ie | ’
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Fo a

AMERICAN JOURNAL

OF

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY
PROFESSOR SILLIMAN
AND

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, Jr.

VOL. XLIX.—OCTOBER, 1845.

—" HAVEN:

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XII,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIX.

NUMBER I.

On the Physical Geology of the United States east of the
ocky Mountains, and on some of the Causes affecting
the Sedimentary Formations of the Earth; 2, Prof.

~ Witriam W. Marner,
. Account of some new ‘Adee of Pilsophica Appar

tus; by Prof. E.S. Swett, = -

. Review of Dr. C. T. Jacxson’s Final Repiie on die Geol-

ogy and Mineralogy of the State of New ae
by Tuomas T. Bouve, - ~

Description of some Artificial em on Prairie j jefe,
Louisiana; by Prof.C.G, Forsuzy, = -

. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewry,—(with a a
. Origin of the constituent and adventitious Minerals of

Trap and the Allied Rocks; by James D. Dana, -
Considerations respecting the Copper Mines of Lake Su-
perior ; by Lieut. D. Ruaczes, U.S. A., :
Singular case of Parhelion, with a statement of the Theory
of ordinary Halos; by Prof. E. 8. Snez, -

. Notice of a New — of Batrachian Footmarks ; y

James Deane, M. D.,

On the Copper and Silver of Reve Pain bake Supe
rior; by C. T. Jackson,

Practical Observations on the Clesideaton of Statical Blee-
tricity by the Electrical Machine ; ” Lieut. Grorce W.
Rains, U.S. A., -

. Ruins of Ninna Sensis of ie Tousen made

in 1843 and 1844; by Rev. Azarianu Situ, M.D., -
On several New Plants; by Dr. M. C. hektaaanna

XIV. New Electro-Magnetie Engine ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace,

Page.

20

27

38

CONTENTS.

XV. Axial Galvanometer, and Double Axial Beciprocating

Engine; by Prof. Cuartes G. PacE, =

‘ XVI. Report of Observations on the Transit of Mereury, May

Sth, 1845; by Prof. OumsrTep, :

XVII. Bibliographical Notices :—Narrative of the United States

Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840,
1841, 1842. By Cuartes Wixxes, U. 8. N., 149.—
Prof. W. R. Jounson on the Heating Power of various
Coals, 166.—Musée Botanique de M. Bensamin DEtEs-
sErtT; Notices sur les collections de Plantes et la Bibli-
othéque qui le composent ; contenant en outre des docu-
ments sur les principaux herbiers d’Europe; par A. La-
sEGUE, 171.—De Candolle’s Prodromus, Vol. 9, 174.—
De Candolle’s Theorie elementaire de la Botanique,
175,—Fifty Eighth Annual Report of the Regents of the
University of the State of New York, 176.—Report of
Experiments on Gunpowder, made at Washington Ar-
senal, in 1843 and 1844; by Capt. ALrrep Morpeca1,
180.—Rural Economy in its relations with Chemistry,
Physics, and Meteorology : or Chemistry applied to Ag-
riculture; by J. B. Boussincautt, 182.—Proceedings
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
183.—Mulder’s Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal
Physiology, American Edition, 186.—Life of Godfrey
William Von Leibnitz; by Jonn M..Mackiz, 187.—
Wiley & Putnam’s Catalogue of Scientific Books: Li-
brary of Choice Reading: Handworterbuch der Topo-
graphischen Mineralogie von Gustav Leonwarp, 188.—
The Botanical Text Book, for Colleges, Schools and Pri-
vate Students; by Asa Gray, M. D., 189.—A Class
Book of Botany, designed for Colleges, Academies and
other Seminaries; by ALpHonso Woop, A. M.: Owen’s
Illustrated Catalogue, 190.—Vestiges of the Natural His-
tory of Creation: Dr. G. A. Manrez on the Geological
Structure of the Country seen from Leith Hill in the
county of Surrey, 191.

MiscELLanies.—Abstracts of the Researches of European Chem-

ists; prepared for this Journal by J. L. Smirx, M. D., 192.—
New Instrument for the solidification of Carbonic Acid, 206.—

Page.

136

CONTENTS, v

Remarks on the saltness of the Ocean, and the effects of light
on turbid waters; by the Rey. Hector Humpureys, 208.—
Kenawha Gas, 209.—Bromine and Jodine, 211.—Abstract of
a Meteorological Register for the year 1844, kept at Steuben-
ville, Ohio; by Roswett Marsu, 212.—Fossil Remains
from Algoa Bay, near the Cape of Good Hope: Fossil Foot-
marks and Rain-drops; by James Deane, M. D., 213.—
Large Trilobite—Iowa Coralline Marble: Dorudon: Foot-
prints; by A. T. Kine, M. D., 216.—Large Skeleton of the
Zeuglodon of Alabama, 218.—Bones of the extinct gigantic
Bird of New Zealand, called Moa: Sixth Annual Meeting of
the Association of American Geologists, 219.—Comets: Se-
cond Comet of 1845: Third Comet of 1845, 220.—The Earl
of Rosse’s Leviathan Telescope, 221.—Notices drawn from a
Letter of our London Correspondent, 227.—Columbite : Gray
Antimony : Postage of Printed Sheets in England, 228.

NUMBER Il,

Page.

Arr. I, The Coast Survey of the United States, - : - 229
Il. A Letter to Berzelius on Chemical Recooneleive by

Prof. Rosert Hares, M. D., - - - 249

If. Description of a Singular Case of the Diesen of Blocks
of Stone connected with Drift, in Berkshire County,
Mass.; by Epwarp Hrrencocx, LL. D., - -

IV. Meteorological Observations made at Hudson, Ohio, du-
ring the years 1841, °2, °3, and °4, witha sacs: for
seven years; by Prof. Ex1as Loomis, - - 266

V. On the Physical Geology of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains, and on some of the Causes affecting
the Sedimentary Formations of the Earth; by Prof.
Witiram W. Maruer, - 284

VI. Description of the Solar Index, a new Magno ee
ment; by Marsuatt Conant, -

VIL A Report to the Navy Department of ihe United Sicren
on American Coals, applicable to Steam Navigation and
to other purposes ; by. Prof. Waiter R. Jonnson, 310

VII. (1.) Description of a mass of Meteoric Iron, which fell
near Charlotte, Dickson County, Tenn., in 1885; (2.)

CONTENTS.

Pag
Of a mass of Meteoric Iron discovered in De Kalb Coun-

ty, Tenn. ; (3.) Of a mass discovered in Green County,
Tenn.; (4.) Of a mass discovered in Walker ett
Alabama ; by Prof. G. Troost, -

IX. On the Allotropism of Chlorine as Seiadctnil tithe the
Theory of Substitutions ; - Prof. Jonn Wi.i1aM
Draper, M.D., - -

X. Bibliographical Notices aitmeailes in North Kine in
the years 1841-42, with Geological Observations on the
United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia; by Cartes
Lyett, Esq., F. R. S., 368.—On the Liquefaction and
Solidification of Bodies generally existing as Gases ; by
Micuae, Farapay, 373.—On the Geological Constitu-
tion of the Altai; by M. P. de Tcuinatcuerr, 378.—
Whitney’s Translation of Berzelius on the Blowpipe:
Fownes’ Chemistry for Students: Lieut. Wright’s Trea-
tise on Mortars, 379.—Dissertation on a Natural System
of Chemical Classification; by Otrver Wotcorr Gisss,
384.—New Books received, 386.

MiscrLLanizs.—On the Hypothesis of Electric Currents in the

Nerves; by M. Marrevucci, 387.—New Researches on An-
imal Electricity ; on the Muscular Current, and on the Proper
Current; by-M. Marrevcci, 388.—Structure of Electro-pre-
cipitated Metals; by Warren De ta Rue: Electric Sound:
An account of Compact Aluminum, 390.—Superoxyd of
Silver: The blue color of Gold Leaf viewed by transmitted
light: Xanthine: A curious change in the composition of
Bones taken from Guano; by R. Warrineron: Detection
of kinic acid; by Jonn Srennovuse, 391.—On the decom-
position of Salts of Ammonia at the ordinary temperature ;
by H. Bence Jones, M. D.: Styrole: Salicine ; by M. Prrta,
392.—Composition of Fungi; by Dr. F. ScHtosspercer and
Dr. O. Dorprine : Action of Animal Charcoal ; by R.

RINGTON: Thomaite ; a new mineral species, 393,—ScHeEE-
RER on Aventurine Feldspar: Spadaite, a new mineral; by
von Kosett: Descriptions of Polycrase and Malacrone,
two new minerals; by ScnerreR: R. Puituirs, Jr., on the
state of Iron in Soils, 394.—Sillimanite : On the origin of
Quartz and Metalliferous Veins ; by Prof. Gustav BiscHor,

336

346

CONTENTS.

396.—Mean Height of the Continents above the Surface of
the Sea; by Baron von Humsotpr: Infusoria, 397.—On the
Kunker, a Tufaceous Deposit in India; by Capt. Newsotp:
On some of the Substances which reduce Oxide of Silver and
precipitate it on Glass in the form of a Metallic Mirror ; by
Joun StENHOvSE, 398.—New Self-registering Barometer ;
by Rozsert Bryson: On the Manufacture of Enamelled
Cast Iron Vessels in Bohemia: The Tagua Nut or Vegetable
Ivory ; by A. Connett, 400.—Lithographic Stones: On the
Leaves of the Coffee Tree as a substitute for Tea: Upon
Anastatic Printing, 401.—On a gigantic bird sculptured on
the tomb of an officer of the household of Pharaoh; by Mr.
Bonomt, 403.—On the Heat of the Solar Spots; by Prof.
Henry: Notice in a letter from London to the Senior Editor,
405.—Supplement to Prof. Loomis’s Paper, at p. 266, of this
Number: Burning Well, 406.—Particulars of the fall of Me-
teorites in the Sandwich Islands, 407. Siac Meteor
at Fayetteville, N. C., 408.

ERRATA.

4
Page 183, 1. 18 from bottom, for “‘ Palagia,” read “ Falagria;” 1. 16 fr. bot. for
us mehr sn read “ flavicornis.”” P. 185, 1. 17 fr. bot. for “ wreola,” read “ ene-
ola;” 1. 11 fr. bot. for “ Athoiis,’”’ read “ Athous;” 1.10 fr. bot. for “ ereolus,”
read ‘* wana" P. 291, 1. 21 fr. top, for “ contradiction,” read “ contraction.”

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

¥

ce? 1.—On the Physical. sella of the United States east of
Rocky Mountains, and on some of the Causes affecting

prin Sadinidestdiny: Formations of the Earth; by Wiss W.
Maruer, Professor of Natural Saiatiooss in the “mre preornrla
Athens, Ohio.*

Part I. On-the Causes of the great Currents of the Geeta and their
Influence in the Transport and Deposition of the Sedimentary Rocks
of the United States.

Ir is well known to those who have attended to the geo-
logical structure of our country, either by reading or observa-
tion, that the whole territory of the United States south of the
great lakes and the St. Lawrence river, and between the Rocky
Mountains on the west, and the Blue Ridge, the Highlands of
New Jersey and New York, and the Green Monntains on a the Sone
ep discussing’ ie cipiotid suggested in the title of our article, in this and
some subsequent Nos, of thier dia 9 it er toes anes conv aan adopt the
following divisions :—

the causes of the eee currents of an fl
transport and deposition of the Siac’ focke oF the United States.

If. On the causes of elevation of the sedimentary rocks above the level of the sea,
and oe ty sans and cacnee of to patioaady those of the United States

TM. , plications, and foldings of the

¥
a OS

in the

strata cease
IV: hi that the sedimentary and other rocks have un-
dergone since their Ie aes and elevation.
and second parts were read before the National Tostitute + at Washing.
on, D. Ci in Ana: and before the Association of rare sees ee it
ralate a0 May, 1844. » ahh ae ;

Vol. xxx, No. 1.—AprilsTune, 1845. lente: eatin: ¢ . as pol PSE

2 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §°c.

is composed of sedimentary rocks* which have been formed by
the aid of water, and organic secretion.

Attempts have been made to measure the thickness of these
rocks in Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, and Ohio. The
measurements in Pennsylvania give a thickness that excites as-
tonishment, (seven to nine miles.) Those of central New York
and Ohio, where the rocks are nearly horizontal, and undisturb-
ed since their deposition, indicate’ a Jess thickness; but eight
thousand feet in New York, and four thousand to five thousand
feet in Ohio, is about the average thickness of these sedimentary
rocks, and they are spread over an area of at least one million of
square miles in the United States, exclusive of their extent in
Texas, Mexico, and the British possessions.

ese rocks vary in texture from a coarse conglomerate to the
finest clays and shales. Several rocks of the same kinds, as
sandstones, limestones, slates, coal, &&c. are repeated many times,
yet each differs from the others of the same kind by some slight
peculiarities, by which they may be recognized by careful study.

Whatever may have been the causes of the formation and de-
position of these rocks, it is evident that they have been so mod-
ified in their action as to produce limestones at one time over
nearly the whole of the vast area under consideration,—slates at
another period, succeeded by sandstones,—again by limestones,
slates, and sandstones,—and still again by conglomerates, slates,
sandstones, coal, and iron ore, some of them alternating and re-
peated many times. Similar causes have acted repeatedly over
the same areas.

The sand of the sandstones could be spread over such vast
areas only by means of some cause tending to produce a broad
current of moderate velocity ;+ the conglomerate would imply a

* It is necessary here to make exceptions of Jimited tracts in Georgia, Missouri
and Arkansas, where primary and metamorphic rocks occur; also the chipaiain
region of northeastern New York. These masses of primary and metamorphic
strata stand as geological islands surrounded by sedimentary rocks.

1 Table showing the Transporting Power of Currents.

VELOCITY OF CURRENTS.
POWER OF TRANSPORT. —— ~~ i at P

Wears awa fine, com: t, tough cla > ‘ 5 47
Removes esand, . tie ms ° : ; - a
sand as coarse as flax- seed, i - 8 0-45
“fine gravel, ; 12} 068
“ pebbles an inch in diamete: 24 = «|. «136
“angular reasaente 2or3 inches i in fiessstes, 36 2-14

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 3

more rapid flow, while the slates and shales whose particles are
very minute, and would remain long in suspension, required still
and nearly tranquil waters.

lh tone deposits have been formed in the thickest masses,
where circumstances were favorable to the life of testaceous and
radiated marine animals, of whose remains they are in part com-
posed. Thick strata of limestone which are continuous and of
the same geological age, abound with marine relics in one portion
of the country, and are nearly destitute of them in another. It
is therefore probable that although organic secretion aided in the
formation of the limestone, it is not the sole cause.

Testacea and Radiata are also found in some of the sandstones
and slates, but they are comparatively rare. ‘The sandstones and
slates, however, are frequently found to contain abundance of the
remains of the vegetable kingdom.

All this great mass of rocks over an area of more than a mill-
ion of square miles, and several thousands of feet in thickness,
is composed of the wrecks of older rocks (except the parts of or-
ganic origin) that have been disintegrated, ground up by attrition,
washed away and deposited from suspension in water over the
vast area where we now find them. LEach layer of these rocks
must once have been the bed of the ocean, over which at suc-
cessive times and under modified circumstances, these various
materials have been deposited in succession, to form the immense
mass now exposed to the observation of man, many of the strata
of which are some hundreds of feet above the level of the sea.
It is evident that these rocks were formed in/the ocean, for the
following reasons.

Ist. They are filled with the relics of animals such as are
analogous to those living in the sea, and not to those of the fresh
water. — ;

2d. These relics are so perfect that many of them must have
lived, died, and been entombed where we now find them

3d. The materials of which the rocks are composed, are such
as are commonly transported, and held in suspension and solution
in water.

Ath. The oblique lamination of the sandstones shows the di-
rections of the currents that deposited them.

5th. At almost every point of the area mentioned, where deep
borings have been made far below the flowing waters of the ad-

4 On the Physical Geology of the United States, &.

oining valleys, salt water has been found, containing the same
impurities as the waters of the ocean.* This salt water, on ac-
count of its greater specific gravity than common water, might
be expected to remain, filling the pores and vacuities of the rocks,
the particles of which had been deposited in the bottom of the
ocean. me

. A minute examination of: the midiiabshbany rocks, owes eine
they are composed of the fragments and comminuted grains of
older and well known rocks, which have been washed away =
deposited far from their original situations.

Whence has this immense mass of fragments af older noei
been derived, that is found to have been deposited over this vast
area in the United States? Are there any donicidiamnnntrs ade-
quate to explain its origin?

It may be said in answer, that there are data known from
which we may reason with a probability of attaining an approxi-
mation to truth. This subject is one that has scarcely been
broached, and the causes that will be adduced. as having proba-
bly produced the t and d tion of a mass of such
great thickness and: extenty: are such as may have been —
active on qatar: parts of the earth’s surface.

84 mn ay panty fully into this swbject, it is necessary to con-
sider some of the dynarnical. causes that may have had an influ-
ence in the production of the numerous and extensive eal
tary deposits upon the surface of the globe. |

Ist. It is generally admitted that the pels isa cooling cio
at least that its surface has a much higher mean temperature than
the regions of space in which it performs its revolutions around
the sun; that the temperature increases rapidly from. near its
surface towards its centre ; and that it loses more caloric by ra-
diation than it receives Seis) the sun jin all which respects it is
in the state of a cooling body.

2d. Cooling. bodies diminish in volume.

3d. Bodies revolving on axes if diminished in volume, the
quantity of matter remaining constant, revolve with increased
angular velocities.

* Lhave found bromine and iodine in several of the salt springs of Ohio. I have
lately made some quantity of salts of ine and separated the pure bromine
from the bittern of the salt "Springs n Athens, Ohio. The usual saline sub-
siances of bittern are found in these aiings except a a

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 8

If we apply these principles to the earth, which may be ad-
mitted to be a cooling and revolving body, it must have dimin-
ished in volume either secularly or paroxysmally. ‘This must
necessarily have induced a greater velocity of rotation on its
axis, also an increased centrifugal force, and the oblateness of the
spheroidal form of the earth must have been increased in the
same proportion.*

The increased oblateness of the spheroidal form of the earth
by the increase of the centrifugal force, would induce a flow of
water from the polar to the tropical parts of the earth to restore
the form of equilibrium of the revolving spheroid under these
modified conditions; and as the earth revolves from W. to E.
these currents from the polar regions would bend more and more
to the westward as they advanced to lower and lower latitudes,
and a current would set from - to W. within the tropics, but
strongest under the equator. —

The polar and equatorial harieieny doencsolsed of which are be-
lieved to have been observed in every ocean, but variously modi-
fied in direction by numerous causes, may have been thus estab=
lished or heightened in the rapidity of their flow at particular
epochs in the earth’s history.

Another cause that may have been instrumental in the first
instance in establishing, and subsequently in maintaining the
flow of the polar and equatorial and other currents of the ocean, is
the influence of the solar rays on the tropical regions of the earth.
This influence is exerted both on the atmosphere and on the
ocean, but both concur in aiding the flow of the currents under
consideration. 'The water of the ocean being warmed more un-
der the tropics than on other parts of the earth’s surface, Sxpantst

: .. If ¢ represents the time of rotation, V = es and by substitution,
F .. Fie 3 Ee These formule show that the centrifugal f

=_ a: ja gal force va-
ries ‘ited as the square of the velocity of any point, and inversely as the dis-
tance of that point from the axis of motion; and also that the centrifugal forces
vary directly as the distance from the axis of rotation, and inversely as the squares
of the times of rotation.

reason of this deflection of currents will be explained farther on in this

article. satis yin

¢ It has been objected that the evaporation from the surface of the ocean under
the tropics would compensate for this expansion ; but it would be insufficient if .
the water becomes heated to 80° to any considerable depth. The quan
water that falls as rain, also in part compensates for the evaporation.

6 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

and tends to flow off towards the polar regions, while an under-
flow of colder and heavier water restores the equilibrium.

_ The real effects of this cause may be deemed theoretically
true without having any sensible influence; but the geologica
effects in the development of organic life, when considered in
connection with the flow produced by other causes, are not unim-
portant, and will be considered in another place.

The effect of the solar rays upon the atmosphere, particularly
under the tropics, is to produce a rarefaction of the air, and
ascending currents that flow off toward the polar regions, and a
counter flow from the polar towards the tropical regions, restores
the equilibrium.*

_ The northwardly compensating current of the atmosphere over
the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, as it reaches successively
lower latitudes, bends more and more to the westward until un-
der the tropics it forms the trade wind.t 'This sweeps to the
westward and by its constancy and moderate limits of variation
in direction, gives great aid to the equatorial current of the ocean,
and is perhaps more effective in producing and maintaining this
current than any of the other causes.

Another cause may be adduced for the eoniuard fio of the
equatorial current; viz. the current that flows southwardly along
the eastern part of the north Atlantic, and that flowing north-
wardly from the Lagullas banks along the coast of the southwest

* This is the commonly received theory. Many facts are in opposition to this
theory and seem irreconcilable with it; but of the great circular flow of the cur-
rents of the atmosphere and smaller secondary gyrating currents, there is no doubt,
and change of temperature and the rotation of the earth are the main causes.
Vide Mr. Redfield’s papers, Am. Jour. Science, Vols. xxv and xiv.

Mr. Espy accounts for the trade winds on another principle, viz. that the up-
ward ascending currents as they reach higher elevations and are more remote
from, the axis of rotation of the earth, have by their inertia a different linear velocity
from that due to a point rotating at that distance from the asis with the same an-
gular velocity, and as the earth rotates from W. to E., these uprising columns of
rarefied air have a relative retrograde motion with regard to the surface of the
earth, giving rise to a general westwardly motion of the air under the tropics,
This cause however can haye but little influence in the production of the trade
winds, for, if we suppose uprising columns of air to exist and to ascend twenty
miles in height, which is far more than we have any evidence of in the clouds,
the increased velocity due to a point at this distance would be only 62-83 miles
more in twenty four hours, than that of a point on the surface at the equator, or
less than three miles per hour, which would produce a retrograde or westwardly
wind scarcely perceptible there, and would influence the currents near the s'
of the earth still less, in an almost infinitesimal degree.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, &c. 7

part of Africa and towards St. Helena and Ascension, meet nearly
in opposition to each other under the tropics; and although the
velocity of the currents is small, the opposite momenta have a
tendency to elevate the waters of the ocean higher than the true
water level, the same as when a tide is obstructed by a coast, it
rises higher than it would if unobstructed. ‘The tendency of the
water to restore the equilibrium would be to the westward and
to the eastward. The flow to the eastward is partially obstructed
by the African coast, but the eastward current by Cape Palmas
and Cape Threepoints, and around the Gulf of Guinea, may be
caused in part by this tendency.* The flow to the westward in
the direction of the equatorial current, is the one by which the
equilibrium is mostly restored, for two reasons; Ist, the flow in
that direction is unobstructed; and 2d, the waters coming from
higher latitudes, where the linear rotative velocity of the earth’s
surface is less than under the tropics, the tendency of the water
is to flow to the westward.

Another cause tending to aid in the production of the ala
and equatorial currents may be adduced, although its real influence
may be very minute. ‘The evaporation from the tropical regions
of the earth exceeds the amount condensed as rain, fog, and dew,
and this excess is carried to the temperate and frigid zones by
the great currents of the atmosphere, where it is condensed as
rain, snow, fog, and dew. The excess of water deposited from the
atmosphere in the extra-tropical regions, more than is evaporated,
falls and flows into the ocean. The ocean level in those regions,
particularly along coasts where large rivers debouche, may be
said to be slightly raised above the Jevel of the spheroidal form
of equilibrium of the earth, and the water in consequence of its
mobility, will tend to flow from the polar and temperate zones
towards the tropics.

All the various causes that have eet mentioned as ihinencing
the great currents of the ocean and atmosphere, (and which are
the legitimate results of the action of gravitation, variations of
temperature, and inertia, while the earth revolves on its axis,)
concur in their effects, and are believed to be the true causes of
the Gulf Stream and the great currents of the ocean. The cur-

* Currents have been observed between Cape Palmas and Cape of Good ints
indicating with much probability a gyrating mass of Ae pean ina — ~e be-
tween Cape Palmas, Cape Formosa, Cape Negro, and St. He

8 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

rents both of the ocean and the atmosphere have a tendency to
a circular flow ; those flowing from the equatorial toward the
polar regions bend more and more to the eastward as they ad-
vance into higher latitudes, while those flowing from the poles
towards the equator, bend to the westward as they approach the
tropical regions. 'This may be seen in the southwest winds of
the United States and the Gulf Stream, in one case—and in the
prevailing currents of the atmosphere and of the Atlantic Ocean,
that cause the trade winds and the equatorial current, in the
other.*

The bending of these currents of the ocean and of the atmo-
— to the eastward in the northwardly flow, and to the

* In regard to the great currents of the ocean, the following a are said to have been
distinctly recognized as permanent, and with slight variations in velocity. Nu-
merous local and variable currents have been noticed, which are caused by sub-
divisions and deflections of the more general ones, and by those causes that pro-
duce eddies. Theory would render others probable that have not been recognized.

-.) The equatorial current of the Atlantic is divided by the eastern coast
of South America into two branches. The la arger | flows to the W. and N. W.
into the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, ‘causin; a higher level than that of
equilibrium, and a flow t through the Gulf of a called. the Gulf Siream ; the
other flows along the coast of Brazil toward Sandw

(2.) The equatorial current of the Pacific has a ne moderate westward So
which is nearly uniform ane constant, like the trade winds in the central and
Western parts of that ocea

Branches of this daenie are said to set northward along the coasts of China

and Japan, corresponding to the Gulf Stream; and southward by New Holland
toward the Antarctic region

(3.) The equatorial shen of the Indian Ocean has a northwest flow, caused
by a deflection of the same current from the Pacific among the reefs and islands
between which a part of it passes, and by the southwardly polar current, The
northwest current flows west from Cape Comorin to the African coast, thence
along that coast through the Mozambique Channel to the Laguilas Banks near the
Cape of Good Hope, wiidte it meets the Lagullas current from the Antarctic seas.
. Numerous counter and variable currents are also found in the Indian Ocean.

icebergs even against the wind, and against the Gulf Stream in the vicinity of the
Banks of Newfoundland. This current proceeds southwardly, and owing to the
rotation Of the earth, it presses to the westward along the coast of the United
States, and gives that coldness to the water that modifies so eee the climate.
(2.) Another polar current sets from the north in the Atlantic Ocean near its
eastern shore, and these two o polar currents by their action on the Gulf Stream,
deflect a part of its waters across the Atlantic and along the western coasts of Eu-
— to join again the equatorial current.
Part of the Lagullas current flows along the et coast of Africa ‘to-
wade St. Helena and Ascension, to join the equatorial cu
(4.) Another in the Pacifice:sets. ts along the west coast of eal America to join
the westward flow from the Gallipagos,

On the Physical Geology of the United States, Sc. 9

westward in the southwardly flow in the northern hemisphere, is
due to the same cause, viz. inertia, and the difference of linear
velocity of points on the earth’s surface, as the particles of matter
of the currents reach successively different latitudes. fy

_ 'This may be illustrated by considering that a particle of matter
at the equator moves with a linear velocity of about twenty five
thousand miles in twenty four hours ; and pps this _—

(5.) oe from the southward sets into the Indian Ocean near the coast of
New Holla

Very numerous currents depending on prevailing or periodical winds, Tike the
monsoons, exercise much influence in particular parts of the oceans upon the ‘our
rents mentione

The Sallomricig references may aid those who mil to trace the state of present
knowledge on the currents of the ocean and atmosphere.

De La Beche's Geological Manual, Alasitew® edition, pp. 90—101. Purdy’s
Atlantic Memoir. Kotzebue’s Voyages. Lyell’s Piividiptes of Geology, Vol. 1.
Larti i Frankli i

Transactions, Vol. 11, p. 314. Blagden on heat of Gulf Stream, Phil. Trans.
Royal Society, 1781, p. 334. Rennel on heat of of Gulf Stream, ‘Phil. Trans. Royal
Society, 1793, Vol. txxxu1. Wollaston on heat of Gulf Stream, Phil. Trans.
Royal Society, 1824. Poronall’s Hydraulic and Nautical Observations, quarto,
London, 1787.. Humboldt’s Political Essay on New Spain, Vol. 1, p. 53. Hum-
boldt’s Voyage to the Tropics, Vol. 11. Young's Nat. Phil. Espy on Storms.
Daniel’s Meteorological Essays. Redfield, American Journal of origi Vols,
xxv and xty. Maury, (Lt.) American Sourtvel of Science, Vol. xnvi1; Southern
Literary Messenger, and Army and Navy Chronicle, Elinhineh Erelaedlp
Am, edition, Vol. x, PP- 158—159, Ed. Encyc., “* Navigation,” Vol.
209—213. Ed. Encyc., “ Phys. Geography,” Vol. xv, p. 579. Ed. Biche “ Hy.
pe uses of polar regions,” Vol. xvt,

he modes of observation by which the pen and flow of currents have been de-
termined, are deflective, and liable to error; it is desirable therefore, that accurate

zing them, grouping them, and finally generalizing from them. Individual effort
cannot accomplish this. ‘The aid, the influence, and the power of governments
aré necessary to cause the scattered rays of light to be brought to a focus. If an
office be established under the direction of the Secretary of the Navy, where me-
teorological registers accurately kept on board all our national ships; records of
rrents observed on the samme ships; the temperature of the
waters of the ocean at the surface and at considerable depths, (also made daily
when practicable,) and similar records from our merchant marine could be re-
corded, and occasionally SMe NFR at similar offices under the English, French,
and other maritime governments, F ts may be obtained in a few years of great
importanee in ie ion, and aid in pen Negi the laws that wratiae
the currents of the e atmosphere and of the oce
Vol. xxix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 2

10 On the Physical Geology of the United States, Sc.

to be moving northward in one of the currents of the ocean or
atmosphere, without having lost any of its linear velocity due to
the motion of rotation of the earth at the equator, it will, when it
shall have arrived at 60° north latidude, still move eastward at the
rate of twenty five thousand miles in twenty four hours, which
would at that latitude, carry it twice* as rapidly to the eastward
as is due to the velocity of a point on that part of the earth’s sur-
face revolving around the axis of the earth. The resultant of
these two forces, one tending to carry the particle to the north
with a moderate velocity, and the other to the east with a ve-
locity of five hundred miles per hour more rapidly than the sur-
face of the earth moves at that latitude, would give a course
nearly east. What is true of one particle, is true of the aggre-
gate of particles of the currents of the atmosphere and of the
ocean.

- In the southern hemisphere the tendency of the currents from
the tropics is towards the S. E., and those towards the tropics is
to the N. W.

The causes of the currents under consideration’ will: ‘be admit-
ted to be permanent. 'They must, from the operation of physical
causes, have acted through all past time since the ocean has oc-
cupied its bed, and the earth revolved on its axis and circled
around the sun, and they may be expected to continue to act
through all future time. We may therefore reason upon the
effects that may be supposed to have been produced by the action
of these currents through long periods of past duration.

In the Final Geological Report of New York, I have shownt
that the contour and relative relief of the country at, and imme-
diately preceding the drift and quaternary epochs, while most of
the present land of the United States was beneath the level of
the sea, was in the main the same as now, and that the land was
elevated in mass, with little relative change of position. The
same may be shown to have been true at preceding epochs, with

* Let ¥ and 9" represent the distances — the axis of rotation, R the radius
of the spies and 1 the latitude. y:9/::R:cos.l .+. Ry! = ycos./, but cos.
60° = 4K .-. 7 = 47s o> as the cvediiirbreneen of circles are stopattiongh to
their radii, the motion of a point on a sphere at 60° from the equator would be half
the velocity of a point on the equator revolving around the axis of the equator.

t Natural History of New York, Part IV, Geology of First District, by W. W.
Mather, pp. 152-154, 629.

On the Physical Geology of ithe United States, Sc. 11

some comparatively local exceptions.* This is not mere hy-
pothesis. The evidences will be adduced in the discussion of
the causes and periods of elevation of the land and mountains.

The primary ranges of rocks and mountains of the Atlantic
states, those of northern New York and north of the great lakes,
and those of the Rocky Mountains and Cordilleras of Mexico,
existed in the same relative position as now before the deposition
of the mewer sedimentary rocks of the United States.t.. Similar
primary ranges in South America give form also to its coasts.

We will here withdraw our attention from the great equilibra-
ting currents of the ocean, and consider only that part of the
compensating system of circulation that constitutes the equatorial
current, the Gulf Stream aud the Labrador current in the Atlantic
Ocean. From the operation of dynamical causes already ex-
plained, the currents here alluded to, or others analogous to them
in their directions and effects, may be supposed to have flowed
during long periods, when the pes portion of the Ameringis
continent was beneath the level of the sea.

The equatorial current in its westward flow, may st-o
to have been deflected by the primary ranges of the coast of
South America, (or at least by the Andes,) in part to the south-
ward over the vast pampas, but mostly to the northward through
the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and over the broad val-
leys of the sioneptiong and St. Lawrence, which were then ents
of the oe

As the i of the equatorial current before its obstruction
was to the west, if deflected by the eastern coast of South Amer-
ica, its course was then as now to the N, W., as above men-
tioned; but bending around more and more to the N., N. E. and
E. as it progressed. into higher and higher latitudes, in conse-
quence of the dynamical law already explained. This current
flowing to the W., N. W., N. and N. E., would progress by the base
of the Sesiillaine to the N. and N. E. towards Hudson’s Bay ;
another part deflected still more to the east by the primary range
in Arkansas and Missouri, and by meeting the polar current from
the north through the Mississippi valley,{ seems to have flowed

* The Green Mountains, Highlands, the Apalachian chain, &c. ee in them-
selves, but local when we consider the vast expanse of ondiettnleed the
The evidence of this, is shia unconformabilit
t The evidence: of the ee = such earrenis in ieee di Btoeior nt is found in
the transported mate: bama,
and Louisiana, &c.

12 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §:c.

over the territory occupied by Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,
Michigan, Ohio, and Upper Canada, and thence eastward over
Lower Canada and New York through the St. Lawrence and
Mohawk valleys. The branch through the Mohawk valley
would be deflected more to the E. and 8. E. by the polar cur-
rent through the Champlain and Hudson valley,* and again to
the S. and S. W. by the Green Mountains and Highland ranges.
A circular flow would thus be induced, and nearly all the ma-
terials transported by the equatorial current, from whatever
sources they had been derived, may be supposed to have been
deposited within this great eddy. These currents, as conse-
quences of known dynamical laws, must have flowed in the way
indicated from the period of the elevation of the primary ranges,
until the continent was raised above the level of the ocean.

We know also that marine currents are constantly transporting
earthy and organic materials, depositing them at places more or
less remote from their origin, and - ——— now spearinte over
vast areas of the ocean.

It is believed therefore, that the ocean currents offer ennsiilac
tory explanation of the transportation and deposition of the im-
mense mass of the sedimentary rocks between the primary ranges
north of the great lakes and the Gulf of Mexico, and between the
Blue Ridge and the Rocky Mountains.

Other areas of similar rocks and connected with that described,
occupy a part of Vermont, the southern part of Lower Canada,
parts of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Maine, Massachusetts and
Rhode Island. They are believed to be due to the same causes
acting more extensively than we have considered them, in which
the mountain regions of northeastern New York and of New Eng-
land were islands. Even’this is supposed to be but a limited view
of the effects of these currents in the northern hemisphere, and the
similar rocks of Europe may have been due to the same causes—
the same currents. The uniformity of composition of the par-
ticular masses, whether thick or thin, their similar mineralogical

* The evidence of acold current from the north through the Champlain and
Hudson valley, is treated of and believed to be established in the Geological Re-
port of New York, by the author of this paper, in Part 1V, Vol. I, pp. 150-154,
225, 293, 299, 274-275, 277-278, in 4to. Albany, 1843.

The subject of currents as aiding in the transport of materials, scoring of rocks,
influence on organic life, and the evidences of their directions, are treated of under
the quaternary, drift, and red sandstone formations in the same work.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 13

characters over vast areas, the general similarity of organic con-
tents not only on the American continent but even in Europe,
indicate that the causes of these depositions and the pre
under which they were deposited from the ocean, acted w
great uniformity over extensive portions of the earth’s einen
The polar and equatorial currents are believed to be adequate for
the production of the effects observed. Without farther expla-
nation, the foregoing conclusion might be deemed oi Sit
by othier evidence than probability.

In the final Report on the geology of the first district of New
York, I have adduced the facts that first led to the observation
of the directions of currents during the deposition of the sedimen-
tary rocks. These facts when grouped, led from one generaliza-
tion to another, until it was found that the cause was not con-
fined to the United States or Europe, or even to the northern
hemisphere, but in like manner affected the southern. The
cause then was one affecting the earth. The great and perma-
nent currents of the ocean, modified in direction and velocity by
known physical laws, by the trend of coasts, and the contour of
the former bed of the sea, were found to harmonize with the
phenomena of depositions in the United States.

In the geological report above referred to, I have shown, (Ist,)
by means of the direction and distance of transport, that the
distribution of bowlders and drift is such as would necessarily
be the result, if such currents existed ; and that the probabilities
are that no other cause could have dicteibuted them in a manner
so peculiar.*

2. That the quaternary, composed of sands, clays, and sales
so extensive and uniform in composition and eapetty must —
been owing to a cause as general as this.f

3. That the sand and gravel beds of the quaternary, so e xten-
sive in some parts of New York, are situated where conflicting
currents must necessarily have met and forined eddies, if the
country was beneath the level of the ocean.

4. That the distribution of organic life, (being extremely
abundant in some parts, and as rare in the same coertitina rocks

* Natural History of New York, Part 1V, Geology of 1st District, by W. W.
Mather, pp. 197, 210-213, 217, 218, 299-928,

t Idem, pp. 129, 1

+ Idem, p. 148-150,

14 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

in others,) corresponds with the supposed position of the warm
equatorial current and the cold polar flow, favorable to the devel-
opment of animal and vegetable life in the one case, while in
the other, few traces of organization have been preserved.*

5. The amount of deposition has been greatest where currents
must have been obstructed by conflict with each other and had
their velocities lessened, and where islands and irregularities of
the bottom of the former ocean produced the same effect.

6. The coal formations of the United States are situated
where, from the contour of coasts, islands, and the bottom of the
ocean, the grand eddies would necessarily be formed, and in
which plants brought from the tropics or other sources would
float and circle around until they sunk.t

7. That the cretaceous and tertiary formations, as characterized
by abundant remains of organic existence, extend little farther
to the north than Sandy Hook, caused it is believed by the polar
flow through the Hudson valley, having mixed with the warm
Gulf Stream and cooled the waters too wien? to favor.. the de-
velopment of organic life.$

. That the red sandstone fichoaticpi oenh iol ons Car-
chen to a, Point on the Hudson, and also believed to have
been formed by the Gulf Stream, stops abruptly on the west
shore of the Hudson River.. The farther extension of the for-
mation in that direction seems to have been cut off by the polar
current flowing through the Champlain and Hudson valley,
sweeping away the materials that were brought into it by the
Gulf Stream. ||

9. The fossil shells thus far found in the quaternary Dontciaion
of the Champlain and Hudson valley are of an arctic character,
corresponding to those of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and those
of Scotland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden,1. indicating with

* Natura) History of New York, Part IV, Geology of Ist District, by W. W.
Mather, pp. 274-275, 277-278, 295-296,
1 ees pp- 129, 148-151, 293-295, 273-274, 289-293, 295-296, 299.
275, 295-296.

§ rad pp- 150-151, 274-275, 299.

|| Idem, p. 293. The ssidenans of a polar current in this valley during the qua-
ternary and drift epochs had already been adduced; those of more ancient times,
during the deposition of the Silurian mole are subsequently adduced when Areat-
ing of the rocks of the New York syst

1 Idem, p. 278; also Annual Geol. iat of N. Y. 1841, p- 47, by Mr. Conrad.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §&c. 15

much probability a current from the north. Other evidences of
such a current have been observed.

10. The great coal formations of the eastern and central por-
tions of the United States are based upon a sandstone which, at
its outcrop on the edges of the coal basins, is a conglomerate or
coarse sandstone, and sometimes a very coarse puddingstone,
while towards the centre of the basin itis much finer. This
fact indicates a stronger flow on the exterior of the coal forma-
tion than within its area. This is in strict conformity with the
supposed origin of the coal formation—being formed in eddi
and that stronger currents immediately preceded the coal forma-
tion. Periods of comparative repose, with gently varying cur-
rents, preceded and succeeded the deposition of the conglome-
rate, and strata of slate, shale, sandstones, limestones, &c. were
extensively and abundantly deposited.

_ 11. The tertiary and upper secondary formations of the east-
ern and southern parts of. the United States, and between the
Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains, may be attributed to
the action of the Gulf Stream, and to a similar current on the
western side of the Mississippi valley, before our continent was
raised to its present level.*

Examples might be multiplied indefinitely in illustration, and
much space would be required for a full development of the sub-
jects of this paper. I have treated of general principles and
masses Of facts as connected with the physical geology of the
sedimentary rocks of the United States, without going into de-
tails on local geology. .

All that is known in relation to the sedimentary rocks of the
United States, from the oldest transition to the quaternary forma-
tions, harmonizes, I believe, with the views here advocated of
the causes of their transport, deposition, distribution, and organic
contents; while on the other hand, [am not aware of any argu-
ment that can be urged in opposition to its probable truth.

We may therefore conclude, that the great masses of the sedi-
mentary rocks of the United States have been deposited by
matine currents before the continent fully emerged from the
ocean.

. * Natural History of New York, Part IV, Geology of Ist District, by W. W.
Mather, pp. 225, 274, 292.

16 On the Physical Geology of the United States, Sc.

Thus far we have considered the causes of the great equili-
brating currents of the ocean; the physical laws regulating their
circulation, and the influences of these currents on organic life,
and on the deposition of the sedimentary strata. It remains to
consider whence the materials of the sedimentary rocks have
been derived, that have been transported. by currents, and depos-
ited over so vast an area and of stich great thickness in the Uni-
ted States.

If the great currents of the ocean have flowed in times past as
we have shown from physical causes they must be supposed to
have flowed, the greatest proportion of transported earthy matter
in the northern and eastern parts of the United States (except
between the mountains and coast) must have been brought from
the northward and spread to the south and southwest,—the gen-
eral trend of transport according to the physical law that has
been explained, tending to the southwest by means of the polar
current. Other large quantities, together with tropical. plants
and animals transported by the equatorial current in its north-
wardly flow, would be spread over the areas occupied by the
sedimentary rocks of the United States and British possessions,
from the south to the north and northeast; and by the blending
of the currents, and the deflections caused by this and by obsta-
cles in particular parts, would be spread in various directions as
we now find them.

Of the materials swept from the south and east by the equa-
torial current, we can have little direct evidence. This current
sweeps, and has in times past swept over vast areas of the bed
of the ocean, and along coasts and reefs of rocks, from which
large quantities of detrital matter might, in the course of un-
numbered ages, be supposed to have been swept away and trans-
ported to distant parts. Of the capacity of such a current to
transport floating plants in ancient times to form our coal deposits,
and the various traces of vegetation so common in all our sedi-
mentary rocks below the coal formation, we have only to look at
the effects of the present Gulf Stream, one branch of which
carries large quantities of drift timber from the coasts of South
America, the Gulf of Mexico, and the shores of the Atlantic,
and lodges them on the shores of Labrador, Greenland, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, Norway, and the Scottish islands ;* and the other

* Lyell’s Geology, Lond. edition, 1833, p. 251; Malte Brun’s Geography, ce
I, p-112; Edinburgh Encyclopedia,

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 17

carries the gulf-weed and other floating bodies, and finally col-
lects them in the centre of the great eddy of the Atlantic be-
tween the Cape de Verd, the Azores and Bahama Islands. This
tract of the ocean has been known for more than three hundred
and fifty years to be covered with such quantities of floating sea-
weed, plants, wood, &c. as frequently to impede the passage of
ships. These floating bodies are supposed to circle around in
this grand eddy (which is said to occupy a million of square
miles, called the grassy sea and Sargasso sea) until they morn
water logged, loaded with marine shells, or decayed, and sin

The transport by the polar currents during the drift wae is
believed to be satisfactorily established ; and it has been shown
to be highly probable, perhaps almost certain, that the phenome-
na of the drift deposits are conformable to the action of the polar
and equatorial currents. 'The phenomena of the transportation
of the materials of the more ancient formations, have not been
studied so attentively as to demonstrate the same sources and di-
rections of transportation, but we may infer it as probable in a
very high degree, that large quantities of earthy materials were
transported by the flow of the polar currents over the barren and
rocky regions in America, Europe, New Zealand, &c. where
from the operation of physical causes the currents would flow
from the poles towards the equator with a less depth and greater
velocity than on other parts of the earth.t We may also infer
it from the fact that the thicker masses of the coarser sediment-
ary rocks that are not calcareous, have been deposited in those
parts where the polar currents in the United States must neces-
sarily have flowed, when most of the continent was buried be-
neath the waters of the ocean. ‘Those parts of the earth over
which the polar currents are supposed to have flowed in ancient
times, and from which they are supposed to have washed away
the materials of the sedimentary rocks, are represented by all
travellers as barren, unproductive, rocky and inhospitable wastes.

* Natural History of New York, Part IV, Geology of Ist District, by W. W.
Mather, pp. 295-296. Vide Lt. Maury’s paper on ocean currents for ‘a more full
description ; Army and Navy Chronicle, IIL, pp- 661-667 ; Southern Literary Mes-
senger, Vol. X, No. 7, July, 1844; and American Journal of Science and Arts
Vol. xtvit, p. 161.

t The reasons dee this supposition will he treated of in the discussion of the”
pA ed of the continents above the oce

Vol. x11x, No. paren as 1845. 3

18 On the Physical Geology of the United States, &§.

Heriot in his travels through the Canadas says of the vicinity
of the river Moisa, north of the St. Lawrence—* No country can
exhibit a more wild aspect than that which here extends on either
side of the river. Stunted trees, rocks and sand, compose these
inhospitable and desolate territories, which cannot boast of an
acre capable of yielding any useful production.”* The same
traveller, speaking of the vicinity of Camarousca, says—‘ The
sulphureous springs found here, and the immense masses of bro-
ken rocks, which appear to have been thrown together by some
violent and uncommon effort of nature, afford grounds for sup-
posing that this part of the country has undergone material
changes.”* Speaking of Newfoundland, near the harbor of St.
Johns, he says—‘It is bordered by dark and gloomy rocks,
which exhibit a barren, inhospitable appearance ; the country on
a nearer view of its soil belies not the character of its rude unin-
teresting features, which amid their nakedness, display neither
grandeur nor sublimity.”’+

Hearne, describing his journey to the Arctic sea, apeaien of
Marble Island, on which Messrs. Knight and Barlow were wreck-
ed, and they er all their ship’s crew perished, says—‘‘ Neither
stick nor stump was to be seen”—“ the main land is little better,
being a jumble of barren hills and rocks, destitute of every kind
of herbage except moss’”—‘ and the woods are several hundred
miles from the sea-side.”’}

Again he says—‘ With regard to that part of my instructions
which directs me to observe the nature of the soil, it may be ob-
served that during the whole time of my absence from the fort,
I was invariably confined to stony hills and barren plains all the
summer.’”’$

In latitude 68° N. and longitude 119° W. of Greenwich, Hearne
came to the Stony mountains, and he says—‘No part of the
world better deserves the name. On our first approaching these
mountains, they appeared to be a confused heap of stones, utterly
inaccessible to the foot of man.” Again—‘ The face of the whole
country from the 59th to the 68th deg. of north latitude—be-
tween Hudson’s Bay on the east, and the Athapusean Indian

” eso s ice p- 70; Senay <pogal s pene vate PP. Leni

Hearne 3 Introdnetion, p- 9
p. 18.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 19

country on the west, is scarcely any thing but one solid mass of
rocks and stones, and in most parts is hilly.’’*

McKenzie says—‘ There is hardly one foot of soil to be seen
from one end of French river to the other, its banks consisting
of hills of entire rock.” ‘The coast of Turtle lake is the same,
but lower.” “The country has the appearance of having been
overrun by fire, and consists in general of huge rocky hills.’”’+

Speaking of the country north of Lake Superior, he says—
*'The face of the country offers a wild scene of huge hills and
rocks separated by stony valleys, lakes and ponds.’’{ After giv-
ing a general view of the country northeast of the lakes, he
says—‘ Of this great tract more than half is represented as barren
and broken, displaying a surface of rock, and fresh-water lakes,
with a very scanty proportion of soil. Such is the whole coast
of or, and the land called East Main, to the west of the
heights which divide the waters running into the river and the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, from those flowing into Hudson’s Bay.”$

Captain Cook, seeking a northwest passage, says— The ap-
pearance of the country (North America) in latitude 57° 3’ N.,
discovered little else than naked rocks.’’|| Also—‘ The barren
isles in latitude 59° N., are composed of naked rocks.’

The various travellers over the country within the United
States between Lake Superior and the sources of the Mississippi,
over a great breadth of country, give the same general characters
of a rocky, barren, hilly region, with numerous small lakes.**

The same general characters hold true of Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Lapland and Iceland in the northern hemisphere ; and of
New Zealand, Patagonia, Sandwich Land, Graham’s Land, &c.,
in the southern hemisphere.

We perceive from these and other descriptions of travellers
and voyagers, that in. those parts of the earth where the polar
currents would have the greatest velocity and least depth,{y the

* Hearne’s Travels, p. 227.
t McKenzie’s Tr aroha; pp. 36, 37. Vide also Hayden, Geol. Essays, pp. 72, 73.

193.
** Schooleraft’s Travels: Lieut. Allen’s Report to Sec. of War, 1834, &c.
tt Vide p. 17 of this article

20 Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus.

surface of the earth is destitute of soil, and is formed of bare
and almost naked rocks that show few traces of vegetation. |

Although the quotations from travellers lack that accurate ex-
amination that is necessary to a determination whether the sur-
faces thus described have been exposed to the action of violent
and long continued currents, yet they have their weight, when
considered in connection with the effects of known physical
causes, and render it more than probable that the currents under
consideration have flowed from the polar regions towards the
equator, and from the tropics towards the poles, when this con-
tinent was beneath the ocean, and that the matter’of the vast
deposit of the sedimentary rocks of the United States was
washed away by these great equilibrating currents from the bed
of the ocean, from reefs, islands and coasts, and finally deposited
from suspension over the great area where we now find it ——
to observation.

(To be continued.)

See Seas se aes

Anro.[locitoneuiiat aeaiaaan taal Philosophical | Appa
ratus; by Prof. E. 8. Sxexx, of Amherst College.

i + eins for illustrating sea waves, and waves of sound.

'T'ne idea of constructing apparatus for such purposes was first
suggested to me by seeing acut of Prof. Powell’s machine for
exhibiting plain, circular and elliptical polarization of light. The
thought struck me that every species of wave motion might
be produced mechanically, and that such visible representations
might be advantageouly used in giving instruction. I forme
the design, therefore, of providing myself with a series of instru-
ments to illustrate the oscillatory* waves of the sea, the acoustic
waves of the air, and the undulations of the luminiferous ether,
both ordinary and polarized. For the two first, which presented
the least difficulties, I soon devised and executed a simple and
convenient mechanism; and the instruments have more than
answered my dkpedtations in their operation and in their value as
means of instruction.

* See Russell’s classification of waves, Reports of British —— 1837, P-
425, and Vol, xxxviul, p. 100, of this Journal.

Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus, 21

Figures 1 and 2 present a view of the two instruments as they
stand connected in the philosophical cabinet. They are, how-
ever, entirely distinct, and the upper one may be removed from
the lower, and either of them taken into the lecture room by
itself. Fig. 2 exhibits the movements of sea waves. The box
containing the mechanism is about two feet long, one foot wide
and seven inches high. ‘The lower half of the front projects
beyond the upper half, so as to leave a space one fourth of an
inch wide, in which the iron pieces (a a) rise and fall. There are
thirty pieces of sheet iron, marked (a a), three fourths of an inch
wide and four inches high, standing as closely as possible without
danger of contact. ‘They are painted black, to appear in strong
contrast with the white front, which forms the ground behind
them. ‘These represent columns of water, and by turning the
crank are made to rise and fall in such order that the waves
which they form advance regularly in one direction and pass off,
while other waves form and succeed them perpetually. If an
observer fixes his attention upon the form of the waves, he sees
them roll along horizontally, like billows of the ocean; but the
moment his attention is directed to a single column, he as plainly

22 Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus.

sees it simply rising and falling in its place. He is thus enabled
to conceive of the co-existence of these two facts with a distinct-
ness not easily acquired in any other way.

The motion is produced in the following manner. Each piece
of iron is fastened at its lower extremity toa stiff iron wire, which
is bent upward three inches just within the front, and thence
proceeds horizontally to the back side of the box, where it is se-
cured by a pivot, allowing only of vertical motion. Each wire
with its strip of sheet iron formsa lever of the third order, which
should rise and fall with the greatest freedom, while lateral mo-
tion is prevented by perpendicular guides. The axis, turned by
the crank (6), is placed as near the front as possible, and extends
the whole length of the box. It is furnished with thirty excen-
tric cams, each of which gives vertical motion to one of the wire
levers just mentioned. Fig. 3 shows a section of the box, per-
pendicular to its length, with a lever and its supporting cam; (a)
represents a vibrating column; (0) the lever; (c) its pivot; (d)
the cam; (f) the axis; (g) the guide, hick prevents lateral
motion. "To produce the wave motion already described, the
cams must obviously be arranged according to a uniform law,
the summit of the second being turned a given number of degrees
farther round on the axis than that of the first, the third than the
second, and so on through the whole. The axis with its entire
series of cams will thus have the form of a helix. The exhibi-
tion of the instrument is most satisfactorily made, by presenting
it first in a room partially darkened, so that the intervals between
the columns are invisible. On turning the crank the illusion is
complete—a liquid, or at least something flexible, is seen to roll
in dark horizontal waves, and no other motion is dreamed of.
But on admitting the light it is immediately apparent that every
moving particle oscillates in a perpendicular direction, and has no
other motion whatever.

_ Fig. 1 represents the instrument designed to illustrate acoustic
waves. These are waves of condensation and rarefaction; and
the molecular vibrations are made in the line of wave natin
and not perpendicular to it, as in sea waves, which may be termed
waves of elevation and depression. 'The box is of the same
length as the other; its breadth and height are a little less. The
front is constructed in the manner already described. Thirty
slips of japanned sheet iron (ee), one and a half inch long and

Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus. 23

three eighths of an inch wide, project upward nearly their whole
length between the two front boards. These slips are taken to
represent a series of atmospheric particles. It may be supposed
that a line of balls, supported on slender white wires, would be
a more appropriate representation. This was tried, but found not
to make a sufficiently distinct impression of waves. A broad
band rather than a delicate line needs to be seen in motion. The
points of greatest condensation are at (d,d,d); and those of
greatest rarefaction at (r,r). As the crank is turned, the waves of
condensation and rarefaction advance regularly in one direction,
constantly succeeded by similar waves, that are every moment
forming themselves anew. It is more difficult in this case than
in the former to render the molecular vibrations invisible, and to
fasten the observer’s attention wholly upon the waves. This
effect is best accomplished by employing oblique vision. Let the
observer look directly at some object about two feet above or
below, while his attention is still directed to the instrument, and
he will, without much distraction from the motions of the indi-
vidual parts, receive an impression of dark waves travelling over
the length of the box in regular and constant succession. Then,
on turning the eyes upon the machine, each molecule is readily
seen vibrating back and forth in the line in which the waves are
running. <A similar formation of condensed waves occurs in the
legs of the centipede when walking.

The operation of this instrument is less interesting to the casual
observer than the other; but in the hands of the lecturer it is
far more valuable to the pupil, because the subject to be illus-
trated is not so easily understood. But here, as in the other case,
a glance of a few moments will give one a clearer conception of
the manner in which a minute vibration of every particle of a
substance in regular order, I will not say occasions, but is the
same as a succession of waves advancing through it, than can be
obtained in many hours by means of verbal description. Indeed,
I believe many individuals, by witnessing this experiment, soon
comprehend the circumstances of a phenomenon, of which they
would never have formed a distinct conception without such aid.

The several pieces of iron (ee) receive their motions from a
cylinder three inches in diameter, ranning lengthwise through the
box near its front, and turned by the crank (g). The surface of
the cylinder is cut by thirty grooves, three sixteenths of an inch

24 Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus.

wide and of about the same depth. Hach groove lies in a plane
cutting the cylinder obliquely, and is of course an ellipse. But
the several planes are not parallel. The second groove is revolved
on the cylinder a certain number of degrees from parallelism with
the first, the third holds the same relation to the second, and so of
all the rest. |The slips of iron (ee) at their lower extremities are
firmly attached to as many horizontal levers, which extend to the
back side of the box, where they are confined by vertical pivots
allowing free motion horizontally, but in no other direction.
Each lever, passing just beneath the cylinder, is furnished with
a short smooth iron pin projecting upward, which runs freely in
one of the oblique grooves, and thus receives a horizontal oscil-
latory motion. The ends of the levers near the front are sup-
ported on a soft smooth edge, made by stretching morocco leather
over a thin metallic plate, which extends through the length of
the box. By this means the levers move silently and with little
friction. Fig. 4 presents a cross section of the box; (e) is one
of the vibrating pieces; (/) the lever to which it is attached ;
(p) the pivot; (s) the leather edged support; (¢) csesncmngions
cylinder.

The ecnmumaaual ernitigenent of the grooves causes the
vibrating pieces to arrive at a given phase of their oscillations in
regular succession. The same remark might be made of the
cams and iron columns in the other machine. Indeed, this reg-
ular gradation of all possible phases, both in successive particles
at the same time, and in the same particle in successive times, is
the essential condition imposed on the vibrations of every con-
ceivable kind of wave. It is a consequence of this condition
that a wave always travels just its length during one vibration of
any particle. This and all other relations that exist among the
particles of an undulating medium, may be very satisfactorily
presented to the eye by means of the instruments I have at-
tempted to describe, or others of analogous construction.

2. Instrument to exhibit caustics by reflection.

The lecturer on optics, in illustrating the focal aberration oc-
casioned by spherical mirrors, wishes to show the caustic curves
as produced by reflection. He can indeed easily refer to exam-
ples; since these curves are sometimes distinctly formed by a
horizontal light on a white cloth beneath an inverted tumbler,

Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus. 25

and on thesurface of milk or other white opake substance in'a
circular vessel. These, however, are inconvenient modes of ex-
perimenting for the lecture room. A watch-spring, bent into a
circular form and laid on white paper, serves a better purpose. But
I have recently furnished myself with an instrument which pre-
sents the phenomenon in its greatest beauty; and not only so,
but by successive reflections produces caustics of several orders in
the most perfect manner. I regard this little instrament as an
important addition to our optical apparatus, and think it ati not
be unworthy of description in a public journal.

I procured a steel ring, whose internal diameter was tiononi mes
a half inches, made by bending and thoroughly welding a square
half inch bar. Of course its external diameter was four and a
half inches.. A much less thickness between the inner and outer
circumferences would, however, be sufficient. The interior was
then turned in a lathe to as perfect a cylindric surface as possible,
and highly polished. This is the essential part of the instrument ;
but for convenient use it is mounted in the following. manner.
The steel ring (r,r), fig. 5, is enclosed in a ring of sheet-brass
(aa), and by it secured to a disk of wood (6), from the back of
which projects a brass stem ; and this stem is united by a tight
hinge-joint to the top of the brass pillar (c). ‘The whole stands
firm on a heavy base of suitable size, as represented in the figure.
The space within the ring is covered with smooth white paper,
pasted down on the wood, so as to be perfectly plane. By turn-
ing the base horizontally, and the hinge vertically, the face of the
ring may be brought into any desired inclination with a sun-beam
admitted into a dark room. At a certain inclination, the light
reflected from one half of the cylindric mirror will be thrown
down strongly upon the paper, forming the ordinary caustic
curves, but far more delicate and true than I have ever seen them
in any other mode of experimenting. These are marked (1,1) in
fig. 6. If the plane of the ring be less inclined to the beam, the
rays will pass across to the opposite half, and after a second re-
flection fall upon the paper in caustics of the second order, marked
(2, 2). A> still: further diminution of inclination will reveal
the third order (3,3); and in favorable circumstances 1 have
seen the fourth (4, 4), very faintly and delicately traced. The
general form of *these figures is the same, but the size diminishes
from the first order through all the — ones; the position

Vol. xx1x, No. 1.—April-June, 1845.

26 Prof. Snell on new articles of Philosophical Apparatus.

also is every time reversed, since the cusp is necessarily turned
away from the surface which produces the last reflection. It
should be remarked, that all the orders are never in full view at
once, as represented in the figure. When the first is most dis-
tinctly formed, no others are to be seen; and generally, when the
caustic of either order is brightest, the higher orders are not
formed at all, and the lower ones only in part. The caustics of
the first order extend only half round the mirror, and are termin-
ated by it in opposite points ; but in all the others the two branches
intersect, and may be traced round much more than the entire
circumference. In proper positions of the instrument, the branches
of many successive figures are seen, crowding closely upon the
mirror, and upon each other, nearly parallel, and of exquisite del-
icacy. A pleasing and instructive experiment is performed by
placing a pin perpendicularly upon the paper, and moving it back
and forth. Its several shadows run along the curves as tangents,
and reveal at once, for each point, the direction of the Maye 8 em-
ployed in forming it.

3. Apparatus for experiments on inflection and interference of
light.

There is one class of experiments on inflection and interfer-
ence, which, if the instructor in optics attempts to show them to
his pupils, must necessarily consume much time. I refer to those
in which are employed a metallic screen with minute apertures,
and a magnifier, through which the light, having suffered inflec-
tion by passing the apertures, falls into the eye of the observer
beyond. If any considerable variety of combinations is inter-
posed for acting on the light, much trouble is experienced and
much time wasted in exchanging one pattern for another. The
article [ am about to describe is merely a simple contrivance for
reducing the time and labor of exhibiting this beautiful class of
optical phenomena.

- Infig. 7; (a, a) represents a wooden ring one foot in diameter,
one inch anda half wide and one fourth of an inch thick, strength-
ened by two pieces of the same width and thickness, crossing
each other perpendicularly in the centre. (6) isan upright flat
pillar fastened to the heavy base (c), and having a height a little
greater than the diameter of the ring. A short axis (d) is firmly
attached to the middle of this pillar, on which the ring is con-

Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report, &c. 27

fined by a nut, and turns with some friction. Thirty six holes,
half an inch in diameter, are bored through the ring, having their
centres carefully arranged in a circumference concentric with the
axis. Another hole of the same size is made near the top of the
pillar, with which each one in the ring comes in range, as it is
turned. The plates of punctured lead, and other inflecting ob-
jects, are placed upon the apertures in the ring, being let into the
surface of the wood by shallow dove-tailed recesses, or fastened
in any other convenient way. A light spring (e) falls into a
notch in the edge of the ring, whenever the aperture of the pillar
coincides with one of those in the ring, as the latter is turned on
its axis. The hole in the pillar being once adjusted in the line
with the magnifier and the focus of light, the ring may be turned
as fast as the experimenter chooses; and the inflecting patterns
will all come in succession to the proper place to be seen by the
observer. The. spring offers a slight check to the motion, as
often as an aperture of the ring attains the right position.

The instrument here described is already furnished with about
thirty varieties of inflecting objects. A large proportion of them
are made of sheet lead, with punctures and slits variously com-
bined. Other holes are occupied respectively with a net of fine
Wire, a piece of fine comb, screws of delicate thread, placed
almost in contact, &c. A very fine effect is produced by two
pieces of fine ivory comb, one fastened in the aperture and the
other fixed in a revolving cap; the latter, as it is turned round,
makes, in conjunction with the former, a net-work of all possible
angles, while the picture seen through the magnifier every mo-
ment changes its pattern and its color in the most Berets -
wonderful manner.

Arr. IIf.—Review of Dr. ©. 'T. Jacxson’s Final Report on the
Geology and Mineralogy of the State of New Hampshire.
(Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, by Tuomas T, Bouyé,

; March 5th, 1845.)
Tue survey of the State of New Hampshire was made under
an act passed: by its legislature during the session of 1839.
- In September of that year, Dr. Jackson received his commis-
sion as State geologist, and he commenced his duties under it om

28 Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report

the first of the following June, 1840. By the terms of his en-
gagement he was expected to complete the survey in three years ;
and it was understood of each year, four months should be devoted
to field operations and four to the analysis of minerals. ‘This
would of course leave four months for the less active, though not
less important duties appertaining to the survey—in reviewing
the proceedings in the field, and in preparing maps, with such
other documents as might be necessary in a final report—a_ suf-
ficiently short time for the purpose. So extensive and laborious,
however, were the operations of the laboratory, that these alone,
we are informed, instead of taking only four months of the year,
required nearly all the eight not allotted to the field ; a fact which,
in view of what was accomplished in this way, will hardly sur-
prise any one at all aware of the time necessary for the accurate
analysis of minerals. Notwithstanding this, Dr. Jackson seems
by no means to have limited himself to the specified duties of
his commission, arduous as they were; on the contrary, he has
contributed largely of his observations upon ‘the agriculture
of the State, and has furnished numerous analyses of the soils,
neither of which were required of him by the authority under
which he acted.

In the Sicateslenetide so called, to the work, pine some observa-
tions upon the utility of such surveys as the one authorized by
the State, our author proceeds to give a general view of the va-
rious rock formations that compose the strata of the earth’s crust
and of the fossils that characterize a portion of them. In remark-
ing upon the Silurian and Cambrian rocks of Murchison and
Prof. Sedgwick, (the New York system of the New York geol-
ogists, ) he takes occasion to object, and most justly, to the course
adopted by some of introducing local names to define classes of
rocks found in every quarter of the earth. It is much to be hoped
that his views in this particular may generally prevail; whilst at
the same. time, it may be remarked that a numerical arrangement,
for which he expresses a preference, tho not be found wholly
free from objection.

In the brief but comprehensive view given of the various
formations of the earth’s surface, those which are developed in
the strata of New Hampshire have of course received particular
attention. In this connection, we are informed that a great anti-
clinal axis of primary rocks-exists in New Hampshire, the trans-

on the Geology of New Hampshire. 29

ition Cambrian series being found to rest upon them, both in
Maine on the east and in Vermont on the west, dipping in oppo-
site directions. Upon these last are found, at more distant, points
from the centre of the anticlinal axis, the Silurian fossiliferous
rocks, containing similar organic remains. Thus says the report—
*‘ We find trilobites occur near Lubec in Maine, on the Tobique
river in New Brunswick, and at Clements, Nova Scotia. And in
New York, the same fossils abound not far from Albany, at Lock-
port and Trenton falls. Besides the trilobites, we observe also
the same shells in the rocks of Maine, Nova Scotia and New
York. This fact seems to indicate that the strata on the north-
east and southwest sides of this axis belong to the same forma-
tion, and were deposited under similar circumstances, while the
primary rocks may be regarded as an immense wedge which
was driven up from below, separating or tepiaihine the formerly
continuous mass of strata.”

Of the later formations, limited deposits. of the tertiary are
mentioned as occurring near Portsmouth. |

The introductory chapters close with some ititeresting tials
vations upon the diluvium or drift epoch, in which the theory of
Agassiz is dwelt upon at some length, and facts are stated to show
that however applicable it may be to some of the phenomena
presented in the Alps, it is by no means so to those of New Eng-
land. The grooves or scratches on the rocks, so common every
where in New England, are stated by the author to be “ better
marked in Maine than in any other section of the United States,”
and that they there as elsewhere “cross the mountains with but
little deflection, and run over extensive table lands where there
could have been no slope for a glacier to move upon.” The
course of the general current, according to the observations of
Dr. Jackson, in Maine, New Hampshire and. Rhode Island, was
from north 15° west to south 15° east,as shown not only by the
scratches, but by the rock masses which have been borne from
their original locations and deposited in a southeast direction
upon other rocks. In view of all that is known of the move-
ment of diluvium in this country, we cannot but regard the gla-
cial theory as wholly inadequate to produce the results met with,
and we think with Dr. Jackson, “that the grooves on the rocks,
if produced by glaciers, should radiate from our principal moun-
tain ranges and should be more abundant in their immediate vi-

30 Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report

cinity, while they would be wanting in the level country and on
our extended table lands.”

- Thus much for the general introduction. As preliminary to
the first annual report we have an account of the plan pursued in
the survey, of which one may get an idea in a few words from
the author.

_ “In order to effect a systematic examination of the geological
structure of the State, it was necessary to lay down some regular
plan of operations, and knowing from previous explorations of the
neighboring States, that the stratiform rocks pursue a general
northeast and southwest direction, I was enabled to lay down on
the map of the State certain lines, along which our first surveys
should extend ; intending to prepare sectional views or profiles of
the strata, and determine their axis of elevation and the limits. of
the unstratified rocks.

“If the course or trend of the strata was northeast and south-
west, then a line running northwest and southeast would cut all
the stratified rocks at right angles and exhibit the order of strata
and their anticlinal axis, while-a northeast and southwest line
would exhibit their extent in a linear direction. By laying out
our work in this manner, the strata would be divided into a series
of triangles, which might be again subdivided, according to the
minuteness of the surveys required. In some districts which
were complicated and interesting these subdivisions were made;
while in others they were not required, or the limited time al-
lowed for the exploration of the State, would not admit of their
completion.”

While upon these preliminary remarks we. will ante a pata-
graph more, which we should think would satisfy one pretty fully:
that geological surveying can hardly with ania be. rela
among sedentary occupations.

“The general outline of our work will give some tien ih the
various duties which have been,attended to-in the survey, and
no one will venture to regard them as unimportant. Travelling
in a wagon and making frequent excursions on foot, we have al-
ways found our time fully occupied in explorations, and the actual
number of miles we have journeyed in New Hampshire in three
years, nearly equals the diameter. of the globe. Most of the
lines of our explorations have been measured barometrically; and
certain points have been determined by astronomical observations

on the Geology of New Hampshire. 31

and bearings from other places. The direction of every vein of
metalliferons ore, or bed of limestone and soapstone, and the
course of all the drift strie on the rocks, have been taken by
means of the compass, while the inclination or dip of all the
stratified rocks was measured by the clinometer,” &c.

To this succeeds a theory and description of the primary un-

stratified rocks, and some notice of the minerals contained in
them.
_ We now come to the detailed account of the operations in the
field during the three years of service. In these, as also the
labors of the laboratory, Dr. Jackson was assisted by gentlemen
who had been his pupils, and who appear to have faithfully and
acceptably performed the duties assigned them. In this connection
it is pleasant to be able to remark that the author in the work
before us, as well as in others published by him, has exhibited a
strong desire to accord to those from whom he has in any manner
received aid, all that strict justice could require. From Messrs.
Whitney and Williams, two of the assistants, we have reports
upon a number of sections which Dr. Jackson gave to their
charge, and among others one upon the northern corner of the
State, of which they give the geology and topography. The
account by them of their journey into this distant and compara-
tively little known portion of the State, and of their operations
there, though far too brief, will not be read without interest. To
it the lovers of the romantic and beautiful in nature will feel in-
debted for the notice given of the Dixville Notch, which they
speak of as perhaps surpassing the famous Notch of the White
Mountains, in picturesque grandeur.

Camel’s Rump mountain, situated in the line of hotkeys
that divides New Hampshire from Canada, and one of the highest
elevations in the State next to those of the White Mountain
range, was ascended by Messrs, Whitney and Williams, who
from not being able to find any marks of former visitations,
judged it the first ascent ever made by white men. Of the view
presented from the summit they thus speak :—

* But although the ascent was difficult, we were amply repaid
by the magnificent extent of the view which was displayed be-
fore us, as the veil of clouds gradually rolled away before the
wind, In the north a series of high hills stretching beyond each

32 Review of Dr. Jackscn’s Final Report

other for five or ten miles, divide the waters flowing into the St.
Lawrence from those of the Magalloway and Connecticut, be-
yond which as far as the eye could reach, lay the extended table
lands of Canada, unbroken by any abrupt elevation; to the east,
the lofty granite ranges of Maine, Mt. Bigelow and Mt. Abraham;
farther south, the numerous large lakes near Umbagog and the
Diamond Hills; while in the farthest distance were seen the lofty
peaks of the White Mountains; and to the west lay the lakes
and tributary streams of the Cotineeticat, and the rolling ranges
of the Green Mountains.”

We have thus particularly noticed the report by Messrs. Whit-
ney and Williams upon the northern section of the State, because
so little is generally known of the region it relates to. We are,
however, not quite contented with the knowledge we obtain of it
from their remarks. These are, so far as they go, interesting and
instructive, but they do not embrace all that we would like to
learn, and which only a more thorough survey can impart. That
as much was accomplished by these gentlemen as was possible
under the circumstances of the case is manifest, but we cannot
but think time would have been well spent in giving this section
of the State a more accurate examination than it received.

The interest in the part of the work under consideration is
much enhanced to the reader by the character of some of the
country described in it. In the section from Haverhill to the
White Mountains, surveyed by Dr. Jackson in person with his
assistants, we have an account of that portion of the State, which
embraces the most wild and romantic scenery of our country,—
the mountains themselves towering to the heavens, presenting
a thousand views of surpassing grandeur and beauty,—the well
known Notch of the White Mountains, so called, and that of
Franconia,—the “flume” and the “basin” of the latter place,—
the profile view of “the old man of the mountain,” &c. &c.,
these are all embraced in this region, and have received proper
notice from the ready pen of our author.

In the narrative of field operations, we have of course an ac-
count of the development of the various rocks in every portion
of the State, and of the minerals imbedded in them, some of
which latter were not before known to exist in New Hampshire,
as for instance tin (which indeed has not been found in any

on the Geology of New Hampshire. 33

quantity elsewhere in the United States) and chlorophyllite, a
new species, first discovered in this country by Dr. Jackson at
Unity, whilst engaged in the survey.

Of the localities of minerals we have a great number described
in the reports upon the several towns visited. We will mention
a few of the most interesting and important.

Acworth.—Here are found the immense beryls which have
given the place celebrity wherever mineralogy hasavotary. The
largest of the crystals are upwards of a foot in diameter and
eighteen inches in length; the smaller, however, as is generally
the case, are the most perfect. The color of them is a light blue
green, and they are of the variety generally known as the aqua-
marine. Black tourmalines and soda feldspar also occur here.

Unity.—In this town is a spring strongly chalybeate, possessing
tonic properties. Granular quartz, and copper and iron pyrites,
both in sufficient quantity for exploration, are met with. In this
place was discovered the mineral chlorophyllite before referred to.
It occurs in the syenite rocks, not far from the copper mine.

Orford.—Here are quarried granite, limestone and talcose slate.

In the latter rock, clove brown tourmalines are found in large
crystals, some of which are more than two inches in diameter
and six in length.
. Haverhiil.—Mica slate, including extensive beds of excellent
limestone, granite of good quality, and hornblende slate, abound
here. There have also been found veins of copper and iron
pyrites, sulphurets of lead and zinc, native arsenic, arsenical py-
rites, and large crystals of garnet in chlorite.

Lisbon,—Within the present limits of this town is found the
well known magnetic iron ore which is worked in the Franconia
furnaces near. It oceurs in granite, and composes a vein from
three and a half to four feet in width. It is now taken up from
a depth of one hundred and forty four feet. Accompanying the
ore are numerous minerals which may be easily procured, among
others, deep red magnesian garnet, crystallized and granular epi-
dote, hornblende, &c. In the mica slates of this town, beauti-
fully crystallized staurotides and garnets are found in abundance.

Bartlett—In this place inexhaustible quantities of iron ore
occur, of a character suitable for the manufacture of the best iron
or of steel, chiefly composed of the peroxide, combined with a
small quantity of the protoxide and a little manganese. This

Vol, xurx, No. 1~April-June, 1845. 5

34 - Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report

ore is found upon Baldface Mountain, in granite, at an elevation
of fourteen hundred feet above the waters of the Saco. A num-
ber of veins have been opened, one of which has a width in
some parts of fifty-five feet.

Jackson.—This is the locality of the tin, ore before noticed as
having been discovered by Dr. Jackson. It is found on East-
man’s hill, and occurs in veins (of which five have been discov-
ered) accompanied by copper and arsenical pyrites, arseniate of
iron, native copper, phosphate of iron, fluor spar and other min-
erals. Some of the crystals are hemitropic, similar to those which
are frequently found in the ores of Europe. The largest vein
measures in its widest part eight inches. The richest specimens
of the ore in the narrow veins yield about seventy three per cent.
by assay. It occurs both compact and crystallized, but there
eannot probably be enough obtained from the veins yet discovered
to make it profitable to work it.

Eaton.—There is a very valuable vein of the sulphurets of
lead and zine in this town, which has been wrought to some ex-
tent for lead. ‘The vein is however mostly made up. of the sul-
phuret of zinc, and is about six feet in width. Dr. Jackson ex-
presses the opinion that it might be profitably worked, provided
the zine ore should be reduced with that of the lead. The former
contains about sixty three per cent. of metallic zinc, the latter
about eighty four per cent. of lead.

Frrancestown.—Soapstone of the richest quality exists here,
and is extensively wrought for the markets of Boston oni other
places.

Amherst.—In this town is a bed of limestone in mica slate,
associated with which are found some interesting minerals. Ege-
ran in large crystals, some measuring four inches in length and
two and a half in diameter, of a deep red brown color. They
occur in right square prisms, with lateral and terminal edges and
solid angles replaced. Large dodecahedral crystals of the cinna-
mon stone garnet are also abundant, both in the limestone and in
quartz connected with it.

There are likewise found in granite, in this town, crystals of
magnetic oxide of iron, from one to two inches in diameter, and
from the soil fine crystals of amethystine quartz (some of which
are four inches in aera and eight inches in length) have been
‘ploughed up.

on the Geology of New Hampshire. 35

_ Warren.—Valuable ores of copper and zinc exist in this town,
the former of which have been wrought to some extent. The
copper ore is mostly pyrites, the zine ore is the black blende, and
associated with them in some veins are tremolite, iron pyrites and
rutile.

Before passing from the account of field operations, we may
remark that several lithographic prints of some of the most inter-
esting views in the State adorn its pages. These are “ Dixville
Notch,” “ Lake Winnipisseogee,” “Flume at Franconia,” “ Slide
at the Willey house” and “ Monadnock Mountain.’’ There are
also several wood engravings of other scenery and of appearances
presented by the strata in many places. ‘The lithographic views
are from sketches made by Mr. J. D. Whitney, Jr., and were drawn
on stone by Mr. Charles Cook of Boston.

A considerable portion of the work is devoted to ‘ economical
geology,” so called, and to “agricultural geology and chemistry.”
In these departments, perhaps it may be said without disparage-
ment to others, that among those of our countrymen who have
treated upon them, our author is of the highest authority. His
thorough knowledge of analytical chemistry, and his acquaint-
ance with the application of this knowledge to the arts, must
make his observations of great service to such of those interested
in the working of metals and other minerals, as also of those en-
gaged in agriculture, who choose to take advantage of them.

Economical Geology.

Under this heading a description is given of the various min-
eral substances found in New Hampshire, that are or may be ser-
viceable in the arts. - We state them as follows :—

_ Granite, Syenite, Gneiss, Mica Slate, Talcose rock or Soap
stone, Granular Quartz, Milk Quartz and Limestone, the uses
of which are well known,

_Novaculite, of which oil stones and hones are made,
» Mica, used for lanterns, windows, &c.

Infusorial silica, serviceable as polishing powder, &c.

Moulding sand, for moulding purposes and making Bristol brick,

Clay, used for brick-making and pottery.

Calcareous Marl, for agricultural purposes.

Black Lead or Graphite, for pencils and founder’s pots.

Of precious stones, such as are used in jewelry, there are
found—

36 Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report

Beryls, Iolite, Garnets, Amethysis, Quartz crystals, (some of
which latter contain acicular crystals of the red oxide of Tita-
nium.)

Of those serviceable in making paints may be mentioned—

Red, Yellow and Brown Ochres, Manganese, Molybdena
Ochre, Yellow Blende.

Of metals, we have an account of seventeen, without including
the bases of earthy and saline minerals. ‘They are: Jron found
in great abundance, Zinc, of which some mines can be wrought,
‘Copper in considerable quantities, Lead, Tin, Antimony, Silver
in the antimony and lead ores, Gold in minute quantities, Mo-
lydenum, Manganese, Chrome, Titanium, Cadmium, Cobalt,
Arsenic, Tungsten and Uranium. Of all these ution sub-
stances full accounts are given of their localities, means of obtain-
ing, and uses to which they can be applied.

Respecting limestone and its conversion into lime we have a
detailed statement, which embraces an account of some of the
most important beds, the manner and cost of working, description
of kiln used, &c. &c. We have, too, the full analyses of ten
varieties of the stone.

Meiallurgy.—The pages on this branch of economical geology
we would particularly notice, as being in our estimation the most
important, in a practical point of view, that the report contains.
They are filled with the most valuable information upon almost
every point connected with the mining and working of the va-
rious metals that are made subservient to the use of man, aud
would be the means, could they be placed in the hands of those
most interested, of saving to them thousands upon thousands of
dollars yearly, that are sacrificed for the want of a little knowl-
edge of the chemical principles that have so great an ahem
in their operations.

We know something of the ignorance often displayed in the
working of the metals in this country, particularly in that of iron,
and we know too that unfortunate results frequently happen
therefrom, which a little knowledge of science might prevent.
In the present state of the art of reducing metal from the ore, in
some sections of the country, a single suggestion will sometimes
accomplish wonders. We have known instances where a few
words from one scientifically acquainted with the action of the
earths upon the ore in a furnace, have led to a greatly increased

on the Geology of New Hampshire. 37

yield, and this without additional expense. We therefore feel the
importance of diffusing just such information as this article on
Metallurgy gives. We have in it an account of the various ores in
the State, the methods of reducing them to a metallic state, their
analysis, their yield, the best fluxes for their reduction, the prob-
able cost in particular cases, together with full descriptions of the
best kinds of furnaces in use, and plates explanatory. We have
likewise the expenses of transportation from the ore beds to the
markets, and the value of the product in such markets. Impor-
tant information too is furnished in relation to the working of
mines abroad, and valuable hints thrown out upon the subject of
working some ores in this country that have hitherto been neg-
lected.

Agricultural Geology and Chemistry.

Our proposed limits will not permit of more than a very brief
notice of this portion of the work under consideration. It con-
tains an account of the origin and distribution of soils; of the
origin of organic matters in soils; of peat and swamp muck; of
the analysis of peat and the action of alkaline salts upon it; of
the origin of saline matters in soils and plants, and of the relative
proportion of starch, of oil and of gluten in grains. Remarks are
made on the improvement of soils, and the uses in agriculture of
salt, nitre, the phosphates and sulphates. Agricultural observations
upon some of the best farms in the State are added, and m
more matter in relation to the subject, which is well worth the
attentive perusal of those interest

In the appendix we have barometrical and thermometrical ob-
servations made in different parts of the State for the measure-
ment of heights; also barometrical registers, with other matter
more particularly interesting to the scientific, and annexed we
have some sectional profile views of the rocks from point to point,
with a geological map of the State.

In conclusion, we will express the hope that Dr. Jackson will
at some not very future period, present us with a connected ac-
count of his observations, not only upon the geology of the States
surveyed by him, but also upon that of the provinces north, as
we are sure he might do this to much advantage, with but lite
additional labor in the field.

38 Description of Artificial Mounds in Louisiana.

Arr. IV.—Description of some Artificial Mounds on Prairie
. Jefferson, Louisiana; in a letter to the Editors, dated Trinity;
La., January 19th, 1845, from Prof. C. G. Forsuery.

In a letter I addressed you some months since;* I made some
mention of many systems of large mounds found throughout
this region of country, promising from time to time to give such
descriptions as may prove interesting to the antiquarian, of an
of these unrecorded monuments of departed races. In executing
this promise, it will not be in my power to proceed with them
in the order of their importance, but in such order as they may
fall in my way, when I have leisure to make accurate surveys.
Such accounts only are to be relied upon. Many are found in
9 fastnesses of forests rarely penetrated by those who write of

things, and are vaguely described from hearsay, or seo
pai evidence.

Though we frequently find isolated mounds,} they are com-
monly found in groups, and occasionally constructed with such
reference to each other as to indicate design. Not that the spe-
cific object is ever very manifest; but that their conformation
indicates arrangement in a particular order. Probably no ques-
tion has more successfully baffled inquiry among antiquarians,
than the specific object of these extensive works, and I have no
solution to offer, deeming it, as Ido, much more important to
give a faithful detail of their present appearance.

In this immediate vicinity there are extensive works, which I
have frequently visited, but having made no accurate survey I
forbear giving them more than a passing notice, until I shall have
given them a careful survey, such as has enabled me to present
you with the map and detailed account of the mounds in Prairie
Jefferson. The Ouachita river and its western tributaries abound
in similar monuments, all of inferior magnitude, however, to

in een micinity. These have been described, yet mae

* AG of this letter may be seen in the close of this number.—Eds.
t The distinction of mounds into classes should not be forgotten. Thetensof .
thousands of small, aN allied tumuli noticed in my first letter, are colt
disposed with any refayenes to each other; whereas the angular, larger mounds,
evidently of more recent construction, are much rarer, and generally arranged in
oups, and sometimes with much system,

Description of Artificial Mounds in Louisiana. 39

fectly, by Sir William Dunbar, in a published account of his ex-
plorations of the Ouachita in 1804, under the instructions of Mr.
Jefferson, as also by myself in the Concordia Intelligencer of
June, 1842. Both are from observations without measurements.
The levelling hand of American industry is fast obliterating these
dumb, yet eloquent records of the past; and hence the necessity
of early attention and accurate description.

Prairie Jefferson is a tract of very fertile diluvial land, situated
in the southeast part of Moorhouse parish, Louisiana, near to the
Beeuff river, an eastern tributary of the Ouachita, some twenty
five miles northeast from Monroe. It lies within the grant of
land made by the Spanish government to the Baron de Bastrop;
the same to which Aaron Burr is supposed to have been making
his way, in his southern expedition. Near the southwestern ex-
tremity of the prairie, and partly in what is woodland at present,
we find the works delineated in the topographic sketch below.
It is probable that the whole area of the works was then prairie,
as there are no forests that bear the mark of great antiquity ; and
as the whole diluvial surface must have been, at no very remote
date, (geologically speaking, ) destitute of forests. There are no
streams of water nearer to this prairie than about five miles, and
hence the necessity, with a dense population, of resorting to the
making of artificial ponds. Accordingly the excavations, usually
made without apparent design in constructing the mounds, are .
at. this place so economized as to produce the ponds in the imme-
diate neighborhood. ‘Then the conformation of the surrounding
lands, which are very gently undulating, rendered it easy to con-
struct large ponds or lakes, to contain a perennial supply of water.
This has plainly been the object of the extensive leveés, or em-
bankments traced in the map. ‘The general inclination of the
land is southward, and the drains or wakes in the land, were
with some skill called into aid. Generally, however, we find
little to admire in the way of design or economy of labor.

The mound at A, termed “the Temple,” from the supposi-
tion that it was the place of worship and sacrificial fires, is about
fifty feet in height, with steep faces on every side, and accessible
only by the causeway, which is a winding road on the southeast
face, at “a.” Its base covers a square of about fifty yards, and
its summit, one of fifteen yards. All its angles are very much
rounded, still it has the four faces very plainly marked. Since

40 Description of Artificial Mounds in Louisiana.

sy .
a q jp ee
<a

i ;
a aa

DIMENSIONS OF THE MOUNDS,

penn Ae height
ds.

length wie a ht
iny yds. is yds. rig
8 vf

es 48 ity $7
15 “{No. 4, (summut,) in rear, 4
14 10 F yin rear.
4 base 34 ae see i front, 12 15 10

6. 6, 7
: No. 7, py é ‘
iv 12/No. 8. (summit,) . 40 40 4
Causeway. sal - 3850 Qto4 1to3
Ditch 6 350 =]to3 3

Causeway four feet high and forty feet Sia _p. Pon nds.—S,

C, C. 8. Natural
swale.—S’, 8’. Swale of ésiteee channel, embanked inside in low grounds.

Description of Artificial Mounds in Louisiana. 41

the clearing of the trees from it, several slides have marred its
symmetry. From the summit a good view may be had of all
the circumjacent works and country. The slides as well as ex-
cavations made in it, have developed its internal structure; viz.
a series of strata or tables at about three feet distance, one above
another, each surmounted by a pavement of rude bricks. No
bones have been found in it; but the examination is avoided,
from a desire to preserve the original symmetry of the Temple.
All these principal mounds are so well known to have been used
for places of burial by the builders,* that the fact ceases to be
curious. Much credit is due to Dr. Harrison and H. Duval, Esq.
for the care and taste they manifest in protecting and restoring
the forms of the mounds.

The five mounds which face the Temple from the eastward,
have great uniformity of figure and dimensions, being highest in
the rear, excepting No. 1 and No. 5, which are nearly level on
the top. Nos. 1, 2, 4and 5 have terraces in front, and all incline
gently to the plain, which has been somewhat excavated. In
the rear, however, and chiefly on the sides, they are very abrupt,
The pond in the rear is evidently artificial, and constructed by
removing the earth for building purposes. Around them are a
breastwork and ditch, (b, c,d), the latter produced by throwing
up the earth for the former, probably to serve as a leveé around
the pond to the high land at band d. See the table for the di-
mensions of the several mounds.

Those which we have numbered 7 and 8, have great similarity
in their magnitude, form and relative position to the Temple.
But lying as they do in the midst of a cultivated field, their def-
inite outlines are fast disappearing. No. 6, however, differs essen-
tially from all the other mounds of the system. It is perfectly
level on the surface, of gentle declivity and moderate height,
(about five feet,) and has been fitly chosen as the site for a dwell-
ing house and yard. The house fronts the area surrounded by
the mounds, and the tasteful proprietors are about to improve the
whole as ornamental grounds, with walks, shrubbery, flowers and
grass, and thus protect them from deterioration. |

* Peruvian, Natchez and Choctaw crania are usually found, and with them are
buried a variety of potter’s ware, curious pipes, and beautifully finished stone
hatchets, of various shapes and sizes ;

Vol. xxix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 6

42 Caricography.

The several ponds, it will be seen, have outlets for the water
at particular points, which probably were controlled as the mound
builders desired. The large embankment, (e,f,2), is abruptly
cut off at g, and continued again towards h, diminishing in mag-
nitude as the land grows higher, till it almost disappears at 7. The
swale continues up to very near the pond at J, but has no actual
connection with it. It does not appear that the lake in the
woods, within this leveé, has been produced by excavation. The
smaller ones adjacent, however, are manifestly produced by
throwing up the earth about them, as at e,f. The whole work,
although exhibiting very little ingenuity, bears evidence of the
vastness of the population, their industry, and not less certainly
their ignorance and folly ;

Art, V.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey.
(Appendix, continued from Vol. xxv, p. 144.)
No. 184. Carex Hoodii, Boott. Tab. Ee, fig. 106.

Spica composita; spiculis 6-10, distigmaticis dense aggregatis
ovatis superne staminiferis; fructibus ovatis lanceolatis plano-
convexis ore obliquo bidentatis apicem subserratis, squamam lato-
ovatam acutam subsequantibus,

Culm near two feet high, glabrous, acutely triquetrous, sca-
brous above, erect, leafy towards the base; leaves linear, narrow,
scabrous on the edge, sheathing and long as the culm, with short
leaves at the root; spikelets ovate, densely compacted into a head
of half an inch or more long, close-fruited, staminate above, with
a squarrose mucronate bract; stigmas two; fruit ovate, lanceo-
late, slightly serrate at the apex, bifid or two-toothed, with an
ovate and acute tawny scale about equalling the fruit; light

Teen.

- Found by Douglas and Sconler on Columbia River, and named
by Dr. F. Boott, secretary of the Linnzean Society, England, in
honor of one of the intrepid men engaged in the Arctic exploring
expeditions, and described in Hooker’s Fl. Bor. Am. Vol. IL

No. 185. ©. Lyoni, Boott. Tab. Ee, fig. 107.

Spica solitaria tristigmatica oblongo-lineari pauciflora superne
staminifera ; fructibus lanceolatis ore obliquis paucis sapnnes
squama ovato-oblonga subacuta paulo longioribus.

Culm 2-4 inches high, erect, slender, stiff and small, 3-sided,
cespitose, leafy; leaves flat, narrow, nerved or striate, subseta-
ceous, rising towards the root, scabrous, sheathing, and much
longer than the culm; spike single, short, linear, staminate
above ; stigmas three; fruit lanceolate, subscabrous; scale broad,
ovate-lanceolate, submembranaceous on the edge and rather longer
than the fruit; plant is light green, and has a stinted appearance.

Rocky Mountains, Drummond, and named and described by
Dr. Boott like the preceding.

No. 186. C. marcida, Boott. 'Tab. Ee, fig. 108.

Spica composita oblonga densa basi bracteata; spiculis ovatis
distigmalicis superne staminiferis stricte aggregatis; fructibus
late ovatis lanceolatis supra convexis ore diviso cilio-serratis,
squamam ovatam acutam subaquantibus.

Culm about two feet high, erect, stiff, triquetrous, rough on the
upper part and leafy below ; leaves lanceolate, flat, often involute
on the edges, nerved, shorter than the culm; spike oblong, com-
pounded of many small and ovate spikelets closely aggregated,
and chiefly staminate towards the summit; stigmas two; fruit
roundish-ovate, lanceolate, chiefly at the lower part of the spike-
lets; scale ovate acute, hyaline on the edges, about equal to the
fruit ; pale green.

Columbia River, Scouler, and named and described by Dr.
Boott in Hooker’s work with the two preceding.

No, 187. C. Torreyi, Tuckermani Enum. ‘ab. Ee, fig. 109.

Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera unica oblonga brevi-pedun=
culata; pistilliferis subbiuis ¢ristigmaticis brevi-oblongis sub-
sessilibus pedunculatis erectis; fructibus obovatis glabris sub-
triquetris ore integro subrostratis perobtusis densifloris nervosis,
squama acuta vix duplo longioribus.

Culm 12-18 inches high, erect, triquetrous, and with the sub-
radical leaves pubescent ; one oblong linear staminate spike with
an oblong submucronate scale; pistillate spikes 2-3, oblong,
nearly sessile, with leafy bracts; stigmas two; fruit oblong, ob-
ovate, tapering towards the base, dense; pistillate scale ovate,
acute or submucronate, about half as long as the fruit; plant
light green, and, the fruit excepted, pubescent.

