety in the forms of the polypidoms. It sometimes takes place longitudinally, sometimes transversely.” ~ ~ "The living species of this family may be found in slniatdwuny: situation where water occurs upon the surface of the earth. Some _ genera are exclusively marine, others are exclusively fluviatile, while some genera, as Navicula, Gomphonema, &c., include both salt and fresh water species. ‘The marine species may often be . found in great quantities among the filiform Algrey-w which hey with their apenee: Calay syd ‘itn a ie oy pt gist P Sy eh bey ‘ 288 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria The fluviatile species may be found in every pond, stream, rivulet, bog, or pool, either nestling among Conferve, parasitic on aquatic plants, or living in the sedimentary matter at the bottom. They often occur in such vast quantities as to cover hundreds of square yards, to which they give a peculiar color—green, yellow- ish or ferruginous, according to the peculiar internal coloring mat- ter of the individuals. Most of the species are exceedingly mi- nute, many are entirely invisible to the naked eye; others, how- ever, are quite perceptible without the aid of the microscope. Prise their extreme minuteness, it is evident, from their vast abundance, that they have some important offices to phot in the economy of nature ; and like the coral insect, al- though the individuals are saline, the result of their united la- bors is on a scale by no means insignificant. Few organic bodies exceed in beauty the symmetrical, ele- gantly sculptured forms of many of the species. ‘Their beauty, the singular phenomena they present, and the interest they have lately received from being detected in a fossil state in Europe and America, will be sufficient inducement for all lovers of micro- scopic research to study this family. “T shall now proceed to describe the most interesting American species, oe with the” = 5 | DESMIDIACEA, Pree, carapace simple, nlite, ‘trilateral, often eatonate-— Mandl. and Ehrenberg, I. c. p. 244, 1. Desmidium Schwartzii. Ag. (P\.1,fig.1.) “ Corpuscles smooth quadeagihliiron three sides, slightly emarginate, triangular on the other two sides, end obtuse, ovarium green, gly to ', of Paris line.” - The corpuscles of this species are united together by theit tri- angular faces, so as to produce long triangular (often twisted): fil- a armel: are of a beautiful green color, and _lubricous - Each filament. is enveloped in a very transparent ati inc Is ak which is not visible on the dead specimens: — filaments often occur together in great. quantities, and form a stra- tum in the water which is not. distinguishable frog age some species of Zygnema, with whi g@, this presents many points of resemblance. Allusion is ors Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria, 289 by several writers* to a “curious pinnatifid appearance” which this species presents “ before the ultimate separation of the joints.” I have not seen the filaments in this state, nor have I met with any detailed account of this change in the few works which I have been able to consult. : This species is extensively diffused in Europe, and. appears to be equally so.in this country. I have met with it from Rhode Island to Ouisconsin, and south to Virginia; it occurs at West Point in great abundance in ditches and peat bogs, where I have found it most abundant in early spring. I believe Desmidium cylindricum of Greville to be merely a state of this species. 2. Desmidium heeaceros, Ehr. (Compare figs. 2 and 3, Pl.1.) Cor- puscles binary, trilateral, the points drawn out to three -horns and trun- cate at the extremity, ;5 of line. 3. Desmidium aculeatum, Ehr. (Compare figs. 4, 5, and 6, Pl. 1.) Corpuscles spiny trilateral, the points drawn out to three truncate horns, often terminating in three spines, = I copy Ehrenberg’s description of the two last species, that they may be compared with the figures referred to above, which represent various binary triangular bodies, some of which agree pretty well with the above characters. ‘They however are so unlike D. Schwartzii, and present so many points of resemblance to Euastrum that I shall describe them as species of that genus, i STAURASTRUM. mi Free, a simple univalve quadrangular carapace. 1. Staurastrum paradorum. Corpuscles rough, single or binary, four setaceous horns in form of a cross. _ Micrasterias Staurastrum, Micrasterias tetracera, didicera, tricera. Kutzing, Linnea, Vol. viii, p. 599, PL. 20, figs. 83, 84! and 85. St. paradoxum, Meyen, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur., xiv, p. 777, Pl. 43. ‘Formed principally of two cells united end to end, and each ter- Minated by cross-shaped prolongations, on which are perceived vestiges of articulation.” See Ferussac’s Bulletin, June, 1830. | _ Tam not sure that I have yet met with this species in America; Thave, however, often seen the binary bodies represented by figs. 3 and 4, Pl. 1, having four arms instead of the three represented in our drawing. In the four-armed state they agree closely with ‘Ne above characters of S. paradorum, as well as with Kutzing’s "See Agardh. Systema Algarum, p. 15,and Greville in British Flora, Vol. v, p. 402. 290 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. PENTASTERIAS. Free, a ast univalve pentagonal carapace. 1. Pentasterias margaritifera. Surface granulated, rays thick and obtuse. Mandl. and Ehrenberg, |. ¢. Pl. 8, fig. 46. I am unacquainted with this genus, unless it is founded on five- rayed bodies resembling figure 7, which are only varieties of fig- ures 3 and 4; the number of arms being, as I have repeatedly seen, liable to much variation. 'TESSARARTHRA. Free,. a simple carapace, univalve, g clobular,. smooth, forming chains. of four or more individ luals by spontaneous division. - 1. Tessararthra moniliformis. aaa green, two or four uni- ted in a right line. M. and E. 1. c. Pl. 8, fig. 4 -Lhave not noticed this genus in Arnerica, SPHERASTRUM. | ae a simple carapace, wnivalve smooth, inflated, forming groups of various forms by imperfect spontaneous division. I have not yet detected any specimens of this genus. X-ANTHIDIUM. | Free, carapace simple, univalve, globular, bristhng ui jis _ or sete, isolated, binary or quaternary, (catenate?) — This genus is very interesting, from the fact that bodisk, almost identical in form with the living species, occur abundantly, pre- served in the fossil state in flint. Drawings of several fossil spe- cies may be seen in the Annals of Natural History, Pl. 9, accom panying an interesting paper on the Organic Remains in the Flint of Chalk, by the Rev. J. B. Reade. The directions. given for finding thao bodies in flint, are “to chip off thin fragments which may be attached by means of Canada balsam to slips of ‘glass, and then coated on the outer surface with hard spirit val nish. A hundred specimens may be thus cut, polished, and mounted for the microscope without trouble and expense, and in less time than an expert lapidary could prepare a single slice with the diamond mill and’ polishing tool” Many of the common gui flints coritain these bodies. Tam indebted to EK. J J. Quekett, ‘Esq. of ‘London, for very fine specimens of fossil Xanthidia$ ; among them is a slice of flint prepared by a lapidary, which con tains in a space of less than a square inch, as many as eight or t¢? very perfect Xanthidia, saaestt tice oaes organic. bodies- Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bocitlaria. 291 There has been much discussion as to the real nature of the bodies in flint which so closely resemble the recent Xanthidia ; Turpin mistook theny for eggs of Cristatella, to which however they have but little resemblance. Ehrenberg gives figures in his small treatise, ‘die Fossilen Infusorien und die lebendige Dam- merde,” Pl. 1, figs. 2, 12 to 17, which show the closest resem- blance between the recent and the fossil species. It is remarka- ble however that the recent species are inhabitants of fresh water, while flint is undoubtedly of marine origin. I have not seen dis- tinct motion in any of our species. ‘ ol. Xanthidium 2 ramosum. Corpuscles globular, separate or binary, spines scattered, terminated in three or more points 5/5 to sy line. Fos- sil in gun flints. 2. Xanthidium (Fig. 15, Pl. 1.) Binary, each portion having numerous rather long arms terminating in three diverging points. _ This very beautiful American species is, when living, of a fine gteen color. Its carapace is hard and apparently siliceous, as it retains its form in spite of the action of fire and acids. _ Every living specimen of this species which I have seen, has been com- posed of two symmetrical portions, as shown in the figure. These bodies when in the position shown in the figure, have much re- semblance to Ehrenberg’s drawings illustrating the Spontaneous division of some of the species. When thrown into other posi- tions, so that the line of union of the two portions is not seen, it may easily be mistaken for a simple spherical body bristling with atms. The two portions often separate after death, and may then be mistaken for individuals resulting from spontaneous di- Vision, but by throwing them into various positions by means of @ compressor, the orifice corresponding to the line of separation of the two original parts may always be seen. The same re Will apply to the next species also. ; It ocenrs not unfrequently in a subalpine pond a few miles from West Point; it is also occasionally found in ditches, in peat 3. -Kalthidten (Fig. 16,.a, 5, Pl. 1.) Binary, each por- tion somewhat triangular and terminating at each angle in three short, tiverging arms, each having three small diverging points. The smaller size and triangular form of these bodies, make me think them of a different species from the preceding. I have not Seen any intermediate forms, although they oceur together in about equal abundance at the above mentioned locality. 292 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. I must here remark that a transition from Xanthidium to Eu- astrum appears quite evident, through the binary triangular bod- ies, wep ve projecting arms, represented in figures 2, 3, 4, 9 and ARTHRODESMUS. Free, carapace simple, univalve, compressed in the form of @ te or a compressed band, articulated by spontaneous division. . Arthrodesmus quadricaudatus. (Fig. 17, Pl. 1.) Corpuscles ob- he straight ; chain or polypidom of four to eight individuals formed by mes et spontaneous division, four horns, (the middle corpuscles rounded at the ends, the others with a horn at each end.) ‘Size of cor- puscles +45 to si; line ; chains 4/5 line. Scenedesmus magnus, Meyen. This species, as it occurs in this country, is composed of from four to eight green elliptical corpuscles arranged in a thread or chain, usually having horns only on the two extreme corpuscles, but not unfrequently similar projections may be seen on the mid- dle ones also. Meyen, who considers this as a plant, states that in spring it contains starch globules. * Tt is extensively diffused, both in Europe and in this country ; I have noticed it as far west as Ouisconsin, and south to Virginia. It is abundant in ponds hear West Point, fi € 2. Prarie Bias cutus. (Fig. 18, a, b, Pl. 1.) Corpuscles green, oblong, alternating in a right line, by spontaneous division. The small green bodies represented in our fig. 18, occur in the well at Fort Putnam, —_ Point. They appear to belong to - species. OponTeLLa. ” Pree, carapace simple, univalve, compressed, form of flattened articulated ribbands, often pierced, produced by imperfect sponla- neous division, articulations united by small projections. I have. not satisfactorily determined any American peat of this genus, although I have occasionally seen small_filame which agreed tolerably well with the generic character. ee iptintaitse. a ce simple, univalve, compressed, groups of a num pa individals is frm of a atone star, produced by sal cous di Fen, Pftanzen Paani Vol. 3, past. Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 293 This is a very beautiful genus, its species presenting elegant star-like arrangements of green corpuscles, some of which closely resemble in form the stars and badges of honor worn in Europe. There appears to me to be much confusion in the specific char- acters, arising from the circumstance, that the nwmber of corpus- cles in the different rows has been made a character of specific importance. From what I have seen of the species, 1 am satis- fied that the number of corpuscles in a star is liable to great va- tiation in the same species, Perhaps the form of the corpuscles would prove a more certain character. 1. Micrasterias Tetras. (Fig. 19, Pl.1.) Four corpuscles united in form of star, the edge slightly notched. This is a very minute species, which occurs in ponds near West Point. I have also noticed it in Virginia. 2. Micrasterias Boryana... (Fig. 20, Pl. 1.) Ten corpuscles in the exterior circle, five in the ais and one in the centre, edge acutely dentate, Corpuscles ,!; to +35 of line. _ dt happens accidentally that our figure represents an individual having just the number of corpuscles above described. I am satisfied, however, from frequent observation, that the same spe- cies sometimes has a much greater number of corpuscles, certainly’ another row of fifteen is often developed. It then agrees with M. tricyclia of Ehrenberg. It is a very beautiful object for the microscope. I have found it in New York, Virginia, and in Quis- consin. 3 Micrasterias (Fig. 21, PL. 1, ) Corpuscles very nume- rous, forming large imperforate plates of a circular or elliptical form, Exterior corpuscles soe emarginate, each having two projecting Points, This large and very beautiful species is not uncommon in ponds near West Point. Evastaun. | Free, carapace simple, univalve, compressed, binary, sometimes ~cinelaoed having the form of a two-lobed disc or lamina, often “The elegant forms and emerald green color of the species of genus render them exceedingly fine. objects for the micro- Scope. The forms, as usually seen, appear tabular, but when thrown on their sides b yt means of Kemiae they show con- siderable thickness. 294 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. I have noticed in several species groups of molecules moving actively, precisely like those seen in Closterium. | Indeed this genus is most closely allied to Closterium, and some forms oecur which show a complete transition from one genus to the other. (See remarks under the head Closterium.) _ Capt. Carmichael, with his usual acuteness, detected their ani- mal nature. He remarks of two of the species, “ these are ani- mals instead of plants, if the faculty of locomotion will entitle them to that rank.’”” (See Hooker’s British Flora, V, p. 398.) I have frequently noticed the motion of several species; it is quite as distinct as in Closterium. 1. Ewastrum rota, Ehr. (Fig. 22, Pl. 1.) Body binary, lenticular, discoid, smooth, the edges dentate or spiny, 3, to 75 line. Echinella rotata? Greville. The species represented in our figure appears to be the Z. rota of Ehrenberg; and agrees pretty well with the account given by- Greville of his Echinella rotata, which he describes as having the “frond plane, circular, divided by a line passing through the centre, each portion composed of radiating segments cleft nearly to the central line.” (See Brit. Flora, V, p.398.) Having seen no figures of the European species, I cannot be sure of their identity with ours. The species represented in fig. 22, is quite common in the United States. I have seen it in Rhode Island, New York, Vir- ginia, and Ouisconsin; I have generally found it scattered among Conferve, but I once in early spring found many hundreds of them ¥olected together on the bottom of a very small pool of water ina sphagnoiit bog. Some variety occurs in the outline ; thus the two large ebsieat portions of each half are often perfectly symmetrical, and not unfrequently dentate near the ends. I have seen specimens twice the size of the one represented. 2. Euastrum crux melitensis. (Fig. 23? Pl. 1.) Body binary, len- ticular, discoid, smooth, - edges deeply divided into six dentate an spiny rays. I copy this Siseériplitin. that it may be compared with fig. 23, Pl. 1, which represents a very beautiful form which I have found in various situations near West Point, and also at Staten Island. Lhave seen it move i ~ 8: Euastrum ——. (Fig. 24, Pl.) ‘This i possibly only @ younger state of B, rota, (fig. 22) with which it oecurs. Sketch of the Infusoria-of the family Bacillaria. 295 4. Euastrum (Fig. 25, Pl. 1.) This very elegant form is somewhat rare. It occurs at West Point with the preceding. 5. Euastrum (Fig. 26 and fig. 27, a, b, c, and d, Pl. 1.) I suspect that the species represented in figs. 26 and 27, is the same as the Echinella oblonga of Greville, which he describes as being “ com- pressed, oblong crenato-pinnatifid, and lobed, divided transversely al- most to the centre.” (Brit. Flora, Vol. V, p. 398.) Fig. 27, a and b, show two positions of the same individual: eand d show aiatt individuals, which are probably the young of this species. Fig. 26, although much more deeply lobed than fig. 27, is probably only an older state of the same. They oceur at West Point, also near Detroit, Michigan, and in Ouisconsin. 6. Euastrum (Fig. 28, a, b.) This species is neither lobed hor undulate ; but while the general outline is convex, a minutely ser- rated edge may be seen. When thrown on its side, (fig. 27, b,) it pre- sents an unusual thickness. If this species is compared with fig. 38, Pl. 1, the close rela- tion existing between the Sener Closterium and Evuastrum will be manifest. 7. Euastrum ~ (Fig. 29, PL 1) T suspect that the bodies represented i in fig. 29, hong to ‘fis genus. They consist usually of four somewhat elliptical green bodies placed parallel to each other, and united laterally, as seen in the figure. Each elliptical portion is biden- tate at the ends. I have met with specimens in which eight such cor- puscles were united, producing such an appearance as would be given if a figure like that shown in fig. 29, had a similar one added immedi- ately below it. If this is a species of Euastrum, perhaps it may be thus char- acterized ; Euastrum ———. Fig. 29. Binary (or sometimes ghaternary,) each corpuscle divided by deep lateral sinuses into two transverse somewhat elliptical bidentate portions, the middle portions longest. Occurs in ponds near West Point. 8. Euastrum margaritiferum, Ehr. (Fig. 8, a, 6, Pl. 1.) Body. bi- hary, elliptical, each part semi-orbicular with the margin entire, 75 to zz line. Heterocarpella tetropthalma, Ktz. Linn. 1839, Pl. 19, fig. 87. . Our species (fig. 8) agrees pretty well with the above descrip- tion and with Kutzing’s figure. A figure given by Meyen in his Pflanzen Physiologie, Vol. III, Pl. 10, fig. 31, apparently belongs to this species also, ‘The surface has a great number of minute hemispherical pro- jections, disposed in a quincuncial order. It is possible that the 296 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. pearl-like appearance of these projections, when seen on the empty carapace, may have suggested the specific name. I have seen this species move quite distinctly, and have also seen in it (as well as other species of Euastrum) groups of moving mole- cules as in Closterium, sometimes indeed the whole cavity is fill- ed with such particles. Meyen states that the species he repre- sents (L. c. fig. 31, Pl. 10) contains globules of starch. This species is very common in the neighborhood of West Point. Ionce found, in the spring of the year, in a small pool caused by the melting of snow in a peat meadow, a large cloud- like mass in the water, which when touched, broke to pieces and became diffused through the water. On examination, it proved to be wholly made up of this species. I have found it in Rhode Island, New York, Ouisconsin, and Virginia. 9. Euastrum (Fig. 9, Pl. 1.) Binary, triangular, angles rounded, each corpuscle having several rows of minute points. Hab. West Point. 10. Euastrum (Fig. 10, Pl. 1.) Binary, elliptical, each corpuscle having three pairs of long subulate spines. Hab. West Point. I have met with individuals having the spines developed on only one side. ll. Euastrum (Fig. 13, Pl. 1.) Binary, corpuscles cor- date at base, each having six pairs of short spines. This is a very pretty species which occurs at West Point. The figure shows the position of two groups of active molecules. 12. Euastrum — (Figs. 11 and 12, Pl. 1.) Binary, each cor- puscle elliptical and terminating at each extremity in a single spime- Hab. West Point. 18. Euastrum (Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, Pl. 1.) Binary, (sometimes quaternary,) generally triangular, and terminating in three long arms, each of which ends in three minute spines. Hab. West Point. The number of arms is usually three, but I have met with specimens in which one corpuscle had three and the other four arms, others in which both had four, and others again in which both had five arms. It appears to me that the five-armed variety may have given rise to the genus Pentasterias, (page 290,) and the four-armed. les are possibly the same as Staurastrum, (page 289.) This however is only a conjecture, hazarded without having seen al thentic specimens or good figures of those genera. The struc ture of the arms is exactly as in the Xanthidium, (fig. 15, Pl- 1, and there is indeed an evident relation between the genera. The reader is requested to compare some of the figures last referred to with the descriptions rs a a and D. aculeatum, page 289.” 14. Euastrum ———.. (Fig. 14; Pl. 1.) Binary, corpuscles trian- gular, each angle terminating ina sharp spine. Hab. West Point.» » I have seen several other species of Euastrum, but the sili figured is sufficient to give an idea of the variety and ——- the forms in this interesting genus. Cuosterwm. (See Figs. 30 to 38, Pl. 1.) vis Ehrenberg makes of this genus a distinct family of Infusoria, which he calls the Oléstetina, and characterizes thus: “ Polygastric (distinctly or probably) without alimentary ca- nal, without appendices, polypidoms having the form of a wand, (“ baguette,” ) thread or spindle, by spontaneous division, oe Sived and movable in the opening of the carapace.” LT have before stated that I consider the genus Closterium most closely related to Etiastrum, and therefore with the Desmidiacea generally. This relation to Euastrum is manifest in their apparent identity i in internal structure, the chief diffe fference between them is only in the erternal forms, and even in them, we find there is aperfect transition from the highly lobed and tabular forms of some species of Euastrum, to the entire, elongated and fusiform species of Closterium. It is therefore without hesitation that I place Closterium (as indeed most writers do) among the Desmi- ea, These has been much discussion of the question, Ncdeekiver the Closteria are plants or animals, and as this inquiry is one.of gen- eral interest, the decision of which will affect the position of all the family Bacillaria, I maybe excused for giving at some length, an account of the present state of the question. Eh- renberg gives the nore reasons for believing the Closte- Mla to be animals. 1. Their voluntary motion. 2. Their termi hal'openings. 3. mai incessantly moving organs placed against the ¢ ie and sometimes projecting. ‘A, Their BpOntaiCoNs divi ‘Movred in in his celebrated memoir “ Sur les Closteriées,” (some hotice of which’ may be found in this Journal, Vol. xxv, p. 122 > Supports the view rai the ea a see. Vol. x11, No. 2.—July-Sept. 298 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. Meyen, in his Report on Vegetable Physiology, for 1837, (p. 54 of Francis’s translation,) and also in his Pflanzen Physiolo- gie, Vol. III, p. 437, has brought forward the fact of the presence of starch, in the Closteria, as conclusive evidence of their being plants. He states that the large and small. globules in these bod- ies “at certain times, and particularly in spring, are almost wholly composed of starch.” He adds that in the month of May he had observed “many specimens of Closterium in which the whole interior substance was granulated, and all the grains gave with iodine a beautiful blue eer as is the case with starch, which is not an animal In the Annals of Natural History for August, 1840, (No. 33, p- 415,) is given.a notice of a paper read by Mr. Dalrymple be- fore the Microseopical Society of London. As this paper gives a good idea of the present state of the discussion concerning the nature of the Closteria, I believe that no apology is necessary for , taking from it the following extract, especially as my own obser- vations enable me to confirm some of the statements and to cor- rect others. “The author, after detaiting the history of Closterium, from its dis- covery by Corte in 1774, down to the present time, entered into a detail of its appearance and general structure; he described it as consisting of a green gelatinous and granular body, invested by a highly elastic and contractile membrane, which is attached by 1 variable points toa hard siliceous shell, which was afterwards stated by Mr. C. Varley #6 resist even the action of boiling nitric acid. The form of Closterium is spindle-shaped or crescentic—the shell consisting of two horns, taper ing off more or less to the extremities, and united at the central trans- verse line, constituting a perfectly symmetrical exterior. At the ex- tremity of each horn is an opening in the shell, which, however, closed within by the membranous envelope, wanting however in some specimens. Within the shell and at the extremity of the green bodys is a transparent chamber containing a variable number of active mole- cules, measuring from the 20,000th to the 40,000th of an inch ; these molecules or transparent , occasionally escape from this cham- ber, and circulate vaguely and irregularly between the periphery of the gelatinous and the shell; further, the parietes of this chamber have a nee power. ‘The author denied the existence of any a or proboscides at this part, as well as the supposition of Ehren: berg that these moving molecules constitute the basis of such papille. He also denied the statement of the same ¢ stin ished observer, that if coloring matter was mixed with the water in which the resides, any motion was communicated to the particles ef such color- ing matter by the supposed papille, or by the active molecules within the terminal cells. A circulation of the fluids within the shell was ob- served, independent of the vague movements of the active molecules ; this was regular, passing in two opposite currents, one along the side of the shell, and the other along the. periphery of the gelatinous body. When the shell and body of the Closterium was broken by p the green gelatinous matter was forcibly ejected by the contraction of the membranous envelo “The action of iodine “apeid the specimens was very remarkable ; Ist, it did not, as reported by Meyen, stain the green body violet or purple, but orange-brown ; 2d, it produced violent contraction of the investing membrane of the body, whereby the green matter was often forcibly expelled from the shell at the transverse division; it instantly annihilated the motion of the molecules in the terminal sacs, and the sacs themselves became so distended with fluid as to burst and allow the molecules to escape. ip itn oR 2 stad Salah place, Ist, by spon- ne eatin cemetone! “The author, after balancing the arguments of the two theories re- resembling that of plants, it has also a definite organ, unknown i in the vegetable world, in which the active molecules appear to enjoy an in- ent motion, and the parietes of which appear capable of con- tracting upon its contents. “2d. That the green gelatinous body is contained in a membranous envelope, which, while it is elastic, contracts also upon the action of ile the appearance of a viteliine soakam, transparent but molecular a chorion or shell, determines them as animal ova. It was shown to be impossible that these eggs had been deposited in the empty shell ‘ infusoria, or that they were the produce of some entozoon. S Ath, That while it was impossible to determine whether the vague motions of Closterium were voluntary or not, yet the idea the author had formed of a suctorial apparatus, forbade his classing them with plants. 2 Lastly, i in no instance had the action of iodine produced its ordi- : Sh ahagh upon starch or ve table matter, by coloring it violet or Me, Meyen asserts it did in his trials. 300 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. “The author therefore concluded that Closterium must-still be re- tained as an infusory animal, although it is more than doubtful whether it‘ought to rank with the polygastric families.” Upon the above statements of Mr. Dalrymple, 1 venture to offer the following remarks. Ist. As to the siliceous nature of the carapace: Ehrenberg ex- pressly states, (1. c. p. 446,) that “the carapace can be burned and completely volatilized.” This statement of Ehrenberg, to- gether with the undoubted fleribility of the covering of many of the Closteria, which I have often noticed as wholly unlike the brittle siliceous coverings of the Naviculz, and the fact that I have never found their coverings among the fossil Navicule, al- though the living species of each genus occur abundantly together, all induce me to think the iis of Closterium can ly be siliceous... 2d. Motions apparently piatdiae-iteses are easily seen ; I have often’ been unable to sketch the form of a specimen by means of the camera lucida, as the body was constantly ehang- ing its position, and this too when certainly undisturbed by the motion of other animalcules or any extraneous cause. Their power of locomotion may also be rendered apparent thus: if @ portion of mud covered with Closteria is placed in a glass of wa ter, exposed to light, and the Closteria are then buried in the mud, they will soon work their way to the surface, covering it again with a green stratum which may be buried over and over again, with the same results. — _ 3d. Presence of moving molecules i in distinct cavities —T hese are easily scen; generally there is one such cavity in each ex tremity, as indicated in most of our figures of Closterium, (see figs. 30 to 38,.Pl..1,) but sometimes there are many such cavities; a other times almost-the whole.interior appears filled with active molecules, as has already been stated (p. 296) is sometimes” case with Euastrum. In specimens where the cavities at the ends were very distinct, and which also showed very distinetly the circulation referred to by Mr. Dalrymple, I noticed that the form of the cavity containing the active molecules was constantly fan ¢ sing, being sometimes globular, then elongating to the 3 and then “becoming globular again, in a rapid but very Sx : of distinct | et circulation. — This was ; noticed many years ago jo by Giruladeek “The account by Mr. Dalrymple, giv Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 301 en in the above extract, agrees exactly with what I have seen in several species. The currents are very distinct, so much so, in fact, that they attracted my attention before I was aware that they had been noticed by others. 5th. Action of Todine.—I cannot otherwise account for Mr. Dalrymple’s statement that iodine “in no instance produced in the Closteria, the violet or blue color indicating starch,” than by supposing that the specimens he examined were not in the proper state to exhibit it. Meyen expressly states, that it is “at certain times, particularly in spring,” that the starch may be detected. Iam able by conclusive experiments to confirm Meyen’s state- Ments as to the presence of starch in these bodies. In specimens gathered in November, many of which I have still by me ina living state, I find no difficulty in producing the blue or purple color with tincture of iodine. Sometimes, however, the speci- men becomes so opaque by the action of this reagent, that the purple color of the granules can only be detected after crushing the specimen by means of the compressor. The c isti color of iodide of starch is then shown most distinctly. I have repeatedly treated in this way the large species, C. trabecula (fig. 32, Pl. 1) as well as others, and have uniformly found that a por- tion of the interior takes the blue or purple color. I cannot however consider the presence of starch in Rie bod- ies as conclusive evidence that they are plants. Is it not possible that they are animals which feed, wholly or in part, on amyla- ceous matter extracted from the aquatic plants among which they live? If so, the detection of starch in their stomachs is not surprising. 6th. Organs of motion and moving papille.—These I have hot yet seen, but do not feel authorized to deny their existence, as lam well aware that my microscope,* although a very good One, is probably inferior to the one used by Ehrenberg. It shows the lines on the scales of Podura as well as I have been able to See them by any instruments in this country, yet I have not suf- ficient confidence in its power, or my skill in using it, to contra- ct the statements of results obtained by so distinguished an ob- Server as Ehrenberg, in using the best instruments of Europe. I can vouch very positively for what I have seen, but will not pre- tend that ‘end that more may not be seen by others. * Made by Charles Chevalier, 130 Palais Royal, Paris. 302 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. I will now proceed to describe briefly some of the most inter- wting American species of Closterium, giving in connection with the characters of the European species which appears to correspond to our own, as far as I can determine by the brief ac- counts, usually unaccompanied by figures, in the works to which I have access. 1. Closterium heats (Fig. 30, Pl. 1.) Semilunar or straight, di minishing gradually towards the rounded extremities, internal glands scattered, green granules arranged. in several (10) threads, ¢ to 7b line, 2. Closterium .moniliferum. (Fig. 31, Pl. 1.) Semilunar, never straight, smooth, acute, and rounded at the ends, internal glands inthe middle of the body arranged ina moniliform manner, green granules i a several Tows, of which the three middle ones are most distinct. Specimens. agreeing with the characters of each of the above species ‘are common in this country. They do not however ap- pear to be specifically distinct. They may be easily recognized by their smooth, green, crescent-like forms. ~ 8. Closterium trabecula. (Fig. 32? PL. 1. ) Straight, cylindrical, er eT in the middle, smooth, the ends truncate, ice scattered or in several series, numerous obscure bands, 3}; to + lin Ihave seen no figure of this European species, “hi I never- theless venture to refer to it, the fine species represented in figure 32. This is the largest Closterium which I have seen in the United States. It occurs at West Point, at Staten Island, aud | in Virginia. - Its motions are quite distinct, “the cavities containing moving particles very apparent, and what appear to be terminal openings may be easily seen. By application of tincture of iodine, and then crushing the specimen under the compressor, starch glo- bules may easily be detected. In crushing, the globules are of ten forced out at the terminal openings, and on relieving the pres- sure are drawn back again. No rupture of a membrane at these points was perceived. 4. Closterium digitus. i 33? Pl. 1.) Straight, oval, cylindri- cal, four or five times longer than broad, smooth, the ends very d, sometimes showing traces of a spontaneous triple division, longitudi na bands often denticulate, zo to +, line. With this account may be com red fig. 33, Pl. 1, which rep- resents a species not uncommon at West Point, and Chih I have also seen in Rhode piel, Virginia, and Ouisconsn ORS Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Be oe me ' Its endochrome usually presents a central mass, from which several (10?) undulating ‘ils radiate to the carapace. It is a very elegant species. 5. Closterium lineatum. (Fig.34? Pl1.) Very long, acute, slightly arcuate, cylindrical, filiform in the middle, the ends trunca te, and very acute, (‘‘ trés amincis,”) ridges distinct, in form of smooth Teal Often thirty times longer than broad, +5 to 4 of a line. Compare with this fig. 34, Pl. 1, which represents a species quite common in ponds near ‘West Point, and which also occurs in Virginia. The figure represents only one half of the exces- sively elongated body. In the living specimens, the endochrome shows distinct ridges. 6. Closterium striolatum. (Fig, 35? PI. 1.) Fusiform and arcuate, ends acute and truncate, ridges smooth, not deep, ten or twelve times longer than broad, +1, line. Compare fig. 35, Pl. 1, which represents a common species. 7. Closterium rostratum, Ehr. Fusiform, slender, ends acute, seta- ceous horns about as long. as the body, sormatines. shorter. _ C. acus, Kitz. Linn., 1833, fig. 81. I suspect the species shown in fig. 36, Pl. EE is a young state of this species. I found it among Lemna minor, on Staten Isl- and, New York. Fig. 36, a, shows an individual produced by Spontaneous division, one portion of which is still imperfectly de- velo ed. , 8. bet tenue, Kiz. ‘*Corpusculis minutis lineari-lanceolatis, viridi hyalinis, transverse fasciatis acutis.” See Linnea, 1833, Pl. 8, fig. 78. _I find no notice of this species in the extract from Ehrenberg’s work, appended to Mandl’s work on the microscope, but as Kuet- zing’s fig. 78 resembles our species, (fig. 37, Pl. 1,) 1 quote his description, that they may be compared. Our species occurs in vast abundance on the muddy bottom of abrook which crosses the Canterbury road, a few miles from West Point. It forms a mass of such extent, and of so bright & green color, that I at first mistook it for a layer of Oscillatoria. ‘There are very fine transverse lines, often visible on the cara- Pace, and it often appears as if a portion of the shell between these lines (as at a, b, fig. 37, Pl. 1) had been removed. Its mo- tions are distinct and lively. 9. Closterium (Fig. 38, Pl. 1.) Nearly cylindrical, con- tracted in the middle, ends obtuse, and in one position showing a re- 304 Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. entering fold of the carapace. Hab. ponds’ near West Point. A similar fold in the carapace is visible in some species of Euastrum. (See fig. 27, Pl. 1.) Microraeca. Nig carapace simple, univalve, compressed, separate, lamelli- M octoceros. Carapace quadrangular, hyaline, four spines at each end, internal body golden yellow. am unacquainted with this genus. End of the Desmidiacea, Note. —Having, i in what precedes, completed a sketch of the Desmi- diacea, I propose to offer in the next part of this memoir (now nearly ready for the press) some account of the other divisions of the Bacilla- ria, viz. the Naviculacea, the Echinellea and the Lacernata. Many of the species of these families have siliceous coverings and are found in a fossil state. An account of our American species will therefore, I trust, be found of some interest to American geologists, especially as the recent discovery by Prof. W. B. Rogers, of the vast infusorial stra- tum in the tertiary of Virginia,* cannot fail ® attract new attention to tibs6 interesting bodies. anation of the Figures, on Plate I. “he sketches which accom- pany this memoir, were all made by means of a camera lucida ye piece attached to Chevalier’s ‘horizontal and vertical microscope. fig. 39 is shown a sketch of +19,ths of a millimetre, magnified and drawn with the same combination of lenses, camera lucida, distance, &c. This being equally magnified with the drawings, will serve as a scale to de termine the absolute dimensions of any of the objects. The highest power of the instrument was not used in getting the outlines, as it would have given figures inconveniently large. The details were, however, oceasionally corrected or confirmed, by the use of a higher power. — : PLATE I Fig. 1. Desmidium Schwartzii, Page 288, from a twisted portion of a filament. Fig. 2 and 3. ‘Bumtrum} page 296, two positions of same individual. Fig. 4 and 5. Euastrum? a larget variety of the same species as fig. 3. Pig. 5. Se ee ree ere a betes in a state Fig. 6. Sasi tiga. Fig. 7. Frearaed aay of 4, page 296, tig AL IE ae sel of this Journal, Pp 214. . * dead pots of this tis means eos ae Sketch of the Infusoria of the family Bacillaria. 305 Fig. 8. a. b. Euastrum Sasenrinioray page 295, a. b. different is sition of same individual, Fig. 9. a: b. Evastrum ——, page 296, a. b wo postions. < Fig. 10. Euastrum ge Fig. 1Land 12. Euastram —, page 296, i Fig. 13. Euastram —— + page ¢ 296. . chee Fig. 14. Euastrum ——, page 297. e ‘Fig. 15. Xanthidium ; » Page 291, a recent species from West Point. Fig. ss a. b. Aauithieitien + | page 291, another species from West Sig 17. Arthrodesmus quadricaudatus, page 292. ‘Fig. 18. a. b. Arthrodesmmus eutus ¢ page 292. ae of al @ ee iy (Eat blonga of Greville ?) a. _ b. two positions of s me individ due ee er individuals. ride glen k Goes bigots = oi a. b. Euastram ——, eg Siediheict ae. a Closterium ieatiovilé > page ny ing - Fig. 33. Closterium digitus? page 803. sel OSE " “Fie 34. Closterium lineatum? page 303. o Maa Fig. » Fig. 38, -Closteti Fig, 39. sim fit Svisies wpe “ie pe Gates dath of a mili Manite. magnified equally with the sketches. Note-—Since the the preceding sketch was sent to press, I have seen in Schilechtendal” 8 Fen than p- 201, a valuable memoir, by J. Meneghini, entitled Day setae hucusque cognitarum. It gives a very account of the —— Br ig: f I find _m vio ast tho relations of several genera ists 0 x Ase Saar tf confirmed on perusal of this Synopsis, W 1 mmend to the dalieisbseh dcBiche of this eutious clase of bodies.” ft. J. W. B. Vol. xu, No, SET Ae, anon 306 _. Observations on Bills of Mortality. Art. V.— Observations on Bills of Mortality, witha seneal for their improvement ; by James Mease, M. D., &c.- T nave had for many years the subject of the longevity of the people of the United States under consideration, and have made large collections of the deaths of our citizens throughout the Union who reached the age of eighty years, with the view of showing, as I hope to show, that the chances for long life are as great in ‘the United States as in Lay Sea country, whatever pe copay. my. idea of a seventy as my sn es Alan see I think that any’ climate which permits a human being to attain that age, may. justly be termed healthy, and we know that where one person is’ capable of rendering him or herself eran wage age, eg Wi do little more than vegetate.* =~ Being otherwise engaged at present, I cannot enter fly on this subject, and shall therefore merely state the principle aapon which I intend to form my oo, and suggest an ‘improve- ment in the bills of mortalit The true object of publishing. the bills of mortality is, ii to enable any inquirer to ascertain the comparative healthi some city or locality with others in different parts of the cae ot in a foreign country, (the population being. the. same, ) » and sec- ondly, to inform us of the diseases peculiar. to either, or of t general nature, that they may be compared with those in other places at home or abroad... Now a just estimate of these objects of inquiry cannot be formed in the United States atleast, by re oe OF tee janes eae in the bills, deaths from every ane tite I have ais ttiong,: that no death ee — PRS aa reescore and ten, and if by. reason of 8 ‘they be fourscore years, yet is their stren; labor and sorrow.” Psalms, xO noticed in the general result of an annual bill of mortality, ex- cept those which are incident to mortality in all countries, from internal or constitutional causes, or which may be fairly ascribed to or are influenced by climate; all others being» merely adven- titious ought to be excluded. If it should be thought necessary to record the precise number of persons who finish their mortal career in any place, a column might be specially appropriated to these extraneous causes of death, and such an improvement I suggested several years since for the bills of mortality in Pasir delphia, but without effect.* ~The items which J think ought to be omitted in the regular columns of all bills of mortality, are burns, childbed, contusions, eke wrain drunkenness, fractures of all parts of the temperance, megan injury of the head, of the aie of the. “sit of the hip; duels, landanum, mania a potu, (madness from rum,) found dead, intisdexed, syphilis, still- born, , small-pox, varioloid, suicide, Sebel These 2¢ Philadelphia bills ae ere Asia« tis’ cholera, , (which was included in the | hilade year 1832,) any other epidemic, deaths from the eran prisons, which are natae *) in the baer. arene ‘died abroad.” otal ae Fee ~The inutility of specifying Ba fractures and ingbaiaaeiee separate lines, and of giving one line to each’ special aan causing death, and separate lines to drunkenness, inten and mania a potu, must-be obvious upon a moment’s sefies fag! The two first ought to: be included in the line or column for “casualties,” and the three last placed in one line after the head age » «Tandanum,” “ morphine to excess,” and’ “ poison~ 2’ should be in one line after the last head. Malignant chol- era ‘e comes we know not how, it goes we: know not where ;”F and therefore’ cannot be claimed exclusively as an indigene by * Since writing the foregoing, I find by reference i a British Annual Régiater ; thatin the Edinburgh bills, there is a colum he head “ casualties,” an comprises all those deaths which may be pope ranged under if. +t We know that it first appeared in the army of the Marquis of Hastings, in the year 1817, when encamped during a military expedition in the sandy soil, and sun of Renae: and that it visited Europe and North America, Unaffected:by the cold of Russia, the moisture of England, the dry climate of France, or the:variable climates of Canada and the Uvited States. Tn 1836, it in Italy, ot y 308 Observations on Bills of Mortality. any country, but being merely accidental ought not to swell the regular bills, although it may be proper to note in-an extra column the number cut off by it. The same may be said of influenza, or any other epidemic. In Philadelphia, nine hundred and forty- eight persons died of cholera in the year 1832. I found the sin- gular item, ‘ died abroad,” only in the bill of mortality for Mar- blehead, in Massachusetts, for 1823, between which. year and that of 1801, the number amounted to one hundred and fifty- four, The London bills, inserted in the Annual Register until within five or six years, record among the causes of deaths, “ headmold-shot” and.“ horseshoe-head.’** The deaths in the alms-houses ought also to be excluded. I am authorized to say, that nineteen of twenty of the diseases causing these deaths in the Philadelphia alms-house, originated from the intemperate use of ardent spirits, and besides that very many of the victims con- sist of vagabonds, who had no legal residence inthe city ot county of Philadelphia, but may have recently come from Eu- rope, from other states, or the interior of this state, and having been found destitute or sick, are sent to the great depot on the principle of humanity. The deaths in the county prison and in the eastern penitentiary are inserted in the annual bills, and since the year 1837 the interments from the county of Philadelphia are made to increase the annual sum total. Now as the solitary cells in which the prisoners are confined are ‘all above ground; and are dry and warm, and the. prisoners perform just so much light labor as promotes health, and have wholesome food, the con- clusion i is, that their diseases, with very few exceptions, are the result of previous irregular lives; at least they are not the effects of solitary confinement ) To show how greatly the items objected to swell the sum she of the bills of mortality, I will state that in the year . 820 they amounted t . 317, ven mortality. Dare 3,374 ‘ee & 4 603, “ 4,399 1828 « “ ee ca ‘“c kite 292 18, : 1832 « fas te 1,577, ee “ die 6,699 aes, % * Headmold-shot i is a diene i in chilaed in which the sutures of the skull, es ally the coronal, | ride, that rte when thei thei r a over one another, and are pip nae as to ee d-death: — & she a nat hiss ee, a ee a % PEE i [Ae wo? Fay A 4 Bat) ee ee ee ee 309 Ab ted UI ZPD ‘Y _ 1835 they amounted to 857, total mortality being 5,666. 1836 “c “c cc 762,,.:. * es &.. 5367 um 3837)“ 3 cc BBQ, es « 5,202 PAGSS.. “ a Buc, Babys x fh, »A§,462.., “24839. « “ ce. 555, Ks fe 4.112. 4 % 1840 “ 73 “ 657, “ i “ 4,949 Deaths in the alms-house in ) 1824, 590, 1833, 406, 1825, 346, 1834, 356, 1826, 337, 1835, 398, 1827, 443, 1836, 445, 1828, 356, 1837, 365, from the country, 6 1829, 424, 1838, 295, ws i 36 1830, 390, * 1839, 269, + - 39° 1831, 414, © ; at 355, o " 4 1832, 590, ae ea . _ The useful and practical bearing of the improvement I sug- _gest, if adopted, would be the enabling any one to form a just estimate of the health of a country or city, and secondly to establish a basis for premiums on life insurance. Persons desir- ous to do either would naturally first ascertain the population of the place, then the number of deaths annually, and from these data would calculate the proportion of one to the other, and draw his conclusions therefrom. A series of years, say twenty, Would of course be taken. Now any one may easily imagine the magnitude of the influence in favor of or against the char- acter of a country or city for salubrity, which the retention or rejection of the proscribed causes and places of death must have upon the result. In the one case a numerous list of these causes, altogether accidental and adventitious, will lead to unfair con- clusions on the point in question, while in the other, none but such as may be termed legitimate would be taken into consider- ation. Upon the first mode of procedure, Philadelphia, for in- Stance, would show an alarming but unjust disproportion of deaths to its population, and if the result were to determine the Premium of life insurance in an European office upon a resident in it, a high one va any risk were taken)* must necessarily be os Itia probable.that cine. to a conclusion or ‘ealculation of the increased risk of life in the United States, and founded on the great proportion of deaths to the 310 _ Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. asked, while upon the second mode she would stand as she deserves, high in the scale of health, and lead to the demand of asmall premium. As the question is one of figures, a and I have stated the data, the problem may be easily solved, and the result I am satisfied will be conclusive as to the justness of the prin- ciple I lay down for our rule of conduct on the two occasions I have mentioned above. It may be said in favor of continuing the old form in the bills of mortality, that as the deaths from all causes are enumerated in them in every country where they are published, the influence of the accidental sources of death I object to would operate equally in one place as in another ; such an argument has in fact been urged when I have introduced the subject in conversation, but its weakness must be apparent when we reflect. upon the very great difference in the proportionate number of mortal accidents in different countries; in cities for instance they are numerous, and in some much greater than in oBhers, at Wl ae Ue Arr. VI.— Meteorological Disacs alg made at Hudson, oie, “Jat. 41° 14° 40” N.; long. 54 25m 473.5 W.; during | the years 1838, 1839 and ‘1840; by Ex1as Loomis, Prof, of Mathe- : matics and Natural | Philosophy in in Western Reserve College. Ix the autumn of 1837 T arrived at Hudson with a set of meteorological and other ‘instruments, recently purchased in Europe. It was some time before a ‘suitable place could be pro- vided for their reception, and they were not observed with much regularity until March, 1838. During the first three months the register was Pnigarghld interrupted, but sirice August, 1838, only ome observation has been lost. In vol. xxxvi, pp. 165-1 173 of this Journal, anna specimen of the register and a description of the instruments. It will be sufficient venir that the position of the instruments has throughout remained dnchaniged; and the same hours of observation —— It is proposed now to Santee py’ ald hee ation , which the retention of their causes in the bills I object to made appa- oes reason why an insurance company in England refused to continue a peak eana. te Dunglison when about to embark rthe U! eee es , Sect. 4, p. 132. - Pa : Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. = 3:11 give the monthly averages of the observations, with such — ulars as are thought most worthy of notice. _ BAROMETER. 1839. i gabe sEloa] 83 eel esl g] S8leel Fle : £3)25) 33 28) s3\ss|.22\26) 23 MONTHS. gE ze ge ge eo Pelee €? es = 6° Se) Peis so) slo e] SSk Pewee “6/ a5 Pa] 25\22| 28 March, A. M. 28.8 28.820) i i: ‘6? Y od PYM. -T66}* i April, 9 a.m. -738) ¥ P.M. May, 9a.™. see P. M. a June, 9a. M. ee, P.M, July, A. M. Ce ee Pi Mh bey Aug., A. M. Rie Pt Sept, Fa. ul P.M. Oct., A.M} > bh as 4 ake ee Nov., © pos: - ‘ PB. Me Dec., ve ae oe P.M} se P08 P. M.p> »Feb., A.M P.M. aay ‘The mean duane ‘oxtilinkiote i is fd the be jidgtaoed months 0.0405; autumn and winter months, 0.0463. Differ- ence 0.005 It is least of all in summer, and nee autumn. Average for the year, 0.0434. Prof. Forbes’s for z=.1193 cos.20—.0150, 2 being the oscillation in lasitnder 6, gives 8 Bisidson sha sabia) The accordance is certainly re- tmarkab Bite im mean of all the ipiovl pittensiork: gives for the win months 28,751; summer 28.810; autumn 28.853; winter 28.809; the mean pressure being .102 greater in autumn than spring. So large a difference derived from three years’ observations might be tegarded as indicating a law of nature. According to observa- tions of fourteen years at London, the mean pressure was least in Spring and greatest in winter, the difference amounting to 038. Ihave sought for information on this subject from other tic observations made in this country, but they are almost without exception uncorrected for effect of temperature, hor are any data. furnished for computing it} and even if the temperature of the mercury were given, the barometers are seldom CG uotajen cout upon, ee Arenal observations. 312 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. According to observations for five years at Montreal, by Mr. M’Cord, the mean pressure was greatest in autumn and least in summer, the difference being .090. This coincides in part with my own result. The fluctuations of the barometer are however so great and seemingly anomalous, that observations need to be continued for a long period to establish any general law. The mean pressure at Hudson for the three years is 28.806 inches. In order to appreciate the value of this result, we must compare it with observations made at other stations. The following table exhibits the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the places named, according to M. Schouw, the heights being reduced to the level of the sea at the temperature of 32° F’., and corrected for the change of gravity in different latitudes. The table is found in the Comptes Rendus des Séances de |’Académie, 1836, i, 573. Latitude. Barom. ’ Place. Latitude. — 33° 56/s. |30.008 | London, 51° 28'n.|: 22 56’s.| .026]} Altona, 53 32 24’n.|29.849 | Dantzic, 54 21 48 .856] Kénigsberg, |54 43 ard 019 Reikiavig, 64 00 ‘52 | .003/Godthaab, (64 00 AT (29.993 Eyafiord, 65 50 56 | .999;)Godhavn, 68 00 30 (30.006; Upenavik, (73 00 | > 24 -007 | Melville Isl. (74 30 48 50 [|29.988]Spitzbergen, !75 30 The denis of the barometer near the equator, as well as in high northern latitudes, is strikingly exhibited by this table. With this standard let us compare some observations made in this country. The data for New York are furnished by Mr Redfield, Am. Journal, vol. xxxviii, p. 326. ‘Those for Mon- treal, by Mr. M’Cord, being the mean of five years’ observations, po a for Quebec by Mr. Watts, N. Y. Regents’ Report for : The reduction. to the level of the sea was compu- Laplace, Mee. Cel. vol. iv, p: 572; and e formula H=H’ Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 313 barometer in latitude ants H’ the ipso corres} itude 45°. bs “ apa ~ . = - 28.806. New. York, - 30.086 -. «=. +.007 Cor’n for temperature, —.108 a Sean 1131 feet, +1. 231 Reduce. for 10 feet, +.011 Correction for gravity, —.010 Correction for gravity, —.012 — 30.034 29.977 Montreal, - - 29.886 Quebec, - -. 29.543 Reduc. for 91 feet, “+.102 Reduce. for 330 feet, +.371 Correetion for gravity, +. 001 Correction for gravity, +. 005 i 29.989 29.919 In ne transactions of the Albany Institute, vol. ii, p. 156, the zero error of the Quebec barometer is stated at ++-0.110 com- pared with that at Montreal. It is presumed that this correc- tion. has been tab pes above mean result, The eleva- rence. fi is not ste ‘tow testes exceeds the mean level of the sea, but probably not. much, as the tide is said to rise at Quebec. As it is now clearly proved that the mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is mot every where the same, a most extensive field of inquiry is presented to experimentally the law of its variation. In particular, it is desir- able to know, whether over an elevated continent the pressure is the same as at the same height over the sea in the same latitude. In order, however, that observations may be of any value for this purpose, they s should embrace a period of several years, the zero ertor of the instrument should be accurately determined, and also the. elevation spare the level of the sea. “The llowing table exhibits the instances ,corrected for tempera- ture, in which the barometer has 1 risen above 29.25. Although the barometer may have remained at this height during the period of Several successive observations, it is regarded as but one instance. 