Found near Carlton House, Richardson. Resembles C. palles-
cens, L. very much, but seems to be sufficiently removed from it,
Mr. Tuckerman refers its locality also to the state of New York.

44 Caricography.

No. 188. C. spherostachya, Dew
C. canescens, L. var. oe Puck. Enum.
Tab. Ee, fig. 1

Spiculis 3-5, ovatis subglobosis remotis sessilibus inferne sta-
miniferis paucifloris (2-6) bracteatis ; fructibus distigmaticis ova-
tis oblongis lanceolatis vel tereto-rostratis glabris, squamam ova-
tam hyalinam longioribus; culmis prostratis glabris.

Culm 1-2 feet high, slender, flaccid, subprostrate, leafy to-
wards the root; leaves narrow and long; spikelets ovate, round
or subglobose, remote, sessile, 2 to 6-flowered, staminate above,
bracteate; stigmas two; fruit ovate, oblong, lanceolate or taper-
ing-rostrate, longer than the white hyaline ovate scale; light
green. ;

Wet plains—common.

This plant agrees with C. gracilis, Schk., which he afterwards
united with C. loliacea, L. It is certain that the species here de-
scribed, as well as C. gracilis, Schk., is far removed from C. loli-
acea, L.. It is so different from C. canescens, that it deserves the
name above given, as Schkuhr cancelled the other.

No. 189. ©. Sullivantii, Boott. Tab. Ee, fig. 111.

Spicis distinctis; staminifera unica oblonga erecta pedunculata
fructiferam vix superante ; spicis pistilliferis ternis oblongis cylin-
draceis sublaxifloris bracteatis, inferiore longo-pedunculata et in-
ferne distanti-flora ; fructibus tristigmaticis ovatis acutis vel sub-
rostratis bidentatis subtriquetris, squamam ovatam oblongam
mucronatam subaquantibus.

Culm 16~—24 inches high, erect, rather slender, triquetrous, sca-
brous above ; leaves flat, linear-lanceolate, shorter than the culm,
and shorter towards the base; staminate spike single, erect, cylin-
dric, oblong, with oblong and obtuse scales; stigmas three}; pis-
tillate spikes three, oblong cylindric, not close-flowered, subdis-
tant, bracteate, upper one subsessile, the lower long pedunculate
and quite sparse-flowered below; fruit ovate, acute or subrostrate,
bifid, subtriquetrous, about equalling the ovate obtuse or oblong
obtuse and mucronate scale ; light green.

Ohio, Sullivant.

No. 190. C. chordorrhiza, L. Schk. Tab. G, and Ii, fig. 31.

Spiculis 3-5, androgynis distigmaticis superne staminiferis in
capitulo aggregatis ovatis sessilibus; fructibus ovatis acuminatis

Caricography. 45

subrostratis superhe convexis, squamam late-ovatam acutam
zequantibus; culmis basi vel radici ramosis.

Culm a foot high, with rather short leaves, branching or send-
ing up stems from the roots; spikelets 3-5, ovate, sessile, short,
closely aggregated, with stamens at the apex; stigmas two;
fruit ovate, acuminate, glabrous, convex above, equalling the
broad-ovate acute scale; pale green

Marshes, New York, Gray and Sarton ; Michigan, Cooley.

No. 191. C. Liddoni, Boott. Tab. Ff, fig. 112.

Spiculis 5-7, oblongo-ovatis arcte aggregatis ebracteatis inferne
staminiferis; fructibus distigmaticis ovatis lanceolatis acuminatis
ore obliquis glabris margine serrulatis, squama ovato-lanceolata
acuta margine hyalina vix longioribus.

Culm 16-30 inches high, striate, scabrous above, leafy towards
the base, and much longer than the flat linear lanceolate leaves,
rough on the edges; stigmas two; spikelets staminate below,
5-7, closely aggregated ; fruit ovate, Janceolate, acuminate, sca-
brous on the upper edges, scarcely longer than the ovate lanceo-
late scale, acute and hyaline on the border; scales and fruit rather
chesnut brown; yellowish green.

Columbia River, Scouler ; Michigan, Cooley. Named and de-
scribed like No. 186.

No. 192. C. rigida, Good. Schk. Tab. U, fig. 71.

Spicis distinctis; staminifera unica, raro binis, oblongo-cylin-
dracea, squama sblanan obtusa; pistilliferis binis vel ternis distig-
maticis oblongis cylindraceis densifloris crassis approximatis bre~
vibus latisque bracteatis, inferna brevi-pedunculata; fructibus
ovatis snbobtusis partim recurvis ore integris, squama oblon
obtusissima vix duplo Jongioribus; culmo brevi basin foliaceo.

Culm 3-8 inches high, erect, triquetrous, stiff, sometimes in-
curved, with short and stiff leaves at the base; stigmas two;
pistillate spikes 2-3, sessile, oblong, short and thick, often with
some staminate flowers at the apex, lowest subpedunculate with
a bract longer than the culm; fruit ovate, obtusish, sometimes
recurved, entire at the orien at first a little longer than the
scale, and in maturity nearly twice the length of the oblong and
very obtuse scale; glaucous green.

Ipswich, Essex Cos, — Oakes ; \ong confounded with C.
cespitosa, L. Pay

46 Caricography.

No. 193. C. Steudelii, Kth. Tiab. Ff, fig. 113.

-Spicis androgynis superne staminiferis paucifloris; fructibus
1-4 subglobosis vel ellipsoideis tristigmaticis teretibus unico ros-
tratis binervosis ore obliquis, cum squama ovata acuta et inferiore
foliacea margine scabra; culmis vel pedunculis subradicalibus
nunc brevibus nunc perlongis.

Culm or subradical peduncles an inch to 6 or 8 inches long, tri-
quetrous, scabrous on the edges, much shorter than the flat linear
and radical leaves; staminate flowers several, with short and
small ovate scale; stigmas three; fruit 1-4, globe-like or ellip-
soidal, glabrous, tapering at both ends, and with a rostrum articu-
lated to the body of the fruit; pistillate scales of very different
lengths, ovate and acute, or long lanceolate and foliaceous ; light

reen. Near maturity the articulated beak drops off, leaving the
fruit obovate and very obtuse. Differs from C. Willdenovit, Schk.
in its fruit; that being oblong, and this spheroidal.

Found in New York; Ohio, Suliivant; Kentucky, Short ;
also in Indiana.

No. 194. C. Backii, Boott. Tab. Ff, fig. 114.
eee androgynis superne staminiferis paucifloris; fructibus
, tristigmaticis ovatis globosis conico-rostratis ore integris gla-
bris binervosis maturo subpyriformibus ; squama inferiore longo-
foliacea lanceolata, superiore fructum subzequante et acuta.

Culm short, sometimes a few inches long, triquetrous, scabrous
on edges, much shorter than the flat and subradieal leaves; spikes
staminate above, with few and small staminate flowers; stigmas
three ; fruit ovate and globose, with a conic beak articulated to
the fruit, glabrous; pistillate scales of various length, the lower
leaf-like and lanceolate, upper shorter, and highest about equal to
the fruit and inclosing it; light green.

Arctic America, Drummond and Richardson. In the speci-
mens from the Cumberland House, the plant was little cespitose.
Named by Dr. Boott in honor of Capt. Back, so distinguished in
the Arctic expeditions, Differs from the last two in its fruit and
spike.

No. 195. C. Hoppneri, Boott. Tab. Ff, fig. 115.

Spicis distinctis ; spica staminifera unica oblonga lineari, squa-
mis oblongis obtusis instructa; pistilliferis binis distigmaticis
brevi-ovatis sessilibus subdensifloris erectis; fructibus ellipsoideis

Caricography. 47

subconvexis ore integris subapiculatis, squama ovata obtusissima
submucronata longioribus.

Culm 3-6 inches high, slender, obtuse-triquetrous, shorter than
the narrow and subinvolute leaves ; pistillate spikes two, short-
ovate and rather compact-fruited; stigmas two; fruit flat sphe-
roidal, obtuse, and often with a slightly protruded apex, and
longer than the ovate, and very obtuse scale; plant light green,
but the iron or dark colored spikes and scales give it a sombre
aspect.

Arctic America, Drummond. The specimens from Cumber-
land House have a stiff or rigid and stinted appearance. Named
and described by Dr. Boott with the preceding, as before noticed.

* No. 196. C. riparia, Gooden. Schk. Tab. Qq, and Rr, fig. 105.

Spicis staminiferis 2~4, oblong, cylindraceis nigricantibus,
squama lanceolata instructis; pistilliferis 2-4, tristigmaticis, cylin-
draceis oblongis brevi-pedunculatis densifloris, fructibus rotundo-
ovatis perbrevi rostro bifurcato contractis, squamam M Abaeties
datam vel lanceolatam subsequantibus.

Culm two feet high, large, and with long leaves and bracts ;
staminate spikes many, large, oblong, thick, dark colored, sessile,
with lanceolate scales; pistillate spikes 2-3, cylindric, long,
sometimes with long and subrecurved peduncles and lax-flow-
ered below, leafy-bracteate ; stigmas three; fruit broad-ovate,
oblong, contracted into a very short bifurcate beak, glabrous and
dark colored ; pistillate scale ovate cuspidate, scarcely equalling
the fruit, or lanceolate equalling it ; dar

Marshes ; New England, New York, and Michigan ; has been
confounded with C. lacustris, Willd., with which it is often
associated, from which it is easily dtitiggivishad by its fruit and
scales.

No. 197. C. monile, Tuck. Enum.
C. vesicaria, var. cylindracea, Dew.
Tab. Ff, fig. 116.

Spicis staminiferis 2—4, longis, gracilibus, cylindraceis, squama
longa lanceolata dotatis ; pistilliferis binis cylindraceis longis sub-
laxifloris brevi-pedunculatis ; fructibus ovatis longo-conicis sub-
triquetris inflatis rostro bifurcato glabris, squama oblongo-lan-
ceolata plus duplo longioribus ; culmo bipedali margine levi, folia
lineari-lanceolata superante.

48 Caricography.

Marshes—not common; fruit much longer than that of C. ve-
sicaria, and its scale shorter.

No. 198. ©. Tuckermani, Dew. Tab. Ff, fig. 117.

Spicis staminiferis binis vel ternis, cylindraceis sessilibus, infe-
riore brevi, squama oblonga subacuta instructis ; pistilliferis binis
vel ternis oblougis cylindraceis crassis pedunculatis subdensifloris ;
fructibus inflato-ovatis turgidis conico-rostratis bifurcatis glabris
nervosis, squama ovato-lanceolata sub-duplo longioribus ; culmo
bipedali glabro erecto ; bracteis foliisque planis longisque.

Wet meadows—common; confounded with C. budlata, Schk. ;
difference obvious ; and the fruit and spikes separate it far fiom
C. monile.

Var. cylindracea, Dew.
C. cylindrica, Schk.

Spicis et fructibus minoribus brevioribus; squamam ovatam

acutam fructibus duplo superantibus.

Notr.—The following species was described under the name
of C. aristaia, R. Br. As this name designates another plant, it
becomes necessary to give to this a different name, and the fol-
lowing is adopted.

__C. mirata, Dew. For description and aad refer to Vol.
xxv, p. 240, of this Journal; Tab. V, fig. 6 :

Along the shores of Lake Oelacic: Sartwell, “ih in the state
of Georgia, and in Arctic Araerica. —

Figures of the following species acconipast this paper.

No. 184. C. Hoodii, Boott, Tab. He, fig. 106.
No. 185. C. Lyoni, Boott, hol See: OTe
No. 186. C. marcida, Boott, fF 8 “« 108.
No. 187. C. Torreyi, Tuckerman, “ =“ * 109%
No. 188. C. spherostachya, Dew. “ . * “110.
No. 189. C. Sudlivantii, Boott, ee AR
No. 191. ©. Liddoni, Boott, Tab. Ff, « 112,
No. 193. C. Steudelii, Kunth, “ “ are ft 3
No. 194. ©. Backii, Boott, ee ae BS
No. 195. ©. Hoppneri, Boott, 06 82 ARP es BEG,
No. 197. ©. monile, Tuckerman, “ =“ 6:4 26;
No. 198. C. Tickervict, Dew: ©“ * 9117,

VOL. XLIF NL. PLATE 2%

tit JOUR. SCI. TULY, 145.

. a dl * ;
Comonile, ti ucker man:

| Hee di, r Beot,

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 49

Art. VI.—Origin of the constitwent and adventitious Minerals
of Trap and the allied Rocks; by James D. Dana.

(Read before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, May, 1845.)

In the remarks which I have the honor to submit to the Asso-
ciation at this time, it will be perceived that I pass over in part
the same ground, and appeal in some instances to similar facts
with those considered by Prof. Beck in his valuable memoir read
two years ago at Albany. Without making myself his opponent,
which position I would entirely disclaim, I have simply en-
deavored to hold up the subject in another point of view, hoping
that the truth, with whomsoever it be, will the sooner claim its
place among the facts of geological science. It will be remarked
also, that the views presented bear closely upon those proposed
by me at the session of this Association at Albany.

The minerals of trap and the allied rocks may be arranged in
two groups.

1. Those essential to the constitution of the rock, or inetktebely
disseminated through its texture.

2. Those which constitute nodules or occupy seams or cavities
in these rocks.

Of the first group, are the several feldspars, with augite, horn-
blende, epidote, chrysolite, leucite, specular, magnetic and titanic
iron; and occasionally Hauyne, sodalite, sphene, mica, quartz,
garnet and pyrites. Of the second group are quartz, either crys-
tallized or chalcedonic, the zeolites or hydrous silicates, Heuland-
ite, Laumonite, stilbite, epistilbite, natrolite, scolecite, re
Thomsonite, Phillipsite, Brewsterite, harmotome, analeim
bazite, dysclasite, pectolite, apophyllite, Prehnite, datholite, to-
‘gether with spathic iron, cale spar and chlorite. Native copper
and native silver might be added to both groups, yet they belong
more properly to the latter. ‘To the same also might be added
sulphur, and the various salts that are known to proceed from
decompositions about active volcanoes, including the crystalliza-
tions of alum, gypsum, strontian, &c.; but these more properly
form still a third group, and being well understood, will not come
under consideration in the remarks which follow.

We observe with regard to the minerals of the first group, that
they are all anhydrous—that is, _— no water. In this re-

Vol. xxix, No. 1—April-June, 1845.

50 Onthe Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

spect, the essential constituents of trap and basalt are like those
of granite and syenite. But in the second group, consisting of
thie. minerals occurring in cavities or seams, all contain water
except pectolite, quartz, calc spar and spathic iron ; and the last
three are known to be always deposited in an guhydroys state
from aqueous solutions.

We proceed to give a few brief hints with regard to the first
group, intending only to glance at this branch of the subject, and
then take up more at length the group of adventitious minerals.

Essential constituents of modern Plutonic rocks.—lIt is ob-
vious that modern igneous rocks, although in some cases derived
from the original material of the globe, have proceeded to a great
extent from a simple fusion of rocks previously existing, and
especially of the older igneous rocks. In accordance with this
view, we may with reason infer that the trachytes and porphy-
ries, which consist essentially of feldspar, have proceeded in
many instances at least, from feldspathic granites; the basalts
and trap from syenites, hornblende or augitic rocks.

A theory proposed by Von Buch supposes that the feldspathic
rocks, as they are of less specific gravity, are from the earliest
eruptions, or the more superficial fusings, while the heavier ba-

lt has come from greater depths. Darwin thus accounts for
the granites of the surface being intersected by basaltic dykes ;
the latter having originated from a deeper source, where their
constituents took their place at some former period from their
superior gravity. It virtually places hornblende rocks below
feldspathic granites in the interior structure of our globe. The
hypothesis is ingenious and demands consideration ; but it may
not be time to give it our full confidence.

But supposing these more modern rocks to have been derived
from the more ancient granitic—what has become of the quartz
and mica which occur so abundantly in the latter, while they
are so uncommon in the former? By what changes have they
disappeared ?

In the fusion produced by internal fires, the elements are free
to move and enter into any combinations that may be favored
by their affinities. If silica, alumina, magnesia, lime, iron, the
alkalies, potash and soda, were fused together—and these are the
actual constituents of basalt—what result might we expect?
From known facts, we should conclude that. the silica would

‘On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 51

combine with the different bases, and these simple silicates
would unite into more complex compounds. The silicates of
alumina and the alkalies or lime, form thus one set of compounds,
the feldspars; the silicates of magnesia and the isomorphous
bases, iron and lime, another set, to which belong augite, horn-
blende and chrysolite; and if much iron is present, we might
have with the lime and alumina, the mineral epidote. The ex-
periments of Berthier, Mitscherlich, and Rose, and the facts ob-
served among furnace slags, confirm what is here stated.

But not to go back to a resolution of the fused minerals into
their elements, we may consider for a moment what changes
the minerals themselves might more directly undergo in the pro-
cess of fusion.

Much of the mica in granite, differs from febdgpnd in contain-
ing half the amount of silica in proportion to the bases—the
bases in each being alumina and potash or soda. The change
then in the conversion of the mica into feldspar, would require
an addition of silica, which might be derived from the free quartz
of granite. Other varieties of mica contain magnesia, which
would go towards the formation of some mineral of the mag-
nesian series. It is possible that trachytes and porphyry have
thus been made from granite; but trap rocks could not have
been so derived, as they contain from 10 to 25 per cent. less of
silica.

Again, hornblende and augite are so nearly related, that
they have been considered by Rose the same mineral, the differ-
ent circumstances attending the cooling giving rise to the few
peculiarities presented. ‘There can be no difficulty therefore in
deriving augite by fusion from hornblende rocks. This moreover
has been actually confirmed by experiment.

Augite by giving up half of its silica, and receiving additional
magnesia in place of its lime, is reduced to chrysolite.* The
Gehlenite, nepheline, anorthite and meionite of Vesuvius, contain
like scapolite, only 40 to 45 per cent. of silica and a large pro-
portion of lime, and it is no improbable supposition, judging from
the small amount of silica, and from the lime present, that scapo-
lite rock, or rather Jimestones containing scapolite, may have con-
tributed in part towards the men of that region. The ejections

“ The Pst of augite is R3 Si2; that of chrysolite, R8 Si.

52 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

of unaltered granular limestones, and many mineral species per-
taining to such beds, strongly support this view ; and it is no
less sustained by the fact, that in the Vesuvian hesalte, Labra-.
dorite, which includes lime instead of the alkalies, replaces com-
mon feldspar. The original feldspar seems to have given way
to leucite and Labradorite.

An important source of new combinations is found in the sea-
water which gains access to the fires of voleanoes. ‘The decom-
position which takes place eliminates muriatic acid, so often de-
tected among volcanic vapors ; but the soda and other fixed con-
stituents remain, to enter into combination with some of the
ingredients in fusion. Is not this one source of the soda forming
the soda feldspar, or albite, and of the muriatic acid and soda in
sodalite? Phosphates have been long known to occur occasionally
in voleanic rocks, and lately phosphoric acid has been proved to
be generally common in small quantities. Sea-water is also a
very probable source of this ingredient, as has been shown by ©
late analyses of the same by Dr. Jackson.

These few hints are barely sufficient to indicate something of
the interest that attaches to this field of investigation, which the
future developments of science will probably open fully to view.
We do not attempt to explain why in these modern fusings, mica
‘should not have remained mica, and the quartz still free uncom-
bined quartz. The facts prove some peculiarity of condition at-
tending the formation of the granitic rocks. Of this condition
we know nothing certain, and can only suggest the common
supposition of a higher heat and slower, cooling, attending a
greater pressure and different electrical conditions, and the same
circumstances may have existed during the granites of different

ages

With these brief suggestions, I pass to the second division of
' the subject before us.

_ 2. Minerals occupying cavities and } laloidal t
or basalt.—These minerals have been attributed 1 to a variety of
sources, and even at the present time there are various opinions re-

* Using R for the bases and Si for silica, the formula of leucite is R sid; that of
common feldspar, R Si2 ; that of Labradorite, R Si. From this, it appears that
feldspar may be reduced to leucite by giving up one third of its silica, the bases
being the same in the two; and with this excess and other silica combining with
the lime at hand, Labendosite might be formed.

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 53

specting their origin. According to some writers, they result from
the process of segregation ;—that is, a separation of part of the
material of the containing rock during its cooling by the segre-
gating powers of crystallization; and in illustration of the pro-
cess we are pointed to the many segregations of feldspar, quartz,
and mica, in granite and other rocks, the siliceous nodules in
many sandstones, the pearlstones in trachytes and obsidian. Others
have thonght them foreign pebbles, enclosed at the time the rock
was formed. Again, they are described as proceeding from the
vapors which permeated the rock while still liquid, and which
condensed as the rock cooled, in cavities produced by the vapors.
By a few it is urged, admitting that the cavities are inflations by
vapors like those of common lava, that they may have been filled
either at the time the rock cooled or at some subsequent time,
either by crystallization from vapors, or from infiltrating fluids,
but more generally the latter.

Of these views we believe the last to accord best with the
facts. Macculloch in his system of Geology—a work which anti-
cipated many of the geological principles that have since become
popular—dwells at length on this subject, and supports the opin-
ion here adopted with various facts and arguments. Lyell also
admits the same principles. A review of the facts will enable
us to judge of its correctness.

1. In the first place, the cavities occupied by the nodules are
‘in every respect similar to the common inflations or air bubbles
in lava. These cavities are open and unoccupied in common
lava, and may be no less frequently so in the ejections under water ;
and should they not be expected to fill in some instances by in-
filtration? They are the very places where an infiltrating fluid
would deposit its sediment, or collect and crystallize if capable
of crystallization; and such infiltrating fluids are known to per-
meate all rocks, even the most solid, and especially if beneath a
body of water. It is evident, therefore, that we are supporting
no strange or improbable hypothesis. On some volcanic shores
one-variety of the process may be seen in action. The cavities
of a lava may be detected in the process of being filled with lime
from the sea-water washing over dead shells or coral sand, and at
times a perfect amygdaloid is formed. But the positions and
characters of the minerals themselves establish clearly the view
we support.

54 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

2. The mineral in these cavities sometimes only fills their lower
half, as if deposited from a solution; and again, it incrusts the
upper half or roof, as if solidified on infiltrating through. In the
large geodes of chalcedony, stalactites depend from above like
those of lime from the roof of caverns, and, as Macculloch states,
the stalactite is often found to correspond to an inferior stalagmite,
the fluid silica having dripped to the bottom and there become
solid ; moreover the superior pendent stalactite is sometimes found
united with the stalagmite below. 'The same results are here
observed as with lime stalactites in caverns, and often a similar
laminated or banded structure, the result of deposition in succes-
sive layers. Such results can proceed only from a slow and
quiet process,—a gradual infiltration of a solution from above into
aready formed cavity; they cannot be supposed to arise from
ascending vapors, or gaseous emanations from below, no more
than the stalactite in the limestone cavern.

Another fact is often observed. A geode of quartz crystals,
sometimes amethystine,—in which every crystal is neatly and
regularly formed, is found with the surface coated over with an
incrustation of chalcedony, the part above hanging in small sta-
lactites ; and this chalcedonic coat sometimes scarcely adheres to
the crystals it covers,—or is even loose and may be easily sepa-
rated. There can scarcely be a doubt of a subsequent infiltration
in'a case of this nature. *

We might rest our argument here, since the fact being ascer-
tained with regard to quartz, it is necessarily established as a
general principle with reference to the zeolites and other amyg-
daloidal minerals: for quartz or chalcedony, when present in these
cavities, is, with rare exceptions, the dower or outer mineral. We
find zeolites implanted on quartz, but very seldom quartz on zeo-
lites. I have met with no instance of the latter, while the former
is the usual mode of occurrence. Any deduction, therefore, re-
apecting quartz, holds equally for the associated minerals.

low a cavity coated with a deposit of chalcedony can still be
afterwards filled up with other minerals, has been deemed a mys-
tery in science, but the possibility of itis now not doubted. Even
flint and agate, as Macculloch states, are known to give passage
to oil and sulphuric acid; and much more will this take place in
the moist rocks before the agate has been hardened by exposure
to the air. Silica remains in a gelatinous state for a long period

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 55

after deposition, and in this condition is readily permeable by
solutions. It is not necessary that the fluid which has acted the
part of a solvent and filled the cavity, should yield place to an-
other portion of fluid; for the process of crystallization having
commenced, a new portion of the material is constantly drawn in
to the same fluid, and the necessary chemical changes are also
promoted by the inductive influence of the changes in progress
—the catalytic action as it is called—one of the most efficient,
and at the same time one of the most universal agencies in nature,

Other evidence with reference to amygdaloidal minerals is pre-
sented by the zeolites themselves.

3. The zeolites occupy veins or seams as well as cavities. Often
the seams were opened by the contraction of the cooling rock, and
at other times they were of more recent origin. In either case the
minerals filling these seams must be subsequent in formation to
the origin of the rock itself, and could not have proceeded from
vapors attending the eruption. These seams sometimes open up-
ward and can be seen to have no connection with the parts below,
the rock in this portion being solid. Origin from above or from
either side, is the only supposition in such cases.

Messrs. Jackson and Alger, in their valuable memoir on the
geology of Nova Scotia, mention the occurrence of crystals of
analcime attached to the extremity of a filament of copper, the
copper having been the nucleus about which the solution crystal-
lized, and state that their formation must have been subsequent
to the formation of the rock.

4. Zeolites, moreover, have been found forming stalactites in
basaltic caverns, as was observed by the writer in some of the
cific islands; and Dr. Thomson has described and analyzed one
(Antrimolite) from Antrim in Ireland near the Giant’s Causeway.

These facts favor throughout the view we urge, that the amyg-
daloidal minerals have in general resulted from infiltration, and
were not necessarily formed simultaneously with the erupted rock.

5. We remark farther, that no lavas have ever been shown to
contain at the time of ejection, any of the zeolitic minerals.
‘The zeolites of Vesuvius are known to occur only in the older
lavas, and afford no evidence against our position. The cavities
in lavas, as far as observed, are empty as they come from the vol-
canic fires, with the exception of those containing sparingly some
metallic ores which are condensed within them. Considering

56 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

the fusibility of the zeolites and their easy destruction by heat and
by volcanic gases, sulphureous and muriatic, we should a@ priort
say that they could not be formed under such circumstances.

6. Besides, as we have stated, none of the proper constituents of
trap or basalt—or the minerals disseminated through these rocks,
—contain water. They are all anhydrous. The minerals form-
ed accidentally in furnaces are anhydrous. The constituents of
granite, syenite and porphyry are all anhydrous. It is only those
minerals which are found in geodes or seams that contain water.
Of equal importance is the fact, that none of the essential con-
stituents of these rocks have ever been found in these geodes or
cavities along with the zeolites, as might have been the case had
they been formed together, by segregation or otherwise. Neither
feldspar, although so abundant, nor augite, nor chrysolite, have
been found filling, like zeolites, or with them, the cavities of
amygdaloid. There is then a wide distinction between the an-
hydrous constituents of these rocks, and the hydrous zeolitic
minerals.

A few zeolites have been found in granite or gneiss, but they
are so disseminated that they can be shown to be of more modern
origin than the rock, and to have resulted from some decomposi-
tions of true granitic minerals. They differ entirely in their
mode of distribution from the feldspar, garnet, &c. of granite.
Along with a decomposing feldspar, it is not unusual to find
stilbite in the cavities formed by the decomposition.

Zeolites also have been found disseminated through the tex-
ture of basalt, clinkstone, &c., like the feldspar, augite, &c. But
the proportion varies widely, and in some parts of the same bed
they are found to be wanting; so that we have sufficient reason
for classing these disseminated zeolites with those in the cavities,
as formed or introduced by infiltration.

7. Bearing upon this subject, it should be observed, that the
constituents of amygdaloidal minerals are, in general, those of
the containing rock. Silica, potash, soda, alumina, are found in
the feldspars; lime, magnesia and iron in augite or hornblende;
iron and magnesia in chrysolite. These are all the constituents
needed, except a little baryta for one species. The feldspar decom-
poses readily and gives up its ingredients, its potash or soda, silica
and alumina; the same is true of augite and chrysolite, which af-
ford magnesia, lime, silica and iron. With water to infiltrate, we

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 57

should therefore have all the necessary ingredients at hand for the
required compounds. The fact already stated, that zeolites have
been found as stalactites in caverns, seems to prove that they do
actually result from decompositions and recompositions, such as
have been supposed. Thus we have all the conditions at hand
necessary for producing, by infiltration, the zeolites and the chlo-
rite nodules of these rocks; the alumina, alkalies and lime, con-
tribute, along with a portion of the silica, to the zeolites, and the
magnesia, iron, and another portion of the silica, to the chlorite,*
often as abundant as the former. The amygdaloidal nodules
frequently have a green coating, which farther indicates the pro-
bable truth of these views ; for it appears evidently to be a precip-
itate from the solution before a crystallization of the zeolites took
place—a settling, perhaps, of the insoluble impurities taken up
by the filtrating fluid in its passage through the rock, or of the
formed chlorite, less soluble than the zeolites. Occasionally, |
when the rock contains copper, these nodules have an earthy
coating of green carbonate of copper—the carbonate having pro-
ceeded, apparently, from the native copper of the rock, by the
same process as explained.

The hypothesis of filtration seems, then, to be at least the prin-
cipal source of these minerals. In some instances the filtrating
fluid may have derived its ingredients from distant sources. The
salts of sea-water may act an important part in these changes.
Silica is dissolved on a grand scale during submarine eruptions,
as we have elsewhere urged, and is thence distributed to the
rocks around. Lime, also, is taken up in a similar manner. But
the rock itself has often afforded the ingredients for the forming
minerals, during the passage of the filtrating fluid through it.
By the same means, the adjoining walls of a seam or dyke—
which receive the drainings from the rock of the dyke—are often
penetrated by zeolitic minerals.

It may be thought that I am giving eine influence to a favor-
ite theory, and in the minds of some, these conclusions may be
set down among mere speculations in science. But the circum-
stances attending submarine igneous action, I am _ persuaded,
is not generally apprehended. What is the condition of the deep

* Chlorite consists of the same elements as augite or hornblende, except that the
lime is excluded and water added. They are silica, alumina, magnesia, oxyd of
iron, with 12 per cent. of water. .

Vol. xuix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 8

58 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

bed of an ocean? Even at a depth of three miles, the waters
press upon the bottom with a force equivalent to a million of
pounds to the square foot ; and with such a forcing power above,
can we set limits to the depth to which these sea waters—mag-
nesia and soda solutions—will penetrate? Will not every cav-
ern, every pore, far down, be filled under such an enormous
pressure? Let a fissure open by an earthquake effort, and can
we conceive of the tremendous violence with which the ocean
will rush into the opened fissure? Let lava ascend, can we have
an adequate idea of the effect of this conflict of fire and water?
The rock rises, blown up with cavities like amygdaloid, and
will a long interval elapse before every air cell will be occupied
from the incumbent water? Suppose an Hawaii to be situated
beneath the waves, pouring forth its torrents of liquid rock ;—this
island contains about five thousand square miles, which is less
than the probable extent of many a region of submarine eruption ;
—suppose, I say, the fires were opened and active over an area of
some thousands of square miles—are there no effects to be dis-
covered of this action? There is no geologist that pretends to
deny the premises—the fact of such submarine eruptions, the
ocean’s pressure, the effect of fire in heating water, and in giving
it increased solvent power; and why should they not reason upon
the admitted facts, and study out the necessary consequences ?
Surely, if there have been effects, we might expect to see some
of them manifested in the cavities of the ejected rocks, which
were opened at the time to receive the waters and any depositions
they might be fitted under the circumstances to make.

We are led by these considerations to another point in connec-
tion with this subject: the probable condition under which the
different amygdaloidal minerals have been formed. . Have they
all proceeded from heated solutions, or all from cold solutions ?
or can we distinguish some which are indubitably of one or the
other mode of formation?

_ Bearing on these questions, we notice such facts as are afforded
by the condition and relative positions of the minerals in geodes.
And | would here acknowledge my obligations to the valuable
memoir, before alluded to, by Messrs. Jackson and Alger. The
paucity of information on this subject, to be found in the various
accounts of similar rocks by other writers, is surprising. Even
where special pains have been taken to describe the mineral spe-
cies, the relative positions of the minerals is very.seldom, noted.

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 59

It has been altogether too common among geologists to treat min-
eral information with a degree of neglect almost amounting to
contempt, although, as facts will probably hereafter show, they
lie at the basis of an important branch of geological science.

But to proceed with the subject before us. We find that

Quartz or chalcedony, and datholite, very seldom overlie other
mineral species in geodes or amygdaloidal cavities, while the lat-
ter often overlie them.

Prehnite is usually lowermost with reference to all the species
except the two just mentioned. Occasionally it is found upon
analcime, as at the Kilpatrick hills

Analcime is commonly situated below all, except quartz, datho-
lite and Prehnite.

Of the remaining species, chabazite, stilbite, harmotome, Heu-
landite, scolecite, mesole, Laumonite and apophyllite, it is more
difficult to distinguish an order of arrangement. My investiga-
tions only enable me to state that chabazite is usually covered by
the rest, (when associated with them,) yet it is sometimes super-
imposed on stilbite; and apophyllite is almost uniformly above all
with which it may be associated ; calc spar is at different times
above and below. We thus arrive at the following as the wena
order of superposition.

1, Quartz

2. Datholite.

5. Chabazite, harmotome.

6. Stilbite, SS seolecite; ~~ mesole, —
nite, apophyllit

t isa et seit: that the species which covers ‘the

bottom of a cavity was first deposited, and, as a general rule, that
the others above were formed, either simultaneously, or in succes-
sion upon the lowermost, as their order may indicate. Each is
usually perfect in its most delicate crystallizations, so that we can
not suppose that the minerals first deposited often underwent
change after their deposition, though instances of this may no
doubt be detected.

It is also evident that if there were any species formed previous
to the complete cooling of the rock, or if any require for their for-

* The writer has observed stilbite, elgg cale spar and Prehnite overlying
datholite, and various species over Prehn

60 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

mation an elevated temperature, they are those first deposited—
the first in the above series. A few considerations will place this
if possible in a clearer light.

Quartz, as we have stated in a preceding page, and fully re-
marked upon elsewhere, enters largely into solution during sub-
marine eruptions. This solution has been shown, by actual ex-
periment, to be a necessary consequence of such action. ‘This
fact corresponds most completely with the above deductions,
Quartz usually forms the first lining of the geode or amygdaloidal
cavity, when it is found at all, and, moreover, it is the most
abundant of all amygdaloidal minerals.

Quartz may also proceed from decompositions of the rock in
the cold, and incrustations of this kind are known to occur; but
such an explanation does not account for its generally preceding
all other species in filling cavities and seams in trap rocks, and is
insufficient to produce the large deposits of silica, sometimes
amounting to many tons in a single geode.

It should not be understood that the quartz is supposed to be
derived always from the same heated waters that attended the
formation of the containing rock ; for later eruptions in the same
region might, at a subsequent period, produce a like result: yet,
as its place in the series proves it to be the earliest in formation, it
has probably been generally deposited from the water heated du-
ring the eruption of the rock. Leaving quartz, we pass to the
other minerals.

It is a striking fact that the minerals next to quartz in the ta-
ble given—datholite, Prehnite and analcime—contain less water
than either of the following species. While the others include
from 10 to 20 per cent., the first, datholite, has but 5 per cent.,
Prehnite about 44 per cent., and analcime 8 per cent.* This
fact certainly leans towards the view of their having origi-

* The following table shows the percentage of mais and gives at the same
time a general view of the composition of ae olites
pom boracic acid, lime.—Datholite (6 A
umina, lime.—Prehnite (44 aay “Hevlandite (14 nie ) Scolecite (135
Aq. . Epistilbite “ Aq.) Stilbite (17 Aq.) ro aay (17
Silica, alumina, lime and potash or soda.—Mesole (12 i Thomsoniie as
Aq ) Phillipsite (17 Aq.) Chabazite (21 Aq.)
ica, alumina, and either soda, baryta or strontia.—Analcim (8 Aq.) Natrolite
(94 Aq.) Harmotome (15 Aq.) Brewsterite (13 Aq.)
Silica, lime and potash.—Apophyllite (16 Aq.)
Silica, lime.—Dysclasite (163 Aq.)

On the Minerals of Trap and tie allied Rocks. 61

nated at a somewhat more elevated temperature than the other
species—the same conclusion that is drawn from their lower po-
sition in geodes.

The fact, also, that Prehnite has been found forming pseudo-
morphs, bears the same way; for heat would be necessary, in all
probability, to aid in removing the original mineral. The vast
exteut of some Prehnite veins—occasionally, as Dr. Jackson has
observed, three or four feet wide—refers to an origin like that of
the quartz in similar rocks. Indeed, there seems little doubt that
Prehnite is often derived from that portion of the silica in solution
which entered into combinations at the time with the alumina
and lime which the siliceous waters contained ; and probably the
lime as well as silica was derived in part from an external source.
The pseudomorphs prove that Prehnite may have been the result
also of subsequent eruptions, at the same time that they show
the probable necessity of heat for its formation.

Datholite is a compound of silica, lime and boracic acid, with
about 5 per cent. of water. Besides the small percentage of wa-
ter, and its being, next to quartz, the lowermost mineral in geodes,
we find an additional fact, alone almost decisive with regard to its
origin, in its containing boracic acid. Boracic acid is often evolv-
ed about voleanoes or in volcanic regions. The hot lagoons of
Tuscany, and the volcano of Lipari are the most noted examples.

Although boracic acid has never been detected in sea water,
there can be little doubt of its occurring in it. 'The usual modes
of analysis by evaporation would dissipate it, and of course it could
not thus be detected except with special care and by operating
on a large quantity of water. Borate of soda (boracite) is
found only in beds of salt and gypsum,—both sea-water pro-
ducts. Moreover, borate of lime has been lately found on the
dry plains in the northern part of Chili, along with common salt,
iodic salts, gypsum and other marine salts, and all are so distri-
buted over the arid country, that the region has been lately de-
scribed as having been beyond doubt once the bed of the sea.
_ These facts render it altogether probable that sea water which
gains access to voleanic fires is the source of the boracic acid in
volcanic regions.*

* The only other ki , quite an improbable one
in the case before us. It is rons that tourmaline may have received its bora
acid from the sea during granitic eruptions, and the occurrence of this jones in
the vicinity of trap dykes is explained in the same manner

62 On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks.

If this be its origin, the necessity of heat and pressure must be
admitted, in order to produce the chemical combinations in datho-
lite. Its elements are not those of the feldspar or other trap
minerals, like the zeolites superimposed on it; but they have come
from an extraneous source, and none is more probable than the
sea waters, which were heated at the submarine eruption, and
permeated the bed of molten rock shortly after ejection. ‘Thus
placed in circumstances of pressure and confinement, along with
silica in solution, the volatile boracic acid might enter into the
combination presented in datholite.

An interesting fact bearing upon the history of datholite was
observed by Dr. Jackson at Keweena Point, Lake Superior. The
datholite is often formed there in veins with native copper, and
is associated in some places with a curious slag of boro-silicate of
iron and copper. Sometimes the crystals of datholite, as well as
the Prehnite and calc spar, contain scales or filaments of native
copper. These very important observations seem to establish the
same origin for the three minerals—for Dr. Jackson states that
they appear to be cotemporaneous—and if calc spar has been de-
posited from a solution, the same holds true of the others. ‘They
have all been formed subsequent to the copper filaments of the
‘cavities, for they were deposited around them; yet may have
been the next to form during the cooling of the rock. The boro-
silicate of iron and copper has resulted from the same causes.

Analcime approaches the zeolites in composition, but like
the Prehnite and datholite it contains less water, and is very dif-
ferent in its crystallization. We have less evidence as to the
heat necessary for its formation; yet it was probably formed at a
somewhat elevated temperature.

With regard to the other amygdaloidal minerals we are in still
greater doubt as to the necessity of heat. We cannot at present
fully appreciate the efficiency of chemical agents in a nascent
state acting slowly without heat through long periods. Many of
them may require heat, and some may be the last depositions from
the filtrating waters after they have nearly or quite attained their
reduced temperature. But the formation of zeolitic stalactites in
caverns favors the view that some at least may form at the ordi-
nary temperature by the slow decomposition of the containing
rock after it had emerged from the waves.* Kersten has lately

* Annales des Mines, ii, (4th Ser.) 465, 1842.

On the Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks. 63

described a modern stellated zeolite forming incrustations on the
pump-wells of the Himmelsfurth mine near Freyberg. It consisted
of silica, oxyds of iron and manganese and water. Further examin-
ation will probably bring more of these modern products to light.*

The formation of particular minerals in certain regions, depends
of conrse upon the supply of the necessary ingredients. Where
the supply of lime has been large, we should expect to find some of
the minerals, Prehnite, Heulandite, Lanmonite, stilbite, scolecite,
dysclasite, chabazite, for carbonate of lime decomposes the silicates
of potash or soda. Instances of this association of the lime zeolites
with a large supply of lime in the vicinity are common. When
there is little or no lime, or only the results proceeding from the
decomposing rock, the other zeolites are formed—the hydrous
silicates of alumina and potash or soda, occasionally with some
lime. But if a salt of baryta or strontia is present, the decom-
position of the silicates of the alkalies takes place as by the lime,
and the mineral harmotome or Brewsterite is produced.

In the above explanations we have scarcely appealed to one
source of amygdaloidal minerals admitted in the outset—their pro-
ceeding from vapors rising with the erupted rock ; for it seems to
be of but limited influence. Besides the arguments already
brought forward, we state that the vapors which rise at the mo-
ment of eruption are insufficient. They inflate the rock, or blow
up the cavities; but the little vapor required to open the cavities
most assuredly could not afford by condensation the mineral matter
necessary to fill them,—to produce stalactites, stalagmite and
successive layers of minerals. The vapors then, if the source,
must have continued to rise for some time afterward. But is it
possible that vapors should rise up through the solid rock? Sach
does not happen about recent volcanoes ; for fissures are first open-
ed and then the vapors escape. And could it happen with the
water above pressing down into the rock with the force of an
ocean even a mile deep

There may be instances of this mode of formation ; but that it
should be the usual mode is irreconcilable with the many facts sta-
ted. The form and condition of quartz or chalcedony in geodes,
as well as the vast amount of this mineral in some cases,—the rela-

* Carbonate of iron seems never to form from water at the surface, its solutions
sceeeas a hydrated peroxyd of iron instead of the carbonate: it may may beh
require a submerged condition of the rock, although not necessarily a raised t
perature.

64 Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior.

tive positions of the zeolites, and their occurrence as incrustations
on rocks, or as fillings of cavities or seams, and never in dissemi-
nated crystals through the texture of the rock,—the green coating
of the nodules, which is sometimes a carbonate of copper when
there is native copper in the rock to undergo alteration,—the cor-
respondence between the elements of the minerals and the com-
position of the including rock, and at the same time their con-
trast in being hydrous while the constituents of the latter are
anhydrous,—and the known formation of zeolites in caverns,—
these various facts appear to establish infiltration as the principal
means by which amygdaloidal minerals have been produced.

Ar. VII.—Considerations respecting the Copper Mines of Lake
Superior ; by D. Rueexes, 1st Lieut. 5th Regt. U. 8. Infantry.

Recent ty I had the honor to communicate some particulars in
relation to the copper mining region, as well as the discovery of
a vein of black oxide of copper, tinged with the carbonates, near
Copper Harbor. Now, I propose extending those views, accom-
panied. by observations touching collateral points, and deem it
proper to recapitulate some of the circumstances connected with
this discovery, as a basis for more extended observation.* It has
already been stated, that the troops, while engaged about the
middle of November last, in making some slight excavations,
connected with the establishment of this post, found some bowl-
ders of black oxide of copper of great density, richness and beau-
ty, inducing an examination of a circuit of some fifty or sixty
feet in diameter, from which some tons of bowlders, of uniform
composition, were taken. (See fig. 1.)

Description of Fig. 1—A. Copper Harbor.—B. Lake Fanny Hooe.—C. Lake
Martha Stevenson. _—D. Lake Clara Geisse —E. Fort Wilkins.—F. U.S. Mineral

ders of black oxide.—n. Trap dykes protruding.—n’, Mother trap range.—Scale
of diagram, nearly two inches to the mile.

* The present sommanicagon appears in a great measure to supersede the pre-

d Feb. 12, 1845. That paper, agreeably to the author’s wishes, has
been forwarded to eneihig destination. The historical fact, cited by him anterior
to 1821, may be found in Mr. Schoolcraft’s memoir in Vol. IIL of this Journal,
p- 202, with a pt of the large mass of native copper, now at Washington.—.

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66 Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mi

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Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. 67

The point ois distant about forty yards from g, and at o the vein
of black oxide rises within two feet of the surface, through well-
defined walls of conglomerate rock, near the crest of an elevation
of eight feet above the crop of the new red sandstone. The
latter rock dips some degrees towards the harbor, and rests upon,
at its outcrop, most probably, a trap dyke, running parallel with
the small lake. The metallic bowlders were found at m, in a
stratum of drift, consisting of coarse gravel intermixed with a va-
riety of pebbles and bowlders, presenting the characteristics of a
well-worn shingle beach. During the progress of discovery, the
first question was, whether these metallic bowlders were genuine
drift, in their present distinct masses, or an accidental deposit
from an iceberg,* subsequently broken into fragmgnts ; or, indeed,
of local and isolated formation. Their number, density, and uni-
form composition, together with evident marks of attrition and
abrasion in the characteristic stratum in which they were found,
left no doubt in my mind that they were genuine drift; and
accordingly, keeping in view their clustered position and density,
that they were, at a remote period, driven from a vein of identical
composition. This naturally led to the examination of a faint
undulation, near the crest of the elevation close at hand; which
proved to be a crevice in which the vein was subsequently found,
and in which a space of some twenty feet, filled with detritus
containing occasional bowlders of ore, confirmed my previous con-
victions, that it was from this crevice the whole mass of metallic
bowlders had once been driven.

Another enquiry necessarily follows, viz. to what agency must
the translation of these bowlders be attributed, and did the united
agency of present causes produce these results? It has been
already remarked, that the bowlders were found about ten feet
above the present surface waters of the lake, and that the vein
lies in the slight elevation some eight or ten feet above the bowl-
ders. It is to be observed, that the vein ranges, under a small
angle with a perpendicular, to the longitudinal axis of the lake
and the direction of the subterranean dyke; consequently, some
of the heaviest bowlders must have been transported fifty or sixty
feet, and almost all nearly that distance, over the crop of the new
red sandstone. These masses have a density approximating

* This, also, would be comprehended under the general scope of drift.—Eps.

68 Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior.

closely to that of cast iron. The conclusion is therefore evident,
that present causes* combined cannot, by any possibility, have
produced such aresult ; and that it is attributable to the agencies
. of the great diluvial or drift period, or those of subsequent action,
and which have long since reposed in equilibrium. If we sur-
vey the geological aspect of the surrounding district, the indica-
tions of causes sufficiently powerful meet us on every side.

species of well characterized trap-conglomerate extends west-
wardly along the southern coast to the head of Lake Superior,
also several miles inland, embracing an area, probably, unparal-
leled in the history of this formation. This stratum is composed
of pebbles and small bowlders of every variety and description,
cemented by calcareo-siliceous matter firmly solidified, disclosing
clearly defined traces of ancient igneousaction. On the elevated
range south of the small lake, where the mother trap appears,
the conglomerate has been ruptured along its longitudinal axis,
and pitched outwards, and even now displays the ragged faces of
Jarge masses once violently fractured. But in the vicinity of the
lower trap dykes, the disruption of the conglomerate has in a
great measure disappeared under the ancient abrasion of incumbent
waters, while the rock was still comparatively soft—from the
elements of which a partial re-arrangement resulted. Thus re-
markable inequalities in the thickness of this stratum have arisen.
The numerous trap dykes and traversing fissures, as well as the
peculiar tinge of the new red sandstone, disclose unerring indica-
tions of a remote period of volcanic or igneous action. There is,
also, in this vicinity, a remarkably well characterized stratum or
bed of black oxide of manganese. It crops out in the precipitous
bank of the creek leading from Lake Martha Stevenson to Lake
Fanny Hooe, at g. (See fig. 1.) An extent of some sixty feet
is developed, and is about two feet in thickness ; it is compact, in-
termixed with and disseminated through a pearly, semi-crystalline
calcareous spar. he stratum runs in a lateral direction, and the
crop ranges at.an angle of at least 45° with the horizon, parallel
with the course of the creek and perpendicularly to the axis of
the mother trap range, over which it doubtless lies. The unda-
lating appearance of the crop, the high angle under which it is

thor dot “ ”” those that are now operating,
under existing circumstances, i in 1 that region; he doubtless admits that the causes,
whatever they have been. ny are still’e existing, and elsewhere in action.—Eps.

Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior. 69

presented, together with the lateral direction or bearing westward,
and the associated semi-crystallized limerock, seem to prove incon-
testably that;this once constituted a bed or horizontal stratum at-
tributable to aqueous origin, subsequently solidified—perhaps pu-
rified—and elevated into its present position by volcanic or igne-
ous action.

It is also worthy of remark, that an extensive vein of calcareous
spar, of a well characterized crystalline structure, is situated at 2,
on the shore of Lake Superior, and is some eight feet in breadth ;
and east of this about two miles, a similar vein of four feet in
width is found. Now, if we assume that these veins, as well as
the great number of a similar character holding the same general
bearing, namely, S. 15° W., are attributable to igneous action,
under great pressure, analogous experiments prove that it is a ra-
tional deduction. (See Hitchcock’s Geology, p. 244.) The con-
clusion would therefore seem irresistible, that the Copper Harbor
vein of black oxide was formed either under the pressure of wa-
ter, or submerged during a long period after formation, when the
metallic bowlders in question were driven from their original po-
sition. In connection with this conclusion, I observe, that there
is evidence of gradual elevation at remote periods, without corres-
ponding subsequent depression. The south shore of Lake Fanny
Hooe appears to have been, upon its narrow margin, at one period,
a regular beach, judging from its inclination and the composition
of the detritus, which would have made the narrow isthmus
where the fort now stands a sunken reef, as well as the arms
of the present harbor, while the small lake must have been at one
period a safe and commodious harbor amid the dreary waste of
waters surrounding. In the present instance, the elements have
placed a record within our reach, by which we can determine
approximately that this region has found uninterrupted repose
during a long period past, and that the forces from which the
present aspect and order of things resulted, are now held in equi-
librium. We observe that a trap-dyke ranges and sinks in front
of the landing at this post. (See fig. 1.) m ¢, is about 200 yards
long, and a perpendicular from its centre strikes the shore at the
distance of 100 yards. Theeast bank of Fort Wilkins creek has
been swept away at least eighty yards inland from ¢, whilst the
western bank of the same composition still remains entire—pro-
tected by the dyke in front from the violence of the open road-

70 Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior.

stead waves. The superficial portion of the isthmus, close at
hand, is composed principally of the detritus of conglomerate,
and as we descend, this rock is disclosed in its characteristic solid-
ified form. The space thus presented near the landing sinks
from the beach outward to twenty-five feet water, and lies before
the eastern channel of the open roadstead—leaving the mind to
comprehend, involuntarily, that it has been gradually cleared of
an immense mass of conglomerate and its detritus by the abrading
waves. Nearly opposite the western roadstead channel, at ¢/, a
similar impression has been made upon the isthmus. The evi-
dence of cause and effect is here strikingly exemplified by the
result, and the conclusion is therefore rational, that a long period
of repose has elapsed since disturbing forces have left records of
their power. Nevertheless, I regard the Kewaiwenon peninsula
as the result of progressive elevating periods, and accordingly
that most if not all of the mineral veins throughout this region
have been formed by volcanic or igneous action, under the pres-
sure of incumbent waters. That the trap was first projected
through the conglomerate, and that then the mineral veins were
formed, there can be little doubt...

I have entered into these details because I regard this region as
presenting many striking peculiarities, a knowledge of which
will become of great importance as the mines are progressively
developed, and which will be found to extend, by practical analo-
gy, to the whole mining region of the northwest; and I know
of no method by which to arrive at important and practical gen-
eralizations in the geology of mining, except by a just apprecia-
tion of elementary indications and principles. I am not aware
that any more remarkable instance is found on record where me-
tallic bowlders, of great richness, density and beauty, have been |
traced, in a manner so satisfactory, to the parent vein.. The
question is thus presented, hypothetically, whether the true veins,
containing copper and its combinations, were formed by subter-
ranean igneous agency, under the pressure of incumbent water,
or subjected only to the pressure of the atmosphere ; and the same
views extend, by analogy, to the lead mines. The question is
very important as regards the origin of mines, and especially since
this rich vein appears to have been formed and preserved under
the pressure of a great body of water,—while disseminated me-
tallic copper, found in many veins, may possibly indicate that

Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior, 71

portions of the valuable combinations of this metal have been de-
stroyed and dispersed by subterranean heat in consequence of the
absence of pressure.

I will now endeavor to indicate, briefly, the vast region to which
this question has direct application. The general dissemination
of copper, and indications of its combinations, extending from
near Grand Island along the southern shore of Lake Superior
to its head, and several miles inland, as well as abundant indi-
cations on Isle Royale, near the N. W. coast, is now well estab-
lished. The native copper bowlder, so long known to have lain
in the Ontonagon, has been very justly regarded as an anomaly
in the mineral kingdom. There is also an inland trap range
running some two hundred and thirty miles south of the Kewai-
wenon bay, and extending inland past “ Lac Vieu Desert” towards
the sources of the Chippewa and Wisconsin rivers. Indications of
copper and its combinations are said to have been found through-
out the whole extent. The Indians describe a massive bowlder
of native copper, surrounded by calcareous spar bowlders, a little
to the west of “Lac Vieu Desert,” so vast that actual examination
alone would overcome incredulity. I have received authentic ac-
counts of small fragments of native copper found in sand-rock
by troops, in 1819, ’20, while quarrying near the junction of the
Mississippi and St. Peter’s rivers, for building Fort Snelling,’
and where the hand of man could never have placed them.
Recently ores of copper have been discovered, in the vicinity of
Prairie du Chien, estimated to yield twenty per centum. Some
eight or ten years since, a mine, bearing nearly N. and 8., con-
taining earthy oxides associated with the ferruginous wnlphiait
yielding about fifteen per cent., was opened near Mineral Point,
and since then other localities les been discovered in its vicinity.
_ A large portion of this region, especially that comprised within
the Mississippi valley, which has come under my personal obser-
vation, presents clear and abundant traces of submergence during
a remote period—this, indeed, independent of the incontestable
evidence indicated every where by organic remains; of these
waters, the Mississippi appears to have been the final outlet. A
similar subsidence, though less clearly indicated, probably took
place contemporaneously in the region of the great lakes, oa
the valley of the St. Lawrence.

Now it is to be observed, that galena is found geologically
associated with copper, in strata flanking the trap ranges, and at

72 Lieut. Ruggles on the Copper Mines of Lake Superior.

distances from their axes, subjecting them but partially to the in-
fluence of the great disturbing cause. It is also to be observed
that in the immense mining district embracing portions of Illi-
nois, Wisconsin and Iowa, galena is generally found in the older
secondary limerock, in fissures ranging north and south, east and

The former is usually crystallized in cubes, and the latter
frequently laminated. At Dubuque these fissures lead through
extensive caverns, in which immense masses of galena are found.
The geological position of this ore is precisely that which we
might reasonably anticipate, as resulting from the projection of
metallic lead, enveloped in a dense atmosphere of sulphur from
the fountain of igneous action, through fissures in the roc
strata, resulting from concurrent disturbing causes, under the
pressure of an immense mass of water—otherwise the sulphur
would have escaped by sublimation, and the lead sunk or entered
partially into other combinations. This opinion is in a measure
confirmed by the fact, that blende, sulphuret of zinc, is very gen-
erally associated with, and indeed usually overlying, galena in
the mining region ; which accords with reason, as indicated by
their relative specific gravity—being 4 to 7.5—taken in con-
nection with the sublimation of zinc unconfined after fusion.
Thus, experience seems to prove that atmospheric pressure is en-
‘tirely insufficient to produce condensation, and hold this metal in
combination. Galena is also found in beds of alluvium, where
it may have been projected in its nascent state, or subsided under
the abrasion of the subsequently receding waters, which destroyed
extensive portions of the metalliferous limestone stratum. Ex-
perience shows, moreover, that galena is very generally imbedded
in, or associated with, a species of plastic mineral clay, with indi-
cations of oxidation. The combinations of copper at Mineral
Point and Prairie du Chien, are probably accidental projections
from the seat of igneous action, and consequently of rare occur-
rence in that district, where the limerock is supposed to average
one thousand feet in thickness. This corresponds, I conceive,
with observations made in the copper-mining region, connected
with the disappearance of mineral veins in very thick, overlying
conglomerate.

In most cases, boring should precede mining, as this simple
and comparatively cheap operation will decide the —— of the.
existence of ores in 2 peng en

Fort Wilkins, February 26, 1845,

Prof.-Snell ona singular case of Parhelion, 6c. 78

Art. VIIL—Singular case of Parhelion, with a statement of the
Theory of ordinary Halos; by Prof. E. 8. Syewu, of Am-
herst College.

On the 23d of last March I witnessed an optical: phenomenon
in nature, which was to me entirely new. The sun had ascend-
ed eight or ten degrees from the horizon, and I was stepping from
my door, which opens to the east, when I was surprised to no-
tice a luminous curvilinear band, three or four feet wide, thickly
studded with shining points of every prismatic hue, stretching
over the dead grass of the wide street before me. Its form seemed
to be that of a parabola or hyperbola ; its nearest point, which was
the vertex of the curve, was not more than twelve or fifteen feet
distant, and its two branches extended several rods, one to the
right and the other to the left of the sun,—the axis being the in-
tersection of the ground plane with a vertical through the sun
and the eye. Though the band could be thus distinctly traced, '
yet the illumination was not continuous, as in the rainbow, but
pencils of intense light were seen to come from innumerable but
separate points ; and these exhibited, without much order of ar-
rangement, the countless shades of the prismatic spectrum. As
I moved, the luminous arch moved also in the same direction,
so as to retain its relations to my eye and the sun, while the in-
dividual points changed from hue to hue and were extinguished,
and others started into sight, to twinkle fora moment in their
turn, and then disappear.

My first thought was, that it was the lower limb of a rainbow,
such as I have often traced in dew-drops, as they rest on vege-
table leaves and are strung upon spider lines that are stretched
along the grass. Its form appeared the same as the rainbow
must assume when seen in such circumstances. But it was in
the wrong direction ; 1 stood facing the sun, and the colors plain-
ly came from points not more than thirty degrees from it. I per-
ceived in a moment, however, that there were no dew-drops, but
that the spires of dead grass were feathered over with frost crys-
tals of unusual size. The true nature of the phenomenon in-
stantly flashed upon my mind; and I was delighted to witness a
most interesting confirmation of the truth of the generally re-
ceived theory respecting the large solar and lunar halos. In the

Vol. xxix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 10

74 Prof. Snell on a singular case of Parhelion,

first place, though the colors were scattered promiscuously, yet
there was evidently a prevalence of the red on the most distant,
that is, the concave edge of the band. And in the next place, I
ascertained, by a rude measurement, that the distance of the curve
from the sun was about twenty twodegrees. These two particu-
lars characterize that species of halo, most frequently seen encir-
cling the sun and moon, respectively called the parhelion and
the paraselene.*

The only hypothesis offered for the explanation of the halo of
44 or 45 degrees in diameter, which is at all satisfactory, is that
of M. Mariotte and Dr. Young, who considered it the effect of
the transmission of light through snow crystals, whose refracting
angle is 60°. This is known to be one of the most frequent
angles in such crystals. The index of refraction for ice is about -

1.

w suppose a pencil of light to traverse a prism of ice, whose
refracting angle is 60°, in such direction as to cut perpendicularly
the bisecting line of the refracting angle ; this pencil will be found,
by asimple calculation, to deviate 21° 50’ from its original diree-
tion. If the prism be revolved either way from the position just
named, the angle of deviation will increase; yet so slowly at first,
that a change of 10° in the prism will not occasion a disturbance
of more than one fourth of a degree in the emergent ray. But i
the prism be revolved through large angles, the deviation increases
more rapidly ; and the greatest deviation occurs, when the prism
is revolved in one direction, till the angle of incidence equals 90°,
or in the opposite, till the angle of emergence is 90°. In either
case, the deviation I find to be 43° 27’; this is the maximum.

Let there be a stratum of these crystals floating in the air,
of such depth as to produce only haziness, through which, of
course, the sun can be plainly seen. The refracting edges must
be supposed to lie in all possible positions, We-are at present
concerned only with those whose edges are perpendicular both to
the line of vision and the solar ray, and whose refracting angles
are turned away from the axis, or line joining the eye and the sun.
And of all such, it is ae that no crystal, lying nearer the sun’s

* These terms are often used to designate those brig images of the sun or moon,
para t seen at the intersection or contact of two halos, also called mock-suns

and ut l oe good authority Be applying the words to the halos
themselves.

and the Theory of Halos. 75

direction than 21° 50’, can transmit a ray to the eye of the ob-
server; otherwise the deviation would be less than 21° 50’,
which, according to the above calculation, is the minimum. But
those crystals, which are about 22 or 23 degrees from the sun,
may, as already stated, be revolved on their own axes, so as to
change the angle of incidence 10 or 15 degrees, and yet send
their transmitted ray to the eye. Some of these positions are
represented at B, in the figure.

That I might render my own ideas of the case as definite as
possible, I constructed the following table, for every five degrees
of incidence.

Angle of incidence. Angle of emergence. Angle of deviation,
3° 27" 90° 43° 27’/—maximum.
15° T° 19 34° 19
20° 66° 40’ 26° 40’
rhB6? 59° 37’ 24° 37’
30° 53° 23°
35° apouy 22° 9
40° A1° 51’ 21° 61’
A0° 55’ 40° 55’ 21° 50’—minimum.
45° 36° 59°" 21° 59’
50° 32° 30’ 22° 30’
55° 28° 22/ 23° 22’
60° 24° 43’ 24° 43’
65° 21° 28’ 26° 28”
70° 18° 42/ 28° 42’
75° 16° 28’ 31° 28’
SOF 2 14° 48/ 34° 48’
Bs 13° 49 38° 49’
90° war 43° 27’—maximum.

This table shows that no crystal can transmit light, unless so
situated that the angles of incidence are between 13° 27’ and 90°,
on that side of the perpendicular most remote from the refracting
angle. This range equals 76° 33’. It shows, also, that if the
angles of incidence are between about 29° and 55°, (a range of
26°, or one third of the whole,) the emergent ray will vary but
about one degree and a half from the minimum deviation.
Hence, of all the light which can come from the sun by trans-
mission through crystals of 60°, one third is refracted by those

76 Prof. Snell on a singular case of Parhelion,

which lie within the narrow limits between 21° 50’ and 23° 22’.
Therefore, although the entire width of the halo is 21° 37%,
(=43° 27’—21° 50’,) only one or two degrees of the inner bor-
der will be noticeable. But the inner edge of what seems to be
the entire halo will be tolerably well defined, and the outer edge
will shade off gradually to the light of the sky. Every careful
observer must have noticed, that the area lying within the halo
is darker than that without. The reason is made obvious by
what has just been stated; the space which is regarded as out-
side, is in fact a part of the halo itself.

Every crystal decomposes as well as refracts the light, and no
one can send more than a single color to the eye. But other
crystals, closely contiguous, by slight differences of position,
may transmit other colors ; and the effect will, in general, be that
of white undecomposed light. On the inner edge, however, the
red may almost always be seen, uncombined with any other col-
or, because no other can deviate so little from the original direc-
tion,—red being the least refrangible, and the crystals being, by
supposition, at the minimum limit. Outside of the red, the other
colors are sometimes seen in the prismatic order, growing more
and more faint, from the mixture already spoken of. For in-
stance, suppose a crystal B, at such a distance from the axis, ES,
that when lying in the position for minimum deviation, it throws
the green ray to the eye; then other crystals in the same visual
direction, on which the light falls at angles of incidence a little
larger and a little smaller, will also refract the same color to the
eye, on account of the slight changes in deviation which occur
there ; but there are others, still farther revolved, which will bring
the less refrangible colors, yellow, orange and red. And thus the
green, though predominant, is rendered impure. The violet at
C is partially neutralized by all the other colors, and can rarely
be seen. Beyond the colored ring, whose width is represented
by ABF, the light, though just as much decomposed, is reduced
to whiteness again by the union of all the colors from crystals in
different positions. In the rainbow, the several colors are equally
pure and distinct. 'The reason of this difference is obvious. If the
distance of a rain-drop from the axis of the bow be given, the color
thrown to a certain point is given also, because a revolution of the
drop in its place does not change the relations of its surface to the
sun, or to the observer’s eye. Not so with a crystal; both dis-

and the Theory of Halos. 77

tance and position must be given, or the color transmitted to a
particular point is indeterminate. In the accompanying figure,
the eye is supposed to be at E; the sun in the direction of ES,
AS, &c. Arepresents acrystal at the inner edge. D and D’ show
the different positions at the outer edge. The other parts of the
figure will be understood from the preceding description.

Ss Ss is s

The halo of 91 degrees in diameter is much more rare than
the kind just described. It is believed to be formed in the
same manner by crystals of 90°; and this angle occurs in the
bib eae ose a of water with much less frequency than the angle

of 60°

Halos occur in summer as well as in winter; for vapor often
floats higher than the limit of perpetual Sdagelaiion,

The halo of 44° in diameter is a phenomenon of very fre-
quent occurrence. Ihave reason to believe that it might be seen,

78 Prof. Snéll on the Theory of Halos, §c.

more or less perfectly formed, on an average one day in a week
the year through. In the year 1839, in which 1 watched for this
phenomenon with more than usual diligence, I recorded forty nine
halos ; of which forty four were formed about the sun, and _five
about the moon. And I cannot question that several, during the
year, entirely escaped my notice.

I have mentioned my reasons for believing that the colored
band on the grass was nothing more or less than the lower limb
of the common parhelion; and its peculiarities are explained,
as soon as we attend to the circumstances of the case. ‘The va-
rious prismatic colors were seen, not in regular succession, nor
blended into white light, as in the halo of the sky, because the
number of crystals was not sufficient,—there being only a single
layer spread on the ground, instead of a stratum many feet or
rods in depth, and filled with myriads of floating crystals. A
gleam of yellow light, for instance, might come from a crystal in
any part of the band, (except near the concave edge,) while no
crystals were lying in exactly the same direction, and so turned
in position, as to throw the other colors of the spectrum, to ob-
literate or modify the yellow.

The hyperbolic form of the halo is too plain a matter to need
explanation. Yet it is not long since I saw an article in a scien-
tific periodical, (I cannot now tell when or where, ) in which the ©
writer seemed perplexed bya similar peculiarity of the bow form-
ed in the mists of Niagara. From each end of the usual arch, he
saw a band containing the same colors, extending horizontally in
a straight line toward himself; and this appearance, if I mistake
not, was regarded as something inexplicable. But had the mist
been near enough, he might have traced these apparently straight
lines to their place of meeting in a single curve, perhaps withina
few feet of his station, and then he would have seen the entire
bow. I once saw a bow formed in a dense morning fog, which
filled the Connecticut valley, and could follow the curve from the
fog into the dew on the grass; and the nearest point was not
more than four feet from the place where I stood; so that, witha
walking-staff, I could have extinguished the shot beautiful part
of the phenomenon. The higher and remoter part of the bow
was circular, the lower and nearer part was hyperbolical. It is
obvious, that in every such phenomenon, the light forms the sur-
face of a cone, whose vertex is at the eye; and if the bow is

Notice of a New Species of Batrachian Footmarks. 79

seen projected on a surface perpendicular to the axis, it appears
circular ; if on an oblique surface, it will assume the form of an
ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according to the degree of obliquity.

he form in the particular case I have described was that of a
hyperbola; because the axis ascended from the eye toward
the sun, while the surface on which the halo was projected
was horizontal, or slighly descending.

It surprises me much that I have never seen any thing of the
kind before ; and more still, that I have never seen it referred
to, as an argumdink in favor of the hypothesis which I have at-
tempted to state somewhat in detail in this paper. T’o my mind
it is a demonstration of its truth. My engagements at college
were such as to prevent my watching for the recurrence of the
phenomenon while cold weather continued, but Dr. Hitchcock,
whose attention was called to it on the 23d, saw it again a few
mornings after, formed in the same circumstances ; and I think
it might be often witnessed during the season of frost, as one
of the glories of a —_ morning.

Amherst, Mass., April, 1845

Arr. 1X.— Notice of a New Species of Batrachian Footmarks ;
by James Deane, M. D.

Wuiute recently engaged in searching the sandstone beds of
Connecticut River, for its peculiar fossils, my attention has been
frequently arrested by a pair of singular footsteps, which were ac-
companied by other impressions of obscure character. The pe-
dal impressions consist of five massive toes radiating from a tarsal
centre, like the spokes of a wheel, and a line intersecting them
from centre to centre, leaves three of the toes pointing forward
and outward, and two outward and backward, the whole com-
pleting a semicircle. (See the diagram, A. A.)

Regarding these anomalous imprints to be due to quadrupeds
specifically different from any thing hitherto observed, I sought
diligently for the corresponding set of members, but without suc-
cess. From the position of the feet, it was apparent that the pro-
gressive movement of the animal was by leaping, and this opin-
ion was corroborated by the many instances that came under my
observation, the position of the feet being in all cases identical.
The lobate forms of the joints, with the claws, were accurately

80 Notice of a New Species of Batrachian Footmarks.

impressed, and hence the inference, that if the other set of feet
touched the ground, their forms would necessarily have been re-
tained. But on the contrary, there is situated, invariably, be-
hind each footprint, a deep elliptiform impression, pointing for-
ward and somewhat outward, the pair being more widely sepa-
rated than the footprints. (See the diagram, B. B.)

From a patient investigation of these curious forms, aided at
length by an exquisite specimen, the inevitable conclusion is,
that the compound impressions were produced by the animal
when advancing by leaps, and that from its peculiar organization,
gue set of feet did not touch the earth.* It is difficult to explain

’* To render these views more intelligible, the accompanying diagram is given,

taken from a beautiful specimen in the possession of T. Leonarp, Esq., reduced

one half in linear measure.
The footprints. Each
foot is comprised of five toes,
the central one having four
re sone while each lat-
ral one from it, diminishes in
saaste by one, in their order.
The impress is exquisitely
fine. The spread of each foot,

impressions, five inches in
n, y one and one half
in breadth. The outline is
not only Tea but the
impression varies much in
depth. pel is a deep ae:
ity at a,
cial at b. “Thi is deep and. con-
cave atc. At d, d, d, it is
superficial, but the ould is
clear. The appearance of
this impression suggests the
probability that it was produ-
ced by the flexed limbs while
in a sitting posture, a, b,c, be-

} ?

d » the succeeding
one, ac upon and overlap-

ping it. The i impress ion io

the teehee is absolutely life-like. At e, on the opposite we pce it is ob-
literated by a splendid ornithichnite. The impressions in question iated
with several species of bird tracks and with rain-drops in wonderful sosnessiiatl

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 81

this phenomenon, although the presumption is, that the animal
was some Batrachian reptile. It is not improbable however, but
the entire aggregate of impressions were made by the posterior
feet and limbs, the fore feet not reaching the ground, after the
fashion of the kangaroo. ‘This method of locomotion would cer-
tainly be adapted to the turbulent era in which the animal lived,
But I will not indulge in speculations, contenting myself with
reciting facts, and leaving it to the learned reader to draw the in-
ference.

I have also drawn from this prolific rock, other marvellous
signs of once living creatures, to the interpretation of which, I
know of no analogies to apply. The study of the sandstone fos-
sils, grows intensely absorbing. It incessantly reveals to our ad-
miring eyes, new modifications of ancient life, which, although
they seem incomprehensible, are nevertheless authentic evi-
dences of harmonious creation.

Greenfield, Mass., May 21, 1845

Art. X.—On the Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake
Superior ; by C. T. Jackson, of Boston.

A srier description of the geology and mineral resources of
Lake Superior, may not prove unacceptable, at a time when pub-
lic attention is called to that region, and mining enterprises are
about to be entered into by many individuals and companies,
some of whom have already gained valuable information concern-
ing the most important mines, while others may be acting under
erroneous impressions and hopes which may not be fully realized.

The earliest accounts of the metals found on the coast of this
lake, are those of Alexander Henry, who travelled around its
shores in the years 1760 and 1776, and published his researches
in 1809 in an octavo volume—printed in New York; and of Capt.
Jonathan Carver, who visited the lake in 1766, and published
his travels in a similar volume in Philadelphia in 1796. Both
Henry and Carver describe numerous loose pieces of metallic
copper, found on the lake shore, and express a favorable opinion
of the probable value of the country for mining purposes. Mr.
Norberg, “‘a Russian gentleman acquainted with metals,’ who
accompanied Mr. Henry, discovered, ii the pebbles and

Vol. xurx, No. 1.—April-June, 1845.

‘

82 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior.

lodse stones on Point Aux Iroquois, a blue, semi-transparent
stone, weighing eight pounds, which he carried to England and
deposited in the British Museum. This stone, he says, yielded
sixty per cent. of silver. Quere. Was not this a mass of chloride
of silver? If it is still in the British Museum, I hope some one
will give an account of it. It is somewhat remarkable that
neither of these travellers discovered copper or silver, or their
ores, in the rocks in place.

Since those ancient explorations, many individuals have trav-
elled on the lake shores, and have described generally the loose
masses of metallic copper seen in the soil or in the possession of
the Indians. Henry R. Schoolcraft has given us a very particu-
lar description of those which were seen by him during his ex-
cursions with General Lewis Cass. He visited the great copper
bowlder on the Ontanagon River, and has published a very accu-
rate account of it in his travels, and in this Journal, Vol. III,
with a plate.

So far as I have been able to learn, no full description of the
rocks and ores found in place has been published, excepting those
of Dr. Douglass Houghton, who has given a general account of the
geological structure of the country, and of the metalliferous con-
tents of the rocks, in his interesting annual reports on the geo-
logical survey of Michigan. A full and detailed description of
the minerals and mines of that country, will be published in his
final report, which will appear on the completion of his extensive
and arduous surveys.

My object in this communication, is to give an account, for the
information of miners and mineralogists, of the region which I
have specially explored ; and in order to a more full understand-
ing of the subject, I shall have to explain the se structure
of the country in which the mines are situate
~ [trust that some of my observations will prove interesting to
the scientific community, as well as to those interested in mining.

In July, 1844, I was employed by the trustees of the Lake
Superior Copper Mining Company, to visit and examine certain
tracts of land on Kewenaw Point, of which they had procured
leases from the United States government. In the performance
of this duty, I was assisted by Messrs. C. C. Douglass, Joseph S.
Kendall, and Frederick W. Davis, and was accompanied by _
David Henshaw, one of the board of trustees. |

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 83

After a pleasant journey and voyage from Boston to Mackinaw,
we took a boat for the Sault St. Marie, and made a trip of about
ninety miles from Mackinaw to the Sault, encamping two nights
on the islands on our route, and reaching Lake Superior on the
evening of the third day. Most of the islands which we passed
were composed of compact white limestone, containing a few fos-
sils, and apparently of the same age as the Niagara limestone of
New York, and like it containing occasionally a little gypsum.
On reaching. the Sault, the character of the rocks is altogether
changed, and red and grey sandstone, which, according to Dr.
Houghton, is of the old red series and destitute of fossils, is ob-
served, and forms the falls or rapids by discharging the waters of
Lake Superior over the outcropping edges of their strata. The
sandstone dips towards the lake, and the waters, passing up
their gently inclined surface, fall in foaming rapids from the up-
per edges of the strata; while along the whole upper side of this
slope, myriads of large rounded blocks of primary and trappean
rocks have been deposited by the sheets of ice, which must have
transported them from a great distance—no such rocks being
found in place near the outlet of the lake. These bowlders were
probably brought by the ice, or streams coming from the moun-
tains, to the lake shore, and from thence ice-rafts have transported
them to their present resting places. 'They abound not only in
the rapids, but also on the more elevated land around the falls,
and indicate the ancient level of the waters of the lake to have
been much higher than it has been during the historical epoch.
The geologist will observe among these rounded blocks of stone,
representatives of all the different rocks of the lake coast and of
the country traversed by its tributary streams. Those which
are most remarkable are syenite—often mixed with epidote, a
mineral not unfrequently mistaken for copper ore—red porphyry,
quartz rock, greenstone trap, conglomerate and red sandstone.

The rock in place beneath this covering of bowlders, as before
observed, consists of strata of mixed red and gray sandstone,
which is covered with only a few feet of sandy soil, and is fully
exposed along the line of alittle canal made for a now abandoned
saw mill: This canal.extends from the lake to below the falls,
and is nearly amile in length. The fall from the level of the lake
to the river St. Mary below the falls, is from eighteen to twenty
feet, according to the measurements which I made at the termi-

84 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior.

nation of this canal. The feasibility of constructing a ship canal
from Lake Superior to the St. Mary’s river is perfectly obvious,
only three locks of six feet each being required for the purpose.
The only difficult part of the work will be in preparing a good
entrance into the canal from the lake, where a breakwater will
have to be made to protect the boats and the mouth of the canal.
This work the United.States government contemplates, and it is
to be hoped will soon execute. There can be no better ground
for a canal, for it will be cut wholly through soft sandstone, easily
wrought, but solid enough for substantial embankments, while
the numerous erratic rocks near by, will furnish all the stone re-
quired for building substantial locks.

The sandstone on the lake shore at the head of this canal, dips
to the S. W. 48° and runs N. W. and 8. E. Dr. Houghton has
observed that the strata of this rock, wherever it comes on the
lake coast, dip towards the lake, and so far as my observations
have extended, I was able to confirm this remark. If it should
prove to be the case around the entire lake, which has not yet
been fully explored, it would lead to some interesting geological
conclusions respecting the formation of this great basin; for al-
though there are many places where the elevation of trappean
rocks has thrown up the sandstone strata at a bold angle, yet we
should not be able to account for the elevation of so extensive a
brim by local elevating forces; and since they act in directions
deviating but little from a right line, or in gentle curves to the
northwest, they would be inadequate to account for the phenom-
ena, and we should have to regard the lake basin as a valley of
depression.

At Eagle Harbor th ist have evidently been disturbed by
the intrusion of trap rocks, and dip N. N. W. 25°, but still towards
the lake shore. 'Thesame dip was observed two or three miles in-
land at Cat Harbor, and in every place where the sandstone was ob-
served on the north side of Kewenaw Point. This would be ac-
counted for by the direction of the great trappean ranges, which
run in a general N. E. and S. W. course, in the peninsula, with a °
gentle curve to the northwest. The opposite or southeastern
side of this point has not yet been examined, so far as I know, by
any geologist, and it will be quite interesting to know the dip of
the strata on that side of the trap rocks. If the dip should be to
the northwest, then the trap dykes will be found to overlay the

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 85

strata, after passing between them, just as they do at Nova Scotia,
and on the Connecticut River, and at New Haven.

Having given some account of the sandstone strata, I would .
observe that the conglomerate rocks belong to the same system,
and are evidently formed from the coarser pebbles and gravel, de-
rived from primary and intrusive porphyritic and trappean rocks.
The pebbles are all rounded and smooth, indicating the long con-
tinued action of water, and abrasion of the fragments of rock by
attrition, in a manner similar to that we now observe on the sea
coast, where the surges of the ocean are continually at work,
grinding the loose stones against each other.

No remains of animals or of plants, unless indeed some obscure
traces of Fucoides, have yet been found in the Lake Superior
sandstones or conglomerates, and I understand that Dr. Houghton
thinks he has satisfactorily traced this deposit below the coal bear-
ing strata. If this should be fully established, the formation
would be ranked as belonging to the old red sandstone series, al-
though it so strongly resembles the sandstones of Nova Scotia and
of the Connecticut River, that I have been disposed to regard it as
higher in the series, and suspect it to belong either to the Permian
or new red sandstone series; perhaps we have not yet sufficient
data to fix the relative ages of any of our sandstone rocks, and it
might be a useful work for some geologist to devote some years
to their special study. The absence of characteristic fossils, pre-
vents the ready determination of their age, and it will be re-
quired to trace the strata continuously until their relation to othiee
rocks is known.

The conglomerate on Kewenaw Point is composed, as before
observed, of pebbles of the older rocks cemented together by the
more finely comminuted materials or clays, originating from their
decomposition and disintegration. That the rock since its depo-
sition has been acted upon by heat, is evident, not only from the
induration of the cement and adherence of the pebbles, but also
from the latter being cracked through the midst and separated
from each other. Deep chasms are thus not unfrequently pro-
duced by the contraction of the sundered rock, and veins of cal-
careous spar often occupy the spaces. The cale spar often con-
tains filaments of native copper, with a little of the carbonate,
the latter being produced only when the vein is exposed to the
atmosphere. When these veins occur near the trap dykes, anal-

86 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior.

cime and Prehnite also abound, and were formed, without doubt,
through the igneous agency of the trap on the contents of the
vein and the ingredients of the wall rock. The spar veins are
sometimes six feet wide, but their ordinary width is from a few
inches to three feet. 'They generally traverse the strata at right
angles to the line of strike, and resemble veins of igneous injec-
tion. The calc spar is highly crystalline in its structure, and the
veins are too wide to have been formed by infiltration. If they
were formed by the washing in of limestone, we would ask where
the carbonate of lime came from, no limestone being found in
this region. If the carbonate of lime was deposited as a tufa
from mineral springs, then it has been since fused into calcareous
spar by heat under pressure. If injected, then the walls of the
veins should be silicate of lime, and should bear strong marks of
fusion, which does not obviously appear. Iam, therefore, still in
doubt as to the origin of these veins.

Among the accidental ingredients in the conglomerate, the most
remarkable is the green hydrous silicate of copper, which has
long been known to the voyageurs on the lake as the green rock.
This occurs at Hayes’ Point, at Copper Harbor, and has recently
been wrought by miners, who have extracted a considerable quan-
tity of it.* The brown and black siliceous oxides also occur there,
and are evidently the results of igneous action on the chrysocolla.t
Black oxide of copper has lately been discovered in the conglo-
merate at Copper Harbor, at the military post called Fort Wilkins.
The ore is a vein in the conglomerate, and is fourteen inches wide,
and has been traced to the distance of fifty feet in length by the
miners under the direction of Lieut. Ruggles.t Dr. Houghton
has, I believe, found other veins of this ore in a similar rock, but
has not yet given an account of the localities.

* The chrysocolla when free from rock yields from 25 to 30 per cent. of coppery
but the average of the ore extracted from the mine, when picked as well as it cam
be for the fatuace, gives but 9 or J0 per cent.

s brown siliceous oxide contains,—

Copper, : i é é . 51-08 per cent.
Silica , ; ; ; 20:00 &
Oxide of j Oe ; ; ; Lt >, | id
Oxygen and Water, > ; i 28:12 *

100-00
¢ This black we of a yields from 68 to 70 per cent. of copper, wart isa
very valuable

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 87

The most interesting rock on Kewenaw Point is the greenstone
trap, which is there observed in immense dykes or ranges of hills,
running in an EK. N. KE. and W.S. W. direction, or nearly parallel
with the northwestern shore of the peninsula, with a slight cur-
vature or convexity to the northwest. These trap dykes are
equalled in extent only by those of Nova Scotia and the eastern
part of Maine. They pursue the same course as those in Nova
Scotia and are probably of the same age, and agree with them in
most of their characters and in many of the included minerals,
as also in their geological position. The trap rocks of Lake
Superior pass through the red sandstone and conglomerate rocks,
and are interfused with them, producing at and near their junction
avery porous amygdaloid, which is always found at the lower side
of the dyke where it is next to the sandstone, as is the case also
in Nova Scotia.

On Kewenaw Point there are found in this rock very handsome
agates, which at a place called Agate Harbor, form the pebbly
beach. Stilbite, Laumonite, analcime, datholite, Prehnite and cal-
¢areous spar, are among the minerals frequently found in the
geodes in the amygdaloid.

Prehnite and datholite also form veins in the trap, which are
sometimes three or four feet in width, and of considerable extent.
These veins also include native copper, and not unfrequently the
individual crystals contain within them delicate leaves of the
bright metal, not thicker than gold foil, while the whole mass of
the vein is strung together by filaments of pure copper. The
principal vein of datholite is situated in the rocks on the westerly
point of Eagle Harbor, where it has been opened by the miners in
search for copper. The finest specimens of Prehnite are obtained
at the company’s vein No. 5, three miles south of Cat Harbor.
Analcime crystals are — in most of these veins, associated with
calcareous spar.

Stilbite and Laumonite occur in the small geodes in the amyg-
daloid, and although generally disseminated are rarely obtained in
handsome specimens. Heulandite, which is so abundant in Nova
Scotia, was not observed in this region. Calcareous spar occurs
in the form of the dog-tooth variety, and has a great number of
planes on the angles and edges of the scalene dodecahedron, the
erystals being the most complicated of any I have seen of the
same species. Associated with this mineral, crystals of analcime

88 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior,

as large as pistol and musket balls occur in trapezohedral forms.
Some of them are very perfectly crystallized. The best specimen
I have, was given me by Mr. Jacobs, one of the explorers of mines
on Kewenaw Point.

Native copper is disseminated in the trap rocks and in most of
the veins of other minerals found near it, but it is far more abun-
dant in the amygdaloid, and not unfrequently fills the cavities in
that rock. Isolated masses of many pounds weight are occasion-
ally found, when the rock has undergone decay ; and all the loose
bowlders of metallic copper which are found at the mouths of the
rivers and on the lake shore on Kewenaw Point, were derived from
the amygdaloidal trap. The great copper rock found on the On-
tanagon river, is an erratic bowlder, which was transported to that
spot during the drift epoch, and originally was included in ser-
pentine, arock very different from any found in the Ontanagon
district. Since the only known deposit of copper in serpentine
is on Isle Royale,* and that island is nearly north from Ontana-
gon river, or in a direction from which the drift current came, it
is supposed that it originated on that island and was transported
in ancient times to the southward by an ice raft, which deposited
it as a drift bowlder on the spot where it was found. I have not
visited that locality, but form this opinion from the best informa-
tion I could obtain.. This great copper rock is now deposited at
Washington, D.C. and is in possession of the Government. This
enormous mass of metal, weighing between two and three
thousand pounds, is well calculated to inspire too strong ex-
pectations of obtaining valuable mines on the coast of Lake Su-
perior, and those who have such hopes shonld be warned that
masses of metallic copper of that magnitude are great raritiesyif
indeed there is another like it in the whole country. _ Native cop-
per is rarely a favorable sign in mines, and it is looked upon favor-
ably only when it is so abundant as to constitute a considerable
part of a large vein, or when it is pretty uniformly mixed with the
rock. There are a few such localitieson Kewenaw Point, and those
I have examined with great attention. There are nine veins of
native copper already discovered on the locations leased to: the
Lake Superior Copper Mining Company. Of that number only two

* Dr. Locke is of opinion that the mineral supposed to be serpentine is ug
I have not examined it,

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 89

or three have been selected, by my advice, as undoubtedly val-
uable, and of sufficient magnitude and richness for profitable min-
ing. ‘The others are problematical, and may perhaps ultimately
be explored, by sinking shafts into them to some depth, whan the
value of the ore may be estimated.

The most valuable locality is on the west side of Eagle River,*
eight miles from Eagle Harbor, and a mile and a half from the
lake shore, on rocky land, elevated above the lakes about 200 feet.
Fragments of the rock and lumps of native copper found at the
mouth of the river, first attracted the attention of explorers to ex-
amine the bed and banks of the stream, when metallic copper
mixed with silver was discovered in place. This locality was
then examined by me, and by the aid of the company of miners
the value of the mine was sufficiently proved to warrant the out-
lay required in exploring it thoroughly. An exploration shaft
was then directed to be made, and the result has proved very
satisfactory to the company. :

The ore, if it may be so called, consists of an intimate mixture
of copper and silver, and an alloy of those metals in an amygda-
loidal trap rock, the cavities in it being filled with metallic glob-
ules, and fine particles being thickly mixed with the rock, so as
to constitute from 10 to 30 per cent. of its weight.

The crevices and veins in the rock are also filled with thin
sheets of an alloy of copper and silver, and occasional lumps of
the metals are found of considerable magnitude.

The most singular and interesting chemical and geological
phenomenon observed at this place, is the occurrence of pieces of
copper and silver, united together side by side by fusion, without
any alloying of the silver, although the copper contains ;°, per
cent. of silver, united with it chemically. The silver, however,
is always absolutely pure. There are also specimens in which
the copper alloy is absolutely porphyritic, with patches of fine
silver. I have a piece, about the size of a dime, in which one
half of it is pure silver, and the other an alloy of copper with
#s per cent, of silver, containing patches of pure silver mixed
with it but not alloyed, The two metals are completely soldered

* Dr. Houghton says that this is not the stream known to voyageurs as Eagle
River. I have therefore proposed to name it Silver River, a name evidently quite
appropriate.

Vol. xxix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 12

90 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior.

together at their points of contact. Other specimens exhibit
square and triangular pieces of silver in the midst of the copper,
or contain veins of it traversing the latter and firmly united at the
edges. Crystals of silver, in the form of a regular octahedron, also
occur, but are notcommon. Fine particles and strings of silver are
more frequently observed. Glistening scales or fine crystals of an-
timonial silver ore are found in a part of the lode where the rock is
most decomposed. Veins of quartz and of calcareous spar traverse
some parts of the metalliferous rock, and the copper is most highly
crystallized in the quartz; while the silver is more apt to be found
in the calcareous spar or in the amygdaloid containing it.

The first exploration which I made at this place, was at the
base of the cliff about three feet above the level of the river, and
the rock was blasted away until the influx of water prevented
further operations. The cliff is fifteen feet high, and presents a
mural precipice, in which the metallic copper and silver could be
readily discovered ; and it was seen that the rock became richer
as we descended, even though our researches were only to the
extent of twenty feet from the top of the cliff to the place where ©
we blasted for the last time. I felt confident, therefore, that the
quantity of metals would increase in the rock to some depth;
and in order to have this point settled, the miners were directed
to sink a shaft, beginning on the top of the ledge and going down
at least forty feet beneath the bed of the river. The shaft was
then sunk, under the able direction of Mr. Charles H. Gratiot, the
skillful superintendent of the mines, and its present depth from
the surface is seventy four feet. By this exploration shaft, the
value of the mine has been proved, and the proportions of metal
were found to augment considerably as the work proceeded.
Several hundred tons of rich ore have been raised, and among the
fine specimens obtained, is a mass of copper with an ounce of
pure silver attached to it. The ore raised is probably somewhat
richer than that extracted by me, and will richly repay the cost
of exploration.

Another exploration shaft has been sunk a few hundred feet
farther from the river, and the ore has been found equally rich.
These two shafts are now to be connected by a drift or level
made along the course of the vein; one of the shafts will be
used for ventilation and the other for the machinery used in hoist
ing the ore and pumping the water from the mine.

Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior. 91

The vein has no regular walls, but on the upper side of the
lode there is a line of division between it and the trap, where no
metal is found. On the lower side, the copper extends to the
distance of ninety feet, but the limits in which I calculate the ore
to be rich enough to work, give but eleven feet as the width. Its

extent in length is yet unknown, but it has been seen interrupt-
edly for the distance of about half a mile—there being only a few
places-where it was uncovered.

Farther up Eagle River, at the distance of half a mile, a reg-
ular vein of copper was discovered in a rock composed of ecrys-
tallized feldspar and chlorite—the vein stone consisting of a mix-
ture of green earth, quartz and calcareous spar. It is from two
to three feet wide, is fully exposed on the river’s side for the
distance of one hundred and ninety eight feet, and was seen in-
terruptedly for a quarter of a mile. It runs N. by W., S. by E.,
and dips to the E. 83°. This vein contains lumps of pure metal- _
lic copper, some of which weigh from a few ounces to halfa
pound, and others are of an irregular form and as large asa man’s
finger. Smaller pieces are thickly interspersed in the vein stone.
On analysis this metal was found to be perfectly pure copper,
without any trace of silver—a curious circumstance, considering
its proximity to the silver vein above described. It will be
wrought for copper in conjunction with the other mine.

‘Analysis and Assay of the Eagle River Copper and Silver
Ore.—lIn order to discover the real working value of an ore of
this kind, it became necessary to make a selection of a fair aver-
age lot of the ore, of a quality such as could be depended upon
as a regular product of mining operations. I therefore blasted
off specimens from the whole width of the vein, and rejecting
the sheets and loose lumps of metal found in the crevices, took
fifty pounds of the rock, containing a pretty uniform and fair mix-
ture of the metals, for analysis. 'This was crushed at Henshaw,
Ward & Co.’s mills, and sifted in coarse and fine sieves to sepa-
rate the flattened plates of metal, which weighed 11 lbs. 4 ounces,
and consisted of plates of copper and silver mixed with a little
rock. On being carefully washed, the weight of metal was re-
duced to 8 lbs. 13 ounces. ‘This dissolved in pure nitric acid,
and parted by chlorohydric (muriatic) acid and reduced, yielded
662'8 grs. of metallic silver—equal to 25,2, lbs. per ton. The
copper amounted to.5 lbs. 84 ounces, or 1257 lbs. of copper per
ton of coarse metal, as it comes from the washing table.

92 Copper and Silver of Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior.

The fine sifted ore being washed, yielded 8 lbs. 12 ounces
more of metal, mixed with heavy ferruginous particles of rock.
This being dissolved gave 1 1b. L ounce of copper and silver,
which when separated yielded 101 grs. of silver, and 1 lb. # oz.
of copper. The silver then in the fine washings is equal to 3,45
Ibs. to the ton, and the copper from the same is equal to 250 lbs.
Then 50 lbs. of the rock yield—

Coarse plates of metal, . ‘ é 8 lbs. 13 oz.
Fine washed ore, . : ‘ ‘ 8 Ibs. 12 oz.