1839, Feb. 18, 3 e.m.[29.26 March pon ding to lat- = xb, fay on aa. 314. Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. The following table exhibits the instances in which’ ned barometer has sunk below 28.25. (1838, Feb. 16, 1». m 28.122] 1840, Mar. 24, 113 «. TES ) 22 y 3, 647m Dec. 22, 4a.mj .079 Ma u.| .964 1839, Feb. x 3 p.m.) .164 Nov. 22, 3° vp. m.|28.234 Ma 3 p.m.) .240 - Decw 15, 3 Pm}, 207 3 p.m.) 161 Dec. 26, 8 a.m) .035 Nov 1840, Jan. .* 7 AeM, .009 euettySve in thifes “yee: The siaibect range at eg for five years is 2.138 ; at New Yorl in seven years, 2.25. If the range of the barometer were proportioned to its ee ier this would give for Hudson 2.163. At Boston, during a period of twelve years, the range of the barometer is stated at 2.50. It may then be naturally inferred, that for considerable elevations, the range of the barometer diminishes n more rerids than: atic | lute height. Fluctuations of the Aabeiioter 2 not “aoe for lomgratr ceeding .6 inch in ae hours. © ST a ee euseueesoosg aes ws 13 wwe PP PP 6 Se eS ee Se Se OOOH SG & Ass Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio, — 315 will be observed that these extraordinary. fluctuations occur chiefly ‘in winter ; not one occurred in the summer months. The same remark applies to the table of maxima and minima given before. , Ee nh aa & eS Beit sette | THERMOMETER AND HYGROMETER. - P = |Therm.1 Hygro. Therm. | Hygro, Jf berm. | Therm. ; Hygro. Din. | March;-9-4.m: |-48:3°\'364 [-35.2, | a | 394 39.9. | 33.0 | 69> , p.m. | 5d.D | 41.4 | 43.5 | 29.5 46.8 48.6 | 35.0 \13.6 April, 9 a.m. | 43.2> °35.7 1562 | 43.0 152.6 © 50:7. | 41.1. | 96 gat p. Me 50.3.) 36.5. | 67.4 ee 3 59.0 | 43.0. 16.0 [May, 94. m. | 49.8 | 429 | 61. 3.6 57.6 150.5 | 7.1 po RB pew. | 53.6) 45.7 | 68. 5.6 63.6 | 51.5 124 \June, 9 a.m. | 70.2.| 63.8} 61.3 | 6.5 . oP me. | fom | OGL 63.8 | 9.7 |July, 9 a.m. | 75.9 | 70.8 67.3.) 59) p.m. | 82.1. | 73.1 69.0 10.0 Aug, 94. mM. | 72.9 | 672 641 | 60 fe > Bete Bag 04 106 66.3 {10.4 |Sept., 9a. m. | 613 55.2 54.8 | 4.0 to. ans - M. pcs BP 35 : =| ae 10:6 jOct., 9a. m, | 40.4 | 4b0 7 Z 7| 42 zRB YP: M, Bre 48 ; ie ee 10.5 Noy.y 9 a.m. | 32.0) ‘1342 | 30.0 | 42— ~ 3p.m. | 388 | 306 | 408 | 307 | 91-4 {Dec., 9a. m. | 222 | 18.4 | 23.8 °| 3.1 } p. um. | 27.7 | 199. 4238 | 68— |Jan., 9a. x. | 28.0 | 23.9. 21.1138 3 p.m. | 34.3 | 262 23.4 17.9 Feb., 9.a.m. | 23.8 -| 23.4 +251 | 4.7 eS S poms | 37.3. +268 26.5 '11.9. ss 2.04 2.31..|.39.9 .| 48.4» Meaty): 1.93 2.15 39.7 | 445 | - The mean aca of ‘the wind is greatest in winter and spring, end geenteine Sth M. than 9 A:M. As this last is a most im- portant conclusion, it is desirable to know whether it may be safely generalized. In the London Atheneum for Oct. 3, 1840, is given a summary of Mr. Osler’s observations at Birmingham, made with his anemometer during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839: The following is his table, exhibiting the relative wan the wind for each hour of the ey distinguishing the seasons.” Rae ee iGo ie (4#ys) 6 ey is we 6 | bb} 4 67 - Summer,, (19. » AT putumn, |: Rin Rite ee ee 8 Co ae ee Se a. oe 393 woLicat é7 t10ONS At sO, Unio. The force of the wind is least at 4 A. M. and greatest at 1 P.M.; the latter being 2.63 times the former. The curve iiprecenstinag these observations is found to be almost identical with that of the thermometer, not only for the whole year but for each season. This result-develops a most important: prin- ciple, and demonstrates the error of those: who-ascribe to» heat an unimportant influence in the production and modification of winds. It is here demonstrated by direct observation, that at certain localities, and there is good reason to believe that in this Tespect they are not peculiar, the wind is subject to a controlling influence, which has a period of twenty four hours ; an influence hot feeble or of doubtful existence ; but pawerfals at one hour retarding it by nearly one half its mean velocity, and at another accelerating it by the same quantity ; changing not merely its in- tensity but its direction, for from the table on page 320, it will be seen that the wind is more northerly at 3 P.M. than at 9 A. M. for every month of the year. Taking these facts in connection with the well ‘known’ effects of heat, we ai ate warranted in the conclusion that the 1 wer of the EES garded as the physicabeaiase. of: this dial | eliange ith the dire tion and intensity of the winds => ' CLOUDS. eal Piagiers eins 28:08 “The following table exhibits the ieee “of thit-aletede, cst observation being resolved in the direction of the cardinal points in the same manner as for the winds.. The table contains the sum of the ea ica for thee yee ; ca: .. we p Course, 3.41) 35,35 n, 84° 4’ w,] 71) 36.15 “ 85 52 © 6.01) 36.498. 75 28 * ? Lol) 54.81n. 88 3 « : 8.46 55.22 N. 76 55 “ 51; 6.12 41.90 s. 89:50°* 50.838. 2.57, 52.35 x. 86 30 “ 45.82" | 4.83) 50.65's. 80°22 24 yf 1% 50.04 4 83 38 “ : 53.66" 80 20 « 68) 29.78} 6.37° 59.49" 76 9 © 54.55 81 4. | 14.61| 19.12) 1.92) 51,60)" 84 49. +. 70 539.48|s.88 39 w. 216.99 237.02135,23 581.55] s. 87 49 w, yen thn that he men det fh slo rh month is very ney fom. the west So Rain the Sreatest deviation. ‘The clouds are all of ty supposed to 324 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. move with the same velocity. If we knew their absolute or tel- ative velocity for each observation, it is uncertain what resultant would be obtained; but as the diurnal change in the direction of the clouds appears almost or quite insensible, it may be presumed that the diurnal change in their velocity must be small; so that it appears probable that the mean of the above observations, S. 88° 13’ W. represents very nearly the absolute progress of the atmosphere in the region of the clouds. There is a very simple and obvious corollary arising from the constancy of the mean pressure of the atmosphere, which I do not recollect ever to have seen noticed, but which deserves to be kept constantly-in view, viz., that over any parallel of lati- tude the mean northerly and southerly motions of the entire atmosphere must be equal to eachother. One half of the atmos- phere is below the height of 3.44 miles. According to obser- vations given in Dalton’s Meteorological Essays, about two fifths of all the clouds observed in England.in five years were above 1050 yards high. The mean height of the clouds is probably greater in the United States, yet there would seem no room doubt that the clouds here. generally float in the lower half of the atmosphere. The observations then on the preceding page exhibit mainly the progress of the lower half of the atmosphere. It would be desirable to separate the two classes of observations, yet it is difficult to accomplish this satisfactorily. Mr. Espy has proposed to determine the height of the bases of cumulus clouds by the rule, that this height in feet is equal to the complement of the dew point multiplied by 300, “In order that the base of the-cloud may reach to the height of 3.44 miles, the comple- ment of the dew point must be 60°, which is much higher than has ever been observed in Hudson. If we assume with F Forbes the diminution of temperature to be 1° F’. for 352 feet elevation, a complement of the dew point equal to 50° will be from the west, and in the northern hemisphere generally from a point a little south of west. This seems to indicate that the mean progress of the upper half of the atmosphere is from south to north, which being admitted, it follows of necessity that the mean progress of the lower half is from north to south, and by the same quantity. If it should be found that in particular lon- gitudes the mean progress of the entire atmosphere is from south to north, there must be other longitudes where there is a com- pensation. The following table exhibits the proportion of the different varieties of clouds, the number under each month being the sum of the observations for the three years. is 9 a. M. . M. March, (10. | 3 [26/ 5 | 7 11. | 8 (8 | 5 | 1h, April, .- | 6 12 |82}2]8| 6) 5 | 6.| 6 |10 May, 517. be 3/8 {19 | 4 |14 |11| 5 | 6 | 22 June, 1L j15 | ey 9 | ho 161 7 t 10 July, 13 28 |16/13 | 3 | 4] 6 147 }11:10 | 4/8 August, 12 31} 16111 | OF 847 e 4948443 | 78 September, 7 \16 |14|5|8 3 T7164 25, October, 4.113 |28| 6 |11 18 |. 7. 12.1 71423 November, A| 7 |36,) 35,7 5 31) 7 |10 | 18. ‘December, 3 {66} 1|)5|9]2 1} 9/12) January, 13 | 2 1571-2 110 (13. }3 1} 5 |10 | 16 February, 9} 2l37ls le i3t712 7 \12 112 In my classification of the clouds, I follow the nomenclature of Howard, rejecting one of his divisions, the nimbus. I do. not perceive from Howard’s description, that the nimbus differs from some of his other varieties, except in the fall of rain, a cireum- Stance, as appears to me, not sufficiently characteristic to form the basis of a separate variety. Clouds sometimes undergo a decided change as rain begins to fall, but the contrary is also of frequent occurrence. During a large part of the winter season, the sky at this place is overcast with a sheet of cloud so uniform and unbroken, that it is with the utmost difficulty the least mo- tion in it can be detected. From such a bed, flakes of snow fre- quently fall day after day in such slow succession as not sensibly to increase upon the ground; nor do the clouds sensibly change 326 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. their appearance whether snow is, or is not, falling at the time. This variety I call stratus, under which term I include all clouds which cover the heavens with a nearly uniform and unbroken sheet. It appears, then, that the stratus is the most common cloud at all seasons of the year except summer, when the-cu- mulus prevails. This is more strikingly exhibited in the follow- ing table, which is arranged by seasons. & Sum of both hours. 3 as pel 53 = Cirro- Si cum. TY 25 }.13 16 | 22 93 ima 301 3 B3 164\151 3006 138 136 More than half the clouds of winter are stratus, and nearly half those of summer are cumulus. The former, then, is with propriety called the winter cloud, and the latter the summer cloud. The cumulus is also more common at 3 P. M. than at 9 A. M., a natural effect of the sun’s heat. The tothe trie table exhibits the average cloudiness of the dif- ferent months according to three years’ observations, 0 represent- ing a sky perfectly clear, 10 entirely overcast. For comparison Ihave added the observations made at Dartmouth College by Professor Young. ~~ HANOVER, ase eT MONTHS. 1g P.M. ¢ OP. M | x70 | Mee 3.97 | 3.80 | 4.39 3.39 3.43) | 3.00 3.12. | 2.64 | 3.68 3.11.4 1 Bee 1.97 ear ts | §.08 4.60 5.05 | 4:42 4.17 | 400 3.68 4.01 aeEey lor pee gh a a ae gee Se fee Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 327 HUDSON. HANOVER. 9 asm. P.M. Sunrise. 1} Pp. Mm. 04 P.M. Spring, 5.70 »| .6.91 3.93 4.02 | 3.55 — Summer, §.22 5.57 5.43 3.41 2.92 Autumn, 5.96 6.20 5,66 4.34 3.54 Winter, 8.07 7.87 4.65 4.30 4.14 Year, 6.24 6.39 4.92 4.02 3.54 The Hanover observations embrace but nineteen months, be- ing all which are in my possession. In this register the column headed ‘cloudiness’ is sometimes entered ‘fog.’ In taking the average I have called such an entry 10, which probably is some- times too great. 'This is the reason why the cloudiness at sun- ‘tise in the warm months appears so high. Such entries, how- ever, are not made for either of the other hours. The two sets of observations being made at different hours, are not very well suited for comparison. Those, however, at 14 and 3 P. M. may be regarded as made about simultaneously. The cloudiness then at Hudson is somewhat more than half greater than at Hanover. Nearly the same ratio exists throughout the-entire year, but is somewhat greater in winter; when it is nearly as two to one. This is a very striking result, and exhibitsan important. feature of this climate. The Lake country in this respect resembles the western coast of Europe, and probably for a like reason. The following table exhibits the average number of daya i each month in which the sky was perfectly clear at the hours named. When the clouds cover less than one twentieth of the we heavens, the cloudiness is called 0. HUDSON. HANOVER. MONTHS. om. | Sem.) Sunrises] drow. | br. m, March, 5.5 BO thE 8.0 11.0 April, 9.0 90 | 120 | 80 | 11.0 Aug ee des 65 | 40 | 125 epromaber, 87 | 73 } 30 | 90 | 17.0 October, 43 sy | 66.| 45 }-120 ‘ovember, 4.0 3.0 7.0 3.0 6.0 December, 3.0 3.3 6.5 8.0 8.0 anuary, 2.0 ae agg ie Oa eee 328 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. HUDSON, HANOVER. “Vam | SP.m. Sunrise. 14 P. m. Spring, 21.0 18.5 | 27.5 21.0 Summer, LEZ? 5.4 18.5 15.0 Autumn, 17.0 | 16.0 16.5 16.5 ‘Winter, TD i 9.0 23.0 23.0 Year, 59.0 A8.9 85.5 75.5 The number of clear days for the entire year at the two places is about inversely as the degree of cloudiness; yet com- paring the observations at 14 and 3 P. M. we find the number of clear days for spring and autumn nearly the same at the two places; while for summer and winter the number at Hanover is from two to three times that at Hudson. It must, I think, be admitted, that observations of this kind possess considerable in- terest ; and considering the ease with which they are taken, it is a matter of surprise that they should be almost universally neg- lected. To the astronomer they are perhaps the most important of all meteorological observations, as they indicate the most suit- able site for a public observatory. At Hudson, for example, du- ring four months of the year, astronomical observations are almost entirely impracticable. = — rae A ae Be sieetadd: Sati her aaa ea sin The following table exhibits the amount of rain for each month since the gauge was erected. The numbers for 9 A. M. show the amount fallen since the preceding 3 P. M. 9a.mJj3 Pp. M.|Total.|9 a. : 361 2. ' ae = a ee a ee ee 329 ¥ 7 J =” di — ba . 4 » The average annual amount of rain is by these observations 34.635 inches; yet this period includes an extraordinary drought in the autumn of 1838.. It is presumed that the mean of a long series of years would be about 36 inches. This is the average for the State of New York according to the Regents’ Reports. The average amount at Hanover for four years is 38.05 inches ; so that with a much less degree of cloudiness, it has a greater amount of rain than Hudson. The amount of rain here is great- est in summer and least in winter, being in the inverse ratio of the degree of cloudiness; and what is still more remarkable, in December, which is eenentiont cloudy as well as most humid Month of the year, the fall of rain is the least. The stratus cloud then which prevails in winter throughout all the Lake coun- try, must evidently have a peculiar origin. I ascribe it to the evaporation from the Lakes. During the winter season, and espe- cially. ee een these ‘vast:collections of water are the aaa icvitgdiiadiobetly do ensed, forming nenraerenns eater yaniv reveitnnee are which I have already alluded (p. 325), : here uninterruptedly or mi dence s:- with: the thermometer about 30°, and during the entire re will | not now to whiten the ground. It app n ain falls in th day than in the night. The he observation at 9A. M. includes the rain of eighteen hours, and that at 3 P. M. of six. The for- mer then should be three times the latter, which is not the case xcept in winter, which period Lexclude fromthe comparison, because the precipitation being mostly snow, which cannot be collected in a gauge, Iam accustomed at the conclusion of each aa storm to collect what. Appeers. to me to be the average depth f snow and. melt it. is most frequently per- ed in the siorninn, ac Rance excess of rain at. 9A, M. in the winter. During the rest of the year, however, and espe- cially in summer, there is a-considerable excess in favor of 3 P.M. If the observations had been made at 6 A. M. and P. M. they Would have better exhibited the ratio for the two periods. The 2, a8 during summer, the amount is one half of that from 3P. M.to 9A. M me ee Vol. xt1, No. ee a bie ae 330 _ Meteorological Observations at Montreal. The. following are all the instances in which an inch of rain has fallen in sities Iie four hours. : . te. Amount. | Tim | Amount} 1839. ia 12,| 1.094 12 hs. 1840. Feb. 20-23, | 4.017, “lis? 13,| 1.001) 1.¢ March oA, 2.109 24 hs. 21,| 1.255 |10 f’ ia Be 29, | 1.636 /24 Sept. .15,| 1493/24 “ June . 22,/1.168) 9 “ Nov. 14-15,|2.615 36 “ July 23, 1L.012)12 * |1840. Feb. 9,| 1.058 12°“ Nov. 22,/1 .263 24 _ Throughout, aha, entire preceding discussion, I kav’ aia ns of different hours. The propriety a this course hast trust been. made sufficiently apparent. Al- most every meteorological phenomenon has a diurnal inequality. Thus the heights of the barometer, thermometer and hygrome- ter, direction and force of the wind, character and amount of the clouds, as well as the amount of rain, change sensibly with the hour of the day. I trust that heat will no longer be considered as an unimportant agent in the modification. of meteorological phenomena ; and that hereafter, in publishing sone means, the distinction of hours will not be disregarded. — observer who publishes the mean of all his renee servations without regard to. hours, not. only cannot be su obtaining the mean temp f his locality ae it sesgeonetn ers of t the data n essary. for eagles “i al ti ee ee, ay - . % Sa 4 ~ Nye hee ‘ be tr. ae he “oO k ete ee, SR Be ey a ‘ sei ‘ i‘ haa a Fe a ie eS phen Alea a me ‘ . ee, ae ees Ane. sictiesecs ies coueghabe Shoninleng of the acne: lll » Province of Canada, in Lat. 45° 30’ N., Lon. 73° 22 W: (or five years, from 1836 to 1840, inclusive ;) from regis ters kept by J. S. M’Corp, Associate’ Mem, Lond. Met: Soe Mem. Nat. Hist. Soc. Montreal, Cor. Mem . Lit, and Hist. Soe prmperigie: tangs! Tpesltat edie souse li ee oe ANNUAL 2 TEMPERATURE. Et * OF this, 2.838 fell in thirty six“hours. ~ Note:As the above tables the years ¢ +9" rvations of Prof. Loomis, and paapenfey ert (818) tiny have en ise in thie Lia opp tea a ee oubt their comparative and. value will be Sik qt SP Byer So A wa ie be a ¥ a oR 4 ura 2 : 2 aA hts ae a 7 ey Sate eee Fn cecane ih #23 ¥ ao piel ee ESE nd Sieh ee ye Be 4 4 ects: ¢ pM PEAS 332 On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. Arr. VIII.— Observations on the Secondary and Tertiary Forma- ~ tions of the southern Atlantic States ; by James T. Hover, ~ Member of the Association of American Geologists.* With an Appendix, by 'T. A. Conran. Messrs. Editors,—Havine spent a few months of the last year in making a tour on horseback through parts of the south- ern Atlantic states, I have put some of my observations into the present form, and if you deem them worthy of a place in the American Jouthel oF Science, they are at your service. My pie’ was to. obtain from. my own notice a general idea of 3 a large portion of our country not familiarly known, but so rapidly did I pass through it, that my notes are crude and imperfect. From the investigations of Mr. Conrad, to whose instructions I am much indebted, the accompanying lists of fossil shells, which I there collected, were made out, and a few new species a are now added to our catalogue of the tertiary fossils. Until I arrived in the southern part of Virginia I was unable to see much of the “marl beds” of the tertiary, owing to the snow and ice that covered the ground. I found, however, that the marl extended all along the eastern ‘section of the state, that it was extensively used as a. manure by the planters. On the Rappahannock, seven miles. below . Fredericksburg, the bed is at least ten feet thick, and so conveniently exposed that vessels might: come alongside and load with it, if it were important enough (© transport. It ney abounds ‘in shells, and also contains teeth of ks, and fossil bones. Nearly all belong to extinct species and the wih Bee 8 are those most common to the lower oor ent Eg pipe properties of the marl appear to depend almost ¢ pon the ynate of lime afforded by the slow and long continued eit piielals of the shells; it contains more o less of the green sand, but in too small proportion to er to its richness ; and the quartzose sand and- mica. that consttul® remainder of it can be of. little service. The effect of this marl upon the cotton and clover is superior to that of any other matter, but then it is pot on at the rate of 700 bushels to the \unicate aK ok scare A of th he Associ- PQyes) ae See ree as i ae ~ re 333 Fit bite OHaaTY te UE / ui : acre, so that the surface of the fields is covered. Weeds are said to be killed the first year, but to come up luxuriantly afterwards, and clover appears spontaneously where none would grow be- fore. In Caroline and Hanover counties, on land that would yield only three barrels of corn (fifteen bushels) to the acre, from ten to fifteen barrels have been obtained after one generous appli- cation of the marl... On the Pamunkey river is a beautiful plan- tation, regenerated: from the old and exhausted tobacco lands; an example of what the Virginia soil once was, and what it may be again, if treated with the skill and enterprise which charac- terize Mr. William Wickham, the proprietor of this place. He has used the marl for eighteen years, applying it once profusely, 800 bushels to the acre. The bed here varies from ten or twelve feet to: not. more than two or three. It is often cut atone as, if bya stream, and the space afterwards filled up by lies the marl bed. neem oy oem Seale: by aunt streams, Get Ee aero Pr oie inedu tly ll STATE eotie i: eannot be kept out ated isi great demand, the planters’ digging it in the winter: : when their hands are least occupied, and then carting it over the fields, where it lies in heaps ready to be spread in the spring. ‘The lands in this county are generally: stiff and clayey, and would be benefitted by a free application of common sand, as well as of the marl. From these heaps I collected a great variety of fossil shells, enough to show that the epost: sbelonge: to the 4: North same ctanine with that which ard gh Nortt the town stands, and have distinctly d the marl ; while from the bed they have. washed out aie of fossil shells, chiefly Pectens and Ostresx: Not far above the marl is a stratum of stiff, _ red clay, alternating with layers of sand. A bed of this character I have noticed in-a similar position throughout a great part of the southern states; at Richmond, Vaz, it is very conspicuous near the summits of. the hills, as well as in the southerm part of Sumpter district, S.-C. ; esas deep in Georgia, Georgia, near the Savan- nah river, it is well exposed. It is accompanied by white clay, 334 On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. and sometimes by layers of gravel. From its. position only on high hills, and want of fossils, I consider it to. belong to the dilu vim spread over the country after its elevation above the sea, most of which has been subsequently washed and worn ed by long continued degradation. Near the Roanoke, some miles above Williamston, I ineceal the marl by the road-side, and although it was hard frozen and nearly covered sathynnbier, I recognized in it many individuals of our common recent shell, the Venus mercenaria. This is a very poor part of North Carolina ; the land is quite flat and sandy, and during the winter season one frequently rides for miles through water several inches deep, by which the roads are flooded. The principal growth is the pitch pine, from which a great deal of tar and turpentine are made. The woods along the roads present a singular appearance, every tree being half stripped of its bark to the height of seven or eight feet, and the~ surface bleached by the white turpentine oozing out. A little eavity is hollowed out at the base of the trunk, into which most of the turpentine runs, and the remainder is scraped 0 and put into barrels. The tree dies and becomes fat pine. This is burned in pits, as wood is for charcoal, and the tar runs out upon the carefully prepared clean floor. North Carolina tar is inferior to that made in ‘Norway, owing probably to. — being taken inthe preparation. It is sent principally to the north, where it sell a dollar and a half per barrel, but the makers receive only. ninety cents, out * whidr panda twenty-five for the barrel, — Jn the very western pan rreng ienatit, I rat ntet vied limestone of the secondary formation. It is on the plantation of Mr. Humphreys, at the heads of New river and ‘T'rent rivet The rock lies in a heavy ledge on the borders of a swamp; its surface is much worn and ragged. It is of a straw color, and apparently of good. quality for making lime ;—on submitting @ piece to chemical examination, I find it as good as the limestone ig apn ag degree i ee he ee oe re pee Pete AP AD segue Aire» = bbe nd a, ee eR + BIRO ce y ‘ ba eee ae . Bec AG Wismlig mneel fee: trace ~ a eater ie ve ee Se ae ae $2. ee mele ey lege 99,20: ae On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. 335 Several springs come out at its edge, which bring up small fos- sil shells and pieces of coral. Among the shells, which are gene- rally very imperfect, may be recognized the Pecten membranosus, a Cardium, and others common to the same formation in New Jersey. The water seems well adapted to the recent Planorbis trivolvis, Physa heterostropha, and Paludina i integra, which in- habit it in profusion, and also to the luxuriant water-cresses, which equally abound in it. Around the limestone is a deposit of calcareous marl of a light yellow color, affording a very con-- venient and rich natural manure; but it has been entirely neg- lected as well as the limestone, the little lime required for the country being brought from Thetnaston; Maine, although they have enough of the rock, wood at the expense of cutting it only, and a suitable enaiatate, for kilns scattered through this region... This stone belongs: to the same formation, and has been selves with their own lime. prrecamele: Seat ais. ames Messy _ Not far from this place, is that - . ality in Duplin’ county, called the “ natural well.” idee west of the rail-road, (forty-seven miles from Wilmington, ) on the road from: Eenenesilia to Elizabeth, Baden county. Before reaching: it, One may notice by the side of the road a large sink-hole, fifteen’ feet deep, overgrown by trees and bushes; a little beyond this, a path turns off to the left to the cabin of a Mr. John Smith, with- in two hundred yards of which, in the woods, is the well. It is a large circular basin, about twenty yards across and sixteen feet deep to the surface of the water; its banks are nearly vertical, or the strata are entirely obscured. by the loose sand, trees shes tl covered them. yin one narrow spot, es section may be obtained and specimens. col- lected. The soil, which is sand and yellow loam, a little clayey at bottom, is from three to four feet thick. It rests on the shell marl; which is about four feet thick, and under this isa tough blue clay from six to eight feet thick, overlying a sandstone like the clay-in color, the lowest visible rock. The marl consists entirely of shells, and. fragments of shells, with a very small reg ane oh " oe ie aE 336 On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. promiscuously together in great confusion ; single valves of the bivalves are more frequently found than. the two together, and even the stronger univalves are most often seen in fragments, So abundant are they, that in cleaning out some of the larger shells a great number of small and more perfect specimens were found in their. interior, and added to my collection. A Pectun- culus quinque-rugatus, in particular, enclosed between its two valves a multitude of shells and fragments closely imbedded in a fine clear quartz sand. The contents when picked out occu- pied a space full twice that in which they were so closely packed, Although the diameter of the Pectunculus: was only two inches and one fourth, there were in it a Cytherea reportas beautifully preserved with its natural polish, one and one third of an inch long, and itself filled with other smaller shells and.a purer sand than that which surrounded it—several small Ostres, Corbule,and duplicates of twenty or thirty other species. There are, as seen by the accompanying catalogue, about 80. species found at this locality. Of these 12 are recent, and 20 at least heretofore undescribed. Some yet undetermined remain in the hands of Mr. Conrad, and of these only the genera are given. The Oliva idonea has been previously described by Mr. Conrad} it is one of the most beautiful shells. found: here, being fuely preserved, and most of the specimens not having lost their nat ural polish. The people living in the neighborhood know: them by the name of “ key shells,” from their procuring them to attach to a-bunch of keys. ‘The cones are of the species adversarius; the only exception known. The bivalves are only occasionally - It is remarked that the water in the well never varies in fresh- ets nor droughts, and tales are told of ineffectual attempts hav- ing been made to sound it,.and of a. strong current .settlng through it, sucking down whatever is thrown in that there 8@ current I doubt not, it- being. nothing unusual for a stream % Eutaw springs in South Carolina, and the limestone of the se ondary formation I believe to be not far below the surface of the Water, perhaps directly under the blue sandstone at the surface, fe On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. 337 lowest tertiary is wanting in this part of the country.) The limestone of Jones county is not far off, and such sinks as these are frequent over limestone beds; in Georgia they are called § paeieostiiee sinker) * ~ With my valise and adis-eage: well stored with specimens) ana a keg full strapped behind the saddle, I proceeded to South Washington, on the way to Wilmington. In this neighborhood I discovered again the secondary formation on the N. E. banks of Cape Fear river. The rock is a blue sandstone, contain- ing the characteristic Exogyra costata, Belemnites, Plagiostoma , Anomia ephippium, &c. The existence of this rock Intiveoin the tertiary deposits on the east and the west, seems to indicate an anticlinal axis here, which extending north, accounts for the elevation of the secondary throughout Jones county, and Satine ieee of country on each side occupied by the ter- tiary marls. Paso omer be ati — * et = gentle, Ye ee oes See bushes, my informant and his 1 heath, spreading as far as they could see, and destitate of : sc esees tation, save a thick covering of moss and a few scattered bushes, Through this moss they travelled on with great difficulty, plung- ing in at every step nearly kaee deep. Procuring a pole from the trees on the border, te sunk it down eight feet into the mud without findisg” bottom: The moss and mud of these swamps would thus seem to be those: always’ due to peat swamps. At southern parts of Georgia, the islands of which were once it according to-an old Creek tradition, by a superior race of —_ whose beautiful women, called beg om of the sun,” a neip ou phn pew 2 ide om = ‘ 1 = : laa fees eee ak ili x ig ‘Vel. XLI, No. 2.—July-Sept. t. 1841. 43 338 On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. islands, were never to be found by man, though eagerly sought after. : - At Wilmington is another interesting locality, where not only the tertiary marl corresponding to that at the natural well is found, but the secondary sandstones and conglomerates below it are well exposed on the banks of Cape Fear river. ‘The lower tertiary is wanting, and this marl bed, which is from two to three feet thick, is seen resting upon the sandstones, containing shells belonging ‘altogether to the upper secondary formation. Above the marl, and resting on it, the upper stratum observed is of sand and loam, contaifing a few layers of small white peb- bles. ‘Fhe marl is nearly as prolific in shells as the same forma- tion at the natural well. ~The species, however, are not the same, as will be seen from the appended catalogue, (p. 344.) More than fifty species were collected, of which eight are recent, and those in italics new. Comminuted shells and fine sand form the matl stratum, and these are either converted into a solid mass not easily broken, or remain unconsolidated. The sandstone beneath is in one place a compact siliceous mass, but a little way off it changes to a coarse pebbly rock, consisting of small, rounded quartz peb- bles of a dark color; and then again it becomes so calcareous that with proper eare it might be burned to tolerable lime. The peb- bly rock or conglomerate contains shells, and corals, and small have generally disappeared and left only the casts; these, though very abundant and perfect, render it extremely difficult to detel Gryphea, Ostrea, Anthophyllum, Nautilus, &e. 9 ‘The proximity of this locality to the wharves and the town of Wilmington, would render it easy for strangers to obtain speck mens thence. ‘The marl is not here esteemed as a manure, prob- A ah SE Pc hy ta eaten a v4 = . On th ye i 2 ee a ne oe = 339 the WECONEET Y - ° & Vi léGlts,. oO a cemented together by a ferruginous cement, forming a solid ledge on the edges of the water. This is the farthest point to the south where I observed this deposit ; but I was s told it oc- curs again on the Waccamaw river. In treating of the tertiary formations of our country, I have preferred using the conventional names adopted by Mr. Conrad; of upper, medial, and lower tertiary, to those of pliocene, mio- cene, and eocene, applied to similar formations in Europe. The former merely indicate relative position, aud are therefore sufli- Cient at present; the latter imply a relative proportion, of course not very exact, of extinct and recent shells; and though our own formations may now each give about the same proportion with the Einglich formations; still arhee two hours’ work may discover more th yun p 3in one mealies; besides some ‘recent species not befo ticed in the formation ; and when our knowledge of the living shells of our coast is so imperfect, it certainly proves that the adoption “new names would now vould be Ae Ne I is cortainlynot.paoved;) ANAS -Oge -steninow al dil} ble | a ee Phe utitn:, atel Born e diffi- into the same three culties, if any are hereafter encountered will-be too apt to oie made to bend, or to be neglected, for the sake of ke iueaien nate favorite but unproved system of classification.» "This is subject, I hope, will be more filly dcosed by Mr: Cona, and sane by more complete details than I am able to furnish.” ‘ _ At the locality last mentioned, near Fart nc line, are found through the fields singular deposits of oyster shells, each extending over several feet square and about two feet deep. No rg cg ip ofthe: west or -eause-of these: collections: ras oe were made centuries Corn does not grow well T Sremeiresacur-semensrier pasted stp dma Lousy 60tae tesiheleentideileniias the Eutaw Springs, near Nelson’s ferry over the Santee, in the Western part of Charleston district. The striking similarity of this rock to that in Jones county, N. C. first attracted my atten- tion. Like-it the limestone rose above the surface in heavy rag- Sed ledges, here’ at least fifteen feet high; it-was of the same = ae 3D! yeuow Corr, 3 : ae. Ee EE ee a nis oe ae Most of. grt sylvania lime contains maguesia, and yet’celebrated as is the Philadelphia mortar for whiteness and durability, and as are the fine farms of Chester and. Lancaster counties, which are enrich= » against Pee eee ee ~ ; ages eee lime Pedowware! canal is opened, tne soon rival that from Thomaston in our southern ports; ieee the judice and a want of ent long keep it known, - This rock belongs wonthesalie ie: forination; and resembles much that which I have seen in the western- _part of New Jersey. Its composition is no doubt the same, and this is Seen in Prof. nal catonte of lime fom serenf-ve 1 igh portion me from seventy-five to eighty= ee aaly aah 342 On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. county, N.C. ‘The silica is the least injurious ingredient, its principal effect being, unless the rock is burned at too intense a heat, merely to render less sand necessary in tempering it for mortar, while the magnesia is not only of small quantity but doubtful tendency, and the oxide of iron is generally in too minute proportion to seriously injure the lime by giving it a very dark color. é Besides the lime that will hereafter add to the mineral wealth of this region, there is near Pocataligo, on navigable tide water, a deposit of the purest quality of quartz sand, suitable for the manufacture of glass. The pebbles of which it consists are small, sharp, angular-fragments of perfectly pure quartz, without any foreign mixture. It may be obtained in any quantity, and would probably pay for transportation as ballast under the cotton loads, either to the northern glass-houses or across the ocean. The locality is just half way between Charleston and Savan- nah, by the turnpike, on Mr. Spike’s plantation. saat - There is one more locality of the secondary limestone I vis- ited, which is near the Savannah river, in Georgia, at a place ealled Jacksonboro’.. The perfect similarity of the rock with that in Jones county, North Carolina, and on the Santee and Edisto in South Carolina, admits of no doubt that it is the same with them, and continuous through this wide extent of country: Even to the straw color of the rock, the brooks flowing out at its base, the lukewarm water, and the little shells that inhabit it, they are all nearly alike. This has been partially quarried, and the limestone burned. On opening the bed it is found to be about twelve feet thick, and within from the surface, the stone IS of a much whiter color, closely resembling chalk, aud appearing as if ithad already been burned. -'The heap.of rock in a hot southern sun presents so dazzling an appearance that one’s eye and head seriously suffer from closely examining the pieces They contain a great variety of fossil shells, affording most beau tiful specimens; but I have not succeeded in obtaining those F collected. A rude kiln has been constructed of the coarse san stone belonging to the same formation, and a considerable quau- tity of lime made. It is-very white and good lime, such proba Fas the: other localities described would afford, if worked a8 extensively. It. is packed in boxes, which hold about threé On the Secondary and Tertiary Formations. 343 cask of Thomaston lime, three dollars! The locality is prob- ably injudiciously sblectéd, as it is eight miles from the river, up a little stream called Brier’s creek, which is navigable for boats and rafts but a short time in the year, while the same bed might no doubt be found and opened on the river. The inferior limestone at Shell Bluff belongs to a higher for- mation, and cannot be so important, though here too a great deal of cheap lime might be made from the rock and the fossil Ostrea. The specimens I collected at Shell Bluff, and on which I de- pended to describe the locality, having been lost, I will attempt no account of it, as it could now be only a repetition of what others have said. In one of the lowest fossiliferous bands at the bluff, I discovered a small jaw bone of some land animal, which has not before been noticed there. Fossils found at the Natural Well, in italics are new ;- oH those unde- Balanus ovularis. F 4 va dumosa. | lunatum. ‘ F Fasciolaria mutabilis. “ interruptum. — - rhomboidea. “ multirugatums . Fissurella. ~_— # obsoletum. — .- * Fulgur canaliculatus. Calyptrea costata. wy ng expeentys, Calyptrea. E50 “ perversus. Calyptrea. F Cancillaria lunata. “. Cardita tridentata.. Lucina Jamaicensis. ae ns. perplana. Carditamera arata. “ trisuleata. Cerithium Carolinensis se depressa. 7 dislocatum. Mactra crassidens. ec & congesta. < 5 > ae a 2 344 Mitra Carolinensis. Monodon Mytilus incrassatus. Natica canrena. -- -duplicata. “ masosummge oe liqua. as a pa a ~ oo Baaty ee. Neg 3 Shay at ie Sitniee. limula. Mr. Hodge wei equeste late excursion _ Panopea eviews , hi: Meat Pecten ebor r phn wg, de avant . que-rugatus. tg ofits shed We a Pleurotoma Virginiana. — .... » excursion through @ portion of the tertiary region, ani 1o,deeeribe and references Plicatula marginata, en prt LS pine . len a Sellined-t:ue sent Gola . Turr ritella. — yi? Venericardia granulata. pa ey BE ye Possils Sound at Wilmi fica a. aes * Macta PEs “lateralis. Awhae) “Marginella. pa ue Mytilus. ms soe Oa Nucula acuta : yitgnee Aue: Oliva zonalis. vianuni ait Orbicula lugubris, Ostrea sculpturata. Pah st gubfaleateees "49. © Ostrea. het ee Panopeea reflexa. . Peeten eboreus.— wate such as are new, peeeniee: following descriptions, and PLIL to species formerly described; the localities visited by Mr. Hodge be- long chiefly to the medial tertiary deposits; the other formations “are the cretaceous and lower tertiary. One of the tertiary localities I no- ticed in Volume xxxrx, p. 387, and described some of the shells which | occur there, from specimens in the collection of my friend D, B. Smith. The following list of species is made out from his collection. The fos- sils are imbedded in quartzose sand, with a large admixture of commi- nuted shells : “'Natica c canrena, Conus nalye rail: Mitra Carolinensis, rie exca- vatus, F. contrarius, F. maximus, Cyprea Carolinensis, Crepidula forni- cata, Turritella Mitchelli, Cerithium Carolinensis, Buccinum multiruga- tum, Pasciolaria rhomboidea, Lucina Jamaicensis, Arca transversa, Mactra -erassidens, Pectunculus quinquerugatus, ia and. descriptions of new species. 1 ER Cae Oxtva. ; - ” Ohen ab: ta. Plate IL, fig. 1. ee aa Bet ap st in fae’ Conus ednctentbh Plate Il, PAP For description, see Vol. 3 XXXIX, p.. 888. Ms lod, bee a see ely. 200 hors estan of. vacate or ; - Cskrratum. © Corsthini:settinasiet Plate II, fig. -7 = igh sete Yeh tions with each a spiral impressed line above the sarin ncver il tween this'line and suture with oblique pliew. © = “C. Carolinensis. Subulate ; whirls with ingreniil spiral lines aie humerous acute longitudinal ribs which are dislocated by a sulcus be- low the suture. Length, 2} inches. Resembles C. dislocatum, but is iid ced has mek more Peaeee te mee ie ribs. CyPREA. Cyprea Carolinensis. Plate Il, fig. 6. Ovate, ventricose, Saieiied wee of the labrum prominent at the apex; base plano-convex, ~ FascioLaria. ” ‘ibksiaeta mutabilis. Plate Il, fig. 7. For description, see Journ. Acad. Nat. Sei., Vol. vir, p. 185. , DispoT@a. Dispotea multilineata. Pilate Il, fig. 8. Subovate, desis apex prominent; one side with squamose lines, the opposite with finer famose mes destitute of scales; diaphragm contracted. . dumosa. Plate Il, fig. 9, Elevated, with ramose radiating lines aiid obsolete ribs, and with erect tubular spines ; apex eainutely spiral _ Cassis Hodgii. Plate Il, fig. rs ” fliptaal: ‘with namerous spiral lines Most prominent towards the base ; spire conical, volar convex. PECTUNCULUS. | Pectunculus quinquerugatus. Lentiform, with very fine crowded longitudinal striee, and convex slightly raised ribs ; behind the umbo ate five or six recurved plicee or undulations.” Length, 3¢ inches. — er P. Carolinensis. Lentiform, thick, posteriorly ‘subcuneiform > “ribs obsolete, radiating strie strongly marked, minutely sano aie 0 cart nal plate broad and ‘thick ; welt obealeve's” ee. erenulations. Length, 1g inches, P. veneaapiag ‘Obovate, with about twenty sight ribs, ‘about as. 1 wide the intervening sp ossed by wrinkled lines 5” For margin Liey whancunadl adiaeactnantal ity, which is angulated ; margin’ ee ree ‘Geely ele to P. pent par er pt ae ¢ # wit ~ Macrra, © eid Geceecainn. Pate It, fig. 11. lalate ee preted umboidal slope submarginal, angulated ;— beaks’ central ; ti dan nie ary le pro " " | fn the much Pe Se ee, ee ee va rr 347 OTe EO CE Oe TS cal (alii .L. radians. Orbieular, convex, with minutely waved or rugose con- centric strie, and radiating stri# obsolete on the middle of the valves, and most distinct on the anterior side; posterior submargin destitute of radiating lines; beaks central, prominent; margin crenulated. This species is recent at Mobile Point, Ala., and occurs near Newiiet, N.C. Mytinvs. sae * Mytilus incrassatus: Thick, much inflated; anterior angele incurved near the middle; basal. margin not obtusely rounded ; hinge thick, with slightly prominent robust teeth. Length, about 3 inches. Carprum. 3 Cardium sublineatum. Plate Il, fe. 13. Obliquely obovate, thin, slightly ventricose, with obsolete radiating lines, most distinct near the ends ; submargins of anterior and posterior sides destitute of radiating lines wm, iinet. see 28 —— Gaathodon- miner. Paci te Tiana late Peto ted and x e Zt wales the: fourth I ine apr gh entities SNe eee ee i. aa Nitta #3 apace ee hs Sua Sl see ae ed Amphidesna Cohatricta Saaeae song a ven basal margin opposite the apex slightly ¢ ed; beaks nearest the pr a. : tes PRR teeth prothinent, lat eral teeth none. © eae hegre: “. : ap eter te ee ce oo CaRpITa. “Cardin porplena ‘Pato Th, fig {e. Tegml, nse at it iia a eee. SL aS Roa ae ig Plate Il, fig. 17. ‘Trigonal, elevated, convexsde~ pressed, ribs about eleven, convex, minutely granulated ; posterior ex- Tamaanauhs Linge cochehanagnars Saspmsreas: Ph aad 348 Analysis of Ores from North Carolina. IN. percallosa. Spire convex-depressed ; surface with fine obsolete spiral strie, umbilicus. closed by a profound callus. Differs from JV. duplicata in having the umbilicus perfectly concealed, and in the de- pressed spire. I think this species occurs recent.on the southern coast. > INFunprsunuM. Infundibislum centralis. Chee asapase with fie concentric nog ular les ; apex,central. — - “! SORTA: ie ‘Lonutires. } Lunulites denticulata. Prominently convex ; apex slightly _Promi- nent ; nd eli liptical, arra arranged in ees are 0 hace Be sle ender 7 : qe Z iy fe nes coc ay aH Aaa L. pape: Suboval, convex-dépressed ; pores cist in size iat irregular in form; many of the larger pores filled with a minutely po- rous plate or diaphragm, solid in the centre; others denticulated on the inner - submargin; base granulated, and with very-numerous" minute ramose stri, slightly” oe eer fe Shes: neem Arr. os of care 1s Ores of L Lead. Silver, ‘Zine, Tron, &c., fon Hines Hin. Listen Coui _ Carolina ; by Prof. James C. Boor aides Was contiiad? ‘antih i( fodel vel ne despite during t year, which promises liberally to reward the enterprise of those engaged in it. H pe f the vein only none from ‘the adjacent disliked vig he eee Pt psteatesecnag ‘The main body of the ‘ioe ie ee "To B. Suutwany dm oa Ae ae “Bee Lane eae vest gone. ssl 38 si het he perf din my Ia on the si silver rn ey Aepengrs Soe y Analysis of Ores from North Carolina. 349 consist of carbonate of lead, as far as it concerns the valuable portion of the formation. Bocides this we have also zinc, cop- per, silver, iron, manganese, silica, alumina, and magnesia ; the two former, and sometimes the lead, being in the state of sulphu- rets as well as carbonates, the silver being metallic, rarely sul- phuretted, and the iron and manganese as oxides, mens a with silica, alumina, and magnesia, the gangue. ‘The object being to ascertain the relative amounts of the n me- tals and the constituents of the gangue, the analysis was con- ducted by simple solution in nitric acid, of all soluble materials, and then by igniting the insoluble with carbonate of soda and treating it-as a silicate. As we did not endeavor to ascertain the exact manner of combination in each specimen, the sum of the substances will necessarily vary from one hundred, which, how- a sa no influence. on the general 1 results. 1, analyzed by-E. M Mayer, a. selected specimen from the aa ie vein, ¢ ning masses of solid silver dissem- inated through i ‘it, independently of small spangles barely — to the eye, and that Snteined in the earbonnts oP Seam’ Metallic silver, a. hy i Carbonate of lead,» . Sulphuret of zine, : 4 Peroxide of iron, “manganese. Sitiea, Pee gir hi os ee \ Magnesia, : 2 va . a0nie 2. i No. 2. ByS. M3 Zz. Blaney. Bluish grey, very taleose, contain- ing a few masses of silver ; the greater part of the metal being in the form of minute spangles, | particularly in the dark bluish portions of the ore, and becoming visible only when —— a hard and smoothisubstance on & white-surlieoy Ete Silve i ahh. Jead, ‘ ‘ trace Carbonate of oe 388 ne ; ‘Oxide of a cig astute 7.50.) 5.20 : 30.40- 20.89 350 Analysis of Ores from North Carolina. No. 3. Copper and zine ore, by William M. Uhler. taining both sulphuret and oxide-of copper. vt aba of lead, ~ . ; 0.81 eed : 2 "64.27 23.86 pe Oxide pr iron, (raiy sulphuret,) 8.32 bo) Silica, sili 10.20 e Alumina, se ES ‘ 1.96 5 Unlagnesia, ; : ; . erie Black, con- Metals, “No. 4: Yellowish (piginous sects “of lead, byt v. Z. Bigney-* ma : ‘ Silver, i Sa ae ~ Carbonate as ase re 64.70 ioe aan of fet (carbonate oy 2 2.60 Oxide of’ iron, 4.40 < Silica, : Bee hall S Wogalg 12.40 ass 2 " Magnesia, manganese, BS Grik er ANQIDUDR Ss nn enn tlie ch ne es 0 Ss. is 46 ; 1.78 10.05 OOF se ———_ 63.207, Se Oe 100.74 % No. 5: Secsagee. of lead with ferruginous oR un JY. Z. Blaney. Carbonate ab lead, a Dame ae 43.60 5 . ‘Oxide of iron a, . $| « — manganese, . 5.60 biti or 14.49 S| Atoming wm Sar ote? ee et 9k: ee 5 > OSD 52.80 97.89 “No. 6. Zina, and cones om: “The zinc and Se regarded. as sulphurets, the son ae sais te bat A ue am exists as solphineet, and oxide. . V. Z. Blaney. Wm. M. Uhler. ac hae s A 7 ee ee Se Sel ee 2 Pp £% 7 351 ge Sf ee J STU OCHO NO UOC. 3 No. 7. By J. V. Z. Blaney. Black, copper eugsiias carbon- ate, with oxide and sulphuret. ; . ‘Metals. ‘Silver, 08 0.5 Carbonate of lead, BORG: “Do-of copp (oxide andsulphiet), 48:2 . 2958 ¢ { Oxide of iron, (trace of mangan.) 10.4. 7.21 5p J Silica, = eS ee , ‘ 20. ; —o S } Alugiitia, Ps. RE 39.01 o ois casa Bima Gert ee A ee, dct 99.8 No. 8. Carbonate of lead with forrapinoua gangue... By J. Ve Z. Blaney. Metals. Carbonate of lead eee, of cORP t); e pes . 62.82 Oxide of iron, 3 8.32 Eo2 Silica, ee ee "B12 é aereetann ie aula Ae ieee ee Lo: evi. Tl sh (Magne ii bea. ph Si gaps aaaiena — ee ee ee ft. - e “se ie get PG ol eee No. 9, Carbonate of sad with ae hhh Se: GRRE CSE ca B Sb wee Carbonate of ae Sgt ip ss ae! 56.40. - be ide.of a i wiki « Giacilin «8.83 vie a * = Me ee eI eee, rn, ies of ‘anes ae 2 \ deeming ks Oe eee "305, 5928h rR easy ee aay = a | ge Bai oat F - ' Metals. a Cdipainitte af levine pees wee ~ ABQ21 © Salphuret of zine, 6.00. A400. 3 { Oxide of iron, ae of manga) ve wg » 16.432. Alumina, | Fig scgaaceatlaenlatled 0.002. 68642 Magnes, ; 3.103 hae te 99.015 sh white or grey lead ore. By H.C. Lea. Gaia te je ph et et Le Se Sai _ Improvement in Photography. ‘ Metals; . os Carboriate of lead; ~~. 59.83. 46 266 ene of zinc, . REPO Bt a ee 3 oe of iron ¥ ' 5.20. ..3:606 os as : sy i nine aha i sib 9.70:..... 52.502, io) Magnesia, . SAR 6 asta ia AE Fo. SORES 100.433 © Note 4 to No. 2.—William M. Uhler tried spprodinalign the pro- cess of amalgamation with No. 2, suffering the mercury to re- main in contact with the pulverized ore for several days, and found that 1 Ib, avoir. took up 419 grs. troy, which gave 145 Ib. 5 oz. 16 dwt. 16 grs. to the nett ton hare of 2000 Ibs. — + ai be eas Sa Noire’ “avs Ane. XI Resdiitae>.sabe elalasusaiveeiuanal tography ; by F. A. P. wanes Prof. deriamarmsassictice in the Univ. of ogee : Messrs. Editors,—1 dolnniiationdy ‘aboet a ay since, ke nection with Dr. Wm. H. Harrington of this place, a series ¢ experiments in photography, according tothe methods ‘of Mr. — Fox Talbot and pac Our attention” “was directa Reig sw oe * oth ditiane A: employed to render the surface of silver mote Sensitive to the action of light than it had yet been made. To determine the correctness of this opinion we instituted a va. riety of experiments, which, as they proved for the most part unsuccessful, it is unnecessary to detail. The coating formed by the direct. action of chlorine gas upon polished silver, was: not found to possess the «desired. photogenic» properties. We were led, therefore, to seek «whether by the’ decomposition. of some compound of the metal, a sensitive chloride could not” not be ueed. Mr. Talbot had already done this in the’ prepar of hinphotgetic patie but as it was our desire’ to avail our- oe «Nae pit ep formed re sas slat of age Improvement in Photography. 353 the decomposition upon the surface of the solid metal. _ It occur- red to us as a possibility that the iodide formed in the usual manner, by exposing a plate over the vapor of iodine, might perhaps give up its silver to chlorine, and thus produce the de- sired coating. This impression was not verified in our first ex- periments, owing to a cause which will presently be noticed. Perseverance, however, at length brought itsreward. By varying in every possible manner, the circumstances of the experiment, we succeeded in producing a surface so exquisitely sensitive to the action of light, that the image of an illuminated object was formed upon it in the camera in a space of time almost inap- preciable. The following is the process by which this result is obtained. Let the plate be prepared in every respect as if an impression were to be taken according to the method of M. Daguerre. Let it be then exposed for the space of half a minute to the action of chlorine gas, diluted with common air to such a degree that it may be inhaled without any particularly unpleasant sensation. It will then be found so extremely sensitive, that on being placed in a camera, with an aperture such as is commonly em- — ployed in taking miniature portraits, an impression will be pro- duced upon it in the smallest time in which it is possible to remove and replace the screen. The completion of the picture over mercury is effected in the usual way. A plate thus chlorized, on exposure to light almost immedi- ately assumes a very deep violet color, nearly approaching black. The mercury is not directly tarnished, and in this state the pic- ture is even more beautiful than after being washed with the hyposulphite of soda. But without this washing it cannot be preserved. M. Daguerre has announced that he is able to take images of _ objects in an instant of time. I have not seen any statement of his method. Some of the artists in the Atlantic cities have been equally successful. Their process is not that which I have here described. 1 suppose that I am acquainted with the mode of preparation which they employ ; but as it was communicated to me under an injunction of secrecy, before 1 had discovered it myself, although I had actually employed it unskilfully, and therefore without complete success before, 1 can say nothing of it here. It will, without doubt, soon be made public, if it is not Vol. xt1, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841. 45 354 On two Decomposed Varieties of Iolite. already known. I believe, at any rate, that the chloride coating is more sensitive than any other which has yet been used. This discovery has opened a new field of experiment, in which we are now actively engaged. The results may be communicated hereafter. | It appears to us that the lights produced by this process of preparation are much finer and smoother than those of the ori- ginal process of M. Daguerre. Some idea of the quickness of the camera operation may be formed from. the statement of the fact, that a man walking may be represented with his foot lifted as about to take a step. The quantity of chlorine necessary to produce the effect is exceedingly minute. In our early experiments we employed a quart bottle of the gas, opening it in a deep box, and leaving out the stopper while deliberately counting twenty. Replacing then the stopper, the plate was laid for half a minute over an opening in the top. After fifty experiments the gas in the bottle seemed not to have lost any of its original intensity of color. We have better arrangements at present in preparation. sauce Much care is necessary to avoid an. excess of chlorine. The principal cause of our early failures arose from an error OF ! kind. One may easily determine, with any apparatus, the time and quantity necessary, by laying a plate over the aperture a0 drawing it partially off at intervals... The action of the gas will then be greatest, of course, upon the part longest exposed. ‘Too much care cannot be taken to exclude the light during the pr cess of preparation. eR Tuscaloosa, July 1, 1841. s; cy gee Arr. XL—On. two decomposed varieties of Iolite; by OHARt®® Uruam Sueparp, Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Gol- lege of the State of South Carolina. ’ 1. Pinite of Haddam.—This mineral is mentioned in CLEave* Lanp’s Mineralogy on the authority of Prof. Siunuiman, as 0ce ring at Haddam, (Conn.).where it was probably noticed as eatly as the discovery of the chrysoberyl, along with which igre first found. It presents. itself most commonly, in small foliat masses of a dull bluish green color, disseminated through the On two Decomposed Varieties of Iolite. 