Amount of-washed metal in 50 lbs. rock, 17 lbs. 9 oz.
or 35 lbs. 2 oz. per 100 lbs. of rock, or 700 lbs. per ton.
The value of the coarse sifted metal after washing is per ton
as follows—
For silver, 25 lbs. in a ton at $20 per lb. $500 00
For copper, 1257 lbs. perton at 16 cts.perlb. 201 12

Value of the coarse metal, “S701 12 12
A ton of the fine sifted ore, hitiad fuid eadsea as above de-
scribed, yields—
Silver, 3,4, Ibs. at $20 perlb. . : ; $68
Copper, 250 Ibs. at 16 cts. perlb. . lk 40

Value of one ton of fine washings, ‘ - $108
~The value of the rock per ton is as follows. It yields in 50
Ibs., silver 763-8 grs. = 1,44; oz.; equal to 4 lbs. 5 oz. 3644 grs.
per ton; value, $87 25. Copper in 50 Ibs. of rock, 6 Ibs. 94 oz.
= per t00 263 om} ; value, $42 10. Value of one ton of the
rock, $129 365.
Resumé.—In the rock the value is $129 35 per ton.
In the coarse ore, _ silver = $500 copper, = $201
In the fine washings, “ = 68 40

Silver, $568 Copper, $241
Total value of one ton of clean metal, $809.

It is to be observed that the large sheets of copper which oc
casionally occur in the crevices, are not considered in this ac-
count; and since they probably will be found not unfrequently
in the mine, they will go to augment the value of its produce.

The best flux:for the fusion of the fine washings, which will
be smelted at the mines, is carbonate of lime or calcareous spar,

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 93

which makes, with the ferruginous trap rock, a perfectly liquid
glass or slag, through which the metallic alloy of copper and
silver quickly settles. 'The proportion of silver in the metal, re-
duced in the furnace, varies from 5 to 16 per cent. according to
the nature of the ore. The average yield of the rock when as-
sayed in the crucible with limestone and charcoal, is 7,4, per cent.
of metal; and the metal analyzed yielded 94-864 per cent. of
copper, and 5-136 per cent. of silver. The silver being worth
$102 50, and the copper $15 17 = $117 67 for 100 lbs. of metal.

In the furnace operations there may be a loss of copper by mis-
management of the blast, or for want of skill in the workmen;
but the silver, being incapable of oxidation in the fire, cannot be
lost. By numerous experiments, we have ascertained that the
best proportion of lime is about one third the weight of the ore,
or if calc spar is used, about half the weight may answer. Even
less than this would render the molten mass sufficiently liquid in
a blast furnace, where the weight of the metal and the intensity
of the heat render the assay much more easy than it is in cruci-
bles. The calc spar of some of the localities on the Company’s
lands, contains a considerable quantity of native copper, with a
little of the carbonate. This should be preferred as a flux, for
the copper it contains will be saved.

The vein of datholite at Eagle Harbor will also make an ad-
mirable flux, and the copper it contains will add to the yield of
the furnace; while the borosilicate of iron and copper mixed
with it, being saturated with oxide of copper, will not take up
the metal in fluxing the ore. I have used it with advantage in
some of my experiments, and find it to work perfectly well.

Arr. XI.—Practical Observations on the Generation of Stat-
ical Electricity by the Electrical Machine; by Lieut. Georer
W. Rats, U.S. A., Acting Assistant Prof. of Chem., Min. and
Geol., U. S. Military Academy.

Havine experienced, at different times, some difficulty in caus-
ing an abundant and uniform supply of electricity to be generated,
by the apparatus employed, when the state of the air and other
circumstances appeared entirely favorable, sufficient inducement
was offered to devote a few leisure moments to the study of the
causes of failure.

94 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

In completing a course of experiments with this object in view;
results have been obtained in the excitation of statical electricity,
deemed of sufficient value to merit attention. The invention of
electrical machines being of such long standing, and the subject
having received the attention of so many eminent persons, the wri-
ter, with some hesitation, ventures to suggest ideas derived from
his own observations. 'The improvements proposed, however,
being few in number and of simple application, he has thought
proper to state them, allowing each one who may feel interested,
an opportunity of satisfying himself of their utility.

Rupssers.—Commencing with the rubber of the machine, as
the supposed principal source of failure, it was proposed to ascer-
tain, first, its mode of action ; second, that substance which would
be most efficient in its action.

In regard to its mode of action, the questions which presented
themselves, were—does it produce electricity by friction, by
chemical action, or by friction and chemical action?

Assuming at first that the effect is produced by friction, its
mode of action appears to be as follows. 'Therubber touches the
glass at any given moment with a certain number of its parts or
points, and does not, therefore, come into contact with the re-
mainder; the friction of these points generates the two electrici-
ties,* of which the positive remains with the glass, and the nega-
tive with the rubber. At the succeeding moment, the excited
parts of the glass have passed opposite to those points of the rubber
which do not touch; an inductive action then takes place—the
positive electricity of the rubber is repelled, and the negative at-
tracted, by the excited portions of the glass. If the negative elec-
tricity produced by the first action, has remained with the rubber,
it will then be in such excess at the points in question, as to force
itself through the thin intervening stratum of air, and neutralize
the corresponding positively excited points of glass.

_ Hence to remove the negative electricity is of the first impor-
tance ; and the necessity of being freed from it was perceived in
the earliest experiments. Should this be accomplished, however,
as perfectly as possible, it is evident that a diminished similar ef-
fect would necessarily take place, rendering neutral a quantity of
electricity already excited. What has been observed of the situa-

A

T+; * tune 26:9

ss that electricity is one or more fluids, but the ordina-
ry language is used for convenience.

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 95

tion of the points of the glass and rubber, at the first and second
consecutive moments of action, evidently continues during the
entire period of operation.

From what has preceded, two primary objects are to be attain-
ed: first, to determine the best method of disposing of the nega-
tive electricity of the rubber ; second, to obviate the injurious ef-
fects of those of its parts notin contact with the glass.

To attain the first object, it naturally suggests itself to conduct
it off by forming a communication with a conductor between the
rubber and earth; and consequently, the directions given, and
carried out in the construction of the best electrical machines,
have been, to form a metallic connection with the back of the +
rubber, and the surrounding conducting objects. ‘The idea ap-
pears not to have occurred, that such communication. should be
made with the metallic face, in place of the back of the rubber.
The cushions being made of non-conducting materials, as silk or
leather, stuffed with similar substances, the faces of the rubbers
are insulated, and the negative electricity is prevented from es-
caping freely. This insulation is so complete in some rubbers,
that with a twelve-inch plate machine scarcely the smallest quan-
tity of electricity could be obtained, until the amalgam faces of
the cushions were connected by a wire with the floor, when its
amount was suddenly and greatly increased. It has been inter-
esting to observe the numerous near approximations to this result,
which, however simple, appears not to have been exactly hitherto
attained ;—the nearest approach, probably, being the suggestions
to stuff the rubbers with elastic fragments of metal,* and the _—
osition to moisten their interior substance.t

- Electrical excitation, in all descriptions of apparatus made use
of for that purpose, will be increased by adopting the preceding
suggestion. Should the amalgam faces of the rubbers be con-
nected with the exterior coating of a Leyden jar, in the act of
being charged, the effect would be much more satisfactory—the
positive electricity of the coating neutralizing the negative of the
rubbers. ’

The first object having been thus obtained, it remains to pass
to the second, viz. to obviate the injurious action of those parts of
the rubber notin contact with the glass. For this purpose, it is
plain that if a non-conducting substance be interposed between

* Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, Vol. xx1v, p. 256. 1 Franklin’s Letters.

96 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

them and the excited glass, the desired result will be obtained ;
and the question resolves itself into the proper manner of applying
the best substance. If an oxidizable metal or amalgam be em-
ployed, the oxide which is formed will answer this purpose itself,
to a certain extent, as the oxides of the metals are imperfect con-
ductors. For this purpose the oxygen of the air is of service,
The prominent points in such eases will be kept bright by the
rubbing of the glass. The oxides thus formed, continue to in-
crease in most cases, particularly with the amalgams, and ulti-
mately fill up the intervals; then sustaining the pressure of the
glass, all farther action of the exciting points of the amalgam
ceases: in such cases, the surfaces of the amalgam require renew-
al. The oxides, as will be seen hereafter, are but feeble genera-
tors. ‘Tallow, lard, and substances of a similar nature, answer
the purpose much better, and hence they were soon discovered to
be of service in the earlier researches of electricians. The tallow
or lard being spread over the surface, or mixed up with the amal-
gam, surrounded each exciting point of the rubber with a non-
conducting medium, and hence fulfilled the required conditions.
As, however, these substances readily combine, mechanically,
with the metallic oxides, forming a black, adhesive mass, which
collects on the glass, soiling its surface, and is troublesome to re+
move, bees-wax and shellac were substituted, both of which sub-
stances, when properly applied, answer the purpose remarkably
well. Neither of them soils the glass, and what is of much im-
portance, they give rubbers permanent in their action.

The question now arises, whether there be not other parts of
the rubber, besides those surrounding the exciting points, which
may have an injurious effect? 'That portion which precedes the
first exciting points at the entrance of the glass, obviously can do
no harm, as the glass is supposed not to be excited when passing
in their vicinity ; but the case is materially different with the op-
posite termination of the rubber, which, not being pressed against
the glass, is highly injurious—abstracting largely from the elec-
tricity previously generated. This has also been observed by
electricians, who do not, however, appear to have proposed any
substantial remedy ; the best hitherto given, apparently, depends
for its success on the regularity of the pressure ;* and still another
plan which is liable to the same difficulty.t The silk flap, whose

* Partington’s Nat. Phil.,p.151. ¢ Nicholson, Phil. Trans., 1789.

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 97

utility appears to have been discovered by accident, and whose real
object seems to have escaped attention, has succeeded or failed,
as chance regulated its proper or improper application. A certain
quantity of electricity is doubtless produced by the silk, in what-
ever manner it may be applied, and the amount is considerably in-
creased by particles of amalgam which adhere to its surface ; but
the total quantity thus produced is small compared with that given
by the rubber, and a larger amount will be obtained by removing
the flap and increasing the pressure, so as to bring as many*new
points in contact as will equal by their friction that of the silk.
Hence the above cannot be its true value, neither did its utility ap-
pear to depend, principally, on its being an interposed non-conduct-
ing obstacle between the excited glass and the molecules of air;
but rather, having been fastened to the loose edge of the amal-
gamated leather, this edge was pressed against the glass by the
adhesion of the silk, and thus prevented from diminishing the
amount of electricity already evolved. It possesses, also, to some
extent, the power of preventing the electricity of the surface of
the glass from being drawn off or neutralized by surrounding ob-
jects. In modern machines, the rubbers are hair-stuffed cushions
without the loose leather, and the flap is of varnished silk, which
is so arranged, in some plate machines, as not to touch the glass.
The first and principal advantage of the silk is thus lost, but the
second more certainly obtained.
- From ‘what has been stated, it appears to be important to cause
that edge of the rubber which the glass last leaves in its revolu-
tions, and which is covered with amalgam, to press constantly
| firmly against its surface. 'This is best secured by making
use of a leather strip, covered with the amalgam, whose edge in
question shall be firmly pressed between the glass and cushion,
and which is consequently narrower than the latter. The idea
now suggests itself, that in thus contracting the rubbing surface,
its action may be lessened ; hence, the proper dimensions for the
rubber are next to be determined. 'T’o solve this proposition, re-
quires a further investigation into the phenomena of excitation.
Statical electricity has been assumed to be produced by friction,
and hence the result of molecular disturbance. ‘Taking one of
the exciting points of the rubber, resting on a corresponding por-
tion of the glass surface ; suppose such portion of the glass to
move through an indefinively small = gy molecular disturbance
Vol. xxx, No. 1.—April-June, 1845.

98 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

will then be produced, both in the exciting point of the rubber
and in the corresponding portion of glass surface ; by hypothesis,
the molecular vibration of the rubber producing negative, and that
of the glass, positive electricity, each within itself. If it be sup-
posed that the portion of the surface of the glass, in this indefi-
nitely small movement, has continued in contact with the exciting
point of the rubber, then the two electricities, respectively gene-
rated in each, will combine or interfere, and a neutral state will be
the result whilst such contact continues. But should this por-
tion of glass in its further movement pass beyond the exciting
point, its molecular vibration continuing for a certain period, will
evolve an additional quantity of positive electricity, which will
remain after the molecular vibration has ceased ; and this portion
of glass will be electrically excited. Should the movement be
still further continued, and this excited part brought into contact
with the consecutive exciting point of the rubber, its electricity
will, by the influence of this point, be nearly if not entirely neu-
tralized. For otherwise it is difficult, if not impossible, to con-
ceive of the evolution and absolute contact of the two electrici-
ties, at such point, without combining or interfering.

This view of the subject being taken, it follows, that only the
last exciting points of the rubber produce the effective result.
This, on first appearance, isa startling conclusion, as it apparently
reduces the rubber to a mathematical line; on examination, how-
ever, this is found not to be the case; ‘aa must be a certain
number of these last exciting points, io each of several consecu-
tive parallel lines, as the points necessarily have spaces between
themselves ; hence a portion of electricity excited on the glass
may pass between several, before it emerges entirely from the
rubber. It follows, therefore, that a certain breadth of rubber is
necessary, although it must be comparatively small. With rub-
bers, properly constructed, as will be described hereafter, the max-
imum effect for the larger machines, was produced. by rubbers
one fourth of an inch in breadth; and for the smaller, one eighth
of an inch; the smaller rubbers having generally a greater pres-
sure,

To determine the above, as well as to ascertain and confirm
all other results given in this paper, a numerous set of experi-
ments was instituted, by means, principally, of three machines.
One was a glass plate of 12 inches, previously alluded to; one a

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 99

cylinder of 10 inches diameter and 15 inches long; and lastly a
large and beautiful instrument of 38 inches plate, manufactured
in Paris. 'To measure accurately the quantity of electricity in
each case, one of those admirable galvanometers of 3000 turns
of wire, constructed by M. Goujon of the Polytechnic School,
Paris, was employed ; the amalgam of the rubbers being connect-
ed, by means of a copper wire, with one extremity of the coil,
the other extremity communicating with the prime conductor, by
means of a glass tube containing water, having a wire inserted
in eachend. The maximum permanent deflection of the needle
by the 12 inch plate was 16°.

Having thus attained, satisfactorily, the two objects proposed,
the discussion will be taken up on the questions first suggested,
viz. is statical BRE cn ‘apne by friction, by chemical action,
or by friction and chemical action? The solution of the first
two solves the third. To this branch of the subject, it was not
considered necessary to devote much attention; for the results
obtained by others, superior to the writer in abilities, have decided
quite conclusively, that chemical action does not produce the ex-
citement of the electrical machine. Indeed it is difficult to con-
ceive, how ordinary chemical action in the amalgam of the rub-
bers, can influence the generation of electricity, except in the single
case previously mentioned. For if it be supposed, that the sur-
face of the amalgam is made up of numerous small galvanic cir-
cles, as is doubtless the case, the air acting, possibly in conjunc-
tion with its watery vapor, as the exciting medium ; no action
could be produced, unless such circles, either singly or collective-
ly, were closed. Under the improbable supposition, that parts of
the glass acted as conductors to complete such circles, it would
be contrary to all analogy to suppose, that in their movement,
they carry off a portion of such current. Neither can it be sup-
posed, that it acts by inductive influence; as in such case, the
induced electricity would be of a tension, so extremely low, as
not to be apppreciable

In order, nevertheless, to satisfy any existing doubt, a tube
electrical machine was constructed,* whose piston iirfovetiod the
part of a rubber; and the apparatus arranged, so as to admit of
being filled with different gases. It was thus found that air, oxy-

* American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. xxv1, page 111. »

®
100 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

gen; nitrogen, and carbonic acid gases, when thoroughly dry (and
a vacuum) produced nearly the same amount of electrical action,
when the same oxidizable or non-oxidizable rubbers were em-
ployed; hence this result coincides with that obtained by others.*
The conclusion is therefore adopted, that the electrical machine
produces its effect entirely by friction.

The second branch of the subject will now be examined, viz.
to ascertain what substance is most effective, in generating elec-
tricity by friction. In the endeavor to attain this point, numer-
ous experiments were made with various substances: a list of
some of them is given, arranged according to their effective ac-
tions.

1. Bisulphuret of Tin and amal-20. Bismuth.
- ‘gam. 21. Galena.

2. Common Amalgan. 22. Talc.

3. Pure Mercury. 23. Chromate of Iron.

A. Bisulphuret of Tin. 24. Protoxide of Copper.

5. Tin foil. 25. Protosulphuret of Mercury.
6. Zine filings, (fine.) 26. Chromate of Lead.

‘iP a filings, (fine. ) 27. Protoxide of Bismuth.

8. Silv 28. Peroxide of Manganese.

9: Gola. * 29. Peroxide of Mercury.

10. Platina. /30. Protoxide of Zinc.

11. Lead. 31. Protoxide of Mercury.

12. Caoutchouc. 32. Protoxide of 'Tin.

13. Silk. : 33. Shellac,

14, Paper. 34, Wax, (no action.)

15. Leather, (soft.) 35. Tallow, “

16. Woolen. (36. Lard, .

17, Plumbago. 37. Bishfphures of Mercury with
18. Iron filings. lime, gives negative elec-
19. Antimony. tricity.

From the preceding, it appears that bisulphuret of tin rubbed
over a surface of amalgam, containing but little mercury, is the
most efficient of all substances employed ; it is, however, inferior
in value to the common amalgam, on account of its transient ac-

* Dans la production de l’éléctricité par frottement, l’action de l’air sur les en-
~ . ou moins enna des frottoi sig “it oe exercer aucune influence sur
les 4 $s mr

+S teas.

. e
On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 101

tion, requiring frequent renewal ; and the quantity of electricity
evolved, soon being but little more than that capable of being
produced by the amalgam itself. The amalgam, in case the sul-
phuret is employed, acts principally, by serving as a metallic com-
munication to convey off the negative electricity, as rapidly as
generated. ‘Tin or copper filings answer the same purpose,
nearly as well as the amalgam.

Hence the common amalgam has been sche as the most
suitable material, on account of the quantity of electricity pro-
duced, as well as its ease of application; and, when properly ap-
plied, the valuable steadiness of its action. Its composition is but
of little importance, equal parts, by weight, of zinc, tin, and mer-
cury, answering every purpose. The zinc and tin are to be melt-
ed together, the mercury then added, and the melted mass pour-
ed into a wooden box, and agitated violently until cool; then it
is to be still further reduced to a fine powder, by being rubbed in
a mortar. The various results obtained by different electricians,
each recommending a new proportion of ingredients, appear to
have been caused by the different conducting powers of the cush-
ions of the rubbers employed; they having failed, probably, in
each case to connect the metallic faces with the earth.

It will be observed that the oxides of zinc, tin and mercury,
yield but a small comparative quantity of electricity ; hence the
necessity of frequently renewing the amalgam of the rubbers,
constructed after the ordinary method. The combination of mer-
cury with the common metals, being rapidly oxidized by reason
of the galvanic action, shows the reason why “amalgams con-
taining much mercury are of transient and variable action.”*

It is probable that pure mercury, if it were possible to apply it,
so as to cause as much friction between its particles and the sur-
face of glass as takes place with other metals, would surpass all
other substances in its effective capabilities. This, however, is
impossible as long as it continues fluid, on account of the mobility
of its particles; and this mobility constitutes its chief value, by
allowing a more perfect contact with the glass; hence its maxi-
mum effect can be approximated to, only by rendering it semi-
fluid, in forming an amalgam.

The number of rubbers to be employed demands some atten-
tion, and at the same time the action of the double rubbers, of

. * Singer’s Treatise on Electricity, page 52.

102 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

the plate machines, will be examined. ‘Theoretically, the num-
ber of rubbers is unlimited ; for if one produces a certain effect,
six would produce six times that effect, if the electricity be re-
moved as rapidly as evolved ; but in practice, the number is neces-
sarily limited, and this limit depends, collaterally, on the size of
the plate or cylinder, and the convenience of construction. Cyl-
inder machines have but one rubber, which arrangement may
have had its origin, in the larger machines, merely from the
slightly increased difficulty of construction. This arrangement
necessarily lessens their power one half.

Plate machines have generally two pairs of rubbers, or four in
all; in large plates, this number might be increased to three or
four pairs, with corresponding increase of power ; but the labor
of working the machine would increase in the same ratio ; which,
in this kind of machines, is a material circumstance. However,
with rubbers constructed after a manner to be described, the labor
caused by two rubbers, is but little greater than that caused by
one, of the common construction.

The action of double rubbers will now be discussed. A single
rubber evolves a certain quantity of electricity; one surface of
the plate being thus excited, the inductive influence causes a cer-
tain amount of positive electricity to become free on the opposite
face; which acts also by its induction on that of the opposite
surface, and increases its amount; and this action and reaction
between the surfaces, continue until an equilibrium is established ;
the result being, that with the ordinary glass plates the original
electricity generated is nearly doubled in its amount. If in this
condition, the positive induced electricity of the second surface be
removed, it will leave the corresponding quantity of negative elec-
tricity on this surface of the glass, which will neutralize the oppo-
site positive surface ; and nearly all signs of excitation, on such
surface, will consequently cease. By continuing this process, the
second surface of the glass gradually ceases to give off electricity ;
and the quantity generated on the first surface, not being increas-
ed by induction, becomes comparatively feeble in itsaction. The
plate has now become charged, in a manner similar fo that ina
Leyden jar; and if removed and placed ona ring of metal, a cor-
responding ring being then placed upon it, and opposite to the
first, by forming a connection between the two, a strong dis-
charge will take place, and the plate resumes its first condition.

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 103

From the preceding, the following conclusions are drawn: Ist,
the quantity of electricity generated by the rubber with the com-
mon glass plates, has its amount nearly doubled by inductive ac-
tion ; 2d, to maintain this increased effect, it is necessary that the
induced electricity of the second surface be allowed to remain on
that surface. ‘The inductive action being a decreasing function
of the distance, it follows, that the thinner the glass, the greater
will be the effect ; which indicates the value of the first conclu-
sion. From the second, it appears, that if a cylinder have adamp
interior surface, its effective action will be much diminished ; all
cylinders should, therefore, have their interior surface perfectly
dried, and then be sealed up air tight. If varnished with shellac,
which has not been colored by the addition of any other sub-
stance, the cylinder, after having been once a inne remain
open without material injury to its generating pow

The machine being in action with one re it will be
supposed that a similar one may be arranged to the second sur-
face of the glass, and diametrically opposite to the first rubber.
A certain quantity of positive electricity being generated by the
second rubber, it will find itself in contact, and will unite with,
the similar electricity induced on that surface of the glass, by
the action of the first rubber. Hence the amount on this sur-
face will be much increased ; and this additional quantity, acting
inductively on the first surface, will likewise increase its excita-
tion; the final result being, that the electricity produced by the
rubbers, on each surface of glass, is nearly doubled by inductive
influence.

It may at first appear, that by arranging points to each surface
of the glass, nearly four times the quantity evolved by one rub-
ber might be collected; on a closer examination, however, it will
appear that but little more than one half of this amount can be
rendered available ; for as soon as the free electricity of one sur-
face is removed, that of the other, to a great extent, becomes ne-
cessarily neutralized. The plate, acquiring a charge, similar to
that produced in the experiment of the single rubber, although
to a much less extent; and as the plate revolves, passing between
the connected metallic faces of the rubbers, this small charge is
neutralized.

It has been so far assumed, that the rubbers were placed dia-
metrically opposite ; allowing one.to retain its situation, the oth-

104 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

er will be supposed to change its position. A certain quantity of
induced positive electricity being evolved on the second surface
of the glass, by the action of the first rabber as already discuss-
ed; this passes with the glass surface in its revolution, to the me-
tallic face of the second rubber, where it necessarily becomes ab-
sorbed by the negative electricity of that rubber, and the free
positive electricity, generated by the first rubber on the first sur-
face, is thus, to a great extent, rendered neutral. If the metallic
faces of the two rubbers be in connection, as is the supposition,
the glass surfaces will thus be brought back nearly to their primi-
tive state, and the product of the action of the first rubber ceases
almost entirely to exist.

It follows from this, that it is important that the rubbers be
placed opposite to each other ; a slight variation is not, however,
very perceptible, by reason of the vibrating molecules of the
glass, continuing to produce positive electricity, after passing to
a certain distance the exciting points of the rubber. ‘That this
is a correct hypothesis may be shown by the following experi-
ment: let the back of the hand be held near the second surface
of the glass plate of the machine; on rubbing the opposite sur-
face with a piece of silk, every motion of the rubber, will be
distinctly and instantly perceived; hence, if the electricity of
the surfaces ceases to be generated, when the portions of glass
pass beyond the exciting points of the rubbers, it follows, that if
one of the rubbers be somewhat in advance of the other, the
electricity induced by the remaining rubber, will be mostly ab-
sorbed, and the practical action of this rubber destroyed, which
for a slight variation is not the case.

The length of the rubbers will now be determined. In cyl
inder machines, the rubbers should extend so as to rub the en-
tire exposed surface of glass; the ordinary practice of limiting
their length to a portion of the surface, appears to be deficient in
principle. For, let it be supposed that such is the case; then
those parts of the exposed glass surface, not subjected to the rub-
bing action, hence not yielding electricity, must conduct off a
small quantity of that produced elsewhere. But should the rub-
bers extend to the axis, an additional quantity will be evolved»
aud if the axis abstract a portion, on account of its proximity, it
will be but a small part of this additional quantity. It cannot
be supposed, that in exciting those portions of the glass near the
axis, the glass itself becomes a better conductor. ~

- On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 105

It is important that the elements of the glass, subjected to the
action of the rubbers, be as long as possible ; for the glass surface
may be considered as composed of an indefinite number of con-
secutive portions, and as each one of these portions, when excited,
acts inductively on those around it, it follows, that the greater
the number excited at the same time, the greater must be the re-
ciprocal inductive influence. Hence large machines, when un-
der the same circumstances, must give electricity of a higher
tension, than that produced by smaller rhachines.

Having thus discussed the principles of action, of the various
parts of the rubber, it remains to apply them practically. To
obtain the narrow strip of rubber, requires the following process:
being provided with a strip of common amalgamated leather,
subject it to strong pressure, in order to render the surface flat and
smooth ; it is then to be rubbed with a clean cloth, to remove
any excess of lard or tallow, if such substances be employed ;*
which must still further be removed from the exciting points,
by rubbing the amalgam with a piece of smooth leather dipped
into mercury, to which a few particles will adhere; this not only
cleans the exciting points, but enlarges their extent.

If the amalgam be now applied to the glass with pressure,
those portions of the surface still covered with the lard or tallow,
might come into contact at some points with the surface, and
produce a detrimental effect ; to avoid this, reduce some plum-
bago (black lead) to a fine powder, which is to be rubbed over
the surface of the amalgam, and by adhering to such portions
will render them excitable points. It also permits greater press-
ure for the same amount of friction; and thus the surface is
brought more intimately into contact with the glass. From
the leather prepared as above described, a strip one fourth of an
inch broad, and somewhat longer than the rubber, is to be cut;
carefully avoiding to break up the amalgam at the edges, which
may be accomplished by covering it with pasteboard and cutting
through both substances.

The rubber proper being prepared as above directed, it remains
to apply it to the cushion, which, to avoid unnecessary resistance,
should be three quarters of an inch or one inch in breadth, and
this last dimension should not be exceeded in the largest machines.

A * Wax and shellac, as previously stated, may be used with adrenal; but they
require more care in the manipulation
Vol. xix, No. 1,—April-June, 1845. 14

106 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

The cushions should be made quite firm, and not stuffed with
hair, as that does not allow them to offer sufficient resistance ;
they should be as perfect non-conductors as possible ; the backs
of the cushions should be of glass or well-baked wood, in order to
prevent the cushion from abstracting a portion of the electricity
generated by the rubber. A piece of smooth white leather, about
three times the breadth of the cushion, should be fastened by
one of its edges to the glass or wooden back of the rubber, and
passing over the face of the cushion, will thus be pressed against
the glass, the remaining edge being loose. This flap of leather
should not be very thin, otherwise there will be a useless adhe-
sion to the glass, increasing the amount of friction unnecessari-
ly; it should be kept perfectly dry, as the entire action of the
machine, be it ever so powerful, will be destroyed should it be-
come damp on the surface opposed to the glass. ‘T’o this leather
flap, and opposite to the centre line of the cushion, fasten the
strip of amalgamated leather by means of a little warm bees-wax ;
the face of the leather will then exhibit the appearance as shown
by the adjoining figure: the projecting end of the rubber proper
being left, for the purpose of forming a metallic com-
munication between it and the exterior coating of a
Leyden jar, or with the earth.

To obtain the marimum effect, those portions of
the leather flap on each side of the amalgam strip,
which are pressed against the glass by the cushion,
should be touched with a little bisulphuret of tin,
which, in the larger machines, will be found to increase
powerfully the action ; it requires to be renewed, how-
ever, every twenty minutes, whilst the machine i is being worked ;
at each of which renewals, the amalgam should be wiped clean, as
the sulphuret of mercury, which may be formed, is Seirienanaae
in its action. It may be well to observe, in this place, that the
glass should be oiled and wiped clean before a course of expeti-
ments, to prevent its surface from attracting moisture.

The rubber being finished, it must be thoroughly dried to ex-
pel any moisture, before being applied to the machine. The ordi-
nary degree of fas pressure, employed in the common-sized ma-
chines turned by means of a crank, has been found to produce
nearly the maximum degree of excitement; any increase of pres-
sure above this limit, although generally followed by an increas-

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 107

ed quantity of electricity, is inexpedient, as the additional amount
thus evolved, does not compare with the increase of friction ;
between zero of pressure and this limit, however, the quantity
generated is directly proportional to the friction or pressure.

Large plate machines, as will be seen hereafter, admit of less
pressure on equal surfaces than cylinders, and consequently are
less effective, as the limit above alluded to is not attained.

Piates anp Cytinpers.—It is now proposed to examine into
the comparative qualities of plates and cylinders, in order to de-
termine their relative values as electrical generators.

If an unpolished glass surface be employed, with an axa
rubber, the electricity generated on the glass will be negative; if
it be partly rough and partly polished, the rough parts will give
out negative, and the polished positive electricity ; if equal in
extent, they will neutralize each other’s action, and no effective
result will be obtained. As the polished surface increases in ex-
tent, the rough surface decreasing in the same ratio, the positive
electricity acquiring the ascendancy, will increase in quantity
until the glass becomes entirely polished, when its intensity will
be ata maximum. It follows from this, that the fineness of the
polish is a necessary qualification. Inequalities in the surface
lessen the effect, by reason of the depressions not being acted
upon properly by the rubber ; hence the surface should be ground
smooth before polishing. The glass should be kept perfectly
clean; as any substance adhering to its surface would cause the
rubber to act on that in place of the glass, and by hypothesis, a
diminished result would be obtained. Should such substance be
taken from the rubber, it carries with it a portion of its negative
electricity, thus neutralizing a portion of the positive surface.*

From what precedes it appears, that plates have the advantage
of admitting a finer polish and more uniform surface than cylin-
ders; which latter, however, are usually thinner, and therefore
the iaulnesiee action is stronger. It will be supposed that the
advantages of each are in these respects balanced; it remains to
compare their powers. For this purpose, a plate of thirty six

ue lorsque l’un des corps soumis a — est — par l'autre, celui-
ci, reg V’électricité qui lui est propre, prend encore, avec la petite couche mince
de la substance qu'il enleve, une portion d’électricité aa e a cette derniére; de
sorte que la sienne se trouvant modifieé, peutétre positive, nulle ou négative —WM.
Becquerel, Vol. H,p.122.

108 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

inches diameter, with four rubbers twelve inches long each, will
be compared to a cylinder of twelve inches diameter, and eigh-
teen inches long, with ¢wo rubbers eighteen inches long each.
As the velocity of the portions of the glass passing under the
rubbers is an increasing function of their respective distances
from the axis of motion, the velocity of the circumference of that
circle, which touches the centres of the cushions, will be taken
for the mean; and this, multiplied into the total length of rub-
ber, will represent the amount of glass surface subjected to the
rubbing action for one revolution. Hence,

Inches.

(37:6992)48=1809-5616 for one half revolution of the plate. .

(37-6992 )36=1357-1712 for one revolution of the cylinder.

It is assumed that the amount of force expended in each ma-
chine for each unit of time is equal; hence but one half of a
revolution of the plate is considered; for the diameter of its
mean circle of resistance being twice the diameter of the cylin-
der, it follows that the plate will make but one half of a revolu-
tion, whilst the cylinder performs one entire revolution. Friction
being directly proportional to pressure, it is evident that the sum
of the pressures in each machine must be equal: hence the
same amount of pressure is exerted on forty eight inches of rub-
ber in one case as is applied to thirty six inches in the other; an
inch of each is then pressed in the inverse ratio of these num-
bers, or as 3 to 4. But by hypothesis, the greater pressure pro-
duces the maximum effect; hence each inch of the plate rub-
bers does not exert its greatest action; and as it has been assum-
ed, that up to the maximum pressure for the same extent of sut-
face the disengagement of electricity is directly proportional to
the friction, it follows that the quantity given out by each inch
of the rubbers of the plate, is to the quantity given out by each
inch of the rubbers of the cylinder, as3.to 4. But each of the
rubbers of the same machine produces, by hypothesis, an equal
effect on each equal portion of glass surface subjected to its ac-
tion ; hence is obtained, for the total effective action for a unit of
time of each machine, as follows:

(1809-5616)3= 5428-6848 for the plate machine.
(1357-1712)4=5428-6848 “ “ cylinder «

The machines are therefore equal in power. This result has

been confirmed by accurate experiment. It is conceived that the

109

variety of opinions expressed on this subject has proceeded from
the use of but one rubber to the cylinder, and from inattention
to the proper method of carrying out the details of construction.
It results from the foregoing discussion, that for Jarge machines
the cylinders are much to be preferred, for economy of construc-
tion, occupying less space, being less liable to accidents, and for
the convenient collection of the negative electricity. Plates are
preferable for small machines, by reason of being more compact
as well as of finer appearance, and on account of the interfering
action of the points of the prime conductor, which emit sparks
to the rubbers if too nearly approximated.

mel

Cylinder machines with two rubbers being thus lied superior
in many respects, when large machines are required, the above
representation is given for reference of construction. The cyl-
inder (A) is twelve inches in diameter and eighteen inches long ;
it is supported by two pairs of glass pillars, (B)(B), (B)(B), one
and a quarter inches in diameter each, and three feet long; or of
one half this length, and joined together at the axis of the cylin-
der by brass tubes four inches in length; these tubes being con-

110 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

nected by a cross piece, furnish supports to the axis which turns
between the glass pillars; these are placed one inch apart.

The rubbers (C) (C’) have glass backs one inch broad, and one
and a half inches deep, and are about two feet long, moving be-
tween the glass pillars, which, by means of brass caps or sockets
and screws, cause the rubbers to maintain the proper degree of
pressure.

The positive prime conductor (P)(P), is penny’ of two
branches, one on each side of the cylinder, each of which is four
inches in diameter, and three feet long; these are joined at their
farther extremities by a cross tube of two inches in diameter,
which has a branch one inch in diameter, and six inches long,
terminated by a ball two inches in diameter. The cross piece
should be movable in the sockets of the prime conductor.

The negative prime conductor (N)(N) is four inches in diame-
ter, and three feet six inches long, supported by the two pairs of
glass pillars; it is connected to the top rubber by means of a
brass rod (R) one half inch in diameter, which is loosely insett-
ed in a hole in the rubber which communicates with the amal-
gam. ‘’he rod can be withdrawn, and by this means the upper
conductor becomes insulated from the rubber, and may be con-
nected to the positive prime conductor, of which it will then
form a part. The latter conductor is supported by four glass pil-
lars, (G)(G)(G) (G), eighteen inches long each. The amalgam
of the lower rubber communicates with a Leyden jar or the ta-
ble by a chain or wire (W), which also is connected to the upper
rubber when the negative electricity is not wanted.* The crank
(T') gives the motion to the cylinder. The many advantages of
a machine arranged in this manner become evident on reflection ;
it is sufficient in this place to observe, that if made after the
manner directed, it will equal in power two large plate machines
(the diameter of each plate being three feet) constructed after the
common method, and using the ordinary rubbers.

Prime Conpuctors.—Having already extended this paper be-
yond the original intention, the remainder of the subject will be
concisely treated. Prime conductors of the ordinary form should
be of such size as to hold on their surfaces electricity of the same

* By applying a detached row of points communicating with the ground, and
near to the glass between “) and (C), both conductors will be charged at the
same time,—one with and the other with negative electricity.

-

On the Generation of Statical Electricity. 111

tension as that of the glass, without throwing any of it off.
“This tension cannot be exceeded.’* If of greater size, they
are injurious by reason of their increased surface, presenting an
increased extent to the conducting action of the air. If of small
size, unless spherical, the excess of electricity is rapidly thrown
off; in charging an electrical battery, however, they are prefera-
ble to those of larger size.

Prime conductors probably have the best form for common
purposes when they are composed of two branches, each having
a length double that of the cylinder, (or equal to the diameter of
the plate, ) and a diameter one fourth that of the cylinder, or one
tenth that of the plate: connected by a cross piece one half the
diameter of the conductors. Brass smoothly gilt is the best
ordinary material; it should be neither varnished nor painted,
for the sparks break through such coatings, leaving rough points,
which are sometimes highly detrimental.+

The only part requiring particular attention on the subject of
the prime conductors, is their points to receive the electricity of
the glass. A common pin is about one inch long and one twen-
tieth of an inch in diameter; let it be supposed that both ends
are pointed and covered with little balls of wax; apply it to an
excited body; it will receive a certain charge which has a ten-
dency to escape, which tendency, for a unit of surface equal to
that of the point of the pin, at the central portions, will be repre-
sented by unity. Remove the wax balls; the pin may now be
considered a prolate spheroid, whose transverse axis is one inch
in length, and its conjugate, one twentieth of an inch. But in
such case the tendency to escape at the central portions of the
spheroid, is to the same effort at the extremities, ‘as the square
of the conjugate axis (1*) is to the square of the transverse
(202) :’{ hence the effort to escape at the point of the pin is
represented by 400. Let it be now supposed that the pin retains
its point but doubles its own diameter ; the proportion will then
be as 2? to 202, or as 1 to 100. Hence by doubling the diame-
ter of the pin, it has diminished the power of its point to one
fourth ; this shows the importance of having slender points.

The influence of a point depends moreover on the tension of
the electricity, and appears to act as follows. From the position

*M. pee Vol. II, p. 205.
+ Faraday’s Chem. Manip., note by Prof. Mitchell, p. 452.
} Murphy’s Marhesiiaiell Discussions on Eleciricity, p- 69.

112 On the Generation of Statical Electricity.

at which the point first shows signs of being acted upon, draw a
cone of rays tangent to the exciting electrical atmosphere, having
the point at the vertex; this cone of influence being formed of
neutralizing rays, the intensity of their action, by the laws of
induction, depends on the distance of the point from the exciting
body. As the point approaches this body the elements of the
cone, remaining tangent, diverge until having reached a certain
degree of divergency depending on the intensity of the electrical
action, they cease to separate; and if the point continue to ap-
proach the excited body, the cone will be intersected by this
body. These intersections decrease in extent until the point
touches the body, when its influence, except for the correspond-
ing point in contact, ceases. For electricity of low tension, the
point being that of a common sized needle, the limiting angle
of the elements of the cone appears to be about 166°, which, if
the point be at one fourth of an inch distant from a plane exci-
ting surface, will intersect such surface in a circle, whose diam-
eter is about four inches. The electricity within the circumfer-
ence of this circle will be entirely neutralized. It appears there-
fore that the points of the prime conductor to collect electricity
of low tension, should be needles, and placed not farther apart
than four inches. The electricity on the glass surface on leaving
the rubber, being of high tension, soon commences to be acted
upon by the points of the conductor ; its tension rapidly dimin-
ishes as it approaches the points, and when opposite, entirely
ceases. ‘The prime conductor however being insulated, and hav-
ing acquired a certain degree of tension itself, refuses to accu-
mulate any more electricity of the same or lower tension; the
parts of the glass opposite to the points being thus in an excited
condition, electricity of higher tension arrives nearer and nearet
‘to the points at each revolution; its inductive action causes the
elements of the cones of influence again to diverge, enlarging the
areas of the intersections. The prime conductor and glass having
arrived at the same electrical state, those points which find them-
selves in the most favorable positions, will receive the electricity
having the highest tensiom, and the remaining points, in place of
receiving; will give off electricity to those portions of the glass
which may, from any defect, have less tension. It hence appears,
that needle points should not be nearer to each other than four
inches, to collect electricity of the lowest tension: as this how-

Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 113

ever in most cases is almost instantly increased, five inches would
answer a better purpose, in order to diminish the number as
much as possible. In charging large batteries, an additional set
of movable points might be employed, to be taken off as soon
as the tension reached a certain extent. From the discussion of
the action of the rubbers in plate machines, it will be concluded,
necessarily, that but one permanent set of points to each double
rubber should be employed, which may be on either side of the
plate—a set for each surface being not only useless but injurious.

By applying the suggestions given in this paper to electrical
machines of the common construction, it will be found as a
general result, that those of the best construction will double
their action, and that others will more than quadruple the
amounts previously generated.

Thus has the subject of the ordinary excitation of statical elec-
tricity been as fully discussed and applied, as the small amount
of leisure time at the disposal of the writer would admit; and
although necessarily imperfect, it is still confidently believed to
contain hints, which if acted on, will richly repay the electrical
amateur.

Arr. XII.— Ruins of Nineveh: Description of the Discoveries
made in 1843 and 1844;—in a letter from Rev. Azariau
Sure, M. D., Missionary A. B.C. F. M.

Tue city of Nineveh, so well known from the facts related in
the book of Jonah, was one of the most ancient cities of which
we have any record. It is mentioned in Genesis x, 11, and was
probably founded within two hundred years after the flood. In
its days of prosperity, it is described as having been a city of
“three days journey ;” i. e. say sixty or seventy milesin circum-
ference, and as having contained ‘more than six score thousand
persons that could not discern between their right hand and their
left hand; and also much cattle.’ (See Jonah, iii, 3, and iv, 11.)
Suppdstny this number to refer to children, the bopdlation of
Nineveh could not have been less than 500,000, and from the
mention made of cattle, it is probable that the city embraced
fields within itslimits, both for pasture and tillage. This ‘exceed-
ing great’ city, at that time the re of the Assyrian empire,

Vol. xt1x, No. 1.—April-June, 1845, ;

114 Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

was destroyed about the beginning of the seventh century before
Christ, and, though afterwards rebuilt by the Persians, it never
reattained its former splendor. In the seventh century of the
Christian era, it was finally destroyed by the Saracens, and. its
name and its place would have been quite forgotten, but for the
prominence given it by the records of inspiration. Indeed its
geographical position has been so much involved in doubt as to
render it a worthy subject of scientific inquiry, but the result of
the observations of Rich and others has been to fix its locality
on the east bank of the river Tigris, (called by the Arabs, Shat, )
directly opposite the modern city of Mosul. There, ruined walls
of sun-dried brick still remain, varying from fifteen to fifty feet
in heighth, and enclosing a space about four miles long and a mile
anda half broad ; the whole of which is strewed with fragments
of pottery and other marks indicating the site of an ancient city.
Two immense mounds occupy each several acres of this area ; one
of them is about a mile and a half in circumference, and fifty feet
high,—and the other, though smaller, is sufficiently large to con-
tain upon its top and sides,—as it does at the present time,—a vil-
lage of two or three hundred houses. The principal mosque of
this village is said to cover the tomb of Jonah, and hence the
village is called by the Arabs, Nebi Yunis, or the ‘ prophet Jonah.’
On the east side of the enclosed space above referred to, there are
two walls, at their southern extremity approximating, and at their
northern about three quarters of a mile distant from each other.
The outer of these appears to be the older one and probably re-
mains from the Assyrian city, while the inner and more modern
may have been constructed when the place was rebuilt: by the
Persians. Just within the outer wall, there is an artificial chan-
nel, several yards in width, cut, in some places, through solid
rock, and in the enclosed space west of the inner, where are also
the two mounds spoken of, foundations still remain, marking the
site of buildings, and of arches, which, at different places, once
stretched accross the Khausser,—a stream which passes through
the ruins from east to west, and a half mile farther on empties
into the Tigris. Several bricks and other fragments covered with
inscriptions in the ‘cuneiform character,’ and one or two large
blocks, having on them figures in bas-relief, have also been found,
most of them in connection with one or other of the two mounds.
All these ruins, together with the general locality of the place,
.

a

Letter from Rev: Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 115

the names of other towns in the vicinity, and above all thename .
(the prophet Jonah) given by the natives to the village on one of
the mounds, has been deemed sufficient warrant for identifying
this spot with that once occupied by the city of Nineveh.

The greatest objection which has been felt to assigning to
these ruins this name, is the size of the area which the walls
enclose ; as this is much inferior to the area of Nineveh as de-
scribed in history. Mr. Rich,* to meet this difficulty, suggests that
the walls now standing represent only a palace and royal grounds,
and that the populated part of the city was without this enclos-
ure. As there is however no evidence of any wall enclosing such
a city as this would suppose, the adoption of the view renders
one of two conclusions necessary, viz. that the city was un-
walled ; or that, while the wall of the palace has been preserved,
that of the city has been destroyed. Both of these conclusions
are, in themselves, improbable; but independent thereof, there
are many facts that seem to us to render his theory untenable.
The fact that another wall enclosing an area, is found within the
territory that such a city must have occupied, and that marks of
edifices are rarely if ever found in the space lying between these
areas, seems to us to decide the point. Moreover, no one can
stand upon one of these ruined walls, and compare the rolling
surface without, with the level area within, and the high mounds
upon that area, especially as these and the space around them is
strewed with fragments of pottery and other ruins, without feel-
ing that he is standing upon the ramparts which separated the
town from its cultivated fields. If, however, we are warranted
by Jonah iv, 11, in supposing that the Nineveh of Scripture in-
cluded gardens and pasture grounds for ‘ much cattle,’ then it
seems not unlikely that there may have been included under one
name, two and even more distinct groups or suburbs of houses,
each protected by a wall peculiar to itself.. Unless we adopt some
such view as this, how can we suppose a city of three days jour-
ney to contain only 120,000 persons who were unable to discern
their right hand from their left hand. 'The view just proposed,
moreover, derives support from the fact that Jonah (ch. iii, 4,)
entered into the city a day’s journey—i. e. according to this

supposition, he passed through the gardens which contained only

* Residence in Koordistan and Nineveh.

116 Leiter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

scattered houses, and perhaps even by one or more enclosed
suburbs to the main walled town—before he began to preach.
To remove objections to the view that Nineveh included more
than one walled suburb, it may be well to mention some simi-
lar cases in modern times. In the single and small district
of Tiyary, which lies sixty miles to the north of these ruins,
there are no less than three instances of several villages grouped
under one name. Rumpta, Kaylaytha and Berawola are vil-
lages composed severally of eleven, seven, and four distinct
and somewhat distant groups of houses. By inhabitants of
these places, each group is known, at least in the first two instan-
ces, by some specific title, but away from home the division is
no more recognized as a valid ground for considering them dis-
tinct villages, than is the local division of Philadelphia, into
Southwark, Kensington, Northern Liberties, &c., a valid ground
for calling show districts, in general geography, so many cities.
In Berawola this is more remarkable, as the groups of houses are
separated by quite high and steep hills, and as, in this case, even
the villagers among themselves seem to have no distinctive name
for the several parts which go to make up the whole village. I
refer to these examples, because occurring among a people (the
Nektorians) living ist te “nvighborhoed of these ruins, and who,
having —perhaps even from the time of
Nineveh’s overthrow, in the inaccessible fastnesses of their barren
mountains, are more likely than any other to have handed down
to us unchanged, the customs of those times. Other examples
of something similar, and more weighty, because better known,
may be found in Beirout, Constantinople, and Trebizond. These
are seaport towns with walls, but a large proportion of their pop-
ulation reside without them. Constantinople indeed has enclosed
suburbs besides the main walled town, and if these were sepa-
rated from it and from each other by gardens instead of water,
they would exactly illustrate our idea of the places represented
by the two ruined enclosures, spoken of as found on the east side
of the Tigris near Mosul. 'The object of the remainder of this
article, will be to give a brief account of the late discoveries of
Mons. Botta, the French Consul of Mosul, in the more eastern
and inferior of these ruins.
ese discoveries were made in a mound about ten miles to
the northeast of the village of Nebi Yunis. This mound is

“

Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 117

about four hundred and fifty feet wide, six hundred feet long, and
. varies from twenty to forty feet in heighth. Its area is nearly
oval, but its surface is somewhat uneven, and its outlines are cor-
respondingly irregular. It is situated in one side of what appears
to have been a fortified town, (or suburb ?) there being still in ex-
istence the remains of a mud wall, enclosing a space a mile square.
This ruined wall is in few places,—and those apparently towers,
—more than ten feet high, but as there is evidence that it was
‘originally faced with hewn stone, no doubt can exist but that it
was built for purposes of defence, and once enclosed a thriving,
busy population. But to return to the mound referred to, and
which forms, by one of its faces, a part of the northeastern boun-
dary of this enclosure. It has been occupied as far back as
modern inquiry can extend, by an Arab village of about a hundred
houses, called by the natives Khorsabad. In digging vaults or
cisterns for the safe deposit of straw and grain, these people had
repeatedly found remains of ancient sculpture, but their value not
being known, no account of the discovery was made public.
In 1843, while Mons. Botta was making excavations in one of
the mounds near the Tigris, one of the villagers of Khorsabad
inquired of him why he did not come and dig in their village,
“for,” said he, “it is built on a mound like this, which contains
more beautiful stones than any you can find here.” In due time
the work of excavation was transferred according to the villager’s
recommendation, and the step resulted in one of the most inter-
esting discoveries, if we may not say the most interesting dis-
covery of modern times. The whole upper part of the mound
has been found to be threaded with walls running at right angles
to each other, and enclosing rooms varying from thirty to a
hundred and thirty feet in length, and pretty uniformly about
thirty feet in breadth.. The whole seems to have been buta
part of one building, and perhaps but a small part, for the walls
are broken off in several places by the edge of the mound in a
manner which indicates that its area was once much more ex-
tensive than it now is. But we will not venture into the field
of conjecture; our object is to describe what has been actually
discovered.

The point where the excavations were commenced was near
the margin of the mound, about twenty feet above its base, and
where the top of what seemed to be a stone wall presented

118 Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

~ itself. On digging along the sides of this, it was found to be
composed of a single row of large hewn stones, the top of which .
had been broken off by violence or otherwise destroyed. On one
side these stones were plain or unfinished, on the other the lower
part of the legs of captives, with chains around their ancles, were
represented in bas-relief, the latter being the surface designed to
be seen, while the former was contiguous to an unburnt brick
wall, of which these stones formed the facing. 'To furnisha
good opportunity to examine and copy these figures, a ditch
about four feet wide was dug along in front of the stones, sticks
being so placed as to keep them from falling forward. Following
the stone work in this manner a little distance, the workmen
came to a doorway. ‘'Turning around the corner thus presented,
they directed the digging inward towards the room, and the walls
were found to have been twelve or fifteen feet thick. The door-
way thus entered was about eight feet broad, and its floor was
formed by a single stone, which was covered with writing in the
cuneiform character. On the stones forming the sides of this door-
way were immense figures, having an eagle’s head and wings,
with arms and legs like those of aman. 'The doors were gone,
but circular holes, about ten inches in diameter and as many in
depth, were found cut in the floor on each side of the doorway.
These holes were so situated in the angles of recesses in the sides
of the doorway, as to leave no doubt that they were the recep-
tacles of the pivots on which the doors turned. Those who are
familiar with the manner in which the lock-gates of American
canals are usually hung, and the recesses into which they fit
while boats are passing in and out of the locks, will derive from
them a very correct idea of the style of the doorway just de-
scribed. This doorway being cleared out, the digging was di-
rected along in front of the stone, facing the inner side of the
unburnt brick wall. In this way, also, the excavations were con-
ducted throughout the whole of the work, which comprised a
line of stone facing, ten feet high when the stones were uninjured,
and, following its ramifications, more than a mile in length; the
whole of which was covered either with inscriptions or with bas-
reliefs. From thirty to sixty laborers were constantly employed
for more than six months in the manual labor of excavation alone ;
and this will show, perhaps better than any statement of measures
or other statistics, the actual extent of, and the expense attend-

Leiter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 119

ing, these researches. The number of rooms whose outlines
were in a tolerably good state of preservation was fifteen, but
there were traces of others, as we shall hereafter mention. As
the mound increased in heighth toward the centre, the upper part
of the stones became more and more perfect, until they were
found of their original size, and farther, the tops of these were in
some places nearly or quite ten feet below the surface of the
mound, making the whole depth of the excavations in such places
about twenty feet. In a few instances, however, these stone
slabs were sixteen feet high, being made thus large to accom-
modate the gigantic figures upon their surface.

Although the writer feels that it is quite impossible by descrip-
tion to convey an accurate idea of the sculptures found on these
stones, yet, in the absence of drawings, he will use his best en-
deavors to supply their place.* The largest bas-reliefs are of
human form, about sixteen feet high. Between the left sides and
suspended arms of these, lions are held dangling in the air, while
serpents are grasped by the right hand, which hangs extended a
little forwards. These figures are but few in number. The
monsters by the doorway, already described, are the next in size,
_ and others like them are found in several other similar situations.
The surface of the whole remaining line of wall, is to a great
extent covered with human figures nine feet high. ‘These rep-
resent kings, priests, manacled captives, soldiers armed with bows
and quivers of arrows, and servants, some of whom are bearing
presents to a king, while others have upon their shoulders a throne
or chair of state. . Where the figures are not of this large size,
they are found in two rows, one above the other, and between
the rows are inscriptions, generally about twenty inches broad,
each inch representing a line of the writing. But we will leave the
inscriptions for the present. The figures above and below them, are
grouped together, as if to represent historical events. Some ten
or more cities or castles are found represented in different rooms,
and remote from each other, all undergoing the process of being
beseiged, and the enemy without, in every case, triumphant.

* Mons. Botta, in addition to many other favors, which the writer takes this
opportunity to acknowledge, has been so kind as to furnish him with an accurate
plan of these ruins, but as the insertion of it here would anticipate the volumes to
be issued by the French government, it isdeemed but a just regard to his generos-
ity to withhold its publication. -

120 Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

Upon the walls of these castles are men in a great variety of at-
titudes, some with both hands uplifted, as if imploring for mercy,
some engaged in defence, some transfixed with arrows and falling
forwards, and some already surrounded by flames, while before
them men are sometimes impaled, their countenances distorted
as if in the agonies of death. The besiegers are not only tr-
umphant, but are represented as larger than the besieged in stature
and more noble in mien. They also appear in many different
forms: while some are shooting arrows at those on the walls, and
some with torches are setting on fire the gates, others still are
protecting these from the weapons of the besieged, by holding
before them round or rectangular shields. In fine, it seems to
have been the artist’s design to represent in, upon, and around the
eastles, every attitude that warriors might be supposed to take in
such circumstances. Upon the front of each of these structures
a short inscription is found. These are different one from the
other, and probably designed to communicate the name by which
it was known. As the castles themselves are only three or four
feet high, the figures here described are of course small. Of fig-
ures about the same size with the castles there is also a great
variety. Here a two-wheeled chariot of war is seen containing
three persons, one in royal apparel drawing a bow, another by his
side protecting him with a shield, and the third one guiding the
horses, who are four abreast. There a king is seen riding in @
similar chariot in time of peace, with an umbrella held over his’
head by one, and the horses conducted as before by a second at-
tendant, all being in an erect posture. In one place a feast is
represented, the guests sitting on opposite sides of tables, and on
chairs, in true occidental style, while servants are bringing fluid
in goblets, which other servants are employed in filling from im-
mense vases ; the vases, goblets, chairs and tables all being highly
ornamented with carved work. In another place a navy is repre-
sented as landing near a city. A number of boats well manned
and loaded with timber, are approaching the shore, while others
are unlading timber from other boats, and others still are engaged
in building a bridge, or perhaps a sort of carriage-way for the
mounting of battering-rams. In the water are seen crabs, fish,
turtles, mermaids, and a singular monster shaped like an ox, witha
human head and eagles’ wings. One room, thirty feet square, has
its walls completely covered with a hunting scene. ‘Trees, hav-

Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 121

ing the shape of poplars are the most prominent objects. The
branches of these abound with birds, and the space which sepa-
rates them one from another, with wild animals. In this forest
or park the king and his attendants are sporting; a bird is trans-
fixed with an arrow while on the wing, and a servant is alent
a fox or hare, the evidence of previous success.

But this is perhaps enough to give—all that is attempted—a
general idea of the scenes represented. The character of the
sculpture isin some respects interesting. Some figures but a few
inches in length, are so perfect as to have the toe and finger nails
plainly distinguishable. Strong passions are sometimes deline-
ated on the faces, the dying appear in agony, and the dead seem
stiff and quite unlike the living, who look as if in actual motion.
In general the perspective is indifferent, that of groups bad, and
that of the water scene above described,—to mention one case,—
is decidedly out of all reason. The costume of all the figures
is much like that now worn in the East, the kings having a flow-
ing tunic richly figured, and subjects a simple plain frock, hang-
ing in plaits. The Persian cap, almost exactly as it is seen at the.
present day, is worn by some; rings are quite commonly suspend-
ed from the ears, and round bars, apparently of iron, and made
into helixes having two or three revolutions, are worn around the
arm above the elbow, while the hair and beards of all are curled
and frizzled in as nice a manner as it can be dome in any of the
courts of modern Europe.*

Portions of some of the figures are painted red, blue, greeny,
and black; the same is true of the trappings of some of the
horses, and generally wherever fire is represented it is made more
distinct by coloring the flame; but with these few exceptions,
hardly worth mentioning except on account of their rarity, all the
bas-reliefs now described are of the natural color of the stone
from which abe project.

* Near the mouth of Nahr el Kelb or Dog River, a stream which empties into
the bay north of Beyroot, on a large perpendicular and artificially smoothed sur-
face of a rock are found figures dressed in similar costumes with some of these,
Drawings of the two placed side by side, present so many resemblances that one
can hardly doubt but that the artists who made the originals, aimed to depict men
of the same age and nation. This striking coincidence, and the fact that the in-
scriptions at Nahr el Kelb are in the same character with those of the ruins at
Khorsabad, seems to give some light as to the probable events which bows com-
memoraie.

Vol. xxix, No. ge Duan, 1845. 16

122 Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

» Heretofore our remarks have referred to bas-reliefs only. We
have now to speak of a few complete sculptures, which are more
astonishing than any thing yet mentioned. These are immense
monsters, having the form of an ox, with the face, hair and
beard of a man, and the wings of a bird. Of these there are
upwards of twenty, each cut from a single block of massive
sulphate of lime. They stand generally in single pairs, at the
sides of the main entrances of the building, but at one entrance
there are two pairs, and at another three. They differ somewhat
from each other in size, but their average will not vary much
from four feet broad, fourteen feet long and fifteen feet high. If
the reader will apply these dimensions to the walls of some build-
ing, he will be much better able to conceive of the magnitude of
these gigantic images, than if his imagination is governed by the
mere mention of numbers and measures. The shape of these
monsters is not uniform, but some of them exactly resemble the
figure mentioned above in the scene of boats landing before a
besieged city. In these the wings of each side extend above the
back of the animal until they nearly or quite come together, but
in others they are so carved as not to interfere essentially with
the natural shape of the ox. Their breasts and sides are gener-
ally covered with small figured work, probably representing a
coat of mail, and their horns, instead of protruding, are turned
around upon the sides of the head so as to form a sort of wreath.
As these sculptures stand in every case with a part of one side
contiguous to a wall, the artist left that half of the lower portion
of the original block as a basis for the support of the rest. This
rendered it impossible for him to exhibit the forwards legs both
in front and at the side in a natural position ;—accordingly, he
made five legs, four visible at the side and two in front, buta
person looking upon them obliquely sees the whole number at one
view. Ina recess of a few inches deep, which exists between
the fore and hind legs, are found ineesiptiont: of the same kind
as those before where to.

A few remarks respecting the inscriptions cannot fail to be in-
teresting. The character is that known as the cuneiform or arrow
headed, and differs but a little from that found on the bricks of
Bagdad. They are in lines about an inch broad and are indented
in the stone about a quarter of an inch. Their length, if written
in a continuous straight line, would be measured by miles. They

Letier from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 123

read from left to right, like English, and unlike all languages now
spoken in the vicinity of these ruins. This fact is determined
by the comparison of two passages whose commencements are
the same and whose lines are of different length. The number
of different characters amounts to some hundreds, and hence it
seems unlikely that they represent alphabetic sounds,—perhaps
the proper names only are thus represented, while the more com-
mon words have each their appropriate sign. In the inscriptions
upon the castles or cities, the left hand character of each is gen-~
erally, and if we mistake not, in every case the same. The ex-
tent of the records found in these ruins and their relation to the
bas-reliefs is such, that there can be no doubt that they will one
be day deciphered, and that thus the history of ancient times will
have been transmitted directly down to us without the possibility
of any forgery. That their solution will confirm and throw light
upon Holy Writ we may also hope ; and especially as there was
in Scripture times much intercourse between Assyria and the
Holy Land. In order to ensure the greatest accuracy in the pre-
servation of these records, Mons. Botta has not only copied them
with extreme care, but he has had impressions of them taken on
paper, by means of which the originals can at any time be re-
produced by a casting of wax or plaster of Paris.

As if to leave nothing undone that would serve to bring these
ruins within the reach of the curious, two of the monster oxen
which were in a perfect state of preservation, have been cut in
five pieces with the view to send them to Paris, where they are
destined to guard the main entrance toe the Royal (?) Museum.
‘Thirty of the best preserved blocks containing bas-reliefs have
also been removed, and will probably not be separated from their
guardian cherubim.* These were transported to the Tigris on
cannon carriages furnished by the Pasha of Mosul, and from ihere
upon rafts floated by inflated skins, to the mouth of the river,
and will be carried eventually around the Cape of Good Hope to
their final destination. A small bronze lion, weighing say seven-
ty-five pounds, was the only metallic antiquity found that is
‘worthy of notice. It had a staple in its back which was evidently
once connected by a chain with a similar stapie fixed in the floor.
Besides this the only relics which remain to be noticed are some

* See Art. Cherub in Robinson's Calmet,

124 Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh.

images made of clay and baked ina furnace. They were found
in cavities under a brick pavement, which exists in the inner part
of each entrance. This pavement is composed of two layers, ©
and the cavities were formed by leaving out a single brick from
the lower layer. For what use these hidden images were in-
tended, can only be a matter of conjecture. Were they tutelary
deities, placed there to guard the entrances to this monument
of art? :

To remove any indistinct and incorrect impressions that may
have been received from reading the above account of these ru-
ins, it may be well to present a general view of them in another
form. For this purpose, with such light as our observation of their
present state affords, we will endeavor to describe the construc-
tion and overthrow of this palace, temple, monument of Ninus,
or, whatever else it be, this depository of ancient archives. For
its base there was erected an oval mound, nearly half a mile in
circumference, and twenty feet in heighth above the surrounding
plain. Over the level surface of this, a layer of sand, brought
from the Tigris, was spread about a foot in thickness. ‘This
formed the floor and foundation of the whole building, and was
made hard by means of stone rollers, (some of which have been
found,) in the same manner as the roofs of buildings are treated
throughout the southern part of Turkey in Asia at the present
day. Besides the doorways, the floor was no where covered,
except in such places as were peculiarly exposed,—for instance,
near the walls ;—and here are found two layers of kiln-burnt
brick, one above and one below the stratum of sand. Upon this
foundation thus prepared, the walls of the building were erected.
These were of sun-dried brick—from ten to fifteen feet in thick-

ness, and faced every where, next the floor, both within and with- —

out, with blocks of sulphate of lime, ten inches thick, ten feet
high, and of different breadths, and these were covered on the
exposed surface with inscriptions and bas-reliefs.. Above these
blocks or slabs, the wall was faced with a tier of kiln-dried brick,
painted straw-colored on the inside. How high this tier of bricks
extended, we have no means of determining. Its top must have
been at least sixteen feet above the floor, as a few of the stones
lining the wall were of this heighth; and probably it was con-
siderably higher, else the oxen at the doorways must have reached
nearly to the ceiling of the room, and accordingly must have

Letter from Rev. Dr. Smith on the Ruins of Nineveh. 125

been, as to size, altogether out of taste. Upon the walls, and
reaching from one to the other, were immense timbers, (a few
_ preserved fragments of which have been found, ) more than thirty
feet in length; and upon them, to complete the roof, was a layer
of earth, probably of considerable thickness. Thus, it .will be
seen, a building was constructed worthy of the simplicity of the
first ages of the world, and in strange contrast with the sculptures
that formed its ornaments.

- Without doubt the building was destroyed by fire. Hnough
charcoal exists among the ruins to justify. this supposition, and
also the one that wood was employed about the doors and roof.
Further, the calcination of a portion of some of the stones, and
especially of their exposed surfaces, shows this to have been the
fact. If, now, there were several feet of earth upon the roof, and
if after the falling of this, portions of that part of the wall lined
only with brick tumbled inward, it can easily be seen that the
rooms were soon filled up with rubbish so high as to bury the
stones that faced the lower part of the wall. In some parts of the
building these stones may not have been completely buried, and
hence succeeding generations may have found and removed these
portions, without being aware of, or without caring to remove, those
which remain. If this has been the case, it will explain the fact
that the outlines of other rooms than those enumerated in our
description can be traced, although the stones which lined their
walls are not to be found. ‘That such stones once existed, is
inferred from the analogy of the rooms which are more perfectly
preserved, and from the fact that the doorways of these rooms,
like the other main passage ways, are guarded by the monster
oxen before described—which were probably so large as to be
immovable by any power that the pilferer of the works of his
predecessors could command.

Before closing this account, it will be but a just tribute of merit
to say a few words respecting the gentlemen who have been en-
gaged in developing the ruins now described. Mons. Botta, the
discoverer, is son of Botta, author of the History of the Ame-
‘‘tican Revolution. He has been for many years a traveller in
foreign countries, is acquainted with various languages, and is by
nature a man of taste and accurate discrimination. With all these
qualifications, however, had he not made the investigation of
antiquities a study, and had he not, by experience in Egypt, be-

126 — Dr. Leavenworth on several New Plants.

come aware of the value of accurate details in publications rela-
ting to this, his favorite science, he must often have failed to
record facts, the importance of which none but those learned in
this branch of knowledge are prepared to appreciate.

The work of making the plans and drawing the sculptures ad
bas-reliefs, was committed to Mons. Flandin, a French artist,
This gentleman, besides being master of his profession, brought
to this field extensive experience, acquired in similar labors
among the ruins of Persepolis. His aim in performing the part
assigned him, has been to represent with distinctness and accu-
racy, the size and character of the mound, the ground plan and
elevation of the walls, and the present state of all the bas-reliefs
and sculptures, leaving injured portions and imperfections in the
ruins to appear in the drawings, and to be restored and improved
or not, as may suit the taste and imagination of those who may
examine his records.

‘We understand that it is proposed to publish ine inscriptions
and drawings in four folio volumes, each volume to contain about
a hundred plates—half being inscriptions and half plans and
draughts. It is sufficient assurance of the character of this forth-
coming work, to say that it is in the hands of the French govern-
ment, and that it will be performed in the best style of the best
artists of France,

_ In conclusion, the writer would beg not to be nanideandil ac-
countable for any thing more than the general accuracy of the
foregoing statements. The fact that he writes six months after
visiting the ruins, while several hundred miles distant from them,
and at intervals of time crowded with other important duties, is
his apology for this remark.

Broosa, Asia Minor, April 5, 1845.

Art. XIII.—On several New Plants; by Dr. M. C. Leaven-
WwoRTH,—in a letter to the Junior Editor.

Tse description of the following singular plant (forming a new’
genus) appeared first in an article by Dr. John Torrey, in the At-
nals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, Vol. 1V,
p. 76, 1835— An account of several New Genera and Species
of North American Plants.” It has not yet been described in

Dr. Leavenworth on several New Plants. 127

any American work on botany, and its republication it is hoped
will not be unacceptable in this place.

AMPHIANTHUS.

Calyx 5-parted, and unequal. Corolla tubular-infundibuliform ;
limb somewhat bilabiate, 4-lobed ; inferior lobe somewhat larger.
Stamens 2, superior, included; inferior ones wanting. Style
simple ; stigma minutely bifid. Capsule obcordate, compressed,

valved, opening at the summit; valves entire. Seeds nume-
rous, naked, anatropous. Herbaceous, minute, annual, throwing
up filiform scapes; radical leaves linear, sessile ; flowers solitary,
both radical, and at the summit of the scapes.— Nat. Ord. Scro-
PHULARINER.

AMPHIANTHUS PUSILLUS.

Root annyal ; fibrous, the fibres compressed, linear. Stem very
short, compressed, bearing a tuft of oblong linear eaves at its
summit. Leaves about 2 lines long, rather obtuse, entire, vein-
less, somewhat succulent. Scapes filiform and very slender, and
1 to 13 inches in length, compressed, bearing a single pair of op-
posite oval bracts at the top. Bracts nearly sessile, obtuse, some-
what succulent, obscurely 3-nerved. Flowers very minute ; rad-
ical ones 2 to 3 on each plant, attached to short recurved pedun-
cles, which originate from the tuft of leaves; terminal ones soli-
tary, nearly sessile between the bractez, (that is, without any
proper pedicel.) Calyx 5-parted; the division oblong, erect,
very obtuse, dotted with a number of minute glands. Corolla
scarcely a line in length, white, straight, tapering downward ;
limb somewhat dilated, slightly bilabiate, 4-lobed; the lobes
erect, rounded, and ane what emarginate ; the fierce one larger.
Stamens constantly 2, superior, scarcely half as long as the co-
rolla; filaments slender, adnate the lower two thirds of their
length, smooth; cells of the anthers approximated, subglobose.
Ovary ovate, acute, compressed, surrounded at the base with a
minute red disk, 2-celled, many-seeded ; style rather larger than
. the ovary, subulate; stigma minute, bifid at the summit. Cap-
sule broadly obcordate, compressed, opening along the edge at
the summit; valves entire, convex; dissepiment adhering to the
valves. Seeds 10 to 15 in each cell, linear oblong, fuscous,
straight; embryo straight; cotyledons pie distinct ; radicle
oblong. 0a

128 Dr. Leavenworth on several New Plants.

Hab. in small excavations on flat rocks, where the soil is wet
during the flowering season; Newton County, Georgia. F'low-
ers in March and April. Dr. M. C. Leavenworth !

Ozs.—Specimens of this minute plant were sent to me in the
autumn of 1836, by the discoverer, and also by Dr. Boykin, of
Milledgeville, Georgia, who received them from Dr. Leaven-
worth. It has hitherto been found only in one spot, where it
occupies a space of four or five feet in diameter, to the exclusion
of almost all other plants. It resembles, at first sight, a Calli-
triche ; and when overflowed, the slender scapes doubtless be-
come natant. 'The plant belongs to the order Scrophularines,
and is nearly allied to Veronica. Its characters and habit are,
however, so peculiar, that there can be little doubt of its consti-
tuting anew genus. From Veronica it differs in its tubular-in-
fundibuliform, 5-lobed, and somewhat bilabiate corolla. The
most remarkable character of the plant is its twofeld inflores-
cence ; part of the flowers being produced near the root, on short
naked pedicels which originate among the radical leaves, while
others are supported on long capillary bibracteate scapes. ‘The
flowers in both situations are perfect; not like those of Amphi-
carpeea, some species of Polygala, and many Viole, of which
those produced near the root are incomplete. In Milium amphi-
carpon, Pursh, (of which Kunth has made a distinct genus, ) the
subterranean flowers, as in the Amphianthus, are perfect, ike
those of the panicle.

In describing the seeds, I have used the term anatropous in the
sense in which it is employed by Mirbel, and as explained by
Dr. Gray in his excellent Elements of Botany.

STILLINGIA OBLONGIFOLIA, mihi.

A new species, Linnzan class Moneecia, natural order Baphot-
bez. F'ruticose, (shrubby,) stem erect, 3 to 4 feet in height pre-
vious to branching, smooth, ? of an inch in thickness; branches
terminating the shrub (terminal) 4 to 6, 6 inches in length, sp2
ringly subdivided ; leaves entire, somewhat coriaceous, glabrous
and shining above, paler beneath, 3 to 4 inches in length, ob-
long, obtuse, slightly narrowed at base, an inch in width ; petiole
about 2 lines in length; leaves mostly at the extremity of the
branches; spikes of flowers terminating the branches. Flower-
ing in May. Found in flat, grassy, and somewhat wet situa-
tions in the piny woods one and a half miles west of Fort Frank

Dr. Leavenworth on several New Plants. 129

Brook. 'This stockade work was on the Stenahatchie, six miles
from its mouth.

Srituineta Licustrina, Michauz.

A-bushy and much branched shrub, 3 to 6 feet in height ;
leaves thin, entire, lanceolate, and tapering at each end. I do
not think it has been observed by others than myself westward
of Georgia. Found by me in eastern Texas, near the residence
of Dr. Veatch, about forty miles west of the Sabine River.

Uutmus crasstronia, Nuttall.

This tree has not yet found its way into any general work
upon American plants. Described by Mr. Nuttall in the Trans-
actions of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Leaves crowded, scarce an inch in length, 5 lines in width; ob-
long, ovate, obtuse, serrate, somewhat pubescent beneath, sca-
brous, unequal base, thick. Flowering in July. I notice this tree,
because Mr. Nuttall did not find it in flower, and was therefore
unable to complete the description. Found on the Red River
prairies in the vicinity of Fort Towson ; from thence westward
to the Cross Timbers, about thirty five miles beyond the mouth
of the False Washita, the last large tributary of the Red River
from the north. The Cross Timbers are said by the hunters to
be a line of timbers extending from the Red River to the Mis-
souri. I have also seen it in Texas skirting a small prairie two
miles from the Sabine, near the road from Natchitoches, La., to
Nagadoches, Texas.

The usual and proper time of flowering is undoubtedly in July.
I however found it in flower in Texas in September. Itisa
tree of middle size, and affording an abundance of shade. ‘Trunk
1 to 14 feet in diameter ; commences branching 6 or 8 feet from
the ground; branches very intricate and thick. In the Red River
prairies it is generally found on the summits of swells or eleva-
tions, in clumps of from four to ten, giving an agreeable variety
to the otherwise monotonous prairie. It would be useful and
ornamental asashade tree. In other American species of Ul-
mus the inflorescence appears early in the spring, (in the southern
states in February,) and precedes the foliage. In this the foliage
appears the last of April or the first of May, and the flowers in
July. wits

Vol. xt1x, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 17

130 =) Dr. Leavenworth on several New Planis.

ewe atte! -hF SopHora aFFINIs.

For description, see Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America,
natural order Leguminosa. Found by myself and Mr. Beyrich in
the Red River prairies, and by Mr. Drummond in Texas near the
same time. A shrub or small tree 20 to 25 feet in height, allied
to the Sophora japonica, but quite distinct. Legumes singular
in appearance, consisting of 4 or 5 globose nodes, with linear
contractions separating them; flowers numerous, pale purple,
large, and quite showy; as showy as any of the species of lo-
cust, (Robinia.) It would be extremely desirable to cultivate for
ornament. Abundant on a rocky ridge about one mile from Fort
Towson, near the road leading to the landing on Red River.

SaPINDUS.

This interesting and very rare tree, hitherto found only on the
coast of Georgia, frequently occurs on rocky eminences near
Fort Towson. A small tree varying in height from 15 to 35 feet.

Saneuinaria CaNaDENSIs.

This common plant I notice merely to record the extent of its
range. It is found at Fort Towson, on the rocky bluff near
Gale’s Creek. I have never met with it in Louisiana.

MAMMILLARIA VIVIPARA?

Found on the Red River prairies frequently. Natural order
Cactacea.

PuiwapeLpuus uirsutus, Nuttall.

Natural order Philadelphiz. Abundant on the bluff at Fort
Towson, near Gates’ Creek. A highly ornamental shrub 2 to 4
feet high ; flowers very abundant and extremely fragrant. Found
by Nuttall near the French Broad, Tennessee.

Nemostytes cexestina, (Iria celestina, Bartram.)

First noticed by Bartram, but lost sight of until lately. Found
by Nattall between the sources of the Pottoe of Arkansas and
the Kiameshe, a tributary of Red River. By myself on the
point of land at the junction of the Red and False Washita riv-
ers. Frequent in western Louisiana, near the Sabine River}
still more frequent on the Texas side of that river; occasionally
also in the vicinity of Fort Jessup, La. Inner petals are cucul-

New Electro-Magnetic Engine. 131

lated or cowled in a very peculiar manner. The centre of the
flower is yellowish and maculate; the laminz of the petals blue.

NemostyLes cemmirtora, Nuttall, in Trans. Philad. Phil. Soc.

Flowers a beautiful blue an inch or more in diameter. Found
by myself in the vicinity of Fort Towson, western Louisiana,
eastern Texas, and the prairies of Alabama near Demopolis, as
long since as the year 1821. Both species are beautiful plants,
belonging to the natural order Iride.

You will perceive my object in the details of this communica-
tion. It is—

Ist. The description of new and unknown plants.

2d. Additional memoranda relating to those that are rare and
little known.

3d. To enlarge the knowledge of the range of certain plants.

Waterbury, Ct., May 5, 1845.

Arr. XIV.—New Electro-Magnetic Engine; by Cuas. G. Pace,
M. D., Professor of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Columbian Col-
lege, Washington, D. C.

T'u1s new species of electromotion, which by way of distine-
tion I denominate the axial reciprocating engine, was unsuccess-
fully attempted in the year 1838, and notice made of it in
this Journal, Vol. xxxv, for 1839, pp. 261 and 262, together
With some other experiments upon the interior of helices. My
failure at that time was owing to a want of suitable batteries,
but being furnished in the winter of 1843-4, with some of the
excellent batteries of Prof. Grove, I recommenced the experi-
ment, and exhibited one of these interesting engines to the mem-
bers of the Geological Association held in this place in May,
1844, To sustain a small needle within the helix is a trite ex-
periment, but by the arrangements I have adopted, a bar of soft
iron or of steel (which becomes instantly and powerfully mag-
netized) is sustained entirely free from any visible support, and
this too by the action of only six small Grove’s batteries. This is
almost a realization of the fable of Mahomet’s coffin, or the statue of
Theamides. When the helix is connected with six pairs Grove’s,
in good action, it will draw up within its centre a bar of iron or
steel weighing two or three pounds, and sustain it with its upper

132 New Electro-Magnetic Engine.

end projecting above the helix. When the bar is very light, for
instance a tube of sheet iron, and somewhat longer than the helix,
its upper end will project nearly as much above, as its lower end
is below the helix. A variety of very pleasing experiments may
be made with things thus arranged. If the battery circuit be
broken rapidly, the bar will not drop, but exhibit a rapid vibratory
or dancing movement. If the battery current be slightly dimin-
ished without actual interruption, and there are various well
known ways of doing this, the bar will sink, and rise again on
restoring the full power of the circuit. The sensation is novel .
and peculiar when the bar is pulled down slowly through the
helix, owing to the great space—at least three inches—through
which the action is sensibly maintained. If a string be attached
to the bar and the circuit broken by drawing the wire across
a rasp or file, to a person holding the string, the sensation is pre-
cisely that felt by the angler when the fish has seized his hook.
As pleasing modifications of this experiment, I have contrived
several instruments, one of which is called the watchman in his
tower.* ‘The helix is mounted upon a stand, and the connexions
with its extremities so arranged, that when the connecting wires
with the battery are made to touch the legs of the stand, the ar-
mature or bar which is concealed within the helix, instantly starts
up and exhibits the figure of a man upon its upper end, which
falls back upon breaking the circuit.

Another curious instrument is the galvanic or magnetic gun.
Four or more helices arranged successively, constitute the barrel
of the gun, which is mounted with a stock and breech. The
bar slides freely through the helices, and by means of a wire
attached to the end towards the breech of the gun, it makes
and breaks the connexion with the several helices in succession,
and acquires such velocity from the action of the four helices,
as to be projected to the distance of forty or fifty feet. Among
the useful results of this principle of action, are a galvanometer
of great value to the experimenter, and the electro-magnetic
engine. The galvanometer gives an actual measurement by
weight of any combination of pairs, up to that number which
is beyond the saturating power of the bar or magnet within
the helix, that is to say, for an instrument with a given sized

* This instrument and the magnetic gun will be particularly described in the
next number.

New Electro-Magnetic Engine. 133

helix; for the size of the helix and bar may be increased so
as to measure the power of any number of combinations. The
bar in this case has its lower end just within the upper part
of the helix, and its upper end attached to the hook of the
spring balances commonly used in shops and elsewhere, for
weighing light goods, &c. The great power of the helix in
this case is due to the proportions of its length and diameter, and
the length of the wire to the quantity and intensity of the cur-
rent. The helix is about four inches long, three inches diameter,
central opening three fourths of an inch diameter, and of one
continuous copper wire, of size No. 16.
Fig. 1.

AXIAL RECIPROCATING ENGINE.

The construction of the engine will be readily understood from
inspection of fig. 1. a, a’ are two helices of the above description,
firmly secured to the base board, and set with their axes exactly in
a straight line. The two bars, 8, b’, connected together by a stout
brass rod, are attached to a sliding frame, f, f, and made to play
with as little friction as possible. The wires from the extremities
of the helices pass down through the base - Sig, 2
board, and the proper connexions are made
with the cut-off upon the shaft of the fly-
wheel, as shown in the detached figure 2.
The dotted lines indicate the course of the
Wires and their connexions with the cups,
¢, c, and the conducting springs, e, e, fig. 2.
The operation of the cut-off or electrotome,
will be readily understood by any one fa-
miliar with the rotary machines without
change of poles, which I published several

134 New Ellctro-Magnetic Engine.

years ago in this Journal, where the same device was used
for the. purpose of intercepting the galvanic current from one
helix or magnet, and throwing it upon a second, then a third,
and so on in succession. ‘The bar 8, as represented in the
figure, has nearly reached its position of equilibrium with the
helix a, and by its motion through the helix, has carried the
bar b’, which is attached to the same frame, into a position to be
acted upon by the helix a’. When 0 is at its position of equi-
librium, the crank of the fly-wheel is at one of its dead points,
the cut-off on the shaft intercepts the galvanic current from a,
and conducts it into a’, which then draws in the bar 6’, and thus
a reciprocating engine is produced, which in case of the model
above described, has three inches stroke.

It is obvious that the helices may be made to move instead
of the bars, but the choice would be given to the movable bars, ©
as they are in this case lighter than the helices. ‘The bars may.
be hollow or solid—solid bars answering best—and of soft iron or
steel, but soft iron is preferred. When the bars are of steel, im-
mediately after using the machine with the battery, the bars are
highly charged with magnetism, and if the battery be disen-
_ gaged and the machine worked mechanically, it becomes a mag-
neto-electric machine, furnishing bright sparks upon the cut-off,
and strong shocks. In this experiment the two cups, cc, are con-
nected by a short wire. In operating this machine by the battery,
it exhibits one of the most beautiful, simple, and at the same time.
most powerful movements ever produced by electro-magnetism.
The peculiar advantages of the arrangement are as follows:
First, a continuous action may be maintained through a very
great distance, as will be by-and-by explained. Second, the
retardation common to all other forms of electro-magnetic en-
gines, cannot occur here; for as the bars to be magnetized are.
small, they are very rapidly charged, and whatever magnetism
they may retain after the galvanic current is intercepted in the
helices, cannot retard their motion, as there can be no attraction
between the copper wire of the helices and the inclosed iron bar.
Hence with a given quantity of battery surface the maximum
of speed and power is obtained. The retardation from the per=
manent retention of magnetism, the time occupied in charging
a magnet to saturation, and the time required to discharge the
magnet, are serious obstacles in the way of obtaining any availa-

New Electro-Magnetie Engine. 135

ble power in ordinary electro-magnetic machines, and occasion
that singular anomaly,—that the actual power of such machines
diminishes as their rate of revolution increases. Add to these
difficulties, the influence of secondary currents, which, as I have
shown several years since,* always remagnetizes a bar of iron
after the battery current is cut off, and the third advantage of
the new engine will be appreciated,—for in the first place, the
secondary current occurs in all other forms of electro-magnetic
machines, when the armatures or magnets are very near the
point of greatest action, but in this engine the secondary current
occurs at the farthest possible distance from this point; and
in the second place, the secondary current has no perceptible
influence upon the inclosed bar when it does occur. The me-
chanical power derived from this arrangement, should it ever be
found economical, will be increased, by increasing the number of
small machines. Any length of stroke may be obtained by
arranging the helices in a straight line and causing the bar or
bars to pass through the whole length, multiplying the number
of helices, in proportion to the length of stroke.
It has long been a mooted question among mechanics, whether

a rotary steam engine would have any real advantages over the
reciprocating engine, and as no genius has arisen to give usa
rotary engine which might claim comparison, it is séi// a ques-
tion. But in regard to this kind of electro-magnetic engine, the
rotary form is most desirable, for certain reasons to be hereafter
explained. ‘This interesting modification of the experiment, was
matured some few days after the reciprocating engine was com-
pleted, and will be shortly explained. In addition to the

of the helix in drawing the bar within itself, I have availed my-
self of an extra source of attraction, viz. the actual power of the
magnet, which receives an additional impulse by the attraction
between it and an armature or bar of soft iron. This impulse,
which is powerful, is received at an unfavorable moment, as it
is nearly at the end of the stroke, when the crank is only a short
distance from the dead point; but I have made use of it never-
theless to advantage, by an arrangement which I will describe in
the next number. In the rotary form there is no mechanical
difficulty of this nature to overcome.

* This Journal, 1838, Vol. xxx1v, p. 372. > sag

136 _. Axial Galvanometer.

eas XV.—Azial Galvanometer, and Double Axial Reciproca-
» ting Engine; by Cuartes G. Pace, Prof. Chem. and Pharm.
. Columbian College, Washington, D. C.

The Avial Galvanometer.—As this instrument possesses char-
acteristics distinguishing it from all others, I have selected for it
the term azial, as appropriate and in some measure descriptive of
its character. In all the known forms of galvanometer, the mag-
netic needle or a bar of magnetized steel is used, to indicate the
action of the galvanic current, or else the coil of wire itself is
free to move, while the needle or bar is stationary. In all such
instruments there is one liability to error from a source not
sufficiently regarded, viz. the frequent disturbance of the power
of the needle by the magnetizing power of the current in the
coil, which, if the needle is in such position as would naturally
result from the action of the coil, will slowly increase its mag-
netic power, and if forced by accident or otherwise into a reverse
position, will diminish its power, and ultimately reverse its po-
larity, provided the current be powerful and the action continued
for any length of time.. In the new instrument, no permanent
magnet is used, the motion necessary for purposes of indication
being made by the action of the coils upon a bar of soft iron.
Every bar of soft iron retains, after being powerfully magnetized,
a certain amount of magnetic power; but this, if the bar is not
very large and hard, is very small, and may be considered as
nearly a constant quantity. I have sometimes thought that the
term absolute galvanometer might well be applied to this instru-
ment, as it immediately indicates by weight the absolute force
exerted upon the iron bar. I would not recommend the mount-
ing of the instrument in the style exhibited in the figure, as the
sketch is taken from the instrument in its primitive form... Many
modifications will suggest themselves of modes of constructing
the instrument, as well as the means of indicating the forces.

» The U form bar 2, 2, Fig. 1, is of soft iron carefully annealed,
well polished, and graduated to spaces of one sixth of an inch
upon. one of its legs; the diameter of the iron is about one eighth
of an inch less. than the opening in the ceutre of the helix, to
allow free play as the helices are raised and lowered, or the mag-
nets drawn down within them. The. bar is suspended by a

Axial Galvanometer. 137

small brass wire 3, passing through the top anes of the frame-
work, and attached to the short arm of a bent lever balance, 4.
The helices are supported upon the shelf 7, which is raised and
lowered, and sustained by means of the pins 6,6 passing through
holes in the frame and under a projection from the outs which
slides freely in the slot 5, 5. Fig: 1.

The wires from the helices :
p,m, are to be connected in
any suitable manner with
the poles of a. battery.
Guide-rods or pins may be
inserted in the poles of the
magnet, which pins or rods
may pass through holes in
the centre of a plate of me-
tal let into the lower board
of the stand, or one a little
more raised, so as to allow
for the motion of the entire
length of the bar; but this
last device is hardly neces-
sary, for if the bar should
incur friction by touching
the helices, it is easily freed
from it by slightly shaking
the apparatus. Ihavesome-
times used the spring bal-
ance instead of the bent
lever, and although the for-
mer is not so sensitive as
the latter, yet it possesses
some advantages. In the
bent lever balance, the point of suspension of the wire 3 must
describe an arc of a circle, while in the spring balance the point
of suspension moves in a straight line, making less ‘Tiability to
friction.

Operation.—When an intensity battery, say two or any number
of Grove’s battery, is connected with the helices by means of the
extremities p,m, the bar 2,2 is drawn down with a degree of
force which will be indicated by the scale of the balance. The

Vol. xn1x, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 18

a

Ih iS
iB i

S

138 Azial Galvanometer.

force indicated will vary with the degree of insertion of the bar.
When its legs are just within the helices, the action is slight ; as
they descend further, the action increases, until they reach a
point about two thirds the way down the helices, when the ae-
tion is at its maximum. By raising and lowering the shelf 7,
the action may be varied accordingly, and when the bar is so far
inserted as to give the maximum of effect, it should be left thus
far inserted when the greatest degree of sensitiveness is required.
It will be found that from the first insertion of the legs of the
bar within the helices, to their entire insertion up to the bend 9,
the force is continually exerted to draw down the bar; and in
the experiments performed with a bar 10 inches long, the force
exerted by five pairs Grove’s battery was equal to two pounds.
As the point of greatest action is neither in the centre, nor at the
extremities of the helix, but somewhere between them, [ find
that the position of this point varies with the length of the bars
employed, and has different relations in differently proportioned
helices. This instrument is not offered asa sensitive galvano-
scope, but is calculated to measure the force of currents when
large batteries are used, or any number of small batteries joined
as a compound battery. It affords at once a valuable instrament
for determining the properties of helices of various sizes and
lengths, of magnets, and of all those relations and proportions
between battery surface, size of iron for magnets, and number
of convolutions and size of wire, which must be determined before
the economy of magnetic power can be settled. It would require
a vast expenditure of time and material to settle the above points,
for it is obvious that the magnetism of the bar does not depend
upon the quantity of electricity which the battery is capable of
generating, but upon the quantity circulating in the wire around
the magnet, as well also as upon other conditions. For instance,
if the wire employed in these experiments be wound after the
method of Prof. Henry in separate strands, the five pairs Grove’s
will manifest but very little action upon the magnet or inclosed
bar. And if the same wire is one continuous piece, as it is actu-

ly used, and the same surface exposed in the five pairs be con
verted into one pair, the action will then also’ be very slight.*
This is one of the most important principles to be regarded in all
ts noun a papa Se aT a
ing a test of the inappli

ed, cannot in view of the above, be regarded as a ‘ord-
cability of electro-magnetism as a mechanical agent. —

Double Axial Reciprocating Engine. 139

of the applications of galvanism for the development of magnet-
ism. ‘The proportions of battery, and length and size of wire,
and relations of length to diameter of the helices used in the in-
strument just described seem to be very near correct, and I am
indebted for them to Mr. Vail, Prof. Morse’s assistant. I had
never seen so great a weight sustained within the helix as in one
of about the size used above, and first kindly shown and loaned
to me by Mr. Vail. The bar he sustained within a single helix
by means of 10 pairs Grove’s battery, weighed over half a pound.
By modifying the proportions, I have succeeded in sustaining
over three pounds, and believe that even ten times that amount
may be sustained free of visible support, by proper attention to
the several ratios required.

Double Axial Reciprocating Engine.

Before entering upon the description of this improvement, I
may be allowed a few remarks as to the nature and design of
these publications. Conceiving that this, and the first machine
described, and also the several instruments which I have designed
upon the same principle of action, form an entirely new era in
the science of electromotion, (if we except the delicate experi-
ment of Dela Rive’s ring, and others of the class of electro-
dynamies,) I have thought that the invention would ultimately,
and perchance very soon, become one of practical value, and am
therefore desirous of securing by patent the right to the following
modifications, viz. the single axial engine, the double axial en-
gine, and the rotary form of engine, dependent upon the same
species of action; which last will be hereafter described. The
galvanometer, heii an instrument calculated to be productive of
great good to science, without any further modification, the gal-
vanic or magnetic gun, the watchman in his tower, and some
other interesting contributions to the physique amusante hereafter
to be mentioned, 1 give to the public as instruments of philosoph-
ical research and amusement. Situated as I am, being one of
the examiners in the Patent Office, it becomes necessary for-me
to take an unusual step, to secure my title to this novel invention.
By the statute law, no officer in the Patent Office can take out a
patent for any invention, nor acquire any interest in a patent after
his appointment to office. . Consequently, if one so situated shoul
make an important invention, he can have no security as long as
his invention is known toany second person. As publicity with-

140 Double Avial Reciprocating Engine.

out abandonment is the strongest possible testimony in favor of
an inventor, I have resorted, with your indulgence, to the pages
of this Journal, to establish the date and nature of my invention,
and to give due caution to all as to its use in any way to engender
liability. Although I cannot, without resigning my office, enjoy
the usual rights of inventors, yet I have every reason to believe
that Congress will, by special act, authorize me to receive and
hold a patent for this and some other kindred inventions.