355 | same albitic granite in which the chrysoberyl, garnet, columbite, zircon, automalite and bismuthic ores occur. A few specimens have been observed, in which the pinite assumed a regular crys- talline form; the figure of the crystal being either an hexagonal prism, or this form altered by the bevelment of its lateral edges. The discovery at a more recent date by Prof. Marner, of the beautiful blue iolite in the same town, has led to the develop- ment of a much greater supply of the pinite; and its occurrence is under such conditions as to leave no doubt of its being the first mentioned mineral, in a new state of chemical arrangement as regards its constituent particles. Both varieties here occur to- gether in a large grained, highly crystalline, albitic granite, which also abounds in small black tourmalines. The pinite is by far the most abundant variety ; good plates of iolite occurring only now and then, in limited areas of a foot or two in diameter, while the pinite is often so abundant, as mechanically to take the place of mica, in the formation of the granite. The iolite has frequently been procured here in tabular plates, several inches across; and is remarkable for the facility with which it admits of cleavage into still thinner layers. This sepa- ration is undoubtedly promoted by the presence of exceedingly thin plates of what seems to be mica. The crystals are but sel- dom possessed of well defined lateral planes, in consequence of the a rears. th of mica. albite, tourmaline, and ly of tabular spar. When perfect, however, they are either regular hexagonal prisms, or else this form, modified by the replacement of its. lateral edges. Their color is a rich dark blue, with an oc- easional inclination to green; the depth of the color, as is usual in.this species, is enhanced by the inspection of the plates ina direction perpendicularly to their cleavage. The specific gravity of a clear specimen, according to Dr. Tomson, (Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology, Vol. 1, p. 278,) is 2:651.. . 2°6643. From the same author, we learn that the mineral has the fol- lowing composition : : Silica, 49.620 _ Alumina, 28.720 . Magnesia,, ‘ . “ m * 8.640 Lime wine aN 0.228 ae eradd Protoxide of iron, . ° . * 11.580 “ manganese, - a 356 On two Decomposed Varieties of Iolite. The pinite variety, though generally occurring in indetermi- nate shaped pieces, yet nevertheless is occasionally seen in forms of the same shape and regularity as the iolite, from which, how- ever, it differs essentially in color and hardness. The peculiar tint affected by the pinite is a pale, bluish, chloritic green. Its lustre is pearly, and not particularly shining, except in a few spe- cimens, where the color approaches silver-white. Hardness 2.5, Laminz neither flexible nor elastic. Common mica frequently pervades the mineral. Specific gravity =2.8, which, however, is a little too high, from the impossibility of disengaging the air from the mineral, when weighed in water. The alteration which has taken place in the iolite does not appear to be attributable in all instances to the weathering of the rock ; for we notice perfect specimens of iolite upon the surface of the ledge : and on the other hand, the pinite variety occurs at con- siderable depths from the top of the rock, where it has been laid . open by gunpowder. Many individuals are, in part, hard and transparent, while the remaining portions present the aspect of true pinite. [t must be mentioned, however, that a new locality of the pinite has of late been discovered, distant about half a mile from that of the iolite, where, judging from the specimens, the engaging rock is less sound, and where no examples of iolite have been noticed. The pinite here is in gigantic crystals, (five or six inches in diameter,) and possessed of unusual regularity. ‘Some of them resemble large hexagonal plates of mica. So obvious did it seem that the Haddam pinite is merely 4 variety of iolite, that I deemed it a superfluous labor to strengthen the opinion by a resort to chemical analysis; for we have in the present instance, identity of crystalline form as well as of internal structure, similarity in specific gravity, and still farther, both ve rieties entering into one and the same individual. Analogous changes, moreover, are frequent among species whose chemical formule are not very diverse from iolite ; for example, in the tre- molitic hornblende of Amity, New York, and the sahlitic py- roxene of Canada and St. Lawrence county, N. Y., which often present themselves in a soft serpentine-like state, and this without having suffered any apparent interchange of elements with con- tiguous minerals, and wholly unaltered in chemical composition, with the exception of their hydrous content. "The Haddam pinite loses 3.07 per cent. of water on ignition. — of this substance is abstracted. from the “ First annual report on the geology of the State of New Hampshire,” by Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson. Be: SNLT. z Tits itis £13 aa Chlorophyllite. —TI have given this name toa new mineral found near J. Neal’s mine in Unity. The name is derived from the Greek words signifying green folia, a name which is eminently characteristic of the species. It occurs in tabular, or short six sided prisms, arranged in folia or in columnar masses, resulting from the openness of its natural joints. The extremities of the prisms or tables are often covered with thin lay- ers of mica, which circumstance has caused some mineralogists to mis- take the true nature of the mineral. It cleaves readily into regular six sided prisms, with resplendent surfaces. On trying its hardness it was found to yield to the knife readily, but it scratches glass, and is harder than phosphate of lime. Its powder is of a very pale greenish white. Alone before the blowpipe it glazes slightly on the surface, but does not fuse ontarely-> - Itis fusible with carbonate of soda, with slow efferves- cence, an enamel, which becomes of a darker green in the reducing flame. Its speeific gravity is 2.705... “Mr. J. D. Whitney ateig zed a specimen of it i in my lahocannataeel obtained the following results. One hundred grains of the mineral con- sist of Mloeas - - - - 3.600 Silic . . - » . 45.200 Piss inss of sheet - _— 27.600 Magnesia, - - - - 9.600 Protoxide of iron, - - - 8.256 - Manganese, = - : F - 4.100 Traces of potash, and loss, = = - - 1.644 100.000” I amindebted to Mr. B. Smuiman, Jr., one of the editors of this Journal, for a specimen of this mineral. In handing it to me, he remarked that it had a strong resemblance to the Haddam pinite. Its color is more bluish, however, than that of the Haddam Mineral. Its general lustre also’ is higher, but this is owing to Scales of what appears to be silvery mica traversing the chloro- phyllite, both in the direction of its horizontal and vertical cleav- ages. Its hexagonal cleavage is remarkably distinct. It still far- ther differs from the Haddam pinite in proms points where the iolite remains unchanged, not only its usual blue ‘color, but its chardeteristic hardness and vitreous lustre. 358 Steam Navigation to the Pacific, §e. As the analysis quoted gives phosphate of alumina; I applied the customary test for phosphoric acid, (of fusion with carbonate of soda, neutralization by acetic acid and the addition of nitrate of silver,) without being able to detect any traces of this acid. I conclude, therefore, that some error has been committed in stating the results of Mr. Wurtney’s analysis. If we set down the phos- phate of alumina as alumina, the constitution of the mineral would not be inconsistent with that of the Haddam iolite, as de- . termined by Dr. Txomson. I verified the aqueous content of the chlorophyllite, and in so doing observed, that the powdered mineral, both before and after ignition, corresponded very exactly with that of the Haddam pinite. By the reader of my treatise on Mineralogy, it will be observed that I referred the Haddam mineral, as well as that from Lan- caster, Massachusetts, and the F'rengh pinite, to the species mica. Inow relinquish that opinion, although I am not equally satisfied that the minerals from the two last localities belong to iolite,as 1 the case of those which form the subject of the present notice. New Haven, July 15, 1841. | ed Arr. XIL—Steam Navigation to the Pacific by the Isthmus f Panama and along the Western Coast of South America. Some interesting pamphlets on the subject named in the title were placed in our hands early in 1840 in Boston, by a brother of Mr. William Wheelwright, to whom mainly the world is indebt- ed for an undertaking which may be with propriety ranked the first among the enterprises by steam. Mr. Wheelwright has la- bored several years at this undertaking and is now on the eve of success. From himself we have just received a communicatio?, which, although not intended for the public eye, contains many facts in which the world is interested, and we therefore venture to annex certain portions of his letter or abstracts from it. ' Talcahuano, March 8th, 1841. = TO PROFESSOR SILLIMAN. Dear Sir—I had the honor of receiving your valued favor only a day or two since, having left the United States about the tmé _ it was written, to take up the superintendence of the *9¢"™ Steam Navigation to the Patific, Sc. 359 Steam Navigation Company, which I had previously formed in England. 'T'wo of our steam ships, of about seven hundred tons each, the Peru and Chile, arrived in this port in fifty-five days from England, passing through the Straits of Magellan, from sea to sea, in thirty hours; sails were employed when the winds were fair, otherwise steam, and the voyage may be said to have been one of the most brilliant ever undertaken. The field for steam navigation im these seas is so ample that our first voyages came off most. successfully, proving and fulfilling every statement made: unfortunately, however, the directors in England, neg- lecting to send a supply of coal, as previously arranged, the opera- tions of the company have ceased, for the present, and I am now engaged in this place in mining for coal, an operation never before undertaken in this country, and which of course presents a thou- sand difliculties.. My first object when I arrived here was to make a practical examination, to ascertain the strength of the coal, and see its influence upon our boilers and fire bars; for this purpose I exploring Valdivia and the island of Chiloe. After some unsatis- factory experiments, we finally. came to such an arrangement of our fire bars as to produce a result decidedly favorable; the excess of expenditure over the best Welsh coal was twenty-seven per cent., which is nearly as good as Newcastle coal. The formation of clinker is great, but it is not of an adhesive character, and the fires are easily cleared; the coal seems to possess no sulphur, and there is nothing disagreeable in the smoke; the ashes are white and the coal free from smut. ‘The coal lies in horizontal strata, rising or falling not more than ten or eleven degrees; is about thrée to four feet wide, and is found, most generally, cropping out on the precipitous sides of hills: the upper stratum is generally soft; the next stratum, which is what I now send you, is found from twenty to forty feet beneath; and I am now engaged in sinking a perpendicular shaft for the purpose of finding a third stratum and still better coal. Some two or three cargoes of this coal have been shipped, and spontaneous combustion has-been produced, which set fire to the vessels ; it must be considered that the coal first used was never mined, and was taken merely from the surface. I have ascertained that in two instances the vessels which have been set on fire had vegetable matter on board—the first was acargo of wheat stowed over a deep bed.of coal: the next, the 360 Steam Navigation to the Pacific, Sc. coal was shipped in what are called here chequas, made of grass. What influence they may have had in producing spontaneous combustion it is not in my power to say, and I should be much obliged if you could account to me for its spontaneous ignition. I cannot at present make any large deposit of this coal until I make some experiments, and for this object I shall load one or two small. vessels with the coal, and watch it carefully, keeping it free from any vegetable matter, and from water, and giving it all the ventilation in my power; it is a great drawback upon my opera- tions at present. On board the steamers we have iron bunkers for about ten or eleven days’ fuel, and it causes me no anxiety in putting it on board. I had this arrangement of our bunkers made with a view of using this coal. On my voyage south, I found at Valdivia and Chiloe the same strata of coal, and ina line of coast of more than four hundred miles there does not appear to exist the slightest difference in quality. It. is perhaps worthy of remark, that the coal found at Boca del Toro, on the Atlantic side of the isthmus of Panama, and near Cherokee on the Pacific side of the isthmus, is the same to all ap- pearance as that found in this district. I am at present mining about fifty tons a week, but hope in the course of a few days to open some more mouths, and mine 0 much farther than I am doing at present ; my only fear is that in sinking a shaft I shall be obliged to contend with a large quantity of water. As it isa new thing and a work in which I have ne knowledge, I am obliged to adopt a common sense view of it, and work on as well as I can, until miners can be sent me from Eng- The cost at the pit’s mouth will not exceed two d perton; should I get it lower down, it will be necessary to cleat it of water by a steam engine, which will render it somewhat dearer. Notwithstanding our operations are paralyzed at present, I feel persuaded that by the end of this year our line of inter- course to Panama will be completed, and our communication with North America and Europe greatly facilitated. | I have no doubt that the coal beds here will bring about soonet the steam intercourse westward from Europe to Australasia : this has been a favorite plan of mine for several years, and I hope that the arrangements which I made before I left England, patroni2e" by Sir Edward Parry, Captain Fitzroy, Mr. Montague and pope . Sy aol Steam Navigation to the Pacific, §c. 361 will be produced by opening’ an. intercourse westward from Europe to Asia, and making America the stepping stone between them. The isthmus.of Panama is destined to become one of the most interesting spots in the world: a ship canal. will, be formed, and. it will become the highway between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, I have been frequently on the isthmus, have. passed often between the two seas, have examined with. — attention the facilities and obstacles which it offers for the object and have satisfied myself of the perfect. feasibility of establishing a communication between the two oceans. On leaving England I was. requested to report upon my journey over, and to examine the isthmus with care, as well as the river Chagres.. As it may, perhaps, be st I sia from the pert such parts as [ | | oe ore ‘ BJO’... i A H Fins 2 | rey + f lf: ith th necessary cantalais I com- Lt ing tn Co Tfound at low tide ‘ the ri pei tens sxolen eighteen -Jnundred: feet ; a steamer of five, hundred ind en built, jai eee uP as. the Trinidad, with: teil 4 a“ is: also. thy; from this i soar ia 2 miles to, the: Rio Grande, W mpti C uarters of a mile from | epee a. Vessels of any size e may enter this river, as thetide r rises in’ spring ¢ ‘twenty-two feet the space between the 7 y slight rise. Tabouldsay that it could not exceed: forty: feet, for i in passing over: to Panama: from Gorgona, I found there was not a hill to ascend, and thata good carriage road could be formed. without making.asingle. cut, While the Jand ‘to the left towards Cruces was mountainous and. broken, that p Same seemed, to decline. to an unbroken. plane; ; hence, it i cau spat initiates etalomeny samen t line was ie =e 362 Steam Navigation to the Pacific, §¢. “ My impression is, that the first object, before thinking of a canal, should be to make a good road from the junction of the rivers Trinidad and Chagres to the Rio Grande or Panama ; by this means an intercourse between the steamers on the Atlantic and the steamers on the Pacific could be effected in three or four hours with perfect ease, and a cargo even transported in that time.” » As it regards’steam navigation in the Pacific, I feel convinced that it will gratify you to know, that the great work is gomg on. Even the few voyages made between Chile and Peru have shown, so palpably, its advantages, that the stopping of the steamers has produced a great sensation throughout the land ; it-is impossible to form an estimate of what it will do for these countries—the governments of Chile, Peru and Bolivia, have granted every pro- tection and continue to give me every support; and I am under the firm conviction that when once perfected, its advantages will be found vastly beyond what-I have described them. [am very much indebted for the insertion in the American Journal of Science, of my paper on iron steambeats. I have made’ con siderable efforts to bring forward that subject in England ; Thave gone into its detail and examined with all minuteness the whol subject, and I am perfectly convinced. that ‘not only all “our western waters will be navigated by steam vessels built of iron, but that transatlantic steamers will and must be of iron. Mr. Brunel, the celebrated engineer of England, wrote me a letter of thanks for the paper, and promised to lay it before the board of directors of the Great Western Company, and I have reason © believe that it was mainly instrumental in bringing about building of the great iron steamer, which will shortly ply across the Atlantic, and show herself as vastly: superior to the Great Western, as the Great Western was superior to others, when she commenced transatlantic navigation. = ; I ii “i ee, New Haven, July 20h, 1841, OT eae ie Seana _ Fo mn. WHEELWRIGHT. ‘Sabighigina Oi ae letter of March Sth, received yesterday, with. two specimens of coal, for which I'thank you. Yon rightly judge that I feel @ pee a ey ey eases, Sex yout peoyect; which T.consider to be one of the £ Ee Steam Navigation to the Pacific, &c. 363 mining operations are of the utmost: importance, and their suc- cess must, I should suppose, be decisive of that of your enter- prise; it must be too expensive, one would think, to bring coal from England,-and it is most happy that Provides has supplied it in such immense quantities in the very regions where it is wanted, not only for navigation coastwise, along your immense ocean barriet from Panama to Patagonia; but for the supply of those points in the Pacific—Gallipagos Islands, Sandwich, Ota- heite, &c., where depots will anon be established for the naviga- tion of the Pacific, and eventually around the world. Your South American coal is a treasure of inappreciable value, and with the aid of trained English miners and engineers, I cannot doubt you will succeed. I dare say, however, that your New England “common sense,” will suggest expedients that do not always oceur to those who have been’trained to move ina beaten track. Can om sa Sit Water out at a lower level, by in galleries ec 2d by shafts ?- You do not say which way Yo 3 atl if towards — the declivity of the hill or mountain in whose sides ania ‘crops out, then : ize will be easy. . You will of course look out for vallies and gorges, and all those positions to which you can make a communication so as to have the water go off by gravity—for even a Jong tunnel may be a less expense in the result than a steam engine, and it is vastly more simple and easy in the management. I have made some little blow-pipe experiments upon the coal you have sent me; that from the upper layer appears more like lignite, which you know, is merely wood of trees, altered by time, pres- sure, and fermentation. The lower stratum is good bituminous Ge. and from the abundant flame with which it burns, it must be well adapted to produce steam. It is very probable, that your next stratum below will be still better, as having undergone a more perfect assimilation, for you are aware that the true coal, (as distinguished from lignite,) is also a product of vegetable de- composition, but the plants were of a much earlier date, and in general not composed of firm woody fibre, but more soft and succulent. It would require extensive and skillful geological ob- sepatiabe, oe the spot, to decide whether you have the true bitu- tion of Europe and of North America, or a coal aeecinios date and less perfect—for such coals there are, as that at Brora in Sutherland, Scotland. ‘The liguite belongs to 364 Steam Navigation to the Pacific, §c. the tertiary formation, a much more recent deposit than even the: newest coal; but you may have a tertiary reposing directly upon. the true ‘oak formation. If your coal beds are of the more recent formation—which i is very possible, (although I would not hazard: an opinion from seeing merely hand specimens,) then it will never be as good as the true coals of an earlier geological date ; still however, you must mine it at all events, as it is your only resource, (wood being I suppose out of the question;) it is cer- tainly well worth mining, and oe thes managed, will no doubt yield you a good result. As ' to the spontaneous combustion, it is probably occasioned by th n of pyrites, (sulphuret of iron ;) which, inthe : t case is abundantly visible to the eye, and where invisible, may be disseminated in minute and thin flakes and points through the body of the coal. It is very prone to absorb oxygen from the air and from water, and thus to heat and inflame. Your security; as I conceive, will be to lay out your blocks of coal in the dry, warm air, So as to have them thoroughly dry before they are shipped ; and if it ever rains where your mines are, the coal after being. above ground should. be housed. In the ship, the coal should not be in contact with wood; if your bunkers are not all of iron, those that are of wood can be lined with stout shee iron; and the coal should be covered from the air, especially. the damp air of the sea, and the spray; if protected by. wooden covers: they should be lined with black tin, (thin sheet iron as prepared f tinning. ) ¥ mention this, because it is light, and covers ought not to be heavy ; but no combustible thing should lie in contact with the coal—certainly not wheat or grass as you mention; OF any other vegetable. You will, of course, reject any large masses of pyrites from the coal ; any masses that are visibly sprink ied with it, you will also throw away; the English miners call the pyrites mundie, With these precautions, Edo not believe. your coal will spontaneously ignite, and should it do so, it will, burn so Newly a it, canbe: het yp under till you make a. port. I should | ’ 1 1 nev nh on board, as mue iable to ferment; they may be consumed in ines 01 on n sor es bon i Kea a eel ae » ee Wee yee RPE EA Sad gt og Se EE Ant. XIII.—Bibliographical Notices. 1A Discourse on the character, properties, and importance to. py of the natural family of plants called Graminee or True Grasses ; delivered as a lecture before the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science, Feb. 19th, 1841; by Witu1am Daruineton, M. D.— Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science, an institution of which the ‘town of West Chester may well be proud, has, in addition toa regular course of public lectures on chemistry, astronomy, natural philosophy, &e. re for the last year or two provided. a series of extra discourses on mis- cellaneous topics of science and literature, several members of the So- ciety delivering each one or more lectures upon any subject they may deem sufficiently interesting or instructive. On a previous occa- sion, viz. in the course for the winter of 1839, Dr. Darlington chose for his theme, the. theory of the development and transformation of the eternal, organs of isin as , Rronoundes. by Wolf and Geethe, and W Cor Dee SNE as int part of the science of botam » as the nic t This intere ce does of a ae oe ae for private distribution... Premising that the subject may be aka % possess a degree of general interest, in a district so distinguished ‘or its agricultural advancement, Dr. Darlington first: defines what a grass 1B 5° remarking, that “ the term grass, in our vernacular tongue, is fre- quently used in a vague sense, to designate every ind of herbage found in our meadows and pastures; hence, we often hear people speak of clover, lucerne, and other plants—which have no botanical affinity whatever with true grasses—as though they really belonged. 1 to that remarkable tribe of vegetables. . But such is not the language of ‘ naturalists, _ and ought not to be of any well-informed person. Ai cen curate knowledge of objects can neither be acquired nor communicated without precision in the use of terms.”’.... Having thus hastily glanced at some of the more. striking features of the extensive tribe technically -denomina ted grasses, and the characters by which ‘they are ‘distin- “guished from other plants, I flatter myself we shall have no difficulty in recognizing any member of that family which may hereafter come in our way. It will be no news, indeed, to any of us, to be told that Fed-top, Timothy, and fox-tail, are grasses ; and we all, perhaps, may ‘be aware that our cultivated. oats, barley, wheat and rye, and even tice, belong to the same category. But the fact may ‘not be equally familiar to every one; that our Indian corn, and broom corn, the sugar cane, and Ta hantite are also true and genuine grasses. Much as 366 Bibliography. these last mentioned plants may seem to differ from the multitude of common grasses, the disciplined eye of the botanist perceives at a glance that they all belong to the same family ; and indeed, so emi- nently natural is the whole tribe, that is, so strong is the general re- semblance in the characters and habits of its members, that superficial observers, finding it so much easier to adopt, than to verify [correct ?] the crude notions of the vulgar, have actually supposed several species to be continually and reciprocally changing into each other! It isa curious circumstance in the history of this vulgar error, that in former times, when the occult sciences flourished, the peasantry of Europe imagined all our cultivated small grains to be subject to this kind of transmutation ; that: wheat was often changed, first into rye, then into barley, from barley into ray-grass or Lolium, from Lolium to Bromus or cheat, and. finally from-Bromus to oats. They supposed, moreover, that by the agency of a fertile soil, the degenerate grass could be grad- ually restored to its original form; or at least, that it could be brought back as far as rye !—‘ Veteres credebant frumentum per gradus degen- erare in macriori terra, atque Triticum in Secane, Secale in Hoxpeum, Hordeum in Bromum, Bromum in Avenam et sic per gradus descen- dere, immo credebant et jam semina Bromi vel Hordei in fertiliori terra producere Secale.* Caron a Linne, AM@niTaTEs ACADEMICE,, Tom. V.—Even in our own enlightened age and country, as we are wont to phrase it, there are yet many persons strongly tinctured with the notion, that wheat is frequently transmuted into Bromus, or cheat ; though I have not met with any so full in the faith as to believe that they can bring the degenerate offspring back again to its pristine state. his remarkable, also, that this obsolete notion, so entirely exploded among scientific naturalists, has lately found an advocate in a gentle- cocaine: A ARNE geologist, “and Whe has, . more paren limit... As that eniine has. been so astute in detecting the m mnt = 6 dentin the: quotation :— Duravit hac opinio, quamdiu plant earum- que flores « conspiciebantur e longinguo et fugitivis occulis ; postquam uam vero Mol Fum genera constituebant | pang ex fructificationibus geque diversis prog- a, shee opinio. Differunt enim inter se hee dicta Cerealia seu Gram- #, née unica pars figura ot proportione convenit, fruetara,, hee gramingy ac in sua specie constanter _ Cervyum a Ca- BILE Aides aah Hassan Sie cmcu- in o domo, fies bitin ast st eas Frumentium ; Aman, Acad. § 5, p 6. * ? “eee bility of the laws of nature, we ought not, perhaps, to mrearenaetnt at his discovery of the extraordinary mutation in our northeastern boun- dary, since it was established by the fathers of our’ republic. Ibis is quite as likely that landmarks should change their locality, as that ob- jects of natural history should lose the distinctive characters impressed on them by the hand of the Creator.” The proportion which grasses ' bear to other families of plants is next considered ; and we are informed that the grasses of Chester County, native, naturalized, and cultivated, ‘amount to about one hundred species, or one-tenth of the whole number of flowering plants inhabiting the same district ; but, owing to the im- Mense number of individuals of many species, their proportion to the actual amount of vegetation is much higher. . Their peculiar places of growth, their general distribution throughout the world, and the partic- ular distribution of individuals, the limits and modifications of agricul- ture as produced by climate, or in some degree by national peculiar- ities and customs, are next considered; and to this follows a brief no- tice of the general. properties and uses of this tribe of plants, which, comparatively humble vas it AB esi: contributes, directly and in- y: comfort of the human tion.” We can cite | “In an agricul- tural point of view, the superior value of is pints as materials for GAA AMET ECR EE 8 saccharine w “source of that rich sweet odor observable in well preserved hay. ‘This saccharine matter, which pervades the’ whole plant before ‘flowering, and is most src fo elaborated at that epoch, is designed to bé ulti- mately concentrated and deposited in the seeds, chiefly in the form of farina ; and hence we find the herbage of: comparatively little value “after the” fruit is fully matured: ‘The skillful agriculturist, therefore, ' eehanebch: the herbage of the grasses, i in supplying the erga domestic animals, and, indirectly, the animal portion of our own food. Iwill, however, mention those species which are deemed of chief value in our meadows and pastures,—naming them in what I consider the order of their excellence. 