The use and action of the galvanometer will readily explain
the basis of the double engine. The power of the helices is
much better displayed when the U form bar is used instead ofa
straight bar of iron, as in the first engine. As the straight bar
reaches its equilibrium with the helix, when its projecting por-
tions are of equal length, or rather when the centre of the helix
exactly coincides with the centre of the bar, it was plainly infer-
rible, that the U form bar would be drawn through the helices
until they were both intercepted by the bend of the bar. This
was fully verified by experiment, as follows. A bar of iron of
this form, having its legs ten inches in length, was mounted upon
a sliding frame—part of its weight counterpoised, and its legs
inserted into twovhelices of three inches length ; the helices were
then connected with the battery, and the bar was drawn through
the helices until they rested upon its bend. Thus with a single
pair of helices and a single bar of iron, a continuous impulse was
given through the space of ten inches, affording at once the ele-
ments for the most simple and efficient exhibition of magnetic
power as a propelling agent. The power, as measured by the
axial galvanometer, averaged in this experiment 13 pounds
through the ten inches; in the last half inch, or that near the
bend, the power was two ounces, and at the point of greatest
action it was 33 pounds. I find, moreover, that the helices, if
properly suspended, will pass over the entire length of two feet ;
though, from the difficulty of magnetic induction through such
long bars, the power is feeble through a considerable portion of
the-space. The machine represented. by fig, 2, has six inches
stroke, and although its mechanical power has not been abso-
lutely tested, yet, for the elements employed, it is by far the most
powerful engine of the kind I have seen; and its operation is sO
encouraging that Iam preparing for anothae engine, of one foot
stroke. Upon inspecting the figure, the whole arrangement,
which is very simple, will be understood at a glance. The U

Double Axial Reciprocating Engine. WAL

form bar, 6 b, is joined to one of a similar size and shape, placed
at the other end of the sliding frame, cc. They are joined by
means of brass rods about six inches in length, and of the same
thickness as the bars of iron, and both are firmly secured by the
cross heads and sliding rods of the frame, ec. The helices, a a,
are firmly cemented in a stout casting, d d, which also contains

the bearings of the sliding rods. The frame is attached to the
fly wheel f; by the connecting rod e, and crank shaft g, after
the usual manner. The dotted lines represent the course of the
wires from the helices underneath the base board, which again
pass up through it, near the crank shaft, to be connected with an
electrotome or cut off. This part of the engine will be under-
stood without further explanation by all familiar with the subject.
It will be noticed, however, that instead of using a single pair of
helices upon the U form bar, there are two pairs. ‘This arrange-—
ment makes a great gain of power, for the action upon the bars is
made consecutively by the helices while the bars are passing the
strongest points of each. - In the machine of one foot stroke, there
will be four pairs upon each bar, operating consecutively. It is
obvious that they may be increased in number as the length of
stroke increases, even up to two feet. Ihave also availed myself
of a mode of applying the direct power of the magnet upon a bar
of soft iron, in conjunction with the continuous action of the he-
lices; which adds about ten per cent. to the actual power of the

142 Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury.

machine. The nature of this last improvement will be hereafter

explained. The gun, the rotary engine, and some other modifi-_

cations, will be hereafter described. 'The above modifications of

the engine, the rotary form and the other instruments, were all

invented in less than a month’s time after the single axial engine

and communicated in confidence to a few friends. 7
Washington, D. C., June 10, 1845.

Arr. XVI.—Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury,
May 8th, 1845; by Professor Otmsrep, of Yale College.

By recurring to the records of observations on previous transits
of Mercury, as given in the Philosophical and Astronomical
Transactions, and in various scientific journals, we find that the
circumstances under which they have occurred, have seldom been
entirely favorable. Hither the ingress or the egress has happened
in the night ; or one or more of the contacts, and frequently all,
have been concealed by clouds. Of the several transits which
have taken place within the present century, the late transit was
the only one which presented itself to our astronomers under cir-
cumstances favorable to observation. Fortunately, this tran-
sit afforded toa number of accurate observers an unobstructed
view of the entire phenomenon, and to others, the opportu-
nity for accurate observations on at least one set of contacts,
either those of the beginning or those of the end. Presenting
itself to all parts of the United States, as far west as New
Orleans, between the hours of ten in the morning and six in
the evening, and consequently ata period in the twenty-four
hours extremely convenient to the astronomer, it afforded’ t
best opportunities for determining the times of contact, and all
the physical peculiarities of the phenomenon. In some parts of
the country, on the east, indeed, the morning was threatening
and boisterous, so as to prevent good observations on the ingress;
and in other parts, on the west, clouds prevented observations on
the egress; butso far as we have heard, all observers enjoyed the
satisfaction of seeing at least either the ingress or the egress. At
New Haven, New York, West Point, Philadelphia, Cincinnati
and Charleston, the sky was cloudless throughout ; at New Ha-
ven the covering of clouds, which had overspread the morning

Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury. 143

sky, was seen, about an hour previous to the first contact, to be
gradually moving from west to east, leaving from the western
horizon upwards, a very pure sky. We watched the line of sep-
aration with much anxiety as the moment of first contact ap-
proached, and had the satisfaction of seeing it clear the sun al-
most precisely at the desired instant. At Cambridge, Nantucket,
and Providence, the ingress was lost in consequence of clouds,
but the latter part of the phenomenon was favorably seen ; at
Hudson, Ohio, the weather was fine until nearly 5 o’clock P. M.;
and at Cincinnati, the four contacts were all in view.

We have before us accounts of observations on this interesting
phenomenon, made at Providence by Prof. Caswell, at Nantucket
by William Mitchell, at New Haven by Prof. Olmsted and Mr.
Francis Bradley, at New York by Prof. Loomis, at West Point
by Prof. Bartlett and Lieut. Roberts, at Philadelphia by Prof.
Kendall, at Washington by Lieut. Maynard and Profs. Coffin
and Hubbard, at Charleston, S. C. by Prof. Gibbes, at Cincinnati
by Prof. Robinson, and at Hudson, Ohio, by Prof. Nooney.

The observations at Yale College were rendered, by peculiar
circumstances which it is needless to mention, less accurate than
we had hoped for; so that we could not confide at all in our first
contact, nor entirely in our second, or the first internal contact.
The want of a suitable observatory for using our ten feet refractor,
(Clark’s telescope, ) prevented the complete success of these two
observations with that instrument ; but we had good opportunities
afterwards of viewing with it the physical appearances of the
phenomenon, and of observing the two last contacts. The slow~
ness of the planet’s relative motion, being only about an are of
one second in twenty seconds of time, and the want of a distinct
indentation upon the sun’s limb, like that which marks the com-
mencement of a solar eclipse, conspire to increase the difficulty
of being certain of the moment of ingress; while the eagerness
of the observer to catch the first glimpse of the real object, whose
image is so.vividly painted on the mental vision, exposes him to
the danger of transferring to the skies what is present merely to
the eye of the.mind. Prof. Loomis (who, however, unfortu-
nately, had the use of only a small telescope, wholly unsuited to
so skillful an observer) remarks, that he was unable to see the in-
gress, until the planet had advanced one-third of its diameter up-

on the sun’s disk ; and- he deems it impossible that the first con-

.

Yad

144 Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury.

tact could be recognized with entire confidence until at least
twenty seconds after it had actually taken place. ‘The Cincin-
nati observations give the time of first contact within thirty one
seconds of the computed time; and those of Hudson, Ohio, dif-
fer from the time assigned in the American Almanac, by only
about four seconds,—a coincidence which would seem to confirm
the computation in a remarkable degree, did not the very exact-
ness imply that the computation was too late, since the ingress
could not have been distinctly seen so soon after the moment of
contact. The West Point observations give the time of ingress,
(marked “ uncertain”) 1m. 28-7s. later than the time assigned in
the United States Almanac ; and the Charleston observations give
the time of ingress 2m. later than that assigned by the same
authority. The time of first contact at Washington, as reported
by Lieut Maynard, was 17-1s. earlier than the computed time,
being (when corrected for error of clock) 11h. 1lm. 1-9s., while
the time given in the United States Almanac was 11h. 11m. 19s.

If we compare the intervals between the first and second con-
tacts, a like or even greater discrepancy will appear.

m, §&.
At New York, this interval was, 2 38*
At West Point, Sd 3 312
At Western Reserve College, “ % a“ 3 34:3

_ At Cincinnati, st ¥ 6 3:33

At Charleston, sf M4 ddA

These comparisons show that little reliance can be placed
upon the observations made on the first internal contact in @
transit of Mercury. Similar discrepancies have also been re-
corded by accomplished observers abroad. Thus in the ob-
servations made at Utrecht of the transit of May 5, 1832, by Dr.
Moll and his assistants, the difference between observation and
computation varied, as reported by the different obervers at the
same place, nearly a minute.t Beside ‘the inherent difficulties
arising from the slow relative motion of the planet, and the want
of perceptible indentation until it has advanced far on the sun’s
limb, the magnifying and defining powers of the telescope will
also have much influence. This is especially the case with th
observations on the internal contacts, where the visibility of the

* The time of actual ingress was not given, but only the time when first seen.
t Ast. Trans. vi, 114.

Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury. 145

luminous ring that shows, on the one side, the completion of the
ingress, and on the other, the beginning of the egress, will de-
pend not only upon the acuteness of the observer, but also upon
the excellence of his instrument. The complete formation of
the ring in the first internal contact, and its rupture in the second,
furnish the best instants for observation. Professor Loomis de-
termined the moment of the second internal contact. by taking
the mean of three observations,—first, when a thin ring of
light was seen between the limb of the planet and the sun; sec-
ondly, when this ring was reduced to a bare line of light; and,
thirdly, when there was a decided rupture of the ring. Thelow
magnifying power of his telescope rendered this method expe-
dient, although, had that power been great, the rupture of the
ring might perhaps itself have afforded an instant sufficiently
definite.

The first internal contact, occurring as it did when the sun was
near the meridian, and when the mind of the observer had had
opportunity to gain entire composure, was probably the most fa-
vorable instant of the whole for an accurate observation. Ac-
cordingly, the discrepancies which the observations on this point
present are within more moderate limits than those on the first
external contact. Reducing to the longitude of New York, (no
allowance being made for parallax, which would be a needless
refinement in observations differing so much from each other, )
they are as follows:

1st Internal Contact.
h. m. 8. h. m. 8.
New York, il’ 27 58:3 Cincinnati, IL 27 496
Hudson,(Ohio,)11 27 15°6 West Point, 11 28 14-9
Charleston, 11° 28 “36-4

Least difference, 8-7s. Greatest difference, lm. 20°8s.

The observations‘on the second internal contact present the
following results:

2nd. Internal Contact.

Re: im 8. h. 8.
New York, 5 50 55:7 Nantucket, 5 60 51:4
Cincinnati, 5 50 480 West Point, 5 61 98
Providence, 6 61 198 New Haven, 5 51 2146
Charleston, 5 51 254 Washington, 5 62 460

Vol. xx1x, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 19

146 Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury.

_ With one or two exceptions, a nearer agreement is seen here
than at the second contact ; and this would probably have been
the best time of all for obtaining an accurate observation, had
not the proximity of the sun to the western horizon, produced
a tremulous and ill-defined appearance of the sun’s limb. In the
present case, however, the observations on the last external con-
tact differ least of all from each other. They are as follows:

Last Contact.

h m. 3. h m. 5.
New York, 5 54 290 NewHaven, 5 54 356
West Point, & 64. 368 Cincinnati, 5 64° 186
Charleston, 5 54 40-4 Nantucket, 5 54 164
Providence, 5 54 488

Least difference, 1-2s. Greatest difference, 32-4s.

On comparing the observed with the computed times of egress,
we arrive at the following results. |

Observed later than the computed time.

New Yor, ....., £. a4 Charleston, . os

New Haven,. . . 1 53 antaceel, . . ., 1. on

Cincinnati, . Cae * § Providence, 2
Mean, Im. A2s.

This result exhibits as near a coincidence between observa-
tion and the calculations given in the American and United
States Almanacs, as could have been reasonably expected. Ata
sitting of the Institute of France so late as the 3d of March last,
M. Leverrier exhibited calculations which he had made relatively
to this transit, according to the tables of the motions of Mer-
eury, which he had presented to the Academy in 1843. His cal-
culations differ considerably from those given in the Nautical Al-
manac, the Berlin Ephemeris, and the Connoissance des Temps;
and, indeed, these authorities differ materially from each other,
as appears by the following comparison.

Ist — 2d Contact. 3d Contact. 4th Contact.

h. h mh & Be TBs he moe
Nautical Almanac, 4
Berlin Ephemeris, 4
Conn. des Temps, 4
M. Leverrier, 4

40 4 32 15 10 54 58 10 58 33

m.

28 annaedilesfialhe Rita Be

28 19 4 38 01 10 56 25 11 08 08
28

29 55. 4 33 36 10 58 59 1 02 41

Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury. 147

_ In the transit of 1782, the French astronomers differed in respect
to the ingress through the whole range from 19s. to 3m. and 9s. ; _
and at the third contact they differed from 21s. to 1m. 44s.

If we look back to former periods and see how far observation
agreed with calculation, our present results, discordant and imper-
fect as they are, indicate an encouraging advance in the knowl-
edge of the motions of Mercury, and inspire the hope of soon be-
ing able to tabulate them truly. In the transit of 1661, astrono-
mers watched at their telescopes four days. Delambre in his
System of Astronomy, (t. II, p. 511,) has given us the full particu-
lars of the observations of the French astronomers on the transit
of 1786, showing that the best tables of that period are in error
nearly three fourths of an hour. “ The ingress (says he) occurred
at Paris during the night. At sunrise, it was rainy. All the astrono-
mers of Paris were at their telescopes, but tired of waiting they
had quit their posts half an hour after the predicted time of egress
was past, abandoning all hope. Afterwards the sun came out.

_M. Messier, who had been making observations on the solar spots,
the preceding days, wished to see them again, and thus got a
sight of Mercury and observed his egress. I had remained at
my telescope for another reason. Having made some researches
respecting Mercury, I had seen that for the transit of 1786, the
tables of Halley gave the egress an hour and a half later than
those of Lalande. I had more confidence in the latter, but it
was not demonstrated that Halley was decidedly wrong. I re-
solved to wait, therefore, till the moment indicated by Halley’s
tables, but I was not compelled to wait so long, since the phenom-
enon arrived three fourths of an hour after the time of Lalande,
but still three fourths of an hour earlier than that of Halley. Le
Monnier, Pingre, Lalande, and his nephew, Mechain, Cassini, and
his three adjuncts, deceived by the predicted time, had all missed
the observation. Ishowed them mine that evening, and they
would hardly believe it. This was the first observation which I
had oceasion to repeat to the Academy of Sciences, and it is from
that epoch that I date my career as a practical astronomer.”

Mercury appeared on the solar disk a round black spot, having
an apparent diameter of 11/.6, and of course occupying an ex-
tent of only one hundred and sixty fourth part of the sun’s di-
ameter. No traces of an atmosphere encircling the planet, could
be discerned by an attentive examination for this special object,

148 Report of Observations on the Transit of Mercury.

with our ten feet refractor, with different powers from 55 to 110;
nor, so far as we have heard, were any such appearances as were
supposed by the earlier observers of the transits of Mercury to
indicate an atmosphere, recognized on the present occasion.

In the observations of Dr. Moll on the transit of May 5th,
1832, that astronomer speaks of having seen a grayish spot, on
the disk of the planet, and the same appearance was remarked by
his assistants ;* and he tells us that Schréder and Harding had
noted a similar appearance during the transit of 1799. But none
of the reports before us speak of seeing any thing on the face of
the planet, but all who mention its aspect describe it as uniform-
ly black. Its deep shade of black, indeed, seemed to contrast it
very strikingly with several solar spots visible along with it on
the sun. Three of these were conspicuous objects in our ten feet
telescope, all on the hemisphere of the sun, opposite to that tra-
versed by the planet, and of a pale hue compared with that "
the latter.

In the transit of Mercury of May Sth, 1832, M. Schenck, a_
German observer, thought he saw a satellite accompanying the
planet, which he describes as a round black spot as large as the
head of a pin,t and distant from the primary about two or three
diameters of the latter. It occasionally disappeared, and then
came into view again; but half an hour before the egress, the
surface of the sun being very clear and unagitated, he had a
well-defined view of the little spot for fifteen minutes, especially
when he employed a glass not deeply colored, and he exhibited it
to two other persons. At this time, he found it at the northeast of
Mercury, although it had been at the north in the morning. M.
Schenck was not able, with the closest attention, to observe the
egress of thislittle point from the disk of the sun, immediately after
that of the planet. He was of opinion that the satellite was
situated a little behind Mercury, and was nearer to the sun than
the planet.

M. Schumacher does not think that M. Schenck really saw
a satellite of Mercury, but ascribes the appearance to a minute
solar spot.

Nothing of this kind, so far as we have learned, was seen dut-
ing the late transit; but it would not seem difficult to distingyeoe

* Astr. Trs. VI,115. ¢ Astron, Nach. No. 228; Bib. Univers. t. 5, p- 88.

Bibliography. 149

well-defined, round black spot, such as the one in question is de-
scribed to have been, from the irregular, ill-defined, and lighter
colored object which a solar spot, however minute, would pre-
sent to the eye of the observer.

P.S. Since the foregoing was in type, we have received a
statement of the observations made at Cambridge observatory by
Messrs. Bond, and at the Philadelphia High School Suary aeey
by Professor Kendal 1.

At Cambridge, where the i —— was lost, the contacts at the
egress were as follows :—

Sidereal time. Mean solar time,
h. ae
Internal contact, Pet ae ee, Ps 59 6 2 32
External * - 9 12 45 6. 5 87

_At Philadelphia, the following results were obtained.

Sidereal time. Mean solar time.

h. m. i Me #.
1st male contact, ‘ 2 2% 285 Wl 21 44:27
1st Inte do. 3 2 2 66 11 23 41:94
2d aren do. ‘ 8 52-553 5 46 27-76
2d External do. ‘ 8 56 258 5 49 57-69

Art. XVII.—Bibliographical Notices.

1. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the
years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842; by Cuartes Wixxkzs, U.S. N.
Commander of the Expedition. 5 Vols. with an Atlas.—Philadelphia,
1845, Lea & Blanchard.—These noble volumes are honorable alike to
the country and the expedition whose history they relate. In style of
execution, they have not been exceeded in this country, and the numer-
ous engravings are by our best artists. The work abounds in strange
incidents both by sea and land, which throw unusual life and interest
into the valuable details of facts presented, regarding the features,
productions and people of the various lands visited.

The progress of the expedition during its absence, has been from time
to time noticed in this Journal, and a connected outline of its course and
results has been given since its return, in Volume XLIv, page 393. Be-
sides the descriptions of men and manners, and a large amount of geo-
graphical and statistical information, the volumes contain much that is
of scientific interest, and especially so to the geologist. The fine illus- |
trations and descriptions, of the island of Hawaii, lay open to the eye
that vast region of volcanic action, and with their guidance and aid, the

150 Bibliography.

reader may enjoy the terrors of the scene, without experiencing its
dangers ; and the accurate surveys made of Kilauea, the summit crater
of Munna Loa, and other smaller craters, together with the course of
the eruption of 1840, give special interest to this part of the work.
We might fill many sheets of this Journal with facts of interest regard-
ing the various countries explored, the currents and winds of the ocean
and other phenomena observed during a long cruise over the wide
world ; but for the present we confine ourselves to extracts from or ab-
stracts of the observations of Capt. Wilkes on the Antarctic ice and
and land, and more particularly on the formation of icebergs in those
regions, with occasional notices of connected topics, and referring our
readers for a general view to the full abstract already cited from Vol.
xLiv, of the general objects and results of the expedition.

Before we proceed farther, we wish to remind our readers that other
works, perfectly distinct from the narrative, are in preparation in their
various departments, by the men of science, aided by the able artists
who accompanied the expedition, and we are happy in the assurance,
afforded by the splendid illustrations of the narrative, that those of the
scientific works will be equally worthy of the occasion.

The gentlemen alluded toabove, were—Messrs. N. Hale, Philologist ;
C. Pickering and T. R. Peale, Naturalists ; J. P. Couthouy, Concholo-
gist; J. D. Dana, Mineralogist and Geologist ; W. Rich, Botanist ; J. D.
Breckenridge, Horticulturist; and J. Drayton and A. T. Agate as
Draughtsmen ; there were also several assistants.

The squadron consisted of the Vincennes, commanded by Capt.
Wilkes; the Peacock, by Capt. Hudson; the Porpoise, by Lieut. Ring-
gold; the Relief, store-ship, by Capt. Long; the Sea Gull, by Mr. Reed ;
and the Flying Fish, by Mr. Knox. The Sea Gull was lost with all her
officers and crew off Cape Horn, and the Peacock, on her return at the
close of the expedition, was stranded and totally lost on a bar at the
mouth of the Columbia River, but her officers and people were all saved,
although with a total loss of every thing but life.

We now proceed with our citations regarding the ice and some other
topics. In the second cruise towards the South Pole, on the 10th of
January, 1840, in lat. 61° 8’S., the Vincennes encountered the first ice-
berg, the sea water being at 32°; they were close to it and found it &
mile long, and one gundred and eighty feet high above water ; a second
iceberg was discovered at thirty miles, and a third at sixty miles south
of the first. "These islands were cavernous and fissured by the action
of the sea, as if about to be rent asunder, and they were apparently
stratified at a high angle to the horizon. Many other icebergs of simi-
lar character occurred, and as they increased in number the sea grew
smoother and without apparent motion, until they were stopped by @
compact barrier of ice enclosing large square icebergs; the barrier

Bibliography. 151

consisted of masses closely packed, and of every variety of shape and
size. ‘The night was beautiful and every thing seemed sunk in sleep,
except the sound of the distant and low rustling of the ice, that now
and then met the ear.” Lat. 64° 11’ S., variation 22° E. The water
was of an olive green and there were some faint appearances of distant
land. Barom. 29-20 inches; the air at 30° F.; water 32°.

The Porpoise in obedience to orders made Macquarie Island, lat.
54° 44’ S., to look out for signals from the other ships and to leave them
inturn, A tremendous surf breaking upon a rock-bound reef, rendered
landing all but impossible. Lieut. Eld and the quarter-master, by plung-
ing into the breakers breast high, gained the shore and planted the sig-
nals, although none were found. ‘The island is a desolate, inhospitable
region, inhabited only by birds, especially by penguins.*

On the 11th and 12th, in lat. 61° 30’ S., long. 161° 5’ E. the first ice
islands were seen ; newspapers could be read at midnight without artifi-
cial light.

Jan. 16 they descried the new continent, and the numerous proofs
presented in detail in the narrative leave no doubt that the discovery was
real and original ; it is impossible within our limits to give the details of
evidence ; mountains were seen in the distance, over the icebergs which
were all light and brilliant, and in great contrast; the vicinity of land
was indicated by the flight of birds, with whales and penguins. The
Peacock sounded with 850 fathoms without finding bottom. The field
ice is composed of a vast number of pieces, the smallest about six feet
in diameter, the largest sometimes five to sixhundred. Most of them,

* Mr. Eld found them in myriads, the entire sides of the rugged hills being
covered with them. As he crossed a ravine and ascended towards their principal

at the stranger’s intrusion, and ee their ire by snapping and biting both. the
trowsers sh flesh, pinching it violent

s he wanted specimens, he Genes by kicking them down the precipice, and
Bhetkea his assailants on the head, and when he left them and a few eggs, order
to ascend the hill higher, two albatrosses having failed to make an
the dead birds, bore off two of the eggs in their beaks, although they were of the
size of those of a goose. These eggs, doubtless those of the penguin, were found

egg or two, “ with little or no grass, sticks or any thing else to form a nest of.”
_ On a still higher hill of volcanic rock the nests, with a young one or two in each,
were within two feet of each other. One - the parent birds kept watch on the
nest while their d with down, endeavored to
nestle under their smati wings. These penguins (the Eudyptes chrysocome) are
from 16 to 20 inches high, breast white, back nearly black, the rest of a dark dun
ans excepting the head, which has a grace ceful plume of four or five yellow feath-
n side of the head. They stand in rows like Lilliputian soldiers. There
were also penguins without plumes, and green paroquets with a small red spot on
the head.

152 Bibliography.

especially the largest, were covered with about eighteen inches of snow,
The whole at a distance appeared like a vast level field, composed of
shapeless, angular masses of every possible figure, enclosing here and
there a table-topped iceberg.

The Vincennes was making rapid headway with a heavy sea, when
in an instant all was perfectly still and quiet. The sleepers were
awakened by the sudden transition, and all rushed on deck, for it was
quite evident that they were embayed within a line or barrier of ice,
and as they were proceeding rapidly in an impenetrable fog, it was
realized that they might be running to destruction, for the ice was
soon made on either tack, and the rustling sound occasioned by its
movement was distinctly heard. It cost the Vincennes several hours
of maneuvering to extricate herself from this perilous situation.

On the 19th of January the sun and moon both appeared above the
horizon at the same time, and each throwing its light abroad. ‘The
moon was nearly full. The sun with his deep golden rays illuminated
the icebergs and distant continent, while the moon in the opposite hori-
zon tinged the vicinal clouds with its silvery light.*

They now encountered icebergs of magnificent dimensions, snack
of a mile long, and one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high, with
perfectly smooth sides ; some were arched and cavernous, the sea thun-
dering into these deep recesses, and the birds flying in and out as in
ruined castles, and abbeys, and natural caverns, ‘¢ while here and there
a bold projecting bluff crowned with pinnacles and turrets, resembled
some Gothic keep. Every noise on board, even our own voices, was
reverberated from the pure white wales whose tabular masses resem-
bled the most beautiful alabaster.” “If an immense city of ruined
alabaster palaces can be anegined, of every variety of shape and tint,
and composed of huge piles of buildings grouped together, with long
lanes or streets winding irregularly through them, some faint idea may
be formed of the grandeur and beauty of the spectacle. The time
and circumstances under which we were threading our way through
them, we knew not to what end, left an impression of these icy and des-
olate regions that can never be forgotten.”

. “It was now during fine weather one continued day,”
obscured occasionally by snow squalls. ‘The bergs were so vast and
inaccessible that there was no possibility of landing upon them.” The
observations of the Peacock were particularly interesting, especially as

* In asmooth sea they witnessed (Jan. 20) a fine combat between a large whale
and a ferocious fish called a killer, which had seized the whale by the lower jaw,
and a of ps desperate efforts of the powelial animal, filled the soe poe a

and blood, and ith
the killer still kept hold and probably prevailed. The ‘riven appear to be sacl
ed to these seas by the squids and shrim cape.

she was not prepared beyond what is usual with our vessels of war, for
the dangers that were to be encountered, having no planking, extra fas-
tenings, or other preparations for these icy regions.’ In the same water
in which the, Vincennes had been embayed, the Peacock prepared with
a line of fourteen hundred fathoms, found bottom with five hundred fath-
oms ; there was blue and slate colored mud ; a piece of stone was attached
to the lead, which had a bruise upon it, as if it had struck upon hard rock;
the remainder of the line had evidently lain upon the bottom. After
sailing a short distance the soundings were three hundred and twenty
fathoms, thus shallowing one hundred and eighty, and indicating an
approach to a shore ; the surface temperature 32°, and that at the bot-
tom 274° ; dip of the needle, 86° 16’. The feeling on board the ship
was that of intense gratification, as it was now considered to be certain
that a terra firma (not an island merely) had been discovered.*
Jan. 24, Ata short distance soundings were found at eight hundred
——— The Peacock was now approaching to great perils. At 8h.
Om. A. M. in attempting to avoid some ice under the bow, the stern
came “so forcibly in contact with another mass of ice, that it seemed
from the shock as if it were entirely stove in,” and the rudder with its
appendages was so much injured as to make a considerable angle with
the keel, and thus to become entirely useless.
~The ship was now rapidly entering the ice and could not be steered
by her sails; fresh shocks were received almost every moment, and
every blow threatened instant destruction. An ineffectual attempt was
made to repair the rudder by rigging a stage over the stern, ard it was
eventually unshipped and hoisted aboard. ‘‘ In the meantime, the posi-
of the vessel was every instant growing worse and worse, sur-
rounded as she was by masses of floe-ice, and driving farther and far-
ther into it towards an immense wall-sided iceberg. All attempts to
get the vessel on the other tack failed, in consequence of her being so
closely encompassed.”” They attempted, therefore, to bring her head
round by hanging her to an iceberg by the ice anchors. Just at the
moment when, the anchor having been attached, “the hawser was
passed on board, the ship took a start so suddenly astern, that the rope
was literally dragged out of the men’s hands before they could get a
turn around the bits.”

* A penguin forty-five inches long from the tip of the tail to the bill, thirty-seven
inches across the flippers and thirty-three for the circumference of the body, ap-
proached without any sign of fear, but was knocked down by the rennet and

on recovering showed great resentment by fighting or noise. On being duly pre-
a for the museum at Washington, thirty-two small pebbles were yey in his

“Vol xix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 20

154 Bibliography.

The ship now drove astern into the midst of the huge masses of ice,
striking the rudder a second time, which gave the finishing stroke,
The wind freshening and the floe-ice setting in, the sails were furled,
and spars rigged down the ship’s sides as fenders. In attempting to
plant the ice anchors, the pieces of floating ice ground against each
other so violently that the boats proved almost unmanageable ;—but the
ice anchors were at last planted, and the hawser hauled taught, and for
a short time they held fast; but the ice continued to close in rapidly
upon them, grinding, crushing and carrying away the fenders—when
the anchors broke loose and the ship drove towards an ice island,
vast, perpendicular, and as high as the mast-head. The anchors again
held for a moment, but the whole body of ice to which they were at-
tached came in contact with them, and the ship struck quartering upon
a field of ice which lay between her and the great ice island; but it
proved only a temporary defence, for, grinding along the ice, she went
nearly stern foremost and struck with her larboard quarter upon the’
ice island, with a tremendous crash and much damage—but a great
and happy rebound, with the aid of the jib and other sails, carried her
clear of the ice island and forced her into a small opening—* when,
before she had moved half her length, an impending mass of ice and
snow fell in her wake. Had this fallen only a few minutes earlier, it
must have crushed the vessel to atoms!’ As she struck near the
southern termination of the ice island, she was soon clear of it—the ice
drifted by and she could be worked by her sails. But the stormy
aspect of the sky presented the fear of shipwreck and of perishing by
the water or the cold. But dinner was piped as usual, and although
the vessel was fast in the ice, they managed by swinging the yards
to keep her head in the right direction: but she was laboring in
the swell with the ice grinding and thumping against her on all sides,
and every moment something fore or aft was carried away—chain-
bolts, bobstays, bowsprit shrouds—even the anchors were lifted, com-
ing down with a surge that carried away the eyebolts and lashings, and
left them to hang by the stoppers ;—the cut-water also was injured,
and every timber seemed to groan. The dangers that attended the boats
were likewise imminent; while executing the hazardous service of fix-
ing the ice anchors, they were almost crushed, and Mr. Eld and his
assistants escaped with the utmost difficulty.

At 4 P. M., the ship being fast in the ice and the wind directly in
from the seaward, the ice anchors were again run out, and.soon after,
the ice clearing away from the stern, they were able to unship the rad-
der, and took it on board in two pieces, when all the carpenters were
immediately employed upon it.

Bibliography. 155

~ It soon began to snow violently and their hope of deliverance grew
more faint, especially as the ship was now forced back into the ice to
leeward and towards the massive walls of the berg; but by great exer-
tions her head was again pointed seaward, when they were soon wedged
between two large masses of ice. The sea rose—the wind increased
and threatened a gale, and they strove by every means to push the
ship forward; but the ice floes were now of large dimensions, and the
increased sea rendered it doubly dangerous, while the heavy shocks made
them fear that the ship’s bows would be forced in, and the continual
grinding and thumping on the ship were most painful. ‘ The hope of
extricating her lessened every moment, for the quantity of ice between
them and the sea was increasing, and the ship evidently moved with it
to leeward.” This most trying emergency was met by Captain Hud-
son with such coolness, perseverance, and presence of mind, as com-
manded the admiration and confidence of all, and sustained hope when
it was almost sinking in despair.

On the afternoon of January 25th, the sea increased, the ship fre-
quently ‘struck, and they were fast grinding away her bows; but the
only chance was to drive her out, and all the canvass was set to force
her through. By 4 0’clock they had passed the thick and solid ice and
were in clear water, without a rudder, the gripe gone, and, as was
afterwards ascertained, the stem ground down to within an inch and
a half of the wood ends.

In the meantime the carpenters had repaired the rudder—Mr. Dibble
having left his sick bed for that purpose, and he and his crew worked
twenty four hours without intermission. The rudder was again shipped
and being hung by the only two braces that remained, they escaped
from a bay about thirty miles in extent by the only remaining opening,
which was not more than a quarter of a mile wide: this they passed at
2 P. M. in ye snow storm 4 and felt eee to God for their providen-
tial escape.” 8-9» ss

The ship was so ieenuitia crippled as to be cinsentwbndhiyy espe-
cially in such a dangerous service, and it was very wisely resolved to
return to the north and find at Sydney, in Australasia, both a refuge and
the means of making repairs.

Even this condensed abstract will fully justify the concluding remarks
of Capt. Wilkes :— Such were the dangers and difficulties from which
the Peacock, by the admirable conduct of her officers and crew, directed
by the consummate ‘seamanship of her commander, was enabled, at
this time, to escape. There still remained, however, thousands of
‘miles of a stormy ocean to be encountered, with a ship so crippled as
to be hardly capable of working, and injured to such an extent in her
hull as to be kept afloat with difficulty.”

156 Bibliography.

. The Vincennes and the Porpoise, as well as the Flying Fish, also
combated the perils of this very dangerous navigation. ‘The Vincennes
passed the place where the Peacock entered, and found no opening
beyond. She observed a group of tabular and stranded icebergs, and
by midnight on the 23d of January, (1840,) reached the solid barrier,
while all approach to the land was entirely cut off on the east and west
by the close packing of the icebergs. ‘There was an indentation of the
coast twenty five miles deep, which Capt. Wilkes penetrated about
fifteen miles without reaching its termination: he called it oe
ment Bay. Its lat. was 67° 4’ 30’ S.—long. 147° 30’ W.

They had fine weather, and many birds appeared about the. abies
They took the opportunity to fill nineteen tanks with ice—having first
allowed the salt water to drip from it, and it proved very potable.. +

They met with snow storms and thick weather, so that they ould not
always run, even with a fair wind, and when they did it was with ex-
treme hazard on account of the floating ice ; but as long as they could
see the fixed barrier they persevered. On the 28th, in beautifully
clear weather, they passed through many tabular icebergs—one hun-
dred being in view at once, and of great dimensions—being
fourth of a mile to three miles in length. Capt. Wilkes had taken the
precaution to make a chart of the icebergs as he met them; and.he
was surprised at the great number which he had passed and which still
surrounded them. The land was plainly in view, but he felt his situa-
tion to be extremely critical, as a gale was evidently coming on, with
the barometer falling, and destruction appeared before them unless they
effected a retreat. This they attempted, but their path was thickly
beset with their floating enemies, many of large size and near at hand,
and perpetually nearing. To return towards the land was out of the
question, and no alternative remained but to keep a good look-out ~
dash on.

“ At 8 P. M. it began to blow very hare: with a violent snow storm
circumscribing our view, and rendering it impossible to see more than
two ship’s lengths ahead. The cold was severe, and every spray that
touched the ship was immediately converted into ice. At 9 P. M., the
barometer still falling and the gale increasing, we reduced sail to close
reefed fore and main topsails, reefed foresail and trysails, under which
we passed numerous icebergs, some to windward and some to leeward
of us. At 10h. 30m. we found ourselves thickly beset. with them, and
had many narrow escapes: the excitement became intense—it required
a constant change of helm to avoid those close aboard, and we were
compelled to press the ship with canvass in order to escape them, by
keeping her to windward. We thus passed close along their weather
sides, and distinctly heard the roar of the surf dashing against them.

Bibliography. , 157

We had, from time to time, glimpses of their obscure outline, appearing
as though immediately above us. After many escapes I found the ship
so covered with ice, and the watch so powerless in managing her, that
a little after midnight, on the 29th, I had all hands called. Scarcely
had they been reported on deck, when it was known to me that the
gunner, Mr. Williamson, had fallen, broken his ribs, and otherwise
injured himself on the icy deck.

“The gale at this moment was awful. We found we were passing
large masses of drift ice, and ice islands became more numerous. A
little after 1 o’clock it was terrific, and the sea was now so heavy that
I was obliged to reduce sail still further :—the fore and main topsails
were clewed up; the former was furled, but the latter being a new
sail, much difficulty was found in securing it. A seaman, by the name
of Brooks, in endeavoring to execute the order to furl, got on the lee
yard-arm, and the sail, having blown over the yard, prevented his re-
turn. Not being aware of his position until it was reported to me from
the forecastle, he remained there some time. On my seeing him, he
appeared stiff and clinging to the yard and lift. Spilling lines were at
once rove, and an officer and several men went aloft to rescue him;
which they succeeded in doing by passing a bow-line around his
and dragging him into the top, He was almost frozen to death. Sev-
eral of the men were completely exhausted by cold, fatigue and excite-
ment, and were sent below. This added to our anxieties, and but little
hope remained to me of escaping. I felt that neither prudence nor
foresight could avail in protecting the ship and crew. ll that could
be done was to be —— for any emergency by keeping every one
at his station.

** We were swiftly dash on, for I felt it necessary to keep the ship
under rapid way through the water, to enable her to steer and work
quickly. Suddenly, many voices cried out—‘Ice ahead!’ then, ‘On
the lee bow!’ and again, ‘On the lee bow and abeam!’ All hope of
escape seemed in a moment to vanish. Return we could not, as large
ice islands had been passed to leeward; so wegdashed on, expecting
every moment the crash. The ship in an instant from having her lee
guns under water rose upright; and so close were we passing to lee-
ward of one of these huge islands, that our trysails were almost thrown
aback by the eddy wind.. The helm was put up, but the proximity of
those under our lee made me keep my course. All was now still, ex-
cept the distant roar of the wild storm, that was raging behind, before
and above us: the sea was in great agitation, and both officers and men
were in the highest degree excited.

“The ship continued her way, and as we proceeded a glimmering of
hope arose, for we accidentally had lit upon a clear passage between

158 Bibliography.
two large ice-islands, which in fair weather we should not have dared
to venture through. The suspense endured while making our way
through them was intense, but of short duration; and my spirits rose,
as | heard the whistling of the gale grow louder and louder before us
as we emerged from the passage. We had escaped an awful death
and were a tempest-tost.

d many similar d tnicht. At half past 4A. M.,
I found we had reached the small open space “Taid down on my chart,
and at 5 o’clock I hove to the ship. I had been under intense excite-
ment and had not been off the deck for nine hours, and was now thank-
ful to the Providence that had guided, watched over and preserved us.
Until 7 A. M., all hands were on deck, when there was some appear-
ance of the weather moderating and they were piped down. By noon
we felt satisfied that the gale was over, and that we had escaped,
although it was difficult to realize a sense of security, when the perils
we had just passed through were so fresh in our minds and others still
impending.

On the morning of the 30th, which was very fine, the Vincennes
again made for the icy barrier, through a smooth sea, with the land ful-
ly in sight and the encouraging hope that they might reach it. Still so
many icebergs were in view, that a straight line drawn in any direction
would have cut a dozen of them in the same number of miles, and the
wonder of all was excited, that they could ever have passed through
them unharmed.

With all sail set, they soon reached water that was clear quite to the
shores or icy barrier, along which they coasted and were impelled
at the rate of nine or ten miles an hour. They were in a bay formed
partly by rocks and partly by stranded ice islands, extending about five
miles northward of their position. The gale increased and the space
was so narrow that they could not reduce their canvass before it was
necessary to come about.

‘Jn this way we approached within half a mile of the dark volcanic
rocks, which appeargd on both sides of us, and saw the land gradually
rising beyond the ice to the height of 3000 feet and entirely covered
with snow. It could be distinctly seen extending to the E. and W. of our
position fully 60 miles. I made the bay in lat | 66° 5’ S.; and now that
all were convinced of its existence, I gave the land the name of the
Antarctic Continent. We found a hard bottom at $0 fathoms.”

A gale now came on in the form of a snow storm with sharp icicles
piercing like needles, and it was necessary to clear the bay, as it was
out of the question to run the gauntlet again among the icebergs. It
blew tremendously, with a short sea implying a current.

Bibliography. 159

On the 31st, at 1 o’clock, A. M., they passed ice islands and just escap-
ed the field ice; the scene of the former gale was renewed—only “ we
were now passing to and fro among icebergs, immediately to the wind-
ward of the barrier, and each tack brought us nearer to it.” The navi-
gable space growing more and more narrow, they tacked and stood
N.N. W. and passed icebergs of all dimensions and heavy floe-ice.
After the gale had lasted 30 hours* it began to abate, when they again
stood southward, and the commander decided again to seek the bay
(Parier’s) which they had left and still farther to pursue the great object
of obtaining a footing upon the terra firma of the new continent, al-
though the medical officers and a majority of the other officers of the
ship—on account of the bad health and exhaustion of the crew, recom-
mended a return to the north.

On the 2d of February, at 3 P. M., they were within two and a half
miles of “the icy cliffs by which the land was bounded on ail sides.
They were from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in height,
quite perpendicular, and there was no appearance whatever of rocks ;
all was covered with ice and snow.” A long range of stranded weather-
beaten icebergs, extended far to the west, but soundings were not ob-
tained at one hundred and fifty fathoms. ‘* No break in the icy bar-
rier, where a foot could be set on the rocks, was observable from aloft.
The land still trended to the west as far as the wre could reach, and
continued to exhibit the same character as before.” The high land
was seen again in the afternoon, but the ice barrier prevented any
nearer approach. . Snow rendered the ship damp and uncomfortable ;
the sick.list was increasing, and the days were becoming shorter. They
continued to coast along the icy barrier about one hundred and fifty
feet high, beyond which the high land could be well distinguished.
The barrier now trended south, and the sea was studded with icebergs.

On the 9th the weather was very fine; the outline of the land was
visible, and the icy barrier was very beautiful. At midnight there was
asplendid display of the aurora australis, extending all around the
northern horizon, from W. by N. to E. N. E. The spurs or brushes of
light, frequently reached the zenith, converging to a point near it. The
barrier ice was approached in many places and land was distinctly seen,
eighteen to twenty miles distant, bearing S.S.E. to 8. W.; a lofty
mountain range covered with snow, though showing many ridges and
indentations.. The land was in about 65° 20’ S., and its trending near-
ly E. and .

The line of the icy barrier was generally uniform, although it was
occasionally pierced with deep bays. Some icebergs were seen with de-

* The barometer sunk to 28-59 inch.

160 Bibliography.

cided spots of earth upon them. On the 18th the land appeared high,
rounded and covered with snow, resembling that first discovered, and:
seemed to be bound by perpendicular icy cliffs. On the 14th the land
was very distinct—seventy five miles of coast being in view at waives
and the land three thousand feet high.*

. They landed on one of the largest of the icebergs and found imbedded
in it, in places, boulder-stones, gravel, sand,and mud or clay. The largest
specimens were of red sandstone and basalt, and there was an icy con-
glomerate—large pieces of rocks being united by very hard and flinty
ice. The largest boulder was about five or six feet in diameter, but
being in an inaccessible position it could not be obtained. Many spe-
cimens were procured, and all were eager to acquire portions of the Ant-
arctic continent. ‘In the centre of this iceberg was a pond of most
delicious water, over which was a scum of ice about ten inches thick.
This pond was three feet deep, extending over an area of an acre, and
contained sufficient water for half a dozen ships. ‘The temperature of
the water was 31°.” They remained upon this iceberg several hours,
and the men amused themselves by sliding down hill. Around the
iceberg, were many species ef zoophytes. On the 15th they pees
many icebergs much discolored with earth and stones.

Whales were numerous as well as penguins, Cape pigeons and other
birds ; the icebergs were covered with penguins. -On the 17th, the
Reatier was seen running N. and S. as far as the eye could reach; they
had penetrated a bay fifty or sixty miles deep, and having coasted along
its southern side they returned by the northern, the weather giving om-
inous indications. Many whales were met with and their curiosity
seemed awakened by the ship; they were very large fin-backs, and
familiarly approached the vessel, blowing at the same time like loco-
motives, and their presence was any thing but agreeable.

The aurora was again seen in great splendor ina perfectly clear sky,
“darting from the zenith to the horizon in all directions, in the most
brilliant coruscations; it flashed in brilliant pencilings of light, like
sparks of electric fluid in vacuo, and reappeared again to vanish ; form-
ing themselves into one body like an. umbrella, or fan, shut up; again
emerging to flit across the sky with the rapidity of light, they showed
all the prismatic colors at once or in quick succession; even the sailors
exclaimed in admiration of their beauty, which was best seen when the
observer was lying on his back and looking up.” There was no effect

on the electrometer.

‘* Large icebergs had now become very numerous and the ship passed
through the thickest of them; upwards of one hundred could be count-

* By approximate measurement.

Bibliography. 161

ed at a time, without the aid of a glass, and some of them several miles
long.” On the 18th, there were snow-flakes in six-rayed stars; tem-
perature, 28°; barometer, 28°76 inch.

On the 19th the barrier trended more to the north; deep bays were
frequent, out of which it was often necessary to return almost to the
point of entrance, and the smoothness of the sea, which was narrowed
by the ice so as to be like a river, produced some apprehension that
the barrier might preclude a retreat ; but an increasing swell, indicating
their approach to a clear sea, aelieuad this anxiety. It appears. ae
the observations of the squadron, both in the. present wwe and,
last, that very little change takes place in the line of ice.*

may be inferred that the line of perpetual congelation exists in a lower
latitude in some parts of the southern hemisphere than in others. The icy bar-
rier retreats several degrees to the south of the Antartic Circle to the west of Cape
Horn, while to the eastward it in places advances to the northward of that line,
which is no doubt owing to the situation of the land. From the great quantities
of ice to be found drifting in all parts of the ocean in high southern latitudes, I am
induced to believe that the formation of the ice-islands is much more rapid than
is generally supposed. The manner of their formation claimed much of my atten-
tion while among them, and I think it may be explained satisfactorily and without
difficulty. In the first place, I conceive that ice requires a nucleus, whereon the
fogs, snow, and rain, may congeal and accumulate ; this the Jand affords. Acci-
dent then separates part of this mass of ice from the Jand, when it drifts off, and
is broken into many pieces, and part of this may again join that which is in pro-
cess of formation. The abeie s tale IX. has already given the reader some
idea of its appearance in this
_ “From the accumulation = snow, such a mass speedily assumes a flat or table-
topped shape, and continues to increase. As these layers accumulate, the field-
ice begins to sink, each storm (there of frequent Nib ey tending to give it
more weight. The part which is now attached to the land remains aground,

cumulated weight on its outer edge produc es fissures or fractures at the point
where it takes the ground, which the frosts increase ; ‘thus separated, the surface

es horizontal, and continues to receive new layers from snow, rain,
and even fogs, being still retained to. the parent mass. by the force of attraction.

may be formed of the increase from this cause, from. Be, fact, that during a few

an A
and spars, though neither rain nor snow fell, It may, Beas, I think, be safely
asserted that these icebergs are at all times on the in crease ; for there are few

above the freezing point, masses of a thousand feet in thickness might require but
few years to form. Icebergs were seen in all stages of formation, from five to two
hundred feet above the surface, and each exposed its stratification in horizontal

* The remainder of this eisiners is so important that we give it without abridg-
ment, that the author may present his conclusions in the most ample manner.
Vol. xurx, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 21

162 Bibliography.

ers from six inches to four feet in thickness. When the icebergs are full
pant they mre a tabular and stratified appearance, and are perfectly wall-sided,
varying from one hundred and vey to two hundred and ten feet in height.
These were acceiiity. found by us in their original situation, attached to the land,
and having the horizontal ets Poa distinctly visi
“‘ In some places we sailed for more than fifty miles ninth along a straight

with the land behind it. The icebergs found along the coast afloat were from a
quarter of a mile to five miles in Jength; their separation from the land may be
effected by severe frost rending them asunder, ane which ne: ela — fre-

which

a change in the position of the centre of gravity, arising from the abrading action
of the waves.

“ By our observations on the temperature of the sea, it is evident that these
ice-islands ean be little changed by-the melting process before they reach the Iati-
tude of 60. The temperature of the sea (as observed by the vessels going to and
returning from the south) showed but little change above this latitude, and no
doubt it was at its maximum, as it was then the height of the summer season

“ During their drift to the northward, on reaching lower latitudes, and as their

some exhibit lofty columns, with a natural Kasi resting on them of a lightness
aor beauty inconceivable in any other materia

“ While in this state, they rarely exhibit pay signs of stratification, and some
appear to be formed of a soft and porous ice ; others are quite blue; others
show a green tint, and are of hard flinty ice. Large ice-islands are seen that re

a
=
a
es
°
3
a
“Ss
3,
a
an)
7)
;
2
@
uw
4
o
=&

ilst some have lost all resemblance to their original

formation, and had evidently been overturned. The process of actually rending
er was not witnessed by any of the vessels, although in the Flying-Fish,

when during fogs they were in close proximity to large ice-islands, they in

from the loud crashing, and the sudden splashing of the sea on her, that such oc-

currences had taken place. As the bergs gradually become worn by the abrasion

The temperatore:o f the water when among the icebergs, was found below oF
about tie fexsing pint
nist RS

f the boulders imbedded in the icebergs. All those that
I had an opportunity of observing, apparently formed a part of the nucleus, and
were surrounded by extremely compact ice, so that they appear to be connected
with that portion of the ice that would be the last to dissolve, and these boulders
would therefore in all probability, be carried to the farthest extent of their rang
—_— pes were let loose or deposited.

both the Vincennes and Porpoise, the greatest number having been found about

Bibliography. 163

that distance from the barrier. That these were recently detached is proved by
their stratified mlarinnies ; while those at a greater distance had lost their prim-
tiv

ve form, were much worn, and showed many more signs of decay. Near the
extreme point of he barrier pene in longitude 97° E., latitude 62° 30’ S., and
where it begins to trend to 1 rd, vast collet of these islands wote

rapidly to the north.

until we reached latitude 619 S. The Peacock was the first to ors et pe
upon the track by which we had gone south; the last seen by her w 3
The Vincennes, on her return fifty days later, saw them in 51° 8. The ones
‘about the same time, in 53°98. The observation in the Vincennes gives a dis-
tance of ten degrees of latitude, or six hundred miles to be passed over in fifty
days, which would give about half a mile an hour; or, taking the Peacock’s ob-
servations, a more rapid rate would be given, nearly three-fourths of a mile.
Many icebergs were met in the latitude of 42° S., by outward-bound ships to
Sydney, in the month of November; these, I learned, were much worn, and
showed lofty pinnacles, exhibiting no appearance of — ever been of a tabular
form. These no doubt are such as were detached during a former season, and
being disengaged from the barrier, would be naturally, early the next season,
ifted by the easterly current as well as the westerly wind, and would pursue the
direction they give them. They would therefore be driven to the northeast as
3 the southwest winds prevail, and when these veer to the westward would
receive an easterly direction. It is where these winds prevail that they are most
poopy 4 found by the outward-bound vessels—between the latitudes of 40°
d 50°

#Re time the period of time required for the formation of these ice-islands,
much light cannot be expected to be thrown on the subject; but the few
rived from rae spate lead to some conclusions, Many of them were measured,
tad abeits aititnde So to-be from fifty to te, tre naan and fifty feet ; eighty dis-

whest, and in the smallest aie

which appeared to avenge a little more than t ving ay in thickness. Supposi
the average fall of snow in these ‘high latitudes to be an inch a ee or thirty a
a year, the | than thirty years toform. They were
seen by us in all the stages of their growth, and all bore unequivoc ocdl marks of
the same origin. The distance from the land at which they were forming, fully
satisfied me that their fresh water could be derived only from the snows,

“ The movement of the ice along the coast is entirely to the westward, and all
the large ranges of ice-islands and bergs were found in that direction, while the
eastern portion was comparatively free from it, A difference was found in the po-
sition of the floe-ice by the different vessels, seine rather by the wind than by the
tide. When the Vincennes and Porpoise passed the opening by which the Pea-
cock entered, it was found closed, although only twenty-four hours had elapsed.
It has been seen that the ice had much movement during the time the Peacock
was beset by it, and the bay was all but closed when she effected her escape.
Another instance occurred, where the Porpoise, in about the longitude of 130° E.,

found the impracticable barrier a few miles further south than the Vincennes did

six or seven days after; but this fact is not to be received as warranting any gen-
eral conclusion, on account of the occurrence of southeast gales during the inter-
mediate time. The trials for currents have, for the most part, shown none to
exist. The Porpoise, it is true, experienced some, but these were generally afier
a gale. If currents do exist, their tendency is westward, which I think the drift
of the ice would clearly prove. The difference between the astronomic positions:
and those given by dead-reckoning, was of no avail here as a test," for the course
of the na among the ice was so tortuous, that the latter could not be de-
pended up
“ The Wind which prevail from the southwest to the southeast tisdale
bring clear weather, interrupted b 5 flurries of snow; the north wind is light, and
brings thick fogs, attended by a rise of temperature. Extremes of weather are
experienced in rapid succession, and it is truly a fickle climate.
“The ORI ‘that an extensive continent lies within the icy barrier, must
ared in the account of my proceedings, but will be, I think, more

southern parallel. Palmer’s Land, for instance, which is in like manner invested
with ice, is so at certain seasons of the year only, while at others it is quite —
because strong currents prevail there, which sweep the ice off to the northeast

Along the Antarctic Continent for the whole distance ot which is apart
of fifteen hundred miles, no open strait is found. The coast, where the ice per-
mitted approach, was found enveloped with a perpendicular barrier, in some cases
unbroken for fifty miles. If there was only a chain of islands, the outline of the:
ice would undoubtedly be of another form ; and it is scarcely to be conceived that
so long a chain could extend so nearly in the same parallel of latitude. The land
has none of the abruptness of termination that the islands of high southern lati-
tudes exhibit; and I am satisfied that it exists in one uninterrupted line of coast,

(at longitude ‘95° E.) trends to the north, and this will account for the icy barrier
existing, with little alteration, where it was seen by Cook in 1773. The vast
number of ice-islands conclusively points out that there is some extensive nucleus
which retains them in their position; for I can see no reason w why the ice should

not be disengaged from islands, if they were such, as happens in all other cases
in like latitudes: ‘The formation of the coast is: differdut from what would proba-.
bly be found near rip soundings being obtained in comparatively shoal water;
and the color of the water also indicates that it is not like other southern lands,’
abrupt and precipitous. “this cause is sufficient to retain the huge masses of i nt
by their being attached by their lower surfaces instead of their sides only.

“Much inquiry and a strong desire has been evinced by geologists, to
the extent to which these parriet travel, the boulders and masses of earth they
transport, and the direction they take.

m my own observatione, eer the information [ have collected, ave sd
pears a great difference in the movements of these vast masses ; 3 in some years,
great numbers of them have floated north from the Antarctic Circle, and even at
times obstructed the navigation about the capes. The year 1832 was remarkable
in this respect; many vessels bound round Cape Horn from the Pacific, were
obliged to put back to Chili, in consequence of the da angers arising from ice;
while, during the preceding and rope. years, little or none was seen: this

* The fact of there being no northerly current along this extended line ‘of ree is. 3 “strong
proof in my mind of its being a continent, instead of a range of islands. E

would lead to the belief, that great changes must take place in the higher lati-
sree or the prevalence of some cause to detach the ice-islands from the barrier
in such great quantities as to cover almost the entire section of the ocean, south
of doe latitude 50° 'S. ‘Taking the early part of the (southern) spring, as the time
of separation, we are loonie to make some estimate of the velocity we oo
they move: many masters of vessels have met them, some six or seven dred
miles from the binsind from sixty to eighty days aitiy: this period, which rae give

* The season of 1839 and ’40 was considered as an open one, from the Seti
masses of ice that were met with in a low latitude, by vessels that arrived from
Europe at Sydney: many of them were seen as far north as latitude 42° 8, |

The causes that prevail to detach and carry them north, are difficult to assign.
I have referred to the most probable ones that would detach them from the pa-

mind that A do phevers + ectttip not, however, look to a surface current as
being the motive power t at the rate they move ;
comparatively ufdhiigh their great bulk is below the influence of any surface
current, and the rapid drift of these masses by winds is still more improbable ;
therefore I conceive we must look to an under current as their great propeller.

to occur in the Arctic regions. From this | would draw the conclusion that .

changes are going on, and it appears to me to be very reasonable to suppose, that

ried away in the seasons when the polar streams are the strongest, and are borne
along by them at the velocity with which they move: that these do not occur
annually may be inferred from the absence of ice-islands in the lower latitudes;
and that it is not from the scarcity of them, those who shared the dangers of the
retic cruise, will, I have little doubt, be ready to testify; for, a

numbers of them studded the ocean that year, as the narrative shows that vast
numbers of them were left.

‘The specific gravity of tbe ice varies Bap ta much, as might naturally be ex-
a for while some o islands are

n great part composed of a evinpaet blue Aint ice, This. Siferenes i is oceasioned
by the latter becoming saturated with water, which afterwards free

“On the ice there was usually a covering of about two feet of saom, which in

so great a transformation. as not to be recognized. They also appeared to have
shifted their position with regard to one another, their former bias and trendings
cane broken u

During our stzy on the icy coast, I saw nothing of what is termed pack-ice—
that is, pieces forced one upon the other by the action of the sea or currents.) «*
wa 2
‘4 3 elon

~

166 Bibliography.
On the Qist, the weather became unsettled, with light ww pies winds, a
we made but little progress to the westward. The barrier, at 6 Pr. was see)

g to the westward. In c consequence of indications that ips bad
weather, I deemed it useless risk to remain in the proximity of so many ice-
islands ; and a strong breeze, with squally weather, having already set in, I took
prewtens of it, feeling satisfied that our farther continuance in. this icy region
would not only be attended with peril to the ship, but would cause a waste of the

miles to sail to our next port (Bay of Islands), I made up my mind to turn the
head of the vessel northward.

‘“‘T therefore had the officers and crew called aft, thanked them all for their
exertions and good conduct during the trying scenes they had gone through, con-
gratulated them on the success that had attended us, and informed them that I had
determined to bear up and return north

_ “ Having only twenty-five days’ full allowance of water, I ordered its issue to
be reduced to half allowance.
gus : have seldom seen so many happy faces, or, such rejoicings, as the announce-
of my intention to return produced. But although the crew were delighted
at on termination of this dangerous cruise, not a word of impatience or ee
had been heard during its continuance. Neither had there been occasion for
punishment; and I could not but be thankful to have been enabled to sdal
the ship through so difficult and dangerous a navigation, without a single accident,
with a crew in as good a condition, if not in a better, than when we first reached
the icy barrier. For myself, I indeed felt worse for the fatigues and anxieties
I had undergone ; but 1 was able to attend to all my duties, and considered myself
amply repaid for my impaired health by the =e ie discoveries we had made,
and the success that had attended our exertions

‘alk Prof. W. R. Johnson on the Heating Power of various Coals.—
In the last volume of this Journal, p. 394, we gave a brief notice of the
elaborate and valuable “ Report” made by Prof. Johnson to the Navy
Department, detailing the result of a long series of experiments insti-
tuted by him under the authority of government, upon the American
coals, as well as some foreign ones. We take the following resumé
of his labors from a report submitted to the Academy of Natural Scien-
ces of Philadelphia, and published in their Proceedings for February,
1845, p. 202.

Prof. Johnson first enumerates some of the methods which have been
hitherto employed by chemists and others, to ascertain the relative
heating powers of fuel.

1, The heating of water, without converting it into vapor, as practised
first by Rumford, and more recently by other experimenters, particu-
larly by Despretz and Dulong. The French chemists assume as the
unit of calorific power, 1 gramme of water heated 1° centigrade, (1°°8
Fahr.) The number of such units produced by burning 1 gramme of
combustible is termed its calorific efficiency.

2. The melting of ice, as in the calorimeter of Lavoisier and Laplace,
also employed by Hassenfratz.. The heat of fluidity (185° Fahr.) is

re the measure of effect.

Bibliography. 167

3, The heating of air, or maintaining a certain difference between

an interior room in which combustion is conducted, and an exterior one,

kept cool by the open air. The length of time such difference is main-

tained by a given weight of each fuel, is the measure of its efficiency,
This is the method of Mr. Marcus Bull.

4. Combustion in contact with metallic oxides, measuring the heat-
ing power by the weight of metal, reduced on the supposition that the
latter is proportionate to the weight of oxygen withdrawn. — This is illus-
hth by M. Berthier’s process by litharge.

. The reduction of the nitrate or chlorate of potash to the state whe a
Saahoues by fusing these salts, and then gradually adding the combus-
tible, till complete saturation has taken place.

6. The practice of the Cornish engineers, of measuring the efficiency
of fuel by the weight of water, which a given bulk of it (as one bushel)
will raise one foot high, when burned under a boiler driving a pumping
engine.

7. The distillation of the coals to ascertain the weight of fixed car-
bon which they contain, suggested by the experiments of Mr. Pfyfe, of
Edinburgh; the weight of that constituent being supposed to measure
the heating power.

8. Ultimate analysis; which assumes that the quantity of heat de-
veloped by an organic combustible, depends on the heating power of
the carbon which it contains, added to that of its excess of hydrogen,
above what: is required to combine with its oxygen in forming water.
This method has been applied by Messrs. Peterson and Schoedler to
wood, and by Richardson, Regnault and others, to coals.

9. irect or practical trial by evaporation, as practiced by
Messrs. Parkes, Wicksteed, Pfyfe, Schanfhautl and Manby in Great
Britain, by Messrs. 8S. L. Dana, A. A. Hayes, J. A. Francis, and more
recently by Prof. J. himself in this country. (The results of the trials
last referred to are contained in the Report to the Navy sn on
American coals, recently published by Congress.) *.

10. The melting of iron either in a reverberatory Reid fi urnace,
the weight of metal fused by one part of combustible being the stan-
dard of comparison.

11. The performance of smith’s work of a-wniform character, such
as the manufacturing of chains by means of the several varieties of fuel.
The number of links of chain formed by a given weight of each coal, is

re the measure of useful effect.

_ The object of the present communication is mainly to exhibit the
relation between the results obtained by the eighth, and those - the
ninth method of trial above mentioned.

168 Bibliography.

_'The existence; in bituminous coals, of variable proportions of nearly
peal ‘charcoal, is referred to as furnishing evidence of a want of homo-
geneousness in this class of bodies. A diversity of results may conse-
quently be expected when ultimate analysis is resorted to for the pur-
pose of establishing a theory of trunsmutations, or of demonstrating
what changes have occurred in bringing vegetable substances into the
state of bituminous coal.. Those who assume woody fibre as the sole
basis from which it has been derived, do not pretend to prove that the
other proximate constituents of vegetables, the resinous matter, for
example, and the oily component of seeds, have been wholly removed.
Hence analyses of coal applied to this purpose may not always lead to
unobjectionable inferences. But as means of determining the calorific
power of combustible bodies, they may, especially when performed on
average samples, or multiple specimens, afford information both inter-
esting to science and valuable to the arts

The relation between the calorific power calculated from analysis,
and the practical heating power decided by evaporating water, is deter-
mined for six different varieties of bituminous coals, varying considera-
bly in their composition.

Drawings of the apparatus employed for both these purposes were

exhibited, and their action explained. ‘That used in evaporation is so
constructed as to determine the proportion of heat expended on the pro-
ducts of combustion, as well as that employed to generate steam.
- In applying calculations to the ultimate analyses of coals, as well as
to the products of combustion, the atomic weight of carbon is assumed
to be six, of oxygen eight, and of nitrogen fourteen times that of hydro-
gen, in accordance with the recent determinations of Dumas. In cal-
culating evaporative powers, the latent heat of steam is taken at 1030°
Fahr., according to Prof. J.’s own investigations of that subject.

In ascertaining the relative efficiencies and values of combustible
bodies, with a view to economical applications, it is necessary to
them either as found in nature, or as supplied to commerce, including,
of course, whatever impurities they may chance to-contain. But in
order to deduce general relations between bodies differently constituted,
in regard particularly to their combustible constituents, the comparison
must be made after deducting the waste, or incombustible matter found
in the crude state of the fuel. This principle is applied both to the ulti-

mate analysis and to the evaporative experiments; and hence in the
following table both the calculated evaporative power of the carbon con-
stituent, (column 15,) and the total evaporative efficiency by experiment,
(column 18,) are referred to, and calculated for, one me by Mig of
co

Taste pr biting, the Analyses a several varicties of Bituminous Coal, both into their provimate

and their ultimate constituents, with the calculated
and the experimental determi nation of their evaporative ers.

ae Soa PRACTICAL EVAPORATIVE] & ©
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS. By sicblesbin: The; com: $32 POWER. ® § ty
: ULTIMATE ANaLy- | Ststible mater in100.° a [Pounds of water 2 © 558
: 2 ale parts is found to b eee $ | from 212° toone’ £3 § 158
: Composition of the raw coal in 100 | 3 : constituted of — {E 8 8] of combustible & cpa a.
z parts. Be . oe Pe matter. ees 2.8
; g : 2 ee ea aha 383
& |s 3 Reais eis | |e fees) = (F25 |efe | eee
a . we fm « . ape —
rumen | 2 (Z| | BIg |g lsels, | eels |e|s (ecec] g (582 leseel ies
8 a 5 | €s = S mS |ED | 83 | Ss ¢ & |e, Seopef Sy £3 8% S| Sen
@ |}53/s] 821 3 | & |Be/s5/ 22) 23] & £28 eel ve gens e222] - 02
= ct a2 {| O° oa 5 = a 4 2 Sl? -S13o08
ee) * )e° | E ] e besje*jegje'] 8 || & Gest) e* fesse seve £2:
; 3 : “Eee TS be | €°4 EE we § fees) = [Sebes.e2leze
2 FS s o 6 rc} . aeee = Se Sgeehazes rs
I. Summit Portage ; , s
kg , Cambria eh e. 1500) 18-195) 64-245] 15-360 |3-535] 7-26 20-62 3:23} 91-955 5-867) 2.178) 11592} 10-238! 1-312 11-550} —-028
_ County, Penn, : ; i=
i a ys 1:3006 0-914)2:282) 29-274] 62-050] 5-480/1-966] 4-57)14-82 pie bike: Wh 0-641) 11-731} 10 -” 1:269 | 11-460]-+4-271 $
3. Newcastle, Eng. i 9567 \1- ‘461 28:312! 68-377) 1-850 2-415 6: 46,19 ¢ 56) 321]84-157 5626 10:218)10545] 9-178 1-720 | 10-898] ~ +353] =
4. Clover Hill, Va. 1-2887 1-277/0-514| 28-409) 65-425) 4-375 2-26e! 6- 05,17-68] 2:58}83-393 4-958 11-649) 10°445] 8-588) 1:949 | 10-537|~-082| o
5. Scotch, i Axe 1 are 365 35586| 60-342 2-707 /1-696| 7-64 22-60) 3:75 82: . a oe ‘441}10-393] 8-868, 1:338 | 10-206) 4+--187 :
6. Caseyvi e, Ken- f
ak & Cannel- 1:3920 1-150 30-669) 44 493 23°687 |1-450} 4-21) 8-96} 1-92]76-335 6-663 17-002} 9-565] 7-734) 1-823 9-557 -++-008 rf
ton, Indiana : O°: .
Averages, + ee el & le ee ee ee ee. RI ad {10-700 9-133, 1-5685| 10-701 t
7. Osage River, Mo. | 1-:2000/1-670|0-482| 41-348] 51-160! 5-340 /1-987 6:94/19-95 3 6 81 B55 6 163, 11: 977] 10 256 oak
8. Pure bitumen, 1/1558} -000 72-438] 24-799] 2-761 |0-342} 8- 16 22°60) 5-73)77 679 8: 023) 14:298] 9.464 S
pede —The evaporative trials were performed by burning about two tons of Feack kind of coal, under a boiler capable of teotersiing! 15 cubie feet of od
Water er hour, ‘al
The ultimate analysis of coal No. 1, was effected by burning in contact with scale oxide of copper,— 2 Abatysis by scale oxide, as in No. 1.—3. Analysis 3
by same material as above. The heat expended on gases is calculated from the mean result of several other coals of similar constitution—7. No evaporative “
trials of Osage coal or of bitumen have been made.—It appears that on an average, the first six varieties of coal expended in evaporating water from the boiler “=
85°35; and on the products of their combustion 14°65 per cent. of their whole heating power. _ Both the sum and the number of diffe erences fon the practical >
and the calculated evaporative powers, affected by the positive sign, are seen in the last column

affected d by thea

170 Bibliography.

The relation between the fixed and volatile combustible matters of
coals, is liable to considerable variation, according to the rate of distil-

jon to which they are subjected. The more slowly this process is
conducted, the higher (within certain limits) will be the proportion of
fixed carbon.* The estimation of heating powers, therefore, from the
quantity of fixed carbon which coals contain, if not wholly erroneous
in principle, must be liable to considerable uncertainty in practice.

Many highly bituminous coals contain more than five per cent. of
materials convertible into ammoniacal liquor by simple distillation with-
out contact of air. This is proved on the largest scale in the manufac-
ture of illuminating gas. That proportion, therefore, is not only una-
vailable for heating purposes, but it also abstracts from the really com-
bustible materials of the fuel, all the heat, sensible and latent, which
the vaporized ammoniacal products receive during combustion.

The proper water of combustion, namely, that derived from the hy-
drogen in excess, and oxygen of the atmosphere, must in every instance
where heat is applied to evaporate water above the boiling point, as in
all ordinary steam boilers, be likewise incapable of giving up its latent,
as well as much of its sensible heat.

The average specific gravity of the six varieties of bituminous coals
assayed is 1:31,—that of water at 60° being unity. Admitting the hy-
drogen in its solid state to have a density of only 1°25, it must in pass-
‘ing into the state, first of gaseous hydrogen, and then into that of wate-
ry vapor, (still having the same bulk as the hydrogen,) undergo an en-
Jargement to 2117 times its original bulk. This volume is further in-
creased according to the usual law of gaseous expansion, by whatever
heat above the boiling point is left in the vapor, when it passes away from
the surface to be heated. In a well constructed evaporative apparatus
producing steam of six pounds pressure, in which the circuit traversed
by the gases after passing the grate, and before reaching the chimney,
was one hundred and twenty one feet, the temperature was generally
about 100° above the boiling point; and the watery vapor, being of
course surcharged with heat, possessed 2431 times the bulk which it
had in the solid state and at 60° of temperature. é

By the experiments of Dulong, (Comptes Rendus, tom. 7,)+ one
gramme of pure carbon developes, in burning, heat enough to raise
the temperature of 7170 grammes of water, 1° centigrade, or 12906
eremene-Y Pahr. This latter number, is, therefore, used as a co-efli-

tii beer in the 12th column of the pre-
e 15th. By the same authority, }

YP Proceedings of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences, Vol. II, pages 9, 10.
ee also Peclet, Traité de Ja Chaleur, Tom. I, p. 50.

Pibeorravhit 171

gramme of gaseous hydrogen gives heat eomneee: to raise 62,535
grammes of water 1° Fah

The average excess of dapeleiigen for the six varieties of coal tried by
evaporation, as deduced from columns 18 and 14 of the table, is 4°636
per cent. which, calculated after the manner of the European chemists,
ought to possess an evaporative power of 2:814. This would raise the
average of the 15th column from 10-700 to 13°514, as the calculated
evaporative power of the unit of combustible matter, showing the caleu-
lated to be 26:3 per cent. higher than the experimental effect.

The data furnished by the preceding table afford the means of ascer-
taining the proportion of its carbon volatilized in the distillation of the
combustible matter in each kind of coal.

The calculations prove that of its whole carbon constituent, the per
centage volatilized was as follows—

Cambria County coal, : : : ‘ 16°767
Midlothian, new shaft, . : F j 29°195

Newcastle, : ; é : ‘ j 15-967
Clover Hill, : é 3 2 i 16'847
Scotch Cannel, ‘ $f SRG ? 24-169

Caseyville, Ky., Canal, Pi So aa ee ee

And that the average was... 20°883
The identity of results obtained in the averages of the 15th and 18th
columns should seem to demonstrate that the heating power of bitu-
minous coal is proportionate to the carbon which they severally contain.

8. Musée Botanique de M. Bensamin Dexessert ; Notices sur les
collections de Plantes et la Bibliothéque qui le composent ; contenant en
outre des documents sur les principaux herbiers d’ Europe: par A. La-
secuE. Paris: Fortin, Masson & Cie, 1845, 1 vol. 8vo,. PP. 588.—Ba-
ron Delessert, the proprietor of one of the richest herbaria and most
complete botanical libraries of the world, is worthily distinguiatie ed, not
only for the enlightened zeal which has prompted the collection of
these treasures, and the knowledge which appreciates them, but also
for the liberal manner in which they are thrown open to the use of men
of science generally. As our author (the-curator of this museum since
the death of Guillemin) remarks, “ these collections, brought together
for the use of all, are constantly open to all, and the galleries of M. De-
lessert serve as a centre of reunion for all the savans who choose to
labor there; thus renewing in- our days the example given, at the com-
mencement of this century, by the celebrated Sir Joseph Banks.”
This interesting volume is occupied with an account of the.orgin of

b museum, a notice of the herbaria it now contains, an
enumeration of the botanists and botanical collectors who have contrib-
uted to enrich it, with a geographical table, bringing together methodi-
cally the names of such botanists or collectors, and the localities from
which their plants were derived. To this is added a brief history of all
the larger herbaria of Europe, and a general account of the principal
botanical travellers and collectors, from Belon and Tournefort down to
our own days.. The volume closes with a notice of the botanical library
of M. Delessert, which is pronounced to be the most complete known
collection of books upon any one branch of science. It were greatly
to be wished, therefore, that the excellent proprietor would publish a
complete detailed catalogue of this invaluable library, which, as a Bib-

theca Botanica, would supply a great desideratum. Although this
‘ work is restricted to the botanical museum, we must not forget to men-
tion that M. Delessert also possesses an unrivalled cabinet of shells—
embracing the collection of Dufresne, and especially that of Lamarck,
which itself comprises 13,288 species, and at least 50,000 individuals.
The conchylogical cabinet is, however, entirely distinct and separate
from the botanical museum ; which last, as Laségue remarks, is always
“objet d'une predilection toute particuliére,” on the part of its pos-
sessor.

In a short thapter onthe statistics of vegetables, M. Laségue has
given some interesting details on the successive increase in the number
of species preserved in herbaria or described in general works. Thus,
in 1546 Lonicer indicated 879 species of plants. In the first edition of
the Species Plantarum, published in the year 1753, Linneus described
5,938 plants; which number, in his later works, is raised to 8,551
species. In 1807, Persoon enumerates 25,949 species. In 1824,
Steudel enumerates 50,649; in 1841, he gives a catalogue of 78,000
phanerogamous plants, which, with the estimated number of the Cryp-
togamia, raises the amount to 91,000; and the number of species since
made known, enabled our author to raise the sum to 95,000 in 1844
It is equally interesting to notice the progressive increase in the described
species of particular families or genera. Thus, in 1773, Linneeus knew
14 species of Oak; Persoon in 1807 enumerated 82; we now know
196. The deubtibed — of a at = dre ae respec-
tively, are

Of Potentilla, - m re

'
2
SX
rs 2
—_
23

Phy ad eGR 684, etc.

ra ‘ ‘ 83, 169, 515
Oxalis, HOR ona (eK Bee, 208:
Carex, - - - - - 29, 209,
Senecio, t

Bibliography. 173

Genera have increased with equal rapidity... In the earliest edition of
the Genera Plantarum, 1737, Linnzus characterizes 1043 gen nera.
In 1778, Reichard gives. + + 1343

1789, Jussieu S$ - im -» »1902.....**
1807, Persoon |. “ . siemens cm OOS. .... £8
1824, Steudel £6 . \ ip AMEND: dc 88
1830, Bartling “ - - - 4872 ..%
1841, Endlicher ‘* - - -. 7286. .*

1844, Laségue counts — - 7500.“

Those who are ignorant enough to look upon this multiplication. of
genera as a downright evil, should. compare with this list the actual |
number of known species at these several epochs. Laségue estimates
that the mean number of susie pice for each genus, was,
in the year 1758, . - 5°06

In 1807, a - sti bei 9°13
- = 12:00

But we eieael farihat notice ps statistics, nor the estimates re-
specting the probable total number of the vegetables of the globe ; which
recent writers generally agree to place as high as 250,000... The chap-
ter on the preparation and conservation of herbaria, is too brief to be
of much practical use. The attention of M. Delessert was in early youth
directed to botany by the perusal of the well known letters of Rousseau,
which, although written at least seventy years ago, have as yet by no
means lost their interest. It was to the mother of Delessert that these
charming letters were actually addressed. “ La Petite,’ for whom
these lessons were prepared, was his eldest sister,—afterwards Madame
Gautier. ‘Votre idée,” Rousseau writes to Madame Delessert,
“d’amuser un peu la vivacite de votre fille et de l’exercer a l’attention
sur des objets agreables et varies comme les plantes, me parait excel-
lente; mais je n’aurais jamais osé vous la proposer de peur de faire le
Monsieur Fosse. Puisqu’elle ie vous, je Papprouve de tout mon
ceeur, et j’y concourrai de m
~ A small herbarium, made by casei for his young pupil, preserved
with great care, forms an interesting part of Delessert’s vast cabinet.
Each specimen, neatly prepared, is attached to its sheet of paper, adorn-
ed with a red border, by means of little gilded bandelettes, and their
names, in French and Latin, are inscribed beneath in the handwriting
of Rousseau.

The nucleus of the general herbarium was formed by Delessert’s
eldest brother, Stephen, who, as early as the year 1788, began to as-
semble and arrange the plants he collected during his travels in France,
Switzerland, Germany, &c., as well as in Great Britain and the United
States. But in September. 1794, Stephen Delessert was attacked by

174 Bibliography.

yellow fever in New York, where he died at the age of 23 years.

Benjamin Delessert, who had accompanied his brother in his travels

through France, Rusdiseriond and Great Britain, gathering for himself
the interesting plants he met with, now united these different collections,

which thus served as the basis of what is now one of the largest botani-

cal cabinets of the world. ‘The actual number of plants it now contains,

is estimated by Laségue at 86,000 species, represented by 250,000

specimens. But this-is a much larger proportion of the known species

of — than we should suppose it possible for any single collection to

posse Many particulars of high interest to botanical readers, are

sewer in the history of the different herbaria which have —_ time

to time been added to this museum; such as those of Commerson, the

naturalist of Bougainville’s voyage round the world; of Billardia iére, the

two Burmanns, the Japanese herbarium of Thunberg, that of Ventenat,

of Palisot de Beauvois, and nearly all the leading botanists and scien-

tific travellers of recent times.*. The notices of. other principal Euro- .
pean herbaria, comprised in the second part of the volume, also abound

in interest; though in respect to many of them the author’s information

is insufficient. A, Gr.

A. De Candolle’s Prodromus, Vol. 9.—A year ago we had the
pleasure to notice the 8th volume of this indispensable work, the first
of the series under the editorship of Prof. Alphonse De Candolle. The
ninth volume, now before us, was issued on the first of January last;
and the forthcoming portions are in course of preparation under such
favorable circumstances that we may now confidently look for the ap-
pearance of a volume a year, and for the full completion of this Species
Plantarum, according to the natural system, at no very distant period.
We have already mentioned the arrangements that are made to secure
this desirable consummation, and by which the work becomes as it
were a series of separate monographs, prepared by the most skillful
hands, under the superintendence of a common editor. Every botan-
ist is aware of the improvement of the successive, volumes as they a
peared from the unrivalled hands of the elder De Candolle ; and.a far.
ther improvement is manifest in the later portions, slaicentad or re-
vised by his son, especially in the: introduction of characters drawn
from zstivation, placentation, the structure of the ovule, and other points
which have only quite recently been turned to special account by sys-

* We should not omit to mention an interesting little peheaiee of plants, a sou-

venir, peanennys by De Candolle in the follow wing clause of his will: ‘Je prie

de choisir dans or herbier cents plantes sie} ‘ai 7 aeontas le premier, et

de les sctlvdad de ma part 4 mon bon et ancien ami Be os amin Delessert, comme
témoignage de mes nttnnlats pour lui et pour sa famille.”

Bibliography. 175

tematic botanists. A particular account of a volume which is or soon
will be in the hands of every working botanist, cannot be necessary,
and we have not time at present for special enumeration. The 9th
volume commences with the Loganiacea, by Alph. De Candolle. The
genus Ceelostytis, Torr. and Gr., is correctly reduced to Spigelia.
Under this order we have a tribe created for the long-vexed Gelsemium,
which we suspect is not yet finally at rest. Next follows the Gentiana-
cee, elaborated by Grisebach, whose recent monograph of that family,
which forms the basis of the present arrangement, was duly noticed in
this Journal. The order Bignoniacee is edited from the manuscripts
of the elder De Candolle; as also are the orders Sesamee and Crytan-
dracez, which last has been reduced by Mr. Brown to Gesneriacew-
The Hydrophyllacee are elaborated by Alph. De Candolle, in which, by
attributing generic importance to the presence or absence of the ap-
pendages or nectariferous scales within the tube of the corolla, the
number of the genera is perhaps too greatly increased. The Polemo-
niacee are admirably worked out by Bentham, who has reduced to sec-
tions of Gilia his Hugelia, Fenzlia, Linanthus, Dactylophyllum, Leptosi-
phon, Leptodactylon, and the [pomopsis, Michx. The elaboration of
the Convolulacee by Prof. Choisy, does not appear to give entire satis-
faction to botanists.. The term “ infelicissime intricatus” is perhaps
still applicable to the family ; and the genera are probably unduly in-
creased in number. Of the Borraginea, printed from the elder De
Candolle’s manuscripts, with valuable notes and additions by the editor,
we have the first three tribes, viz. Cordiew, Ehretiee, and Heliotropee.

But for the true Borragea we must wait ‘woth the appearance of the
tenth volume, which is already in press. A, Gr.

5. De Candolle ; Theorie elementaire de la Boianique; ; ou Exposition
des principes de la Classification Naturelle et de Vart de décrire et
@etudier les Vegetaux ; par Ave. Pyr. De Cannouie. Troisieme edi-
tion; publiée par M. Anpu. De Canpotts, d’apres les notes et les manu-
scrits de Auteur. Paris, 1844. pp. 468, 8vo.—We are glad to an-
nounce the publication of a new edition of the Theorie Elementaire,
one of the earliest and most important of the Jamented De Candolle’s
writings, and which has left the most durable impress upon botanical
science. The second edition, published in the year 1819, has long been
out of print; and the illustrious author had intended, we are told, to
prepare a final edition as a sequel.to his herculean undertakings in sys-
tematic botany, to perfect the expression of the theory afier it should
have been applied to the elucidation of all the known families of plants,
and have been itself tested and corrected by the application. Finding,
however, that life was too short for the accomplishment of these vast

176 Bibliography.

plans, he began to arrange his materials for a third edition, upon the
basis of the second, and finally bequeathed to one of his pupils, M.
Guillemin, the right to complete and publish it. But the legatee and
favorite pupil soon followed the testator to the grave, before he had
even commenced the fulfilment of the task. Under these circumstances
this duty devolved upon the author’s son, the present Prof. De Candolle,
who prescribed to himself the following rules in its execution, viz. to
make no alterations whatever, except in the following cases: Ist, where
the author himself had already made certain changes, or had stricken
out certain passages in his interleaved copy devoted to this use: or 2d,
where he had already published, in some subsequent work, opinions dif-
ferent from those given in the Theorie: or 3d, where any of the facts
adduced have since been ascertained to be erroneous: or 4th, where
further details were requisite to render any statement more intelligible.
Now that this work, so valuable in itself, and so inseparably connected
with the history of the science, has at length been rendered generally
accessible, we trust it will find a place in every botanical library in this
country. A. Gr.

6. Fifty Eighth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of
the State of New York. Made to the Legislature, March 1, 1845.
Albany: printed by E. Mack, Printer to the Senate. 1845. Senate
Document No. 51. pp. 290, 8vo.—The Regents of the University of
the State of New York, constitute a Board of nineteen, besides three
ex-officio members, viz. the governor, lieut. governor, and secretary
of state. The vacancies by death or resignation are filled by the Leg-
islature. This Board has the governmental management of the inter-
ests of education in the colleges and academies of the state. The re-
gents require all those literary institutions, which receive pecuniary pat-
ronage from the state, to make an annual report on all the important
matters of their arrangements, finances, text books, number of students,
teachers or faculty, value of apparatus, volumes of library, amount of
authors studied and time employed in doing it, ages of students report-
ed in the academies, and their record of temperature and winds and
weather, as well as the quantity of rain and snow, &c. In this way
the regents hold all these institutions “ subject to their visitation,” and
have the right to a direct examination of them by a committee of their
number. ‘The regents give specific instructions, in respect to these re-
ports, and require them to be made after a particular form. From these
reports, the regents of the university derive their annual report to the
Legislature, and thus present a luminous view of the condition of their lit-
erary institutions, and of the greatand beneficent results they are the means
of accomplishing. This board is made to sustain avery important and

interesting relation to. these institutions and to the great object of learn-
ing and education, and to the people who enjoy the benefits. They
speak i in this manner to the whole people every year, and their report
is the index of the healthful action of these institutions upon the public
mind. es
Such an annual report must abound in statistics, and must be exam:
ined to be fully comprehended. _ It is widely spread over the state, and
the regents are understood to be liberal in sending it to other states. ~
give the following abstracts.
Seven colleges and medical schools, and one hundred and forty si six
academies made their annual reports to the regents.
rit of students in the colleges, é . - 675
“ . in the medical schools, . 858
mesg of ney in the former in the toa neins years, 22
in the latter
The colleges and medical-schools received a the state during the
last year, $20,500
The fostering care of ies state: tal been shown in the last year in
substantial pecuniary aid. It was merited, and will prove a public ben-
efit. P ; ; i iia
To the several. academies the state distributes, through the regents,
annually, the sum of $40,000, being one portion of the literature fund.
This sum is equally divided among the academies of the eight senato-
rial districts, in the proportion of the number of students engaged in
classical studies or in the higher branches of English education. As
the first district has only five academies, and claimed a part of the fund
for only 765 pupils, and the fourth district has twenty six academies
and claimed for 1914 pupils, and the eighth district has twenty two
academies and claimed for 1876 attendants, it is obvious that this mode
of distributing this fund is exceedingly unequal, and does not
with the benevolent and republican principles of the plan in general.
It needs only a thought to force the conviction that the division can be
made republican by being made equal over the state. It may be expect-
ed from the generous policy of this noble state, that this inequality will
not be’ suffered to continue another year.
Whole number of students in the academies in the ee 22,782
“‘Distribation of literature fund allowed for .— 12,257
Of this number, were of females, about . ‘ 5,700
The heart rejoices over this fact, that nearly one half of all those,
who were pursuing classical or higher English studies, were females,
the daughters of the rich and the poor, proposing to exert a more ihe
erful and kindly influence on our citizens.
© Vol. xurx, No, 1.—April-June, 1845. 23

» The amount of capital invested in the lots and buildings, mtn
apparat, &¢e., of the academies was, for the last year, $1,538,
‘The tuition fees amounted to . : ‘ $188,583
The salaries of teachers to. i $192,252
Another fact shows the wisdom of the neliey of the regents in ad-
vancing the interests of the academies. If an academy raise $250 or
less from means not academic, for the purchase of library and appa-
ratus, the regents give to that academy an equal sum. ‘Thus the re-
gents have distributed in past years, $27,800 for this object, and the
academies have obtained books and apparatus amounting to more than
$55,000, not a small portion of which is now in use and enhancing the
worth of their instruction. The value of the a in

Rutgers Female Institute is = - - 3779
Amenia Seminary, ~~ - a} orks - . 1,007
Albany Academy, ati aosit - os 1,532

Albany Female hdd dec sRoeh ge Tomson ep 1,936
Albany Female Seminary, eres oie 860

Troy Female Seminary, - - : 1,697 ©
Black River L. and R. Tabane . - - 1,651
Oneida Conference Seminary, SS ein? os 1,272

Rochester Collegiate Institute,

In many others it is several hundred dollars. “We rae not space to
give the value of the libraries.

The report shows ina conclusive manner the vast importance of the
academies. There must be a higher grade of education than even ém-

oved common schools can furnish. This is demanded by the exigen-
cies of the country. This is adequate reason. 'The numerous and
profitable applications of a higher education in the diversified pursuits
of American enterprise, demand it. A comparatively small proportion
of the students in the academies obtain a collegiate education, or only
one thirty-fourth of the whole number, and not one twentieth of those
in the higher English branches and classical studies. The academies
benefit the middle and poorer classes more than the rich. . The chil-
dren of the rich enjoy the higher advantages in some way; but the
academies enable the poor to enjoy the same at moderate expense
through the energy of the minds that long for knowledge. The acade-
mies keep down and prevent aristocracy in decitow hades and their de-
struction would at once enlarge the influence of aristocracy in wealth
and knowledge. By much sacrifice many young men of slender
means, or in destitution of property; have raised and are raising
themselves to a more influential and important place among our citi-
zens. The academies thus effect what the common schools cannot.
Good policy requires, the high interests of the people require,—that the

Bibliography. 179

fostering care of the state should be more fully extended to the acade-
mies, and the appropriation of money to them be increased
The academies, too, are the great source of teachers of common
schools. The supply for a great normal school will be scarcely
perceived among two millions of inhabitants. The academies must
send forth ten to its one. A famine of knowledge would follow the
abandonment of the academies. There can be no doubt that the prime
movers of the mind of this great state will continue and extend the intel-
lectual machinery which they have put in such successful operat om
which has already produced such beneficial results.
The meteorological part of the report demands more than the pays
ing notice now to be given. Thirty nine academies in all the sections
of the state, have reported their observations on the temperature and
winds and weather, and most of them the quantity of water fallen.
Four academies have given their regular observations on the barometer,
viz.—Millville Academy in Orleans county, the New York Institution
for the Deaf and Dumb, North Salem Academy in Westchester county,
and Rochester Collegiate Institute in the’ county of Monroe, two in the
southern and two in the northern part of the state. The temperature
is required to be taken in the coldest part of the day, just before sun-
rise, in the hottest part of the day, and about an hour after sunset. The
daily mean is to be taken, and the mean of each half month, and of
the whole month, and then of the whole year, at each place. The
prevailing winds and weather are to be taken for each half day, and the
general direction of the weather, is to be given in a tabular result.
From all these observations, the op contains a grand abstract of
facts.
For = the mean temperature of the state for 1844, is :
70 Fah.
i “6 ie 5s 1825 to 1886, 47°55 “—
; “c 6 qs &c 1836 to 1845, 45 -92*
Quantity of rain from 1825 to 1836 is 35-10+ inches.
; 6c 6c for 1844 is 44 a
The coldest days were between Jan. 25 and 81, inclusive.
- The warmest day was, in some places, in June, and in others, in
July, August, or September.
Wind from the N. W. occurs on more days than from any other
quarter of the horizon. The course of the prevailing winds is given, p.
187, for the whole state, from the west, but Prof. Coffin has shown the

* Mean temperature of state for last 19 years, 46°-72.
Quantity of rain from 1835 to 1845, 34-25 inches.
.. Average for last 19 years, — 33°93 “«

course of prevailing wind to be from several degrees south of west.
To come to any trustworthy results on this great point, the observations
~ maust be very accurate, and the direction of the wind, not on the surface,
but in the main body of the clouds, must be observed. From local
causes or other forces, the lower current often varies greatly, from
the prevalent direction. Probably much more attention must be giv-
en to this particular than the regents have yet required. The pre-
vailing wind, that is, the resultant of all the winds, may then be found
at th® south of the S. W. direction, and in the course of the great moun-
tain chains from the Gulf of Mexico. ‘The report also contains a great
amount of observations on halos, storms, frost, time of flowering of
plants, aurora borealis, coming of birds, time of harvesting wheat, rye, &c.
and of ripening of various fruits, appearing of reptiles, insects, &c.,
which make a rich treat to the connoisseur in these subjects.

~ It closes with a catalogue of plants in the vicinity of Penn Yan, Yates
County, which does ne little credit to Dr. H. P. Sartwell, an accurate
and ardent botanist. Hie
» “In coneluding the present annual report, the regents recur with
pleasure to the evidently flourishing condition of the colleges and
academies subject to their visitation.” So let it be in time to come.»

1, Report of Experiments on Gunpowder, made at Washington
Arsenal, in 1843 and 1844. By Capt. ALrrep Morpecai of the Ord-
nance Department. Washington, 1845. 8vo, pp. 328, 4 plates.
—This Report embodies the results of many thousands of accurate ex-
periments made by Capt. Mordecai, under government authority, with
instruments constructed in such a manner as to insure perfect accuracy:
Having had the satisfaction of inspecting the instruments, and of hearing
from Capt. Mordecai an account of the methods of experimenting, we
can speak of them with the greater certainty. The force of gun-
powder, since the time of Hutton and the French experimenters, has
been calculated by means of the balistic pendulum and of a gun pen-
dulum. The gun (in these experiments a twenty-four and a thirty-two
pounder) is suspended in an iron frame, hung on knife edges of hard-
ened steel, like a balance beam, the whole supported (a load of 10,500
Ibs.) on massive stone pillars, The recoil is measured.on a limb of
brass, having a curve, of which the frame. work and the gun are the
radius, and graduated to read to seconds by means of a yernier which
1S moved by the recoil, and retained at the point of greatest vibration
by a slight spring. When the gun is adjusted and at rest, its axis is 8
horizontal line, and the vernier stands at zero on the scale.

Ata distance of only fifty-five feet, (between the centres,) is inserted
the pendulum block for receiving the shot and. measuring its velocity-

Bibliography. 181

This pendulum is a-counterpart to the gun, as regards its mode of ‘sus-
pension and motion, which is also measured in like manner on a grad-
uated arc. This ‘ dock’? as it is called, resembles a mortar or wide
howitzer, with a bore of four and a half feet deep and fifteen inches
calibre, and filled with leathern bags of sand, and a bedding of lead:
This block, the frame and counterpoise weights, weighed 9,358 Ibs., and
was suspended so as to hang when at rest, with its axis perfectly in one
and the same line as the axis of the gun. When prepared for use
the aperture of the pendulum block was covered by a sheetof lead,
which served to make the deviation of the ball from a right line, by
the hole which was pierced in it. This deviation was found to be very
slight.

It seems, to a person unaccustomed to such experiments, a tnthor
daring attempt to fire a thirty-two pound shot, at the distance of only
fifty feet into the mouth of another gun. But that velocity which left
unrestrained, would serve to carry the shot for miles, is in this apparatus
restrained within the range of a few feet, and imparts only a moderate
motion on the great mass of matter on which it impinges, which can be
wholly and accurately estimated. Capt. Mordecai remarks that ‘“‘an
observer placed in such a position as to see the face of the block un-
obscured by the smoke of the gun, perceives at the moment of im-
pact, a circle of reddish white flame surrounding the hole made by the
ball.” He supposes “‘ that this flame may be produced by the combus-
tion of minute particles of iron and lead ignited by friction.” He fur-
ther remarks, that “ in firing a thirty-two pound ball into the pendulum
block with a charge of eight pounds, the sand immediately before the
ball was compressed into a solid mass, forming an imperfect sandstone
sufficiently firm to. bear handling. A specimen is still preserved in that
state after a lapse of more aa pightoer:. apt e his sand when
examined, was found quite _ An appa-
ratus of quite similar ‘structure, on a proportionate scale, was used for
muskets. In these experiments powder from a great number of man-
ufactories, and of great variety of composition, grain and finish, were
tested. The elements for calculating the strength of gunpowder, ob-
tained by these experiments, were resolved by the formule of Hutton
and those which more recently have been employed by the French at
Metz. This portion of the labor is performed with the accuracy and
skill, which characterize all the highly educated officers from West Point
Academy: Capt. Mordecai concludes from the results of his experi-
ments, that the only reliable mode of proving the strength of gunpow-
der is to test it, with service charges, in the arms for which it is designed; -
for which purpose ‘the balistic pendulums are perfectly adapted. 3

182 Bibliography.
. In the twenty-four pounder gun, new cannon powder should give,
with a charge of one-fourth the weight of the ball, an initial velocity of
not less than sixteen hundred feet, to a ball of medium size and windage.
» The initial velocity of the musket ball, of 0°05 in windage, with a
charge of one hundred and twenty grains, should be
With new musket powder not less than 1,500 feet.

ac % rifle so 19 3 1,600 “ce

“|. fine-sporting: St). 2 -v:* & 1,800 “
_ The common eprouvettes are of no value as instruments for de-
termining the relative force of different kinds of gunpowder.

The proportion used in making our best powder, 76.14.10, and the
English 75.15.10, appear to be favorable to the strength of powder.
The best mode of manufacture is in what is called the cylinder mills
under heavy rollers, and this process alone is considered capable of
making good sporting powder. . The English have employed this process
for fifty years, but the French still use the old method, by stamping or
pounding. The “ gravimetric density’? should not be less than 850
nor more than 920.. The charge for cannon for all ordinary purposes
should be one-fourth. No purpose, even breaching a battery, requires
more than one-third the weight of the ball. For small arms the follow-
ing charges are proposed: for the percussion musket, 110 grains; the
percussion rifle, 75 grains; the percussion pistol, 30 grains of rifle
powder. It is proposed that musket and rifle balls should be made by
compression, instead of casting as at present. The body of the volume
is occupied by extended tables, containing the full detail of the experi
ments, properly classified.

8. Rural Economy in its relations with Chemistry, Physics, and
Meteorology ; or Chemistry applied to Agriculture ; by J. B. Boussin-
GAULT. Translated, with an introduction and notes, by Georce Law,
Agriculturist. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 200 Broadway. 12mo,

- 507.—Boussingault’s labors have been known heretofore, to English
readers, chiefly, if not only, by the frequent reference made to them
by the popular chemical. and. agricultural writers of the day. . They
have been a mine of facts to the builders of theories, and have furnished
some inferences which probably the author never dreamt of. No man
has made more, or more extensive practical experiments in agriculture
than Boussingault, and no results are more reliable than-his. _ It is with
much pleasure that we find before us a translation of his collected
papers, a series much needed for the benefit of agricultural readers.
The two stout volumes of the original French are here embodied into
one, partly by the use of a smaller type and closer and larger pages

~

Bibliography. ; 183

and somewhat, also, by the omission of certain chemical matters not
deemed by the translator important to the American reader.

The first part of this work treats in succession of the physical and
chemical phenomena of vegetation, of the composition of vegetables
and their immediate principles, of fermentation, and of soils.’ The
second comprises a summary of all that has yet been done on the sub-
ject of manures, organic and mineral: a discussion of the subject of
rotations ; general views of the maintenance and economy of live stock ;
finally, some considerations.on meteorology and climate, and on the
relations between organized beings and the atmosphere. Now that
this valuable work is within the reach of all classes of readers and
done into good English, we have no doubt that it will make its way to
every remote hamlet in the land.

9. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
for March and April, 1844.—Contain descriptions of the following spe-
cies of American Coleoptera. By F. E. MEsHeimer. p. 26-43.

- Hyprapernaca : Leionotus compar, Harris ; Thermonectus irrora-
tus, 'T. nimbatus ; Hydaticus meridionalis ; Agabus terminalis, A. arctus,
A. punctatus ; Tadecuphited rufus; Hydroporus dichrous, H. striato-
punctatus, H. luridipennis, H. limbalis, H. dubius ; Hygrotus pustulatus ;
Cyclous opacus, C. labratus.

BRACHYELYTRA.

ALEocHArip£.—Palagia erythroptera, F. globosa; Homalota fla-
veola, H. polita, H. modesta; Oligota pedicularis (Aleochara pedicu-
laris, M. Cat.) ; Gyrophena | eos (Aleochara rufa, M. Cat.); G. flavi-
cernis,. G. lateralis. Tacuyrortpz: Tachyporus punctulatus; Ta>
chinus discoideus, T. limbatus; Boletrobius MARE, ae Lec
(Tachinus trimaculatus, Say a B. binotatus.

StraPHYLinip£.—xXantholinus palliatus, X. na x. -sanguino-
lentus ; Staphylinus violaceus; Belonuchus pallipes; Philonthus Har-
risii (Staphylinus picipes, Harris), P. letulus (S. Jeetulus, Say), P. pul-
chellus, P. nanus, P. brevis (S. dimidiatus, Say), P. cinctatus, P. rafi-
cornis, P. niger, P. fusiformis. Oxyroripz : Quedius bardus, Q.
terminatus ; Oxyporus dimidiatus, O. brevis, O. fasciatus. Paprripx :
Lathrobium longiusculum ; Stilicus angularis.. Srenmpz: Stenus ery-
thropus.. Oxyrenrpxz: Oxytelus basalis, O. pygmaeus, O. parvulus.
Przstrpm: Prognatha Americana, OmaLup#: Oloprum emarginatum,
Erichron ; Anthobium dimidiatum.
| Descriptions of New North American Coleoptera. By Rev. D. ZizG-
LER, of York, Pa. . The following species are described, pp. 43—47...

/

184 Bibliography.

-Oxyprus pulcher ; Diacanthus splendens; Scyrtessuturalis; Hydno-
cera? longicollis; Spercheus tesselatus; Hydrophilus ovalis ; Copro-
bius obtusidens ; ey ?) brianna ~— marginata, C. erythrop-
tera ruficollis, P. marginicollis ;
Sakichasnwacis tomentosus ; ; Cidionychis > hispida,

Descriptions of New Species of North American Coleoptera. By
Joun L. pz Conrz. The following species are described, pp.

Galerita dubia ; Plochionus vittatus ; Aptinus Americamus, Dej. Cat. ;
Bachinus strenuus, B. Le Contei, Dej. Cat., B. cyanopterus, Dej. MS.,
B. viridis, B, neglectus, B. tenuicollis, B. patruelis, Dej. Cat. ; Clivina
impressifrons, C. convexus; Rembus striatopunctus, R. eens Chle-
nius congener, C. patruelis; Badister terminalis, B. testaceus, B. mi-
cans ; Oodes picipes, Pristonychus Americanus ; Calathus distinguens
dus; Anchomenus Le Contei.

Descriptions of Insects, by S. 8. HanpEMan, pp. 53—55.—Leucospis
integra; Hedychrum janus; Typhlopone pallipes; Eumenes sub-
stricta ; Scaphinotus flammeus; Scarites substriatus, S. distinctus, S,
subterraneus, Fabr.; Agrion venerinotata; Termes frontalis.

Inip., for May and June, 1844,

Descriptions of New Species of African Reptiles from Liberia, p. 58.
uuprepie Blandingii; Lxalus concolor; Leptophis gracilis and L.. sis

semen for September and October, 1844. ?

Description of some New Species of Fossil Organic Remains from
the Eocene of South Carolina; by Epmunpn Ravenet, M. D., of
Charleston, S. C.—The species described’ are Pecten Mortoni, P. Ho
brookii ; Terebratula eanipes ; Scutella pileus-sinensis.

Dese?iphione of New Species of Coleoptera of the United States; by
se eT M. D.—The following species are described, PP:

HetTerocerip#: Heterocerus ventralis, H. undatus, H. brunneus.
Parnipz: Elmis vittatus; Macronychus lateralis, HenopHoriDz :
Hydrochus gibbosus, H. rufipes. Hypropnitipm: Berosus auritus;
Laccobius punctatus ; Philhydrus limbalis, P. fimbriatus, P, ochraceus.
Sruzripupx : Cereyon maculatum, C. nanum, C. mundum, C. minus
culum. AcatHipipz: Phalacrus politus, P. apicialis, P. nitidus 5 Lei-
odes alternata, L. discolor; Agathidium piceum, A. egiguum. ScA-
PHIDID# : Scaphidium piceum ; Scaphisoma terminatum. ” SiePHIDE:
Pettis quadrilineata, P. marginata. Niriputipz: Cercus punctulatus,
C. pusillus ; Carpophilus antiquus, C. minutus, C. bimaculatus; Niti-
dula uniguttata, N. rufida; Osmosita badia; O. castanea; Pallodes
obsoletus. Encinz: Cryptarcha picta; Nitidula (Ips.) fasciata ; 1.
geminatus; Rhyzophagus (?) parallelus, R, erythropterus ; Trogosita

Bibliography. 185

eastanea, T. corticalis, T. limbalis, T. dubia, ‘T. nana, T. bimaculata ;
Bitoma undulata ; Bothrideres exaratus ; Monotoma fulvipes ; Synchita
fuliginosa ; Cicones marginalis; Xylotrogus brevicornis, X. parallelipi-
pedus; Lyctus striatus, L. axillaris; Lemophleeus fasciatus; Tebra-
toma obsoleta. Mycrtornacipz: Mycetophagus bimaculatus, M. bi-
pustulatus ; Atomaria pubescens, A. crenata, Antherophagus ochraceus ;
Cryptophagus maculatus; Corticaria pulicarius. Dermestipm: Tro-
goderma (?) tarsale; Anthrenus destructor, A. castanee, A. thoracicus.
Byxruipz: Syncalypta hispidus; Byrrhus trivittatus, B. undatus, B.
glabellus; Simplocaria strigosa.

Descriptions of New Species of Reptiles from Africa ; by E. Hat-
LoweLL, M. D.—The species described are the following, p. 118. Col-
uber leevis ; Dipsas carinatus ; Trionyx Mortoni.

Iprp., for November and December, 1844.—No. 6.

Desiripiions of New Species of Coleoptera of the United States ; by
F, E. Metsueimer, M. D., pp. 184—160; continued from p. 118.—
The following are the names of the species described.

Lametxicornia: Onthophagus castaneus, O. niger, O. rhinoceros,
O. protensus ; Aphodius badipes, A. pensvallensis, A. truncatus, A.
copronymus, A. stercorosus, A. rusicola, A. aterrimus, A. imbricatus,
A. maculipennis; Oxyomus gracilis, O. alternatus; Trox striatus, T.
variolatus ; Bolbocerus cornigerus ; Bothynus castaneus; Ancylonycha
pruinosa, A. rugosa; Anomala dichroa, A. undulata, A. pinicola ;
Hoplia monticola, H. tristis, H. helvola. Burresripz: Dicerca du-
bia, D. aurichalcea, D. parumpunctata, D. chrysea, D. indistincta, D.
meliter, D. impressifrons, D. ferrea, D. consobrina, D. gracilipes ;
Buprestis inconstans; Melanophila wreola, M. metallica; Chrysobo-
thris calcarata, C. punctata, C. strangulata, C. viridiceps, C. rugosiceps ;
Anthaxia gracilis, A. scoriacea. Evcnemipez: M. pectinicornis;
Lissomus nitidus ; Hylocharus (?) bicolor ; Dirhagus badius ; D. rufipes.
Exateripz: Ctenonychus sphenoidalis, C. ochraceipennis, C. testaceus,
C. depressus, C. parumpunctatus; Melanotus ignobilis, M. glandicolor,
M. paradoxus; Athoiis vagrans, A. squalis, A. melanophthalmus, A.
strigatus, A. cavifrons, A. oblongicollis, A. hypoleucus, A. ereolus, A.
ereus, A. procericollis, A. arcticollis, A. trivittatus, A. tarsalis ; Limo-
nius posticus, L. metallescens; Cardiophorus amictus; Ectinus granu-
losus ; Elater humeralis, E. impolitus, E. hepaticus.

Descriptions of New Species of African Reptiles; by E. Hatto-
weit, M. D.—The species described are, Coluber Phillipsii ; Bufo cine-
reus ; Plestiodon Harlani; Dipsas Blandingii, Tropidolepis Africanus,
Leptophia viridis, Coluber ater.

Descriptions of eight new Fossil Shells of the United States; by

Conrav.— Miocene — ae cymbiformis. Eocene

Vol. xxx, No. 1.—April-June, 1845

186 Bibliography.

species ; Cardita densata; Cytherea subimpressa, C. liciata, C. eversa,
C. pyga; Pecten elixatus. alll species ; Bellerophon scissile,

Iprp., for March and April, 184

Description of a New Vulture =. Vera Cruz ; by Joun Cassin.
p. 212.—The Cathartes Burrovianus. “C. capite nudo, levi, naribus
magnis, ovatis, corpore omnino nigro, viridi-cerulescente subnitido, sub-
tus pallidiore ; ; plumis extendentibus sursum super posteriore cervicis,
parvo spatio in pectore nudo. Alis longis, remigibus et rectricibus ni-
gris, scapis primarum albis et conspicuis, tertia prima longissima.”
Long, tot. (exuvii) 22 unc., rostri 2}, ale 18, caudex 8}.

Descriptions of New Calsieeers of the United ites ; by F. BE. Met-
SHEIMER; continued from p. 160—pp. 213. The following species.—
Elater fuscatus, E. testaceipes, E. ursulus ; Cryptohbypnus obliquatulus,
C. guttatulus ; Oophorus crassicollis ; Corymbites atropurpureus, C. hir-
ticollis, C. interstitialis; Diacanthus (?) sii: ; Pristilophus (?)
sordidus, P. femoralis; Agriotes truncatus, A. striatulus, A. pubescens;
Dolopius isabellinus, D. oblongicollis; Adrastus siiaiooes ; Campylus
flavinasus, C. (?) bivittatus. Rureicertpz: Sandalus rubidus, S. brevi-
collis. Crsrionip#: Atopa ornata, A. bicolor, A. fusca. CyPHoNIDE:
Nycteus (?) thoracicus ; Eubria (?) nervosa; Scyrtes solstitialis.

10. The Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology: by Dr.
G. J. Muupzr, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Utrecht.
Translated from the Dutch, by P. F. H. Fromserc, First Assistant in
the Laboratory of the Agricultural Chemistry Association of Scotland.
With an Introduction and Notes, by Prof. Jamus F, W. Jounston,
F.R.SS.L.&E. First American Edition, with Notes, by B. Sinu-
MAN, Jr. Part I, 12mo, pp. 176. New York and London, Wiley &
Putnam, 1845.—We have before noticed the appearance of a part of
Milder’s valuable treatise on the Chemistry of Physiology in its Amer-
ican dress. The first part complete has now been before the public for
several weeks, embracing the following subjects in five chapters.

Chap. I.—Chemical and Organic Forces. Chap. [.—Inorganie, Or-
ganic, and Organized Bodies: Plants and Animals, Chap. II.—The
Atmosphere in its connection with Organic Nature. Chap. IV.—Wa-
ter considered in its Connection with Organic Nature. Chap. V.—Re-
Jation of the Soil to Organic Nature.

From the scnawtie speculative turn given by the author to the first
chapter, on Chemical and Organic Forces, it was feared by some of his
readers, that the work would possess a less practical and useful charac-
ter than was to be hoped for, from the renowned professor of chemis-
try in the University of Utrecht. This groundless apprehension is
abundantly set aside by the chapters which Bc follow. As it

Bibliography. | 187

is our intention to present an analysis of Miilder’s views, at some length,
' ina future number of this Journal, we shall at present do no more than
recommend it to the careful perusal of our readers, for it is a work
not to be fully appreciated by a cursory reading.

11. Life of Goprrey Witi1am Von Lerenirz; on the basis of the
German work of Dr. G. E. Gunsraver. By Joun M. Mackie. 12mo,
pp- 288. Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln. 1845.—The biography of
great and learned men, of those who have, by their labors in the com-
mon cause of sound knowledge, either opened new paths of investi-
gation, or made more accessible those which before existed, is one of the
most interesting and valuable departments of literature, and one pecu-
liarly adapted to the advancement of science. Leibnitz was the author
of much of that peculiar philosophy, which, adopted with certain varia-
tions by Kant and other Germans, has become universally known as the
German philosophy. He was a man of great and varied attainments,—
varied to an extent rarely reached by any but the German mind, and
profound in all. His prolonged life of industrious application, gave
him opportunities for going over almost an entire field of human
knowledge, and wherever he went, his uncommon powers of invention
and research enabled him to make original and important discoveries.
He was a cotemporary of Newton; and, like the great English philos-
opher, he early fell upon new and invaluable methods in the higher
mathematics. Without entering at all into the merits of the protracted
personal controversy, which grew up between Newton and Leibnitz,
regarding the priority of discovery of the method of fluxions,—the
differential caleulus,—we can say, that Leibnitz was undoubtedly an
original discoverer, and the French philosophers have not hesitated to
award him the palm of decided priority. All scientific Europe, for a
quarter of a century, was embroiled by this celebrated controversy,
which was actively kept up for years, after death had removed Leib-
nitz from the arena, which event no doubt, gave an undue advantage
to the English competitor, aided, as he was, by the well-known re-
port of the Committee of the Royal Society, to whom the affair was
committed for adjudication, and who, singularly enough, concluded their
labors without giving to their German member an opportunity of defend-
ing before them his claims.

Mr. Mackie has given a very impartial view of the history of this
controversy, and also a well condensed summary of his peculiar philo-
sophical tenets before alluded to. The memoir is well written, free from
repitition, and consequently makes the subject the most prominent thing
before the reader. We have read it with equal pleasure and profit,
and have no doubt that it will meet with general approval. It is evi-

188 Bibliography.

dently not a translation from the German memoir, but rather an analy-
sis and condensation, thrown into a connected and attractive form.

12. Wiley § Putnam’s Catalogue of Scientific Books. Part I,
Medical Science.—These enterprising publishers have made it com-
paratively easy to us, in this country, to become acquainted with the
standard works of European authors, in all departments, by the facili-
ties which their establishment affords to obtain those which fall in the
way of each reader. This service is peculiarly useful to those whose iso-
lated position in small towns in the interior of the country cuts them off
from other sources of information.

The medical practitioner will find the first part of this well-digested
catalogue, of great service, in enabling him to, keep’ up with the rapid
advances of his profession. We will, also, in this connection, notice .

13.. Library of Choice Reading, in course of publication by. the
same publishers. This series is designed to supply a better material for
the taste which the public haye acquired for ‘‘ cheap literature’ and
science, than the vapid trash which has, during the last few years, fallen
stillborn from the press in such quantities as to have become a nuisance
and seriously to impede the progress of better books. We have seen
already ten parts of this series, comprising a number of well known
works of established reputation—* books which are books,” viz. Eothen3
Mary Schweidler, the Amber-witch ; Undine ; Imagination and Fancy
by Leigh Hunt; The Diary of Lady. Willoughby; Hazlitt’s. Table
Talk, parts 1 and 2; Headlong Hall and Nightmare Abbey; The
French in Algiers, by Lady Duff Gordon; Ancient Moral Tales, from
the Gesta Romanorum. ye

14. Handwérterbuch der Topographischen Mineralogie yon Gustav.
Lronnarp, Doctor der Philosophie, &c. 1 vol. 12mo, 596 pp- _ Heidel-
berg, Akademische Verlags-Handlung von J.C, B. Monn. 1843.—
While the science of mineralogy appears to be rather on the wane in
England and France, Germany continues to prosecute it with unabated
zeal, and every year witnesses the announcement of new. works and
new discoveries. For three-fourths of the new species added_to the
science within a few years past, we are indebted to Germany and
Northern Europe. To the same countries, also, do we look for the
greater part of the late improvements in analytical chemistry. |

The work, whose title is above given, is one of the number, relating
to mineralogy, that have appeared in Germany within the last two years.
As the title indicates, it is occupied solely with topographical mineralogy,
or in other words it is a book of mineral localities, containing the min-

Bibliography. 189

eral species in alphabetical order, with their various localities throughout
the world. From the correct orthography of our own names, we may
judge of the accuracy and care with which its pages have been pre-
pared. To mineralogists who may travel abroad, and to those who have
cabinets or make exchanges, such a work is obviously highly important.
The deciphering of illegible labels is a common trouble with the min-
eralogist not well versed in the languages of Europe; here Leonhard
supplies a ready aid, besides giving some idea of the geographical posi-
tion of the places. It also enables one, through the associated minerals,
often to ascertain the locality when unknown ; and it supplies the means
of comparing our own localities, and the associated minerals with those
of the same species abroad. As a book of réference, therefore, Leon-
hard’s work will be found highly convenient, and the more so for its
concise, systematic, tabular mode of arrangement. In carrying out
his plan the localities are first given for Europe, mentioning in order
those of the separate countries or departments ;—as for example, under
Pyrites, severally, Spain, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Nether-
lands, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Prussia, Hanover,
Hartz, Saxony, Hesse Cassel, Hesse Darmstadt, Nassau, Baden, Wur-
temberg, Baiern, Austria, Italy, Greece, Russia, Poland. Then the
continents, Asia, Australia, Africa, and America, including under the
latter the subdivisions, Greenland, British North America, United States,
Mexico, Peru, Chili, Brazil, and Uraguay.—The work closes by a second
table containing all the places mentioned as localities, arranged in alpha-
betical order, under the different countries to which they belong.

15. The Botanical Text Book, for Colleges, Schools, and Private
Students ; comprising, Pari I. An introduction to Structural and Phys-
iological Botany... Part II. The principles of Systematic Botany, with
an account of the chief natural families of the Vegetable Kingdom, and
notices of the principal useful plants. 2d Edition, with more than a
thousand wood cuts. By Asa Gray, M. D., Fisher Professor of Natu-
ral History in Harvard University. 509 pp. 8vo, Wiley & Putnam,
New York, 1845.—This. second edition of a work that has already
gained a high reputation, is very much enlarged and improved, both in
subject matter and illustrations. The author states in his preface, that
the first part on structural and physiological botany, has been mostly
rewritten and amplified to nearly twice its former extent; and the
numerous figures added have given increased simplicity and clearness
to this part of the subject, while at the same time it is rendered more
complete. The chapters upon the principles of classification and the
natural system have also been recast and somewhat enlarged ; while
those illustrative of the natural orders have been condensed, without,

190 Bibliography.

however, the omission of any thing of proper botanical interest. The
whole number of pages has been increased in this edition, about one
quarter, and the wood cuts, which are all remarkably clear and well
printed, have been more than doubled in number. The volume isa
beautiful one in its typography and general appearance, and of the
highest order of scientific merit. While sufficiently complete for the
adyanced student in the science, it is at the same time as simple and
perspicuous as can be required by the beginner.

16. A Class Book of Botany, designed for Colleges, Academies and
other Seminaries. In two Parts: PartI. The Elements of Botanical
Science. Part II. The Natural Orders, illustrated by a Flora of the
northern Uninted States, particularly New England and New York.
By Atrnonso Woop, A. M., Associate Principal in Kimball Union
Academy. Boston: Crocker & Brewster. Claremont, N. H.: Simeon
Ide, 1845,—This work is constructed on the natural system, and has
been a great desideratum for several years. Its Elements of Botanical
Science contain a faithful, clear, and definite view of the principles
taught by De Candolle, Lindley, Gray, Torrey, &c., the Classes, Or-
ders and Genera, are all founded on the same authorities, and its de-
scriptions of specimens, comprising all the plants of New England and
New York especially, except the lower orders of Cryptogamia, are ac-
cording to the natural method. The artificial system of Linneus, by
means of a few plain and ingenious tables, is employed only to lead
the learner to the genus or the natural order where the plant is found
and described. This work makes the study of plants interesting and
fascinating, and must in our country supersede all the common works
on the Linnean methods. Teachers of academies, schools, &c., will
find it a noble work for their use in the study of plants. hice

17. Owen's Mlustrated Catalogue.—A quarto volume has just appear-
ed, being a Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the fossil organic
remains of Mammalia and Aves contained in the Museum of the Royal
College of Surgeons in England. Edited by Prof. Owen. pp. 390,
with ten lithographs.—Plate 1 is a restored figure of the gigantic ex-
tinct Armadillo (Glyptodon) of South America—it is very beautiful ;
all the tesselated osseous carapace remains; even the case which cov-
ered the tail and the casque that protected the skull; there is a fine
plate of the cranium of the same annimal. This work, like all- Prof.
Owen’s productions, is very excellent—not a dry catalogue, but full of
information of the highest paleontological interest.*

* Letter from London to the Senior Editor.

Bibliography. 191
18. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation.—In Vol. xtvin, p.
395 of this Journal, we have mentioned this new work, with its novel
and startling views and opinions. Upon it our respected London cor-
respondent remarks :—‘ It has made a great sensation ; chiefly, I be-
ieve, because the author cannot be detected,* and that two hundred
copies were gratuitously delivered to the leading scientific and literary
men. It is evidently the work of a very clever man, who has read
much and speculated: more; and who is not an original observer. It
embraces all the natural sciences, and abounds in the most extraordinary
speculations, most of them based on insufficient data, or on mistaken
facts. His object is to prove that creation has proceeded according toa
law impressed by the Creator on matter, by which organic forms arise
from inorganic atoms, and that the simplest and most primitive type, un-
der a law to which that of like production is subordinate, gave birth to the
next type above it ; that this again produced the next higher, and so on
to the very highest, the stage of advance being, in all cases, very small,
namely from one species to another. In support of this theory of pro-
gressive development, geology and physiology are made to succumb to
the views of the author. I have no time,” remarks the writer, ‘ for far-
ther comment, but I think the book false in religion and philosophy, and
all its errors are swallowed by the upper classes, to whom every thing
boldly asserted and in captivating style is gospel.”

' 19. Dr. G. A. Mantett on the Geological Structure of the country
seen from Leith Hill in the county of Surrey ;—(from Brayley’s Topo-
graphical History of Surrey.)—A very beautiful thin quarto of only
19 pages, adorned by three exquisite pictures of landscape views, and
five wood cuts of the structure of the country, is received from the
author almost at the moment of closing our number. This little geo-
logical tract is a contribution from Dr. Mantell to Brayley’s Topograph-
ical History of Surrey, a splendid work now going through the press
in England ; another addition to’works, (of which England possesses
many valuable ones,) on the local history of counties and districts in that
country. The present work illustrates: I. The Natural State ; II. The
History and Antiquities ; III. The Social Economy and present condi-
tion of the county of Surrey, a region rich in historical, social, and
geological interest. The formation of chalk and the Wealden having
been so often and so ably illustrated by Dr. Mantell, it is almost super-
fluous to add, that this tract corresponds with the well known character
of his mind for dignity, discrimination, and for the living interest which
is diffused over all his productions.

* We have heard it attributed toa celebrated London zoologist, whose name we
forbear to cite, as we are not sure of the fact.—Eps

192 ‘Miscellanies.

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1. Abstracts of the Researches of European Chemists; prepared for
this Journal by J. Lawrence Smirn, M. D. of Charleston, S.C.
-. Silicic Ether, by M. Esziman, (Comp. Rend. Aug. 1844, p. 399. em
If absolute alcohol be added with precaution to chloride of silicon, a vio-
lent action takes place, with an abundant escape of hydrochloric acid
as, and a considerable diminution of temperature ; when the alcohol
added exceeds by a little the quantity of chloride used, the escape of gas
ceases, and the temperature of the liquid rises. If the mixture be dis-
tilled, there passes over first a small quantity of hydrochloric ether, and
then the greater part of the liquid distills between 320° and 338° Fah.;
this is laid aside, and the distillation peiaates at 572° Fah. There
remains in the retort a mere trace of silic

The first product, when rectified, has a fixed point of ebullition between
323° and 325° Fah., a penetrating ethereal odor, strong peppery taste,
and a density of 0°932; it is insoluble in water, but by long contact with
it is slowly decomposed, perfectly neutral in its reaction, dissolves in alco-
hol and ether in all proportions; the alcoholic solution is decomposed by
alkalies, with a deposition of gelatinous silica; a few drops thrown into 4
red hot platinum crucible burn with a white flame, depositing silica.
Upon analysis it proves to be a silicate of the oxide of ethyle, having for
its formula—

SiO* 8C* H* O; (with Berzelius’s equivalent for silica, 22'1.)
or SiO 8C* H* O, (with Dumas’s equivalent for silica, 73).

By fractional distillation of the liquid that passed over between 338°
and 672° Fah. and analyzing, it is found that the proportion of carbon
and hydrogen remains unchanged, the silica constantly i increasing. That
portion of liquid distilled at about 572° Fah. is colorless, possesses a fee-
ble odor, and is of a different taste from the first ether; its density is
1035; the action of water and of ee alkalies is the same as upon the
other. Its formula is, (SiO)? C+ H

From this it would appear that tae acid has at least two ethers—the
first fact of the kind connected with the history of the ethers, and which
corresponds to the numerous silicates of different degrees of saturation
found in the mineral kingdom. The following i is the manner in which
the alcohol and chloride of silicon react to form the ae ethers.

Si Cl+-C* H® 0°=H Cl+Si0 C4 H* O, first et

Rpg Bio H¢ 0?)=C! H® C-LH C}-4(Si Oe C! I$ O, second
eth

q

Miscellanies. 193

_ Oxide of Phosphorus, by Berzarivus, (Chem. Gazette, Aug. 1844, p.
301.)—When a large surface of phealtiened is exposed to the action of diy
Seanpbatin air, it is slowly oxidized without forming any free phosphoric
acid, being converted into a brown mass, which is the phosphate of the oxide
of phosphorus decomposed by water, with a separation of the pure oxide.
This is however more readily formed by pouring liquid sulphuret of phos-
phorus into a flask containing dry air, which must be occasionally renew-
ed by means of a chloride of calcium tube; the inside of the flask soon
becomes covered with a brown tenacious mass. At the expiration of a
week the flask is to be filled with water, with which the mass mixes,
forming a beautiful yellow milk ; this is removed with a syphon to prevent
any of the undecomposed sulphuret from mixing with it. The liquid being
heated to 176° Fah. becomes clear with the deposition of a yellow hydrate
of the oxide of phosphorus. It should be washed and dried in the air.

Phosphuret of Lime, (Compt. Rend. Aug. 1844, p. 313.)—This sub-
stance, sometimes called phosphuret of calcium, has been the subject of
some recent investigations by M. Thenard, and he has found that the
composition of it, whether made by passing the vapor of phosphorus over
lamine, or small Jumps of incandescent lime, is the same—the surface
containing no more phosphorus than the centre. The following is the
nature of the chemical change that takes place: 10 equivalents of lime
are decomposed, its oxygen combining with 2 equivalents of phosphorus,
forming phosphoric acid, which combines with a portion of lime,—the
calcium liberated combining with the rest of the phosphorus, which is 5
atoms, forming phosphuret of calcium,—so that the phosphuret of lime
is a mixture of definite proportions of the phosphate of lime and phos-
phuret of calcium—2PO° 4CaO0+5PCa?

The changes which take place when this substance is brought into con-
tact with water are these :—the phosphuret of calcium and water by their
mutual reaction produce the liquid phosphuretied hydrogen, (see abstracts,
Am. Jour., Vol. xnvit, Jan. 1845,) and lime, without the appearance of
the hydrosaighite-- SBCs converted into 5PH?-++-10CaO, As the liquid
phospburetted hydrogen is very unstable, particularly in the presence of
lime, it is transformed into the gaseous spon-inflammable phosphuretted
hydrogen and the solid variety thu:u—5PH?—P?H-++3PH°; as the ac-
tion continues to develope itself, the quantity of lime increases, the gas
becomes less and less inflammable, and contains more and more hydro-
gen, because the solid phosphuretted hydrogen disappears under the in-
fluence of water and an alkali; and the Jiquid which at first contained
but a little hypophosphite now becomes changed, and it can be collected
upon filtering and evaporatir ng.

Tf the phosphuret of lime be thrown into concentrated muriatic acid,
the liquid phosphuretted hydrogen, which is at first formed is immusiedintaly
decomposed into solid and gaseous i aan ai phosphuretted

Vol. xtix, No, 1.—April-June, 1845.

194 Miscellanies.

hydrogen. If the acid be diluted it is not so speedily decomposed, and
the gas that comes over is spon-inflammable from the fact that it contains
in suspension a small portion of the liquid phosphuretted hydrogen, which
was shown to be the substance to which the gas owes its inflammability.
Adding phosphuret of lime to dilute muriatic acid is the most convenient
method of obtaining the spon-inflammable gas, from the fact of its readily
dissolving the phosphate of lime contained in the mass.

Benzoic Acid and Hydruret of Benzoile, decomposition by contact,
by Barresuu and Boupactt, (Jour. de Pharm. April, 1844, p. 265.)—.
If benzoic acid is mixed with five or six times its weight of pulverized
pumice-stone, and heated in a retort to a temperature not much above
the boiling point of benzoic acid, and the product arising from the dis-
tillation be made to pass through a tube containing pumice-stone heated
to redness, benzine and carbonic acids are the products. If the vapors of
hydruret of benzoile be passed through the heated pumice-stone, benzine
and carbonic oxide are formed.

Hyperoxide of Silver, (Jour. fir Prakt. Chem. xxx1, p. 179.)—M.
Wattauist prepared it by the action of a powerful galvanic battery upon
a concentrated solution of nitrate of silver placed in a U tube. It de-
posits itself at the positive pole in octahedral crystals of a blackish grey
color—cold water does not decompose it; oxacids decompose it with the
liberation of oxygen gas; the addition of hydrochloric acid liberates
chlorine ; mixed with phosphorus or sulphur, it forms a fulminating com-
pound detonating when struck.

’ Maynas Resin, by M. B. Lewy, (Compt. Rend. Feb. 1844, p. 242.)—
This resin is furnished by the Colophyllum caloba, and when purified
can be crystallized out of alcohol in very beautiful yellow crystals. Its
composition is—

sh AE TES OSA Re GIy AG a Se Regi
BS RRS ee NN Bite EE FE 720
O MS. eee Matt moe Sl Meccan i
100°00

It combines with bases, its density is 1°12; it melts at 221° Fah. The
action of nitric acid of 36° furnishes a volatile acid having the character-
istics of butyric acid, and the liquid that remains in the retort furnishes
oxalic acid.

Guiac Resin, by MM. Peuterier and Devitte, (Comp. Rend. July,
1844, p. 182.)—A volatile oil has been obtained from this resin analo-
gous to the Spirma oil ; its composition is C28 H1® Q+, and differs from
the hydrure of salicyle (Spirea oil) by 2 equivalents of hydrogen, and
like it combines with bases forming crystallizable salts, This oil is call-

Miscellanies. 195

ed by the discoverers the Aydrure of guiacile; it is perfectly colorless
when pure, and unalterable in the air, but in contact with potash and the
air it acquires all the changes that a solution of the resin does.

Parietin, by Roserr D. Tuomson, (Lon. and Ed. Phil. Mag. July,
1844, p, 39.)—This is a yellow coloring substance obtained from some
of the lichens. It was procured by digesting the yellow parmelia in cold
alcohol of specific gravity ‘840, filtering, and allowing the alcohol to
evaporate, when the coloring matter will be deposited in the form of fine
yellow needle-shaped crystals. Composition and formula—

20

; pinesalg 65°85
Bite Re Oey og a oe ae
Ofte 4 ne higt eee Ypuiehe hep fio ie ggg

100°00

Parietin has been proposed as a test for alkalies,—its alcoholic solution
becoming of a rich red by the addition of an alkali. \T'est-papers may
be prepared by coloring paper with the solution. It is said to be better
than turmeric for this purpose. The author thinks that it may be an
oxide of an oil of the turpentine type, and mentions the following as be-
ing a probable series—

Oil of parietin, panied: tet gt A Ee

Parietic acid, . : * ? ; €+°H1'§ O14
Parietin, . , i ; ; ‘ Gt 15.014
Oxide of parietin, . - O**, H26 O15

Nitrogen Gas. (Chem. Gazette, July, 1844, p. 328.)—E. Marc#ANp
has obtained this gas in a state of purity and with great ease, by heating
in a retort a solution of chloride of lime and ammonia.

Preparation of Carbonate of Potash free from Silica. ( Chem. Gaz.
July, 1844, p. 328,)—One pound of crude of potash is dissolved in one _
pound of rain water, and four ounces of finely pulverized charcoal added
to it. After standing for twenty four hours and being frequently stirred,
it is filtered, when it will be found to contain no silica.

Mixture of Pure Carbonates of Potash and Soda, by M. Du Merrit,
(Chem. Gaz. Aug. 1844, p. 370.)—This mixture is frequently employed
for decomposing silicates; it is prepared pure by red ucing Rochelle salts
to an ash in a large crucible, and washing the mass with water.

Ozone, by Prof. Scuénsein, (Bibl. Univ, de Genéve, Oct. 1844, p,
420.)—For some account of this substance, see the Proceedings of the
British Association published in this Journal, Vol. XLI, Pp. 43. M. Schon-
bein has been continuing his researches upon this supposed new ele-
* ment, and is more and more confirmed in his original views with regard
to it, a detailed account of which is given in Pogg. Ann. Vol. 50, p. 616,
and it would. be as well to-refer this. The peculiar smell observed by

196 Miscellanies.

the electrolyzation of water is supposed to be owing to the liberation of
a new body of a halogenous character, ranking with chlorine, iodine, &c.
Among other things, it was discovered, Ist. That this peculiar odor re-
mains even after the current ceases to pass. 2d. This odor is remarked
only at the positive electrode—that is, in the vessel containing the oxygen
gas, no trace being perceptible in the hydrogen. 3d. The odoriferous
principle is easily retained for any length of time in a well-stopped vessel.
4th. The evolution of it is dependent upon the following circumstances:
a, the nature of the metals constituting the positive electrode; 5, upon
the chemical constitution of the electrolyzed fluid; and ¢, upon the tem-
perature of the liquid or electrode.

Of the metals, only gold and platinum, when used as electrodes, fur-
nish the odor; neither the oxidizable metals or charcoal possessing this
property. It is discovered that the odor is developed at the positive elec-
trode, from distilled water that is mixed with chemically pure, common,
and fuming sulphuric acid, with phosphoric acid, with chemically pure
nitric acid, with sulphate of potash, phosphate of potash, and nitrate of
potash. Watery solutions of chlorine, bromine, iodine, hydrochloric
acid, and hydrobromic acid, prevent its formation ; also the smallest quan-
tity of nitrous acid, protosulphate of iron, protochloride of iron, and pro-
tochloride of zinc. If to a vessel of oxygen formed at the positive elec-
‘trode, there is added a little iron, zinc, tin, or.lead filings, pulverized
charcoal, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, or a drop of mercury, and the ves-
sel shaken, the odor disappears; the same is produced by heated gold or
platinum, and by solutions of the protosulphate and protochloride of iron.

If gold or platinum foil be placed for a few moments in the oxygen
gas containing the principle in question, they become polarized ; that is,
they acquire the property of exciting a current in any liquid in which they
may stand in the relation of cathode, although it is of very short dura-
tion. For this polarization to take place, it is necessary that the metals
should be at the ordinary temperature, and should not have the least
moisture on their surface. Platinum heated, or having been kept in con-
tact with hydrogen, loses the property of becoming polarized ; their po-
larization is of some duration after the exposure of the metals to the at-
mosphere, The oxygen that has been deprived of its odor in any of the
ways above mentioned does not polarize gold or platinum.

Platinum and gold become polarized when held before a stream of or-
dinary negative electricity passing frem a point. The peculiar odor is
also perceptible in the atmosphere surrounding the point from which the
electricity is passing ; if the point be platinam, and heated, all odor is
lost until the wire has cooled down to a certain point.

From these and other facts, the author undertakes to show by-a series *
of reasoning, that the odor is owing to a new electro-negative element
ranking with chlorine, bromine, &c., and always present in air and wa-

~

Miscellanies. 197

ter. In the more recent researches referred to, he has succeeded in libe-
rating ozone by purely chemical processes—it being disengaged when
phosphorus is placed at the ordinary temperature in the atmosphere, or
other mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. Itis also formed when a mixture
of peroxide of manganese, or peroxide of lead, sulphuric acid and nitro-
gen, are exposed to heat. These facts would lead to the belief that nitro-
gen is a compound of ozone and hydrogen. If this be the case, some
suppose that it will create a considerable change in that portion of chem-
istry relating to nitrogenous compounds; but there is no necessity why
this should happen, for we might with perfect propriety consider it a com-
pound radical without either changing its name or the formule of its
compounds. If this conclusion is true as regards the compound nature
of nitrogen, it will no doubt lead to important results in meteorology.

The author has obtained a body which he considers pure ozonide of
‘potassium; it is a white powder, almost tasteless, scarcely soluble in wa-
ter, easily decomposed by sulphuric acid, with the liberation of ozone.

It appears that ozone forms compounds very different from those of
chlorine, bromine, &c.; for the compound of hydrogen and ozone (nitro-
gen) bears no resemblance to hydrochloric acid, and the ozonide of po-
tassium little or none to chloride of potassium. With respect to its chem-
ical affinity, it is placed between bromine and iodine,—it not acting on
the bromide of potassium, but decomposing the iodide.

Some facts connected with the History of Phosphorus, by A. Dupas-
auier, (Compt. Rend. Aug. 1844, p. 362.)—Phosphorus as it ordinarily
comes under our observation, presents different shades of color, which
difference has been attributed to some modification in its molecular ar-
rangement. ‘This is shown not to be the case, but that phosphorus in a
state of perfect purity remains colorless and transparent, when not ex-
posed to the solar light. The author has found that the color is due to
the presence of arsenic, arising from impure sulphuric acid—that acid
prepared from the sulphar obtained from pyrites. When the bone earth
is treated with pure sulphuric acid, a colorless phosphorus is always ob-
tained. The arsenic combines with the phosphorus, forming the phos-
phuret of arsenic, which is black, and the smallest quantity suffices to
color the phosphorus with which it is associated. When the arsenic is
in sufficient quantity to communicate a greenish yellow color, it renders
the phosphorus brittle. | Phosphorus containing a very minute quantity of
phosphuret of arsenic may appear colorless, but this when preserved in
water will become colored even in obscurity ; this appears to depend upon
the formation of a little arsenious acid from the action of the oxygen of

the air contained in the water upon the phosphuret of arsenic, and the

subsequent decomposition of this acid by the phosphorus,—there being
formed a precipitate of the metal which fixes itself to the surface and
colors it in proportion to the quantity. The manner of ascertaining the

198 Miscellanies.

resence and estimating the quantity of arsenic in phosphorus is as fol+
lows: burn an ounce of phosphorus in six or seven successive portions in
a porcelain capsule, in the middle of a large plate, and covered with a
large glass receiver, phosphoric and arsenious acids are formed—the com-
bustion terminated, allow the apparatus to cool; wash, and collect the
washings; separate the oxide of phosphorus by a filter, and precipitate
the arsenic by hydrosulphuric acid.
The following are the effects of ordinary water upon phosphorus.
When perfectly pure, it does not become colored except under the influ-
ence of light. Its purity does not prevent its being covered by degrees
with a white opake coating without any brown or yellow shade ; this coat-

ing has been considered by Pelouse the hydrate of phosphorus. Dupas-

quier has found it to contain traces of lime. In distilled water, and free
from the contact of light, it is preserved without losing its transparency
or whiteness; it is understood that the water must contain no air. Phos-
phorus plunged in water at the ordinary temperature decomposes it, with
the formation of phosphoric acid and phosphuretted hydrogen; this de-
composition takes place more rapidly under the direct action of the light
of the sun, but it happens even in complete obscurity.

Drayton’s Method of Silvering Glass. (Chem. Gazette, Nov. 1844,
p. 474.)—It consists in depositing silver from solution upon glass by de-
oxidizing the oxide of silver on solution in such a manner that the pre-
cipitate will adhere to the glass. A mixture is made of one ounce of
coarsely pulverized nitrate of silver, one half ounce spirits of hartshorn,
and two ounces of water; which, after standing for twenty four hours, is
filtered and mixed with three ounces of spirits of wine of 60° or naph-
tha; from twenty to thirty drops of oil of cassia are then added; and
after remaining for about six hours longer, the solution is ready for use.
The glass to be silvered with this solution must have a clear and polished
surface; it is to be placed in a horizontal position, and a wall of putty
formed around it, so that the solution may cover the glass to the depth of
from an eighth to a quarter of an inch. After the solution has been
poured upon the glass, from six to twelve drops of a mixture of oil of
cloves and spirits of wine (in the proportion of one part by measure of
oil of cloves and three of spirits) are dropped into it at different places;
or the diluted oil of cloves may be mixed before it is poured upon the
glass. When the deposit is obtained, which takes place in an hour or
two, the solution is poured off, and as soon as the silver is perfectly dry,
it is varnished with a composition formed by melting together equal quan-
tities of bees’ wax and tallow.

Tests for Coloring Substances in Wine, by M. Jacon, (Chem. Gazette,

Aug. 1844, p. 346.)—It is found that the basic acetate of lead on the one
hand, and sulphate of alumina with carbonate of ammonia on the other,

Miscellanies. 199

are all that is necessary to discriminate between the various coloring ma-
terials used in coloring wine.

Sulph. alum.andcarb.am. Basic acetate of lead
Ordinary red wine, — padi bluish gray precipitate.
Logwood, dark v blue.
Brazil wood, rose wir wine red.
Wild d poppy, grayish, dirty gray.
Recent j juice of danawort, bright violet, bluish gray.
Fermented “ bright violet, beautiful grass green.
Elder berries, bluish gray, dirty green.
Privet berries, pale green, dirty green.
Litmus, rose red, bluish gray.

When litmus is present in small quantities, it is not indicated by the
above test ; the wine should then be cautiously evaporated to the consis-
tency of an extract—a small quantity of which is dissolved in a little
pure water and tested. The sulphate of alumina and carbonate of am-
monia are not mixed previously, but are added alternately to the wine.

Osmium, by E. Fremy, (Compt. Rend. Sept. 1844, p. 468.)—In the
abstracts foe this Journal, Vol. xtvii, p. 185, Fremy’s method of obtain-
ing this metal in a state of purity was given; he has since published his
entire research upon this substance. The atomic weight was determined
by burning a weighed portion of the metal in oxygen gas, condensing the
acid formed, and estimating its quantity; it is found to be 99°76, Sc eaad
gen 1,) very nearly that given by Berzelius.

The most interesting compounds described by the author are die Os-
mites, OsO°-+-X. The osmite of potash 1 is the most important of them
all, and is formed when the osmate is placed in contact with a body hay-
ing considerable affinity for oxygen. ‘The ease with which the osmite of
potash is prepared, makes it a convenient method of determining bd
quantity of osmic acid present in a liquid—thus, saturate the osmic
solution with potash, and add a few drops of alcohol, which determines
both the formation and precipitation of the osmite; the osmite is then
washed with alcohol and weighed. The osmite of potash is red, soluble
in water, completely insoluble in alcohol, crystallizes in octahedrons, but
it cannot be crystallized out of water, as that decomposes it; but may be
obtained in the crystalline form by putting a very alkaline solution of os-
mate of potash in contact with nitrite of potash, when the osmite forms
gradually and erystallizes, (crystals contain two atoms of water. ) Its so-
lution in water decomposes tolerably rapidly into osmate of potash and
deutoxide of osmium.

The action of ammonia upon a cold solution of the osmite of potash
is Curious, forming a body having for its composition Os O? Az H?, (the
oxide of osmium in combination with the radical Az H?, that Gay- Lewis
and Thenard obtained in combination with potassium and sodium.) It

200 Miscellanies.

is difficult to isolate this compound, but it is easily obtained in combination
under the form of osmiamide. Its compound with hydrochlorate of am-
monia is procured by adding together solutions of this salt and osmite
of potash, when a yellow precipitate is formed having for its formula
Os O? Az H?++-HCl Az H®.

Hydrosulphite of Soda, by M. Punssy, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys.
June, 1844, p. 182.)—The author first prepares the bisulphite of soda by
passing a current of sulphurous acid through a solution of carbonate of
soda, until the acid is no longer dissolved. This bisulphite is converted
into sulphite by adding carbonate of soda until effervescence ceases ; the
liquid is now boiled with flowers of sulphur for fifteen or twenty minutes,
stirring frequently ; then separate from the excess of sulphur, evaporate
to the consistency of syrup, and allow it to stand. If there should hap-
pen to be any sulphate present it separates. After twenty four hours the
clear liquid is decanted, concentrated, and allowed to crystallize.

Xanthic Oride in Guano. (Chem. Gazette, Aug. 1844, p. 363.)—M.
Unger has discovered the presence of this substance in guano. ‘Treat
the guano with hydrochloric acid, precipitate with caustic potash, which
redissolves a small portion of the precipitate, (the oxide in question ;) to
separate it from the potash, all that is necessary to do is to pass a current
of carbonic acid through the solution, or by the addition of hydrochlorate
of ammonia, when it deposits as the ammonia evaporates.

To detect the presence of Sugar in Diabetic Urine, by Dr. Carrezvoul,
(Gaz. Toscan. and Chem. Gaz. Aug. 1844, p. 369.)—The fresh urine is
placed in a cylindrical vessel, and to it added a few grains of the hydra-
ted oxide of copper, and enough of a solution of caustic potash to render
the urine alkaline; the whole is shaken together, when it becomes troub-
led from the precipitation of the phosphates, and from the oxide of cop-
per which it contains in suspension. ‘The urine gradually becomes clear
from the subsidence of the voluminous deposit, which is at first of a sky-
blue color, but at the end of a few hours a canary-yellow circle is seen to
form on its surface, and gradually to pervade the mass; subsequently @
red color more or less deep in the form of a zone replaces the yellow
either wholly or in part. This phenomenon, which is generally complet-
ed in twenty four hours, is owing to the reaction of the sugar on the ox-
ide of copper, which is gradually deprived of its oxygen. If the reac-
tion does not appear in twenty four hours a little potash will develope it.

Carbonate of Ammonia and Magnesia, and Carbonate of Ammonia
and Zinc, by M. Favre, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. April, 1844, p-
474.)—Both are formed by agitating the carbonate of ammonia with the
respective carbonates recently prepared, when the filtered solutions will
deposit crystals of the double salts, unalterable in well corked phials.
Formule, CO? MgO+CO? NH‘ 0-4-4 Aq.

CO? Zn O+-CO2 NH¢4 O--4 Aq.

Miscellanies. 201

© New Method of Analyzing the Blood, by L. Frcvier, (Ann. de Chim.
et de Phys. Aug. 1844, p. 506.)—This method is based upon the fact
pointed out some years ago, that when blood deprived of its fibrine
was mixed with a solution of a neutral salt and thrown upon a filter,
scarcely any of the globules passed through. The author has been ena-
bled to retain all the globules by using a solution of sulphate of soda,
marking 16° to 18° Baumé; adding two volumes of this solution to one
volume of blood.

The blood furnished by bleeding is beat with a small bundle of whale-
bone switches at the moment that it issues from the vein; the fibrine
separates and adheres to the switches. The blood is now passed through
fine linen to collect that portion of the fibrine that does not adhere to the
whalebone; both portions are added together well washed with water,
dried at the temperature of boiling water, and weighed; (previous to
weighing, if it be desired to detach the small quantity of fatty matter
adhering, digest in ether.) By ascertaining the entire amount of blood
taken from the patient, we are thus enabled to tell the relative portion of
fibrine.

The next step is to take about three ounces of defibrinated blood, di-
lute it with twice its volume of a solution of sulphate of soda, marking
16° to 18° Baumé; throw this upon a filter that has been previously
weighed and moistened with a solution of sulphate of soda. The serum
filters readily, and is of a yellowish color. ‘The filter cannot be washed
with cold water, as this dissolves the globules; but hot water of 195°
Fah. coagulates them, and enables one to accomplish this inthe follow-
ing manner: take the filter from the funnel and immerse it in a cup of
boiling water; repeat this two or three times, and all the sulphate of soda
will be washed away; dry the filter and its contents at about 212°, and
weigh,

To separate the albumen from the serum deprived of its globules, heat
it to ebullition in a capsule. The albumen coagulates ; it is thrown on a
small piece of fine linen, washed, dried at 212° Fah, and weighed. To
ascertain the quantity of water in the blood, an ounce of it 1s taken and
evaporated to dryness in a water bath; the weight of what remains indi-
cates the relative proportion of water and solid elements. The soluble
salts of the serum are represented by the difference of the weight of the
blood employed and the amount of albumen, of water, of fibrine, and of
globules, directly determined. The following is the result of an analysis
of blood from a diseased patient : ;

The blood upon beating furnished for 8 ounces (the quantity taken
from the patient) 10°4 grains of fibrine. 3 ounces of the blood separa-
ted from the fibrine, and filtered with sulphate of soda, gave 180 grains
of globules. The serum ‘filtered from the last by heating, furnished 80
grains of coagulated albumen. ~ 1 ounce of the original blood evaporated

Vol, xix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 26

202 Miscellanies.

to dryness, gave a residue of 85 grains. From these the blood is seen to
contain—

Water, 8029
Globules, 130°6
Fibrine, ‘ ‘ . F ‘ ‘ 39
Albumen, . ‘ ; ‘ : ‘ : 50°6
Inorganic salts, . . i . , i 12°0

1000°0

The author recommends the employment of saline solutions for the
purpose of separating the globular matter from organic fluids, as milk,
mucus, chyle, lymph. M. Figuier has also made a chemical examina-
tion of the globules, and he thinks it probable that they contain a small
quantity of fibrine, albumen, and the coloring matter of the blood.

Cause of Diabetes, by L. Miatne, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Sept.
1844.)—It is known that in a healthy state animals may feed on sugar,
gum, &c. without any appearance whatsoever of these substances in the
urine or other secretions ; but in the disease called diabetes, this kind of
food appears to undergo little or no change, and the urine is found to
contain more or less sugar, or a substance resembling gum. The result
of the present experiments has been to show that hydrocarbonaceous food,
such as grape sugar, gum, starch, &c. does not undergo assimilation un-
til the alkalies of the blood have transformed them into a peculiar sub-
stance, the nature of which has not yet been examined; if however this
transformation does not take place, they undergo no change, and are ex-
creted by the kidneys. The reason why saccharine and farinaceous
matter does not undergo the requisite change in the diabetic patient is
explained as follows: individuals suffering under diabetes do not perspire,
or but very slightly ; as the secretions of the skin are acid, it follows that
when they are suppressed, the presence in the blood of free alkalies or
their carbonates becomes impossible, being neutralized by the acids not
excreted ; consequently the saccharine matter used as food cannot under-
go the chang ge necessary prior to its assimilation, and the kidneys endeavor
to diseinbarrass the blood of what is now foreign and noxious. This fact
Suggests, as the curative means for diabetes, diaphoretics and alkaline
preparations,

Volatile Acids of Butter, by J.U. Lezeu, (Ann. der Chem. und. 1. Pharm.
Vol. 49, p. 212.)—The acids that have bear obtained are—

Butyric acid, . Ce He OF
Caproic acid, , ‘ . , C12 H!204
Capryllic acid, . r " C16 W168 Of

Capric acid,

: . . ‘ C20 2° Ot
Vaccinic acid,

. i ini s * C29 H29 Q7

Miscellanies. 203

The last acid represents an atom each of butyric and caproic acids,
minus an atom of oxygen ; it is not constant, being found only occasion-
ally. These acids are obtained by saponifying butter with potash in a
convenient apparatus, then adding sulphuric acid and distilling, when the
volatile acids will come over with the water; they are saturated with ba-
rytic water, concentrated, and afterwards reduced to dryness in a retort;
the residue is boiled with five or six parts of water, which dissolves a por
tion ; the solution separated and allowed to cool, deposits crystals of ca-
proate of baryta in the form of silky needles, that are to be separated
from the mother water, which when evaporated by the heat of the sun,
deposits the butyrate of baryta; both of these salts are purified by recrys-
tallization. When vaccinic acid is present, it generally takes the place of
butyric and caproic acids, and is deposited from the concentrated solution
in combination with baryta in groups of small crystals that effloresce.
The baryta salts of difficult solution that are left in the retort are dissolv-
ed in as much boiling water as will just hold them in solution, filtered
while hot; on cooling, the caprate of baryta is deposited in minute
scales of a fatty lustre—upon concentrating to about three fourths, an
additional quantity of this salt is obtained. The mother water, exposed
to the heat of the sun, furnishes the capryllate of baryta; these are also
purified by recrystallization. All the acids can now be obtained by heat-
ing their barytic salts in a retort with dilute sulphuric acid.

Atomic Weights of Copper, Mercury, and Sulphur, by ErpMAnn and
Marcuanp, (Chem. Gazette, Sept. 1844, p. 399.)—That of the copper
was estimated by decomposing a known quantity of binoxide of copper
in a current of hydrogen gas, and weighing the residue of the metallic
copper ; it was done with all the minute precautions necessary ; the result
was 31°7, (hyd. 1.) The atomic weight of mercury was estimated by
decomposing a known quantity of pure oxide of mercury, by copper turn-
ings and charcoal, collecting the metallic mercury formed, and estimating
its weight; the result was 100. That of sulphur was ascertained by de-
composing pure vermilion with copper filings and heat, and ascertaining
the amount of mercury; the atomic weight is 16.

Deoridation of the Ferridcyanide of Potassium, (red prussiate of pot-
ash, Fe? Cy?-+3KCy,) and of the Salts of the Peroride of Tron, by
Prof. Scndnsein, (Jour. fiir Prakt. Chem. Vol. 30, p. 129.)—The re-
sults of the author’s experiments upon the red prussiate of potash are
certainly improperly styled deoxidation, as there is no oxygen in the com-
pound in question, nor is it necessary to presuppose the agency of oxygen
in all cases in bringing about the reactions to be mentioned; decyaniding
would perhaps be a more correct term, for it appears that certain sub-
stances convert the ferrid into the ferrocyanide of potassium—a cyanide
containing less cyanogen. Any of the metals, including silver and even

204 Miscellanies.

gold, platinum and palladium under certain circumstances, produce this
change, it being facilitated by the access of air. The experiment is
easily made by placing a piece of antimony, zinc, bismuth, lead or tin,
in a solution of the salt in question, when it soon acquires the property
of forming a blue precipitate with the persalts of iron, due to the forma-
tion of the ferrocyanide of potassium. A simple manner of demonstra-
ting the same fact consists in conveying a drop of the liquid to a bright
surface of one of the metals, and adding a drop of a solution of nitrate of
iron, when immediately after the mixture has taken place the metal be-
comes coated with a layer of prussian blue. On gold, platinum, and pal-
ladium,. this change takes place but very slowly. Other substances be-
sides the metals produce it, as phosphorus—hydrogen in the nascent state,
as when disengaged by the agency of electricity from a plate in the solu-
tion. Hydrogen when combined with sulphur, selenium, phosphorus,
arsenic, antimony, and tellurium, will do the same even in the gaseous
state. Sugar produces the change when boiled with a solution of the
salt; also uric acid and creosote. All the bodies that decompose the
ferridcyanide are found also to reduce the persalts of iron to the state of
the protosalts. And it may be as well to mention here that J. Stenhouse
(Chem. Soc. Mem. Vol. 2, p. 121) has ascertained that fresh grass and
other green vegetable matter, peat, and wood coal, have the same effect
upon the persalts of iron,
_ Decay and Mouldering of Wood, by M. Hermann, (Jour. fiir Prakt.

Chim. Vol. 37, p. 165, and Chem. Gaz. Oct. 1844, p. 423.)—It is shown
in these investigations that wood in its decay undergoes two entirely dif
ferent processes, during which both oxygen and nitrogen are absorbed,
and nitroline and humus are formed, the latter succeeding the former;
-by bumus is here meant all parts of rotten wood soluble in alkalies.
From 1 atom wood=C** H?2 022, 4 atoms water, 4 atoms carbonic
acid, and 1 atom nitroline, can be focived by the absorption of 4 atoms
oxygen and | atom nitrogen. M. Hermann shows that decayed wood
contains three distinct organic substances—nitroline, ligneo-humous acid,
and humus. One kind of nitroline gave—

es ; ‘ ?

’ 571
H 1 a 60
oO 1 « 32:9
Nit.?, y 40

100°0

Decomposition farther

Fresh decomposed wood, advanced. ?
Nitroline, ee i 188
Ligneochumic anid ; : 210 : : 53°6

Humus, . 175 : “ 26.6 walk
Ammonia, epee OS es 10

Miscellanies. 205

The absorption of nitrogen by decaying wood, and the subsequent de-
cay of the nitroline forming ammonia, shows how important decayed veg-
etable matter must be in the economy of the vegetable world.

Fluoride of Iodine, by H. B. Leeson, (Chem. Soc. Mem. Vol. 2, p.
162.)—It is prepared by passing the gas generated from one part of the
peroxide of manganese, three of pure fluor spar, and six of concentrated
sulphuric acid, through water in which iodine is diffused, (contained in a
glass vessel,) until the whole of the iodine is taken up. A lead retort and
conducting tube were made use of; the tube did not appear to be acted
upon, nor was any lead traceable in the product formed, which deposits
itself in crystalline scales similar in appearance to those of iodide of Jead.
Fluoride of bromine is formed in the same way, but from its extreme
solubility does not yield a crystalline deposit.

The Products of the Decomposition of Narcotine, by Prof. Wouter,
(Jour. der Chem. und Pharm. April, 1844, p. 1.)—This research was
made with the object of ascertaining if any light could be thrown upon
the origin and constitution of the alkaloids. Narcotine was the first
noticed ; it was decomposed by treating its solution with an excess of
sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, until carbonic acid ceased to
be evolved. The products of the decomposition are an acid containing
no nitrogen, an organic base, and carbonic acid.

Opianic acid is the acid formed ; it has already been noticed by Woh-
ler and Liebig. It crystallizes in thin narrow prisms, colorless, of a
faintly bitter taste, slightly soluble in cold water, melts at 284° Fah. with-
out parting with its water. It undergoes a remarkable change on being
heated, the melted acid not returning to its original state, and losing some
of the properties previously possessed, without any alteration in its com-
position. Composition of the acid, C?° H® O°+-HO. It combines with
oxides forming salts, and with the weide of ethyle to form opianic ether.

Opianate of ammonia, when cautiously heated at a temperature some-
what above 212° Fah. until ammonia ceases to be given off, gives rise to |
@ substance called opiamon, composed of C*° H*7 NO*%. The action
of the alkalies upon this last is to produce a nitrogenous compound styled
anthopenic acid, characterized by the yellow color of its salts; this last
is itself a lemon yellow crystalline powder. The action of sulphurous
acid upon opianic acid is to form a new compound, opiano-sulphurous
acid, which furnishes beautiful crystalline salts with the oxide of lead
and barium, has a peculiar bitter taste at first, but a sweetish after taste.
Composition C2°H®O7, 2802-++HO. There are yet other singular
compounds formed by the action of different reagents upon opianic acid.
Cotarnine, a organic bane dha by the action of the peroxide of

narcotine, is composed of C? ae

206 Miscellanies.

_ J. Bryra (Chem. Soc. Mem. Vol. 2, p. 163) has also shown, that a
similar decomposition takes place by the action of the bichloride of pla-
tinum upon narcotine, having obtained the opianic acid and cotarnine.
This fact accounts for the different formule for narcotine given by vari-
ous authors, the atomic weight being estimated from the double chloride
of platinum and narcotine, which, unless prepared with great care, is
likely to undergo partial decomposition. The following appears to be
the correct formula for narcotine, C+® H2® NO14. The other products
furnished by the reaction of bichloride of platinum upon the alkaloid,
are hempinic acid, C!°I15O®, and narcoginine, a base, C36H19NO!°,
This last exists only in the form of a double salt in combination with
chloride of platinum; any attempt to separate it resolves it at once into
narcotine and cotarnine.

Analysis of Alloys of Tin and Antimony, (Chem. Gaz. Aug. 1844,
p. 347.) —Curvatrer and Lassaicne have found that on treating an
alloy of these two metals with muriatic acid, none or very little antimo-
niuretted hydrogen is formed, while the antimony separates as a black
powder. If, on the contrary, the alloy is treated with nitric acid, the
yellow insoluble mixture of oxide of tin and antimonious acid separated,
ignited, (when it becomes green,) and treated with sulphuric acid and
water,—an abundant evolution of antimoniuretted hydrogen gas takes
place, which on ignition deposits large glittering films of antimony.

Test for Bile, by M. Perrenxorrer, (Lancet, Oct. 1844.)—Add to
the fluid supposed to contain bile concentrated sulphuric acid until it be-
comes hot, and then drop into it a solution of sugar; the presence of the
bile is manifested by the mixture ee of a deep pink or red color,
varying in intensity.

2. New instrument for the solidification of carbonic acid.

Giessen Laboratory, March 21, 1845.
Messrs. Editors,— ay a instrument for the solidification of case
acid arrived here a few days since from Vienna, and having been eX-
perimented with, in the presence of the class, proved so simple and safe,
that I have thought a sketch of it might perhaps not be uninteresting to

u.

It is essentially a convenient forcing pump, to which is attached @
cylinder sufficiently strong to resist the pressure necessary to the lique-
faction of carbonic acid. The chief difference between it and those,
one of which burst in Paris, with such frightful effects, is, that the evo
lution of gas is entirely disconnected with the cylinder in which con-
densation is produced. This prevents all danger from the disengage
ment of hydrogen in a _— of sulphuric acid. The cylinder had

been previously subjected to a pressure of a hundred and fifty atmos-
pheres, and as carbonic acid liquefies below one third of this pressure,
the instrument was perfectly safe. A sheet of wrought iron, not more
than the sixteenth of an inch thick, rolled into form and carefully
welded, is the substitute for the massive cast iron mortars that were
formerly used.
The following references to the diagrams which I send you, will
readily explain the manner of using it.
as was permitted to accumulate in the gasometer to the amount
of about a gallon and a half, and then by the forcing pump driven into
the cylinder. When this volume had been repeatedly forced into the

3

Ridzgstings “eee ceed 2 1 feet. Scale for figs: 1 and 2.

EAA EP COP : sg Petts eter © itt Byat and 6,

1. Side view of the instrument, with apparatus and connections for supplying
earbonic acid._2. End view of the same.—a. Evolution flask containing 2Co2+-
Na0+S0,.—b. Gasometer.—c. Ceca tube.—d. Caouichoue tube about four feet

for condensing the gas.—4. Apparatus for solidification, made of sheet iron tin-
ned.—5. Inner view of one half.—6. ,

gas into 47, Valve controlled by coiled wire spring at the other extreme of the
cylinder 3.—g. Tube fitting upon f.—h. Apertures for the escape of gas in the pro-
cess of solidification.—i i. Double cylinder to prevent the cold from affecting the
hands of the operator. ,

eylinder, it was unscrewed and weighed, to ascertain the amount of
carbonic acid it contained. This was done several times, until found to
be increased in weight by nine and a half ounces of acid, when it was
detached as in fig. 3, and the cock f, in which is an aperture of scarce-
ly more than a pin’s diameter, was sheathed by g of fig. 4. Thus ar-
ranged, one operator holding the solidifying apparatus in his two hands
by the double cylindrical handles 77, ii, and the other unscrewing the
valve at f, the acid rushed through the cock into fig. 4. The vaporiz-
ed portions escaped through h, while the jet was continued some twenty
seconds, and the solid snow-like ball was found to quite fill the vessel.
Fig. 4 opens in the middle, and while the solid acid lies in one half, the
other may be used to remove it in smaller quantities.

When the first supply was exhausted, the jet was opened anew and
the apparatus fig. 4, partly filled a second time. This was repeated
several times, but less and less solid acid was produced with each suc-
ceeding trial.

A little bath of ether and carbonic acid gave solid mercury as usual.
Several chemical compounds hitherto unexperimented upon, were
brought in by the class and frozen. Among these I remember styrol,
aldehyde, nitrous acid, (previously a green liquid, gave beautiful crys-
tals) sulphurous acid, valerianic acid, chloro-chromic acid and nitro-bro-
mic acid.(?) One of the bodies of the benzoy! series was not frozen.

The instrument was made by C. E. Kraft, in Vienna.

Respectfully yours, E. N. Hosrorp.

3. Remarks on the saltness of the Ocean, and the effects of light on
turbid waters ; by the Rev. Hecror Humpureys, President of the Col-
lege at Annapolis, Md.—The question is often asked, how the ocean be-
came salt. I believe that it was made so in the beginning. It is doubtless
the great purifier of the waters on the globe ; but I have never seen a good
explanation of the mode of its action. The sun’s light passes through
pure water, without heating it. Is not its effect on the ocean due to the
salt combined with its waters? In rivers which carry sediment, ‘the
light is arrested by the floating particles, which are thus warmed, and
impart heat to the water. ‘This accounts for the quick evaporation of
turbid streams, such as the Red River, whose size is not enlarged by
many considerable tributaries, in a thousand miles of its course. This
extraordinary evaporation in that stream, may be owing in part, to the
earthy matter in the current thus arresting the light. If we throw the
focus of a burning glass into distilled water, no heat is communicated,
unless some substance is placed there to receive the rays. The salt,
with which the waters of the ocean are charged, has a strong affinity for
heat; and thus keeps its'‘mean ‘temperature ‘higher than that of other

Miscellanies. 209

waters on the earth; while rivers and lakes are heated, mainly, by con-
duction. That salt water is warmed more quickly than fresh, is shown
by the pyrometer. In two experiments the index moved over 2600
divisions of the scale in ten minutes, when the trough was filled with
fresh water ; and in a little over five minutes when salt water was used.
In thirteen minutes the index reached 3600, where fresh water boiled ;
but the index passed to 4000 with salt water, in eight minutes, where it
boiled. This agrees with the relative expansibility of salt water and
pure; the latter being enlarged a tenth less than the former, when heat-
ed from 32° to 212° F. The rate of cooling is also different. Boiling
fresh water was left to cool, and subsided to 132° in ten minutes, while
salt water subsided only to 140°. The waters of the ocean, then, ake
heat more rapidly, and retain it longer than fresh-water lakes, which,

when large, remain cold even in midsummer. The heat from the bot-
tom, the shores, and the air, does not raise the temperature of Lakes
Superior and Michigan much above that of iced water in the hot
season. But for the presence of some such substance in the waters of
the ocean, they would never be warmed. The substance to be employed
for this purpose, must be freely soluble in water and have strong attrac-
tion for heat. The sulphate of soda, for example, would have fur-
nished these qualities, but would not have afforded a supply for man,
almost as needful as water itself, the salt for common use, which is
obtained in such immense quantities by solar evaporation.

It may be said that both water and salt, are remarkably transcalent ;

but it does not appear that substances which suffer the solar beam to
pass with the greatest facility, will permit it to penetrate, to indefinite
depths. It is not probable that the calorific portion of the sun’s light,
affects the ocean much below the surface.
_ This consideration may be of some avail to explain the currents of
the ocean, which are caused, in a great measure, by the difference of
Specific gravity of the waters, and the motion thus given to them by
the diurnal revolution of the globe. The heavier particles incline to
the equator, and the lighter to the poles.

The color of sea water is, doubtless, affected by the sun’s light, at least
in some measure, acting on the substances which it contains.

4. Kenawha Gas—communicated by Mr. Tauns A. Lewis, of Ke-
nawha C, H.. > Va being an extract, dged , from the Charles-
ton Rarciions,

The existence of large quantities of gas at various points, through-
out the whole extent of the salt region on the Kenawha river, was
known to the first white men that explored this beautiful valley, It ap-
peared escaping through apertures in low ronan and springs of water.
Vol. xix, No. 1.—April—June, 1845.

210 Miscellanies.

As a company of the earliest explorers encamped on the banks of the
river, one of their number, in a dark night, took a torch to light his way
to the spring near by the encampment, and in waving it over the spring,
to his great consternation it took fire, the gas burning upon the surface
of the water. It was thence called the “ Burning Spring,” and is the
same that is mentioned by Mr. Jefferson in his Notes on Virginia. It
is still there, but, as we saw it last week, a mere mud-puddle. The water,
agitated by the gas, resembles a boiling pot. It readily ignites, and
for a short time it burns with a blue blaze on the surface of the water ;
even when the water is dried up the gas will burn brilliantly between
one rain and another.

When, in process of time, the salt manufacturers, either from a failure
of the salt water above the stratum of rock, some 15 or 20 feet lower
than the bed of the river, or for the purpose of procuring the water in
greater abundance, sunk their wells by boring far below the surface of
the rock, the gas, in various quantities, made its appearance in the wells,
in some instances jetting the water into the air, when being ignited, it
spread the flame about, to the no small amazement and terror of the
workmen. When this happened they used to say, “ the well is blowed.”
The stream of gas, however, soon subsided, or acted only with suffi-
cient power to force the water up into the gum or shaft, which is part of
the trunk of a sycamore tree, about four feet in diameter, hollowed out
so that the shell is not more than four inches thick. From the gum it
was pumped into the cistern or reservoir.

Our salt wells are commenced near the edge of the river at low water.
The gum is sunk down to the rock, a distance of from 15 to 20 feet, the
lower end resting tightly on the rock. The other end is usually a few
feet above the ground. This excludes the fresh water above the rock,
and serves as a reservoir to receive the salt water when it is reached
by boring through the rock and the various strata of earth.

Three years ago, William Tompkins, Esq. first obtained a steady
and permanent stream of gas, of sufficient power, not. only to force
the water up from the depth of a thousand feet into the gum, but-to carry
it into the reservoir elevated many feet above the bank of the river. This
saved the expense of a pump, which is worked by a steam engine. » In
a short time it occurred to him that this gas could be turned to a still
more useful purpose. He therefore erected, over the reservoir or cis-
tern, a gasometer, which is simply a hogshead, placed upright, in the
lower end of which is inserted the pipe that conveys the water and the
gas from the wells, the water running out through a hole in the lower
end, and in the top is inserted a pipe that conveys the gas to the mouth
of the furnace. When ignited, it produces a dense and intensely heat-
ed flame along the whole furnace under the row of kettles, 100 feet

Miscellanies. onl

long by 6 deep and 4 wide. This saves the expense of digging and
hauling coal.

Subsequently, Messrs. Warth & English, whose works are on the
opposite side of the river, obtained a similar stream of gas, which has
been used successfully in the same way ; and more recently Mr. Dryden
Donnally, Mr. Charles Reynolds, and some few others, produced a
partial supply of gas to heat their furnaces in the same way.

But the most remarkable phenomenon in the way of natural gas
here, and we have no doubt in the whole world, is that at the works
of Messrs. Dickinson & Shrewsbury, which has been exhibited for
nearly two months past. In this well the gas was reached at the
depth of one thousand feet. What the upward pressure of the gas
to the square inch is, through the aperture, which is three inches in
diameter, we are unable to tell, and perhaps it would be impossible to
ascertain. It has never had a free and unobstructed vent. There is
now at the bottom of the well an iron sinker, a long piece of round iron
nearly filling the aperture ; on this are 600 pounds of iron, and about
300 feet of auger-pole used in boring, in pieces of 10 and 20 feet in
length, with heavy iron ferules on the end, screwed into each other.
Notwithstanding all this obstruction, a stream of water and gas issues
up through a copper tube, 3 inches in diameter, inserted into the well
to the depth of 500 feet, with the noise and force of steam genera-
ted by the boilers of the largest class of steamboats. It is computed
that a sufficient quantity of gas comes from this well to fill, in five min-
utes, a reservoir large enough to light the city of New York during
twelve hours, When we reflect that this stream of gas has flowed, un-
abated, for nearly two months, what must be thought of the quantity
and the facility of manufacturing it down below! In the springs hard
by, and in the other wells, (with perhaps the exception of that of one
or two others,) there appears, as yet, to be no diminution in the quantity
at any place where it has heretofore been known to exist.

5. Bromine and Iodine:—Prof. W. W. Matuenr, at Athens, O., writes
under date of Jan. 20, 1845—* I have found bromine and iodine in the
bittern of the salt springs of this vicinity. They are not very abundant,
but by improved methods of extraction, I can supply any demand for
bromine or its common combinations; { can supply it as cheap as any
one. I have extracted bromine pure, and formed various compounds
with it, as bromide of iodine, hydrobromic acid, hydrobromates of
potassa and soda, bromates of potassa, soda and of lime.”

We with pleasure record this fact, and can add that we have received
similar statements from Pittsburg, im. Pennsylvania, and other places in

e west. F : F

llanies.

Misce

212

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Miscellanies. 213

7. Fossil Remains from Algoa Bay, near the Cape of Good Hope,
from Mr. Baynes—tThey consist of several skulls and some bones of
the extremities of several species of reptiles, of the most extraordina
character. Some appear to be closely allied to, if not identical, with the
Rhynbrosaurus, (Medals of the Creation, Vol. II, p.'759,) but others
belong to a creature, which appears to connect the Chelonians with the
Saurians. It has two teeth or tusks; one on each side the upper jaw,
while the rest of the jaw seems to have had only an investment of horn
like the true Chelonians. Mr. Owen gave a lecture upon these bones,
which the writer of this notice did not hear, but he had opportunity to
take a hasty glance at the bones. Mr. Baynes himself detected the
true nature of the fossils, and described them in the Cape of Good
Hope Journal as reptiles with two teeth, and proposed the name of
Binodon, which Mr. Owen has changed.—(Letter from London.)

8. Fossil Footmarks and Rain-drops.—Extract of a Letter from
James Deane, M. D., dated Greenfield, June 18, 1845.

To the Senior Editor: My Dear Sir :—My recent explorations for
Ichnolites have been successful, and I am confident from the deep in-
terest you have ever manifested in these fossils that a brief description
of the results will be acceptable. My search was limited to Turner’s
Falls, a locality remarkable for the beautiful preservation of the impres-
sions. When the excavations through the rock were completed to the
depth of six feet, the workmen came to three or four thin layers of
smooth, bright sandstone, impressed with a great profusion of footmarks
of birds and quadrupeds, and impressions of falling rain. The strata
lying in contact, the inferior faces were consequently diversified with
reliefs. The aggregate of impressions is over one hundred, belong-
ing to four or five described and as many undescribed species. The
largest footstep is six inches in length with a stride of twenty eight
inches ; the smallest is two inches in length with a step of six inches.
There are also impressions of two species of quadrupeds, a row of
twelve and another of six pairs of footsteps. The singular species
which I describe at page 80, is represented ; but I looked in vain for
the palmated feet of its posterior extremities.

The impressions upon these fine slabs are beautiful, fully equal to
any I have ever seen—ihe joints, nails, évc., being retained with won-
derful fidelity. Upon one of the slabs are two water marks, i. e.
parallel lines, indicating levels at which the overflowing waters were
stationary for a period. Above these lines the slab is spotted with
rain-drops, but below them there are none, the face of the slab being
abraded to the depth of half an inch. Footmarks of large birds occur
below the first level, but none below the second, which appears to be

214 Miscellanies.

low-water mark. The waters of the ancient sea must have been sub-
ject to great fluctuations of level, which seem due to floods rather than
tides, for it is difficult to comprehend how the shore or beach could be
submerged and dried in the space of a few hours sufficiently to retain
footprints. ‘The appearance of these water marks resembles the results
produced by still, placid water acting upon muddy margins by the gen-
tlest ripples.

To convey a substantial idea of the manner in which these*slabs are
traversed by footprints, I subjoin a miniature sketch of one of them,
which is about six by three feet in superficial dimensions. It contains
eight rows of bird tracks, averaging seven imprints each, generally
advancing in pretty direct lines, some parallel to the water’s margin,
others passing directly into or out of the shallow water. The quadru-
peds walked in lines parallel with the water levels. Although these
various rows of imprints were made by different individuals, yet they
appear to be kindred species and to have been impressed nearly at the
same time ; yet some were made when the clay was quite soft, and
others when quite hard.*

Another of the slabs conforms to the preceding, and contains all its
impressions in relief. Upon its upper face are four species of ornith-
oe in rows of five and six each, unsurpassed for beauty. It has

mpression of the leaping Batrachian, a small individual to which I
ee already alluded.

n indescribable interest is imparted by opening the long-sealed
volume that contains the record of these extinct animals. The slabs
were uncovered and raised under my supervision, and page after page
with living inscriptions revealed living truths. There were the charac-
ters, fresh as upon the morning when they were impressed, reminding
the spectator of the brevity of human antiquity, and of the perishable
tenure of human works. On that morning, how long ago none can tell
or will ever know, gentle showers watered the earth, an ocean was un-
ruffled, and upon its boundaries primeval beings enjoyed their existence
and inscribed their strange eventful history.

* Explanation.—1 to 1, and 2to 2, footprints of Batrachians. The former is a series
of 12 pairs of impressions arranged in a direct line, deeply impressed. The latter
were subsequently impressed by a smaller individual. The difference in size be+
tween the anterior and posterior feet is great. For a particular ere of this
species, see this Journal, Vol. xvii, p. 158, figs. 1 and 3. 1 to 1 is of the size of
fig. 3. 3 to 3, and 4 to 4, are deep imprints of birds whose a were four or five
inches long. The remaining lines vary in size and stride, but have a strong iden-
tity. These slabs are maining divided by joints, which unite accurately.

215

216 Miscellanies.

9. Large Trilobite ; Iowa Coralline Marble.—Lieut. Daniel en
now stationed at Fort Wilkins, Lake Superior, discovered in 1841 a
Fort Atkinson, fifty miles west of Prairie du Chien, in a blue mae
limestone, several specimens of a gigantic trilobite, some of which indi-
cated that the original was thirty inches long. The same gentleman in
1840 expressed the opinion that the beautiful stellated marble of lowa
was from a true fossilized coralline formation.—( Extract of a letter to
the Senior Editor, dated Fort Wilkins, Feb. 17, 1845.)

The Iowa marble is often seen in the heads of walking canes and in
other ornamental forms, and is one of the most elegant things of the
family to which it belongs.

10. Dorudon.—Prof. Rosert W. Gisses, M. D., of Columbia, South
Carolina, has communicated to the Academy of Natural Sciences, a
description of the teeth of a new fossil animal found in the green sand
of South Carolina. The name Dorudon, or spear-shaped tooth, refers
to a form supposed to be intermediate between a Cetacean and a Sau-
rian, and to indicate that the Dorudon is “a connecting link between
these two great classes.”

11. Footprints ; by A. T. Kine, M. D.—The accompanying wood
cut, from a drawing by Dr. King, represents part of a slab of limestone
containing some of the tracks in series, which were described in the
last number of this Journal. Dr. K. states that the hind foot, in both
the S. pachydactylum, (fig. 1,) and S. leptodactylum, (2,) is a little
larger than the fore foot.*

Dr. K., in a letter to the Editors, describes other impressions which
have a very remarkable character; but until further investigated it
would be unsafe to consider them footprints. There are eight of these
impressions of similar size and shape, forming a continuous series in @
bent line; each is of an ovoidal form, 13 inches long, 9 broad, and 3 to
6 deep, and the interval between is 3 feet 6 inches. The impression
before is deep and ovoidal in the bottom, but behind it is quite shallow
or superficial. They occur in slabs of a hard, coarse-grained sandstone,
found on the first anticlinal ridge west of Chesnut Ridge, one of the
principal ridges of the Alleghany range.

Dr. King proposes to call the hand-shaped tracks, supposed to be
Batrachian, (see last number, pp. 348—3: 351,) Thenaropus heterodac-
tylus. The generic name is from 6evag, palm of the hand, and zovs, foot.

*
Mis oon, am.—1, S: hydact 3, 3.
therodactylum. 4, O. Calbertson ia ydactylum. 2, 8. genes 5

1845,

April-June,

No. 1

Vol. xxix,

218 Miscellanies.

12. Large skeleton of the Zeuglodon of Alabama.—The Mobile
Daily Advertiser of May 28, informs us that Dr. Albert C. Koch, well
known on account of the gigantic bones of the mastodon* which he
discovered in Missouri, has brought to light a skeleton not less colossal
of the fossil animal of Alabama, called Basilosaurus by the late Dr.
Harlan, and Zeuglodon by Prof. Owen of the Royal College of Sur-
geons, London. In Vol. xttv, p. 409 of this Journal, is an account
by Mr. 8S. B. Buckley of a skeleton of this animal, now in Albany,
whose entire length is nearly seventy feet. The notice of the recent
discovery of Dr. Koch is thus stated in the paper named above:

Its length is one hundred and four feet ; the solid portions of the ver-
tebra are from fourteen to eighteen inches 1 in length, and from eight to
twelve inches in diameter, each ty-five pounds in weight.
Its greatly elongated jaws are armed with not less than forty incisor or
cutting teeth, fiat canine teeth or fangs, and eight molars or grinders.
These teeth all fit into each other when the jaw is closed, and it is clear
that the animal was carnivorous. The eyes were large and were prom: |
inently situated on the forehead, giving the animal the power of keeping
a constant and vigorous watch for its prey. The body had members
attached resembling paddles or fins, which in proportion to the size of
the animal were small, and were doubtless intended to propel the body of
this enormous creature through the waters of those large rivers and seas,
which it inhabited or frequented. Each of these paddles or fins, is
composed of twenty-one bones, which form in union, seven freely artic-
ulating joints. The ribs are of a very peculiar shape and exceedingly
numerous. ‘They are three times the thickness at the lower that they
are at the superior extremity.

_ The Editor of the Advertiser remarks :—Dr. K. is at present in this
city, and has the skeleton of this truly wonderful animal in his charge.
The several parts are not yet joined together, but we understand he is
willing to arrange and prepare them for exhibition, if there were any
probability that he would be remunerated at this period of the year for
his labor and expense. Under the circumstances we presume he will
take this rare curiosity, which of right belongs to Alabama, to some
other place for its first exhibition.

It is evident that these animals were very numerous in those seas,
bays, estuaries and lagoons, which once occupied the region where the
tertiary and drift formations of Alabama now are.

We trust that an exact and scientific account of this skeleton will be

given, and that it will be ascertained whether the bones all belong to
one individual.

p vy skeleton “has been purchased for the British Museum, ‘at the ‘price of
00 sterling, and is now erected in their new Egyptian Hall.

18. Bones of the extinct gigantic bird of New Zealand, called Moa.
—A quantity of the bones of the Moa has recently (Feb. 1845) arrived
in England ; the owner requires £200 sterling for them, which the Col:
lege of Physicians will not give and it was expected that they would be
sent to Paris. There is no skull among them, but there is a sternum
without a keel, “*as might have been anticipated.”

Editors’ London Correspondence.

14. Sivth Annual Meeting of the Association of American Geologists.
—The sixth annual session of this Association was held at New Haven,
in Connecticut, on the 30th of April, 1845, and the week next succeed-
ing; and was adjourned on Tuesday evening, the 6th of May, to meet
again in the city of New York, on the 9th of Sept., 1846, ( Wednesday.)

The sessions were held from 94 A. M. to 1 P. M., and from 24 to
6 P. M., each day, and the evenings were employed either in session,
in public lectures, or soirees at private houses. The place of meeting
was the Geological Lecture-room. of Yale College, in the same hall
with the large cabinet of minerals belonging to the Institution, which
was found to be a central and agreeable point for the sessions. The
number of members in attendance. during the meeting was small com-
pared with the crowds which throng the halls of similar bodies in
Europe; but if compared with the small band of votaries who follow
subjects of science in this country, the gathering was highly encourag-
ing, and the impression was general among the members present, that
the prospects of the Society for future years of extensive usefulness
were better than on former occasions. An impression has obtained
currency that the objects of this Asssociation are exclusively geological,
or directed to those cognate subjects only which have an immediate bear-
ing on that science, This impression has been confirmed, perhaps, by
the fact that the published proceedings of the Association, and its
volume of Transactions, have shown a great predominance of geological
subjects. A constant effort has been made, on the part of the officers of
the Association and its individual members, to counteract this impression.
and to throw open its doors widely for all cultivators of science and the
aris who choose to enter. With this view, its constitution reduces the
terms of membership to a mere formality of signing that instrument.

The Association ordered its Secretary to prepare and publish as soon
as convenient an abstract of the present meeting in a separate form,
and we await the appearance of this document before saying anything
more particular of. the subjects discussed. The reports, in some re-
spects improper, which have appeared in the gazettes were unauthor-
ized by the Association, and they are im no sense responsible for them.
The next meeting will be held in the month of September, 1846, in
the city of New York. fe © “

15. Comets.—The comet discovered February 5, 1845, by M. Colla,
at Parma in Italy, isthe Southern Comet of December, 1844, the approxi-
mate elements of which are given at p. 403 of Vol. 48 of this Journal.
The comet first detected July 7, 1844, by M. Mauvais, at Paris, was
observed (after having traversed the southern hemisphere) by M.
Argelander, at Bonn, Jan. 31, 1845, and subsequently by many other
astronomers.

16. Second Comet of 1845.—On the evening of February 25, 1845, a
telescopic comet was discovered in Ursa Major, by observers at the
Collegio Romano. The following parabolic elements of its orbit, de-
rived from observations taken March 7, 18 and 29, at the Observatory

of Paris, gee communicated by M. Fave, to the Academy of Sciences,

- a 14, 184

Perihelion a 1845, mia 21.03748, Paris m. t.

| Longitude of perihelion, — - 192° 33° 18"-6 ) m. equin.
of J jornot ttn 4 ret Jan. 1.

_ Inclination, - - * - 56° 23’ 36-3

. Perihelion distance, - “ mts ba ede

Alters, - - - : - Direc

PE aa No, 590.

17. Third Comet of 1845.—This brilliant comet was discovered in
the constellation Perseus, towards the N. E. horizon, about 3 A. M. on
Saturday, May 31, 1845, by Mr. Bennett, of the pilot-boat Aid, then
near Norfolk, Va. On the two subsequent mornings, it was seen by
persons in various places in this country, but appears to have been first
observed by Mr. Geo. Bond, of the Observatory at Cambridge, Mass.
One witness represented the tail of the comet on the 2nd of June, (be-
tween 2 and 3 A. M.,) as very distinct and brilliant, about a degree
long ; and the nucleus equal in brightness to the star Capella. Some
who saw it two or three mornings later represent the tail to have been
about ten degrees long. On the morning of the 5th of June, the nu-
cleus appeared as bright as the planet Jupiter. The comet has been
visible, ( for the few last days in the telescope only,) down to the 27th
of June, but will soon be lost in the twilight. Its position, from the
first discovery, has been rather unfavorable for observation, on account
of its nearness to the horizon.

The following sets of approximate elements were published on the
13th of June, the one by Prof Peirce, of Cambridge, from observations
there taken by Messrs. Bond ; the other by Messrs. Kendall and Downes,
of Philadelphia, from observations of June 4, 8 and 11, made at the
High School Observatory in that city. These Clampals do not agree
with those of any comet on record.

Miscellan ( 1es ; 221

Ba} Pier cot sels K. & D.
Perihelion passage, 1845, June 5-542, Gr. m.t. June 5°394902, Ber. m. t.
Long. of perihelion, 263° 40! ee one equin.
.. 1 gi 8,

339° 52/ 341° 16 June
Inclination, 49° 0! 49° 37! 4!
Perihelion distance, 0-4002
otion, Retrograde. Retrograde.

18. The Earl of Rosse’s Leviathan Telescope.—In Vol. xuv1, p. 208
of this Journal, we gave a condensed account of Lord Rosse’s great re-
flecting telescope, from papers furnished by our friend, Mr. John Tay-
lor of Liverpéol. From the same gentleman we derive the means* of
making the following statement on the authority of Sir James South, of
the Royal Observatory, Kensington.

Last September, Sir James announced, through the Times, that the
great telescope had been directed to the heavens and with the happiest
results. The great speculum, however, had then been only approxi-
mately polished, and was ascertained to possess very nearly the proper
focal distance. Having been taken out and reground and polished, it
was (March 4, 1845) reinstated in the tube. Although in our former
notice we gave some important particulars regarding this instrument,
we now insert Sir James South’s description entire, although at the risk
of some repetition.

Description.—* The diameter of the large speculum is six feet, its
thickness five inches and a half, its weight three tons and three quar-
ters, and its composition 126 parts of copper to 574 parts of tin; its
focal length is 54 feet—the tube is of deal; its lower part, that in
which the speculum is placed, is a cube of eight feet; the circular part
of the tube is, at its centre, seven feet and a half in diameter, and its
extremities six feet and a half. The telescope lies between two stone
walls, about 71 feet from north to south, about 50 feet high, and about
23 feet asunder. These walls are, as nearly as possible, parallel —
the meridian. ilies ass 8
“In the interior face of the eastern wall a very strong Iron arc, of
about 43 feet radius, is firmly fixed, provided, however, with adjust-
ments, whereby its surface facing the telescope may be set very
accurately in the plane of the meridian—a matter of the greatest im-
portance, seeing that by the contact with it of rollers attached to one
extremity of a quadrangular bar, which slides through a metal box fixed
to the under part of the telescope tube, a few feet from the object end of
the latter, whilst its other extremity remains free, the pore of the
telescope in the meridian is secured, or any deviation from it easily de-
termined, for on this bar lines are drawn, the interval between any ads

* From the Times, and the Illustrated London News.

222 Miscellanies.

joining two of which corresponds to one minute of time at the equator.

The tube and speculum, including the bed on which the latter rests, weigh
about 15 tons.

“‘ The telescope rests on an universal joint, placed on masonry about
six feet below the ground, and is elevated or depressed by a chain and
windlass; and, although it weighs about 15 tons, the instrument is raised
by two men with great facility. Of course, it is counterpoised in every
direction.

“ At present it can be used only between 14 degrees of southern alti-
tude and the zenith, but when completed its range will embrace an arc
between 10 degrees of altitude toward the south, and 47 degrees north;
so that all objects between the pole and 27 degrees south of the equa-
tor will be observable with it; whilst in the equator any object can be
viewed with it about forty minutes of time on either side of the meridian,

* ‘The observer, when at work, stands in one of four galleries; the three
highest of which are drawn out from the western wall, whilst the fourth,
or lowest, has for its base an elevating platform, along the horizontal
surface of which a gallery slides from wall to wall by machinery within
the observer’s reach, but which a child may work.

_“ When the telescope is about half an hour east of the meridian,
the galleries hanging over the gap between the walls present to a spec-
tator below an appearance somewhat dangerous ; yet the observer, with
common. prudence, is as safe as on the ground, and each of the galleries
can be drawn from the wall of the telescope’s side so readily, that
the observer needs no one else to move it for him.