1, The meadow, or ay ee fase called Sine in Kentucky, (Poa pratensis, imothy, or the « re si on states, (Phleum pratense, Lj ‘(Dactytis ita, L.)—4. Meadow Fescue, (Fes- 368 Bibliography. tuca pratensis, L.)—5. Blue grass, (Poa compressa, L.)—6. Ray grass, (Lolium perenne, L.)—7. Herd’s grass of Pennsylvania, often called ‘ red top,’ the ‘ bent grass’ of the English, (Agrostis vulgaris, L:) and 8. Sweet scented vernal grass, (Anthowanthum odoratum, L.) There are a few other grasses—native or partially naturalized—to be found on our farms, and which are more or less eaten by. cattle: when. the better ones are wanting. But they are comparatively of little value, and good farmers are always desirous to supersede them by some of those above named. Itis remarkable that all the grasses here, enu- merated are believed to have been introduced into our.countty. ‘Those generally cultivated here, are the Timothy and orchard grass; and oc- casionally we see the ray, and herd’s grass, or red top; though these last are not s0 much esteemed. Now and then we hear of attempts to ‘new grasses to the notice of our agriculturists—accompa- nied CRN NEAT statements of their value—such as the taller oat- grass, (Avena elatior, Ii.) sometimes called ¢ grass of the Andes’ and a few years since one of our coarse indigenous grasses, called ‘sesame’ or, ‘gama grass’ (Tripsacum dactyloides, L.) was so extravagantly lauded in the journals, that many lovers of novelties were: induced to try the experiment of cultivating it, in place of the old approved plants; but, like some other experiments that we wot of 1 in our day, it) in a. total failure. . It is indeed exceedingly doubtful whether any oer gterien feo well apes So-one clmetey eich ous wy He is and long-tried acquaintances of our farmers which I have alre merated.” »_ But. itis from the seeds of the Le her ‘ikem sentiens ena ne derive the x seg aan D 1 prt ae called the sno ie The chiet bulk of these seeds being made up of farina- alii Lace ees and c nutritious, they are a soe Bp ee Scniainod in ie pal Pe “WS lve chy spake "concling remarks :—“ Thus are we furnished, by this mad geabotak , , with Accordingly we find the poisonous plants furnishing ‘the multifarious ingredients of the apothecary’s shop ; while the simple grasses, in their sound and unsophisticated condition, yield nothing but the wholesome materials:for food and nourishment. — It is true that humai ingenuity has extracted a potent medical agent, in ‘the form of alcohol, from the fermented seeds and juices of the Graminew ; and it is eqtally true, _ that man: has wickedly converted that extreme medicine into a daily beverage. But this is only a signal instance of his depravity, in per- verting the blessings bestowed upon him, and argues nothing against the intrinsic value of the materials thus abused. - It merely illustrates the ancient truth—corruptio optimi pessima, that the prostitution of the things produces vilest results.” ~The ehainder of this interesting popular lecture is chiefly occupied with an account of the chief grasses which are cultivated for erain, commencing with the least esteemed, such as oats and barley, and as- cending in the'scale of value to tye, Indian corn, to wheat, which in point of intrinsic value may j justly claim the highest place, and to rice, which is believed to afford . secre wh ta nite of: the wie cas hor eiesie te SSA Ba the purest, most nutritious, and ‘universally palatable of ‘all the ‘tip dients that enter into the composition of our food. The Jarge portion of our globe adapted to the growth of the plant, ‘and the copious product of its juices, render it probable that the cane will ever be our principal resource for the supply of sugar. The maple may furnish a tolerable substitute to foresters, who live remote from the channels of com- merce; and systems of policy, or other considerations, may induce € partial resort to the Jeet, to obtain this delicious and indispensable commodity ; but it may be doubted whether any, ‘or even all the other species of the vegetable kingdom can can rival this single grass in’ the pro- stion of sugar, either in the quality, the quantity, or the cheapness of ‘That the history of the plant and its products, is closely ls a cs Saleh sy pacts a Aniacr cag is unhappily'as true as it is reproachful to our race; and it is no less true that the choice product of the cane, like that of its grain-bearife is often prostituted to the vilest and most mischievous uses ; Pe We it recollect, that these evils are the results of man’s own » and are no more chargeable upon the blessings ted, “than they yet a 5 be we ber nd a: a bounteous Ment: 370 Bibliography. 2. Address delivered at the annual meeting of the Boston Natural History Society, May 5th, 1841; by J. EB. Tascnemacner. Boston, p. 46, 8vo.—This well-written discourse is chiefly occupied with a sketch of the recent progress of the different branches of natural history, beginning with zoology, and ending with mineralogy and geology. In such a wide range, it is obviously impossible, within the limits of an ordinary address, to give more than a glance at some of the prominent discoveries and most interesting facts in each department; indeed, nothing beyond a mere outline could be expected from a single without great es ce of time and labor. The author offers the fol- intellect successfully with the march of oeseney ‘That the accumulation of facts and objects of interest in every science is great, cannot be denied ; but it is also certain that every discovery, every approac! » : , and instead of making it more intricate, simplifies and renders it more amen le to the commonest understanding. The process is glean this ; the great suman of facts in any science, causes an sand subdivisions; the more extensive the Kubwiddge ‘asa the - ntimber of the facts, the ore natural, the more clearly defined’ and simple are these divisions, and each tered, more easily grasped by the mind, while the man of comparatively. iis leisure can undertake a single division a ee only keep pace eo discovery, but even add something to what is already kn “Tn botany, for instance, how few Sahetit are sient Wt the eryptoga- mous ape and of those porated how few know much of the Alge or sea-weeds- much as render it sufficient Pg a separate study. So in chemistry, how little was formerly known of the chemistry of organic bodies: there is now sufficient to make ita division of great importance and separate study. And in geology, how few are well versed in that most interesting portion, fossil vegetation. “The guage by heart; si in detail, aiieien, by division, there is much less difli- than n formerly, while separate fields ted ak 2 ~ 86k tredi sof auedaaanae ) + physic olog diyerses ; ils vivent, se nourrissent, se développent, et, avant de se dé- composer; ils meurent. Les premieres sont les corps inorganiques, les Bibliooraphay. ana were formerly simple because they were meagre; and they are now more difficult of attainment on account of their extent and copiousness. Geology was certainly a much less formidable science in the time of Werner, chemistry in the days of Lavoisier, and botany even as left by Linnzeus, than in their present condition. But if the amount of labor aphinieahte in both cases be compared with the amount and im: of the knowledge thereby acquired, which is the proper rtiethod of the question, we shall doubtless arrive at the same conclusion with our jaa: ac pas de Botanique, comprenant principalement la Morphologie Végétale, la Terminologie, la Botanique Comparée, ? Examen de la valeur des Caractéres dans les diverses familles naturelles, ete. : par Aveusrs de Sr. Hinarre: Paris, 1 vol. 8vo. (2 parts,) pp. 980, with 24 plates. 1840-41.—This treatise is written in a remarkably lucid and elegant, we may say brilliant style; and, although it contains much original matter, and 0 OT views as might be expected from the ‘pantet:e: Gistingaighed «ans - Philosophical a. botanist as.M. Saint- suse of she. tyro. : ea title denotes, to morphology, &c., or to botagy- i-th: restricted : ak upon which subject it is not only the latest, but doubtless the best text- book extant. The discours préliminaire commences,. in the usual manner, with an attempt to distinguish by a hme organized. from inorganized bodies, and plants from animals. “ Parmi les corps qui nous environnent, les uns, bruts et inertes, sonts privés de mouvement et de vie ; ils ne naissent point, ils se forment;. ils ne se nourrissent, ils s'agglomérent ; ils ne meurent point, ils se décomposent. Les au- tres, au contraire, naissent pourvus d’organes destinés a des fonctions ca corps organisés. Ceux-ci, cependant, n n’atteignent tous le méme degré de perfection ; il en est qui, doués de sensibilité, le sont en méme temps de diverses qualités qui semblent étre la consequence de la faculté de sentir; appelés a éviter la douleur a rechercher le plaisir, ils peuvent a volonté se transporter d’un lieu dans un autre ; toute espéce de nourriture ne leur convient point, ils savent choisir celle qui leur est propre, et tiequani} de ne pas toujours rencontrer des ali- mens capables de s’assimiler a leur substance, ils les déposent dans un cavité interieure qui leur sert en quelque sort de magasin ; ; enfin, ayant un centre de nutrition et de vie, ils peuvent rarement €tre sépa- tésen plusieurs parties, favorisées chacune d’une vie individuelle ; ¢e sont les animaux. Les plantes, au contraire, paraissent ne point 372 Bibliography: avoir le sentiment de leur existence, et sont étrangéres a la souffrance et au plaisir; elles restent fixées au sol qui les a vues naitre; elles ab- sorbent, sans aucun acte de yolonté, les matiéres inorganiques qui les entourent, ne les déposent point dans une cavité particuliére, et, dé- pourvues d’individualité proprement dite, elles peuvent étre multipli¢es par la division des parties qui les composent.” In giving a. brief his- tory of the received doctrine of vegetable metamorphosis, (on which the present work is essentially based, and of which it is a complete de- velopement,) the author very properly commences with. the name of Linneus. ‘A la fin du Philosophia Botanica, est une. chapitre de quelques lignes intitule, Metamorphosis plantarum, ou l’on trouve cette Bbrarcs Pejeciniamlene et. foliorum idem est ; phrase développee r ,un autre écrit qui fait partie des Amea- qu ul se. découvraient en prononcant le nom de leur maitre, le comprenaient a peine ; ils admiraient en lui ce qui était peut+ étre le moins digne d’admiration, et l’aphorisme si remarquable qui je viens de vous citer passa inaperc¢u. Longtemps aprés, un €crivain dont PAllemagne s’honore en offrit le commentaire le plus élégant et le plus ingénieux. .Son livre eut-le méme sort que la™ phrase de Linné, il fut dédaigné. comme elle; les savans ne le lurent ze et aperene rent que, sorti de la plume d’un poéte, il ne. pouvait offrir qu'une réverie écrite du. style faussement poétique du Connubia Flo- rum, ou des Amours des plantes, C’était bien mal connaitre le gemle de Goéthe, ce flexible genie qui prenait toutes les formes, et choissait toujours celle qui convenait le mieux au sujet qu’il avait a traiter 5 qui, dans une ceuyre merveilleuse qu’on voudrait briler et relire, sait nous faire entendre tour a tour les célestes harmonies du choeur des anges, le grincement sardonique de l’auteur du mal, le bruit confus de la pop- ulace qui se presse, et les cris déchirants que le remords arrache & une infortunée coupable. Lorsque. Gosthe voulut écrire sur la science, il sompositions scientifiques. Sila Metamorphose des s planies ne fut point gotitee. d’abord, c’est qu’elle avait paru trop tét, c’est que Pauteur avait devancé. son siécle.” The chapters of the work treat successively of pata eer aan ae Ta a and of the laws which ition ; of their symametry; and the the peculiarities “Thea py also, Lok thevledened 3 ghee: aA a - ee Le complete recapitulation of the facts or principles which they illustrate ; thus RENE these pages a. most maaienes.c — pasion ee the, book. sat Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Meailirakee wip tere Sreppano Enpuicuer. Vienna, 1836—1840. (18 fase.) © tsi 1483, imp. Svo.—We have previously directed the attention of our botanical readers to this truly classical: work. We have now to ané hounce the completion of this laborious undertaking, which forms per- haps the most important contribution to’ systematic botany for the last twenty years. The number of genera described in the body of the work is six thousand eight hundred and ninety-five; and the additions in the supplement (which occupies a part of the seventeenth a the eighteenth fasciculus) extend this number at least to'7000. ‘The edition of the» sommes Piaisarvies, by Linneus, (Stockholm, 1764,) comprises onl d thirty-nine genera. The work is published, if we- mistake not, at a Saxon thaler for each fas- ciculus;-end: cam be obtained: in New: joe Tt may be’ — to state, P est: thaee ster anny nl rat Tongr ier ‘The tenth and fx inal | sApadnton to the above, we may rendigee fiat Dr. meats. of “Berlin proposes to publish, in occasional numbers, a Repertorium Botanices Specialis, a digest of the new species, &c. which appear in separate articles or pamphlets, or are scattered throughout the scientific period-' ieals of the day. The work is announced in the Linnea, part 1, for the “abies 1841. y # “i Nomonclator Botanicus, sew synoniiniet + plenaron asivernilie, deéca, « et a létneans et a recentioribus de re s Saiabieat scriptoribus Plantis phanerogamis imposita ; aictore E.'T. Stecpen. (Nomina si hescio, periit cognitio rerum.) Ed. 2, ex nova elaborata et aucta. Stuttgard ‘and Tubingen, (Cotta,) two vols. imp. 8vo. _1840-1841.— The plan of ‘this elaborate index to phanerogamic botany is nearly the ome, with the first edition; but the work is of course very much en- * The first volume, (of eight hundred and fifty-two pages, pub- lished i m seven fasciculi,) extends from A to K inclusive. We have ‘the second volume down to the letter R, and ere this the remainder has probably been published. This is a work of immense labor, nd ches but the library of the author appears not to d with the recent works of English and American 374 Bibliography. 6. Kunze, Supplemente der Riedgriser (Carices) zu Schkuhr’s Mon- ographie, §c—The first fasciculus (the only portion that has yet appeared) of Prof. Kunze’s supplement, or continuation of Schkuhr’s well known work on Carex, comprises detailed descriptions and beau- tiful figures of fifteen species of that large and difficult genus. The specific characters are given in Latin; the remainder of the text in German. The figures are executed in the same style as those of Schkuhr, but are not somuch crowded. Four of our North American species are here illustrated, viz. C. leiorhynca, Meyer; C. Steudelii, Kunth; C. gracillima, Schwein. ; and C. Frankii, Kunth. The last is'identical with the vie: Cc. se ripcaleey Torr. at Hooker and hiniotte Botany of Capt. Beechey’s Voyage ; part 1841. (tab. 90-99.)—The tenth and last fasciculus of this work pre in the account of a collection on the Pacific coast of Mexico, and is terminated by a complete index. The ten plates it comprises are nearly all devoted to Californian plants deseribed in prior fasciculi ; which Pterostegia, a curious Polygonaceous genus, Anemopsis Californie of Nuttall, and ee of Nees, a singular aes are _ most remarka le. 8. Elémens de Tératologie Vé ‘peri, ou. Histoire aes des anomalies de V Organisation dans les Végétaux; par Aes : Tanpon. Paris, 1841, 1 vol. 8vo. pp. 403. (Monstra in: horremus, amamus in pomis. Ferrar., ‘Hesperia. lib. iv. cap. xi) treatise on v getable ities is very properly pre- faced by a statement of what is meant by the normal structure oo by vegetable individuality, and vegetable symmetry. The au- thor proceeds to consider, ‘first, those slighter deviations which are called varieties ; and secondly, those more grave and mostly congen- ital anomalies which bear the name of monsters. As to the latter the author remarks, that nearly every monstrous or abnormal condition that’ has been observed is to be met with as the normal state of other veg- etables ; and that between a monstrous anda normal flower, the only difference often is, that the former is the occasional, the latter the habit- . “La monstruosité est donc, en général, Vapplication inso- Tite, dun individu ou d un appareil, de la structure normale @un autre. pa: eil ou Wun autre individu. Cest un organisation transposée, est une loi changée de place. OnTa dit avec raison, la monstruosité ne 86 trowee pas en dehors de la nature, mais seulement en dehors de la Te lt is } clear, therefore, that while abnormal states may alway ies xplained by the laws which regulate the normal structure, ) toe ‘ : themsel es as the etymology of the name: indicates, often show us the true structure when it could not be certainly inferred from the habitual condition. The author arranges monstrosities under four primary classes ; those of volume, of form, of disposition, and. of number. ‘These are divided, the first class into monsters by diminu- tion of volume, (Atrophy,) and by augmentation, (Hypertrophy ;) the second class into monsters by alteration of form, whether irregular (Difformation) or regular (Pelorias,) and monsters by the transforma- tion of one organ into another, (Metamorphosis ;) the third class into monsters by the abnormal connection of parts, or by the disunion of parts habitually united, and into those caused by change of situation, or displacement ; the fourth class into monsters by diminution of num- ber, or abortion, and those by augmentation of number. Under these heads the, monstrosities of the different organs of plants are considered in detail, and in a philosophical and very interesting manner. This brief notice of the plan of Moquin-Tandon’s work, we are confident, will suffice. to. esceeii it: to ie attention of the botanists of this peers PbS ER ah ha Na my ta Part ia pice Botany, arranged on : ihe Piney Sy: = ‘< ; ded by an Analysis ; by Joun Darsy, A. M., Prof. of Chem. and cg A Phil. in” the Georgia Female College.. Macon, (Geo.,) 1841. 1 vol. 12mo.—The publication of a new local Flora, on the natural system, Preceded by a treatise on vegetable anatomy and pl * cing many of the most recent views and discoveries, ti an-une- quivocal. indication of the advancement of botanical science among us. The first part of this volume comprises, within the compass of about 150 pages, a good account of vegetable organography and physiology in its. present state na The phenomenon of ‘cyclosis, the Inticiferoms tissue, the recent views of Endlicher, Schleiden, &e. TERPOCHRE the origin of the embryo are all-2 noticed, alae the author’s limits have often prevented him from sufficient details. To write a flora of any extensive district, ore even tye ppc a creditable compilation, involves an amount of labor of. which few who have not made the attempt can have any conception ; and, there are, moreover, several circumstances which just at present ‘Tel der the production of a Southern Flora a difficult undertaking. It ie ie be surprising, therefore, that we should more highly estimate Niege a few plant i pecalie to Texas, ant W. estern Louisiana are included, hil : SRE oe eye ni ae RE SR ik ae Pe A ye ee a s o- 376 Bibliography. olina and Georgia are omitted. Such omissions, however, will not ma- terially interfere with its usefulness as a class-book, and they may be readily supplied ina second edition. 10. Report on ‘the MenaSactiie of Iron, addressed to the governor of Maryland, by J..W. Alexander, Topographical Engineer of the state. Printed by order of the senate, 1840; 269 pp. 8vo, with plates and tables.—We have already noticed the labors of Mr. Alexander in the survey of the state of Maryland, (Vol. xxvi1,) and we owns briefly. mention the heads of the present opal report. |, : It is contained in four chapters. ig rs Seen sin a INTO THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. : town a the manufactur ei ae. 3. Researches into the manufacture in dies lan ih Chap. Il. MeraLLuRGIc AND GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE OBES or 1roNn. ‘T'wenty one pages. 5 . ~~. Native iron. 2. Meteoric iron. 3. Magnetic iron ore. ey Specular iron. 5. Fibrous brown hematite. 6. Cerkonate of iron. 7. i eg tron. 8. Titaniated tron ore. JU. Means, MACHINERY AND MATERIALS EMPLOTED 1 IN THE MANUFACTURE OF InoN. | Sixty eight pag . ane Sect. 1. Blast nae generally tir Se i Sect. 2. Cost of mt porencich eof ‘sac frase their accessories. Sect. 3. Of ‘ho accel sabe in Wat. furnaes—thir method of extraction and preparation, and their cost. » Chap. IV. Princiran cHEMICAL PHENOMENA OF THE asxscrvns OF TRON. _ Righty four pages... ‘s sox > of the general elenical ears a Bast eas! bag at Ais at a Pe Sy ene Chae) i Binns aed peed Oa ate Pame#ia tits A mhennimena. yore Rit 2. £th - ies Saree 8 5, Sy ae : 7, A under ~WECL. &.. UONATACLE saat bx ulects Ay ya pn prodscts accompanying te forme tion of rude ion: Be eres. Itisol that tht hiss avoatin of grat work an it ers al ! by Mr. Alexander. “As he justly observes in another co’ — pineetion: appeare ht niet, ver interest inal “msking ae: i le _ ‘ - ae ant functions of a representative government. - With this view the au- thor of this report undertook the gratuitous labor of making it, im hopes that the state of Maryland, already signalized by having caused an early geological, and the first trigonometrical survey of a state territory, might also by her example, induce her sister states to enter upon this career—only another branch of the same general. enquiry—by care- fully collecting statistical facts in relation to different domestic resources and manufactures, exhibiting their actual condition and Siete for further periodical statements as to their progress. So far.as this Journal has influence, we should be habe to hopes a portion of its pages in disseminating impressions and arguments. hav- ing the object indicated above, and we have to regret that our engage- ments have prevented an earlier notice of the labors of Mr. Alexander onthe subject of iron: It is magnanimous in this gentleman to perform this great and responsible duty gratuitously—proe bono publico—and it is happy that in this respect, science as well as liberty can occasionally boast a Se + but we feel bound to protest agen such a course as a ge : ntr'y tl bie: to speyetowalt the Tomb « Cie 2 or ee St Dns ae pos We Suite totes i Rina eee ge ee te na nee ee ae = Se ee ee — he Ff Pus =2 Pape & oe ey | as ae a ak fo ss Te ae Se ee Se The report now ‘before: peri Re A “prepared wile ggheat care and labor. It exhibits abundant proof of a careful investigation : both at home and in foreign countries, in.eill. the. toe dantpophiint pine tical operations, from the mining of the orcs of iron to the conversion of this most important metal into the numerous forms in which it is demanded by the necessities of civilization. It is, in an important de- gree, a monograph of its subject, which, if carried into full detail in all its bearings, would demand volumes for its elucidation. Mr. Alex- ander’s report is-a full half of a full octavo, and he still finds his limits too narrow for all that he aah: AP AE TA Without wishing to hie active | Go ae Leen See Cn ee SRO Te } | we would venture to suggest the a PARR a separate pamphlet, -a condensed » abstract of. the sqpabampaeiants practical facts, for the use of , omitting many histori- eal details ‘Gis.0 some of those scientific views which are most interest- ing to those. -who cultivate science for its own sake. _ Did our limits permit, we would gladly recapitulate. iaany interest- ing and important facts which are brought out. in the present report. « them are the results of the microscopic examination of the dif- ferent varieties of cast ‘iron, and also o of bar iron. tt appears that their. h the lee bt By q e Wad. bar, No: a -Selg-eip. 1841. 48 378 Bibliography. ities of the iron. The crystals of the gray cast iron belong to the octa- hedral system, and present themselves under the forms of several of its classes; their minuteness is extreme ; when the form is cubic, the linear dimensions are not over ;s$55 of an inch, and the weight of a crystal soyadoo00 Of a grain. - The crystals of the white cast iron are more generally six-sided prisms, &c. A work involving innumerable details must be. ully perused, in order duly to appreciate its value, and this course we, in the present instance, strongly recommend to all those, who from a scientific or practical interest, are disposed to study the history of the most important of the metals—for to iron is man indebted for the high- eat attainments i in civilization. Its natural history, and its chemical and bine a series of attractive results hardly equal- led. i nacomeaiieacienidnn in proportion to the importance of this metal to the human family, it is by the bounty of the Creator, diffused over the world with a profuse liberality, which esd it rien soe. § where within the reach of man. | Mr. Alexander has set an example worthy of imitation, by a full and able exhibition of both science and practice in relation to iron, and we trust that this is only a prelude to other labors of the kind, — aan to the honor and Geren of ee one i ae Repos on, the peaeretni ‘einbiitt of mcg compri- sing the Mollusca, Crustacea, Annelida, and Radiata. Published by Se ee D. Bro. pp- 978. Can mas Mass. 1841. ‘ - Reports on the Hin Micdonies Plats eiit Qutitraptis ae the first by Rev. Cuzster Dewry—the last ay Eewezen — 8vo. pp. 277 and 86. “Cambridge, 1840. _ We have already been presented with dietepdienrét By Storer P , reptiles and birds, of the state of Mas- sachusetts,* and which we were given to understand, would be fol- eer eins titles stand at the head of this notice. “The nithh examination and sis of b or aad , confines of Swedish Lapland. A. Cokmell: Esq.; further researches on the voltaic dee x ous and alcoholic solutions. Dic Sasa entes teers of paracyanogen in large quantities; and on the isomerism of cyano- gen and paracyanogen. John Stark, on the supposed progress of hu- man society from savage to civilized life, as connected with the domes- Weation of animals and the cultivation of Cerealia. Johanne Miche- loti de Solariis in Supracretacis Italie Stratis repertis, (Tab. I.) Prof. Forbes on the theory and construction of a seismometer, or instru- ment for measuring earthquake shocks and other concussions, (plate 3). Dr. Samuel M. Brown, experimental researches on the production of silicon from ani tageniet oes Goodsir, on the pares eve 14. First sewed Rajor! on the io andung of the state of. New Heng shire; by Dr. Cuartes T. Jackson, state geologist. 8vo. pamphlet, 164 pp. . Concord, N. H. 1841.