_ “The telescope, lying at its least altitude can be raised to the zenith
by the two men at the windlass in six minutes; and so manageable is the
enormous mass, that give me the right ascension and declination of any
celestial object between these points, and | will have the object in the
field of the telescope within eight minutes from the first attempt to raise it.

“When the observer has found the object; he must at present fol-
low it by rack-work within its reach. As yet it has no equatorial mo-
tion, but it very shortly will have it, and at no very distant day cleck-work
will be connected with it, when the observer, if I, mistake not, will -
whilst observing, be almost as comfortable as if he were reading at
a desk by his fireside.”

__ Observations.—The night of the 5th of March was very clear, and
the sidereal pictures were glorious. Many nebule. were for the first
time since their creation, seen as groups or clusters of stars,

The ring nebula in the Canes venatici, the 51st of Messier’s cata-
logue, was resolved into stars with a magnifying power of 548, and
the 94th of Messier into a large globular cluster of stars.

The power of this telescope in resolving nebule, hisherto considered
irresolvable, was extremely gratifying.

Miscellanies. 223

Perfection of figure in a telescope, must be tested, not by nebulz;
but its performance on a star of the first magnitude.

“If it will, under high power, show the star round and free este
optical appendages,” it will not only show the nebulse well, but any
celestial object as it ought tobe. ‘ Regulus on the 11th, being near the
meridian, | placed the six feet telescope on it, and with the entire aper-
ture and a magnifying power of 800, I saw (says Sir James) with in-
expressible delight, the star free from wings, tail or optical appendages ;
not indeed a planetary disk, but as a round image resembling voltaic
light between charcoal points; the telescope, although in the open ung
and the wind blowing rather fresh, was firm as a rock.”

“On subsequent nights, observations of other nebule, amounting to
some thirty or more, removed most of them from the list of nebule,
where they had long figured, to that of clusters; whilst some of these lat-
ter, but more especially 5 Messier, exhibited a sidereal picture in the tel-
escope such as man before had never seen, and which for its magnifi-
cence baffles all description. 2
« “Of the moon a few words must suffice. Its appearance in my
large achromatic, of twelve inches aperture, is known to hundreds of
your readers ; let them imagine that with it they look at the moon, whilst
with Lord Rosse’s six feet they look into it, and they will not form a very
erroneous opinion of the performance of the great telescope.

On the 15th of March, when the moon was seven days and a half
old, | never saw her unillumined disk so beautifully nor her mountains
so temptingly measurable. On my first looking into the telescope, a
star of about the seventh magnitude was some minutes of a degree dis-
tant from the moon’s dark limb. Seeing that its occultation by the moon
was inevitable, as it was the first occultation which had been observed
with that telescope, I was anxious that it should be observed by its noble
maker; and very much do I regret that through kindness towards me
he would not accede to my wish; for the star, instead of disappearing
the moment the moon’s edge came in contact with it, apparently glided
On the moon’s dark face, as if it had been seen through a transparent
moon, or as if the star were between me and the moon. It remained
on the moon’s disk nearly two seconds of time, and then instantly dis-
appeared, at 10h. 9m. 59°72s. sidereal time. I have seen this apparent
Projection of a star on the moon’s face several times, but from the great
brilliancy. of the star this was the most beautiful lever saw. The cause
of this phenomenon is involved in impenetrable mystery.”

Sir James South describes the Newtonian telescope and the i wre
ment of Le Maire, as follows, =

*\ Thus, then, the difficulty: of apolar a Newtonian telescope of
dimensions never befor mpletely overcome ; but to

224 Miscellanies.

render the part on which I am about to enter more generally intelligible,
let me say, that the Newtonian telescope is composed of a large con-
cave speculum, of a small flat speculum, and of an eye-glass. ‘The
large concave speculum lies in the closed end of the tube at right angles
to the tube’s axis. ‘The small flat speculum is placed near the open end
of the tube in its centre, but at half right angles with the tube; whilst
the eye-glass (a hole for the purpose being pierced in the tube’s side)
is fixed opposite the centre of the flat speculum. The rays from the
object to which the telescope is directed, fall on the large concave
speculum, are reflected from it into the focus, in which the image of
the object is formed ; this image falls on the small flat speculum, and is
reflected from it to the eye-glass, by which it becomes magnified, and
enters the observer’s eye. But only a part of the light which falls on
the large concave speculum is reflected on the small speculum ; and
again, only a part of that which falls from the large speculum on the
small one is reflected from the latter to the eye-glass.. Newton, to avoid
this loss of light by the second reflection, proposed the substitution of a
glass prism for the small flat speculum; but from some difficulties
which have attended its use, it has (perhaps too hastily) been laid aside.
“In 1728 Le Maire presented to the Académie des Sciences the plan
of a reflecting telescope, in which the use of the small flat speculum
was poperasenis efor by giving ye large concave speculum a little incli-
nation, he threw its focus near to one side of the tube,
where an aie magnifying it, the observer viewed it, his back at
the time being turned towards the object in the heavens ; thus the light
lost in the Newtonian telescope by the second reflection was saved.”
Lord Rosse has determined to give to the great telescope the Le-
— form ; but what will then be its power it is not easy to divine ;—
“ what sokthe will it resolve into stars; in what nebule will it not find
stars ; how many satellites of Saturn will it show us; how many will
it indicate as appertaining to Uranus; how many nebul never yet seen
by mortal eye will it present to us; what spots will it show us on the
various planets ; will it tell. us what causes the variable brightness of
many of the fixed stars; will it give us any information as to the con-
stitution of the planetary nebule’ will it exhibit to us any satellites
encircling them ; will it tell us why the satellites of Jupiter, which gen-
erally pass over Jupiter’s face as “discs nearly of white light, sometimes
traverse it as black patches ; will itadd to our knowledge of the physical
construction of nebulous stars; of that mysterious class of bodies which
surround some stars, called, for want of a better name, * photospheres ; ?
will it show the annular nebula of Lyra merelyas a brilliant luminous
ring; or will it exhibit it asthousands of stars arranged in all the sym-
‘metry of an ellipse ; will it enable us to comprehend the hitherto in-

Miscellanies. 225

comprehensible nature and origin of the light of the great nebula of
Orion ; will it give us in easily appreciable quantity the parallax of some
of the fixed stars, or will it make sensible to us the parallax of the neb-
ule themselves; finally, having presented to us original portraits of the
moon and of the sidereal heavens, such as man has never dared even to
anticipate, will it by daguerreotypic aid administer to us copies founded
upon truth, and enable astronomers of future ages to compare the moon
and heavens as they then may be, with the moon and heavens as they
were? Some of these questions will be answered affirmatively, others
negatively, and that, too, very shortly; for the noble maker of the
noblest instrument ever formed by man ‘has cast his bread upon the
waters, and will, with God’s blessing, find it before many days.’ ”

** As it is interesting to trace the progress of human industry and in-
telligence, I will say a few words, indicating their effects as far as con-
cerns the Newtonian reflecting telescope. It was discovered by the
head and made by the hands of Sir Isaac Newton in 1671; its large
speculum was two inches and three tenths in diameter ; its focal length
was about 6 inches, and magnified 38 times; it is in the possession of
the Royal Society. I regret to say it is in a most dilapidated condition,
and its eye-glass is lost.

“The next of any importance was made by Hadley in 1723; its large
speculum’s diameter was about 6 inches; its focal length about 63 in-
ches ; it magnified 230 times; in performance it equalled the great
Huygherian refracting telescope, of 6 inches diameter and 123 feet focus.
He gave it to the Royal Society. Its metal is ruined, and its tube, its
stand, and others of its appurtenances are lost.

“Short succeeded Hadley. The figure of his metals was very good,
but their composition was bad and very liable to tarnish. Still he
greatly excelled all who had gone before him, and, that posterity might
not be aided in their attempts to make reflecting telescopes by any
knowledge he had acquired, he ordered, before his death, all his tools
to be destroyed...

‘ Next to Short came Herschel ; his metals were of a very inferior
composition ; in others’ hands his telescopes did but little, but in his
own they raised for him an imperishable name.

“ Watson followed Herschel. His metals, in composition, figure and
polish, were exquisitely perfect; his largest Newtonian did not exceed
9 inches aperture; with large ones he never grappled, but for such as
he did make I doubt if he was ever equalled, and am sure he never
was surpassed.

“Cotemporary with Watson was Tulley ; his telescopes were superior
to Short’s, but certainly inferior to Watson’s.

Vol. xxix, No. 1.—April-June, 1845. 29

226 Miscellanies.

_ Ramage, about 1820, constructed telescopes of 15 inches diameter
snd 25 feet focal length—they were Lemairans. One of them was
many years in the court-yard of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich,
where its performance was much taunted, At the request of my late
friend, Dr. Wollaston, I examined it whilst it was there. Sir J. Her-
schel accompanied me, and with an aperture beyond 7 inches it was
good for nothing. It has, 1am told, recently been purchased for the
Observatory of Glasgow.

“From. the late Earl of Stanhope’s endeavors, all who knew him
expected much,—for some 30 years before his decease he occupied
himself very much in endeavoring to produce large reflecting telescopes.
Although, however, he was a sound mathematician, and a most power-
ful mechanic, his failure was complete. After his decease, his manu-
scripts on scientific subjects having become the property of the Royal
Institution, | thought that even the errors of such a man must be instruc-
tive ; I have therefore recently waded through all that relate to the
manufacture of reflecting telescopes, and | think there isscarcely or
them a-single hint which is worth remembering.

“ Having dwelt so long on the telescope itself, I have only space to
say that the mechanism for using it is worthy of the telescope and of
him who made it. All appertaining to the telescope, except its prin-
ciple, is original. The only master who might have left something like
a copy for imitation was Sir W. Herschel—for any information, how-
ever, which the Earl of Rosse, or any one else, except his son, (who
has for nearly a quarter of a century kept it to himself,) has derived
from Sir W. Herschel’s experience in making large telescopes, Sir
William might as well never have been born. Information which
might have been in the highest degree important if communicated to the
world at a proper season, can now, thanks. to Providence: for having
given us the Earl of Rosse, who is openness itself, (for his own fame,
perhaps, even to a fault,) be easily dispensed with; whilst a hint is
given to those who, like Short and Sir W. Herschel, kept their secrets
even unto death, that others will succeed them, the success of whose
energies, industry and talents will most assuredly eclipse theirs; and
who, by following conduct as generous as theirs was selfish, will be
regarded as benefactors to mankind.

“Far be it from me to say a disrespectful eee of the late Sir W.

Herschel. Whilst he lived, I loved him ;-now dead, I venerate, his
memory—nay, I respect the very ground he worked on ;_ his integrity.as
a man and as an observer I implicitly confide in. 1 cannot, however,
refrain from saying, that if it be true that the 6th and 7th satellites of
Saturn were not discovered by the 40 feet telescope made by him at
the expense of George III, as from his own. words, found in the Philo-

‘Miscellanies. 227

sophical Transactions, I stated they were, in a lecture given at the
Royal Institution, on Lord Rosse’s telescope, in May, 1843, I must,
however painful to me to do so, regard the remains of that telescope,
which I visited not long ago, as a monument of failure. I therefore
entreat his son, seeing that his father’s veracity is impugned by doubts
which have been recently and publicly expressed by one of the first
astronomers of Europe, to give to the world every information on the
subject which his father’s manuscripts supply ; assuring him, however,
that till this be done by him, and till i¢ demonstrates the contrary, there
shall be at least one of his father’s friends who believes that by Sir W.
Herschel’s pen plain or naked truth was never violated.

19.. Notices drawn from a letter of our London Correspondent, dated
June 10, 1845. :

Silicification A memoir on the microscopical examination of the
chalk and flint of the South East of England, illustrated by drawings and
several microscopes, with fossil and recent subjects, was read before the
Geological Society by Dr. Mantell, Wednesday, June 4. It described
the silicification of organic bodies, and particular reference was made to
Mr. Dana’s remarks on pseudomorphism in the April No. of this Jour- _
nal, Vol. xvi, No. 2.. Weare evidently approaching a period when
all the siliceous petrifactions, even those of gigantic trees and extensive
forests, will be explained.

Sigillaria and Stigmarie.—The identity of these fossil trees of the
coal formation, as described in Dr. Mantell’s Medals of the Creation,
has been fully confirmed. Dr. Buckland read before the Geological
Society a letter from Mr. Binney, the discoverer of the stem and roots
figured in the Medals—confirming his previous account, and leaving no
doubt that the Stigmarie are the roots of the Sigillaria. “ But they are —
Still very marvellous fossils, for we have no roots with which they are
at all analogous; the regular quincunx arrangement of the tubercles and
the articulation of the fibrils differ from any recent known thing.”
Plumbago formed by pressure.—This subject was brought forward at
the same meeting. ‘The only good mine of graphite (black lead) is
exhausted of its best kind; and to meet the demand for pencils, now
greater than ever, they search over the heaps of rejected ore formerly
thrown aside.” “This rubble is reduced to an impalpable powder and
then subjected to great pressure in moulds, and the result has been the
Most pure and beautiful graphite; and the artificial mineral is now cut
_ Up for our best pencils.” he

Crosse’s Accari.—* These insects, which possess the privilege of
living, like demons, where all other beings would perish, have been
found in the strongest liguid volatile ammonia, without any galvanic ©
agency.” ah

228 Miscellanies.

“‘Mr. Wilkes has repeated Crosse’s experiments on the production of
Accari, and appears to have used every precaution for excluding and
killing the ova of any animals, and yet these Accari appeared. But I
cannot think that any physiologist will for a moment admit that the in-
sects were produced by galvanic action, or even more readily developed
by it; although the latter is not impossible.’

Atmospheric Railroads.—A road of this description is about to be
Jaid down from Bristol, England, to Partis Head. It would appear,
therefore, that confidence is epoeedl in this new power of sibel 6
in travelling.

20. Columbite.—In a series of chemical examinations of the several
varieties of Columbite from different localities, Prof. H. Rose has ob-
~ tained the following for the composition of a specimen from this country.
Columbie acid, 79°62; protoxyd of iron, 16°37;'protoxyd of manga-
nese, 4°44; impure oxyd of copper, 0°06; oxyd of tin, 0-47; witha
trace of lime, = 100-96. Specific gravity of the specimen, 5°708.
Streak dull reddish brown. The particular locality was not known.
Specimens from Middletown, Conn., afforded a specific gravity, when
reduced to powder, varying from 5:475—5°495. The Bodenmais Co-
lumbite, in crystallized specimens, afforded the specific gravity 6-390,
and the composition columbic acid, 81:34; protoxyd of iron, 13°89;
protoxyd of manganese, 3°77; impure oxyd of copper, 0.10; oxyd of
tin, 0-19; traces of lime, = 99.29. In other specimens the specific
gravity veiled from 5-6996 to 6-078.

21. Gray Antimony—Prof. O. P. Hubbard reports a locality of
this mineral in Lyme near Dartmouth College. Loose specimens were
found, as mentioned in Jackson’s Report on the Geology of New Hamp-
shire, some two yearssince. It is now found in place, in crystals three
and four inches long, in veins of quartz intersecting granite.

22. Postage of Printed Sheets in England,—We had occasion to send
to our correspondent thirty three pages of printed proof—one page
over two sheets. For this, he remarks that he paid ils. 6d. 1 wish,
he observes, to call your attention to it, as it might be well to notice in
your Journal, that the British Post Office charges for all printed papers
or pamphlets; and English savans are often put to great expense from
foreigners not being aware of this. circumstance.

ERRATA.

for * Athoiis,” aby hAibhad a 1, 10 fr . bot. for “ eet sin
read ‘+ peti seis

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

‘

Arr. L—The Coast Survey of the United States.

Tue interest which the readers of this Journal must have
always felt in the condition and progress of the United States
coast survey, has been very much (and naturally so) increased
by the appointment of Dr. Bache to the office of superintendent.
The work is now exclusively under American control, and
though science, ‘as broad and general as the casing air,’ recog-
nizes no invidious distinction of age or climate, yet reproaches
which it is not worth while to remember, still less to repeat, have
forced this consideration upon the notice of all those who feel a
just pride in the scientific reputation of the country.

Among the readers of this Journal the present superintendent
numbers many personal friends, and many others, who, governed
by his reputation, gave the influence of their names to secure his
nomination for his present responsible office, after Mr. Hassler’s
death. 'T'o these gentlemen, the successful prosecution of the
coast survey has become a matter of more than ordinary in-
terest. They may be said to have assumed a responsibility with
regard to it. They will be glad then to learn something of its
scientific details.

The fundamental principles of a geodetic survey, are of too
elementary a character to be treated in this place. Neither will
the reader look here for an abstract of the last report, showing
the space occupied, and the amount of labor performed. Both
of these topics have been recently handled with great clearness
and elegance, in a popular form, by a writer in the “ Biblical

Vol. xr1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 30

230 Coast Survey of the United States.

Repertory and Princeton Review.” The object of the present
article is to make known some of the new methods of observa-
tion and reduction which Dr. Bache has himself introduced into
the survey, and certainly it cannot but be regarded as a favorable
sign of the times, that the means are supplied for writing such a
paper ; that openness and freedom of communication are substitu-
ted for secrecy, and the habitual mistrust, to say nothing worse,
which mystery always implies.

-It is only necessary to remark before entering at once upon the
subject, that a slight divisional arrangement has been adopted for
convenience, and that having to speak of such changes only as
are due to Dr. Bache, a frequent reference to his name is un-
avoidable.

In the determination of Jdatitudes the superintendent has
adopted a method in accordance with the established facts of
observation, and with the extent of his means and authority.
It is undoubtedly most desirable that the work should finally
rest for authority in its astronomical determinations upon two
permanent and well endowed observatories in distant parts of the
country. Such was the project of Mr. Hassler, and it was owing
perhaps to the hope that it might be realized, that up to the time
of his death, no regular astronomical observations had been made
at any of the stations of the primary triangulation, since leaving
Weasel. During this interval, however, (it would be unjust to
omit the mention of it,) some voluntary observations have been
contributed by Mr. Edmund Blunt, one of the two principal
assistants.

But the prospect of obtaining the efficient support of a well
conducted observatory in the southern section of the Union
is distant, notwithstanding the noble efforts directed to that ob-
ject in Alabama. In the mean time it must be considered the
part of prudence, as well as fidelity, to accomplish all that is
possible, and the superintendent has undertaken this in such a
manner that the results will form an interesting contribution to
physical science, independently of their value in settling individ-
ual positions. Last summer, observations for the latitude were
made at six stations of the survey, four at the north and two at
the south, and this season the same observations will be continu-
ed, not only at the stations of the new primary triangulation, but
also to supply the deficiencies of the old work. The principle

Coast Survey of the United States. 231

which demands these frequent determinations, is the necessity
for reduction to a central point, arising from the irregularities of
gravitation, occasioned by the variations in form and density of
the materials composing the earth’s crust. The theory, though
familiar to the student of physics, requires to be stated in this
connection. If in consequence of the proximity of a mountain
the plumb line be drawn from the position it would otherwise
maintain, it is evident that the point of the heavens which cor-
responds to the zenith of a station, as determined by astronomical
observations, would not be the same as if the mountain did not
exist. The apparent direction of gravity being different, the
apparent horizontal line is also changed. The length of the
radius of curvature of the meridian undergoes a corresponding
alteration, and the angle which measures the elevation of the
pole, has its vertex, not at the centre of the earth, but at a point
at a distance from the centre, depending upon the apparent line of
direction of gravity.

The existence of such an attraction is a valuable part of
knowledge, proved by accurate practical investigation. Obser-
vations were made in the year 1774, by Dr. Maskelyne, for as-
certaining the attraction of the mountain Schehallien. The
points to be compared were connected by measurement, and de-
termined astronomically. 'T'wo results differed 11/7! from each
other, which great discrepancy is to be attributed to the sum of
the deflections of the plumb line on the opposite sides of the
mountain.

Baron de Zach, also, in 1810 showed that the attraction of
the Mimet mountains, near Marseilles, was appreciable. It ap-
pears to have produced an error of 1.98 in the latitude. M. Arago
condemns the repeating circle used by Zach, and Mr. Airy ob-
serves that the stars were all on the same side of the zenith, a
change therefore in the constant error of the instrument would
produce an error in the result. Without attaching any impor-
tance to the minute accuracy of the determination, however, it
sufficiently illustrates the principle treated. ‘The same facts are
attested by the observations of Boscowich and Beccaria in Italy.

It might be expected that the pendulum, a more delicate means
of experiment, would also indicate by its vibrations the existence
of these irregularities. Such is indeed the case. It is now well
known that the attraction peculiar to the locality, does in frequent

232 Coast Survey of the United States.

instances affect the mean force of gravity ; and it is owing to the
gravitating force, not only of the base on which the pendulum
stands, but also of the adjacent materials, that it is necessary to
modify the rule, which would obtain, were the earth of an uni-
form density, viz. that the reductions from one level to another
are strictly proportioned to the squares of their 3, is distances
from the earth’s centre.

Instances appear of defect and excess in the vibrations of the
pendulum, of the former at Maranham and Trinidad, and of the
latter at Spitzbergen and Ascension, where the experiments were
conducted with such extreme precision as to prove conclusively
that the irregularities are not to be charged to the experiments
themselves, but to the natural phenomena which it is their pur-
pose to investigate.

But to return to astronomical indications. Observations show
that the attraction of masses comparatively small, is sensible.
The discrepancies noted in comparing different parts of the same
arc may be cited. At Arbury Hill there was found a difference
of 5”, not to be accounted for upon any supposition of the earth’s
figure. There is also an unexplained disturbance at Dodagoontah,
on the great Indian arc, to nearly the same amount. In inferring
the latitude of one place from the observed latitude of another
not on the same meridian, through the medium of a geodetic
measure, results are obtained differing from observation more
than could happen in the use of the astronomical instruments,
or of the geodetic measurements, without the most unreasonable
neglect. ‘Thus the latitude of Turin deduced from that of Milan
differs from the observed latitude by 8-9, that of Venice from
the same origin 9-5, and that of Rimini 27-4. The same re-
sults appear upon the journals of the coast survey. The latitudes
of New York and Boston do not agree together. Boston, Cape
Henlopen, and New York differ from Philadelphia, and the va-
rious stations about the city of New York, when transferred to a
central point, are all at variance with observation.

Finally, the great disagreement, it may be observed, between
various geometers as to the ratio of eccentricity, is attributed by
some writers, in a measure to erroneous latitudes, occasioned by
deviations of the level.

These facts, and the theory which flows from them, prove the
importance of the rule of observation adopted by the superin-

Coast Survey of the United States. 233

tendent. He not only arrives at the most correct determination
of latitude compatible with the means allowed him, but is ren-
dering valuable aid towards the thorough investigation of a very
interesting question, a question intimately connected with his
future discussions of the figure of the earth.

In connection with this subject, it may be mentioned that it is
the design of Dr. Bache to employ observations of transits over
the prime vertical for the determination of latitudes, as soon as
the requisite instruments can be supplied. During the preceding
‘ winter the latitude of Cambridge observatory was determined in
this manner, with such admirable coincidence in the results as to
leave nothing to be desired. 'The observers were, Major Graham
of the Topographical Engineers, Mr. Wm. C. Bond, the director
of the observatory, and Mr. G. P. Bond, his son. The observa-
tions were reduced by Prof. Peirce, and will appear in the Trrans-
actions of the American Academy. They have also been com-
municated by Prof. Peirce to the office of the coast survey.

Astronomical azimuths require also frequent determinations in
order to ensure accuracy, and to save the ungrateful labor of re-
trospective calculation. With regard to this important element
in geodesy it is theoretically true, that when one azimuth has
been defined, others can be deduced from it by simple calculation
in the progress from station to station. But repeated measures
for verification are indispensable to avoid error, and to escape the
trouble of reoccupying old stations. During the preceding season
the azimuthal bearing was ascertained, independently, for six of
the primary stations, four at the north and two at the south.

Of the two heavenly bodies most commonly used in this ope-
ration, Mr. Hassler preferred the sun, but Dr. Bache has employ-
ed for the first time on the work, the elongations of Polaris, in
both its eastern and western digressions. His objection to the
sun is the exposure of the instrument, which cannot fail to be
affected by the heat of this luminary.

A distinguished astronomer, it may be remarked, directed the
English surveyors never to use the sun for any geodetic deter-
mination. ‘The prominent advantage in using Polaris, is the op-
portunity it affords for a very careful and deliberate observation.
At the time of elongation, when the change of altitude is most
rapid, the movement in azimuth is nothing ; there is ample time
therefore to repeat the measurement until satisfied with its ex-

234 Coast Survey of the United States.

actness. ‘The observations are continued for several successive

ays. ‘The necessity, as it is generally considered, of using dis-
tant night signals for this mode of determining azimuths, is
avoided. ‘The superintendent has adopted the suggestion of the
Astronomer Royal at Greenwich, who proposed referring the
points of greatest elongation of cireumpolar stars, to marks in
the horizon, by perpendicular lines demitted by means of an alti-
tude and azimuth circle. Elongation signals are established about
two miles distant, consisting of a delicate wand by day, and a
lamp by night, the latter of which is seen through a small hole
perforated in a board set up for the purpose.

This method is peculiarly applicable to a large theodolite with
a micrometer eye-piece,—first the position of the star is observed
and then the signal with the micrometer, and so on alternately
for ten minutes before, and ten after elongation. Many observa-
tions are accumulated in one day, care being taken to ensure the
steadiness of the instrument and the correct leveling of the axis.
Measures were made by the reflected, as well as the direct image
of the star, but this precaution was found to be superfluous.
The elongation signals are observed in turn with all the other
signals, and the probable error of the results is found to be less
than the best on record inthe French survey when the repeating
circle was employed. ‘The French used Polaris near elongation,
but not both elongations. Distant night signals have been at-
tempted with general success, and fot: this purpose a lens was
borrowed from Mr. Lewis. Where these were set up, the are of
distance from Polaris to the signal, which is the measure of the
diedral angle formed by the two vertical planes of the signal and
star, could be taken directly, and this, it is believed, was the
method most in favor in the recent French triangulation.

Concerning the observation of terrestrial angles and the use of
the large theodolite, Mr. Hassler has very justly said, that, “ Ab-
solute mathematical accuracy exists only in the mind of man.
All practical applications are mere approximations, more or less
successful. And when all has been done that science and art
can unite in practice, the supposition of defects in the instrument
will always be prudent. It becomes, therefore, the duty of an
observer to combine and invent, upon theoretical principles,
methods of systematic observations, by which the influence ©
any error of his instruments may be neutralized, either by direct

Coast Survey of the United States. 235

means, Or more generally, and much more easily, by compensa-
tion. ‘The methods thus decided upon will determine the num-
ber, as well as the form and combination, of the observations
which are required to give the greatest probability in the re-
sults; and these methods must be the constant rule fog all ob-
servations.”

That portion of geomorphy which comprises the measure-
ment of terrestrial angles of the first order, demands the nicest
exactitude, because it embraces the consideration of the earth’s
figure, and because the celestial observations of a geodetic survey
are directly connected with it. That observations should be nu-
merous, as one mode of compensation, is evident.

Another question arises as to the best circumstances in observ-
ing, and the number necessary to secure a very small probable
error. ‘This question the superintendent has now resolved, by
an application of the method of least squares for the first time on
the survey. Its general and successful use by Prof. Lloyd, in
the magnetic survey of Great Britain, may be seen in the eighth
Report of the British Association. There is reason to think that
the method adopted by some engineers of selecting for observa-
tion those times only which appear the most favorable in all their
minutest circumstances, does not lead to the best results. Swan-
derg in Lapland may be here particularly referred to, whose ob-
servations, very few in proportion to the time occupied, do not
appear to have commanded the highest confidence. Now the
mode introduced by Dr. Bache has been to determine, by repeat-
ed trials, and by a rigid application of the method of least squares,
what is the number of observations which, taken under cireum-
stances such as are ordinarily favorable, will reduce the probable
error within the limits of deviation of the instrument, and of the
observer. That number, thus established, becomes the rule of
conduct. The application of this method has increased not only
the economy, (a very important consideration, for economy is
progress,) but the rapidity of the work in.a striking manner, as
may be seen from a comparison of the field work of last year
with that of any previous year; and, what is most to be regarded,
it secures a greater accuracy in the compensation of errors. Of
six triangles the greatest difference from 180°, after allowing for
the spherical excess, was 0/6 of a second of space, that is 0-2
to an angle, and from this the difference descended to nothing.

236 Coast Survey of the United States.

The nicety of this result rivals both the English and French
surveys. It is not necessary to carry comparisons (which may
appear invidious) any farther at present; but they need not be
shunned, whatever the source or standard by which they are
challenged. It is only necessary to add that the calculations were
not made by Dr. Bache himself.

This subject leads to the mention of the formule used upon
the survey for the calculation of L. M. Z. which depend upon
the figure of the earth. The value of e?, the expression by
which the ellipticity enters into these equations, has been variously
decided by the most distinguished geometers, and has resulted
differently from the comparison of different meridional measure-
ments; from experiments with the pendulum by different ob-
servers, and from calculations of it from the moon’s motion by
La Place and Buckhardt. The history of these facts will be fa-
miliar to the reader. Among the comparatively modern deter-
minations, the linear measure of Mason and Dixon in 1764 has
given a result in one extreme, and the magnificent triangulation
of Méchain et Delambre in the other. This is precisely one of -
those questions in which the purely practical depends upon the
purely theoretical, and that of the highest order. The direction
hitherto taken by the main triangulation of the coast survey
does not enable it to supply the, measurement of an are of me-
ridian, that is, an element for deducing the figure of the earth
satisfactorily. But it is now approaching this point. The tri-
angulation from Nantucket, (which will be one of the points of
the first order during the present season,) to Portland, will qualify
the survey to take its place in this respect also amongst the per-
manent scientific works of the world.

From the head to the mouth of the Chesapeake will be formed
another series, favorably situated for this purpose, and here the
line of Mason and Dixon will be included and its accuracy tested.
The tables for the reduction of triangles, and for projection, were
first calculated by Mr. Hassler in 1818, but in 1834 he found it
necessary to repeat all the calculations,—the knowledge of the
dimensions and figure of the earth having been much improved
and more strictly defined. Since then, however, has appeared
the determination of Bessel, founded upon a comparison of all
the authentic measures, to each of which is assigned its just
weight as determined by the theory of probabilities, or the method

»

Coast Survey of the United States. 237

of least squares. This is the result accepted by the scientific
world, and which it is now imperative to employ. Not only are
new tables to be calculated for future use, but all the old triangles
are to be recomputed to the original base. The accumulation of
small errors renders this course obligatory, and indeed indispen-
sable. But the values in the new tables will be affected not so
much by the change of ellipticity, as by a proper return to the
legal ratio of the metre to the toise. The toise was the standard
of linear measure in France, employed in the measurement of
the French arc between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and virtually
also in its continuation by MM. Biot and Arago, by which the
parallels of Paris and Formentera were connected. Virtually it
is said, because the legal ratio of the metre was preserved. 'The
definition of the metre as the millionth part of the quadrant of
the meridian, having been shown by the laborious computations
of Colonel Puissant to be imaginary, it only remains to adopt and
preserve the value given it by the law of 1799, and subsequently
confirmed by the law of 1837. é

lt might be argued, if argument were applicable to the case,
that the attempt to assign to the metre a theoretic value would
defeat itself,—for neither geodesic-operations, nor the present
methods of calculation, could settle its value with such certainty
but that future geometers might find occasion to modify numbers
which now appear to be the most established. It may be said,
further, that when the metre was adopted by the commission con-
sisting of Borda, Lagrange, La Place, &c., it was done with a
limitation subsequently confirmed ; and this limitation, being a
very close approximation to the truth, may be regarded as defini-
tive. Whatever may be the future progress of science, it can
never be convenient to alter it; but it is only requisite to have a
distinct idea of what it represents. Upon this subject Mr. Hassler
assumed a different, and as it has been pronounced by very high
authority, a novel idea. When the standard metres were distri-
buted by the committee of weights and measures, Mr. Tralles,
the deputy from Switzerland, obtained an extra one, perfectly
authenticated, which he presented to Mr. Hassler. ‘The latter,
having in his. possession five brass and three iron metres, and
several standard toises, including those of Canivet and Lenoir,
instituted a series of comparisons with the comparateur of Trough-
ton, which can never fail to command the most sincere admira-

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 31

238 Coast Survey of the United States.

tion for the philosophic accuracy and elegance of their execution,
but by means of which he arrived at a ratio independent and ex-
elusive. His purpose was to establish an authentic standard
with bars of recognized authority. Had the subject required fur-
ther research, no one could hesitate to admit his results, as every
one must admire the zeal, learning, and fidelity he displayed.
But the legal ratio is in fact the only one admissible. ‘T’his is an
evident truth. When the metre ceased to be considered the ten-
millionth part of the quadrant of the meridian, it became equally
with the toise a mere iron bar, having no other value than that
assigned it by law; and that value was a permanent one, which
no individual experiments could be permitted to change.

On this point there can be no higher authority than that of
M. Bessel, which it may be well to quote. ‘Mr. Hassler de-
duced from several comparisons the value of the metre in parts
of the toise. But this I consider as not allowable, for the ratio
between the two is determined by law, by which the metre has
received its true definition. If certain copies of these metres do
not agree together, it shows that the law is not eractly fulfilled by
them ; and as it is much more difficult to transfer to another me-
tallic bar 443-296 lines of the toise than the whole length of the
toise, the value of the metre is a circuitous and unprofitable way,
as long as the toise is as easily obtained as it was at the time of
the construction of the metre.”

Mr. Hassler’s ratio differed from the legal ratio (443-296) by
— 0-015 lines of the toise, an amount quite serious when multi-
plied by frequent repetitions.

At the primary stations last year Dr. Bache made use for the
first time of vertical angles for determining differences of heights.
For this the triangulation at the north offers a fine field ; but the
features of the coast at the south will preclude its frequent appli-
cation there. This method will be continued. The effect of
refraction near the surface may be investigated by a series of ob-
servations, and these angles can be measured at a time of day
when it would be impracticable to observe the horizontal angles.
Anew system of magnetic observations has been introduced
into the coast survey. The declination of the magnetic needle,
which is of indispensable practical utility, is to be carefully as-
certained at every important station of the work. It is needless
to say, however much the subject may have been neglected hith-

Coast Survey of the United States. 239

erto, that without it any map or chart wonld disgrace the office
from which it issued. To this the superintendent has added
other results without increase of expense. There is no branch
of physical science which, at present, engages more active atten-
tion than magnetism. The magnetic surveys conducted and
observations established by the government of Great Britain at
home, and all over the world, are worthy of the munificent sup-
port that nation has always given to science, and the diffusion of
sound knowledge. It is a matter of humble pride that something
has been done also in this country, at the magnetic observatory
of Cambridge under the direction of Professor Lovering and Mr.
Bond, and still more at the observatory of Girard College under
the direction of Dr. Bache. The publication of the latter obser-
vations, with the curves of diurnal and monthly variation, by the
government of the United States, enables this country to adda
respectable mite to the general contribution. The new instru-
ments invented by Dr. Lloyd and M. Weber, are now used upon
the survey.

The portable declinometer of M. Weber, (perfected by Lieut.
Riddell, and manipulated according to his instructions, ) measures
inclination, and also, by a subsidiary apparatus, the horizontal
force, according to the method of Gauss. 'The bar being vibra-
ted gives magnetic moment. of bar x hor. mag. intensity. And
the same bar used to deflect another suspended at different dis-
tances, gives a series representing mag. mom. of deflecting
bar—hor. mag. intensity, and hence the true horizontal force is
derived. Excellent results have been obtained by Fox’s dip
circle, with the use of the deflecting magnet. The axis in jew-

-eled holes has a projecting stem, which is rubbed with an ivory
disk to ensure perfect freedom of suspension. To this happy plan
of creating a slight motion of the axis, a Frenchman has applied
the significant term of shuddering. By means of these instru-
ments the declination, inclination, and intensity, (both horizon-
tal and vertical,) are determined, and thus whilst the useful and
necessary are sought, valuable additions are made to the general
magnetic researches. sais iad .

Local attraction, and the consequent imperfection of courses
on board of a vessel, will receive the attention their importance
demands. Experiments made last summer on board of the brig
Washington, belonging to the coast survey, showed a considera-

240 Coast Survey of the United States.

ble local variation, and also suggested the means of its correction.
This was the first occasion on which this subject had been in-
vestigated on the work. It is the design of the superintendent
to apply the beautiful and simple mode of correction proposed by
Mr. Airy. It is impossible to allude to his experiments on board
the iron steamer Rainbow, in the basin of the Deptford dock-yard,
and the calculations based upon them, without noticing this as a
remarkable case where a theory purely scientific leads to the most
useful practical results. Mr. Airy’s combination of the theory of
M. Poisson with regard to the equal attraction of solids and hol-
low spheres with his own hypothesis of the magnetic direction
and intensity of the particles composing an iron steam-vessel, es-
tablished the safe use of compasses where it was before supposed’
to be very insecure if not impracticable.

The subject of tides is now treated in a manner altogether
new upon the survey. It seems to have been imagined, that the
only purpose of tidal observations was to correct local soundings,
and to ascertain the time of high water on the very days of full
and change, or the vulgar establishment, and for this the solar
interval alone was sought.

Even in this humble attempt, time appears to have been kept
very loosely. Observers have been sometimes employed who
had little idea of the importance of their office The reforma-
tion introduced is thorough. The times of high and low water,
and the period of slack water, are found by watching the register
unceasingly from half an hour before to half an hour after the
change, and noting the time and height at very short intervals.
It was first proposed to lay down these times and variations in
height upon a large scale, and drawing, at the extremity of the
eurve traced through them with a free hand, a tangent parallel
to the line of abscissas, to take the ordinate perpendicular to this
tangent as the nearest approximation to the time of high water.
But upon trial, this was not found to differ perceptibly from the
humerical means of the times. The latter is therefore used as
by far the most convenient. In the reductions, Dr. Bache has
adopted the methods rendered familiar by the papers of Prof.
Whewell and Mr. Lubbock. Corrected establishments are de-
rived from the mean of the lunitidal intervals. As soon as ob-
servations accumulate sufficiently, at any prominent point, the
curves of semimenstrual and diurnal inequality will be projected,

Coast Survey of the United States. 241

the observations will be calculated for the effect of winds, and
barometric pressure, and the variations in the times and heights of
high water due to changes in the moon’s parallax, declination, and
motion in right ascension, will be investigated by a comparison
between computation and observation.

The practical benefits of this system in determining the tide-
factors, and in tracing the times, courses, and conflicts of the tides
in the harbors and inland seas of the United States, cannot be
too strongly enforced. And perhaps even the further suggestion
may be humbly ventured, notwithstanding the unpromising re-
sults of Prof. Whewell’s endeavors, that predictions to be relied
on, which would be infinitely serviceable in the preservation
of life and property in some of our bays and rivers, can be based
upon future accumulated observations. If this hope should ul-
timately prove fruitless, no one will deny that so noble an object
is worthy an effort.

Dr. Bache has also begun to set up self-registering tide-
gauges—one has been in operation during the last six months, at
Governor’s Island, another is now in process of construction at
the office in Washington. The former of these was invented,
in its details, by Mr. Wightman, philosophical instruament-maker
in Boston. 'The axis of a hollow copper cylinder, upon which
the paper is secured, is connected with the pinion of a clock,
and revolves correspondingly to the hands. The rim of a cyl-
inder is divided in parts of an hour, and these divisions are trans-
ferred to the paper by a rule ingeniously contrived. A brass
chain, (guided by the requisite pullies,) with the float in a well
at one end, and a weight at the other, passes round a wheel in
the prolonged axis of which, directly over the cylinder, is fixed’
the pencil. The well is guarded from the external motion of
the water, and the motion of the float is communicated to the
pencil by means of a screw.

The second tide-gauge is the invention of Mr. Saxton, late the
balance maker of the U.S. Mint, and there particularly distinguish-
ed for his improvement of the parallel ruling-machine, by which it
was made perfectly useful, after being thrown aside in despair by
the original inventor. Mr. Saxton is now the constructor at the
office of weights and measures, at Washington. His tide-gauge
has two cylinders. One is carried by the clock, and receives the
paper after the tidal curve is traced. The other carries the blank

242 Coast Survey of the United States.

paper, and is assisted in its revolutions by a weight, thus easing
the labor of the clock. The pencil acts between the two, and the
intervals of time are noted by a marker connected with a striking
apparatus.

In the former tide-gauge, the curves are repeated on the same
paper—in Mr. Saxton’s a continuous curve is traced from day to
day. Both machines have reversal scales which can be adapted
to the variable rise and fall at different places.

The leading principle in these gauges is the same as in those
of Lieut. Palmer, published in 1833, and of Mr. Blunt, in 1838.

The dependence of practice upon theory is well established.
The contributions of science to meet the daily wants of life,
constitute her highest claims to respect and encouragement. In
addition, however, to the useful results to be obtained from the
researches into the nature of tides upon the shores of the United
States, the friends of science, in this country, will be gratified to
see that the superintendent has taken the first step towards rescu-
ing the nation from the reproach of having hitherto entirely neg-
lected this important branch of practical astronomy.

In conclusion it may be mentioned, that with twelve connect-
ed establishments determined at the office last winter, an attempt
was made to deduce the place and direction of the co-tidal line,
of XII hours upon this coast. ‘The formula used by the super-
intendent was regarded as a means of approximation only, the
co-efficients being subject to future modification.

The direction and velocity of tidal currents are now subjected
to a rigorous investigation. They are determined for the nor-
mal condition of the tides, and for the effect of occasional de- \
ranging causes, such as winds, &c. The work is laid down upon
circular and rectangular diagrams, both of them showing the
courses and rates of motion. When accidental influences are the
subject of examination, the mean is taken of several days’ ob-
servations made under suitable circumstances, the temperature.of
the water being always recorded in the note-book. For this
duty a new hydrographical party is added to the survey.

Connected with the study of currents is the exploration of the
Gulf Stream, a work of vast labor and much time, for which the
preparation is already begun. 'The magnitude of this task can-
not be estimated. Its practical and philosophical bearings were
ably treated by the committee of the scientific convention at

Coast Survey of the United States. 243

Washington, of which Lieut. Maury was chairman. They need
not, therefore, be dwelt upon here; neither will any thing be
said, at present, of the course of investigation to be pursued,
farther than this, that deep-sea temperatures, and the shelving of
the coast parallel to the land and water within'the borders of the
Gulf Stream, will not be overlooked.

As the operations of the coast survey depend upon the weather,
the necessity for full and systematic meteorological journals is
apparent.

Printed forms have been distributed by the superintendent, in
which the weather, the state and temperature of the atmosphere,
and the employments of the day are recorded by each assistant.
At the new primary stations, the barometer and dew-point are no-
ted. Besides the strict personal accountability, incidental benefits
will spring from this mode of journalizing. Among them may be
enumerated the means of estimating the probable progress of the
work at the north and at the south, at different seasons of the
year, the assistance they will afford in tracing the courses and
studying the nature of storms, and the exceedingly valuable help
they will supply for laying down, at some future time, a map of
temperatures and climates throughout the coast region of the
United States.

It would oceupy too much space to mention the number of
new printed forms now in use upon the work,—but their value
cannot be questioned. Literal instructions may be differently
construed by different persons, but the order to fill up a printed
form according to the headings, leaves no room for misconstruc-
tion or latitude of interpretation. This, however, may be carried
so far as to trammel individual effort, and control individual intelli-
gence—but the evil is too apparent to have escaped notice.

The most serious and painful embarrassment is incurred by the
present head of the survey, from the deficiency of good instru-
ments. Just in proportion as the observer is proud and happy in
the manipulation of good instruments, so is he dispirited and
anxious with bad ones, which require endless repairs, tedious
processes for the rectification of errors, and threaten, after all, to
disgrace him by imperfect results. It seems worse than ridicu-
lous to expect that a work of such delicacy and magnitude as the
geodetic survey of the coast, can be conducted without an ample
supply of the best instruments, yet Dr. Bache has been com-

244 Coast Survey of the United States.

pelled to borrow a transit instrument from the State of Massachu-
setts, an altitude and azimuth circle from Columbia College,
(now returned,) a repeating circle from West Point, and to pur-
chase from Mr. Blunt, a Gambey theodolite, imported for his own
use, which fully justified the high character of the maker. For
this department there should be a separate appropriation, and itis
to be hoped, that next winter the earnest appeals of the superin-
tendent, supported by some intelligent members of Congress, who
can appreciate the vital necessity of the case, will be heard with
favor. Inthe mean time he is doing all in his power to reme-
dy the gross deficiencies. A transit telescope has been ordered
from Simms, and from Gambey a theodolite of the largest class,
suited to astronomical observations and to the measurement of
horizontal angles. Encouragement is given to our mechanics at
home, from whom the smaller instruments are ordered, as they
are wanted. A theodolite, by Patten, has lately been divided at
the office with the dividing engine belonging to the coast sur-
vey. A vast deal of work, such as repairs, new mountings, &c.,
is done upon instruments in the workshops of the office at Wash-
ington. The vertical circle of the three feet theodolite has been
separately mounted during the past winter, and a new horizontal
circle graduated for the purpose. The fitting of the microscopes
for the large theodolite has also been altered, so as to render the
adjustments more easy and permanent. ‘T'o these repairs may be
added the making of drawing instruments, and engravers’ tools.
This work, done under the eye of those who are to use the in-
struments, is attended with a saving of time and expense.

The dividing engine of Mr. Troughton, belonging to the coast
survey, which has been referred to, has been made automatic
by the mechanical genius of Mr. Saxton. This instrument
had been but little used. Two days were required to divide
a circle, and the change of circumstances in the interval, the
inconvenient position of the workman, and the effect of the
heat of his body, created doubts of its accuracy after trials by ex-
perienced workmen. Now that it is self-acting, it performs, in
one hour and ten minutes, the work which before consumed
two days. The turning of a crank gives the necessary slow
motion to the circle, raises the cutter, pushes it forward, and
draws it back in such a manner, that it marks lines of four dif-
ferent lengths—10’, 30’, 1°, and 10°, and finally it throws itself

Coast Survey of the United States. 245

out of gear when the division of the whole circle is completed.
The centering was found defective, but now this and all other
errors are effectually removed, except some small irregularities in
the teeth of the main wheel, which will, in turn, be corrected.
This engine admits a circle four feet in diameter, and will an-
swer for the whole country.

There is one respect in which the superintendent has adopted a
course entirely new, which must meet with the hearty approba-
tion of the friends of learning throughout the country. In vari-
ous parts of the United States, but principally attached to learned
institutions, are found gentlemen who are led by taste, as well as
professional pursuits, to make observations of value to the coast
survey, especially in latitudes and longitudes. The superintend-
ent purchases their results, of the highest value, because made
by experienced observers, and with better instruments than the
coast survey could furnish. Professors may profitably employ
their summer vacations in similar labors, It will be recollected
that Dr. Bache himself, while filling a chair in the University of
Pennsylvania, made the magnetic survey of his native state
during the term intervals of two years. Prof. Renwick, of Co-
lumbia College, was engaged last year in making experiments in
Long Island Sound, with the new magnetic instruments before
spoken of, for the coast survey. Mr. Bond, of Cambridge, com-
municates the meridian differences, by chronometers, between
Boston and the British observatories. These have become nu-
merous since the establishment of the line of steamers, and the
commencement of Commodore Owen’s survey of the Bay of
Fundy. And Mr. Walker, of Philadelphia, has in charge the
reduction of all the observations on record at the office, bearing
upon the longitudes of coast-survey positions. Every one will
admit that this duty, as extensive as it is laborious, could not be
placed in more responsible keeping. |

In the same spirit, observations at fixed observatories, occulta-
tions, eclipses, and moon culminations, and also for latitude, are
procured and reduced to central points of the survey. It has al-
ready been mentioned, that the results of the transits over the
prime vertical at Cambridge, have been communicated by Prof.
Peirce. 'This system is the more necessary, because the coast
survey can neither supply instruments nor observers for important
occasions, ‘The solar eclipse and transit of Mercury of last May,

Vol. xu1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845.

246 Coast Survey of the United States.

for instance, were observed by Dr. Bache, at Great Meadow sta-
tion, near Taunton, and by two assistants, one at Portland, and
one at a station near Baltimore ; and further than this the means
of the work did not extend. But the records of the same phe-
nomena are to be communicated from Cambridge, Brown Uni-
versity, and Philadelphia. Major Graham also has kindly placed
his observations, made at Governor’s Island, at the disposal of the
superintendent. Collaterally with the same work in the office,
scientific men, in private life, are engaged to report all the im-
portant calculations of the survey. The security against error
afforded by employing persons, to compute, who have had no
connection with the duties of the field or the observatory, is
well understood.

The policy of the system now described, which gives support
and encouragement to scientific men at home, which procures for
the coast survey the use of good private instruments, and the as-
sistance of accomplished observers and computors, which enlarges
the sphere of labor in a way not less notable for its economy,
than its practical benefits, cannot but receive universal sanction.
It is intended to multiply, hereafter, observations at the principal
stations of the work, of occultations and moon-culminating stars.
The predictions of the former will be put in the hands of a
distinguished mathematical professor. -

Much remains to be completed in the area occupied before
Mr. Hassler’s death. To bring up this old work is an unthankful
oflice ; but this is to be done whilst the constant progress of the
new i not interrupted. An assistant of Dr. Bache’s party is
now employed in the Chesapeake. One of the two principal as-
sistants is reconstructing the old triangulation in Delaware Bay.
The important changes at Sandy Hook, developed by the te-
newed survey of last year, demand further examination. The
number of similar cases may be expected to increase every year,
especially as the survey advances tothe southward. These facts
are equally interesting to the geologist as to the navigator.
There are few cases of change recorded in Mr. Lyell’s treatise
more striking than that at Sandy Hook. ‘he investigation into
their causes, belongs to the geologist, yet he must receive the
basis of facts from the surveyor, and it will not be forgotten, that
among these facts, are to be noted the local appearances, the di-
rection in which the sea strikes the coast, the comparisons of soil

#

Coast Survey of the United States. 247

as far as they may indicate the local connections, together with
such others as will serve to guide the philosophical inquirer. It
would lead to but a partial estimate of the value of the coast
survey to omit these, as well as other considerations, upon which
there is not time to dwell.

How well the coast survey has fulfilled the principal object of
its institution, that is, the improvement of the navigation of our
own shores, has been already amply illustrated. The channel
newly determined at the entrance of New York bay, if known,
would have permitted the entrance of D’Estaing’s fleet, and it
appears, from a comparison of the curves of soundings, that it
must have existed at that time.

In Delaware Bay, there has been determined a new and straight
ship channel, three smaller channels over the ridges of Cape May,
and a dangerous shoal lying very near the main ship-channel.
At the entrance of Delaware Bay; near Capes May and Henlopen,
three shoals have been accurately defined ; and a rock has been
found at the entrance of New Bedford harbor, between the light-
houses. But while navigation and its wants are the prominent
object, information is incidentally furnished to facilitate works
of fortification and internal improvement. Such was the case
with regard to the fortifications projected near Sandy Hook, in
the construction of the New York and New Haven railroad, and
of the light-house on Tucker’s Island, and in the improvements
on League Island in the Delaware, and the project for carrying
the Croton water to Brooklyn across East River.

Another point of real importance, which will reeeive the eare
and cordial co-operation of the superintendent, is the permanent
position and systematic classification of buoys. ‘This cannot be
so well done until after the chart of the particular place is issued
from the office. At present the buoys in our harbors are not well
arranged, and hardly occupy the same place in two successive
years. Taking the harbor of New York for an example ; there
are a certain number of black and white buoys precisely alike.
If the mariner falls in with one of these buoys ina fog he has
ho means of knowing whether it marks the ‘ outer-middle,’ or
the ‘ west-bank,’—-whether it is the buoy of the North channel,
or of the S. W. Spit. That is, he must know his position
by the bearings of familiar objects on the land, before the buoy
can be a guide to him. The reader will at once perceive that if

2

248. Coast Survey of the United States.

the British rule were adopted, of putting the buoys of one color
on one side of the channel, and»those of another on the other
side, and numbering them in order from out, inwards, then the
mariner in the night, or a fog, falling in with one of them, would
know the precise spot he was in, and the course to be steered to
the next buoy. Further details could be added concerning their
moorings, as for example, the propriety of using the screw pile,
introduced into this country by Capt. Wm. H. Smith of the To-
pographical Engineers, but the preceding hasty remarks show
the importance of the subject, and its present state of neglect.
| Since the coast survey has been under its present head, five
sheets of charts have been issued ; four of them are sheets of the
large chart of New York bay, and were two-thirds done under
Mr. Hassler. ‘Two more are wanting to complete this set. They
will contain the south side of Long Island, and the east entrance
of the Sound, and may appear before this paper is published.
The small chart of New York bay and harbor has been for sale for
some time in the principal cities, and begins already to be in
demand. The charts of Delaware Bay, of the coast of New
York, and of Long Island Sound, are in the engraver’s hands and.
advancing rapidly. In order to expedite the publication, and em-
ploy the skill and talent of other engravers, maps of the smaller
harbors will be executed out of the office. 'The maps of Fisher’s
Island of the old work, of New Bedford and Annapolis, with the
Severn of last year’s work, are in progress. This isa part of the
system of getting out results as soon as possible. The last men-
tioned will be engraved in a less elegant style of finish, being
subject to future improvement, especially in their astronomical
determinations. :

But this subject, however interesting, must be brought to a
close. It was said at the beginning of this article, that the chief
aim of it was to convey some idea of the methods and principles
of observation and reduction introduced into the work by Dr.
Bache himself, and to show that this noble undertaking has lost
no ground during the past eighteen months of its existence.
_ Even more than this could be justly maintained, were it not

above all things, desirable to avoid unseasonable and unprofitable
comparisons.

As the duties of the survey are numerous, various, and com-
prehensive, so the labor of arranging them, of adjusting each to

Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius. 249

the other, and making all harmonize together, of regulating their
details and embracing their extent, of giving instructions to the
head of every party whether in the field, or the observatory, or
on the water, and receiving in return his reports and communica-
tions, is onerous and engrossing in the extreme. This is attended
to by the present superintendent personally, while all the angles
measured, astronomical, magnetic, and other observations taken,
and calculations made at the stations of the first order, are exe-
cuted by himself, or under his immediate control.

There is one point of the highest import to the prosperity of
the work, which must not be passed over. The coast survey,
heretofore endangered by the absence of a controlling public
opinion, now enjoys its efficient support, both in Congress and in
the country generally. It enjoys, moreover, internal peace and
harmony, a condition essential to the prosecution of scientific
labors, and honorable to all.

It only remains to add, that the matters here treated being con-
sidered familiar to the general readers of this Journal, it has not
been thought necessary to consume space by strict references to
the authorities cited.

Arr. Il.—A Leiter to Berzelius on Chemical Nomenclature ;
by Roserr Hare, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

Philadelphia, May, 1845.

Esteemed Sir,—I am extremely grateful to you for the good
will which has induced you to occupy so much of your val-
uable time and attention in answering my letters, and regret
that I have not succeeded in so expressing myself, whether in
French or English, as to make you comprehend my opinions. I
shall begin to think that in theoretic elucidation, as well as in
physical illumination, it may be more difficult to make luminous
impressions on bodies, in proportion as they are themselves pre-
eminently the sources of light.

In your letter of the 25th of February, 1844, you describe
my opinion of a salt in the following words: “ Vous fondez
Videe d’un sel uniquement sur la composition sans egard aux
proprietes, vous ne considerez, comme un sel que ce qui est com-

250 Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius.

pose d@’un combinaison binaire appelleé base et un autre combi-
naison binaire appelleé acide. Les sels dit haloide, ne sont pas,
d’apres vous, des sels, puis qu’ils ne sont compose que de deux
elements et ne contienent ni base ni acide.” That this account of
my opinion is erroneous must appear from the following language,
held in my letter to Prof. Silliman, which first gave rise to our
correspondence on the subject of nomenclature.

“The most striking feature in the nomenclature of Berzelius,
is the formation of two classes of bodies, one called ‘ halogene,’
or salt producing, because they are conceived to produce salts di-
rectly ; the other ‘amphigene,’ or both producing, being pro-
ductive both of acids and bases, and of course indirectly of
salts. ‘To render this division eligible, it appears to me that the
terms acid, base, and salt, should, in the first place, be strictly de-
fined. Unfortunately, there are no terms in use, more broad,
vague, and unsettled in their meaning. Agreeably to the com-
mon acceptation, chloride of sodium is pre-eminently entitled to
be called as a salt ; since in common parlance, when no distin-
guishing term is annexed, salt is the name of that chloride. This
is quite reasonable, as it is well known that it was from this
compound, that the genus received its name. Other substances,
having in their obvious qualities some analogy with chloride of
sodium, were, at an early period, readily admitted to be species
of the same genus ; as for instance, Glauber’s salt, Epsom salt,
sal-ammoniac. Yet founding their pretensions upon similitude
in obvious qualities, few of the substances called salts, in the
broader sense of the name, could be admitted into the class.
Insoluble chlorides have evidently, on the score of properties, as
little claim to be considered salts, as insoluble oxides. Luna
cornea, plumbum corneum, butter of antimony, and the fuming
liquor of Libavius, are the appellations given respectively to chlo-
rides of silver, lead, antimony, and tin, which are quite as defi-
cient of the saline character as the corresponding compounds
of the same metal with oxygen. Fluoride of calcium (fluor spar)
is as unlike a salt as lime, the oxide of the same metal.”

‘On the other hand, if instead of qualities, we resort to compo-
sition as the criterion of a salt ; ,if, as in some of the most re-
spectable chemical treatises, we assume that the word salt is to
be employed only to designate compounds consisting of a base
united with an acid, we exclude from the class chloride of sodium,

Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius. 251

and all other ‘haloid salts,’ and thus overset the basis of dis-
tinction between ‘halogene’ and ‘amphigene’ elements. More-
over, while thus excluding from the class of salts, substances
which the mass of mankind will still consider as belonging to it,
we assemble under one name, combinations opposite in their
properties, and destitute of the qualities usually deemed indispen-
sable to the class. ‘Thus, under the definition that every com-
pound of an acid and a base, is a salt, we must attach this name
to marble, gypsum, feldspar, glass and porcelain, incommon with
Glauber’s salt, Epsom salt, vitriolated tartar, pearlash, &c. But
admitting that these objections are not sufficient to demonstrate
the absurdity of defining a salt as a compound of an acid and a
base, of what use could such a definition be, when, as I have pre-
mised, it is quite uncertain what is an acid or what is a base.

To the word acid different meanings have been attached at
different periods. The original characteristic sourness, is no
longer deemed essential. Nor is the effect upon vegetable colors,
treated as an indispensable characteristic ; and, as respects obvi-
ous properties, can there be a greater discordancy, than that
which exists between sulphuric acid and rock crystal; between
vinegar and tannin; or between the volatile odoriferous liquid
poison, which we call prussic acid, and the inodorous concrete
material for candles, called margaric acid ?

“ While an acid is defined to be a compound capable of forming
a salt with a base, a base is defined to be a compound that will
form a salt with anacid. Yet a salt is to be recognized as such,
by being a compound of the acid and the base, of which, as I have
Stated, it is made an essential mean of recognition.”

On reperusing the passages which I have thus annexed, you
will perceive, that I have treated as absurd the idea of restricting
our conception of a salt to a compound formed of an amphide
acid and an amphide base, and that I have denounced that of
depriving the chloride of sodium of its appropriate name, and
eliminating from the class of salts compounds analogous to this
chloride in composition and properties.

In the following paragraphs, taken from my “ E’ffort to refute
the arguments advanced in favor of the existence, in amphide
Salts, of a compound radical like cyanogen,” I have objected
to the employment of the word salt as a corner-stone of any
Scientific superstructure. “27. J¢ much surprises me, that

252 Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius.

when so much stress is laid wpon the idea of a salt, the impossi-
bility of defining the meaning of the word escapes attention.
How is a salt to be distinguished from any other binary com-
pound? When the discordant group of substances which have
been enumerated under this name, is contemplated, is it not evi-
dent that no definition of them can be founded on community of
properties? and, by the advocates of the new doctrine, composition
has been made the object of definition, instead of being the basis.
Thus, agreeably to them, a compound is not a salt, because tt ts
made of certain elements; but, on the contrary, an element,
whether simple or compound, belongs to the class of salt radicals,
because it produces a salt. Since sulphur, with four atoms of

zen, SO4, produces a salt with a metal, it must be deemed a
salt radical.”

“30. Evidently the word salt has been so used, or rather so
abused, that it is impossible to define it, either by a resort to prop-
erties or composition ; and I conceive, therefore, that to make it a
ground of abandoning terms which are susceptible of definition,
and which have long been tacitly used by chemists in general, in
obedience to such definition, would be a retrograde movement in
science.”

On perusing the preceding passages, you must perceive that
the difference between us, is not, that while you would build
upon one idea of a salt, I would build upon another ; it lies, on
my part, in the rejection, as a basis of nomenclature or classifica-
tion, of a word, so vaguely used, and so undefinable as that in
question.

As respects another misapprehension, it never occurred to me,
that binary haloid compounds, were less entitled to be considered
as salts, on account of their having no more than two elements.
The tendency of my opinions has been to consider the chloride of
sodium, as the basis of the saline genus, and to object to the
treatment of any body asa salt, which has not some analogy with
it in properties, if not in composition.

The feature in your nomenclature and classification which is
most discordant with that which I have proposed, is the distinc-
tion which you have attempted to make between the binary
compounds formed by halogen bodies with electro-positive radi-
cals, and those formed with the same radicals by amphigen
bodies. Icannot conceive upon what ground the former, for the

Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius. 253

most part, are more worthy of being considered as salts than the
latter ; nor whereupon the amphide compounds resulting in the
one case, are to be considered as acids or bases, according to their
relation to the voltaic poles, more than are the haloid compounds
resulting in the other.

Your nomenclature and your classification, are founded on the
words acid, salt, and base, and yet you have not given any con-
sistent definition of the ideas to be attached to either. These
words have been shown to be employed by you in different
senses, whether as respects composition or properties.

On this subject you will find the following comments in my
letter to Prof. Silliman above quoted.

‘“‘ An attempt to reconcile the definitions of acidity given by
Prof. Berzelius, with the sense in which he uses the word acid,
will, in my apprehension, increase the perplexity. It is alleged
in his Traite, page 1, Vol. II, ‘that the name of acid is given to
silica and other feeble acids, because they are susceptible of com-
bining with the ovides of electro-positive metals, that is to say
with salifiable bases, and thus to produce salts, which is precisely
the principal character of acids.’ Again, Vol. I, page 308,
speaking of the halogene elements, he declares that ‘ their combi-
nations with hydrogen, are not only acids, but belong to a series
the most puissant that we can employ in chemistry ; and in this
respect they rank as equals with the strongest of the acids, into
which oxygen enters as a constituent principle.’ And again,
Vol. II, page 162, when treating of hydracids formed with the
halogene class, he alleges, ‘ The former are very powerful acids,
truly acids, and perfectly like the oracids ; but they do not com-
bine with salifiable bases; on the contrary, they decompose them
and produce haloid salts.’

“In this paragraph, the acids in question are represented as
pre-eminently endowed with the attributes of acidity, while at
the same time they are alleged to be destitute of his ‘ princi-
pal character of acids, the property of combining with salifiable

“In page 41 of the same volume, treating of the acid consist-
ing of two volumes of oxygen and one of nitrogen, considered
by chemists generally as a distinct acid, Berzelius uses the
following language. ‘If I have not coincided in their view, it
is because, judging by what we know at present, the acid in

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 33

254 Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius.

question cannot combine with any base, either directly or indi-
rectly, that consequently it does not give salts, and that salifiable
bases decompose it always into nitrous acid and nitric oxide gas.
It is not then a distinct acid, and as such ought not to be admit-
ted into the nomenclature.’ ”

I suggested a definition here subjoined, which is founded up-
on your own electro-chemical classification, and which is no
more than an enunciation of a rule acted upon, and consequently
sanctioned tacitly by yourself and all other chemists. The de-
finition in its amended form, as given in my text-book, is as
follows :—

“ When of two substances capable of combining together to form
a tertium quid, and having an ingredient common to both, one
prefers the positive, the other the negative pole of the voltaic series,
we must deem the former an acid, the latter a base; also, any
body capable of saturating an acid, as above defined, is a base,
and any body capable of saturating a base, as above defined, is
an acid.”

It follows that agreeably to the nomenclature proposed by Far-
aday, every acid is an ‘“‘anion,” every base a “cathion

But to proceed to another part of the letter, which I have had
the honor to receive from you, it is there alleged that although
“nitrate calcique” (nitrate of lime) is a deliquescent salt, while
fluor spar is a stone, you class them together because they have,
in common, the property of yielding with sulphuric acid gypsum
and a free acid. But allow me respectfully to inquire how, con-
sistently with your system, sulphuric acid can extricate a free
acid from fluoride of calcium? By your own premises fluoride
of calcium is a salt, then wherefore is not the fluoride of hydro-
genasalt? If it be a salt, where is the analogy between the
reaction of the sulphuric acid with the nitrate of lime and the
fluor? In the former case sulphuric acid liberates an acid by a
superior affinity for a base already existing ; in the latter case, by .
causing the oxygen of its combined water to unite with calcium,
it generates a base and afterwards combines with it; and, while
decomposing one fluoride, gives rise to another. In the instance
of the nitrate, one amphide salt is replaced by another amphide
salt, while an acid is liberated; in the instance of the fluoride, an
haloid salt is replaced, both by an ampbide salt and another haloid
compound, As, according to your system, this compound con-

Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius. 255

sists of a halogen, or salt-generating body, combined with a rad-
ical, it should be treated as a simple salt.

If, as stated in your Traité, an ability to combine with nan be
an essential attribute of acidity, how can the fluoride of hydro-
gen be an acid, unless my view of the question be admitted,
agreeably to which the electro-negative fluorides are fluacids, the
electro-positive fluorides, fluobases, while the compound of a flu-
acid and fluobase is a salt, at least as much as feldspar, or marble.
With what other base than a fluobase, can the fluoride of hydro-
gen unite as an acid, so as to fulfil the conditions of your defi-
nition ?*

Iam prevented from supposing that by adopting the salt radi-
eal theory, you would rest the analogy of the cases cited, on the
existence of a compound radical oxynitrion, in the nitrates, be-
cause in your letter of the 15th of September, you allege, that
you prefer to consider oxysalts as consisting of two oxides. Be-
sides, I hope you will consider the arguments which 1 have ad-
vanced against that theory, as unanswerable.

* On this subject the following remarks were made in my letter on your nomen-
clature above referred to. “In common with eminent chemists Prof. Berzelius
has distinguished acids in which oxygen is the electro-negative principle as oxacids,
and those in which hydrogen is a prominent ingredient as hydracids. If we look
for the word radical, in the table of contents in his invaluable treatise, we are re-
ferred to page 218, volume first, where we find the following definition, ‘ the com-
bustible body contained in an acid, or in a salifiable base, is culled the radical of the
acid or of the base.’ In the second volume, page 163, hydracids are defined to be
‘those acids, which contain an electro-negative body, combined with hydrogen ;’
and in the next page it is stated, that ‘ hydracids are divided into those which have
a simple radical, and those which haye a compound radical. The second only

of oxacids.’ Con hsistently with these quotations, all the electro-negative elements
forming acids with hydrogen, are radicals, and of course by the definition of Prof.
Berzelius, combustibles; while hydrogen is made to rank with oxygen as an acidi-
fying principle, and is Ra crts t neither a radical noracombustible. Yet page
189, volume seeond, in explaining the reaction of fluoboric acid with water, in
which ease fluorine unites with hydrogen and boron, it is mentioned as one in-
Stance among others in which fluorine combines with two combustibles
“Tam o acininn that the employment of the word hydracid, as co- nl sire with
Oxacid, must tend to convey that erroneous idea, with which, in opposition to hie

case plays the same part as oxygen in the other. But in reality the formen:ig
eminently a combustible, and of course is the radical by his own definition.”

256 Dr. Hareon the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius.

But admitting the existence of oxynitrion in the nitrates,
wherefore should not fluorine in fluacids, play the same part as
oxygen in oxacids. If a compound radical be formed when two
oxides come together, wherefore should there not be a compound
radical formed by the meeting of two fluorides? If in the one
ease, all the oxygen goes to form a compound radical, in the other
ought not all the fluorine to perform an analogous part? Hence
if on the one hand we admit the existence of orynitrion, on the
other we must admit that of fluohydrogenion.

It will be conceded that there is a great analogy between the
acid haloid compounds of hydrogen erroneously named hydracids,
and those formed by the same radical with sulphur, selenium,
and tellurium. Ihave designated the three last, and likewise wa-
ter when acting as an acid, as amphydric acids, while I have
designated the haloid hydracids so called, as halohydric acids;
founding these appellations on your words amphigen and halo-
gene. Can it be imagined that although when either of the
amphydric acids, sulphydric acid for instance, is presented to a
corresponding amphide compound, sulphide of potassium for in-
stance, that a compound radical is generated, so that the formula
of the resulting -sulpho-salt is to be HS?P, and yet that when
fluohydric acid is presented to the fluoride of potassium, there
being no generation of a radical, the formula of the resulting
compound is to be FH+FP —

You consider it as an objection that I must class the oxide of
sodium with the chloride and sulphide of the same metal, not-
withstanding the diversity of their properties; but how can this
be a consistent objection, when, according to your nomenclature,
the chloride of sodium is classed not only with the fuming liquor
of Libavius, the butyraceous and volatile chlorides, which though
analogous in composition differ from it in properties extremely,
but also with feldspar, gypsum, glass, and marble, which are
utterly different from it in composition, as well as in properties?

If in the case of the nitrate of lime and fluor spar we are to
overlook that the latter is a stone, the former a deliquescent salt,
in consideration of the alleged community of results obtained by
reaction with sulphuric acid, let us subject the sulphide and
chloride of sodium to the same test. Do we not obtain from
either, sulphate of soda and a free acid? Is there not a much
greater analogy between chlorohydric acid and sulphydric acid,

Dr. Hare on the Chemical Nomenclature of Berzelius. 257

than between the nitric acid and the fluoride of hydrogen?
Under this aspect can it be reasonable to class together the nitrate
of lime and fluor spar as simple salts, and yet exclude the sul-
phides from the same class? Are not the sulphides more analo-
gous to the chlorides and fluorides than the nitrates, in the very
trait to which you have referred? I allude to the evolution from
either by reaction with sulphuric acid of a like base and of one
of the acids improperly called hydracids.

It is considered as objectionable that chloride of sodium, a
neutral salt “‘ par excellence,” should be deemed a base. But I
would ask, whence originated the nominal neutrality of this
chloride; did it not spring from the old abandoned notion of its
consisting of muriatic acid and oxide of sodium? ‘That it isa
salt par excellence, I admit, but deny that it is a neutral salt
agreeably to the idea associated with the term neutral as applied
to the sulphates of potash and the sulphate of soda, in contradis-
tinction to the acid bisulphates of these bases. That it is neu-
tral or inert, as respects its reagency with vegetable colors, ought
not, as Lconceive, any more to be an objection to its claims to the
basic character, than the like inertness is an objection to the basic
pretensions of the oxides of the metals proper, among which very
few, if any, have any alkaline reaction. This is more properly
a test of alkalinity than of basidity.

Since water, alumina, and some other oxides, are considered as
capable severally of acting as an acid in some compounds and as
a base in others, wherefore may not the same substance have the
attributes of a salt in one case, and yet in others act as a base?
Which is the most remote from the character of a base, is it the
salt or the acid?

Iam obliged to you for the information given at the close of
your letter. I do not know whether you have ever met with the
account given in the Bulletin of the proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, of my success in fusing pure rhodium
and iridium, by the hydro-oxygen blowpipe.

[have been for some time endeavoring to perfect some new
methods of analyzing organic substances by burning them in
oxygen gas.

With the highest esteem, I am yours sincerely,
LoperT Hare.

258 Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift.

Arr. Ill —Description of a Singular Case of the Dispersion of

- Blocks of Stone connected with Drift,in Berkshire County,
Massachusetts ; by Enwarp Hrrcucocs, LL. D., President of
Amherst College.

[Read before the Association of Amanat Geologists and Naturalists, at Washing-
n, May, 1844.]

Tue precipitous ridges and deep vallies of western Massachu-
setts may be regarded as classic ground on the subject of drift.
The force by which the bowlders were dispersed and the rocks
smoothed and striated, swept over those ridges in an oblique di-
rection ; and we are there presented with much striking evidence
how independent was this force of existing agencies and of the
present configuration of the surface. The leading facts respecting
the drift of that region, I have presented in my Final Report on
the Geology of Massachusetts. But within the past year I have
been invited by Dr. 8. Reid, of Richmond in Berkshire County,
—himself a zealous naturalist,—to examine a very curious case
of transported blocks, found in that town and the adjoining ones;
and it is so different from any case which I have met with, that
I am anxious to bring it to the notice of geologists. For anom-
alous cases in natural history sometimes reveal to us a general law

that governs a large class of phenomena, or rather they lead
us toa wider induction than we had made from the ordinary
facts.

I wish first to mention, that Dr. Reid has given some account
of this case in the Berkshire Farmer, a newspaper published in
Lenox. But ashe did not go into those details which give the
case an important aspect in relation to prevailing theories of drift,
I shall attempt to supply that deficiency.

As one passes a few rods west of Dr. Reid’s residence, and
about half a mile northeast of Richmond meeting-house, he will
see, on either side of the road, numerous angular blocks of stone,
of a character quite different from the rock in place, which is
limestone. In general the fields are quite free from loose blocks.
But on looking southeasterly at this spot, he will see a well
marked train of blocks, perhaps thirty or forty rods wide. He
may be surprised to see how distinct are the limits of this train.
But if he do not follow it further, he will not probably regard it

Dr. Hitchcock on. some Phenomena of Drift. 259

as a peculiarity of much importance; if, however, he turns north-
westerly, and follows the train on foot through woods and cleared
fields, he will find it pursuing a very direct course, over hill and
valley, for about three miles, when he will ascend a ridge, per-
haps 600 feet high, in the town of Canaan, New York, where
the rock in place corresponds to the blocks of the train; and
beyond this ridge, that is to the northwest of it, he will find no
more of them. If he now returns to the place where he started,
in Richmond, and follows the train southeasterly, he can trace it
over the mountain in Stockbridge, through Lee, and up Beartown
Mountain, in the northwest part of Tyringham ; that is, from its
commencement in Canaan, a distance of about fifteen miles. I
have not myself followed it so far; but Dr. Reid has, and he
knows not how much farther it extends.

The character of the surface along which these blocks are
strewed, may be learned from the accompanying map, which ex-
- hibits the general features of the topography, and from the sec-

tion annexed. 'The heights of the hills, as well as the distances
exhibited on this section, were estimated by the eye. Buta con-
siderable error in these respects will not affect the deductions
drawn in this paper. Ihave represented the ridge from which
the blocks were derived to be about 600 feet above the neighbor-
ing vallies. (See ridge A, on the map and the section.) There
the train passes over a valley a mile in width, and ascends an-
other broad ridge,(B,) which forms the principal part of the
Taconic Mountain at this place, and which 1 judge to be about
200 feet higher than the ridge in’ Canaan,—having a valley of
some depth near its top. Southeast from this ridge the train
crosses a broad valley, some four or five miles wide, lying mostly
in Richmond, and ascends another ridge, (C,) lying nearly paral-
lel to the Taconic, called Lenox Mountain, and which may be
500 or 600 feet above the plain.. From this it descends into the
somewhat level country of Stockbridge and Lee, crosses the
Housatonic River, and ascends that broad, irregular pile of moun-
tains called ‘‘ the Beartown Mountains,” (D.)

About half a mile south of the train that has now been descri-
bed, is another of a similar character, and emanating from the
same ridge in Canaan. The blocks in it are less numerous, but
its parallelism to the other train is well preserved as far as it has
been traced, which, [ believe, is not beyond Richmond. Its

260 Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift.

width is about the same as the other.

Between the trains, and

in other parts of the town, we meet occasionally with a block o

the same kind as the trains: but they are rare; though Dr. Reid,
thinks it possible that a third train may be found in the south
part of the town, where he has observed the blocks to be more

numerous,

tata TTT

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Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift. 261

The rock forming these blocks, I incline ©
to refer to the talcose slate of the Taconic
Mountain ; and yet it is quite distinct from
the usual talcose slate of that range, which
forms the west part of Richmond. It isa
very hard and tough rock, of a greenish
color, and often considerably granular, re-
sembling the older varieties of graywacke.
It frequently contains veins of what ap-
pears to be picrosmine, which is quite
characteristic, and readily identifies it with
the rock in Canaan. In some spots on
the parent range, we can see the places
where the ragged fragments were torn off
by some giant force, and the.fracture has
yet a considerable degree of freshness,—for
this is one of the most enduring of all
tocks, being highly magnesian. This ridge,
it ought to be remarked, is a part of the
Taconic range, which here is separated
into several rather low ridges. On the
west of the ridge in Canaan, succeed lime-
Stone, clay-slate, and the oldest of the Si-
lurian or graywacke rocks.

As we go east from the parent range,
the west ridge, as we enter Massachusetts,
is the common talcose slate of the Taconic.
Then succeeds, in the valley of Richmond,
a crystalline limestone; then mica slate in |

State line.

Richm’d.

*sya07q fo uw. ay7 fo anos ay, Fu0pp uorzoagy

Lenox Mountain; then limestone to the
Housatonic; and finally, in Beartown Moun-
tain, quartz rock and gneiss. .These rocks
are not marked on the map, because they
are of no great importance to the point
in hand.

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 34

262 Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift.

I ought to add that the rock of which these blocks consist, is of
that intermediate kind which will be referred to different places
in the geological scale by different geologists, according to their
theoretical views. Nevertheless, it has a character so distinct that
even a common observer would not mistake it or confound it with
any of the rocks in place over which the blocks are strewed.
The opinion that it is serpentine I consider quite untenable.

The blocks composing the trains seem to be confined to the
surface. We have a fine opportunity of seeing this where the
main train crosses the western railroad. At that spot the road is
excavated to a considerable depth into drift, that is rounded. But
not one of these blocks is seen mixed with it. They lie only on
the surface. Nor could I see any evidence on any of them, that
they had been at all subject to attrition, Yet the hills over which
they have passed are all smoothed and furrowed on their western

_sides, and by a force acting in the same direction as that which
conveyed these angular blocks; but they could not have been |
concerned in the attrition, otherwise their angles would have
been worn off. In short, it is certain that these blocks must
have been transported in some very quiet manner to their present
situation. Indeed, had they been blasted by human power, and
conveyed by men to their places, and arranged carefully in lines,
and then suffered to weather for a few centuries, they would ap-
pear much as they now do.

I have spoken of these trains as if they pursued an undeviating

course. But I must now modify this statement. From their
starting point to the middle of Richmond, I could discover no de-
viation from a right line. But when we come into the broad val-
ley lying between Richmond and Lenox Mountain, the direction
changes about 30°. As far as Richmond, the course by the true
meridian is E. 34° 8. From thence the remainder of the dis-
tance, certainly to Lenox Mountain, it is E. 56° S. Possibly
there may be another change of a few degrees beyond Lenox
Mountain. This change in the course may be seen on the map,
where the trains are shown by dotted lines.
' The quantity of these blocks, taking the whole length of the
trains into account, is immense. In some places they almost
cover the ground ; as where we begin to ascend the hill to the
northwest of Richmond meeting-house. In other places the in-
terval between them is several rods.

Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift. 263

‘Nor is the size of the individual blocks small. They are usually
some feet in diameter, and now and then we meet with examples
of extraordinary magnitude. At the foot of the hill, northwest
of Richmond meeting-house, is the largest I saw. It is 140 feet
in circumference, and 12 feet thick. A rod or two distant lies a
fragment, which has been detached from the main block, which
is 19 feet long, 20 feet broad, and 54 feet thick. These two
blocks, originally one, contain 16,000 cubic feet, and weigh about
1,370 tons. I have seen others as large nearly ; but in several
instances they were split into pieces, as if they had fallen from
a considerable height into their present position.

Such are the facts. What inferences can we draw from them?

In the first place, these trains of blocks must have been scat-
tered during the latter part of the drift period, and by the same
general agency that accumulated the rounded detritus beneath
the blocks, and smoothed and furrowed the rocks. The fact
that the trains of blocks lie upon the surface above the common
drift, proves that they were brought there by an agency more
recent than that which accumulated the inferior detritus. But
as the force acted in both instances in the same direction, that
is, southeasterly, and must have been very different from any
other agency that has since acted in that region, we have no
good reason for calling in other powers to explain effects so
nearly alike.

In the second place, it is impossible to explain this case by any
theory of drift, which refers it to the agency of currents of water
alone, or of the water and the detritus driven along by its power.
The very oblique direction which the train takes across high
ridges, would alone refute the idea that water could have done it,
even though the whole northern ocean had rushed with the
violence of a descending cataract over the spot. But still more
absurd does such an hypothesis appear, when we learn that thou-
sands of blocks are strewed over a distance of fifteen miles, not
the eighth of a mile in width, and preserving an uniform direction.
He who can suppose that a current of water would thus confine
such a train of blocks,—some of them of enormous weight,—
Within such narrow and exact limits, and that too without wear-
ing off the angles of the blocks, must have a very different idea
of the dynamics of currents of water from what I have.

264 Dr. Hitchcock on some Phenomena of Drift.

In the third place, it is almost equally difficult to explain the
dispersion of these blocks by floating icebergs. If the number of
blocks had been only one or two, or even not more than fifty, it
might be possible that a large iceberg should have dropped them,
But what iceberg could have loaded itself with enough of these
blocks to have strewed them so thickly for somany miles? And
who will believe that successive icebergs, striking against the
same ridge in Canaan, should have torn off and borne away suc-
cessive blocks in precisely the same direction, so as to have
lengthened out the train? Besides, although an iceberg would
have the power to break off the blocks, where is the — by
which they would be raised upon its back ?

Finally, I know of but one or two facts in geology that can
furnish us with the slightest clue to the manner in which these
trains of blocks were produced. One is, the transportation of
blocks of stone in what is called packed ice, upon rivers in high
latitudes. These sometimes form lines of bowlders along the
shore for a considerable distance ; as in the river St. Lawrence,
~ described by Mr. Lyell in Vol. I of his Principles of Geology, (p.
371.) If, therefore, we could suppose a large river passing from
the mountain in Canaan across the hills southeasterly, and the
climate much colder, it might afford a possible though very im-
probable explanation of the case. But one has only to look at
the region to see, that in its present configuration, this is out of
the question, unless a river can flow without a bed, and over
ridges 600 or 800 feet high. And as to any essential change of
configuration there since the drift period, I think I have proved it
absurd in my Final Report.

The second case to which I referred is that of the medial mo-
raines of glaciers; that is, trains of blocks borne along on the
back of the middle of the glacier, in consequence of the union of
two glaciers, whereby the lateral moraines of the separate glaciers
are forced to the surface after the coalescence. One has only to
look at such moraines, as represented by Agassiz in his Etudes
sur les Glaciers, to see that they a good deal resemble the trains
of blocks in Richmond; and then, such a mode of transport
would show why they are not rounded. But when we come to
examine the country with reference to a glacier, we shall find it
about as difficult to imagine the existence of one there as of a

Dr. Hitcheock on some Phenomena of Drift. 265

river. ‘The country, to the northwest of the ridge in Canaan,
_ from whence the blocks started, descends as far as Hudson River,
say 40 or 50 miles; and it is not till we have gone 100 or 200
miles beyond that river, that we have any mountains of much
height. And then, if we can imagine a glacier to start from the
ridge in Canaan, it must ascend 100 or 200 feet, according to my
estimate, in order to go over the next ridge into Richmond ; and
then again ascend Lenox Mountain and Beartown Mountain. It
is quite as difficult, also, to imagine any cause why the glacier
should change its course after passing the first ridge. If it had
gone directly down the north and south valley after going over
the first ridge, it would not be strange ; but it seems to have per-
sisted in going over the next ridges.

A case, which approaches more nearly to the one I have de-
scribed in Berkshire, is given by Mr. Darwin as occurring in the
Falkland Islands, south latitude 52°. ‘The bottoms of the val-
leys,” says he, ‘‘ are covered in an extraordinary manner by myr-
iads of great angular fragments of the quartz rock. The whole
may be called a ‘stream of stones.’ The blocks vary in size from
that of a man’s chest to ten or twenty times as large ; and occa-
sionally they altogether exceed such measures. Their edges
show no sign of being water-worn, but only alittle blunted. The
width of these beds varies from a few hundred feet to a mile.’”’*

The slope of these streams of stones is about 10°, and they ap-
pear to have travelled from the heads of the vallies since the land
Was raised above the sea. But Mr. Darwin supposes them to have
been hurled from the nearest slopes, and then, by powerful earth-
quakes, to have been leveled into continuous sheets. Did the
blocks in Berkshire occupy the bottoms of the vallies, this expla-
hation might perhaps apply to them. But the position of the
trains in an oblique direction across the hills and the vallies, ren-
ders this theory inapplicable. In short, I find so many difficul-
ties on any supposition which I can make, that I prefer to leave
the case unexplained till more analogous facts shall have been
observed.

* Narrative of the Voyage of the Beagle, Vol. II, p. 253.

266 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

Arr. I1V.—Meteorological Observations made at Hudson, Ohio,
- Lat. 41° 14 42” N., Long. 5h. 25m. 40s. W., during the years
1841, ’2, 3, and ’4, with a summary for seven years ; by Ex1as
Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in
the University of the city of New York.

In Volume x11, pp. 3L0—330 of this Journal, is given a sum-
mary of the Hudson observations for 1838, 39, and ’40. It is
now proposed to continue this summary, and append the average
results for seven years. The position of the instruments has
throughout remained unchanged, and the same hours of obser-
vation have been adhered to. During the past four years, not a
single observation, except of the hygrometer, has been lost.
They were all made by myself, with occasional exceptions, until
October, 1843, from which time until July, 1844, they were made
by Mr. 8. T. Seelye, a graduate of Western Reserve College.
Those for August and September were made by Mr. Lemuel
Bissel, and those for the next five months by Prof. Nooney.
The year is considered as commencing with March. The fol-
lowing observations of the barometer, are all corrected for capil-
larity, and reduced to 32°

BAROMETER.
‘ 38
Mean of (|£= Pressure of| Gaseous at-”
Months 1841, 1842, 1843. 1844. seven years. £3 | the vapor. mosphere.
M. | 3.36. sem. PF 29 3 P.M.
March, 25 783/05 ii 857 751 7925 75 2S 8 ae 398°793 28°71 2 : 28°54:
ril, | °786| -737 ‘687| ‘767 -933| -882 761 045)
7 Teal 755} -79 751 814] *755 769 725 -044|
783) -742| -805| -773| -843| -804| -792) -755-037)
910| -879| -878| -837| 796 ‘856-822-034!
919| -885 873 -779| -754| -876 -838-038,
“903! -858) -900! -847) -936| -895| -893° -846 -047/
866} -809} -763| -738) -875| -832| -858|} -812.-046)
-842| - 893} 870! -82 5| °851\ -806 045)
864} +821) .879| -838| -767|. -723| -812| -774-033)
815| -784| -789| -762| -819| -774| -823\ -785-033
741|_-701| -876| -826| -796| -742| -817|_ 767-050)

? \35-829 8-787 049) 7340| “B62. 0-499, 28 42)
The mean dine oscillation is for spring 0437; for summer
0363 ; for autumn -0460; and for winter -0420. It is least in
summer and greatest in autumn. Average for the year -0420,
differing but slightly from the results of the first three years.
The mean pressure at Hudson for the seven years is 28°808.
The reduction to the level of the sea is given below, to which I

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 267

have added for comparison three years’ observations at Cam-
bridge, and two years’ observations at Toronto.

Hudson, . ; : 28:808
Reduction for 1141 fet, : - 6h -22z2
Correction for pa bd : . — 010
Zero error, . ‘ + .007
30-027

Cambridge, : ‘ 29:940
Reduction for 50 feat. ; ‘ +055
Correction for gravity, ; OT
29.988

Toronto, : : 29608
Hisduciion for 342 (et, : ; + 378
Correction for gravity, . . 3 —-004
Zero error, ‘ ; : — 004
) 29-978.

Comparing these results with those given in my former article,
we have—

Hudson, . , , p 30:027
Cambridge, . ‘ . 29-988
Toronto, . “ . , 29-978
New York, ‘ ae . 29-977
Montreal, . ‘ . ” 29-989
Quebec, . , ; > aks pp G1e

The excess of pressure at Hudson is remarkable, and indicates
a probable error in the assumed elevation of the place. If we
suppose the elevation to be 1092 feet, the resulting pressure will
be 29-983. ‘This gives an error of 50 feet in the assumed eleva-
tion of Hudson, which seems hardly admissible ; nevertheless
that result (1141 feet) was derived from an imperfect connexion
With a hasty rail-road survey from lake Erie.

It has been justly remarked by Colonel Sabine, that the oscil-
lations of the barometer are the complex effect of changes in the
pressures of the vapor and of the gaseous atmosphere ; and that
while we confine our attention to this complex effect, we fail to
detect the causes of the phenomena. But as soon as we separate

268 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

the phenomena of the vapor and the air, we perceive the depen-
dence of each upon temperature. Columns thirteen and fourteen
in the preceding table, exhibit the pressure of the vapor as de-
duced from the observations of the hygrometer on page 271; and
subtracting these numbers from the total pressure, we obtain the
pressure of the gaseous atmosphere, shown in the last two col-
umns of the table.

We perceive then that the pressure of the vapor is greatest in
the hottest months, and at the hottest hour of the day. On the
contrary, the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere diminishes in
the summer months, and augments in the winter months; it also
diminishes as the heat of the day increases.

The cause of this phenomenon is obvious. As the temperature
of the day increases, the air in contact with the earth’s surface
becomes warmed; it rises, and a portion diffuses itself in the
higher regions of the atmosphere, over spaces where the tem-
perature at the earth’s surface is less. 'Thus the weight of the
column is diminished. As the temperature declines, the column
contracts, and receives in turn a portion of air which passes over
in the upper regions from spaces where a higher temperature
prevails, and thus the pressure is increased.

he advantage of thus separating the pressure of the vapor
from the pressure of the gaseous atmosphere, is apparent from the
fact that the total pressure has two daily maxima and minima, in the
explanation of which, much ingenuity has hitherto been wasted.
The whole mystery is now solved by the bi-hourly observations
at the English meteorological observatories. 'The vapor pres-
sure and that of the gaseous atmosphere have each but one daily
maximum and minimum, as might be expected from the fact that
there is but one daily maximum of temperature. But the mo-
tions of the vapor and the gaseous atmosphere following different
laws; and their maxima occurring at opposite hours of the day,
the sum of their effects, or the total pressure as shown by. the
barometer, exhibits two daily maxima and minima, which occur
at different hours from the maximum and minimum of tem-
perature.

The following table exhibits the instances, corrected for capil-
_ and temperature, in which the barometer has risen above

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 269

1841, March 17, 9 a.m. 29°320|1842, Dec. 26,9.4.m. 29-310
© April 15, 9 a.m. *331/1843, Jan. 17, 9 a.m. 289

* "Dec. 22,9 a.m. 272

“ “Dee.” T3, 9 a.m. ‘A13

1842, Jan. 23,3 P.M. ‘2951844, March 5, 9 a.m. 294

March 12,9 a.m. ‘262
“Nov. 29,9 a.m. ‘254

Apel * 7, Oke 324
«Oct. 20, noon, 267

The following are all the instances in which the barometer has
5.

sunk below 28:

1841, March 13, 9am. 98.927)1843, Jan. 31, dp p.m. 27:961

© April 29, 34 p.m. 27-923
“Dec. 4,6 4.m. 28°104

“« Feb. 10, 94 p.m. 28:097
«© March 28, 73 a.m. 27-841

S. Dec. 10,3 2. u. ‘088 ioe. Jan. 12, 10 p.m. 28:070

1842, Feb. 4,4 ?.m. 008
“March 2, 3 P.M. ‘244
thee, me tee Oe ‘221
es ee 091

Jan. 17, 9aim. 2150
¢ wOct.e lay 3 Pat. 432339
“Oot. 18; 9niw. - 24
© Decs 22; 3 peu... +205

1845, Jan.. 13, 9am. 218

The entire range of the barometer for the seven years, is 1:719,
from 27-841 to 29-560. The range of the barometer at Hudson

is only three quarters what it is

at the level of the sea in the

same latitude ; that is, the barometric wave is reduced one quar-

ter at the elevation of 1100 feet.

It may hence be inferred that

thé great fluctuations of the barometer are confined to the lower

regions of the atmosphere.

Fluctuations of the : nt, of En ‘7 inch wibin 24
urs,

1841, April “98, 9A. M.
ae a , 9 AM.
“4 Dee.’ 2, 357.m:
. - 3, 3 °P.M.
1842, Feb. 4,4 P.™.
= bic 5, 9 aM.
& 6 UB, 9. a
s, (AG OS aes
Nov. 29,9" a.m
“30, 9. a.m.
*- Dec. 28,9 a.
ss a 9,9 aM

Vol. xx1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845.

Barometer. Oscillation,

28-070 ‘777 in 24 hours.

28-899 ine

98-164 ‘735 in 24 hours.

28:008 ay

98-791 ‘783 in 17 hours.

pattem ‘728 in 24 hours.

yi +759 in 24 hours.
q:

st ‘768 in 24 hours.

35

270 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

Date. Barometer. Oscillation.

1843, Jan... 8, 9 «.M. :

ee ut a 28-686 ‘Al7 in 6 hours.
. . 9,9 a.M. 29°014 ‘745 in 24 hours.
“* 6 Feb. ..10, 9. a.m 28°812 ;

‘“ rT; ] : 94 P. M. 28-097* *715 in 124 hours.
“ March 27,9 a.m 28-728

“ tc 28, 73 A. M. 27-841 ‘887 in 23 hours.
" a 28, 9 aM. 27°848 :

‘“c (a3 29, 9 AM. 98-794 ‘946 in 24 hours.
1844, Jan. 12, 9 a.m. 28:692 :

i xe © iN AO.” 96070 a: “6P8i8 1S hours
s .Deei ‘F926 28-345 ‘

& ‘6 8. 9.sa'e. 29/117 -772 in 24 hours.
1845, Jan. 13, 9 a.m. 28'218 ‘

“ ; 6c 14, 0.) Ku, 28-922 ‘704 in 24 hours.
. n 17, 3 P.M. 28°450 . :

& ©. 18 30pm 29-174 724 in 24 hours.