—The labors of Dr. Jackson in Maine and Rhode Island have, we trust, been familiar to our readers, by our Rotices in former numbers of this Journal, and we now congratulate him and the state under whose authority the present report is made, upon his appearance in a new field of labor. As it is understood that this report is only prefatory to a more full and elaborate one to be published on the completion of the commission, we shall not attempt its analysis, but content ourselves: ore or two of the most i pees to ascertain, aeRO SE ey \ ta tinieee ened 384 Bibliography. by repeated simultaneous observations of the best barometers, the true elevation of all the important mountain elevations, which constitute such an important feature in New Hampshire scenery, and also, by proper astronomical observations, to fix their geographical position. Mount La Fayette, the most elevated point in the group, commonly known as the Franconia Notch, was found to be five thousand and sixty seven feet high, and its latitude, N. 44° 8’ 59.4. Mount Washington, the highest point in New England, was measured with every precau- tion to insure accuracy, and an interesting account is given in the re- port of the modes adopted to ensure this end. The result was, that the summit of Mount Washington is N. 44° 16’ 34.48; and the height, as ascertained by a series of barometrical and thermometrical observations, made under the most favorable circumstances, during twelve hours, was six thousand two hundred and twenty six feet above the high-water mark in Portsmouth harbor ; the same, calculated by a series of observations, was six thousand two hundred and twenty eight feet, making but two feet difference in the elevations, and in single observations the difference is but six feet. geet The most interesting mineralogical discovery made during this ex- ploration, was that in the town of Jackson, of a vein: of OXIDE OF TIN, in a powerful lode of arsenical pyrites. This is the first, instance of the occurrence of this metal in America in any tangible quanuly, and although the amount of the tin hitherto observed is not great, yet the discovery, in its indications, may be looked on as one of the most valuable metallurgic observations yet made among us. — tail Dr. Jackson also mentions the occurrence-of a mineral at Unity, 1 which he gives the name of ‘chlorophyllite, and is inclined to consider as néw? it'will be seen by referenve to page 357 of the present nume ber, that this opinion is there discussed. goa The chemical department of the report evinces, as usual, much tivity and patience in the laboratory, and when the final report appea!s> by Hircucocx, LL. D. 2 vols. 4to. pp. 831, 54 plates. Amherst, €: Adams; Northampton, 8. Butler. 1841.—It is with great pleasure we erica, and the first (except Prof. H. D. Rogers’ report on New Jer- sey) of that series of final reports which are to form the grand sum cae: vol- Vie ease ie has aaa ih wax” pyle: sap Sn sell siadiusl « gubedindl - ie fj geeres pea a ae ee ME MS. ae ee ee ss. Sahai ee te. ee - + umes, are all the result of the untiring—nay, almost Herculean efforts of an individual mind, continued amid the harassments of constant professional duty, during a period of ten years ; we’ are encouraged to hope that we may yet see the day, when the united efforts of our small army of working geologists now laboring in the common cause, shall reduce the: oe = iy ype — to an Pree RaCyatenE mse mmaqeee will come again tanita eager hb and space shall give us an opportunity to review their contents in a way dit — better —_ uses sae value,” haw: is now ened rah 16: Fifth potatoe ines on the fasting of Tidhegeics : by Henry D. RocErs, state geologist. Harrisburg, 1841. 8vo. pp. 179. * Report of the progress of the Geological Buitbey of the state of Vir- for the-year 1840 3 by ing B. me aprey Professor of Natu- ral Phi > U , ~ Richmond, Va. 1841. fedenen= ee vit eae mae ibis +t egy Fifth Sleep agate to the 2 Now. 1839 ; by G. Troost, M. D. siesta thesia u,b. The great number of geological laborers now in the field, in this rove acting under the legislative ‘patronage of the various states, tion of facts, and a publication of results so frequent and voluiminows, that ‘it requires espana sd industry was instituted, that their public servants are net remiss in the fulfillment of their duty. af ‘With this view, peculiar prominence is given to the economical ge- nr aaaionsign:. ial the: nega - eae. deposits nes. and their tal progres of he works and give Gril te toplist the commission i ive pail zations of theoretical geology, whose sure basis is the firm foundation of facts which so many industrious laborers are garnering up for future. use. Of the grand results which time will bring forth from this great storehouse of meena we have even now acetone eBeapaees sane _ shadowin: For theses reasons it is, that less care erat has been silesatie to present to the readers of this Journal the particular details of all the valuable annual reports which have from time to time come into‘our hands. Of those whose titles stand at the head of these remarks, each has its peculiar interest and is richly worthy of a separate notice. “he full review of one of the most important was promised for insertion in ai ee NE es RE Raa the M . Rogers are well known to their friends, “although thus far they have confined themselves almost entirely to the detail of their annual reports, and have reserved till the last the expansion of their final results. The regions’of country over which their researches extend, are believed to embrace some of the grandest phenomena of dynamic geology which haye ever been brought to light, and on a scale of magnificent extent quite startling: to those accustomed to circumscribe their views: In the State‘of New York, the Silurian system of Murchison has found a nl full in its details than the original, and in geographical — extent ma- king the mow ounisof the Welch system sem ani Soh ated Ss Bueigencg TE gb ee: 2 ert ee ce Bees panes bpebon Saiinssth ae ase eT Ps me ae: See eyaiditamn eae ae feat SCOP ee Ne oP a ip piace cael 1 ® Bee remarks : "— oe is again j : a ge Sate: geolog and 7) we a, Bd m4 1 ‘4 . “an Pes / i . a SS ONS diences in Clapham, on vaelanath bservient both to pury of science ant benevolence. as 4 erie ; 18. Pondtes Lectures on Achietoasit treated in a very Mecaeihehahe manner ; by K.C. Von Leonnarp. Translated by Rev. J. G. Morris, D. D., and edited by Prof. F. Harn, LL.D. Baltimore, 1841. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. pp. 400, 12mo.—Our opinion of the French translation of this work was fully given in Vol. xxxrx, p. 393, of this Journal. The present English translation by the Rev. Dr. Morris, is done up ina very readable and attractive style; while the editorial care of Prof. Hall, has ensured accuracy in technical details, and added numerous notes illus- trative of American geological facts, which render the work more ac- ceptable to readers in this country. The beautiful steel engravings of the original are represented in the. present edition by wood cuts, which, as well as the typography, are not favorable examples of American fark in. ieee enteric” e Sekpeeniaticn me, pret. 3 Leouhand’s: popular lec- 30: Notiee ofthe Uotiets Aptalamadae He ‘dialing euisantn” paris: of Geological Science ; hy Maier: cs 508 a ace st a Tie baemenioeecddaintensnmmedie onered | Library, AcE Ras ener Aa PrN a en BE From the skeleton of the subject given in the uhinabacianenn ipwill be obvious to geologists that Dr. Smith has touched upon the most in- teresting topics of the science, and it is evident that he has bestowed ‘pon ita diligent, persevering, and intelligent study, until he has made master both of its facts and its doctrines. He meets.them with the spirit of a man, a philosopher, and a Christian, while he finds in them to impugn his faith as a believer in the Scriptures. Diiendidhide tieieennes. religious man, a learned theologian, and "ee dined Ni Rl eee 388 Bibiarvaala _ Dr. Smith has not, like some theologians, denied, neglected, avoided, or slurred over the facts; he has met them in their full force; he gives entire credit to the researches of geology, both as regards the accuracy and ability of the investigations and the fidelity of the reports. He admits the obligation also which geologists have laid upon the world od their arduous labors and important discoveries. Did our space admit, it would give us great pleasure to catnbliely the truth of these statements by numerous citations from the work 5 and we are happy in finding ourselves in almost. perfect accordance the scientific views of the author. He is decidedly conviicedinntonily of the high antiquity of the planet, but also of its fossilized races of _ and A PRIA =, on perfect consistency of this view with the statement. contained in the first verse of the first chapter of Gen- wna ‘it-is declared that that God created the heavens and the earth in the beginning,—as the author believes and we believe, long anterior to the creation of man, whose appearance on the planet is geologically a very modern event. While perfectly agreeing with him in this view, - it is with pain that we differ from so distinguished and excellent an au- thor with respect to the six days. The scheme presented in Lecture VII, Part II, however it may be thought to be: philologically convenient, does not appear to us to meet the geological difficulties, or to be con- sistent with geological laws. As the writer of this notice has explained his views in the appendix to Bakewell’s Geology, (third American from the fifth English edition,) we feel it to be the loss necessary 10. Tepent the statements here. We have indeed preferred to a polemical discussion in this Journal, which is mainly devoted to facts. To us it appears that ne. explanation oF. pettogicnl phenomena in re- lation to the days of th C) tisf tallows the requisite time for the events, as. ‘occurring in ‘their proper.order, con- sistently with the laws of mineral dynamics and of organic life ; no mm- agined new arrangement, either local or general, in a period.of a few ee eee ere eee ee long dn every th e el tirely a ) eahie most excellent work, _- Dr. Smith has rend FRG: SRR sate cience.and.to seliggon bY ies Se eeienn se baierprat steer Se aad ine ae | 3 4 Ve eT c's $ * 5 ae feos ic . a pe ee Ge ee aot se Ge ce epi ahs ta WEEE UE GLACE at ip At : : to place it side by side with astronomy, the only physical science which excels it in grandeur—and to prove that only dark and. limited views can ever make us fear the development of truth in —e ASR of the works of the infinite Creator. 20. Astronomy for Schools ; upon the basis of M. dines 's y os at the Royal Observatory of Paris, and in which the leading truths of t science are clearly illustrated without Mathematical. Demonstra- tions ; ; with numerous engravings and an appendix; by R. W. Has- kins, A. M. New York, 1841. pp. 324, 12mo. _Mr. Haskins has been for some time favorably known to the readers of this Journal by various papers which have appeared under his sig- nature on his favorite science. The object of the present work is fully explained in the above copious title, and we may say that the mode in which the subject is treated is well calculated to secure the end in view, The well known. patient accuracy of the author is a sufficient warrant for the fidelity with which the task ue been. performed, How far it is possible to obtain a fall un the aid of matical demons . that a very useful and. inte nay be thus composed, sufliciently proved by the pon of. the present volume. . The au- used in composing this abstract, are ample and of the greatest weight; and 1 the use made of Ahesn 48. quite, es anemere ae the limits mete soe tal : relations, uses, and saat with a pear he congo? leading nape S as talogwe hee hee le de | oe enter on any “ae ‘of the present work, Pando ees With its ample ‘title the field of human Knowle € to ie Matton of many important parts of which our pages ‘are “devoted. We cann ot better set forth the author’s classification than by transferring to ot T pages the order of growth of his tree of knowledge, which forms the frontispiece of the work. This plant is represented as soil of Nooxdey and Cosmoxoey ; its trunk divic aah ring Stem the left, and PsycHoNOMY the 3; from tter Ply be aan ,e8—Grossoroer, which ramifies into Gener! guages; PsycnoLocy, under which are Rhetoric, Logic, Phrenics, Ethics, Education ; Nomotoey, Political Philosophy, International Law, Constitutional Law, Municipal Law, Political Economy ; “T'nnonoey, Paganism, Mohammedanism, Judaism, Christianity ; MarHEMatics, Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Ancyclometry, Rhetometry ; Acro- prysics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Optics, Ceraunics, Chemistry ; Ip10- prysics, Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology ; ANDROPHYSIcS, An- dronomy, Pharmacology, Thereology, Chirurgery. From the same main stem of Psychonomy, after this branch sets off, a prolongation extends itself to Eranotoey, which again branches forth into GEOG- rapny, Asiatic, European, African, North American, South Amierican, Oceanic ; CHronoerarHy, Euclassic, Oriental, European, American; pace ee Oriental, European, American.’ So much for wo ptincipal stems into which this tree is divided. The other stem, Warerconeher,) after lengthening out into TEcHNOLOGY, gives forth Arcurrecunics, viz. Hylurgy, Machinery, Architecture, Viatecture, Navitecture, Navigation; Curgorscunics, Agriculture, Horticulture, Domiculture, Vesticulture, Furniture, Commerce ; Ma- cxetecunics, Hoplistics, Fortification, Geotactics, Strategy, Navitetiess ; Cattorecntcs, Printing, Painting, Sculpture, Music, Argic From the wide range of the author’s subject, (what ean be more comprehensive than the title Pantology ?) it is not to be expected that much valuable information could be conveyed on any particular stib- ject; but all are treated much in the same way, and to many readers no doubt it will be of service in pointing to the sources of knowledge, whether the author's bape ie rae is Sberd or not. wa nea EKOWLIOS, | : the Unite States Military Academy. ‘pp ory Tiogaphy of a aed Aspin- wall, 1839.—This treatise was compiled with a view to the convenience of the class at West Point ‘Military Academy. The subject is treated in ‘a lucid, condensed, and very accurate way, and abundantly illustrated by drawings from the peneil of the author. ‘tis remarkable for the tho- roughness with which all the arts and manufactures, the materials and their preparation, and the tools and instruments required for these arts, are explained and rendered easy of Ao i 1 by the pupil, so that the most ; cannot fail to correct notions of the whole re sii “The work is harhre! cts for the use of the Military Acad- f instruction in that institution. British -_ jation for the a ment of Science. 391 Military Posts of the United States. Prepared under the direction of Thomas Lawson, M. D., Surg. Gen. U. S. Army. To which is appen- ded, the Meteorological Register for the years ars 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825: compiled under the direction of Joseph Lovell, M.D., late Sur- geon General of the U. S. Army. Published for the stent; Medical Officers of the Army. Philad. 1840. 8vo. pp. 161. . aPiabin. This valuable work contains observations on the t , face of the sky, direction of the wind and the rain, at places ranging from N. lat. 27° 57! to. 862 B0yad from: W. dong: 67° to 96°. It is introduced by judicious ung comparative temperature and climate of the different secti ns f the country, and is accompanied by a map of the U. 8: indicati sitions of the various posts of obser- vation. The collection:will: be of much interest to meteorologists, but its value would have been’ none: igo had it comprised observations of the barometer. 7 ag eee ee KSAT Sa al Wee Baz ; Pat See ae ri 7 md Sgt ee - i) a ou : eS ee ee ee * wt Fgh PA Art ye si . a XV —Procee wings of Lear Sovizries: Bi a a hatte oy Societies: Se ee eee "5 : t Fe are — ‘ a aS aa ees ee te . iss oy —s vu ee oO} nce Aerilitags *2 : ae Ee ORE Ree ROS. ae ie edie «3, Ze eleventh } Hf £ thi body. ~~ +n Pee “ne HE 5° > on Thursday, the 27th of July. .The meeting. seems to eaionas con of great value to science. The proceedings of the various reported in the London Atheneum, are very full and interesting, and as far as published on. the 26th of August, had occupied over one, hundred and forty columns of that closely printed journal. We shall in our next number endeayor to give our usual. condensed abstract, which has been, as far as we ate. informed, the only American channel by. which a knowl- edgecof she doings. ofthis important bad has come to men aaa in this country. We once ay coniaiichs rt patie shodimita of our number, for. the purpose of laying before our.readers the following extract from the address delivered by the. President, Prof. Whewell, at the opening ofthe sepeting, r begins ‘by an allusion to an imaginary Philosophical Col- = Ailentis. The imaginary, Apagbat whom he introduces lege, ae thet classic fable of which the great Bacon gives so remarkable a ons drawn by the speaker between the British Association and the plan ’ such an institution, which should have for its business not to teach mainly, but to make discoveries—to extend our knowledge of ep part of nature by all the appliances which experiment and theory, servation and calculation, ingenuity and perseverance can supply; and in addition to these, by more material resources, money and a ial tude of fellow laborers. He then proceeds:— - < “The British Association has now for ten years dischntped the office of such an institution as we have spoken of. Considerable funds, raised by the-contributions of its members, and expended under its direction, have been employed in feethoring and verifying discoveries. It is true that we have not attempted to-erect such edifices, and to make such preparations for the memes experiment, as Bacon introduces into his picture = but we have attained the same end more effectually, by procuring the use of many of the great establishments of manufacture and commerce which this empire possesses. We have had experiments carried on at furnaces and iron-works, on railroads and canals, in mines and harbors, with steam engines and steam vessels, upon a scale which no institution, however great, could hope to reach; but which has been placed in our power by the enlightened: liberality and scientific zeal of the proprietors and directors of such means of research. We have not - of ‘the ‘art se hie mete } la Pra ® pS ne a eT Pee | ree a eee ae Oe eee 969° f Ui Pe of Science. having been mainly employed in collecting information which might direct its future proceedings. In the fourth year 167/. was thus spent, and from this time the sum went on rapidly increasing. In the fifth year it was nearly 500/. ; in the sixth and seventh nearly 1,000/. each year ; in the eighth and ninth above 1,500/. each year; and it appears that during the past year we have expended in this manner, the sum of 1,240/7. And these sutns, it is to be observed, are only a part of what were voted ; at Liverpool, in 1837, above 3,000/. was voted, of which 1,000/. only was applied for; at Newcastle 3,700/. was voted, and -1,600/. of this only paid; at Birmingham 2,800/. was voted, and 1,5007. paid; the sum voted at Glasgow last year, was 2,600/., of which, as I have said, your treasurer has really paid 1,240. “These differences of the sums voted and paid in each year are evi- dence of the care with which the resources of the Association are hus- banded; for the sums voted were to be had on application made by the persons to whom their disposal was intrusted ; but they were not applied for, europe in proportion to the scientific work which was done ; and have been applied; but I may state in general, ‘that above 9002. has been expended by us in the furtherance of astronomy, mainly upon the object of reducing observations already made, into such a form that they can be directly compared with the theory. Above 8007. has been expended on tide observations ; 2507. on experiments on waves; 5007. on experiments on the best form of vessels; 2007. on experiments on east iron; about 4007. has been employed in various labors relative to meteorology ; and above 3007. on the description of fossil fishes and reptiles. J shall not detain you ¥ mentioning smaller sums which have been devoted to various objects: but I may call to your notice a work executed mainly in this country, upon which the Association expended about 5507. in 1888 and 1839. This work consisted in striking a level line from the north coast of Somersetshire to Exmouth, in order to de- termine whether the level of the sea is tbe sine in the Bristol Channel and in the British Channel, and in o da standard of reference in future times, if, from any cause the Felitive level OF the Tand aid the sea should change. This operation has already afforded us the means of determining, that the great land slip, which has recently taken placé near Axmouth, was not accoinphhied by any permanent change in the level of the land itself, where a block of calgon lies, which marks one of the extremities of our level line. "Since the first institution of the Association, about 7,000/. has been expended on such objects as have pointed out: but it is impossible for oe en Vol. x11, No. 2.—July—Sept. 1841. 50 394 British Association for the Advancement of Soiencé any one, who knows the nature of scientific researches, and the differ- ence between the result of money expended in experiments by a good and a bad philosopher, to doubt that this sum has produced effects which many times the sum applied without the same advantages could not have obtained. Without the encouragement of the Association, these researches would never have been undertaken: without the aid of such men as have frequented the meetings of the Association, they would have been attempted to no purpose. It has been said of certain og of Europe that they afford— Iron and men, the soldier and the sword ; in like manner we may say of this Association, that it has supplied at the same time the 11 soldier and the weapons with which he gains his victories over nature. “ But further, besides the expenditure of its own funds, the Associa- tion has been the means of procuring the appropriation of very large sums to scientific purposes from the national resources. At the sug- gestion or request of their body, the reduction of the observations of the planets made at Greenwich from the time of Bradley has been comple- ted; and the reduction of the observations of the moon has been begun. Up to the present time, about 2,200/. has been expended i in all. And by a letter from the Astronomer Royal, received since I came here, I am informed, that within a few weeks the Government expressed great willingness. to advance more money for this purpose; and Mr. Airy adds, that next Monday he is to have twelve calculators employed upon the work. We have applied to the Government for the extension of the ordnance survey into Scotland, and have received a favorable answer. We haye tendered our advice that the ordnance survey of England shall in future be conducted on a scale of six inches to a mile instead of two inches, and this advice is already acted on in the northern counties of England, where the eekig « is now proceeding, * Above all, I yn i rsuance of our repeated recommendations (a sereiog hitch the philosophers of future ages will duly estimate),—the great Magnetical. Survey of the terrestrial globe, by the combined operation of a naval expedition and fixed aidsaeaees in every quarter of the sas which i is now carrying if he he ge ings # Pacific, oh pole Fad i ss oo ee beng tpn i dhe liberality and spirit wit hiialiiihl ial * British Association for the Advancement of Science. 4 we seaiienk, nor is this testimony at all weakened by our claiming for members of our own, the merit of having brought into view the importance of such an undertaking, laid before the English public the progress which the subject was making in other countries, planned the scheme of operations which our own exertions ought to follow, and animated the observers, by giving them the certainty that their wagon tions will be well used and fully appreciated. *¢ When we can point to these numerous and valuable direct results of our exertions, we cannot at all waver in our conviction that those persons acted in the truest spirit of the age, and of the nation, who, eleven years ago, framed the design of a voluntary association for the advancement of science among the subjects of this empire: and that the hopes and ex- pectations which such an institution might naturally exercise, have been fully verified by the course and progress, the labors and successes of the British Association. “ | do not doubt that the present Meeting will continue to uphold the character of the Association, and will be inferior to none of the preced- ing in the value and interest of its proceedings. We are not yet likely to want for matter to labor upon. The collection of facts and the reduc- tion of them by various ti quired to a vast extent, in order that our knowledge macy make the next step of a to which its path invites our hopes. “ It is easy to point out vast fields of research, on ildaiieaiinaeininen and our energies may be applied with every prospect of a rapid increase of knowledge. For, in fact, how little has been done for science, by the collection of exact and long-continued series of observations, such as he must have before him who is to interpret nature. In astronomy, indeed, this has been done: sovereigns, and nations, and opulent individ- uals have thought their wealth well bestowed in providing costly instru- ments, and rewarding the astronomer through his daily and nightly toils. The stars have been well observed from the begiming of civilization ; but, for the purposes of science, we ought to have observations as carefi and as continued of all the other parts of nature as we have of the stars. The tides, the waves, the winds, and all the other changes of the air, pressure, temperature, moisture, magnetism, electricity, chemical chan- “ges, and even those of vegetable and animal life,—all these afford mate- rials for researches full of importance and interest. For these, the time is, perhaps, not yet come, when they can be urged upon governments as a part of their business, in the same way in which astronomy is; except perhaps magnetism, which has already taken its place in our observato- Hee hy ong ore astronomy;in our own and other countries. Those the cultiva a association such Vv a voluntary as ours; and the occasions of fitly doing this will doubtless be suggested 396 British Association for the Advancement of Science. to us from time to time by our members. On the present occasion, a dis tinguished Belgian philosopher, one of our corresponding members, (M. Quetelet,) comes to us to invite us to take a part in determining, by ex- tensive observations, the changes which atmospheric conditions produce in periodical phenomena,—such as the times of the leafing and flowering of plants, of the arrival of birds, and the like. He has obtained exten- sive co-operation in his own country, and no doubt will find fellow-labor- ers in ours. Meteorology, in its largest sense, is a subject, which, although great collections of observations have been made, is hardly-yet a science: yet the interpreters of this part of the book of nature have already begun to spell out some phrases, which show that the language is not st Selaclly mitinsehigiicie and hone, therefore, we may go on hopefully, lways that tion of facts isa matter of compara- tively small value, except we ci can also trace in them some rule or order. The mere gathering of raw facts may be compared to the gathering of the cotton from the tree. The separate filaments must be drawn into a connected thread, and the threads woven into an ample web, before it can form the drapery of science. -. “ We ought to have meteorological Obwermatioite sand observers divtrb- uted over the face of the globe: and even this would not be enough ; for we wish to know not only what passes on the earth’s surface, but through the whole depth of the atmosphere ; hence it would be desirable to have observations made at elevated points free from the action of the ground ; such as can be attained only by the aid of balloons. Such an undertak- ing has been under consideration of a committee during the past year, and a report on the subject has come before the Physical Section. 1! trust that on this subject you will soon hear more. As other subjects on which we still want facts—that is, numerous and systematical collec- tions of facts, and laws deduced from facts—I may mention the tides of the Pacific, the velocity of sea waves, and subterraneous tempera- ture.. Another class of inquiries well fitted for our labors, is the deter- mination of the fundamental elements, or constants, of operations of en- gineering, as the constants of railroads, steam-engines, and other works of art, which form — the wealth and resources:of this ee _ British Association for the Advancement of Science. 