The greatest range in 24 hours, for the entire period of seven
years, was ‘946, March 28, 1843. Only four cases have occur-
red in which the fluctuations amounted to ‘8 inch in 24 hours. ~

The season of the year in which these maxima, minima, and
extraordinary fluctuations have occurred during seven years is
shown in the following table.

Maxima. Minima. Fluctuations.

October, 3 2

November, 5 4 x
December, 5 6 5
January, 4 5 8
February, 2 4 5
March, 5 4 4
April, 2 1 1
May, 0 ye 0

* About the time of minimum, the column of mercury was very unsteady,
oscillating through an arc of from -02 to -03 inch. This motion was not due to
agitation of the tube, but to sudden changes of pressure, and resembled very
much the respiration of an animal. On the 14th of August, 1843, just at the
commencement of a shower the barometer oscillated through -073 inch. Cases of
this kind are not uncommon.

Meteorological Cbservations at Hudson, Ohio. 271

The most remarkable atmospheric disturbances are confined to
the cold months, and are altogether unknown in summer.

THERMOMETER AND HYGROMETER.

; 1 Mean 7 years.
bars yer. | Ther. ygr.) Ther | Hygr. Diff.
March, 9 a.m. (36°79 |29-3° {43-30 30 $90
al P.M. |46-2 ‘g ‘1 46-2. |33:3 [12-9
April, 94.m. |44-3 /38:1 [53-1 515 425 | 9-0
* P.M. (51:2 |39°83 1616 59-4 (45-0 [14-4
May, A.M. (56:2 [47:0 156-0 58-1 |49-9 | 8-2
‘3 PM. |632 (486 {62-6 64-8 (51:2 13
June, 9a.M. (725 [648 [65:3 | 8 61:0 | 6
4 3P.M. i781 (667 WLS 36 (63:2 NO
July, A.M. {723 (626 [71-1 72:9 |65-9 (
ss P.M. |78'7 (64:6 [76°5 78:6 |67-2 #11
Aug. A.M. |70°3 (64-2 [68-5 69-8 (642 [5
sai P.M. /77-9 (66:0 [74-3 66-0 }10-
Sept A.M. |649 (623 {61:7 | 615 [58:1 | 3
= P.M. (73:1 (64:5 [69-7 60-2 | 9-
Oct. A.M. /446 (398 [47-5 0 1444 13:
bed P.M. (52°7 i411 [57-4 55-4 145-9 | 9
Nov A.M. |38:3 |34°9 (92-7 56 (BET TS
& sp.mM. |42°3 (35-0 [40-5 415 |33-2 | 8
Dec. 9a.m. [31-1 (28-7 [28-7 29:0 )25°9 13
bis 3 P.M. |35°3 (29:1 [33-4 33:3 26:9 | 6-4
Jan. A.M. |31-4 /26:5 [30-4 28:1 (23:3 | 4
# P.M. |36°3 |265 212 33-7 248 | 8-9
Feb. A.M. [31:38 |26°3 20-4 29-3 23:8 | 5
= P.M. |39°7 |29°0 {30-1 1 1 124

The following table shows the average for the seasons, for seven
years, to which I have added the mean degree of humidity at
Hudson, Toronto and Greenwich, complete saturation being call-
ed unity.

HUMIDITY.
Seasons, Thermom. | Hygrom. | Diff’nce.|"fjydson. | Toronto. jGreenwich.

Spring, 9 a.m.| 49°19 | 411° | 80° -759

P. M.
Summer,9 a.m.) 70°2 | 63:7 6:5 | ‘807 | -76
3p. u| 76-1 | 65°56 7 10
Autumn,9 a.m.) 48-4 | 44:7 |
3 p.M.| 55°
Winter, 9 4.m,| 28°83 | 24:3
p.m.| 35:0 25°9
Year, Qa.m.| 49-1 | 43-4 5:7 | 823 ‘79 | -840
3p.m.| 558 | 452 | 10-6 | 697 685 | -765
Thus it appears that the humidity of Hudson is generally in-
termediate between Toronto and Greenwich; but Greenwich is
drier than Hudson in summer, and Toronto is more humid in
Winter.
In order to determine the mean temperature of Hudson, we
heed to know the relation between the mean temperature and the
9 o’clock observation.

272 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

. The temperature at 9 a. m. is 1:0° above the mean, from one
year’s observations at Philadelphia; it is 0:1° above the mean,
from two years’ observations at Toronto; 0°85° below the mean
from two years’ observations at Montreal ; average 0:12° above the
mean, from 5 years’ observations. This quantity is so small that
I neglect it altogether. Subtracting 0-29 for the zero error of the
thermometer, we have 48-9° for the mean temperature of Hudson.
The temperature of the Atlantic coast in the same parallel is
50:6°.—Difference, 1:7°—being at the rate of one degree for 642
feet elevation. From observations made in the state of New
York, Mr. Coffin has deduced a decrease of 1° for 372 feet eleva-
tion.

The observations on wells, commenced in my former article,
have been continued to the present time.

Date. Depth. Neeapecatars Depth. mittee

1841, August 3, 54:5 feet.| 50-99 A8 feet. | 50°3°
1842, February 25, | 55 50-2 AT 48‘0
August 22, 54 61-3 A46°5 50°4
1843, April 5, 55 50-1 46 47°8
August 26, 54 513 A5:5 50°0
1844, March 21, 53°5 50-0 45 AT‘5
~ August 27, 53-0 508 | 44 49-7
ean of three years, | 54:3 — 506 46:3 491
Mean of six years, | 54:1 505 |° 466 49-0

The annual range of temperature of A, is 0-9°; of B, 2°3°.
If we could assume that the temperature of a well was simply
that of tlfe stratum in which its springs take their origin, we
could compute the depth of the springs from the annual variation
of temperature. From these data, we should find that the well
A was fed by springs at the depth of 42 feet, and the well B at
the depth of 30 feet. In fact, however, it is plain that the change
of temperature of these wells is not due to conduction, in the
usual mode in which heat travels along a metallic bar, a solid
rock, or dry earth, for then the maximum temperature could not
occur before mid-winter ; whereas, according to my former article,
(Pp. 316,) the maximum occurs in August or September, and the
minimum in January or February. It seems clear, then, that
this heat must be conveyed downward by the small streams of
water which filter through the soil, and are occasionally found in
considerable veins. These streams start with the temperature of

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 273

the surface, but are gradually robbed of it by the strata through
which they pass. The range of temperature, then, at a given
depth, will depend not merely upon the depth, but upon the time
occupied by the water in its descent.
. But the most perplexing anomaly is the constant difference,
1:5°, in the mean temperature of the two wells. It cannot be as-
cribed to difference of depth, for this is only 7-5 feet, and indeed
the level of the water in A is about 7 feet higher than that in B.
Can it be ascribed to the different depths of their springs? An
increase of temperature of 1:5°, corresponds to a depth of about
60 feet. Admit that the springs of A come from a depth 60 feet
greater thah those of B; much of their heat would be lost in tra-
versing this distance, so that the difference in the temperature of
the wells would be less than 1:5. Moreover, the observed range
of temperature and time of maximum indicate a free communi-
cation with the surface of the earth, which is inconsistent with
' the supposition of its being entirely controlled by springs at a
depth of sixty feet, where the annual variation of temperature is
well nigh extinct. I infer, then, that this well must have a
pretty free communication with springs at a depth of perhaps
- 200 or 300 feet, where the mean temperature is several degrees
above that of the surface; while by means of descending streams
- there is a communication with the surface sufficiently free to
cause an annual variation of temperature above what is due to the
depth of the well. This, then, is a veritable hot-spring, as much
as the hot-springs of Virginia, and its high temperature is to be
ascribed to the same cause

The following table ashibets all the days in which the Sie
mometer has fallen to zero

18%3, February 8, 4 z M. as ae - —05°
“16, 63 A.M - = 17°
“6 3 17, 6 A. M. —7‘8°

In the winters of 1841-2, 1843-4, lk 1844-5, that is, three
Winters out of seven, the thermometer was not observed in any
instance to sink to zero

The following tible eahigie all the days in which the ther-
mometer has risen to

1841, June 8, - - “90° 1843, July 1,. - 91-39
« July.23, - - 93 " ‘’ 17, - 92:4
HM Bhs ow 29 90 6 # 23,4 $k

« Aug. 18, - - 905

274

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

During the summers of 1839, 1840, ’42 and ’43, that is a
summers out of seven, the thermometer did not rise to 90°.
entire range of the thermometer in seven years has been sen
—10-1° to 93°, =103°19.
The following table shows the maximum and minimum tem-
perature of each month for the seven years.

° ° °o ° °
March,|76"1 | 5° 80 | 5-4177-4 |17-5)5
April, |83°5 |2):: 5-0 |25-2183-6 |23-
May, 1/326 [84:5 |26-7}76-8 |33-
June, |87°8 |51° “0 |39-8 90-0 |45:5)83-4 |35-
uly, {92-0 [55° 7 |85°3 |93-0 |53°9187-7 |44-
ug., |90-8 [58° -0 152-0 190-5 |50-2184-6 |45-4)86-4 [53-0
ept., (81-6 (36: 6-9 |33°6 |88°6 |38-6|86-0 |34-4187-8 33:5
t, (74-5 [23 733 |22-4 [73-4 |24-9171-5 |30-7/69-2 (25-0
Nov., |62:8| 8: 75 |20°6 |75:0 | 19:5}68-6 | 6° 145
Dec, |16-6| 5- 21| 93 [566 | 881502 | 5: 120
an., {57-6 |-2° 5:1 |-10-1158°8 | 7-0162-2 | 5- 30
Feb. |621| 1: 2| 0-6 162-4! 8°6153-3 |-7: 30

iS)

BSSIESSS

uo
SS Beas
mH S wD -~VD

1833, 3 3.
Ground last white white with pee epril s 21. arch 9. April 1. |April id. Feb. is. April 9. March 2. tar archi
Plum trees in an May pao oeng “18. |May 15. — 9. [May 8. |April 9. April 25.
Last flakes of s now, +6 OT, 13. e 10.\June 1.|March 30.)M ay 3.
‘ ay 14. |Junes.| “ 8. ve . May 22. 27,
unel6. | “ 16, |June 16. July 2 June 11. pie
First frost, Sept. 3. |Aug. 29. |Sept. 12./Oct. 1.4 * Sept 28. Sept. 23. |Sept. 16.
First severe fros' So wept 4, | Ped J Sept. et. 5. 8. =
Nov, 7. jOct.24.| * 24. [Oct 15.] © 8, / ‘27. |Oct. 21
cae # 26.1. 24. INov. 9. | * 14. 2. ie

_ Ser every Gia in my
t Frost is to have ‘head seen on low grounds earlier than this.

The following table exhibits all the cases in which the ther-
mometer has been 25° above the dew point, all occurring at 3

P. M.

Date.
1841, March 9,
“cc 66

18,
“cc “ce 19,
April = 22,
“May 16,

“Aug. 7,
1842, March 16,
“ “ce ;
29,
1,
a

“ “s

“April
a4 ce .

Ther. above hygrom,
270°

I have also given the interval between each of these dates
and the next subsequent rain.

Rain followed.
in 18 hours.
A days.
3 te
4 ii 4
4 ee
16 hours.
4 days.
3 9

17 hours.
33 “c“

9

“

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 275

Date. Ther. above hygrom. , Rain followed.
1842, May _ 5, 26°9 7 days.
Rn. 16, 27°5 22 hours.
ee ae A 29°5 13.1, %
“« July . 21, 25°4 | 2 days.
ie Feb. 26, 25:7 9 hours.
AarOA te 27°5 } Sad
25, 28:8 3g
* re 3, 25:0 Pe.
“ ‘“ 11, 31-2 45
“ “ 12, 33-9 a
= wane: = 31:2 1 eligs
“Mey. 1 25:6 3 days.
oe 13, 25-5 15 hours
3 7 16, 30°3 5 days
hoa 18, 26:8 F aad
a 19, 28-9 57 hours
« rT 1, 25°7 |
“July 20, 26:9 4 days
ee 6c 96:2 3 tC
1844, April 19, 27°5 Bu
ee ee 8 25°9 oo
= “une, 12, 25°6 16 hours.

as follow

Peruse 1 May, 15 August, 1

March, 13 June, 2 September, 1

April, 18 July, 3 October, 1
Making in all 55 cases, 46 of which have occurred in the spring
of the year.

In 25 out of these 55 cases, rain followed in 24 hours. This
will appear the more remarkable, when it is considered that the
instances in question were often the driest times in the whole
month. If we admit that in some instances there was no con-
hection between the dryness and the subsequent rain, there is
certainly room to suspect such a connection in other cases.
Thus, April 2, 1842, when the air had become drier than at any
' other time during the month, rain followed in nine hours. The
Same happened in February, 1843. In six instances when the
thermometer had risen more than 25° above the dew point, rain

276 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

followed in nine hours. When weconsider that such instances
of dryness occur on an average only eight times in a year, we are
led to infer that the dryness not only does not prevent a speedy
rain, but that it may be the effect of an approaching rain, or may
operate as an efficient cause to produce it. Both of these cases I
conceive to be possible, and may happen in the following manner.
If, as the effect of an approaching storm, distant one or two hun-
dred miles, a strong current is forced from a higher latitude to a
lower, where it is warmer, it will be rendered drier, and moreover
the heat which is given out in the condensation of vapor may
produce an effect at a considerable distance in advance of the
storm.

The dry air may also be an efficient cause of rain in the fol-
lowing way. ‘The prevalent current of the atmosphere over the
United States, is from west to east. So long as the entire mass of
the atmosphere moves on together with uniform velocity in this di-
rection, we seldom ifever have rain. But ifalower stratum stands
still or flows back towards the west, rain is usually the consequence.
Now this reversal of the lower current may be the effect of in-
creased pressure, or increased specific gravity of the air; that is,
an unusually high barometer, an unusually cold or dry air, may
be a cause of rain. ;

The following table exhibits all the cases for two years in
which the thermometer at Greenwich was 25° above the dew
point, with the hours of observation in Géttingen mean time,
which is about 40 minutes in advance of Greenwich.

te. Hygrom. Rain followed;
1841, April 30, 4h. 25-0° in 2 days.
June 4,4 26°8 : Lfis his
*: 46,9 27°5 15 minutes.
1842, April 28, 4 27:0 5 days.
June 6, 2 31-1 zs %
“28, 4 30:1 A2 hours...
July 15,4. ~~ 26:0 ' . 3-days.
Aug. 15, 4. 27°6 Ars; $4
i AB, 4 30°7 22 hours.

Thus it appears that the atmosphere at Greenwich is less dry
than that at Hudson, but it is quite remarkable that in 1841 rain
followed in 15 minutes after the driest time of the whole yeat-

The following are the only instances in which the dew ‘point
at Hudson has risen to 80°, all at 3 p. m.

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 277

1843, July 1, 83-19
“16, 80-0
“17, 81:3

The last of these cases was immediately followed by a thunder
shower

The following are the only instances in which the dew point
has sunk to zero. It should be borne in mind that these obser-
vations are made only at 94.m. and 3 p.m. If they had been
made at sunrise, the list would have been larger.

1843, February 16, 9 a.m. —3:5°
4 17, “ —60
“ a 3 P.M. —1-2
March = 28, 9 a. M. —03

Some individuals whose opinions are entitled to great respect,
have expressed dissatisfaction with Daniell’s hygrometer. ‘The
following objections have been urged against it.

1. That the instrument is not susceptible of sufficient accuracy.

2. That the observation requires considerable time.

3. That it is not always practicable. See this Journal, Vol.
XLV, p. 19.

The first objection has weight in the hands of an unskillful
person. When an excess of ether is used, and sudden cold is
produced, the thermometer does not instantly indicate the cold
generated, and if you note the thermometer at the instant the
ting begins to form, the observation is too high. If there isa
copious deposition of dew, it requires some time for it to be re-
dissolved, and the thermometer meanwhile will rise above the
dew point, so that both observations will be too high, and the
result may be erroneous several degrees. But if we use barely
sufficient ether to produce a visible ring of dew, one observation
will be about as much below the truth as the other is above, and
the mean of the two may be relied upon within a degree.

At one time I found my assistant was habitually getting a very
high dew point, which excited my suspicions, and on examina-
tion I found that the ether had all distilled over into the upper
ball. The bulb of the enclosed thermometer was of course left
entirely insulated. The result was that he got no ring of dew,
and but little depression of the thermometer. The precaution
Should always be observed to expel pe ether into the lower ball

Vol. xurx, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845.

278 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

before each observation. Very little confidence can be placed in
the observations of this instrament made by an unskillful person ;
but with a judicious observer, I think this instrument is as much
to be relied upon as any hygrometer with which I am acquainted.

The second objection is well founded, but is not very serious.
It is rare that the observation requires more than three or four
minutes, and the same objection lies against nearly every direct
method of determining the dew point. When observations are
to be made only a few times in a day, the loss of time is not
great ; but where hourly observations are required, I should pre-
fer Prof. Bache’s hygrometer to any thing else [I have yet seen.
The observation with the wet-bulb hygrometer is very expedi-
tiously made; but this furnishes the dew point only by computa-
tion, and the computation is as laborious as the observation with
Daniell’s hygrometer.

The third objection may be true for some climates, but I
doubt if it be so for any part of the United States. Daniell’s
hygrometer has been observed at Hudson for seven years, every

ay at 3 p.m., and the experiment has never failed. Twelve
times the dew point has been more than 30° below the temperature
of the air, and once the difference amounted to 36°. It is doubt-
ful whether the difference would ever be found much greater for
any part of the United States. In the hands of many observers
the experiment would fail at such times. It can only succeed
with the aid of good ether and dextrous management. Most of
the ether of commerce is unfit for the purpose, and can be used
advantageously only after distillation or washing. With the best
ether I could command, I have sometimes found all the contents
of the lower ball distilled over into the upper, without the depo-
sition of dew. In such a case, I immediately invert the instru-
ment, and drive back the ether into the lower ball, and repeat
the operation before the thermometer has had much time to rise.
Without this precaution the experiment would sometimes have
failed. The wet-bulb hygrometer has a seeming advantage ovet
Daniell’s in this respect that you can easily get an observation.
This is a method well deserving attention, yet its theory can
hardly be considered as sufficiently settled to entitle it to the
same confidence as a direct method of getting the dew point.

In the observation with Daniell’s hygrometer I have often
noticed the following curious fact. As ether is applied, the ther-

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 279

mometer sinks pretty uniformly until it approaches near the dew
point, when it experiences an apparent resistance to further de-
pression, refuses to sink any lower, and perhaps begins to rise ;
butif you add ether sufficient to carry it below this point, it will
probably sink several degrees at a jerk. The explanation I sup-
pose to be the following. As the lower ball is cooled down nearly
to the dew point, precipitation commences, though not’ perhaps
in a visible ring. Heat is liberated which opposes the further
depression of the thermometer, and more ether is required to
counteract this effect. When this obstacle is overcome, the ther-
mometer suddenly sinks several degrees.

It will be observed that the diurnal range of the hygrometer is
very small; less than 2° from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. for the entire
year. On clear nights the thermometer usually sinks to the dew
point of the preceding day, and not much lower, for the liberated
heat from the condensed vapor opposes its further descent. Here
then we have a method of predicting the lowest temperature of
the succeeding night if it-be clear; and this remark may be of
considerable practical utility at times when vegetation is liable to”
be injured by frost. If the hygrometer sinks to 40°, we may
confidently expect frost in a clear and still night, although the
thermometer of the preceding day may have been quite high;
but as long as the hygrometer is high, there is little danger of
frost.

WINDS.

The following table is constructed in the manner described in

my former article, p. 320, and exhibits the results of seven years’
observations.

Months. N = E. = a
“hee 7a oF 04-4) 85: 4 230°

1285) 107-5 200°4| 78
ay, 113°7, 102°6| 91-8) 227-4) 85
¥ ‘ 226: l/s. 81

112 9 :

1227-0 1425°8 92112742718. 85°

Sum of 9 a. m. and 3 Pp. m—

Course.

N. Ss. E. W.
31313 27848 1621:2 5826°5 n. 85° 17 w.

280 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

This result is almost identical with that of the first three years.
The average wind at 9 a.m. is southerly; at 3 p. m. is northerly.
- The average for both hours is northerly. Considering that each
of the individual years furnishes nearly the same result, there
can be little doubt that at Hudson the mean progress of the wind
is from northwest to southeast. If any one should regard this
conclusion as doubtful, it is probable that he would not be satisfied
with any thing short of the record of a self-registering anemo-
meter. I am not aware of more than two instruments of this
kind on this continent which have been observed long enough
to furnish important results. These are at Toronto and Phila-
delphia.. The following is the result of the Toronto observations
for two years.

N. Ss. E. We
184], 1832-6 Ibs. 747-4 Ibs. 957-2 lbs. 1741-4 lbs. w. 35° 51! w.
1842, 2544-4 1293-3 1386:2 2697-4 21

Sum of two years, 4377-0 2040:7 2343-4 4433:8 ny. 41° 53! w.

~The northerly motion is here so predominant as to leave no

doubt of the average progress of the wind. We shall look with
interest for the publication of the Philadelphia observations.

CLOUDS.

The following table exhibits the progress of the clouds, each

observation being resolved in the direction of the cardinal points.

he table contains the sum of the observations for seven years.

Months. | a
ei ES pe N. . | Cours
March, 43-4] 336 38-0) 31-7] 15-1, 110-8\w. 86° 13’ w.
pril, 35:1] 39°9 39-6) 38:1) 10-6, -4| 89
ay, 332| 37:3 33:3] 41-4} 15-5 115°9)s. 85 24
June, 50-0) 49-4 40°5| 48-0} 13-1) 134-5} 86 30
uly, 5°6| 36-1) 58:1] 466 132, 13381N. 84 31
ugust, 64-8 45-4 60°6| 60°0| 30:2 113-2} 89 37
September, 47:3) 36-0 42°8| 46:8] 21-6 105°3\s. 87 17
ctober, 487) 49°38 47°4| 40-1) 88 127:2\n. 86
ovember, 40-6 54:1 39:1) 57-0) 13-4) 125-9is. 80
December, 40-8) 48-2 40°9| 50-4) 15-5 1276] 85 9
nuary, 36.3) 57-8) 33°8| 63.4| 109 136° 44
ebruary, | 83:9] 43.1) 8° 33:1] 448} 5-7 129°5|_ 84 36 __

The mean result derived from seven years’ observations does
not differ half a degree from the result of the first three years.

The following table exhibits the proportion of the different
varieties of clouds, the number under each month being the sum
of the observations for seven years.

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 281

9 a. M. 3 P.M.

S| 2] 8 |Ssloel FES | 8 | F155 Ss [5s

March, 19} 10 76) 8 23] 32) 17) 27] 64| 16, 12) 39
April, 12 23, 59 9} 28] 31| 14 32! 45] 11! 17] 61
May, 10} 24 388 22) 52) 6 40| 24) 13) 28) 61
June, 4| 37, 42) 17| 26| 33| 18 67] 29] 14' 21! 40
July, 23| 55, 30) 21) 20| 26] 15 93] 23) 16 20| 31
gust, 5| 58 37| 22 20) 231 12100] 31\ 25 6 32
September, 22| 31) 43} 8 23) 35) 7| 56) 30) 14) 15) 53
October, 6| 22 61| 16, 25| 421 25 35 64) 7| 20) 33
November, 0| 14 93) 4) 21] 47] 10. 19) 83) 13) 22) 48
December, 6| 4129) 3) 21] 39] 5| 4/115) 5 23) 48
January, 5, 6106} 7 32| 39] 6 11) 93\ 10 30 48
February, 12| 5. 78) 12| 31) 38] 15 181 71] 10) 26) 38

The following table-exhibits the clouds of the seven years
arranged by seasons.

>
&

Sum of both peas.
eee eo :

eis Cirrus.

woe

The cuimsabee | is the prevalent cloud of summer, the stratus is
most common throughout the remainder of the

The following table exhibits the average cloudiness of the dif-
ferent months, according to seven years’ observations. 0 repre-
Sents a sky perfectly clear, 10 entirely overcast. For compari-
son I have added the results of three years’ observations at
Cambridge, and two years’ at Greenwich.

Hadson. Cambridge. Greenwich.

Months. 9A.M.)DP.M. [Sunrise] 9A.M.| 3P.M.| 9PM. [9 a.m | 3P. M.
March, 6:8 | 66 56 | 66 | 59] 6-4 | 65
April, 55|59158 159 | 56 | 57) 65 | 5-4
y; 59166153 | 55) 59 | 62160 | 66
June, 57159152 | 46) 57) 560) 62) 60
July, 49153| 44142) 42/36 |73)| 76
August, 52158163 )63|57| 55) 61) 55
September, 52|56|53 | 51) 51) 44) 68 | 65
er, 6-1|62]143 | 45) 50) 39) 66) 7-4
November, 77177147 | 51) 56) 451 8-0) 71
potter, 86 | 84163 | 64) 67) 59) 71) 71
January, 77177149 | 56|54| 4417-71 72
February, 74171150] 54] 54) 56] 86} 71

282 Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio.

The following table exhibits the same observations arranged
by seasons.

Hudson. Cambridge. Greenwich.

Renaoes. Sa.M.| OP.M. [Sunrise,| 9a.M. | 3P.M. )9P.M. J 9A.M. [9PM

Spring, 60 | 64154 | 57 | 60 | 56 | 63 | 62

Summer, 53157153 | 50| 5214-7] 6:5 | 64

Autumn, 63/65148 | 49 | 52) 43] 7-1 | 70
Winter, 79| 78154 | 68 | 58 | 53] 7-8 | 71

Year, 64|66152|54|56/50|69 | 67

We perceive that the cloudiness of Hudson is much greater
than that of Hanover or Cambridge, at every season of the year.
It is greater than that of Greenwich in winter, and is but slightly
inferior for the remainder of the year.

From Dec. 14, 1839, to Jan. 15, 1840, a period of 33 days,
the sky was not free from clouds in a single instance at a regular
hour of observation. From Aug. 10, 1844, to Sept. 14, a period
of 36 days, the same was true; and from July 27 to Sept. 14, a
period of 50 days, the sky was cloudless but once at a regular
hour of observation. From Nov. 23, 1841, to Dec. 31, a period of
39 days, the sky was never cloudless ; and from Oct. 29 to Dec.
31, a period of 64 days, the sky was cloudless but once ata
regular hour of observation, and during this period, the obscura-
tion was generally total. It will be remembered that the sky
is called cloudless, when the clouds cover less than one tenth
of the visible heavens. Of all the places with which I am ac-
quainted, Hudson is during the winter months the most cloudy.

RAIN.
- The following table shows the amount of rain for each month

of four years, and the average for seven years. The numbers
for 9 a. m. show the amount fallen since the preceding 3 P.

ma a ] Ma eS

LEE p.m. |9 + 3PM

“170, 8Sli| 1-090, 1-307

464) 3-447} -354| -91

1 3
ag

Average 7 yer
3

Meteorological Observations at Hudson, Ohio. 283

The following table shows the average fall of rain for the dif-
ferent seasons.

9 A.M. 3P.™,. Sum.
Spring, 6:395 1:924 8319
Summer, 8-010 2°894 10-904
Autumn, 5°324 2078 7:402
Winter, 4:485 1-669 6°154

The following table shows the amount of snow in inches for
each month of the seven years.

Months. 1838.29 1]R830_49 11840. 4]. 1841-42. 1842-43. 1843-44 1844-45, Mean.
October, 0°5 | 2:5 25 | 10° | 2-7
November, 75 | 9 | B+ [11-8 | 13> | 5 1: | 7-1
December, 5-5 j12: . (16° |.9° 7-5) 25 | 9 1.88
January, &: 4-8) POL oo, iB|. OO 1.2) Ob
February, 85 | 15) b |.35| 17-5 7-5 | 8-5) 7-4

arch, A: | 3: {145 6° | 65 | 26° | 8-6
April, 4: 0°5 7 tS
Year, 34- B37 [52:5 132° | 49:529-6 | 62°5/42-4

March 7, 1841, seven inches of snow lay on the ground ; March
13, 6:5 inches of new snow fell, and during the two or three sub-
Sequent days there was a slight increase, making thirteen inches
on the ground at one time, the greatest depth I have ever seen in
Hudson. It is said to have been the deepest snow known since
Feb. 1818, when it was about twenty inches on a level. In
Dec. 1811, the snow is said to have fallen two feet deep.

The following are all the instances in which an inch of rain has
fallen in 24 hours.

Date. Amount. Time. mount. T
1842, Feb. 4, 1:564 18 pour Hess, “Tave 5, et 940 12 aare,
“March 5, 1°112 20 1d, 3944 i. ©

“ July 9, 1153 24 « | « pon 17, 1095 5 «
GES ge OS ag YS a Ne ne aes
“ «@ « 1649 20 “| “ Sept. 14, 1079 15 «

B 22et. 60, 1085 18 *

* Of this quantity, ‘935 inch fell in about fifteen minutes.

981 On the Physical Geology of the United States, 6c.

Arr. V.—On the Physical Geology of the United States east
of the Rocky Mountains, and on some of the Causes affecting
the Sedimentary Formations of the Harth; by Wiu1am W.
Marner, Professor of Natural Sciences in the Ohio University,
Athens, Ohio.

(Continued from page 20 of this volume.)

Part II. On the Causes of Elevation of the Sedimentary Rocks above
the Level of the Sea.

In the first part of this paper, I have treated very concisely of
the effects that would flow from the refrigeration of the earth as
a heated body, and the influence of the rays of the sun in produ-
cing, maintaining and occasionally modifying the great equilibra-
ting currents of the ocean, that, by their long continued action,
have caused the transport and deposition of the materials of the
sedimentary rocks of the United States.

It is now purposed to treat of the causes by which these rocks
may have been raised above the level of the sea.

The sedimentary rocks are generally found to contain an abun-
dance of the remains of marine animals, so perfect, that we feel
constrained to infer that they must have lived and died and been
buried where we now find them. Those rocks, often of great
thickness, cover extensive areas of the earth’s surface, and must at
some time have been the bed of the sea. Here the animals whose
remains we find once lived, and their relics were buried beneath
oceanic deposits, each of which was successively the bottom of
the ocean. The relative levels of the continents and of the
ocean must have changed, and one of two conclusions follows,
viz. the ocean must have sunk below its former level and exposed
the land, or the continents have been raised and made to emerge
from the ocean.

It is not probable that there is less water on the surface of the
earth at present than at any preceding time ; for we know of no
cause by which it could have disappeared, except by decompo-
sition and its elements combining with other bodies ; and there
is no body or class of bodies known that contains hydrogen sufli-
cient in quantity, if converted into water, to cause an increased
elevation of level of one foot, or even one inch, over the ocean.
Hence we infer that the relative variations of the level of the
ocean is not due to the disappearance of water.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 285

The ocean being a fluid, maintains its equilibrium and retains
its level, and we have no alternative but to admit, that the solid
ground has been elevated above its former level, and also that
the surface of the earth has not all the stability that is usually as-
signed to it.

These conclusions are conformable to observations during the
historical epoch, and also to the philosophical deductions from
known dynamical causes, and from the facts observed among the
solid strata of the globe.*

Various causes have been assigned for the elevation of land
above the level of the sea, beneath which it was once buried, as
follows, viz.

Ist. Volcanic agency, by the aid of highly elastic steam and

ases.
2d. Unequal contraction of water and land by a diminution of
the mean temperature of the earth.

3d. An undulatory action of the fluid interior of the earth, com-
bined with a lateral tangential force.

Ath. The contraction of the earth by secular refrigeration, and
the solid exterior collapsing upon the fluid interior, and being too
large to embrace it closely, causes plications and bending of the
strata, depressing some parts below the general level, and eleva-
ting others by lateral thrust.

The first of these causes, viz. that of volcanic action, may be
considered as one of the effects of a more general cause, and to
which the elevatory movements may also, independently, be as-
cribed.

The second, viz. that of unequal contraction of land and water
by a diminished mean temperature of the earth, may be supposed
to have a different result from that intended to be explained; be-
cause, though water contracts more than solids for equal diminu-
tions of temperature, yet the thickness of the solid part of the

* The coast of Sweden is gradually rising above the level of the sea; that of
Greenland is gradually sinking; the coast of Chili was suddenly elevated during
an earthquake in 1822; the repeated elevation and subsidence of the Temple of
Serapis, on the shore of the Mediterranean, are all considered well authenticated

Vol. xx1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 37

286 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

globe may be supposed so much greater than the mean depth of
the ocean, that the contraction of the solids would be greater than
that of the water, so as to produce the effect of a rise of water
with reference to the land. And again, for another reason, viz.
the diminution of the temperature of the land and water inde-
pendently of the consideration of the relative masses, through
the whole range of temperature from boiling to freezing water,
would be entirely inadequate to account for the apparent diminu-
tion in the level of the ocean, even if its mean depth was much
greater than it is.

The third cause, viz. that of an undulatory motion of the fluid
interior of the earth, combined with a lateral tangential force,*
harmonizes with many of the facts that have been observed. It
will be discussed in another place.

The fourth cause, viz. that of the secular seleiduintienk of the
globe, is that usually adopted, and it seems to accord and harmo-
nize with the facts known.

The numerous investigations on the temperature of the earth
at the various depths to which man has penetrated by mining,
and by boring for salt wells and Artesian springs in different
countries, have established the fact, that the earth becomes
warmer as the depth increases, at the rate of one degree of Fah-
renheit’s thermometer for forty-five to sixty-five feet in depth.
If the temperature increases in the same proportion toward the
centre of the earth,} the rocks at no great distance below the sur-
face would be in a melted state.

The form of the earth is also found to be such as would be the
form of equilibrium of a fluid body revolving with the velocity wf
the earth.

The varied mathematical researches of Otieilinn, Fourier, Pois-
son and Svanberg upon the refrigeration of heated bodies, the
temperature of the earth and of space, tend to show that the earth
is in a cooling state, and that it radiates into space more caloric
than it receives from the sun, although it has reached what may
be called an asymptotic condition. j

M. Fourier has shown that the radiation of the earth must have
been such in times past as to reduce the temperature of the exte-

* Vide Prof. Rogers’s paper, Transactions of the Association of American Geol-
ogists and Naturalists , Vol

t It really i increases more pile at increased Gayle.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 287

rior more rapidly than the interior, and that this external diminu-
tion has nearly reached its limit, so that the caloric radiated by the
earth exceeds that derived from the sun and from space by a
quantity sufficient to melt about three metres in depth (about ten
feet) in one hundred years.* This diminution of temperature
would progress-most rapidly in a decreasing ratio up to a certain
limit, after which the internal temperature would begin to dimin-
ish most rapidly, while the exterior remained nearly uniform.

Three reasons may be adduced why the interior should di-
minish more in temperature after the above-mentioned limit is
passed, viz.

Ist. The more imperfect conducting power of the solid exte-
rior, than the carrying power of the fluid interior.

2d. The solid exterior having parted with a portion of its ca-
loric, serves to conduct merely the excess of interior heat to the
exterior, whence it radiates into space ; and this quantity radiated
and conducted is nearly uniform, and maintains a temperature
nearly uniform in the exterior crust of the globe, while the inte-
rior may undergo great variations.

. 3d. .The surface from which the radiation takes place, is greater
than the surface of any contained spherical mass from which it
draws its caloric for radiation.

. The earth is in a state of nearly uniform exterior temperature
so far as internal heat is concerned, and while the exterior solid
part of the earth undergoes little change in its bulk from loss of
temperature, the interior is gradually diminishing, causing col-
lapse of the solid exterior upon the fluid interior; and in conse-
quence of this solid part being too large to embrace the nucleus
closely, elevation of islands, mountains and continents in some
parts, and subsidence to a still greater extent in other parts, would
Seem to be the necessary consequences,

In the other case, where the crust or exterior solid part celal
and shrunk most rapidly, it may reasonably be supposed to have
cracked open in fissures, and the subjacent fluid to have risen in
the fissures to a height inversely proportioned to its density, as
Water does in the cracks of ice. This supposition, which seems
a necessary result from the known laws of nature, harmonizes

* Baron Fourier, Annales de Chimie et de Physique; also a eae - .
& part of the above memoir in the American Journal of Science, Vol.
pp. 1-19.

288 On the Physical Geology of the United States, Src.

with the abundance of trappean and other unstratified rocks, the
quartz and other veins, and their effects in producing metamor-
phic changes on the adjacent masses, during the epochs of the
earlier fossiliferous deposits.

e may admit that the earth is in the state of a cooling body,
far warmer in its mean temperature on its surface than the re-
gions of space in which it moves around the sun, although long,
very long periods of time make no appreciable difference in its
mean temperature.

If the earth be a cooling body, it must have diminished in
volume, in obedience to the law that bodies contract by diminished
temperature, and expand by heat.

If the earth has diminished in volume, it has increased in its
velocity of rotation, (in obedience to a well known dynamical
law.) ‘This would tend to shorten the length of the day, and it
has been shown by La Place, that for two thousand years at least
the length of the day, or of a revolution of the earth on its axis,
has not varied ;1, of a centesimal second.t+

It might here be said that this is sufficient evidence that the
earth has not contracted, and that no geological effects have been
produced, dependent on such a cause.

It may be said in answer :

- Ist. The rate of cooling and consequent contraction is extreme-
ly slow, and long periods would be required to make it manifest.

. The effects of the contraction in the production of currents
in the ocean, and the sedimentary deposits from them, and the
effects on the rocks themselves, lead to the conclusion that the
changes of volume were parorysmal rather than secular; that
a gradually accumulating tension was finally overcome by 4
sudden yielding of the solid strata, producing earthquakes and un-
dulations of the surface, an increased velocity of rotation on the
earth’s axis, an increased flow of the equilibrating currents of

* The Baron Fourier has given the following as the law of the diminishing tem-
perature of the earth. The diminution is equal to the present mean temperature
divided by double the number of centuries since the cooling process commenced.
He concludes that since the time of the Greek school at Alexandria, the mean
temperature has not varied from loss - radiant heat z3y° of the Centigrade (30
Fahrenheit’s) thermometer.—4m. Jour. Sci. Vol. XXXII,

t This conclusion was deduced by ceiehie ieclewasde the times of eclipses
a vii registered in Ptolemy’s Almagest, and observed in the time of Hip-

us

A

On the Physical Greology of the United States, §c. 289

the ocean in consequence of the inertia and increased centrifugal
force, requiring an increased protuberance in the spheroidal form
of the earth to restore the form of equilibrium to the revolving
spheroid.

The changes in the times of rotation of the earth being sup-
posed paroxysmal, occurring at particular periods of time, and
none of these having occurred during the historical epoch, (unless
the time of the deluge was one of them,) the argument from t
fact that the length of the day has not varied for two thousand
years loses all its force, and cannot be adduced in opposition to
the views here advocated.

3d. It is well known that the angular velocities of a revolving
spherical body under varied diameters, are inversely proportioned
to the squares of the radii,* so that if the earth be a cooling body,

e M. Poisson’s Mecanique, second edition, Tome II, p. 460, and Ameri-
can Seamed of Science, rau ZLYIy Be one 346.

Ib 1 NI f 1

Th},
auc we y elocity

, (Young's pd coal American pa p- 193,) which is equal to

o> ¢ ae )
the moment of applied force divided by the moment of inertia. {(mr2)=mk2,
(Young’s Mechanics, Am. ed., p. 190,) in which k represents the radius of gyra-

tion, and m the mass of the revolving body. By substitution o= a In the re-

volving sphere with a variable radius, the quantity of matter remaining constant
1

2=— —7r2..-, seree
ia" In the sphere k gre. a0

or the angular velocities vary inversely as the squares

M=m, and as R and v are constants, © —
1 28
w! w.@: Ua . Ste
and 0 5 w fees

of the radii.
If the variable density due to variable volume be considered, the law of the an-
gular velocities bgt potent as the squares of the radii still holds true; for, in

the sphere mk2 = fers * ora when the density is unity. When the density is

my. Calling D’ the

2
D, the moment of inertia is =D arexere and «=
D

, MRo
density in the second place and r! the corresponding radius w’ = —T hence

1y¢ 4!
D'x i’ 5

apes Re is ih being constant, the densiti i ly proportioned

T
; V_egis

to their volumes, or a Substituting this value, we obtain — a yx = —,and

by substituting for V and V! their values in terms of the radii, we obtain — _= a

x pe ae L@ sols 5 a (This last demonstration was communicated S
T

hind Roberts, silat Professor of Natural Philosophy, West Point, N. Y.)

290 On the Physical Geology of the United States, Sc.

and if it has diminished in volume, it must have increased in its
velocity of rotation, and produced greater velocities in the great
equilibrating currents of the ocean.

M. Pontecoulant, after going into an analytical investigation of
the disturbing action of the sun, moon and planets upon the earth,
deduces the conclusion that the action of those bodies upon the
terrestrial spheroid will never produce any appreciable displace-
ment in the position of its poles on its surface, nor any sensible
variation in the quickness and uniformity of its motion of diurnal
rotation, which, he remarks, are important results and insure for-
ever the stability of terrestrial latitudes, and invariability in the
length of the day.*

The equation of the mean day} reduced to time, estimating the
circumference as equal to one day, amounts to a period of only a
few minutes in several millions of years, and it is unnecessary
for astronomers, says La Place, to notice it.t

M. Poisson in his Mechanics, speaking of the diminution of the
volume of the earth and of the shortening of the day, says, “A
diminution due to this cause of one ten millionth part of a day,
would suppose a decrease of one twenty millionth part of the length
of the radius; and as we are certain that the day has not experi-
enced this diminution for twenty-five hundred years, it follows that
the mean radius of the earth has not varied three metres during
this long interval of time by the effect of cooling, if the mean tem-
perature of the earth has not yet arrived at a permanent state.’”’$

So far as I have ascertained, philosophers have not considered
the effect of centrifugal force, by an increased velocity of rotation
of the earth. In an article in the American Journal of Science,
Vol. xivi, pp. 344-346, on the possible variation in the length of
the day, I suggested that there might be compensating forces
that would tend to maintain the time of rotation uniform, and
the day unchanged in length, even if the earth be undergoing @
slight change in its dimensions, either secularly or paroxysmally.

* Pontecoulant, Théorie Analytique du Systéme du Monde, T. II, p. 224.

Likes formula for calculating this is given by La Place, and the value above
! ioned, when calculated approximatively by a method indicated in the Mecan-
ique ‘oda yt translation, Vol. II, pp. 855 and 867, 3152 6 to f,) gives
a variation of about one centesimal second in a thousand years.

# Mecanique Celeste, translated by Bowditch, Vol. II, p. 867.

§ Poisson’s Mecanique, T. II, 460.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §*c. 291

The centrifugal force is one of these compensating causes. It
varies inversely as the cubes of the radii* of a sphere whose vol-
ume varies while its mass remains constant, but the angular ve-
locities vary inversely as the squares of the radii; hence, if the
earth should contract in volume, the velocity of rotation would
necessarily increase in obedience to the law of conservation of
areas ; but the centrifugal force would be increased in a still
higher ratio, and would cause a flow of water from the polar to-
wards the equatorial regions to give the form of the spheroid of
equilibrium, and would thus ‘tend to diminish the increase of
velocity due to contraction.

It necessarily follows from what precedes, that the argument
in reference to the day having remained uniform for twenty five
hundred years, has not as much weight as has been assigned to
it, and ought not to be adduced as demonstrating that the earth
is not in the state of acooling body, or that it has not diminished
in volume, or that no geological effects can be ascribed to this
cause.

Even if it be admitted that the uniformity in the length of the
day for twenty five hundred years should have weight and ren-
der it improbable that there has been any contradiction during
that time, and if in addition we discard even the compensating
effect of increased centrifugal force in tending to maintain uni-
formity in the length of the day ; yet the period of twenty five
hundred years may be considered as only the differential of the
long periods of past duration, during which the geological effente
we have contemplated were produced.

Still another argument may be adduced, viz. that the variations
in the rapidity of rotation took place paroxysmally, at certain pe-
tiods, generally at long intervals of time, and that none of these
variations have occurred during the historical epoch, unless the
time of the deluge was one of them.

= oy
#6 a
Soe = but F: Fis: 2:5 Fi FY: agi: Gig: Hence
:7r2:7'2
the centrifugal forces represented is F and F’ vary inversely as the cubes of the

radii, and the increment of centrifugal force F —F’ =F": would tend con-

(r3-r'3)
a) a
tinually to diminish » by increasing 7, and thereby tend to make ¢ (which repre-
sents the time of rotation) constant. —(Communicated by Prof. A. Ryors, of the
Ohio University.)

292 On the Physical Geology of the United States, &c.

The evidences that the periods of variation in the angular ve-
locity of the earth were paroxysmal are threefold, viz.

1st. The strata of sedimentary rocks show alternations of strata,
entirely different in composition and texture, lying directly con-
tiguous upon each other, with no intermediate blending of their
materials ; as for example, a bed of fine slate or of limestone,
which must have been formed in nearly tranquil water, is imme-
diately succeeded by a coarse sandstone or aconglomerate, which
- must have required a strong current to transport its fragments,
and currents of variable velocities would be a necessary result of
paroxysmal changes in the volume of the earth.

2d. Local examples have been observed where the strata that
had been formed up to a certain period, (as, for example, that of
the Helderberg limestone,) have been broken up and turned on
their edges over a large area; and succeeding this, a period of
repose supervened, during which rocks were deposited in nearly
horizontal strata unconformably on the upturned edges of those
in the disturbed district, while the same strata were deposited
conformably in the adjoining undisturbed districts, with no rocks
of intermediate age intervening. In both cases the rocks are of
the same kinds, have the same characters, and contain the same
fossils. ;e a
3d. The folded axes of the mountain chains of the eastern
parts of the Uuited States, in which the strata have been eleva-
ted in wrinkles and folds, all of which, when elevated at a high
angle, have fallen over in a westward direction, giving an east-
wardly dip. Paroxysmal elevation and the action of inertia, of-
fer a satisfactory explanation of the folded axes and eastwardly
dip. Had the elevation been secular, like that of the coast of
Sweden, (where it has been perceptible only in a long course of
years until in 1843, when there was a sudden though moderate
elevation,) the difference in the linear velocities at the different
distances to which the masses were elevated in the course of ages,
would be too small to cause the inertia to produce any sensible
effects ; but in the other case, suppose the sudden elevation of a
mountain mass one mile in height, or more distant from the axis
of rotation than it was before its elevation. It would still retain
the linear velocity it had when a mile nearer the axis of rotation,
while the proper linear velocity at this increased distance would

3141
be 24 miles, or 694 feet greater per hour, than that which it

_ On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 293

had before its elevation. Inertia, therefore, would cause the mass
at the top, to press to the westward with a force. proportional to
its mass, and the above mentioned velocity, and at intermediate
heights with a proportionably less momentum. If the strata be
capable of yielding, they must, when elevated in highly curved
wrinkles, tend to fall over to the westward, as a consequence of
the influence of inertia and the revolution af the earth from

to E. on its axis.

We have reason to believe, both from the action of natural
laws and from observation, that the aggregate amount of subsi-
dence, or of contraction of the mass of the earth, at least equals,
if it does not exceed the amount of elevation above former water
levels. 'The evidences above adduced of variable currents de-
positing strata of various textures and composition ; of conform-
able and unconformable strata of the same ages; and the influ-
ence of inertia and the rotation of the earth producing the fold-
ed axes with an eastwardly dip, all tend to render it more than
probable, that the secondary causes of the phenomena were parox-
ysmal rather than secular, and that they occurred at distant in-
tervals of time, with long periods of comparative repose.

It has already been remarked, there are no evidences known,
that there has been more water upon the surface of the earth at
any preceding time than at present.* It follows from the various
facts known, that the relative levels of the land and water have
changed and the land must have been elevated, or the bed of the
ocean must have sunk, or that both these effects have been more
or less extensively produced. toe$

The only causes to which we can ascribe such relative chan-
ges of level that have not yet been considered, are.

Ist. Some subterranean force tending to ara parts of the
earth’s surface. :

2d. The collapse of the crust of the globe by a secular refrige-
ration upon its contracted nucleus, causing depression In some parts
and elevation in others.t The powerful lateral thrust, that would
be caused by a subsidence of the solidified crust upon a contracted
nucleus which it is too’large to envelope closely, would cause
an elevation of some parts, with wrinkles and plications of the
strata, and may be supposed to be amply sufficient to elevate

* See p. 284, ante. t See p. 287.
Vol. xx1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 38

294 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

mountains, mountain chains and continents, and produce all the
phenomena of contortion, wrinkling, folding and crushing of the
strata, that are so strikingly exhibited in the eastern parts of the
United States.

That both the causes above stated have acted in times past,
and will continue in time to come, can scarcely be doubted.
The phenomena of both these causes necessarily follow from the
refrigeration of the globe. Subsidence of parts of the earth’s crust
may, and probably have caused extensive elevation of others;
but we know of no other cause that could produce this effect,
except the fractured crust permitting water to penetrate to the
heated interior of the earth, to generate steam sufficient in ten-
sion and quantity to effect the results observed ; and we know
not how the crust could be fractured except by coptenatien and
by collapse upon the contracted nucleus.

at some portions of the crust of the globe have been suc-
cessively elevated and depressed, is beyond all doubt. Numer-
ous instances have been observed during the historical epoch,* but
the geological evidences of similar facts on a large scale, are as
strong as if they had come under the direct observation of man.

That the elevation of one part was accompanied in times past
by depression in others is probable theoretically, and we know
that such facts have occurred paroxysmally during the historical
era, asin the case of the Ullah Bund. Similar effects are now in
progress secularly, as the coast of Sweden, which is gradually
rising, and has been for a long period; the coast of Greenland,

* A few examples may be adduced for illustration.

Ist. An ear in the Misdasrpy, and a large extent of the swamp near New
Madrid, sunk he year 1811. The Mississippi wet over the
ne site of the island, and the sunken portion of the swamp is now a lake.

- In the year 1819, a tract of land of about two thousand square ie near the
ona of the Indus at Sindrea sunk below the level of the sea, and an adjoining
tract i miles long, called the Ullah Bund, was raised about ten feet above its
former le

3d. In a year 1692, the town of Port Royal in Jamaica sunk during an earth-
quake. The ships in the harbor floated from their anchorage and drifted over the
site of the town, which remains permanently submerged. The part of the town
where ee quay was located sunk several hundred feet.

4th. In 1638, iy sige of Euphemia in Calabria sunk during an earthquake.
A se occupies its
5th. The coast i 3 Chili in South America was elevated suddenly during an

earthquake i in 1822, over an extent of two hundred miles in length an
fifty miles in breadth into the interior. At one place some distance back from the

&

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 295

which is stated to be gradually sinking ; a large area in the Pa-
cific which is reported to be gradually sinking. The evidences-
of subsidence are not as easily obtained as those of elevation,
because we must look for them beneath the level of the sea.

Still another cause of variation in the relative levels of land
and sea may be adduced, though it may have had little real in-
fluence in the production of the effects observed. Any diminu-
tion in the volume of the earth resulting from secular refrigera-
tion of the globe, would increase the velocity of rotation on its
axis, and increase the centrifugal force in a higher ratio than the
- angular velocity. Any such increase would tend to draw off wa-
ter from the polar regions to increase the oblateness of the sphe-
roidal form of the earth necessary to give the form of equilibrium
under these new conditions; and if the crust of the earth be too
rigid to yield to the same force, land that was before buried be-
neath the polar seas would emerge above their level ; and dry land
would be submerged in the equatorial regions.

If on the other hand the solid materials forming the crust of
the globe be not too rigid to yield to this force,* the effects of the
centrifugal force cannot be allowed to have had so great an influ-
ye in the relative levels of land and water as would be due to the

case, in which the crust of the globe was supposed to be
rigid and unyielding.
Another point bearing upon the elevation of land may be con-
sidered in this place.

coast, the surface was raised forty or fifty feet, so that a stream was made to flow
in an opposite direction

6th. The repeated elevation and ee isis of the coast of the Mediterranean
around the Temple of Serapis is considered as an established fact.

7th. In 1843, there was a sudden elevation of the coast of Sweden. It was

plained except by the elevation of the land. During t
the Baltic were observed to be sinking, and on the 4th of May, 1843, a sudden
change of level occurred, so that the steamer that was to have left the port of Trave-
munde on the 18th, was detained until the 2ist. Shoals and rocks never before
known, made their appearance on the 8. W. coast of Sweden, near the Maelstrom,
in 1843. (Am. Journal of Science, Vol. xuvi, p. 184-1

“It may be inferred that they are not too ip bupieiding to be influenced by this
force in consequence of the agp age and foldings of the strata that
have been observed on so many parts of the earth, which have been produced by
other forces more —eag yet ia may be snppoved sufficient to bend the erust

of the globe graduall

296 On the Physical Geology of the United States, Sc.

It has been shown that the centrifugal forces vary inversely
as the cubes of the radii. It is also well known that bodies of
different densities are affected by the centrifugal force in proportion
to their densities. As the solid materials of the globe are more
dense than water, they would be more influenced by variations in
the centrifugal force in proportion to their specific gravities ; and
as the centrifugal force is greatest under the equator, any diffused
subterranean forces that may exist, and that tend to elevate por-
tions of the earth’s surface by their elastic tension, would be most
effective under the equator, where gravity is less, and the cen-
trifugal force greater than on any other portion of the earth’s
surface.

May not this cause have had some influence in producing the
heights of mountains under the equator? It is well known that
the highest are within or near the tropics, and that most of the
highest in Africa and South America are almost under the equator.

Again, the influence of an increased velocity of rotation of the

earth, would tend to make the polar regions flatten, and the equa-
torial regions become still more protuberant. Lines of fracture
might be expected in the direction of small circles parallel to the
equator, at a distance intermediate between the poles and the
equator, where the curvature resulting from such a ince of esa
would be the greatest.*

Ranges of mountains mostly of primary rocks, do, in fact, al
most encircle the globe between 40° and 50° of north latitude,
and in North America the strike is, in many parts, nearly E. and W.
The great fractures seem to have been made nearly in this di-
rection, even where the strike is different. The highest peaks
of the Rocky Mountains, so far as is known, are in about 40° of
north latitude; those of northeast New York and the White
Mountains of New Hampshire about 44°; the ranges of the
Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, and the Carpathian Moun-
tains in Europe are between 40° and 5 50°; the Caucasus Moun-
tains, the Taurus Mountains, the iindes Koo Mountains, and
the Thian Chan Mountains in Asia, are among the most elevated
on the globe and are found between 35° and 45° north latitude,
and have a trend nearly E. and W.

* Other fractures in the directions of meridians might be expected if the oth
increased in its equatorial diameter.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 297

In the southern hemisphere we do not find indications of such
extensive upheaving action in the same parallels of latitude.
The southern coast of New Holland, New Zealand, the Vulcan
Mountains in South America, the Snow Mountains near the Cape
of Good Hope, and a few islands lying between 30° and 50°
south latitude, might be adduced as affording some degree of ac-
cordance with what has been noticed in the northern hemisphere.

Any considerable increase in the velocity of rotation of the
globe on its axis, would first tend to bury the equatorial regions
beneath the ocean, in consequence of the water obeying imme-
diately the impulse of centrifugal force ; while the crust of the
globe, if not too rigid, would gradually yield to the influence of
the same force until the form of equilibrium due to the new con-
ditions should be restored. The flattening of the polar regions
and the increased equatorial diameter would tend to make the
Strata press towards the equator and produce not only fractures at
intermediate points as before alluded to, but also to elevate them
along the lines of fracture above the level of the sea.

The elevation of islands, mountain chains, and continents, and
subsidence of other parts beneath the level of the sea, seem to be
the necessary and legitimate consequences of the secular refrig-
eration of the earth.

Profs. Rogers in April, 1840, stated to the Association of Ame-
rican Geologists, as one of the results of their labors in Pennsyl-
vania and Virginia, that the mountain region of those states con-
tained numerous examples of folded stratification in which the
Strata had been arched, and finally folded over in one direction.
The under part of each fold had its strata reversed in relative
position from that in which they were formed, and also reversed
in superposition when compared with the upper part of the folded
mass. This almost surpasses credibility, but it has been found
to be very generally true in the most disturbed parts of the prin-
cipal axis from Carolina to Vermont, and is now admitted, I be-
lieve, by all who have investigated the facts.

These folded and reversed strata all dip to the E. S. E. and
S.E., usually at high angles. This fact of the strata dipping to
the eastward, and apparently pitching under the primary rocks

was long a stumbling block, and led to various mistakes in the ~

relative ages of the sedimentary rocks. ‘The broken up, crushed
and folded strata, were supposed to be far older than the same
rocks which were undisturbed.

298 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

Profs. Wm. B. and H. D. Rogers in their paper on the physical
structure of the Apalachian chain of mountains* ascribe the
elevation of that chain to an undulation of the fluid interior of
the earth, combined with a lateral tangential force.

e whole range of mountainous country from Alabama
through Tennessee, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jer-
sey, New. York, and thence to Canada, has evidently been subject
to an elevatory action, combined with a lateral or tangential force,
that has elevated, broken, crushed, and plicated the strata, and in
many places has folded them over, and reversed rocky strata of
great thickness that were formerly horizontal rocks and formed
beneath the ocean. Farther west, the plications and undulations
become more and more gentle, until their angles of inclination
become insensible to the eye

On the east of the axis of principal disturbance, the primary
and metamorphic rocks are also much broken and disturbed, and
many of the sedimentary strata along the lines of disturbance
have been much altered and modified in their aspect, structure,
and mineral characters, by masses and veins of intrusive rocks.

Their explanation of the tangential force that has acted over
so great an extent in the eastern parts of the United States is in-
genious.t If it be true, the tangential force must have acted in
every direction from that part of the earth’s surface where the
oscillations began, in the directions of the arcs of great circles
radiating from an axis passing through the origin of the disturb-
ance. The “ axis planes” also of the folded strata, will be found
to dip inwards towards the same axis; and the crests of the fold-
ed strata will all point outwards. ‘These would be necessary re-
sults of an undulatory wave-like reciprocating motion flowing
outwards from a centre, and a knowledge of this will aid in test-
ing the truth of the theory of Profs. Rogers.

I will here offer another explanation of the folded strata dipping
to the $. E., showing the possibility of another cause for a tan-
gential force, in addition to that arising from collapse of the crust
of the globe by refrigeration, and it seems to harmonize with the
facts observed among the disturbed strata of the United States.

> halts of the Association of American Geologists, 1840—1842, pp. 474

' 4 Profs. Rogets refer the whole effects to werent earthquake motion.
Vide memoir, Trans. Assoc. Am. Geologists, 1840—1842, 7.

On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c. 299

It has already been mentioned that these folded and disturbed
“strata extend from Canada on the N. through the Atlantic moun-
tain region to Alabama on the S., a distance of at least one thou-
sand miles. The cause of the disturbance has acted repeatedly
along the same axis, producing the same effects, raising the solid
massive strata of the globe into great undulations, crumpling,
crushing, and pitching them over in some instances in mountain
masses of folded strata, so as to give them all an eastwardly dip
in the easternmost ranges. Where the strata are not folded, they
are often broken by enormous longitudinal, transverse, and lateral
faults.* These facts, together with contortions, crushed strata,
the glazed and shivered slates, and the polished surfaces of fis-
sures, lead to the conclusion that lateral motion has been pro-
duced by some cause. It may be conceded that a cause acting
over so great an area may have been general, rather than local.

The phenomena of the earth being in the state of a cooling
body, that cooling bodies diminish in volume, that bodies revolv-
ing on axes if diminished in volume and retaining the same
quantity of matter increase in angular velocity, that the conse-
quent increased centrifugal force would increase the oblateness of
the spheriodal form of the earth, and the mobility of water would
induce a flow of water from the polar to the equatorial regions
to restore the form of equilibrium, have been considered in the
preceding pages. 'The same cause of increased velocity of rota-
tion would tend to produce similar results in the solid strata of
the globe, if they be capable of yielding to. such a force. That
they can yield to such force is probable, from the fact, that the
general form of the solid part of the globe, is the form of equi-
librium of a body like the earth, revolving with its present velocity.

If the earth has at any time become more oblate in consequence
of increased angular velocity, inertia would tend to make the
solid matter of the exterior of the globe press to the westward,
with a force dependent on its mass and its increased distance from
the axis of rotation; and if there were lines at which motion
could take place, slight motion might thus be expected to have
been produced, and effects on the rocky strata, such as those
mentioned, would be the necessary results.

* Vide Geology of 1st Dist. New York, by W. W. Mather, and Rogers’ Geo-
logical Report of New Jersey, and various geological papers.

+

300 On the Physical Geology of the United States, §c.

If such motion has been produced, changes of longitude of
masses of the earth’s crust must have been effected, such as
we trace evidences of in the wrinkled, crushed, crumpled, and
folded strata, which, if laid out or developed in a mathematical
sense, would occupy much wider areas than they do at the present
time.

As the strata were elevated in wrinkles, the upper extremities
being more remote from the axis of motion of the earth, the tops
of the wrinkles would tend by the action of inertia to fall over
to the westward,* and give a general eastwardly dip to all the
strata that were highly elevated, such as we see to be almost
constantly the case along that belt of mountainous country ex-
tending from Canada to Alabama.

If a motion to the westward be produced by the tangential
force due to inertia, both from increased oblateness and from the
elevation of folds, the effect would be a maximum at the equator,
and be less and less as the latitudes increased. The effect would
be to produce a strike to the E. of N. in the northern hemisphere
and to the E. of S. in the southern hemisphere. Along the
eartern part of the United States this conformity exists. The
explanation above offered to account for the disturbed and folded
strata with an E. S. E. and S. E. dip, aN. N. E. strike, anda
lateral tangential force, seems plausible to the writer. It is based
on the known laws of nature, it is sufficient to explain the phe-
nomena in question, and as far as observations have been made
in the United States it is believed to conform to facts. .

The causes that may be supposed to have produced the eleva-
tion of islands and continents above the level of the sea, beneath
which they were once buried; the inclination, contortion, wrink-
ling, folding and crushing ws strata; the alerationl of mountain
chains in former times ; the gradual changes of level with refer-
ence to the sea which have been and still are in progress on parts
of the earth’s surface, have been briefly considered ; and notwith-
standing the great variety of causes that have been assigned,
such as volcanic action, undulatory motion of a fluid interior, the
expansive force of elastic vapors, tangential forces by collapse
upoh a nucleus contracted by refrigeration, unequal contraction
of land and water by refrigeration, and the effects of inertia and
increased centrifugal force as iran the ocean and the solid

scx tmapmaiiciaaiaialt

“ The reason for this is illustrated on pages 292, 293, ante.

Description of the Solar Index. 301

strata of the globe, they may all, together with the phenomena
of volcanic action, earthquakes, metamorphic action, the trans-
port of the materials and the deposition of the sedimentary rocks,
the great currents of the ocean, the distribution of fossiliferous
organic life, the various derangements of the strata, and most of
the phenomena of geology, be referred to the secuLAR REFRIGER-
ATION OF THE EARTH, combined with the effects of gravitation,
inertia, and the rotation of the earth on its azis.

The effects of these causes can be traced in imperishable
characters in the solid strata of the globe through unknown ages
of past duration, and the same causes may be expected to con-
tinue to act through all future time.

Art. V1.— Description of the Solar Index, a new Magnetical
Instrument; by Marswauu Conant.

Tue “Solar Index” is the name I give to an instrument which
T have recently contrived, the object of which is when attached
to the surveyor’s compass to show at any place the variation of
the magnetic from the true meridian; consequently enabling the
surveyor or engineer with very little trouble to take his courses
from the true north and south.

An instrument for this purpose, of simple construction, appears
to have been for a long time a desideratum. And several forms
at different times and by different individuals have been tried and
abandoned, or obtained but very limited use. The simplicity of
this, and the mode of using it, as well as the accuracy of the re-
sults it affords, seem to indicate a greater degree of utility; and
induce me to send a description of the instrument, accompanied
by its delineation, for publication in the American Journal of
Science ; adding that I do not design to restrict the manufacture
and sale of it by means of a patent, but on the contrary wish it
to be considered a free contribution to the arts.

The material of the instrument, except one or two pieces, is
brass. A, is its base, which is fixed to the base of the compass by
a single screw from underneath, having a milled head and of a
size equal to those by which the sight vanes are usually attached
to the compass. One edge of this base is concave, so as to fit the
Circular box of the compass on the outside. B, is a horizontal

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 39

302 Description of the Solar Index.

axis, turning in the uprights C and D. The end of this axis
passing through D, has a screw cut upon it, and receives a nut F
with two milled heads, which serves to fasten the axis in any
position by bringing its shoulder firmly against the upright D.
This nut, where it presses the upright D, should have a less diam-
eter than this shoulder; that in being tightened it may not turn
the axis. ‘The other end of this axis is conical ; and the upright C
which receives it, presses hardly upon it, which prevents its be-
coming loose on wearing. 'These uprights are fastened to the
base A, by screws underneath. EK, is a tube screwing into one
end of the horizontal axis B, and receiving the equatorial axis
PQR, to which, on the part PQ, a small quadrant GHL is at-
tached. ‘This equatorial axis passes at right angles through the
horizontal axis into the tube E, where it turns smoothly, admit-
ting an equatorial motion to the bar K. The lower extremity of
this tube is boxed with block tin, and the equatorial axis passes
into it with a slight taper; thus affording the means of receiving
the requisite degree of tightness to sustain the quadrant and its
attaches in any position, while its own motion is sufficiently free.
The cylindrical portion of this axis is about ;, part of an inch
longer than the tube will receive; that, on wearing, it may grad-
ually sink into the tube and move there without play. A pivot
soldered fast to the back of the bar K, in the common point of
meeting of the medium line of this bar and that of the arm LM,
passes through the centre of the quadrant and through the equa-
torial axis ; where it turns freely, as the extremity of this arm
moves along the limb H, and shows the various positions of the
bar K, with respect to the equatorial axis. This pivot, which is
slightly tapering towards the back of the instrument, has there a
screw cut upon it, and receives a nut with a milled head, by
which the requisite degree of tightness is obtained. 'This pivot
is so large as to have the proper degree of tightness when the
back of the bar K is about ,, part of an inch distant from the
face of the quadrant ; and the arm LM, near its junction with
the bar K, is slightly bent towards the face of the quadrant, so as
to give a light pressure to the extremity of it upon the limb of
the quadrant.

Attached to the arm LM, is a small spirit level; and it is fur-
nished at its extremity with a vernier, by means of which it may
be adjusted to any desirable position upon the limb H of the

Description of the Solar Index. 303

quadrant ; and its position is secured by a screw at the back,
like that of the common quadrant.

In the piece N is a convex lens, which brings the sun’s rays to
a focus upon the piece O, through which a hole is made of about
7 of an inch diameter. The sun’s focal diameter upon this
piece being a little larger, causes a fine, bright ring of light to
appear about the border of this hole, when the instrument is
properly adjusted. The lens is fixed at a proper distance from
the piece O, and this piece at a proper height above the edge of
the bar K, by means of screws; the particular mode of doing
which will be understood at once from fig. 2

The quadrant, or more properly, the septant, is divided into
degrees and halves, from 0 to 70°; 0 being upon the equatorial
axis. At 35° is placed another 0, and 10 and 20 at the corres-
ponding number of degrees distant upon each side of it. The
purpose of this last series of numbers is, the greater convenience
in making the adjustment for the sun’s declination. The vernier
is divided each way from the centre into 15 equal parts, which
embrace an extent equal to 14 of the half degrees upon the limb
of the quadrant; by this means the vernier is capable of measur-
ing an arc of 2’ on the limb. When the central line of division
or 0 of the vernier, is upon the 0 of declination, or at 35° from
the 0 on the equatorial axis, the bar K is at right angles to this
axis.

The quadrant is attached to the equatorial axis by three screws
at the back, and the spirit level to the arm LM by two. The holes
through this arm and the equatorial axis are about ;', of an inch
larger in diameter than the screws, and the heads of the screws
set down square over them. I ought, however, to except that
Screw of the level nearest the bar K, the head of which is sunk,
to allow a free motion over the radii GI. By this device it is
easy to give the quadrant and level a proper adjustment.

The compass being placed firmly upon its tripod, with the base
A fixed in its place and turned towards the south in a clear day,
adjust the 0.on the vernier of the index to’ a distance upon the
quadrant from 0 on the equatorial axis, equal to the latitude of
the place, and put the equatorial axis into the tube E; level the
compass either by means of the levels upon it, or in defect of
them, as nearly as may be by the eye, and bring the plane of the
quadrant into.a position perpendicular to the horizon ; loosen the
Screw F’, and give to the tube a position which will bring the bubble

304 Description of the Solar Indez.

of the spirit level on the arm LM into the middle of the opening,
and fix it in this position by again tightening the screw F. Now
give the compass a slow motion upon the tripod, and observe if
this bubble maintain its position ; if so, this adjustment is properly
made; if not, repeat the latter part of the proeess; and in turn-
ing the compass, move the quadrant also a trifle upon the equato-
rial axis till the adjustment be well made. Fix now the 0 of the
vernier to a distance from the 0 on the middle of the quadrant,
equal to the declination of the sun at noon at the given place on
the day of observation, above this 0, if the declination be north,
but below it if it be south; turn the quadrant and compass so as
to allow the sun’s rays to pass through the lens and fall upon the
piece O, when the sun is on the meridian; and adjust this piece
in such a manner that the focal area of the sun shall overlap the
area of the aperture in the piece, and form a fine, even ring about
its edge. It will be well to test this adjustment on several days.
When this has been done and the piece O firmly fastened by its
screw, no further adjustments will be requisite except for different
latitudes and declinations; and these can be easily effected by the
surveyor or engineer in a very few minutes. The correct adjust-
ments, indeed, of the base A, the quadrant, and level upon the
arm LM, the tube with regard to the horizontal axis B, the lens,
and the piece O, all belong to the manufacturer. How the piece

O is adjusted I have already described. I will soon show in
what manner the surveyor or engineer may make or test for him-
self these other adjustments. At present I will state how the in-
strument should be used for the purpose designated.

n any day when the sun shines, let the compass with the
index attached be leveled, and the adjustments made for the lat-
itude of the place, and the sun’s declination for the hour; turn
the compass with the index till the sun shines through the lens
and formsa ring about the aperture in O; and the north and south
points on the horizon of the compass will be in the true meridian,
and the variation of the needle be seen at once. If observations
at different times in the forenoon and afternoon give the same
variations* at one and the same place, it is proof that all the ad-
justments have been well made.

In a survey of no great extent no new adjustments will be
necessary for change of latitude ; and if the ¢ime occupied in the
<n epowarnesl aneiiadiacndl sein svunnieenmniail

x

* Or nearly; see first note following.

Description of the Solar Index. 305

survey does not extend beyond two or three hours, no alteration
of adjustment will in general be requisite for change of de-
clination.

An hour or two about the middle of the forenoon and afternoon
are the times most favorable to the greatest degree of accuracy in
these observations. When the sun is near the horizon, the re-
fraction of his rays may produce an error of several minutes in
the result; and when he is near the meridian, a small error in
any of the adjustments is the more likely to affect the accuracy
of the result; but less in both these cases than can be estimated
by compasses in general use.

It would be very convenient to havea level placed upon the
base A, underneath and parallel with the horizontal axis B;
though it can be dispensed with.

A compass with a horizon accurately graduated and furnished
with a vernier capable of measuring an arc of one or two minutes,
will, with this index attached, afford the means of making very
accurate surveys. Let all parts of the support of the compass be
Strong and well made; and let not any little difficulties which
always attend the first trials of a new instrument, create doubts
as to its complete success. Fora very little practice will show
the exceeding simplicity of its structure, and the facility and ac-
curacy with which it operates.

And I wish here to impress upon surveyors and engineers the
importance of noting all their courses from the true meridian ;
and of adding, in all their reports of surveys, the variation of the
needle. I know this is already the practice of certain individuals
among them; but were the practice general it would put an end
toa multitude of mistakes, and arrest in some portions of our
country a large amount of litigation, which has arisen from the
difficulty of finding the fluctuations of variation in individual
surveys. These fluctuations are mainly owing* to the proximity
of iron ores, and occur much more frequently in surveys than I
formerly apprehended.t

>a Say mainly ; the influence of the sun upon the needle causes its declination

from the meridian to be greater by 13’ to 15! at 3 o’clock p.m. than at 8 o'clock
A.m., in the summer; and 8! to 10/ greater in winter.

t A nd I have no doaie that cases like the following, reported by Capt. Bonsai
are frequent at sea, and if not guarded against produce serious disaster
ing down the British Channel, he observed the variation of the needle to be 2° or
8° greater than in sailing up it in the same ship, which he attributed to the improper
lading of the shi

Description of the Solar Index.

Description of the Solar Index.

Size of the several parts of the Instrument.

Length of the horizontal axis B,

Diameter of the square part of this axis,

Height of this axis above the base A, ‘
~~ rs ~ tube E, resi. the diameter of the

Width of ie apis C and D,

Thickness of these and of the base 7 ;

Radius of the quadrant, (to the middle of the Hien’ my)

Breadth of the limb, ;

arenes bi the pan G and I at the Nitah

- at the centre,
ae of the quadrant, ;

Focal length of the lens,

Diameter of the lens,

Distance of the lens from the ous of the ‘quharaint:

Width of the bar K, ‘

Diameter of its pivot,

The arm LM of the same pid Wik the ag K,
where it branches from it; but narrows a lit-
tle toward the vernier.

The vernier in my instrument is of silver, and sol-
dered firmly upon the extremity of the arm
LM, which is shaped so as to receive it.

Thickness em bar K and of the arm LM, a trifle
less tha :

Length of the spit level upon the arm,

Diameter of the cylindrical portion of the equatorial
axis at . : . .

Diameter of do. at R,

307

31 inches.

_
ae “la

Ww
ee “ls eh
a |

=i

3

es
a wl= w= s

re
2" oj

x N —
oj"

ol,
|

7
20
os

That portion of this axis what receives dis idadiane f is} an
inch wide at the centre of the quadrant, and ,°, of an inch at Q.
It is first made ,7, of an inch thick, and receives the quadrant im-
bedded into one side of it about ,!, of an inch; it is then filed
off on the opposite side till it is left about 7; of an inch thick.

These dimensions afford an instrument of very proper and
convenient size; which will be found of easy construction, and
little liable to get out of order. It can be snugly packed ina
box about half the size required for the compass,—the equatorial

308 Description of the Selar Index.

axis and its appendages in one department, the base and parts
connected with itin another. When applied to other instruments
than the compass, this index may be made of any size thought
proper; but I would advise to have the same relative proportion
of parts maintained.

Of the Adjustments.

Fig. 3 is an adjuster; which is simply a piece of smooth sheet
copper or brass, 8 inches long and 4 wide at the top.* Over the
centre of the hole 8, are drawn the very fine lines TU, VW, at
right angles. X, isa small weight or plumb, suspended by a
fine black hair fatonéd in a cut in the lower edge of the hole 8.
At the foot of the line TU, is another cut.

X. being suspended by its hair on the side of the plate shown
in the figure, let the bar K with its appendages be taken from
the quadrant, and placing its pivot in the hole 8, made just large
enough to receive it, move the arm LM till the 0 on the vernier
shall be on the line VW, and here make it fast by the screw at
the back; then fix the whole in such a position that the hair
shall hang freely by the side of the plate and directly over the
line TU; adjust the level upon the arm LM, so that the air bub-
ble shall rest truly in the middle of the opening, and fix it per-
manently in this position by means of its screws.

Y and Z, are pieces of block tin or brass, } of an inch thick,
fitting on to the equatorial axis ; the piece Y near the quadrant, and
Z near the extremity R. A fixe line is drawn upon the edges of
these pieces over the central section of the holes.

Let these pieces be placed upon the equatorial axis, with their
marked edges in a plane with the face of the quadrant ; take the
plate fig. 3 and fix the hair in the cuts at S and U, on the side of
the plate as seen in the figure, and placing the hole S to the
centre of the quadrant, put the pivot of the bar K in its place
with the arm LM opposite the quadrant, and bring the slit y under
the screw head d and make the hair truly parallel with the lines
upon the pieces Y and Z, and secure this position by tightening
the screw ; then adjust the quadrant so that the 0 of the equato-
rial axis shall appear exactly under this hair, and make it fast in
this position. A good eye will enable one to get this parallelism

* But drawn here, for the sake of convenience, of a size relatively too small.

Description of the Solar Index. _ 309

and make this adjustment very accurately. During the process
it will be important to keep the hair well stretched.

- The manufacturer should take care to have the plane of the
face of the quadrant parallel to the central line of the cylindrical
portion of the equatorial axis. If the central line of the pivot
should not meet with the central line of the cylindrical portion of
this axis, the preceding adjustment will remove that source of error.

The central line of the horizontal axis B should be parallel
with the base A of the instrument; and a fine line should be
drawn upon the top of each of the uprights C and D, in direction
of the axis and directly over its central section. Also a fine line
should be drawn at right angles to the face B, over the centre of
the hole near Q, which receives the equatorial axis; as likewise
across the hole at the extremity R of the tube. By means of
these it will be easy to know if the tube is at right angles to the
axis, and if not to bring it into this position.

Let the base A be put upon the base of the compass on the
side of the box opposite the spirit levels, or, if the compass has a
vernier on the side opposite the levels, remove the levels and
place the base there, confining it by its appropriate screw. Re-
moving the glass from the compass, fix it at a convenient height
with the plane of its horizon perpendicular with the horizon of
the place, so that facing it and suspending the plumb X by its hair
directly in front of it and as little distant as practicable, the hair
When still shall appear at one view to pass over the east and west
points of division; then if the plumb be brought before the ends
of the uprights C and D, and the hair appear at one view to pass
exactly over the fine lines drawn upon them, the base A will be
in its right position. But if both of these do not disappear at
One view behind the hair, alter the position of A, and proceed as
before, till the right adjustment of the base shall be effected ; the
horizontal axis B will then be parallel with the line joining the
east and west points on the horizon of the compass. Let a mark
be made on the base of the compass corresponding with one made
on the edge of A. By. means of these alone the base A can
ever after be placed and fixed in its proper position ; and there
will be no further occasion for removing the glass to accomplish it.

Framingham, Mass., July 12, 1845.

Vol. xix, No. 2.—July—Sept. 1845. 40

310 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

Art. VIIL—A Report to the Navy Department of the United
States on American Coals, applicable to Steam Navigation
and to other purposes ; by Prof. Waiter R. Jounson.

Tur area of the various coal basins embraced within the terri-
tory of the United States, is probably greater than that of any
other of the civilized nations of the earth. Since the application
of steam as a motive power, this mineral fuel has become an im-
portant element of national prosperity, and within a few years
has assumed a prominent position among the materials of national
defence. As might be expected in so vast an extent of territory,
a corresponding diversity of character exists in the coals of the
United States. From the plumbaginous anthracites of Rhode
Island and Massachusetts they shade off to the highest bituminous
character. Common observation indicated a corresponding differ-

‘ence in applicability, and to some extent in the calorific powers
of the coal in these various conditions. Chemical analysis had
in some instances shown their elementary differences. But no
systematic and authoritative examination, of a kind from which
general pract be deduced, had been performed
up to the time at which the investigations embraced i in this Re-
port were commenced. Such examinations, highly important to
individual interests, were absolutely necessary in a national point
of view. The steam vessels of the Navy are exposed to the per-
formance of various duties, in the course of which it is often
necessary to replenish their exhausted fuel at different stations.
The best informed engineer would be often embarrassed in his
operations by the difference in the character of the coals he would

nd at these stations, and thus endanger the success of the best
concerted cruise or system of operations. This is peculiarly liable
to occur in the coast service of the United States. Along the
northern and eastern Atlantic coast the anthracites are most used,
while in the Gulf of Mexico the bituminous coals of the Missis-
sippi valley must be depended upon. A long life of practical
operations would not give the engineer the same facility of adapt-
ing his engines to these differences, as he would be enabled to
obtain by the study for a few weeks of such experiments as those
detailed in this Report.

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 311

It is greatly to be regretted that this examination did not em-
brace all the coals, or rather all the varieties of coals, with which
our country abounds ; and also those which our steam-ships will
be obliged to use whilst cruising on distant stations. But no
blame for this defect can attach to the Department under whose
direction these experiments were made. It availed itself of all
the means that seemed justifiable to secure so desirable an object.
Advertisements were kept standing for months in the most prom-
inent papers of every part of the Union, inviting mine owners and
others to forward samples for investigation to the Navy Yard at
Washington, where the whole operation would be conducted free
of expense to those furnishing the samples; whilst a sufficient
supply of the foreign varieties found in our markets was purchased
for comparative trials under the direction of the Department by
Prof. Johnson. The most important deficiency that can be found
in this respect is in the coals from the Mississippi valley. From
the great Illinois and Missouri coal basin, covering an area proba-
bly larger than the whole kingdom of France or Great Britain,
a single sample was forwarded, whilst from that portion of the
extensive basin of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Ohio that lies west
of the Alleghany Mountains, an amount still less than from the
former was obtained. Neither of these was in quantity sufficient
to make a full series of experiments. We speak knowingly when
We state, that the sample from the. Illinois and Missouri basin
(Cannelton, Ind.) was not a fair representation of the largest part
of the coals furnished by these basins. This deficiency is much
to be regretted ; and if the results of the examination of the other
coals embraced in this Report, be as important to the national
interests as we believe they are, it calls loudly for a continuance
of these experiments in such a manner as to insure an investiga-
tion of these western coals.

What was done, was done thoroughly. The period occupied
in the experiments and working up the results was about eighteen
or twenty months. The Report covers more than 600 pages of
congressional documentary form, most of which is tabulated mat-
ter. The number of samples of coal experimented upon was
forty one, viz. nine-anthracite, twelve free burning or semi-bitu-
minous, and nineteen bituminous,—to which may be added one
sample of natural coke, two of artificial coke, two mixtures of
anthracite and bituminous coals, and one of dry pine wood. 'T'wo

(312 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

of the anthracites were from the Beaver Meadow mines, sent by
the Beaver Meadow Railroad and Coal Company; two from the
same mines, procured by the Navy Department for the use of the
Navy; one from the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company’s
mines, sent by the Company ; one from “ Lackawana,” sent by the
Delaware and Hudson Canal Company ; one from “ Peach Moun-
tain,” Schuylkill county, sent by the Delaware Coal Company
of Philadelphia; one from Forest Improvement mines, Broad
Mountain, Schuylkill county; and one from Lyken’s Valley
Coal Company, Dauphin county,—all being from mines within
the state of Pennsylvania. Of the semi-bituminous or free burn-
ing class, six were from the coal field in the neighborhood of
Cumberland, Maryland ; viz. one from Atkinson’s and 'Temple-
man’s mine; one from Neff’s mines; two from Easby’s mine,
ealled coal in stone; one from the New York and Maryland
Mining Company; and one from a quantity of “Cumberland
coal,”’ purchased for the use of the Navy. The first five were
furnished by the proprietors of the mines. The six other semi-
bituminous coals were from Pennsylvania, consisting of one from
Karthaus, on the west branch of the Susquehanna; one from
Cambria county, sent by J. Brotherline; one from Lycoming
Creek, sent by A. McIntyre, near Ralston, Lycoming county ;
one from Blossburg, Tioga county, sent by the Arbon Coal Com-
pany ; one from Quin’s Run, Clinton county, sent by McDonald
& Hollenback; and one from Dauphin and Susquehanna Coal
Company, sent by Isaac Lea, Esq., of Philadelphia. Of the bitu-
minous coals, eleven were from the coal fields in the vicinity of
Richmond and Petersburg in Virginia, viz. five from the Midlo-
thian mines, furnished by the Midlothian Coal Company; one
from the Deep Run mines of J. Barr, Esq.; one from the Tippe-
_ canoe mines, P. D. & F. D. Osborne & Co., agents ; one from the
Clover Hill Company; one from the Chesterfield Mining Com-
pany, and one from the mines of Crouch & Snead.
~ It will be observed that the whole of these coals were from the
eastern slope of the Alleghanies. Besides these there were tw
other samples of bituminous coal from the Mississippi valley ;
one from Cannelton, Indiana, from the American Cannel Coal
Company, sent by James Boyd, Esq., and one from Pittsburg,
Penn., sent by W. 'T. Hepp & Co., of New Orleans.

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 313

To the list of American coals should be added one sample of
“natural coke,” from Tuckahoe, Virginia, sent by Messrs. Barr
& Deaton ; one sample of artificial coke, made from the Midlo-
thian coal that had been procured for the use of the Navy, and
another sample made from Neff’s (Cumberland, Md.) coal,—be-
sides which, as before remarked, the efficacy of mixtures was
tested by aseries of experiments; one mixture of one-fifth Mid-
lothian and four-fifths Beaver Meadow, and another of one-fifth
Cumberland (Md.) and four-fifths Beaver Meadow.

The remaining six bituminous coals examined were foreign.
Two of these were sent by Mr. Cunard, agent of the General
Mining Association of London,—one of which was from Sidney,
the other from Pictou, Nova Scotia. The other four samples of
foreign coal consisted of one Scotch, one Newcastle, one Liver-
pool and one Pictou, and were purchased by the order of the
Department of Messrs. Laing & Randolph, extensive dealers in
coal at New York.

It will thus be seen that the various coals were obtained from
those who could be depended upon as furnishing truly the article
represented. There appears to be no reason to doubt that the
samples furnished were fair specimens of the various kinds of coal
found in the market.

The experiments for the evolution of practical results were per-
formed in the Navy Yard at Washington City. The apparatus
consisted of a double flue cylindrical boiler, thirty feet long and
three and a half feet in diameter,—the flues being ten inches in
diameter. A cistern whose cubic contents were carefully mea-
sured, was placed above the boiler to maintain a proper supply of
water, and by which the quantity of water evaporated during each
experiment was determined. The boiler was furnished with two
safety valves of the simplest form, with the weights acting directly
upon them, 'These served to regulate the pressure of the steam
generally, but it was measured by a manometer or mercurial
gauge, carefully graduated, communicating with the steam in the
boiler, but under such circumstances as to be free from the in-
fluence of its temperature. The size of the grate and the area of
the heating surfaces were all completely measured. The draft
was determined by a syphon draft-gauge and other means. A
register of the barometric, thermometric, and hygrometric con-
dition of the atmosphere was constantly kept. A thermometer

314 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

was so disposed as to determine the temperature of the air as it

entered the grate, after having been made, by the construction of
the stack, to pass entirely around the two sides of the boiler and

under the ash-pit and main fire-place. Other thermometers were

so placed as to determine the temperature of the air and gases as
they escaped into the chimney after combustion, that of the water

in the supplying cistern, and that of the steam and water in the

boiler. The coals were measured and weighed in charges, that

is, in a box containing exactly two cubic feet. Care was taken

to reduce them all to the size best adapted to their combustion.

They were charged regularly, so as to keep them as nearly as pos-

sible in a uniform state on the grate. During the experiment a

portion of each coal was carefully dried by means of an apparatus

prepared for this purpose, to determine the amount of hygrometric

moisture. The rate and manner of combustion were carefully

observed, and the ashes, clinker, &c. weighed and preserved for

subsequent analysis. By an arrangement exhibited in Plate IL

of the Report, a portion of the gases, atmospheric air, é&c. of the

chimney, after passing through the ignited fuel, was collected

and analyzed. The soot deposited on the sides of the flues and

other passages was also collected, weighed, and submitted to the
same chemical investigation.

The air intended for the support of combustion sennael an
opening below the ash-pit, and passing thence through air cham-
bers on each side of the boiler, so as to absorb the heat radiated
from this body, entered the fire by a passage from the back of the
stack, directly under the flue below the boiler. After traversing
the fire, the gases and other products of combustion passed under
the whole length of the boiler, returned through it by the two
interior flues before mentioned, and communicated with one of
the flues leading directly to the chimney. This however was
susceptible of being closed by a damper, in which case the gases,
éc. passed by another series of flues entirely around and outside
of the boiler below the level of the water line, and then escaped
into the chimney. By this latter arrangement, so perfect was the
absorption of the heat generated by the fuel, that the gases on
entering the chimney were rarely more shin 60° or 70° maaan
than the steam in the boiler, and often much less.

One trial or set of observations generally occupied about twen-
ty four hours. It was commenced by heating the water in the

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 315

boiler to a certain temperature (usually 230°) by means of a
weighed quantity of dry pine wood. During this period no steam
was allowed to escape. The coal was then substituted, after
withdrawing and weighing the unburnt wood, and the process
continued with coal alone to the end. The ashes which the re-
quired quantity of wood would give having been determined by
other experiments, were deducted from the whole amount af res-
idue left.

The following table, extracted from the Report, will give some
idea of the observations at each trial, their variety, and the care
with which they were made. (See table on succeeding pages
316, 317.)

The weight of coal consumed at each trial was generally from
800 to 1200 pounds. Four trials were generally made upon each
sample of coal. ‘The mode of conducting the combustion was in
some respects varied in the different trials, chiefly with a view of
determining the influence of such changes or modifications upon
the efficiency of the material. One important modification in ope-
ration, which was introduced in the experiments upon almost
every species of coal, and to which we have not yet referred, was
the introduction of fresh atmospheric air to the gases immedi-
ately behind the grate. This was accomplished by placing in
that part of the apparatus a perforated iron plate, through which
the air from the ash-pit below could pass, and which could be
closed by simply drawing over it another perforated iron plate.
The effect of this modification in the manner of conducting the
combustion is shown in the course of the experiments. .

The tables of daily trials made upon each coal are followed by
another, in which all the most important facts, either of observa-
tion or deduction, are clearly tabulated. No explanation in rela-
tion to this table, within the limits we have assigned for this re-
view, would be so satisfactory an exhibition of its character as the
table itself; we therefore submit one selected at hazard. Some
things in this table may possibly not be fully comprehended by
mere inspection, but the limits of this review do not allow us to
enter into an explanation of them. The Report itself does this
fully upon every point, and we therefore must refer the reader to
that document for such farther information as may be necessary.
(See the table inserted on pages 318, 319.)

316 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

FOREST IMPROVE-
Third trial—upper damper 4 inches open; air

TEMPERATURES OF THE : a a

é -

z a | 2 | # 3

a, > £3 . a -% a °

s]ela | 2 iis 6 Pe ee ae
"0 3 . r= 3 EI £ | rz S.

alee ef ulelel 2 1 2 fesl e |S ®

Dare. | 2 F. £s| “4 2|% B 8 5 wae, = S
ovr 4/5 }E§) | ee be a =] “ = te es

by | aie elaiw| 3 S a S = 5
e{2e | elelalfi = | 28fjeh2{ 3
Elsie tsizieie) 3) 2 i213 /)3] 2
ait Sleai\l<| m m i> |e | 2 S
h. ™.
A. M.

‘Aug. 7} 4 45 (80 |7 80} 184} 80} 30:11 | 0-349 | 7:06} O13} ~ -
6 07 |31-5\77 | 154 80, 225] 79| 30- 27 0-20 | ~ | 104-00
6 37 i 77 158 80 9 80} 30-10 0-552 505] 0:18 | - 107-00
7 00 |81 |77 | 15 232 81) 30-1 4,017 | ~- | > -
7,30 \82 (77 | 16 78) 226| 82/ 30-10 | 0-503 0:20 | 164| -
8 00 |82:5}77:5} 160, 78| 226] 82} 30-10 | 0512 | 5-45, 0-20} ~ ws
8 30 oa 8 162 222 “78 227 83; 30-10 | 0-521 5:35 O21 | = 104-25

165| 244) 78 84] 30-11 | 0-523 | 5-34) 0-21 -
be iB | oh 85 0 2 8 Bh See oe oe | |
1 ay "32 ~
10 30 [88 |79 | 189 229 11 | 0:535 | 5-22) 0-34 | 991 | 100-25
11 00 |90 {go | 186] 254) 79} 229) 86] 30-11 | o-5e4 | 5-33, 0-22 [1249 | =
11 30 |90 js0 | 198] 260. 79| 230! 87| 30-11 | 0-535 | 5-221 0-23 1419 | -
PM.
0 00 80-5] 208 7a| 2301 87! 30-10 | 0-527 | 5°30, 0-19 ee 10475
0 30/94 Igo | 224 30-10 | 0°521 | 5°36 0-18 '2 -
100 [88 |78 | 225 79| 231) 88) 30-10 | 0-542 | 5:15] 0-20 (225 -
1 30 |91-5\79 | 235| 246 79| 230 87| 30-07 | 0-530 | 5-27] 0-16 2592 | 111-00
2 00 |94. |g0 | 249 230 88) 30-08 5-20, 0-19 3014) -
2 30 95 |s0 | 25 - 83} 30-08 | 0-523 | 5-34, 0-18 3334| -
3-00 |93 j81 | 264 | 89} 30-06 | 0-523 | 5:34] 0-18 3539 | 118-75
3 30 (92 |81 | 275 81 ‘ei 30-06 | 0:530 | 5-27) 0-18 y ~
4 00 [94 |31 | 288 | 81 a 82] 30-06 | 0-535 | 5-22, 0-18 4215| -
4 30 |92 j81 250, 84) 230 89| 30:05 | 0-595 | 5:32] 0-18 foes 115-00
5 00 {92 180 | 316| 248' 84) 230! 8a 30-05 | 0-523 | 5-34] 0-17 '4783 | -
5 30 r 9, 84| 230, 87| 30-05 | 0-527 | 5:30) 0-18 [5027 | 101-50
6 00 wn 343 a 230) '87| 30-05 | 0550 | 5-07] 0-17 15445 | -
6 30 {92 ie 382| 228 84} 229) 86} 30-05 | 0-533 | 5-24| 0-18 (5973 | -

‘ A. M.

Ang. 8 5 20 [80 77 | 236 84] 225) 81] 30-05 | 0-497 | 5°58] 0-14 [5980 | -
6 05 [82 77 | 224) 206 84] 211! 81) 30-06 | 0-348 7071 015 (7567 |=

ge of steady action from 10h. 10m. a. mM. to 5h. 30m. Pp h, 20m., pa Ses 14
sets of observations; coal supplied to grate, 551 lbs. ; nulls to battle 4,204 lbs. ; water
tol - coal, during said period, 7-629.

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 317

MENT ANTHRACITE,

plates closed ; steam thrown out at back valve.