397 in the same ERPS ism. a cultivate. “It may, perhaps, sometimes be usefil to us to svicnllagettient in many Statistical subjects, the discussion and even the collection of facts is rath- er the office of a legislative than of a scientific body. The wise insti- tutions of Bacon’s New Atlantis would have assigned to the governors of the land, and not to the sages of Solomon’s House, the collection of in- formation respecting the habits, numbers, and education of the people ; where the information is such as almost necessarily suggests legislation, or discussions having legislation for their natural end, and involving the deepest political and moral considerations. There may very fitly be voluntary associations, which aim directly at improving the intellectual, or moral, or social condition of our population; but we must ever re- member that we are an association for a different purpose, namely, the advancement of science ; and we are bound alike by our regard to the prosperity of our body, and by our most solemn and repeated declara- lions, to avoid the storm of opinions which is always raised when the semble in order to promote the direct pursuit of scientific truth ; and we must not turn aside into the more wide and tangled paths of those who make its collateral effects their main object. Knowledge is power, we are told. Knowledge ts power ; but for us, it is to be dealt with as the power of interpreting nature and using her forces; not as the power of exciting ee feelings of mankind, and providing remedies for social evils, on matters where the wisest men have doubted and differed. is tony the person whose voice is first raised in addressing the meet- ing of the Association, I have thought that it was a part of my duty to use the opportunity in calling to our minds the fundamental character and principles of our Institution. There are other subjects which our constitution directs us to avoid ; but none perhaps in which there is much danger or need of warning. We are in no great risk of deviating into literary, or metaphysical, or theological discussions. Some metaphys- ies and literary culture will of course show themselves in the addresses of those who possess such accomplishments, but are no direct objects of our attention. And in like manner, although we cannot dream of the ‘slightest approach to the discussion of religious questions, heartfelt and real piety may be apparent even in the sentiments uttered at an asso- ciation for the advancement of science. I am sure that many of you who attended the former meetings of this Association, must recollect occasions on which men’s minds being excited, and yet solemnized, by the aspect of the assembled multitudes, and by the lofty views of na- 398 British Association for the Advancement of Science. ture which our philosophers had to present to them, the thoughtful and eloquent men who had to address you were carried by a spontaneous unpulse, without plan or premeditation, into elevated strains of religious reflection ; showing that those who take the lead in our meetings have their minds so tuned, that every voice which proclaims the wonders of na- ture, turns their thoughts to the Author of nature: that every new gleam of truth seems to them an effluence from the eternal fountain of truth. Long may such habits of thought prevail among the philosophers of this land; and then we need not fear but that knowledge, hallowed and ele- vated by the spirit in which it is pursued, will be every way a blessing to man,—to his soul as well as to his body—to his spiritual as a as to his intellectual being. “To those of us who, bisa the institution by our stiesition upon ig and our share in its labors, think thus of its value and its spirit, every new annual occasion of our coming together, must be an occasion of fresh gratification, an agreeable exercise of memory and of hope. In our present meeting at this place, there are many cireumstances to give additional animation to our anticipations of pleasure. We come to a part of the empire hitherto unvisited by many of us, to a great mari- time town, replete with objects of amusement, art, and interest. We know the love of science and the familiarity with its treasures which here prevail, for we are acquainted with the high character, the know!- edge, zeal, and ability of the authorities of the Dockyard—the intelli- gence and activity of the Plymouth Institution ;—we know and feel most gratefully, the kind and vigilant care with which preparations have made for our reception ; and we now see in this assembly, the look of cordial welcome and lively anticipation, of which I would say more, but that I would beg to leave the subject in abler hands. We hail with joy sah cps opening of the Plymouth Meeting of a bee Association. “ Perhaps you will allow me the gratification of saying a word, re- épecting special personal reasons of my own, which make it a matter of pleasure to me to find myself here on this oceasion. Besides that it brings me to the society of several valued and cherished friends, whose home is in this part of England, I have various ties of a scientific na- Ew We tee piete one iis eee The excellent observations of the tides made in this h hay er bject t of calculations involving considerable labors, which I have made or directed ; and some curious traits in the laws of tidal phenomena here, which were noticed as early ote eet Newton, have, I trust, been followed out to a tolerably Miscsllonts.. 399 may do, this meeting as a meeting peculiarly intended to bring the As- sociation in contact with the west of England, I find that Cornwall re- turns to my thoughts, with all the scientific zeal and intelligence, which from my own personal intercourse I know to exist among the miners of that county. Perhaps have had very unusual opportunities of becoming acquainted with their merits, for in two different years (1826 and 1528) in the prosecution of certain subterraneous experiments, undertaken in conjunction with the present Astronomer Royal and other persons, I lived four months the life of a laboring miner, and learnt how admira- ble for skill and conduct is the character of all classes of the mining population in that region. If any of my Cornish friends are within hearing, I gladly bid them God speed, and claim once more their wel- come to the west... And that I may no longer detain you, to all of you, gentlemen of the British Association, | bid God speed ; and from all of you, gentlemen of Si aastahee and its neighborhood, I seem to hear, Wel- come to Frten uth 1” 1. Observations on the Shooting Stars of August 9 and 10, 1841.— From the 8th to the 18th of August, 1841, the sky at this place was unfortunately too much overcast to permit any meteoric observa- tions. The following statements, although not so full as could be wished, show a decided recurrence this year of the meteoric sprinkle which has so frequently been noticed about the 10th of August. It will be eae that the moon was in her last quarter on the 10th of the mon aH pale Flor. N. lat. 0° 28’; W. long. 87° 12’. Dr. Joshua Huntington, U. 8. N., has communicated to me his observations at this season, from which the following is an extract. ‘“ On the night of the 9th August, I kept, watch for a unusual display of shooting stars. My field of vision included about a sixth part of the hemisphere, from 8. E. to S. W., to an elevation of 65°, but was partly obscured by a bank of cloud. I took my station at midnight, and between that hour and one o'clock, saw fourteen of these meteors ; and between one and two o'clock, twenty three. Most of them were small, and only five or six left luminous They generally described very short ares, and with a single exception, had a course towards the S.. W. My position did not enable me to determine the radiating point, which must have been somewhere inthe N. E. At two A. M., I watched in the north for half “an hour, and saw two shooting stars only. Towards three A, M., I 400 Miscellanies. watched again in the S. for twelve or fifteen minutes, and counted ten more, all of which had the same course as those before seen.” Cincinnati, O. N. lat.. 39° 6'; W. long. 84° 27. Dr. John Locke has published the following notice in the Daily Gazette of Cin- cinnati, Aug. 14, 1841. “ Meteors.—Mr. Editor: Sears C. Walker, Esq., the astronomer of Philadelphia, has awarded to me the credit of having discovered in 1834, the radiant point of the meteors which ap- pear annually on or near the 10th of August. I had also discovered in 1835, their periodical return. They have since been noticed by the philosophers of Europe. On the night of August 9, 1841, I observed the tracks of several, with an altitude and azimuth instrument, made for the purpose by Mr. James Foster, and found them to emanate from the same point, the constellation Perseus, and to converge to the same point, the constellation Lupus, as those of 1834. On the night of the 10th, observing from the top of the Bazaar, from nine to ten o'clock, myself and assistant counted. sixty meteors, forty nine of which con- verged 8. W. towards Lupus, and were mostly brilliant, rocket-like, and left a phosphorescent track. The remaining twenty one moved in a variety of directions, were small, and had a short track not phos- phorescent. The forty nine parallel meteors had courses which mostly, if prolonged, would fall between @ and f of Perseus, and in the opposite point in Lupus, towards which last point they all proceeded. Two only had a considerable deviation, one tending to a point about 20° E. of Lupus, and the other about 14° W. of the same. As myself and assistant could see only about one half of the visible heavens at once, the meteors may be reckoned at sixty per hour. The night was clear, a little hazy in the horizon ; mise: N. W., with a slight aurora in the north.” Had these observations been continued until 4 A. M., the meteors would undoubtedly have been found much more frequent. Between three and four A. M., they were probably five or six times as numerous as between ten and eleven of the evening previous. (See observations of Aug. 9, 1840; this Jour., Vol. xz, p. 329.) This being assumed, it results that on this occasion shooting stars were as abundant as ding anniversary, or at least six times beyond the yearly average: aeons Hain Sot 5 Aug. 25, 1841. E. C. Henrie Sg the cretaceous Netinatiua wate a orla zaPrif Bailey, Seiten observations on American infusoria are so well known toall our readers, at home and abroad, has recently made an ex- pose hag ea me from a mission station on the Jpper Mississippi, called there “ prairie chalk.” Ina letter to the Miscellanies: 108. junior editor, of Sept. 6th, Prof. Bailey remarks; “I have given to the ‘prairie chalk’ which you sent me, from the Upper Mississippi, a some- what hasty examination; but I found it, as I ventured to predict, full of the ‘ elegantly little.’ It is indeed richer in the beautiful forms of the polythalmia than any American specimen I have yet seen, and many of the forms are entirely different from those of New Jersey, Al- abama, and Upper Missouri. The following are rude outlines of some of the most common Bormy sketched hastily with camera lucida and besarte “The seals Paeueuth 1s ‘cieees magnifie ‘In some of the cells are aoe (see fig. 2.) Tom ignorant & thee nature, whether ova or animalcules I cannot decide. I cannot make- out the nature of the large brown fragments in the same specimen, nor of the fragment sent in the little box, and which you compared to ver- tebre of fish with the spines broken off—they are all evidently of animal origin.” Prof. Bailey has also found very interesting forms of vibe thahnis 3 in the specimens brought by Mr. J. N. ‘Nicollet from the ‘ far west;’ it will be remembered that in our last muber, ye published under the proceedings of the associated geologists a at Philadelphia, an interesting narrative of this gentleman, giving an account of his important obser- vations in that region. We had hoped to insert in the present number, Some more extended notice of these matters, showing i in what an inter- esting and unexpected manner the observations of Prof. Bailey on the limestones of Alabama, and the localities above named, had connected themselves with similar observations by Prof. Ehrenberg. Mr. Thos. Weaver has published. (L. E. and D. Phil. Mag. for May, June, 1841,) a paper on the organic bodies composing the chalk and chalk marl, as drawn from observations of Dr. Ehrenberg, with some notice of the researches of M. D’Orbigny ;, a condensed abstract of this intresting, memoir was prepared for our present crowded state of our pages ee, its postponeme Vol. x11, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1841 —s 402 Miscellanies. 3. Prof. Gao. Forcunammer, of Copenhagen, on new substances from the peat mosses.—We have received a letter from Prof. Forch- hammer, dated Oct. 6th, 1840, stating that he was about to send a pa- per for a Journal on some new compounds, which he has discov- mosses of Denmark. ‘They are Tekoretin = C* H°; Phyllorevin = C8 H*; Zyloretin — Ct? H®*® Of; and Baloretin = C+? H&4 +H1°05. The three first substances crystallize in beau- tiful white crystals; the last isa pulverulent body. It is partly want of time at this moment, partly because I have still some analyses to make on the compounds of Zyloretin with chlorine, which prevent me from sending the paper at present; but I hope soon to be able to send it.” Geology of Denmark.—*1 have just returned,” continues Prof. F. “ from a tour through the greatest part of Denmark, principally upon an baat a into the’nature of our bowlder formations. I have been able to trace | three periods in this vast formation. 1. The oldest contains fos- agreeing with the sub-Appenine formation of Dartona and several ashen aiscas in upper Italy. 2. Contains no fossils, is very seldom stratified, but consists of a yellow loam,and blue and yellow marls, with numerous bowlders of enormous size. 3. Contains the fossils of our present sea, in stratified gravel and howidave; very often hardly any thing but bowlders. “ The theory of the bowlders sabes earried by ice, area in form of glaciers or ice islands, does not appear to me to agree wit our forma- tion. Tam preparing a work on the oP penal ot wir ip hr hate AME PIRI oe Ge sda of sending } you, sncoT hay dane hope thatthe Danish will be understood.” 4. Gilding by Electrography.—Mr. Dent, of: London, whose name is well known as a skillful art st in chronometers, as well as by various articles in this and other scientific journals on his own subject, has recently sent us by the hand of Mr. Blunt, a very delicate steel chro- hair-spring, about three’ fourths of an inch in length and one diameter, perfectly gilt with pure gold, by the y ae nts pare nage Sesto cy in the pec area ugh Mr. Dent remarked that p Same process has also been mint at Philadelphia, has in the prosecution of his du- sented us with a medallion of Flora eee most perfectly, Ks simple very weak neutral solution of the Miscttlaiiee, on without any other electrical agency, than such as was iene bi im- mersing the copper in the meget apis © ickbbete 5. Shooting Stars of Dicesibee 4s 1838.—Ata Bie, of the Royal Academy of Brussels, Feb. 6, 1841, M. Quetelet communicated the following extract of a letter from M. A. Bravais, officer of the French marine, and engaged in the French scientific expedition to the north, “ The meteoric shower of December 7, 1838, of which Mr. Herrick speaks, (report of session of Oct. 17, 1840,*) was noticed by us at Bos- sekop. I am not able to state the whole number of meteors seen at that time, but I well remember that nearly all diverged (apparently) from the same point of the heavens, situated between the constellations of Perseus, Cepheus and Andromeda, about seven o’clock in the eve- ning. This point could be determined with great exactness, as we noted the places of origin and extinction of each meteor. We have then a phenomenon seen at the same time in New Haven, China, Eng- land, North Cape, and in France, (Toulon, by M. Flaugergues,) that is, over nearly all the northern hemisphere; which argues lat extent in the meteoric cloud.”—L’ Institut, No. 385, May 13, 1841... 6. Scientific Visit of Charles Lyell, Esq. of London, to the United ates-—This eminent geologist and gifted writer, arrived at Boston say in August with his lady. He will, by invitation, deliver a course of lectures on geology in the Lowell Institute, beginning October 19, and continuing through six weeks. We doubt not that this etn A tained, as we understand it will be, by large and sp will be worthy of the distinguished reputation of Mr. "Lyell, and of the interest and dignity of the science. We are gratified to learn that he will spend a year in this country, occupied in viewing it g geologically. He has already visited the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New nad. after the gonelupan of his course of lec- to return to the north in the spring. We are haniy. to learn, ological interest of this country, : > eur of its geologists, are such as will aie ita pleasure to the gentlemen engaged in these pursuits in our different states and territories, to facil- itate his researches, which we cannot doubt will advance the common cause ; while we feel assured that a social intercourse with the accom- plished strangers who are now beginning to visit us in - iat num- bers, will promote every good national and personal fe 7. Shower of red matter like blood and muscle —We ae indeed » Prof. ‘Troost, of Nashyille, Tennessee, for an interesting ate a Tae a er > tas Oia Sacdiel: Vol, xxxv, p. 361, and Vol. XEXVI, ps 355. 4 A404 Miscellanies. remarkable event. It appears from costniiasiilltins made to that gen- tleman, that on Friday, August 17, between one and two o’clock, P. M., the negroes of Mr. Chandler, near Lebanon, Wilson County, Tennes- see, came in and reported that it had been raining blood in the tobacco field where they had been at work ; that near noon there was a rattling noise like rain or hail, and drops of blood, as they supposed, which fell from a red cloud which was flying over. Intelligent men visited the ground, and observed drops apparently of blood on the upper surface of the tobacco leaves, and portions of flesh and fat—one piece one and a half inches long, emitting a very offensive smell over the field. The drops evidently fell perpendicularly over a space from forty to sixty yards broad, and six or eight hundred yards long. Some particles Fics to have been clear blood uncombined with any thing else; others, blood ‘united with muscular fibre and fat. Dr. Troost, after’vis- iting the place, is decidedly of the opinion that it was animal matter, but he heals not.blood ; although he distinctly distinguished muscular fibres, on maceration of the matter in water, which separated longitudinally, as in the case of dried beef ; they were of a reddish brown color. Piers pieces supposed to be blood were brown and resembled glue. was a distinct smell of animal matter in a state of putrefaction. Both the muscular part and that which had been called blood, were heated ina glass tube, and were similarly affected as beef would have ‘been in the same circumstances ; there was a moyement in the mass, a brown fluid rose, anda black animal charcoal remained.’ Dr. concluded, that without doubt this is animal matter, and belongs to our globe. - He cites many instances of red | rain, red dust, red sand, red snow, showers of blood, so called, &c. in various centuries from 472 of our éra to 1814, and gives the authorities, There is now no room to relate or discuss these statements, and it remains only to give the con- clusion of Dr. Troost. — After” alluding: to the well known j power of wind to raise materials high into the atmosphere and to transport them to the distance of many miles, (and éven in some cases, as in volcanic eruptions, hundreds of . iles,) he observes : “Such a wind might have taken up part of an ani- which was in a state of decomposition, and have brought it in con- tact with fe Heres ater in which it was kept in a state of partial ‘fluid this case, the cloud which was seen by the ne- 8, Sel th ste in which the materials were, is accounted = on . 2 i. ee bts. : allt: INDEX TO VOLUME XLI. A. } Abstract of the roneeiings of the Brit-) ish Association p Beowne, B, A. early Geol. section, 183, Academy of Nat. ‘Sciences Phil., pro Cc, ceedings of, Carices, monography, by Kunze 374. addres oft E. Hite! tchcock, 232. Chester county sabia ny ante, S74.» Address of Prof. wh tec 8 391, | 365. before Liter ist. Soc. 370.|\Chemistry and ecu ated of British As me on shone iation Alex ean sation by, 374.|\Chlorophyllite, new mineral, Analysis ots ha OF | ead, silver, a ra core eho notice of, 217, al field, southern of Penn., model of, ae Senta report en, by Dr. A. A. Gould, 378, ; Anatomy and Physiol. of Edwards, 199.) Tis, Des Moulins on,| Conrad, his report on Par York, 385. Contributions to elec may and magnet- Ba des on ssbaie 2s Lexicogra b : |Contributions to Asiatic rches, 92. by J. W. oe te y ‘A boring at. FO 2. eye , Indian, 92. ae Associatior Pacer logists = pats A ee ee eae ngs, 40.| eae Britis, Ai esing, 3. ’"|Daguerreotype process, improvement on, Astrono or schoo D2. PE abies gis Darby, Manual of Botany, by, 375. B. |\Darlington, Wm., his discourse, 365. Denmark sgeolagy of 408 meri 195 Bacillaria, Prof. J. W. Bailey on, 284. |} Bache and Lloyd, magnetic observations, 5 Panter cr sete hie gilding, 402, Bailey, f fossil infaansit, 170. pe Dewey. Unt md 378. ne fossil foraminifera of Bac < a ey, he apron lant Sr ae ee [Ddwards Nec aaa. Trans. of, 382. ame ares y and physiol- York Beck, Be ron on New York, 385. 1,087 and netism, 117. Beechey, botan bok 7s yal4. : sas Romig are to Faraday, 1 |Elec y, gilding by, 402. Birds, beasts, ae, oral of names of, Elémens e tératologie, ¢ by J..W. Gibb 3, 32. mons, his report a N. York, 335. Booth, J. C., on wiaigos of ores of lead, ice fear silver, &c., 348. Endlicher, 8., inion m, 373. Nat. History Society, 189. \|English lexicogaphy,J.W. Gibbs, on, 28. ~ Journal of Nat, fuer, Se Bot Fag, soma gion sr la ‘Faraday, letter to, from R. H e,1 tanique t. Hilaire,||Faraday, letter m . te — hate f lFishes. fossi il, Ww. &.. Redeld make 3 my, Darby’s North Am Boyé, antasid, powers of magnesia, 159. |/Fly, Hessian, E. C. “Herrick, 1535 ~ ish Associatio ote Ceheenes sae plesin peat mosses, | Pie ngs of, 40, A406 Forchhammer on geology of Denmark, Fossil mies, C. Redfield on, 25. nifera of New Jersey, 213. G. Gardening, A. J. Downing, on, 216. Genera . antarum, by 8. ndlicher, 373. mith, his eerie , 389. Geotail Beiery of Londo: awings, model, 80. oe American association of, 158. G d geog eography of British Asso- ci west of Alle an mountains b aie North America, by Dauheny, ioe, . teen aiate ee s, &e., 32 Gilaing by no ai gl Dent, 402 Glaciers, ancient, in Scotland, 191.” Gould, A. A. green a on invertebrate an- Gray oa Torrey, Flora of North Amer- Griste New York Gonpithien; om; ‘notes on, 390. (ie Haldeman, 8. a on Melanians of La- ne ee 1, his report on New York, 385. Hare, R., letter from Sir M. Faraday, Harlan, Dr. R. on dinotherium p baaloris Haskine, bis Aasronomy, 339. Hawaii, volcanic phenomena in, 200. Hemp, Manilla, mode of w ng, 200. Meats ny, per on electro-dynamic induc- tion, 1 Hen. Me new enus of rr 116. Havel, Ca; ox Haasan depot eos Cann and fers | ics hata _ steel ore of Duane, || [Snowing . .|Latreille’s patina” | Locke, , ban oe scratches, INDEX. Hough ae D., on metalliferous veins of Michiga 183. it in rocks, 172. —" ut i on slates with annelides, I. Indian Cyprinidz, 92. pet. electro-dynamic, Jos, Henry n, 1 17. “aed at of Latreille, by N. M. Hentz, 116. Infusoria, Bet be: Ww. bea Acco ock salt, 1 Insects, ban &e. origin of names of, by J. W. Gibbs, Institution, , national, a at meshingtesee Iolite, decom: es 0 Iron, report on, by J. W. Alexander, 376. J. ‘Jackson, C. T., on ie! ps manures, 159. trilobites in Maine, 161. , report on, by sod ‘ore from shire, 161. si double salt of lime and magnesia, 171. acl pate i toe rocks, 173. tra es, 1 dil Heres action in Rhode Island, 176. Report on New Hamp- shire, 383. Jefferson, Thomas, his letter to S. Clark, i930. Johnson, w., section of Frostburg ‘coal rae tage: on, 188. Journal of Nat. Host] "Boston, 3380. - K. human, synopsis of, 389. rake a ve vgn Sam &e., 390. Kunze, carices, monography, L. Lamarck, Melanians of, Haldeman on,21. ‘116. , &e., by A. St. Hi- Le rane de e, 371. Leona ’s Lectures on geology, 387. exicography, English, J. ’. Gibbs on, 175. tie di ert of Alleghanies, 160. dilokitn; sel. ith connexion of magnetism W1 Lem Em , meteorological observations, reply to, by J. Locke, 15. aoe INDEX, M. M'Clelland, on Indian Cyprinide, 92. Magnetica di , J. Locke on, 15. Magnetic observations by Profs. Bache and Lloyd, ae and electricity, Jos. Henry 1 on, 117 Manilla he antell, his g of pares ee: Manual of botany, by Darby, 37. “ae » diluyial scufiahes, Baldor, &., report on New York, 385. M veueie logy, by E usetis, report ‘on 010; y Hiteheoe k, Sst geology, tebrate animals, 378. Mease, Js., on ills of mortality, 306. 407 % Obssrresieanp on shooting stars of Aug. Origin’ ee of beasts, &c., by J. W. ib Ornithichnite poe om ee end gal of rBritiah museum, boo ancient deposits of, 168. : P. Gs ah Panama, steam navi | ky Pan tology of Prof. R. Pi kat ~~ s of Hessian fly, he 153. Park, Prof. R., Pantology of, 389. substances from, 402. Mech anical s e, 66. Pinite of Haddam m, 354 Medical aa Sof | Brit. Association, 65,||Polythalmia, Americ Melanians of Lamarck, 8,8. Ha {demanj|Popular lectures on geolog on, Principles, n ie i 402. Meteorol ] ionsby E.I edings itish Association, ‘40. 310, =" : learned societies, 158. — pPeaiee, at mcisent: for Prac, es: ae ier 1836-40, ad Microscopical tions, 205. ; ex ses aaa oes ey pyre As- Quinby, ilve Haied hn ores of Pe Missiesiaan a es from, 400. Model, a cae of, by R. C. lor, 80. paid by British Association, 394. Money Moraes rae of observations on, 306. exhibits the Ibis religiosa of E gypt Murchison, ae tour to Russia, &e., 209. - Peo Names of Beasts, birds, &e., by iW. Naviga! ation oe steam to the Pacific, 358. tornado of, net Nicollet. pe the geology of upper Mis- i, 1 ri é Nomenclator Botanicus, auctore E. T. Steudel, North Am merica, flora of, 275. 0. Observations, — by Elias Loomis, 310. microsc on bills of Pauly, by Jas. Mease, Red. se cme rf pete 5 i Mier ts of Mass., hy i athena Prof. C. Dew qua vadrupeds of Mass., by Prof. ical acres sf of N. Hamp- ackson, 38 logical, Massachusetts, by E. Hitehoork, nee on the geology of Penn- sylv Se on the reap of New York, for 385. Maryland, 1840, 385. 1840, (fifth,) Ten : R esearches, Asiatic, notice of Indi ian Agora prinide, 92. Ro gers, H. D., bis fifth report on Pa., 385. Ww. B., his report on Vasile. for southern states, secondary and tertiary 0 332. j once a Herrick © Peat mosses, new ) ew Ivania, southern coal field, model Pa 408 INDEX. * > Rogers, R. E., on limestones, 171. St. Hilaire, A., Lecons de Botanique, 371. Jas., dolomite, + doobhs salt, 172.|\Storer, D. 'i., Indian Cyprinide, 92, H. D.,on n trap dykes if Penn: 173. aes Springs of New York, Dr. L.C. diluvial action, 175. Bec 162. ennsylvania Soak forma- Surey, conte tions, 177. resolutions offered by, 189 8. Salt beg of Virginia, 214. Saurians, Foss Sax wn, "Bleoteapraphic Gilding by, 402. ee, Association for Advancement, Science, British Association for advance- ment of, notice of, ene nae Medical, of British Association, ——- and Gealogy, their consisten- on SF taste notice of the life of, 1. rd, Charles Si on iolite, 304. hooting Stars, 399, oe how of oe matter, +» Eve ae Mites before Association of Geoluri ists, 187. Letter to Wi liam Wheel- ae Silliman’ B Jr., rhombic structure of Connectic ut eandotiae 1 : soil of the Nile, 160. Smith, J. P. ialesoee a arn ry, 387. ties, learned, , 158. _ oe. new “sub-ge ame, by Stars, shooting. of Aug. 1 399. - a 7. 1638, 408. Statistics of British es 62. Sat Re He Pa ig 358. Botanicus, echanical, of British Associa- To posits, 168. | Faas salt pen 214. pheno of, 386. Synopsis of ps sia 4 389. gf ys Anish letter from Taylo , his : omtiaeat model ex- hibit ted oat of a geological Taylor, S., on salt of Virginia, 214. iratalogie, sae e, 374. || Teschemac adding before Boston Nat. Hist. 0. oe of rai Brunswick, remarks Torrey a and Gray, flora of North Amer- ica, Transactions of Royal Society of Edin- burgh, 38) Trego, Cc. B., on coal of Savage moun- Troost, ro (ath) report on Tenn., 395. matter, fallen, 403. Turtle, foal, 205. Vanuxem’s merry on “orithichnites, 165. , 389. pero oyster shell! de- in Ha awaii, 200. Wheelwi whewal Per, hae adress at at oii the 11th session of Br. his eS for steam nay- Z. Zoology and botany of British Associa- tion, 61, oo a L 10U C AM. JOUR. 8 i prov AWB Ml ii 5 ae : : a THE AME a CAN Be SCIENCE AND. ARTS, “CONDUCTED ay kin ey oe PRor. iB. SILLIMAN. ‘ASD B. “SILLIMAN, Im. a ‘YALE COLLEGE. 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