= aaifa :
© |g lees | Ss
8 |Sibe@ss [ss
Pie | oe lia pee
o Sift ios eos
Oe ee i &
28|3|Es\"¢ j€s
S&|>|S2',8 | 2. |Remarxs—Grate surface 1407 square feet; length of cir-
2™(2| 23 (°% .| Z| euit of heated air 121 feet; height of chimney 63 feet.
2 1B {22 1389! Seo
© |B/ sg is28 os
2 |e leSisSui $2
& |2\)2n e8s\e¢
& |alo#a6 E3
70 | 14 | - [Water 0:12 inch below normal level; commenced firing
6-07\74-9, 72-5 x fire in small furnace; two weights on s fety valves; oe
6:37 zi enced charging with coal at 6k. 7m.; consumed 1833 1b
= 76.15. oO ‘ ter in boiler, 0°47 inch above normal level ;
- (153 78 - 4 loge temperature 225° ; fire kindles slowly, to ok at 7h. Om. the
second weights from ge 5 e to 0 30; steam
began to blow off; at 7 filed ab:
- |75°8| 775—16 | = |A charge of this coal cheb e to egg ‘ion, —_— 105 Ibs.
8:30\76:1! '78 Ls Kindling t
= 1961) GL fit 0- 554 Wind S., li rid ssa sun aie osiiealiinall
- |75°8) 82 | 27 . tt pe ae amper to 4inches at 9h. 35m.; coal igniting more
- |76:6| 82 | 20
10:10,76-3101 | 21 1 335
— |77-2|.96 | 25
- |772108 | 30 O636 mage had small furnace extinct, and its damper closed; dew
t, by observation, 74°.
0:00 77-6; 117 351 too all thrown out at back valve.
— \76°1)130 | 20 (2-013 Commenced vies 1g gases from lower opening at Oh. 42m.;
‘9137 | - |1-086| drew in 25 minutes 80 eubie inches, which gave 0-68 grain
1:30 75:3.143'5} 16 {1-76 ater, 4°33 g and 8-018 eubic nepen sof
761/155 18 |2°236 fe aah temperature at bath 87° ; at Oh. 30m. Pp. M. wind
= (7591158 | 14 (4-695) NN. W.;
3:00.77-8.171 9 ine: ba = z, Tight ‘clear
- |78:0183 | 20 point, by observation, 76°; by calculation,
| a a pk place, 77°:
ram (i yer 25 |1 ee gn ge shows wo 9 earthy matter in parting tech-
“ ny c
41578-0204 | 20 j1- wkend Filled pls at 4h. pa, M.
- |766224 | 18 (1-340 Cloudy; wind E., light.
5°30,75-8230 | 29 /|1-293) :
= mp Re 19 2-215 Contents of ash-pit thrown on grate; both valves double
weighted
- |79°41290 |— 1} - warerit in boiler left at 1°6 inch above normal level.
- th 0 He —l1 | -.|Water found 3:10 inches below normal level.
- {753/132 |—5 | = |Water in boiler adjusted.
RESIDUA.
Pounds.
| rg - ee - - f . . “ s 4-00
d th - - - = = - 71:25
‘Ashen behind bridge, - - 7 . 4 * + 1:26

Total, = * -
Deduct wood ashes, - - - - a “i x 5

Total waste from coal, - - - - - - - 75946

Coke, - é 2 z a a
Vol. xx1x, No, 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 41

‘

318 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

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Coals. 319

erican

of Prof. Johnson’s Report on Am

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320 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

Forty.three similar tables contain the deductions relative to
the various ‘kinds of fuel assayed. Many very important facts
are recorded in the tables of daily observations, applicable to the
elucidation of questions indirectly involved in these experiments.
Those relating to the expansion of water above 212° are particu-
larly deserving of notice for the relation they bear to the causes
of steam boiler explosions. The greatest care seems to have been
taken to make the observations on this subject correct, as it was
important to be able to determine the volume of the water at any
given temperature that would correspond with the same quantity
at the normal temperature, and to assure the observers that the
boiler contained the same weight of water at the beginning and
end of an experiment.

These observations thus made, merely for the correcting of
those on the weight of water supplied, and not under the influence
of any theoretical views, are scarcely systematic enough for the
establishment of a general law, but they lead strongly to the in-
ference that a general law does exist for the expansion of water
above 212°, and that the ratio of that expansion increases with a
rapidity not generally suspected. It is a subject preéminently
worthy of more careful investigation; and its importance in 4
practical point of view is not diminished by the fact that a part of
the apparent dilatation is due to the constant admixture of steam,

throughout the mass of water, while in ebullition. Assuming the
general fact to be true, that water under high temperatures and
pressures does expand in a rapidly increasing ratio, we have the
means of solving some of the most serious difficulties attending
the explanation of the causes of many disastrous steam boiler ex-
plosions, and particularly those of the high pressure character, on
our western waters. The following note from page 13 of the
Report, will give a condensed view of the facts collected on the
subject of expansion of water by heat.

“The observations made on the gradual rise of temperature,
and the correspondent weights of water which it took to fill the
boiler, as much as the expansion by heat did, gave the following
table. The weight of water operated on was 12,795 lbs.

From 66° to mu, viz. 48°- > Per ees = ~~ of 69 pe at 58°, or 1-42 Ibs. to 1°

114§ to 149 34°. 81 or 2°35 * tol
149 t 180 « 3] ‘ “ 97 « or 313 * tol
180 to 207 “« OF “ “ 86 or 3:18 “ to 1
207 to 223 “* 16 $s “ g9 « , *« tol

or 5°56
223 to 230 * 7 * “ 71 « orl0'14 “ tol

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 321

“This great increase in the rate of expansion of water above the
boiling point, being nearly 74 times as great in the range of the
last 7° as in the first stage of 40°, may probably possess some in-
terest beyond that which attaches to it as a means of correcting
the results of certain observations taken during this research.
The subject has not, to my knowledge, attracted much attention
among experimenters. It will be remarked, that this rapid aug-
mentation of the rate of dilatation of water, in iron is not prevented
by the conversion, at the same time, of a considerable quantity of
water into steam of a high density.”

A synoptical table of the character, composition and efficiency
of each class of coals follows the tables relating to each member
of that class. The following, relating to the bituminous coals of
Virginia, near Richmond, we introduce also as the best means of
exhibiting its object and importance.

Synoptical view of the characters, composition, and efficiency, x, fe bree bituminous coals.

> usity. | in 100 p: |
0 ’ . r2) mo sS
SPS te +2 ore oma : 2
asics |2./8 |3 sis S.
Se leebee bee |e (8B) » 35
see eeie | ke les] 2 SS
yes t2'6é a ° oS lfsals. o
S| oS (E2158 | on] So [ES] os . |24
Designation of coals. S) So lo=} se) $s) Ba ls2] o8 : & logo
=| sa les| 2k | em] &o jew| se § = |33
| Sales| 23 | e| ce ee | 28 3 = \a¢
Sl ee |Pslch| oFl SSisF| ges = a AWS
= ao io pele x 25 BY ia =| ) & os
| ge |Us) rs Moles s = z 5 S ig
aHEe 2 les|s |3|e|2|& 8
wa) Saié6 S s = a m| & <)
aie |e |e 5
s Dee ep Run 1-382 86°410, 48 |53-174/0-6153 42-126}1 785|19°7: 67 -958;78-433 10°475 3
Cietk & Snea “73 1-451| 90-710} 36 }53-593|0-5908' 41-797|1-785|23-95910-427 |59-976|74-256 14°280/2-
Midlothian (900 feet shaft) a av- | | |
€rage coal, - - - - - 1-437) 87'497| 34 |50-518 0-573 44-340 1°172)27°2 7 10°467 2
Creek Company’ 's coal, 1-319, 82°480) 41 |46-496|0°5636 48-170)1-450/29 68 | 3:
Clover Hil], - 1-285} 80-355] 42 |45°485/0°5660 49-250/1-339)31
Chesterfield Mining Company, 1-289, 80°565) 43 |45-549/0-5653 49-180}1 ‘896/30°6
Midlothi ge, 1-294} 80°895| 42 |54:044/0-6680 41 -450/2-455/29-7
Tippecanoe, - -.- = - + 1°346|84+140) 55 {45°100/0 5360 49-670}1-84 1/3472
Midlothian, ‘new shaft,” - |1-325/82-815| 31 |47-899|0-5811'46-760/0-670/33
Midlothian’ screened, - |1-283|80°210) 46 5°722/0°5700 48-990)1" ey 34
Midlothian. (navy ya ard, ) 1:390186°855| 15 [54° 014/28"

322 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

Synoptical Table, (continued.)

Cotnbustion: Action of fi : race during steady

ressure. Evaporation.

Mean ea Pressure, pl hour

in hours.

Designation of
coals,

porating one cubic foot
of water.

steady action.

chimney.

of water.

atired to bring boiler to

y action,
ospheres, above a
vacuum.
oa pounds per square inch,
In pounds.

of steam in boiler.
€

reaching grate.
stea

ce oak ae uring steuly action.
| In atm

ounds per a gr ft. of grate sur-
Of gases, on arriving at
above | atmosphere.

Pounds supplied per hour, during
¥
fa

Gained by the air, before »
n pounds per sq. foot of ab-|5
sorbing surface of boiler.

Time r

p Deaucht-eange—helght in inches,

Of air, on arriving at grate.

; ‘er eva
Of escaping gases above that

are
y
(<7)

Sxl!
p+

3&
g

t=
~
8
mw
S
Re
<3 ch

@

2

fates
ce
Oo
a
ie

BE
~
_
ae
: |
tec)
——
=
gf
7 ww

A.EI9

haft) average coal,|5417 0-367 {1383/1421 7")
°

+ + |3769-63|120-94|8°595|8:445|276-49|337-89) 196- aie. ‘14/0318
val lover Hill, - + |3775°10| 89°56|/5'843)9°340/362-51|302-54/297-95) 74°81/0°145
4 hesterfield Minin

ny, - - |3876 00/119-02 pe ae 252°01/344-58 ae ae. ae
04

«eS

8°756/247°72 boi Ree

canoe, 302715 86) 72

306°39 86 be $3 15.

\ Eee) screened, 7132-00 ee He 8" 7) 285° 2 297°78)216-95 70°
an. y

yard,) + = + |1463°50) - « - - -

PEE

3 oe Cee i

Synoptical Table, ( continued.)

, Lead reduc’
Evaporation. Residue from furnace. frm een

Designation of coals.

from 212°.

One cubic foot of Pm

temperature.
2
from 212°,
ter, from 212°,
cent.
tion, per cent.
100 of fuel,
each trial.

pe of clinker and ashes, from

Ratio of clinker to total waste.
By one of combustible matter.

One of fuel, from initial

One of combustible mat-|*
= economy of fuel, per
On rapidity of evapora-

lone of fuel

Barr’s p Run

gaaly & ‘fies ad's
warring (900 feet shat) a av-

— pe
ompany’s coal, - «
rn hover a, bg
esterfiel Mi n C

Midlothian, a ning ompany,

lctinker alone, from 100 of fuel.
=\Pounds of unburnt coke, after

+|By one of fuel.

8 af

10142 — 5-056'—
9:740 + 2-990|—

pee
ea ea

2
3

& BS
ge
c1@

a,
Ba
ss
Se
WBeSses E
=
3
55

i
2

10°

ube a
zoe
=8

rele

Q 9-300 G10 Deo
-_
sas

ga28 3

Oo hs
rs)

WISI ISI TS
i=)
os

i]

—

Ks

Midiothian, ‘new shaft,”
“Mid! lothian, Screened, n° =
Midlothian, (navy yeti ie, “a

Hy
i}

Four of these synoptical tables will be found in the Report.

Prof. Johnson having in these experiments the most satisfactory
means of determining the practical heating power of coal, was le
to inquire whether the celebrated process of Berthier, by the re-
duction of litharge, could be depended upon as a means of deter-

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 323

mining analytically the same question. The facts resulting
from these experiments are recorded in the two last columns of
these synoptical tables. They are collected in a tabulated form
in other parts of the Report, and show unfortunately that. im-
plicit confidence cannot be placed in this process.

The following extract indicates a much more plausible means
of determining this question by analysis than that of Berthier or
others, and is in every respect worthy the attention of experi-
menters.

“* Heating powers derived from ultimate analyses of coals.

“The comparisons which in the course of this Report I have been
enabled to make between the practical steam-generating power of the
combustible matter of several kinds of coal, and that derived from their
ultimate analysis, and thence calculated from the quantity of carbon
which they severally contain, enable me to offer at present the following
cases illustrative of this subject. Should I be hereafter empowered to
complete the series of researches so as to obtain ultimate analyses of all
the coals which have been tested by evaporation, a mass of evidence
would be accumulated, which might, in all probability, set the question
finally at rest.

meet power ap calculated

of combus- m carbon as-
sible matter by é ariainet by ul-
steaming appa- timate analysis.
ratus.
Cambria county, Pennsylvania, - - 11:550 11-522
Midlothian, (new shaft,) Virginia, - - 11-460 11-731
Newcastle, England, - - - 10°898 | 10-545
Clover Hill, Na - - - 10537 10°445
Scotch, - - - 10-206 10:393
Toliana (Cannelton), eK ape - 9557 9-509
Mean, . - - 10°701 10-691
& Notutthotandi kabl imation (or, I may say,

identity) of the two went these six instances, I would not be under-
stood as announcing the universality of the law that the weight of car-
bon alone in coal is the only available element of its heating power.
I only bring forward this number of facts, all tending in the same direc-
tion, all in harmony with each other and with preéxisting experience,
so far as any tolerable degree of exactness has been given to researches
in relation to this subject.

“In the works of European chemists, the calculated ‘ heating power’
of coals is ascertained by the numbers for hydrogen and carbon deter-

324 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

mined by Despretz and Dulong. In Peclet’s work, Pennsylvania an-
thracite has assigned to it a heating power represented by 7211° centi-
grade, or 12980° Fahr.; Newcastle coal 7866° cent., or 14159° Fahr.
Now, in practice, 8 kinds of Pennsylvania anthracite gave a mean
evaporative power of 9°56, and Newcastle coal gave 8-66.”—p. 586.

Evincing his habitual care in expressing an opinion, Professor
J. hesitates to assert at once that the “carbon alone in the coal is
the only available element of its heating power.” ‘This certainly
indicates a degree of prudence worthy of imitation, and it is ear-
nestly to be hoped that he may be empowered “to complete the
series of researches” on this as well as other subjects connected
with this important material, coal. For it must be evident that
the establishment of this law as unquestionable, is in the highest
degree interesting. No other analytic process has yet been found
satisfactory, and experiments on a practical scale require too much
time and money to make them as these have been made under
the direction of Prof. Johnson, to allow them to be undertaken on
private account.

With the view of showing the reader the manner in which
Prof. Johnson treats that part of the subject which relates to the
analysis of coals, we introduce the following extract, relating to
the second specimen of the coals in the above table.

“ Bituminous screened coal vom the mines of the Midlothian Coal Com-
pany’s ‘new shaft, Virginia.

“This sample was received and used in the lump form, which it re-
tained with considerable force. Its fractures present a shining black
resinous, scarcely conchoidal aspect, with distinct lines of the lamine
of deposition. It is mostly free from incrustations of earthy matter, but
occasionally presents some shaly or pyritous portions.

“The powder is of a light brown, indicating a pretty high degree of
bituminousness ; and its streak is nearly of the same color.

“The specific gravity of two specimens (a and }) was found to be
1:3495 and 1:3006, respectively ; the mean of which affords by calcu-
lation the weight of one cubic foot of the coal in the solid state = 82°43
pounds,

“ By thirty one trials in the charge-box, the mean weight per cubic
foot was ascertained to be 47:899 pounds—the lowest result being 42°79,
and the highest 54:125. Hence the actual is to the calculated weight
as 0°5811 to 1.

, ‘“‘ The space required for the stowage of one gross ton is 46° 769 cubic
eet.

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 325

“In the analysis of specimen a, the moisture was found to be 0:74
per cent., and that of 5, 0°914 per cent. In the steam-drying apparatus
28 pounds lost in three days only three ounces, or 0°6696 per cent.

“* The sulphur in b was 2-282 per cent. :

“Of volatile matter, other than moisture, a had 34-72, and } 31:556
per cent.

“*'The coking took place with the emission of a beautiful bright flame.
This indicated a large proportion of olefiant gas, and the absence of
carbonic acid, or other incombustible gaseous matter. ‘Two specimens
tried by Dr. King gave a mean of 35°75 per cent. of volatile matter, in-
cluding moisture.

“* The incineration of a produced 9:549, and that of } 5:48 per cent.

of the raw coal. Hence the composition of the two may be thus repre-
*

sented :
Specimen a, Specimen 5.
Moisture - - - - 0-740 0-914
Sulphur - - : - (not tried.) 2°282
Volatile combustible - - - 84°720 29-274
Earthy matter . - - 9549 5°480
Fixed carbon - - : - 54-991 62-050

100- 100-
Volatile to fixed combustible, 1: 1-584 1: 1-966
“The quantity of coal burned during the three trials of evaporative
effect was 2918°5 pounds.
“The waste matter withdrawn consisted of—
Ashes, (including 1-982 pounds of wood ashes)- 175-25 pounds.
j - - - 12625 *“

Clinker : a

oot «= KS « a z Fi 14-00 ce
The ashes lost by re-incineration - - 16°18 per cent.
The clinker - - - - - 0-00 2
The soot - - - - - 56°75

“Reducing the ashes and soot in these proportions, and deducting
the wood ashes, we have left 277-4—1:932=275-473 pounds of abso-
lutely incombustible matter, or 9°44 per cent. of the coal consumed.
The trials in the large way show this coal to consist of—

Moisture, from 28 pounds - - - 0°6696
Other volatile matter, from four specimens . - 33°4904
Earthy residuum, from 2918°5 pounds - - - 94400
Fixed carbon, by difference - - : - 56°4000

The volatile is, therefore, to the fixed combustible as 1: 1684
Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1945. 42

326 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals,

The weight per cubic foot of the

Ashes, was - - - - - 56°65 pounds.
Clinker - : - = : - 3012 «
Soot - - : 3 St. gg “te

“The clinker is brown on the outside ; but on the fractured surfaces
black, very compact, and heavy ; in sheets of considerable extent, man-
ifestly very fusible, and tending to adhere to the grate. The highly
ferruginous character which it presents, isin accordance with the large
amount of sulphur which was detected in one of the specimens above
analyzed.

‘“‘ The shaly portions embraced in the vitrified clinker are nearly ob-
scured by the fusible coating which encloses them.

“A portion of the specimen 3}, above analyzed, was subjected to
treatment with the oxide of copper: 4:57 grains were thoroughly dried ;
and the result of their treatment, with all the precautions required by
the experiment, was of water 2:23, and carbonic acid 14°82 grains.

“The earthy matter of the raw coal having been determined, as also
the moisture, by previous experiments already detailed, it is easy to
ting the weight of earthy matter in 4°57 grains of dried coal to be

274 grain, which leaves of combustible matter 4-31726 grains; the
Biteiete by analysis, is 024777, the carbon 4°04182 grains ;, leaving
for oxygen and azote — 0-02767, or the relation of these three to
their sum is—

Carbon . - $.99482 = 93-6200 = 15°60 C. in alset

Hydrogen -: - 94st = 57391 — 674 H.

Oxygen andazote - $.92787— 0-6409= 0°800. “

100:

“Tn the raw coal, this analysis enables me to state that the ingredients
are—

Moisture - - - - " - oot
Carbon - i m , " . 87-634
Hydrogen - : s " «872
Oxygen and azote - . * - 0-600
Earthy matter = - “ " . - 5-480
100:

** That the relative amounts of carbon and hydrogen were correctly
determined in the preceding analysis, was rendered highly probable
by the result of another trial, in which the apparatus became injure
before the combustion was complete; but the ratio of the two products
to each other was very nearly the same as in the preceding trial... The

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 327

carbon was 1°2736 grain against hydrogen 007222 grain. As the sum
of the hydrogen and oxygen is 5972 per cent., and that of sulphur
2'282, it is inferred that, in the volatile matter produced by the distilla-
tion of this coal, there will be found 29:274—5-972—=23-302 per cent.
of its carbon. If the heating power be calculated from the above
analysis by the organic method, without taking account of the sulphur,
and only deducting of the hydrogen so much as is equivalent to the
oxygen present, we have the calorific power expressed by 14-596 ;*
or in pounds of water from 212°, for 1 of coal, 14-171. This is far
above the actual result of experiment. The highest evaporative power,
even when allowance was made for the heat expended on the products
of combustion, as well as for that employed on the steam of the boiler,
was but 10°1915. This will be evident from an inspection of the table
of analyses of gases from the chimney.”—pp. 420-422.

Interspersed throughout this portion of the Report are many
other tables and observations of scarcely less importance, but
which it is not in our power to introduce. At page 213 will be
found a “ Tabular view of the proximate composition of Welsh
furnace coals,” with a general description of the exterior and other
characters of these coals. This table is highly interesting from
the facility it gives us of comparing these with American coals of
Similar constitution.

At page 584 is a table showing the “ relative heating power of
different bituminous coals as tested in making chain cable, com-
pared with their evaporative powers.” This embodies the results
of a series of experiments made in the smith’s shops of the navy
yard simultaneously with those performed to prove the evapora-
tive powers of the several kinds of fuel. This is followed by

* Thus the carbon is 0-87634 es the coal, (considering all that was collected in

power of the carbon in the coal. This divided by 1-030 gives the steam generating
power to 1 of coal=10,955. Deducting one eighth of 0-600 (the oxygen) from
5372, we get 5-297; and multiplying by 62,535, (the pete! power of hydrogen,)

we obtain 3-312, and the sum of these is 14,596, as abov By deducting the
moisture (0-6696 per cent.) and the waste left in the third. at of this coal, (10-397
per cent.) we have the remainder 88: 933 per cent. of combustible matter, i which
the total pig He effect 10-1915 must have been produced. Hence 10-1915+
0:88933—11-46)=—=the evaporative power of the unit of matter actually burned in
that sabia as in the sample analyzed, the es part is
0-87634-++-0:05372-+0-00600-=0-93606, the carbon is 0-87634-+-0-93606=0-9362 of
that combustible; and 0-936 290612083, the heating power of the canon") i 1
of this combustible ; and, finally, 12083+-1030=11-731=its evaporative power

328 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

another table and remarks on the “average reductive powers of
American and foreign coals as tested by litharge ;’—the ‘foreign’
coals referred to consisting of anthracites, free-burning and bitu-
minous coals of France, tested by M. Baudin.

The details of the organic analysis of coal from Caseyville, Ky.,
and from the Osage River, Mo., are full and satisfactory, and
serve to show’the ordeal to which all the others would have been
subjected, had time and other circumstances permitted. Unfor-
tunately neither of these two coals was in quantities sufficient to
be submitted to experiments under the boiler.

Table CXC, exhibits the “ proportion of the several wasle ma-
terials from the furnace compared with the weight of fuel burned,
showing also the composition and density of each material.” The
next table exhibits the “effect on the evaporative power of the
unit of combustible matter, produced by closed and open air
plates at the furnace bridge.” The next the “effect of open air
plates on the rates of evaporation in the boiler when using differ-
ent kinds of coal.” But that one which we think the most interest-
ing and original in its results is the table ‘exhibiting the analysis,
proportions, and heat-absorbing powers of gases from combustion.”
These analyses were frequently repeated, as will be seen by refer-
ence to the column of remarks in the table of daily observations,
and made during the progress of the bustion of the material in
the grate, by drawing the gaseous products of that combustion
directly from the flues. From the data thus obtained, and by a
series of laborious calculations, based upon the best established
coéflicients of the specific heat of the several products, the amount
of the evaporative power of the fuel thus disposed of was calcu-
lated. This added to the amount rendered efficient in the gen- -
eration of steam, gives the “total calculated evaporative power to 1
of fuel from 212°. Wecannot leave this subject without recom-
mending this table to the careful study of those who may hereafter
make experiments on this subject. With a well constructed fur-
nace, stack, and chimney, and an apparatus not very complicated,
the efficiency of a fuel disposed of in this way may be as satis-
factorily determined as that which is spent in generating steam.

The following short table we have constructed from Prof. J.’s
remarks to convey an idea of the kind of information derivable
from the experiments on gases just referred to :

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 329

Table exhibiting the per centage of volatile matter in the
combustible part of several classes of coals, and the evaporative
power of the same part, with the proportion which was expend-
ed respectively on the boiler and on the gases passing to the
chimney.

Ee es Rasomnbustibe $¢£ (Evaporative power of 1{ © g2
22/55 n 100) € 5... | Part by weightof coal, | 5 3%

' g8is3 of coal. seo- Sl Sel ee Tel eee
ui ss|Qo2 Ua| #28 |)a8 su} eo8
a esis | a goes] £3) &8 | 32 | oes
. asics | = gezs| se /S3 | eo | ees
= Kind of coal. QH Sb] os fes6°| 34 Fre ee g 3
4 aslo 23] © sage| &¢ | 6s | o> | ors
S Gelso] ; S38 gsciig BS. be
be § vol HQ} 8S o Went 8 33 108 Ere.
beg eS 5 (228! BB i 2as| ES | Pass
: sslege| 8) & (ESe3] SS | S03] 28 | ges)
3 Cee te ° 2s as R22] 29 Sets
rs sio< zis Z2&se <c gee pd mos?

Pennsylvania an- pele ‘ I sks

thra 5 | 3-84! 7-37; 1-34 | 12 | 9-508) 1-996) 17-4 | 12:59
2. Natural ara ‘of Vir-
SeNS eae 1 (13-75/18-46; 2-81 5 | 8-662| 1-517) 15-2 | 12-92
3 Mi sxylen d free burn-
F ing bitumin’us coals,) 5 |15-80) 9-94) 1-25 |. 12 | 9-894) 1-738) 15-0 | 13-09
ennsylvani ree
ban eee ituminous
oe eae 4 |17-01}13-35} 0-82 9 | 9-620) 1-470) 13:3 | 12-92
Virginia
a (Midlothian) coal, | 1 |17-15/16-54) 2-81 | 1. | 8-632} 1-193] 12:2 | 12-10 |
Foreign bitaminous,| 3 |31-75} 8-14) 2-16 8 | 8-252] 1-756) 1 tad 11-18
5° |36-63}10-74| 1-64 | 12 | 8-482) 1-746) 17-1 | 11-51

Z Niegnia bituminous
ey 2 |39-37| 7-61] 2:80 5 | 7-219) 1-501 17.2 9:73

-If there be one peculiarity more striking than another in Prof.
Johnson’s labors it is their useful tendency. After invoking the
most profound principles of natural and chemical philosophy for

the investigations, the result is depicted in such a manner as to
admit of application by the merest practical inquirer. It may
perhaps, by persons who have not duly reflected on the matter,
be charged against this, as we believe it has been against some
reports on other subjects of a somewhat similar character, that he
indulges too much in detail in the publication of his facts. This
we think an unfounded charge, tending only to encourage a course
of loose investigations, injurious to the rigid laws of truth. No
man should undertake the investigation of any important subject
without being thoroughly prepared in every respect ; but however
conscious he may be of having made that preparation, he is bound
to convince the rest of the scientific world of the fact before he
can demand confidence in his deductions. Professor Johnson
has, we think, very properly pursued this course. He presents
a full description of the apparatus, of the subjects operated upon,

330 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals,

the daily and other observations of facts as they occurred and
were originally recorded, with the formule by which the deduc-
tions obtained from these facts were worked out. He who has
any doubt of the correctness of these, has thus before him all the
materials necessary to make his own calculations and deductions.
There is no begging of confidence, no dogmatic assumption of
superior knowledge, no mere enunciation of ex cathedra opinions.

Table CC, exhibiting a synoptical view of the character and
efficiency of the several coals, and table CCI, showing the ranks
of the various coals according to the several practical characters,
may be considered as the summation of the relation and useful
properties of these different kinds of fuel, exhibited in the most
distinct practical point of view. We shall present the entire of
the former table, because it contains valuable information, to
which those may refer who have not the Report.

Table CCI is so arranged as to show the rank of the coals,
Ist, as to relative weight ; 2d, rapidity of ignition; 3d, complete-
ness of combustion ; 4th, evaporative power under equal weights ;
5th, evaporative power under equal bulks ; 6th, evaporative power
of combustible matter; 7th, freedom from waste in burning ;
8th, freedom from tendency to clinker; 9th, maximum evapora-
tive power under given bulks; 10th, maximum rapidity of
evaporation.

These tables show that no one coe presents all the qualities
necessary to place it at the head of every rank, and that therefore
a judicious selection is necessary to secure such as may be re-
quired for peculiar application.

of the several coals.

ciency 0

Taste CC.— General synoptical table of the character and effi

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 331

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Va
Va.
Va
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En
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-
-
-
~

(“ new shaft,”’)

(screened,) -

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g Company's, Va.

(average,)

New York,)

(900 feet shaft,)

pany’s coal, -
(navy yard

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Chesterfield Minin

Designation of coals.
Dry Pine wood,

i

coming Creek, - -
uin’s Run
rthaus,

Kai
Barr's Dee
Midi hian,
Ti

Mid

Mid!

Pict ‘

ictou, (Cunard’s,)

(fro:

othian,

othian,

othian,
’

rpool,

‘ou,

Midlothian,
ec
weastle.
Scotch,
Pittsb
Cannelton

Midi

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 333

The following classified view of twenty five varieties of coal
has been derived from the table of ranks above mentioned, and
may serve to indicate the practical value for steam navigation of
the several classes.

ta Hires ~ 7

se | | S3lau [s2- Eee

Ow 1O.8 a|ses je" e-tegs

ee as B= 23 |Ses fees

rs) os © rs) Nace = Ss 8 3

Class of Names of samples. S33 | “s/e8 Is 2° [28 8

coals. S2aziags Ep lS. ea Sicee

S5S/3F3| So is ss/Fee sess

SSS/SSS| SS \Sa5/S se RISES

See) ae ee 2

Cumber- |Atkinson & Templeman’s, - - | 1000} 1000| 282 | 828] 505 | 3615
land, (Md.)|Easby’s coal in store, - - 936 | 946| 451 | 658} 286

Free burn-'Easby & Smith’s, a ee Se 931] 903} 197 | 886] 329 } 3246

ing, bitu--New York and Md. Mining Co.’s, 914| 927) 111 | 677| 376 | 3005
minous. eff’, - - - - = = | 882] 906) 133/ 877] 298

erages, - - + - | 932] 936| 235 | 785! 359 13248

Vv
Beaver Meadow, slope 5, —- - 923. 982) 1000; 72

Anthra- | Forest Improvement, (Schuylkill,) 940} 955} 741} 790} 150 [3576
cites of |Peach Mountain, (Schuylkill,) - 5| 964} 1 143

Pennsyl- |Lackawa 15| 844; 484) 779| 187 {3209
Vania. Lehigh, NS an aes - | 835) 872} 555) 792) 153 43207
Averages, - - ~ = | 911] 923 797
Free burn-(Quin’s Run, - - - - - {| 960| 913| 458) 726; 667 43724
ing bitu- |Blossburg, - - - = = | 908) 911} 176) 996 3586
minous |Dauphin and Susquehanna, - - | 873| 835) 171| 766) 602 | 3287
coals of /Cambria County, - - ~- - | 863] 860} 172| 867) 250 | 3012
Pennsyl- {Lycoming Creek, - - + = - 871} 184] 706) 291 42885
vani . “687 | 878! 232{ 892! 481 13299
(Chesterfield Mining Company, - | 841) 726) 143/1000) 427 13137
Highly bi-\Midlothian, screened, - - - | 836| 722| 180| 730| 388 | 2856
tuminous |Creek Company’s, - + = | 787| 692) 136; 981 9
Crouch & Snead's ole eh TON 7864. LIS) 6 1 | 2743
Virginia, |Tippecanoe,- - - ~- - | 724| 618) 149) 875 376 | 2742
Averages, - i 793 | '709| 144] 844| 384 2872
gees castle, Eng. > es = | BON] 776, 191, B27, 595 | 3198
Foreign _|Pictou, (Cunart’s sample,) N. S., 792 | 738 | 928; 588 | 3143
bitumin- Sidney, . . bes a iy PSG ka pes plo bo sor} S167
° wir Se, er ee, eee :
sail iSoucke "By * 2:2 2} 649} 625] 107} 947] 521 | 2749
Averages, - - - - 746 | 694| 197! 844| 526 13027
tees BE ce iin Sie SOA: eee SS BS Uae as
ral_|Maryland free burning coals, = {1000} 1000; 395} 880 2

977 | 986 | 1000} 893} 319
938 | 390} 1000; 914

ues for jnous, - 951

rom the {Virginia bituminous, - - ? 850 | 757 ” sag ie
averages of/Foreign bituminous, - - - 801) 741

each class.

From the above scale it appears that in evaporative power under
equal weights, the Cumberland class surpasses the anthracites by
‘about 2-3 per cent., and under equal bulks, by 1-4 percent. They
also surpass the foreign bituminous coals 20 per cent. when we
compare equal weights, and 26 per cent. by equal bulks. In
freedom from clinker the anthracites stand preéminent ; in rapid
production of steam, when once in action, the Pennsylvania bitu-
Vol. xx1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 43

334 Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals.

minous coals are somewhat superior to all others, and for getting
up steam, the foreign bituminous coals take less time than either
of the other classes.

Has the government yet availed itself of the important inform-
ation which these tables present, in making its purchases? Judg-
ing from the advertisements for contracts by the navy depart-
ment, we must say we fear not.

Our eastern depots, we believe, except perhaps the Washing-
ton navy yard, are supplied with anthracite for the use of steam
ships; whilst those of the south have their supplies of the most
bituminous character. Suppose an express shall have been re-
ceived at one of our ports, that a pirate or suspicious looking
cruiser has just been seen, and a steam vessel lying there shall
be ordered to proceed immediately in quest of her. We see by
the thirteenth column of table CC, that if every thing else is in
preparation, it will require from three to four times as long to bring
the steam boiler to steady evaporation by the one as the other,
and therefore that difference in the time at which the steamer
can be considered as performing its full duty. Again, we believe
on the Mexican coast the depots are supplied exclusively with
coals of the highest bituminous character, such as Cannelton,
Ind. and Pittsburg, Pa. The results of the experiments show
that this species of coal was admirably adapted to the short cruis-
ing and rapid running generally required on the coast ; but one of
these vessels may be wanted to cruise among the West Indies or
along the coast of Yucatan. From the nature of this fuel, as
may be seen by referring to the column “cubic feet of space re-
quired to stow a ton,” and “pounds of steam furnished by one
cubic foot of coal,” it is evident that the bunkers of the ship fill-
ed with this kind of coal would not sustain a cruise much more
than one half as long as with some of the other coals.

These are differences of character eminently worthy of the at-
tention of the government.

We merely mention these supposed cases to show the practi-
cable application of the information contained in this Report.
Others not less important might be presented, and we hope that
the departments of government will not fail to avail themselves
of them. 'The money expended on these investigations has been
well spent ;—but if those whose duty it is to apply this inform-
ation, fail to do so, the outlay, so far as the government is con-

Review of Prof. Johnson’s Report on American Coals. 335

cerned, might as well have been spared. Nothing appears more
absurd than an ostentatious display of a desire to obtain informa-
tion, and an unwillingness or incapacity to use it when obtained.

During the last few years, the navy department has shown a
very laudable desire to obtain such information as might be neces-
sary to enable it to avail itself most successfully of the recent
improvements in naval warfare. Too much credit cannot be
given to those who have pursued, or who may hereafter pursue
this course judiciously. It indicates a very proper conception of
the importance of this arm of national defence, and inciden-
tally leads to developments of valuable resources. As might
be expected, some, perhaps many, of the experiments that have
been instituted for this purpose, have not been very creditable in
their results to those who proposed them, or beneficial to the
government. But this must often be the case, particularly when
they are not based upon strictly scientific principles. The ex-
periments recorded in this Report, and the results deduced from
them, are exposed to no such objection. The daily records show
that no preconceived theory existed to give them a partial char-
acter; whilst the labor bestowed in preparing and applying the
most difficult formule proves that the great object was truth.
To obtain this no care was deemed superfluous, no labor too great.
The results of the researches have moreover been reduced to so
practical a condition, that they are entirely within the compre-
hension of the most common capacity. The eagerness with
which this Report has been sought for, both at home and abroad,
sufficiently indicates the great practical interest of the subject.
Foreigners as well as our own countrymen, have begun to look
to American coals, not only for the purposes of warlike and com-
mercial navigation, but also as the direct materials and objects of
trade.

If under any circumstances tpers be wisdom in the maxim,—
“in peace prepare for war,”—it was doubtless a most prudent
measure to place our government in possession of all inform-
ation which could tend to increase the efficiency of our navy, by
developing the value of our resources in coal. Within a few
years past a decided improvement has been observed in the tone
and temper manifested by our public authorities relative to mat
ters affecting the public intelligence. The most ultra and bigoted
no longer scout as formely the labors of science, which are alike

336 Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama.

indispensable to the movements of government, and to the suc-
cess of individual enterprise, alike essential to the material inter-
est and to the social progress of nations. ‘The real statesmen of
our country clearly perceive that scientific investigations, con-
ducted by men specially qualified for such pursuits, are equally
necessary here as in the older dynasties of Europe, and that to
foster ignorance by withholding the means to increase and diffuse
knowledge, is the readiest way to spread over our land the dark-
ness and despotism of the middle ages.

Arr. VIIL—(1.) Description of a mass of Meteoric Iron, which
fell near Charlotte, Dickson County, Tennessee, in 1835;
(2.) Of a mass of Meteoric Iron discovered in De Kalb
County, Tenn. ; (3.) Of a mass discovered in Green County,
Tenn.; (4.) Of a mass discovered in Walker County, Ala-
bama ; by G. Troost, Prof. Chem. and Min. in University of
Nashville, Tenn. ; Member Phil. Soc., and Acad. Nat. Sci. *
Philad. ; of the Geol. Soc. of France, Se: &e.

In a former memoir on meteoric iron,* I mentioned that be-
sides the mass there described, other masses of meteoric iron had
been found in the state of Tennessee,—one near Charlotte, in
Dickson County, and another in De Kalb County, a few miles
west of Cany Fork, near the road from Liberty to the ferry on
that river. When I wrote that memoir, I had seen the latter
mass, but the owner thinking that it was gold, platinum, or sil-
ver, valued it at an extravagant price; having since been con-
vinced that it did not belong to these precious metals, I obtained
it for a moderate price.

The mass from Charlotte, the county seat of Dickson County,
is now also in my possession. I am indebted for it to the kind-
ness of my friend, the Hon. J. Voorhies, senator from Dickson
County in the legistatare of Tennessee. 7

I learned after the publication of the above mentioned memoir,
that another mass of this iron had been found in Green County,
Tennessee, having been ploughed up in a field twelve miles from
Greenfield ; this also is in my cabinet, and for it 1 am indebted

* See this Journal, Vol. xxxrv, p. 250.

x

Meteorie Iron from Tennessee and Alabama. 337

to the Hon. Judge Jacob Peck of Jefferson County, and to Mr.
Estabrook, President of Knoxville College.

A fourth mass was found by Mr. Wiley Speaks in the north-
east corner of Walker County, Alabama. It is also in my cab-
inet, through the kindness of my friend, Dr I. F. Sowell of Ath-
ens, Alabama, who purchased it for me of its discoverer.

Meieoric Iron from Charlotte, Dickson County, Tenn.

There is at present only one single instance where the fall of
meteoric iron has been observed and properly authenticated. I
allude to that of Agram, which fell on the 26th of May, 1751,
about 6 o’clock in the afternoon, at Hraschina, a village near
Agram in Croatia.* Most of this mass is in the Imperial Mineral
Cabinet at Vienna, and it is not only remarkable for its authenti-
cated fall, but also for its excellent preservation, its characteristic
crust, and its well defined Widmannstattian figures, &c. All the
other known masses of meteoric iron were accidentally discover-
ed, and their meteoric origin is proved only by the characters
which distinguish them from all terrestrial products. ‘The state
of Tennessee can now boast of possessing a second mass, (the
fall of which was witnessed by several persons,) which is not in-
ferior in any of the properties possessed by the Agram iron,} and
which now forms one of the ornaments of my cabinet.

A member of the legislature of the state of Tennessee from
Charlotte, county seat of Dickson, (I do not remember his name, )
having seen my description of the Cocke County meteoric iron,
mentioned to me some years ago, that a curious mass of some metal
was in the possession of one of his constituents, which he thought
might be or the same nature as that of Cocke County. He was
not able to give me any other information, but becoming ac-

* Von allen bekannten meteorischen eisenmassen ist die Agramer die einzige
deren herabfallen sammt allen nebenamstanden beobachted worden ist, sie is so-
wohl indieser hinsecht als durch ihre oberflache, die rinde von eg beschaf-
fenhert, die vellkorumenbert 58 widmannstattischen Sgarea U.S. Pipe die merk-

Paul Partsch .—Uber die Meteorit en oder von Himmel gefallenen steine und Eisen-
msasen in K.K. Hof- race aig Fag VN zu Wien. 1843, pag. 106.

t There is a small specimen of e Agram iron in the cabinet of Yale College.
Through the kindness of the late ‘Sass Lederer it was obtained in exchange for
American meteorites ; it has very decidedly the characteristic cystalbiiatiea —Eds.

338 Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama.

quainted since with the Hon. J. Voorhies, senator of Dickson
County, I learned from him that such mass really existed, that he
knew the person in whose possession it was, &c. Having thus
learned that I desired to obtain it, my friend, the senator, did not
rest till he had secured the specimen and put me in possession of
it and its history.

I learned then the following facts from Senator Voorhies, and
these facts have since been confirmed by other persons. In an-
swer to a letter which I wrote about this iron to the senator, he
answered :—“ I have collected all the facts in connection with
the history of the meteoric mass which I sent you last year, but
I have not been able to add much to those thatI have already
communicated. There is no doubt that this mass fell from
heaven upon the earth, where it shortly after was found, though
the precise date cannot be recollected. I was told that a noise
was heard in the air, which was preceded by a vividlight. This
happened while several persons were laboring in their fields. A
man who lives at present in this vicinity, was ploughing at the
time when this took place ; his horse took fright, and ran around
the field dragging the plough behind him; he recollected this cir-
cumstance very well, and it enables him to fix the date upon which
the fall took place. He believes that it was in 1835, on the last
of July or the first of August, between 2 and 3 o’clock in the
afternoon,—the sky being cloudless. It fell, before the last
ploughing, in a cotton field opposite his dwelling. The iron was
found when the field was ploughed for the last time that season.
Its fall was not vertical but much inclined, and it travelled with
great rapidity from west towards the east, as was evident from
the furrow that had been made in the ground. The original
shape of the mass was that of a kidney. Its smaller extremity
was cut off by a blacksmith who yet lives in this vicinity.
When it was first taken out of the ground, it had the appearance
as if it had been heated.”

According to this letter and the information which I collected
at the place itself, where it fell—the Dickson iron fell, as already
stated, on the last of July or the first of August, between 2 and 3
o’clock, p.m. It has the form of a drop, or rather of a depressed
tear; one side is partly flat and partly concave, while the other
side is convex,—the form a drop of viscid matter would assume,
if it fell upon a hard floor. The surface has the appearance of

Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama. 339

smooth cast iron. It is surrounded by a zone or girdle of a
metal of a whiter color, and of a more compact texture, possessing
a more or less bright polish, which seems to have been produced
by a more fluid part of the metal, squeezed through the pores of
the already solid iron, by pressure probably occasioned by the fall,
which spreading itself as a thin cover over the surface, formed
the zone or girdle mentioned above.

Fig. 1.

In the above drawing, fig. 1, I give a figure of the mass, in
half its natural size, representing its superior or convex surface A,
and the zone or girdle of white metal BBB. At C isa kind of
indenture, which could have been formed by nature only ina
viscid matter; occasioned by contraction during refrigeration.
Fig. 2 represents a horizontal section of the mass at line a, 6, fig.
1, half its natural size.

340 Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama.

Fig. 2.
Superior surface.

As mentioned above, the surface of the mass (when viewed
with the naked eye) has the appearance of smooth cast iron; but
the irregularity of this surface disappears when it is examined
through a powerful magnifying glass. 'The whole becomes then
a reticulated plane, formed by the edges of thin laminz of metal,
separated from each other by an apparently semi-fused or slaggy
matter. These lamine running in an inclined position into the
mass, intersect one another at angles of 60°, and consequently
forming equilateral triangles, would divide the mass into regular
octahedrons. Fig. 3 represents this surface powerfully magnified.

Fig. 3.

original weight, judging from the size of the piece cut off before
it came in my possession must have been between 9 and 10 pounds.

Its fracture, judging from the piece that was partly cut and partly
broken off before I got it, has the character of that of a very soft
kind of malleable iron, showing at the same time in its jagged
fracture some regularity of crystallization.

Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama. 341

Meteoric Iron from De Kalb County, Tenn.

Nothing is known respecting the fall of this iron. The first
knowledge that I received of it, was from the Hon. Judge Brown
of Nashville. I went immediately to the place where it had
been discovered. It had then already changed owners, and I found
it in the possession of the son of the person that found it by
ploughing, who lives near the mouth of the Cany Fork. I could
hardly persuade this person to give me a view of it, and he did
not form a very favorable opinion of my honesty when I told
him that it was iron, and particularly when I spoke of purchas-
ing it; all the answer that I could get was, “Iron, you say! I
have lived too long to be cheated in this way.” It was immedi-
ately locked up, and I had to depart without it. It afterwards
passed through several hands, and at last the idea of its being
any thing else than iron being abandoned, I was enabled to pur-
chase it from a gun-smith, now living about 10 miles from Nash-
ville.

Only one piece of it was discovered. Its weight when it came
into my possession was about 36 pounds. Its original weight
must have been greater, as several chips had been cut from the
surface, by which the blacksmiths and silversmiths found out that
it was not gold or silver.

When I first saw the mass, it had an ochrey-brown glossy-sur-
face, but the least scraping with an iron tool brought the natural
iron color to light, so that it was not covered eh acrust. It
had an irregular oval sha

This iron is remarkable ie its Widmennstattian or crystalline
figures, which are handsomely displayed on the section, without
its being subjected to any chemical operation.* ‘These figures
are shown on the polished surface by the section of lamin which
are imbedded through the whole mass of iron. These laminze
are easily distinguished from the rest of the mass by their color,
which is almost silver white; they are harder and receive a
brighter polish than the bulk of the mass. When these lamine
are cut parallel to their planes, or nearly so, they exhibit only
irregular spots, but where they are cut transversely, though irreg-

* These figures are produced by the ‘action of acids, by which the more soluble
part of iron is dissolved, while the less soluble part shows itself in relief upon the
surface.

Vol. xr1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 44

342 Meieoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama.

ularly dispersed through the iron, they exhibit a regular arrange-
ment; they are all inclined towards each other in such manner
that if they were extended till they met at the extremities, they
would form equilateral triangles, so that they indicate the crys-
talline structure of the mass, which is that of octahedrons. In
this respect it coincides with Cocke County iron.* The latter
being more or less subject to decomposition, I was able to separate
several of these lamin, which have almost the color and lustre
of burnished silver, and are not yet tarnished, though they have
been exposed for five or six years to the influence of the atmos-
pheric air.

There is no doubt that these pellicles or amine, though equally
attracted by the magnet, have a different composition from other
parts of the iron, and this seems to be the cause that the several
analyses made of the same iron seldom give the same result.

The polished section of my cabinet specimen, offers a surface
of about 7 by 4: inches; it exhibits in this space two large
heterogeneous masses, one of about + of an inch and the other
about 2 of an inch in diameter, and others smaller. I consider
these masses as composed principally of graphite, intimately mix-
ed with metallic iron, as the powder which I scraped off is feebly
attracted by the magnet, and soils paper like common plumbago,
and its streak has a black metallic lustre. In this respect, also, it
resembles the Cocke County iron. Upon the whole it is an inter-
esting variety. —

Meteoric Iron from Green County, Tenn.

It seems that Mr. Estabrook, President of the College at Knox-
ville, East Tennessee, learned from Mr. Francis M. Davis of
Greenville, that a mass of some metal had been found in Green
County, East Tennessee. Mr, Estabrook requested Mr. Davis to
secure it for him, in order to transmit it to me. Mr. Davis’s an-
swer, dated the 3d of July, 1842, is as follows :—“ In compliance
with your request I have obtained the mass of metal to which
yourefer, The whole mass that I have, weighs about 14 pounds ;
6 or 8 pounds have been broken off. The form of the whole
mass is very irregular, having the appearance of having been

* See this Journal, Vol. xxxvuz1, p. 251.

Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama. 343

melted. The surface alone is oxydated, resembling very much
ordinary oxydated iron. Its interior seems to be crystallized, but
as to the form of the crystal, I cannotsay. Its appearance is that
of silver or polished steel, perfectly compact, and malleable to a
great degree. It was found insulated,” &c.

This piece was then divided, and part of it sent to Mr. Esta-
brook and part to Judge Jacob Peck. I obtained the two pieces.
Judge Peck wrote me,—‘‘'The piece of iron I send you from
Green County was ploughed up in a field near Babb’s mill, 9 or
10 miles north of Greenville. Tt had been worked for the silver it
contained, but the artist could not separate the silver from the
other metal; because there was none in it.

It appears from the above information that this iron also was
considered by its discoverer as silver, or some precious metal. It
was therefore submitted to some operations in fire, which has more
or less altered its surface, but I doubt very much whether it
could have had any influence on its internal structure. Now this
structure differs very much from that of the generality of the
meteoric iron masses with which I am acquainted. In the letter
above quoted, Mr. Davis says, that ‘its interior seems to be crys-
tallized ;’ but this gentleman, as appears from his letter, having
no mineralogical knowledge, was not well able to distinguish a
crystalline from a coarse granular structure.

Its internal structure is coarse granular ; its color is rather whiter
than that of pure iron; and it is very malleable, equal if not su-
perior in this respect, to the softest mrebught iron ; no traces of
pyrites, or of any other heterog tances are perceptible
in it.

I doubted at first its meteoric origin, its fracture resembling
that of a hard and white kind of cast iron, and its surface show-
ing the effects of the action of fire. I submitted it therefore to
analysis.

42-3 grains of it gave me,—

cent.
Peroxide of iron, 53°18 grs. = Iron, (metallic) 2 87= ‘87° 58

Protoxide of nickel, 525 “ = Nickel, “ 13=12-42
Loss, i 30
42:30

Probably the quantity of nickel here mentioned is too great ;
perhaps it may contain some other metallic ingredients, but the

344 Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama.

state of my health at that time did not permit me to be longer
engaged in chemical investigations, and therefore I did not ascer-
tain the purity of the nickel. It was satisfactory to me that it
- did contain a notable quantity of nickel, and that hereby its me-
teoric origin was put beyond doubt. But even if the nickel had not
established its meteoric origin, what could it be? I mentioned
above, that in its granular structure it did resemble more or less
_ some white cast iron, but its softness and malleability show that
it cannot be that. Cast iron when it is white, is always hard
and breaks under the hammer. This is not the case with our
iron; I can cut small chips of it with a knife. I doubt whether
this can be done from white cast iron! Its fracture distinguishes
it also from wrought iron.

Meteoric Iron from Walker County, Ala.

As already mentioned, I owe the Walker County, Alabama
meteoric iron to the politeness of my friend, I. F. Sowell, M. D.,
of Athens, Alabama, who purchased it for me from its discoverer,
Mr. Wiley Speaks, living in Morgan County, Alabama. He
found it in the autumn of 1832 in the northeast corner of Walker
County, while ona deer-hunting excursion. He had stopped
to rest upon a little spur of mountain, when he observed the mass
with its large end deeply buried in the ground, leaving only a
small portion of the small end protruding. Believing it to be
some precious metal, he took especial pains to have it safely and
secretly conveyed to his house, some 15 miles off, where it re-
mained till February, 1843, when it came into the possession of
Dr. Sowell, and shortly after I received it in Nashville.

The original weight was about 165 pounds; this weight was
somewhat diminished when it came into my possession, some
_ small pieces having been chiseled off. This must of course be
~ expected, as these masses fall mostly into the hands of ignorant
persons, who are generally on the look-out for some of the pre-
cious metals, (as silver and gold are usually called,) and conse-
quently every thing that is uncommon is very often considered as
such. It is therefore necessary, in order to convincé themselves
of its true nature, that some small parts of it should be sent to a
silversmith, ew

Meteoric Iron from Tennessee and Alabama. 345

Its shape was irregularly oval, partly covered with a brown
oxydated crust, which in some places penetrated 1 of an inch in-
to the mass, at other places the pure iron is at the surface. The
iron is very compact. Its fracture is very crystalline, exhibiting
when broken triangular lamine, some of which are about 2 of
an inch long. I doubt not, therefore, that it is susceptible of pro-
ducing the Widmannstattian figures. On the polished surface
of the section, several lines are perceptible; they are placed in
such positions towards each other, that in case they were in con-
tact they would form equilateral triangles.

By sawing this mass I discovered a nodule about 2} inches
long, 2 inches broad, and 11 inches high. This nodule being
placed near the external surface, and the saw-cut going through
it; and it being separated from the generality of the mass by
some thin pellicles of a white brilliant metal, as mentioned in the
_ description of the De Kalb County iron, I could disengage it
easily from the mass by some slight blows witha hammer. The
part of this nodule that was imbedded, shows a very crystalline
surface.

This iron is not much influenced by atmospheric agencies, but
where the brown oxidized crust penetrates the mass, as observed
above, some chemical action takes place. I have often found that,
just at the junction of the crust with the metallic iron, during a
humid. state of the atmosphere, small pearls of a brown fluid
would make their appearance ; these fluid globules would some-
times become covered by a brown pellicle, and when the atmos- .
phere was very dry the whole of the fluid would disappear, and
hothing but the empty spherical pellicle remained. I could not
conceive the cause of these fluid globules, and endeavored there-
fore to collect some of the fluid, thinking at the moment, of the
discovery of chlorine in meteoric iron by Dr. Jackson. I brought
some of it to the surface of a weak solution of nitrate of silver,
and immediately a small stream of a white color went to the bot-
tom; of course here I had the chlorine. This chlorine does not
exist in the iron. ‘T'o convince myself of this, 1 took some filings
of it, (between 5 and 6 grains,) and having saturated some pure
hitric acid with them, dropped it into a similar solution of silver
as above; no precipitate ensued. I made experiments, also, with
the little fluid globules, in the presence of Prof. Litton, with the
Same result.

346 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

_ In examining the action of the magnetic needle on the oxidi-
zed crust of the Alabama iron, I found that most of this crust
was attracted by the magnet, and that some of it exhibited con-
stantly a powerful polarity, and attracted iron filings. On this
occasion I examined the magnetism of some large pieces of me-
teoric iron which had a polished surface. I found when these
surfaces were placed vertically, that invariably the north pole of
the needle was attracted by the upper edge, and the south pole
by the lower one; and moving the needle from the upper toward
the lower edge, along the surface, without being in contact with
it, I arrived at a place where neither of the poles was attracted ;
continuing on till I arrived near the lower margin, the south pole
was again attracted. This is invariably the case in whatever
position in regard to the horizon the polished surface is placed,
and however suddenly this position is changed. I found this to
be the case with.all iron. Whether this fact is known to those
who have made magnetism an object of peculiar investigation,
I cannot say. It is very possible that it must be attributed to
the general magnetism of the globe.

Art. IX.—On the Allotropism of Chlorine as connected with
the Theory of Substitutions; by Joan Wiut1am Draper,
M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of New York.*

Tue researches of M. Dumas on chemical types have shown
that between chlorine and hydrogen remarkable relations exist,
indicating that the electrical characters of elementary atoms are
not essential but rather incidental properties. 'The extension of
these researches has given much weight to the opinion that the
electro-chemical theory may be regarded as failing to account for
the replacement of such bodies as hydrogen by chlorine, bromine,
oxygen, &c. Ido not know that as yet any direct evidence has
been offered that the electrical character of an atom is not an es-
sential quality, but one that changes with circumstances. It ap-
pears to be rather a matter of inference than of absolute demon-
stration,

It is the object of this memoir to furnish such direct evidence,
and to show that chlorine, the substance which has given rise to

* Communicated by the author.

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 347

the discussions connected with the theory of substitutions, under
the very circumstances contemplated, has its electro-chemical
relations changed.

ore than two years ago I brought before the British Associa-
tion some of the facts. They were subsequently published in
the Philosophical Magazine ina memoir on “ 'Tithonized Chlo-
rine.”* 'T"he connexion of these experiments with the discussion
between the theory of substitutions and the electro-chemical theory
is obvious.

Very recently M. Berzelius has published an important paper
on the allotropism of simple bodies, the object of which is to
point out that many of those bodies can assume different qualities
by being subjected to certain modes of treatment. Thus carbon
furnishes three forms—charcoal, plumbago, and diamond.

To acertain extent these views coincide with those which
have offered themselves to me from the study of the properties of
chlorine. They are not however altogether the same. M. Ber-
zelius infers that elementary bodies can, as has been said, assume
under varying circumstances different qualities. 'The idea which
it is attempted to communicate in this memoir is simply this,—
that a given substance, such as chlorine, can pass from a state of
high activity, in which it possesses all its well known properties,
to a state of complete inactivity, in which even its most energetic
affinities disappear. And, that between these extremes there
are innumerable intermediate points.. Between the two views
there is therefore this essential difference,—from the former, it
does not appear what the nature of the newly assumed properties
may be; from the latter, they must obviously be of the same
character, and differ only in intensity or degree—diminishing
from stage to stage until complete inactivity results.

n the case of chlorine the same activity which is communi-
cated by the indigo rays can also be communicated by a high
temperature, or by the action of platina. The term “ tithonized
chlorine,” which I formerly used, is therefore too restricted, and,
indeed, in this view of the case improper. ‘The simple appella-
tions—active and passive, are perhaps the best, and I shall there-
fore employ them.

* London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Mag., July, 1844.

348 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

The points which this memoir is intended to establish are,—

I. That chlorine gas can exist under two forms. In the same
way that metallic iron can exist as active or passive iron, chlorine
can assume the active or passive state

II. Having established the fact of the allotropism of chlorine, I
shall then show its connexion with the theory of substitutions of
M. Dumas, and how the most remarkable points in that theory
may be easily accounted for.

The time, perhaps, has not yet arrived for offering a complete
mechanical explanation of the assumption of an active or passive
state. It may be remarked, that a very trivial modification of our
admitted views of the relation between: atoms and their proper-
ties, is all that is required to give a consistent explanation of every
one of these facts. Instead of regarding the specific qualities of
an atom as appertaining equally to the whole of it in the aggre-
gate, we have merely to assume that there is a relation between
its properties and its sides, and that any force which can make
it change its position upon its own axis will throw it into the ac-
tive or passive state. But this is nothing more than the well
known idea of the polarity of atoms.

Phenomena of the silk ee of Water by Chlorine in the
ays of the Sun.

From the various facts which might be employed as oitatg
the means of establishing the allotropism of chlorine, I shall select
those which arise from an examination of the phenomena of the
decomposition of an aqueous solution of chlorine by the rays of
the sun.

For many years it has been known that an aqueous solution of
chlorine undergoes decomposition by the aid of the solar rays.
Several of the most remarkable phenomena connected with this
decomposition appear to have been overlooked. Among such
may be mentioned the singular fact, that chlorine which has
been thus influenced by the sun has obtained the quality of ef-
fecting this decomposition subsequently, to a measured extent,
even in the dark. Not to anticipate what I have to offer on this
point, I shall now proceed in the first place to establish the va-
rious facts connected with the decomposition in question.

Having provided a number of small glass vessels, consisting of
a bulb and neck of the capacity of from 1-5 to 2-0 cubic inches,

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 349

I filled them with a solution of chlorine in recently boiled water,
and inverted them in small glass bottles containing the same
solution, as shown in fig. 1. With these bulbs the following ex-
periments were made.

I, An aqueous solution of chlorine does not decompose in the
dark.

One of the bulbs was shut up in a dark closet, and kept there
for a week,—being examined from time to time. No decompo-
sition was perceptible, for no gas collected in the upper part of
the bulb.

If. An aqueous solution of chlorine decomposes in the light.

One of the bulbs was placed in a beam of the sun reflected into
the room by a heliostat. For sixteen minutes no change was
perceptible ; then small bubbles of gas made their appearance ;
they increased in quantity for a time, but finally the speed of de-
composition became uniform. On analysis by explosion with
hydrogen, after washing out any chlorine contained in it, this
gas was found to contain 97 per cent. of oxygen.

Ill. The rapidity of this decomposition depends on the quan-
tity of the rays, and on the temperature.

In various repetitions of these experiments, on different days,
I soon convinced myself that the rate of evolution of the oxygen
depended on the quantity of the rays. Among other proofs I
may mention this :—After ascertaining the rate of decomposition
in the reflected beam, if the bulb be set in the direct sunshine,
the bubbles increase in number; the total quantity of oxygen
evolved becoming greater in the same space of time, an effect ob-
viously due to the difference of intensity of the reflected and in-
cident beams. When a certain point is gained, apparently no
further increase of effect takes place on increasing the brilliancy
of the light, as I found by employing a convex lens

With respect to the influence of temperature. If while one of
the bulbs is actively evolving gas in the sun-rays, it be warmed
by the application of a spirit lamp, the amount of gas thrown off
becomes very much greater. A difference of a few degrees pro-
duces a striking effect. As an illustration of this, I placed in the
Sunshine two bulbs which were nearly alike, except that one of
them was painted black with India ink on that portion which
was farthest from the sun. The rays coming through the trans-
parent part had access to the solution, and then impinging on the

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 45

350 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

dark side raised its temperature. On measuring the quantity of
gas collected, it was found,

In the transparent bulb, ~ - . 3:46

In the half blackened bulb, - - - 6-19

IV. The decomposition of water, once begun in the sunbeams,
goes on afterwards in the dark.

1st. This very important fact may be established in a variety
of ways. Thus, if a bulb be removed from the sunshine whilst
it is actively evolving gas, and be placed in the dark after all the
gas has been turned out of it, a slow evolution continuously goes
on; the gas collecting in the upper part of the bulb.

2d. A bulb A, Fig. 2, having a neck 8, the end of which was
bent at c upwards at an angle of about 45 degrees, was employed.
After exposure to the sun, by inverting the bulb and with one
finger closing the extremity c, the gas disengaged could be trans-
ferred to a graduated vessel and measured. I satisfied myself by
several variations of this arrangement that the small quantity of
water, introduced from time to time when the gas bubble escaped
from the end of the tube e, exerted no essential influence on the
phenomenon. The following table shows the amount of gas
evolved in the dark during the periods indicated.

The bulb having been exposed to the sunshine, in ten minutes
the evolution of gas commenced, and in an hour, +107 cubic inch
having collected, this was thrown away, and the arrangement
placed in the dark. To prevent the undue escape of the chlorine,
the flat piece of glass d, was laid on the open end of the tube ¢
In each successive hour the quantity of gas given in the following
table was then evolved

First hour, ~ “ « . 29462
Second “ - . ocala “ie sxe@R50
Third “ - - ” - 0086
Fourth “ - - - - +0060
Fifth - - - = 0088. -4
Sixth “

And for four days aicormendt gas was collecting in the bulb in
diminished quantities.

V. This evolution of gas in the dark is not merely a gradual
escape of oxygen, originally formed whilst the solution was eX
posed to the sun, but is traceable to an influence continuously
exerted by the chlorine, arising in properties it has acquired du-
ring its exposure to the rays.

as conneeted with the Theory of Substitutions. 351

If a bulb which has been exposed to the sun be raised by a
spirit lamp to such a temperature that its gaseous constituents
are rapidly evolved, its extremity dipping beneath some of the
solution in the bottle, after allowing a sufficient space of time for
the disengaged chlorine to be re-dissolved, and the oxygen be
turned out of the bulb, it will be found on keeping the arrange-
ment in the dark, that oxygen will slowly disengage as before.

Now, there is every reason to believe that any small amount
of oxygen dissolved in the liquid would be expelled with the
chlorine at a high temperature. We therefore have to infer that
the chlorine after this treatment still retains the quality of causing
the decomposition steadily to go forward.

The oxygen which thus accumulates in the course of time in
the dark, after an exposure to the sun, does not arise from any
portion of that gas held in a state of temporary solution, nor from
peroxide of hydrogen, nor from chlorous acid in the liquid, un-
dergoing partial decomposition. From any of these states a high
temperature would disengage it.

VI. The evolution of gas is not of the nature of a fermentation ;
for when it once sets in, the molecular motion is not propagated
from particle to particle, but affects only those which were
originally exposed to the rays.

Let a bulb be filled with chlorine water which has been ex-
posed to the sun, and in a second bulb place a quantity of the
Same liquid equal to about one third of its capacity. Fill up the
remaining two thirds with chlorine water which has been made
and kept in the dark; and after keeping both bulbs in obscurity
for some days, measure the volumes of gas they contain. If the
qualities of chlorine, which has been changed by exposure, were
communicable, by contact or close proximity, from atom to atom,
Wwe might expect that both the bulbs would yield the same quan-
' tity of gas; but this is far from being the case, and in such an
experiment I found that the bulb containing the mixture gave
only one fourteenth of the gas which was found in the other.

VII. The quantity of gas which thus collects in the dark, de-
pends on the intensity of the original disturbance ; which in its
turn depends on the time of exposure to the rays, to their intensity,
and other such conditions, In other words, the rays are perfectly
definite in their action,—a long exposure giving a larger amount
of subsequent decomposition, and a short exposure a less amount.

352 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

On exposing a bulb filled with chlorine water to the rays until
bubbles of gas began to appear, and a second one until the de-
composition had been actively going on for a quarter of an hour,

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 353

and then transferring both to the dark, and measuring the oxygen
which collected at the end of a day, I found in the former one
twelfth of what was collected in the latter.

VII. In agiven quantity of chlorine water, the decomposition
in the dark corresponding to a given exposure to the light having
been performed, and the proper quantity of oxygen evolved, and
the phenomenon ended, it can be reéstablished from time to time,
as long as any chlorine is found in the liquid, by a renewed ex-
posure to the sun.

In a glass vessel like Fig. 3, which, indeed, was nothing more
than one of Liebig’s drying apparatus, I placed a sufficient quan-
tity of chlorine water to fill the larger vessel, and also the vertical
tubes half full. After exposing this to the light for a certain time,
until decomposition had fairly set in, I placed it in the dark, and
found that for several days it gave off gas,—the quantity contin-
ually diminishing. Finally, no more gas was evolved. But the
liquid still contained free chlorine, as was shown by its color. I
therefore again exposed it to the sun, and repeating the former
observation, found that it evolved gas for several days in the dark.
A third exposure was followed by the same result.

The form of this vessel renders it very convenient for these ex-

periments; because when sufficient gas has collected for the pur-
pose of observation, it is easily removed by inclining the instru-
ment, without the necessity of introducing fresh quantities of
liquid.
Having found, as has been said, that the rapidity of the decom-
Position depended to a certain extent on the temperature, it
Seemed desirable to determine whether heat alone could bring
about the change. | ,

IX. The decomposition of water by chlorine is not brought
about by mere elevation of temperature when the liquid is set in
the stunbeam,—although heat accelerates, it does not give rise to
the phenomenon.

Ist. I raised by a spirit lamp the temperature of one of the
bulbs nearly to its boiling point, until so much gas was given off
that all the liquid was expelled from the tube to the bottle be-
heath. If at this temperature, which probably was higher than
200° Fahr., chlorine had been able to decompose water, an equiv-
alent quantity of oxygen would have been produced ; but on al-
lowing the apparatus to cool, all the gas was re-absorbed, with

354 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

the exception of a small bubble, amounting in volume to ;,),7 of
the water. This bubble, which was left after the chlorine was
re-condensed, I found in three different experiments contained 32,
33, and 36 per cent. of oxygen,—the remainder being nitrogen ;
but this being nearly the constitution of the gas which is dis-
solved in ordinary water, the source from which the small bubble
came was inferred to be the water used in these experiments,

2d. One of the bulbs was painted black all over with India ink.
Its temperature now rose much higher than in former experi-
ments when it was set in the sun, but not a bubble of oxygen
appeared.

X. When chlorine water has been exposed to the sun, the
oxygen accumulated in it is readily expelled by raising the tem-
perature.

Having exposed one of the bulbs used in the last experiment,
until it was actively evolving gas, I raised its temperature with
the spirit lamp until the bulb was full of gas, But, on cooling,
this gas did not all condense as in the last instance, a large quan-
tity remained behind. 'This was oxygen.

These ninth and tenth facts are of further interest, as bearing
upon a question which has been much discussed by chemists,—
the nature of the bleaching compounds of chlorine. 'The chloride
_ of lime, and other such substances, probably have the same the-_
oretical constitution as chlorine water. Berzelius and Balard sup-
pose, that in this solution chlorous or hypothlorous acids exist.
It might be inquired, if this be the condition of things, why does
not an exposure to heat alone evolve oxygen, for chlorous acid is
exceedingly liable to decomposition by slight elevation of tem-
perature, and we should be justified in inferring that if any of
this acid is to be found in chlorine water, it would be decomposed
at the boiling point. M. Millon adopts the view that the bleach-
ing compounds are metallic chlorides analogous to the corres-
ponding peroxides. But the ninth fact seems incompatible with
this view. If chlorine water be analogous to peroxides of hydro-
gen, and this last be what its name imports, and not merely
oxygenated water, it is difficult to understand why when chlorine
water is thus boiled oxygen is not given off. If the atom of
chlorine and the atom of oxygen in this body are placed under
the same relations to the atom of hydrogen, it seems necessary
that the chlorine atom at 212° Fahr. should expel the oxygen

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 355

atom, and chlorohydric acid form. It is probable, indeed, that
the two oxygen atoms in peroxide of hydrogen are related to their
hydrogen atoms with different degrees of affinity, and that one of
them is retained far more loosely than the other. But this would
correspond with our ideas of oxygenized water and not peroxide
of hydrogen, and leads us to the conclusion that the solution em-
ployed in this memoir is strictly a solution of chlorine in water.
XI. The decomposition of chlorine water, when placed in the
sunbeam, does not begin at once, but a certain space of time inter-
venes, during which the chlorine is undergoing its specific change.
I need quote no further instance of the truth of this than the
experiment given in support of the second fact. This is the same
phenomenon which takes place when chlorine and hydrogen are
exposed together ; they do not begin to unite at once, but a cer-
tain space of time elapses, during which the preliminary tithoni-
zation is taking place ; and when that is over union begins.*

On the Relations of Chlorine and Hydrogen.

We have thus traced the cause of the decomposition of water,
in the case before us, to a change impressed upon the chlorine by
exposure to the rays of the sun. \ In this decomposition three el-
ementary bodies are involved—chlorine, oxygen, and hydrogen. —

We can therefore reduce the problem under discussion to sim-
ple conditions, and study the relations of each of these substances
to each other and to the solar rays successively.

When a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases, in the —
tion to form water, is exposed to the most brilliant radiation con-
verged upon it by convex lenses, union does not ensue; the rea-
son being, as I have formerly shown, that those gases are per-
fectly transparent to the rays, and do not possess either real or
ideal coloration. For the same cause, water exposed alone for
any length of time to the sun, or to the influence of a large con-
vex lens, does not decompose. It is transparent, and cannot ab-
sorb any of the rays.

But, as is well known, a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen
unites, under the same circumstances, with an explosion. I have
formerly proved that this depends on the absorption of the indigo
rays. Forin the indigo space the action goes on with the —
activity,
ae

* Philosophical Magazine, July, 1844.

356 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

If, therefore, this phenomenon is due to absorption taking place
by the mixture, it is easy to determine the function discharged
by each of its ingredients.

I transmitted a ray of light through hydrogen gas, contained
in a tube seven inches long, the ends of which were terminated
by pieces of flat glass; and then dispersing the ray by a flint
glass prism, received the resulting spectrum on a daguerreotype
plate. Simultaneously, by the side of it, I received the spectrum
of aray which had. not gone through hydrogen, but through a
similar tube filled with atmospheric air. On comparing the im-
pressions together, I could find no difference between them.

I therefore infer that hydrogen gas does not exert any absorp-
tive action on the solar rays.

In one of the foregoing tubes I placed dry chlorine gas, the
other containing atmospheric air as before, and receiving the
two spectra side by side on the same daguerreotype plate, I found
that a powerful absorption had been exercised by the chlorine.
All the tithonic rays between the fixed line H and the violet ter-
mination of the spectrum were removed, and no impression cor-
responding to their place was left upon the plate. On repeating
this experiment so as to determine with precision the rays which
had been absorbed, I found that chlorine absorbs all the rays of
the spectrum included between the fixed line i and the violet
termination, and is probably affected by all those waves whose
lengths are between 0:00001587 and 0-00001287 of a Paris
inch ; and inasmuch as it absorbs photic rays included between
the same limits, it is to this absorption that its yellow color is due.

In the Philosophical Magazine the same result was establish-
ed by me in another way. I found that a ray which had passed
through a given thickness of a mixture of equal volumes of
chlorine and hydrogen, lost by absorption just half as much of
its original intensity as when it passed through the same thick-
ness of pure chlorine gas ; a result which obviously leads to the
conclusion that when chlorine and hydrogen unite, under the
influence of the sun, they discharge functions which are differ-
ent—the chlorine an active and the hydrogen a passive function.
The primary action or disturbance takes place upon the chlo-
rine, and a disposition is communicated to it enabling it to unite
readily with the hydrogen.

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 357

By arranging a series of tubes containing a mixture of these
gases in the spectrum, it was found that the gases situated in the
indigo space went into union first.

These various experiments enabling us thus to trace to the
chlorine the source of disturbance, I have next to remark, that
chlorine which has been exposed to the rays of the sun has
gained thereby a tendency to unite with hydrogen which is not
possessed by chlorine which has been made and kept in the dark.
In proof of this fact, I may cite an experiment from the Philo-
sophical Magazine for July, 1844.

“Tn two similar white glass tubes place equal volumes of chlo-
rine which has been made from peroxide of manganese and mu-
riatic acid by lamplight, and carefully screened from access of
daylight. Expose one of the tubes to the full sunbeams for
some minutes, or if the light be feeble, for a quarter of an hour.
The chlorine which is in it becomes tithonized.. Keep the other
tube during this time carefully in a dark place; and now, by
lamplight, add to both equal volumes of hydrogen gas. ‘These:
processes are best carried on in a small porcelain or earthen-
ware trough, filled with a saturated solution of common salt,
which dissolves chlorine slowly, and to avoid explosions, ope-
rate on limited quantities of the gases. ‘Tubes that are eight
inches long and half an inch in diameter will answer very
MBE iS hx;

“The tubes now contain the same gaseous mixture, and differ
only in the circumstance that one is tithonized and the other not.
Place them therefore side by side before a window, through
which the entrance of daylight can be regulated by opening the
shutter; and now, if this part of the process is conducted prop-
erly, it will be seen that the tithonized chlorine commences to
unite with the hydrogen, and the salt water rises in that tube.
But the untithonized chlorine shows no disposition to unite with
its hydrogen, and the liquid in its tube remains motionless for a
long time. Finally, as it becomes slowly tithonized by the ac-
tion of daylight impinging on it, union at last takes place. From
this therefore we perceive that chlorine which has been exposed
to the sun will unite promptly and energetically with hydrogen,
but chlorine which has been made and kept in the dark shows
no such property.” '

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 46

358 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

This form of experiment may be supposed imperfect, since
the chlorine is in a moist condition and confined by water. I
have therefore made the following variation.

I took a tube A, (Fig. 4,) six inches long and half an inch in
diameter, closed at one end and open at the other, and cemented
its open end on a piece of flat plate glass M, N, one inch wide
and two long, ground on both sides, and having a hole p one
sixth of an inch in diameter perforated through it. This hole
was not in the centre of the glass, but on one side, as shown in
the figure. ‘The interior of the tube was perfectly clean and dry.

A second tube B, consisting, as shown in Fig. 4, of two por-
tions; a wide portion B, and a narrower tube c, was cemented
on snethet piece of ground plate glass, similar to the foregoing
in all respects. The tube e was open at its lower extremity;
and the entire capacity of Band c conjointly was adjusted so as
to be equal to the capacity of A.

Next I filled A with dry chlorine, and Be with dry hydrogen ;
and kept them from mixing until the proper time, by operating
in the following way: I placed the ground glasses face to face,
as shown in Fig. 5, with a small quantity of soft tallow between
them, arranging them in such a way that the aperture which led
to the interior of A was open.

‘Through this aperture dry chlorine was conveyed. It was

ted by a mixture of peroxide of manganese and chlorohy-
dric acid in the flask D, (Fig. 6,) and passed along a tube E, fill-
ed with chloride of calcium. A slender glass tube f, conveyed
it to the bottom of A, which was then filled by displacing the
atmospheric air. When A was supposed to be full of chlorine
it was slowly lowered so as to bring the tube out of the aperture,
and as soon as it was disengaged the glass plates were moved in
such a manner by sliding them on one another, that the aperture
leading into A was shut; but that leading into B was open.
The vessel A was thus filled with dry chlorine and securely
closed.

In the next place I filled B with dry hydrogen, which was
done as follows. T'o a bottle G, (Fig. 7,) containing dilute sul-
phuric acid and zinc, a drying tube K, of chloride.of calcium
was adjusted, and at its upper end a cork h, arranged so as to
receive tightly the tube c. In a short time, therefore, B became
full of dry hydrogen, the surplus escaping through the open aper-

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 359

ture p. The two ground glass plates were now moved on one
another in such a manner that they mutually closed one another.
The vessel A was therefore filled with dry chlorine, and the ves-
sel Be with an equal volume of dry hydrogen, without commu-
nicating for the present with one another.

I had provided two sets of these tubes as nearly alike as they
could be made, and operated with them in the following manner.

In a dark room I filled the tube A of each of them with dry
chlorine in the manner just described, and confined it by sliding
the plates. One of the tubes was retained in the dark room and
kept carefully screened from the light, but the other was set for
half an hour in the sunbeams. The chlorine which was in it
underwent the specific change which it is the object of this pa-
per to describe.

After restoring this tube to the dark room, and waiting a few
minutes for it to gain the same temperature as the other, the
tubes Be of each set were filled with dry hydrogen in the man-
ner described. In each instance, as soon as the plates were mov-
ed on each other so as to confine the hydrogen, and they were
released from the cork h of the drying tube K, (Fig. 7,) their
lower extremity was dipped beneath the surface of some water
contained in a saucer P, (Fig. 8.) ‘The two sets of tubes being
held steadily in a proper position by the aid of a wooden frame
QR. The two sets of tubes now differed from one another in
nothing but the circumstance that the chlorine of one had been
exposed to the sun, and that of the other had not.

The gases were now brought in contact. This was wally
done by sliding each pair of ground glasses until their apertures
coincided, as shown in Fig. 9. ‘The hydrogen now rose through
the hole into the upper vessel, the chlorine descending through
it, mutual and perfect diffusion of the two gases rapidly taking
place. This was done by lamplight in the dark room. And
now it could be ascertained that the gases were at the same tem-
perature in the different tubes, and that the experiment had thus
far been carried on successfully by the water retaining its level
at the same point in the tubes cof both sets. If that which
had been in the sunshine was warmer than the other, as soon as
the apertures coincided, a bubble of gas would have escaped
through the water, or at all events the level would have changed.

Be,

360 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

It remained now to open the shutter of the dark room, the
tubes having been previously set in such a position that the light
would fall equally on both. As soon as this was done, the chlo-
rine which had been exposed to the sun united at once with its
hydrogen, and the water rose in the tube c. But in the other,
which had not been exposed to the sun, no movement took place,
until the gases had had time to be affected by the light coming
through the open shutter.

When care has been taken to have the gases made quite dry,
and owing to the narrowness of the tube c, no aqueous vapor
has had time to contaminate the gas in B, so that no water is
present to condense the chlorohydric acid as it forms; a little de-
lay may be occasioned in the liquid rising in the tube, the chlo-
rine of which was exposed to the sun. But, after a time, a mist
arises in the neighborhood of the water in the narrow tube, due
to the chlorohydric acid condensing, and then the process goes
forward with regularity.

It appears, therefore, that chlorine by exposure to the sun con-
tracts a tendency to unite with hydrogen which is not ne
by chlorine which has been kept in the dark.

On the Allotropism of Chlorine, or its passive and active states.
In what then does this remarkable change impressed by indigo
‘rays chlorine consist? This is the question which immedi-
ately arises from the phenomena we have had under considera-
tion.

To this I answer, that when chlorine has been thus influenced
its electro-negative properties are exalted, and it has passed from
an inactive to an active state.

It is now fully established that a great number of the element-
ary bodies undergo similar modifications. Many of them can
exist in no less than three different states, and these peculiarities
are impressed on the compounds to which they give rise. To
these peculiarities Berzelius has recently directed the attention
of chemical philosophers in his paper “On the allotropism of
simple bodies, and its relation with certain cases of isomerism in
their combinations.” He shows that of the elementary bodies
now known, many undoubtedly exist in several allotropic states,
and infers that all are liable to analogous modifications. He in-
dicates that the isomerism of compound bodies is due, sometimes

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 361

to the different modes in which the atoms of which their con-
stituent molecules consist are grouped, and sometimes to the
different allotropic states in which one or the other of those ele-
ments is found. Thus as M. Millon has remarked, the intrinsic
difference between carburetted hydrogen gas (CH), and otto of
roses (CH), which are isomeric bodies, may perhaps consist in
this, that in the former the carbon is under the form of common
charcoal, and in the latter under the form of diamond. a9

The following instances from Berzelius may serve as exam-
ples of these allotropic states.

Carbon is known under three forms—charcoal, plumbago, and
diamond. They differ in specific gravity, in specific heat, and
in their conducting power as respects caloric and electricity. In
their relations to light, the one perfectly absorbs it, the second
reflects it like a metal, the third transmits it like glass. In their
relations with oxygen, they also differ surprisingly ; there are
varieties of charcoal that spontaneously take fire in the air, but
the diamond can only be burnt with difficulty at a high tempera-
ture in pure oxygen gas. The second and third varieties do not
belong to the same crystalline form:

Silicium exists also under two forms. In its first it burns with
facility in the air under a slight elevation of temperature. But,
if it be previously exposed to a strong red heat, it changes into
the second variety and becomes incombustible, so that it will not
oxydize when placed with nitrate of potash in the hottest part of
ablowpipe frame. As is well known, there are two forms of
Silicic acid ; one soluble in water and hydrochloric acid, but pass-
ing into the insoluble state by being previously made red hot.
The silicium therefore carries in its combination the same proper-
ties that it exhibits in the free state.

In the same manner it might be shown that sulphur, selenium,
phosphorus, titanium, chromium, uranium, tin, iridium, osmium,
Copper, nickel, cobalt, and a variety of other bodies exist under
several different forms, with distinctive properties that are often
Well marked. In several of them the influence of this allotropic
Condition is plainly carried into the compounds, as is well shown
in the two varieties of arsenic which give rise to the two arseni-
ous acids.

The passage from one allotropic state to another takes tens
commonly through the agency of apparently very trivial causes,

362 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism ef Chlorine

such as a slight elevation of temperature and the contact of cer-
tain bodies. Thus iron, which is so easily oxydized under ordi-
nary circumstances, appears to lose its aflinity for oxygen after
it has been touched under the surface of nitric acid by a piece
of platina. It then puts on the attributes of a noble metal, and
simulates the properties of platina and gold.

This remarkable instance of the passage from an active to a
passive state, as Berzelius remarks, may lead to a conjecture re-
specting the true condition of certain gases. No one can reflect
on the inactivity of nitrogen gas under ordinary circumstances,
contrasted with its equally extraordinary activity as a constituent
of organic bodies, without being struck with the apparent con-
nexion of that phenomenon with these of allotropism. An
though Berzelius with his customary caution merely insinuates
that nitrogen can exist under two forms; the facts which are
here developed in relation to chlorine appear to show that that
opinion rests on something more solid than conjecture. ‘The
habitudes of many of the gaseous bodies strengthen this conclu-
sion. Oxygen gas refuses to unite when mixed with hydrogen.
precisely in the manner of chlorine, and it requires a certain
modification to be made in the electro-negative element before
water or hydrochloric acid can result.

_ Just therefore in the same manner that so many elementary
bodies can put on under the influence of external causes an ac-
tive or passive condition, I infer, as the final result of the exper-
iments brought forward in this memoir, that chlorine is one of
these allotropic bodies, having a double form of existence. That,
as commonly prepared, it is in its passive state; but that on ex-
posure to the indigo rays, or other causes, it changes and assumes
the active form. That, in this latter state, its affinity for hydro-
gen becomes so great that it decomposes water without difficulty,
as in the experiment which this memoir is designed to illustrate.

On the relation of the preceding conclusions with the theory of
‘ substitutions. ‘

Having thus explained the facts which appear to indicate the
allotropism of chlorine, I shal! now offer some considerations
on its connection with the theory of substitutions of M. Dumas.

Admitting the fact that the electro-negative qualities of chlo-
rine are exalted upon its exposure to the indigo rays, and that

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 363

the resulting effect is not a temporary thing, but one which lasts
for a considerable period of time, as appears to be proved in the
Philosophical Magazine, (July, 1844,) we can give a very plain
and simple account of the decomposition of water by this gase-
ous substance under the influence of sunshine.

pon the same principle that a mixture of chlorine and hydro-
gen may be kept in the dark without union for a long time, so
may a solution of chlorine in water be preserved. The chlorine
is in an inactive state.

But, if any thing is done to make the chlorine take on its other
form and pass to the active condition ; if it be, for example, set in
the sunshine, its affinity for hydrogen is exhibited, and decompo-
sition is the result.

The qualities thus communicated to the chlorine not being of
a transient kind, but remaining for a length of time, we see how
itis that after an exposure to the sun decomposition is subsequently
carried forward in the dark.

The indisposition of chlorine to unite with carbon, which has
been regarded as a singular quality, is not more remarkable than
its indisposition to unite with hydrogen in the dark.

If the power which chlorine assumes of uniting with hydrogen
and carbon depends on a change in its electrical relations,—a
passage from the passive to the active state,—we might expect
that those various causes which in the case of other elementary
bodies bring about analogous changes, and throw them from one
allotropic condition to another, would here also exercise a percept-
ible action. Among such causes we may enumerate the action.
of a high temperature, and the contact or presence of other bodies.

It may be remarked in the instances to which Berzelius has
referred, that exposure to a high temperature is one of the most
frequent causes of allotropic change. In the case of chlorine the
temark holds good, for, as is well known, when a mixture of
chlorine and hydrogen is passed through a red-hot tube, chloro-
hydric acid forms with rapidity. ‘The high temperature, there-
fore, impresses upon chlorine the same tendency to unite with

ydrogen which is communicated by the solar rays.

But the contact of other bodies frequently determines in a given

Substance an allotropic change. ‘Thus, when a piece of iron is
Placed in nitric acid in contact with platina, the iron becomes
less electro-positive, or what is the same thing, more electro-neg~

364 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

ative than it was before, and the acid can no longer oxydize it.
The contact of the very same substance, platina, determines an
analogous change in chlorine,—giving it at once the capacity of
uniting with hydrogen. The porous condition of spongy platina
is not essential to the result, for clean platina foil exhullite the
same phenomenon.

In the case of iron, the action of a high temperature or the
contact of platina, throws the metal from the active to the passive
state ; in the case of chlorine the same causes apparently produce
the opposite result, throwing the gas from the passive to the active
state. But the difference is rather in appearance than in reality.
In both cases it amounts to the same thing, and is an exaltation
of the electro-negative qualities of either substance respectively.

The same causes, therefore, which produce allotropic changes
in other bodies, produce analogous changes in chlorine.

Now, among the physical facts connected with the theory of
types and substitutions, two are prominent; 1st. The union of
chlorine with hydrogen, giving rise to the removal of that hydro-
gen as chlorohydric acid. 2d. The subsequent function dis-
charged by the chlorine, which has entered as an integrant por-
tion of the molecules, and occupies the place of the hydrogen
removed. ‘This function is in many instances that of the hydro-
gen itself, and it is this fact which is the remarkable point in the
phenomena of substitution,—that an intensely electro-negative
body can act the part of a positive body. It is this fact which is
leading chemists to the conclusion that the properties of compound
bodies arise as much from the mode of grouping of their constitu-
ent atoms as from the qualities of those atoms themselves.

But, if it be admitted that the experiments related in this me-
moir establish the allotropism of chlorine, then it is plain thata
very different and perhaps satisfactory account of the phenomena
of substitution may be given.

As has been already said, no difficulty can arise in accounting
for the removal of hydrogen from organic bodies, or for the first
fact just alluded to. This removal will ensue whenever processes
are resorted to which bring the chlorine into an active state.
When we expose acetic acid and chlorine to the sun, the latter
becomes active, gains the quality of uniting with hydrogen, and
chloroacetic acid forms. Probably the same change could be
brought about by the aid of spongy platina and heat.

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 365

Upon the second fact,—the similarity of function discharged
by the chlorine which has replaced the hydrogen atoms with the
function of those atoms themselves,—a flood of light is thrown
by other phenomena of allotropism. If a piece of iron be dipped
in hydrated nitric acid, though it may be acted on for a few mo-
ments, it rapidly becomes passive. And so with the chlorine
atoms which have substituted the hydrogen. In the circum-
stances in which they are placed they rapidly revert from the
active to the passive state. They are no longer endued with an
intense electro-negative quality,—they have paviinind the condi-
tion of inactivity. The fact that chlorine in chloracetic acid
simulates the functions of hydrogen in acetic acid, is not more
remarkable than that iron touched by platina under nitric acid
simulates the properties of that noble metal.

‘Do not, therefore, these circumstances seem to point out, that
if we admit the fact that simple substances can exist in different
states, in a passive and an active form, the phenomena of substi-
tution are deprived of much of their singularity.

Thus, to recall once more the example to which I have before
referred, and which has been so well illustrated by the researches
of M. Dumas, the transmutation of acetic into chloracetic acid
exhibits a double phenomenon. Ist. The existence of active
chlorine, expressed by the removal of hydrogen, activity having
been communicated by the rays of the sun, or by some other ap-
propriate method. 2d. The existence of passive chlorine in the
particles of chloracetic acid.

I consider that were no other instances known, the two cases
cited by Berzelius of the double forms of silicic acid and arse-
nious acid establish the fact, that a given allotropic condition
may be continued by an elementary atom when it goes into union
With other bodies. And I regard the various cases in which hy-
drogen is replaced by iodine, bromine, é&c., in which, in the re-
sulting compound, those energetic electro-negative elements fail
to give any expression of their presence and activity, as analogous
to other common and too much overlooked facts.. Chlorine which
is in the dark, may be kept in contact with hydrogen without
exhibiting any of its latent energies. ‘Touched by an indigo ray,
it instantly assumes the active state, and a violent sxzlosoal is the

result,

Vol. xix, No, 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 47

366 Prof. Draper on the Allotropism of Chlorine

To use, therefore, the same nomenclature to which Berzelius
has resorted in the case of other allotropisms, we may designate
the ordinary form of chlorine, made by the action of chlorohydric
acid on peroxide of manganese, as Cif; and admit that this passes
into the condition Cle, by the action of the solar rays, contact of
platina, or a high temperature. And that in any case of substi-
tution the hydrogen is removed under the condition Cle, and the
resulting compound contains Cl? ; the assumption of the passive
state disguising the presence of the electro-negative atom.

e explanation here given of the phenomena of substitutions
involves the position that chlorine when brought in relation with
carbon under certain circumstances is thrown into the passive
state, the state Cl?. We naturally look for direct evidence that
this is the case. It seems to me that there are many well known
chemical facts which tend to establish the passive condition. In

the first case to which we turn, the chlorides of carbon, the

inactive state is established in a striking manner. The affinity
which exists between chlorine and carbon is apparently feeble ;
yet when these bodies have once united, the chlorine is brought
into such a condition that it has lost the quality of being detected
by the ordinary tests which determine its presence. How strong-
ly does this contrast with the case of chlorohydric acid ; a feeble
affinity unites carbon and chlorine; an intense affinity unites hy-
drogen and chlorine; yet in the former case the chlorine is undis-
coverable by the commonest tests, in the latter it yields to them
all. And the causes are obvious,—in the one case it is in the
passive, in the other in the active condition.

I have hitherto spoken of the active and passive states as though
they were fixed points in elementary bodies, and as though the
transition from one to the other was abrupt and sudden. I have
done this that the views here offered might be unembarrassed and
distinct. But there are many facts which serve to show that the

sage from a state of complete activity to a state of complete
inactivity takes place through gradual steps. ‘Thus, in carbon
itself, there are undoubtedly many intermediate stages between
the almost spontaneously inflammable varieties aid diamond,
which, under common circumstances, is incombustible. Berze-
lius admits three allotropic conditions of this body, Ce, 08, Cy.
Between the first and last terms of this series it is probable that
several intermediate bodies besides plumbago might be found ;

as connected with the Theory of Substitutions. 367

their existence establishing the gradual passage from one to the
other state.

For similar reasons, in this memoir, the illustrations and argu-
ments given have for the most part been restricted to one sub-
stance, chlorine. It need scarcely be pointed out, in conclusion,
that if the views here offered are true, very much of this reason-
ing may be transferred to other bodies, as oxygen, nitrogen, hy-
drogen, sulphur, &c. When oxygen and hydrogen are mixed,
there is no disposition exhibited by them to unite, and this does
not arise from their happening to have the gaseous form. As in
the instance we have been considering, if they are exposed toa
high temperature, or to the influence of platina, the active condi-
tion is assumed with promptitude, and union takes place.

The power which carbon possesses of throwing bodies into a
completely passive state is far from being limited to chlorine. It
re-appears in the case of sulphur. ‘The sulphuret of carbon yields
to none of the tests to which we commonly resort for determining
the presence of sulphur, for the simple reason that its sulphur is
in an inactive state. This substance, moreover, serves to illus-
trate what has been said of the gradual passage of bodies from a
state of complete activity to one of complete inactivity. Berze-
lins recognizes for it three different allotropic states; an alpha,
beta, and gamma condition. In none of these is it in that condi-
tion of absolute inactivity which it assumes in the sulphuret of
carbon.*

In offering these experiments and arguments to the considera-
tion of chemists, I am fully aware of the magnitude of the change
which would be impressed on the science generally, and espe-
cially on several of our modern theories, by their reception. The
long established idea of the immutability of the properties of ele-
mentary bodies would, to a certain extent, be sacrificed ; and it
is probable that before these results are conceded, more cogent
evidence of the main principle will be required. In the mean
time, however, it is plain that the admission of these doctrines
throws much light on theories now extensively attracting the at-
tention of men of science, and for that reason they commend

* For these examples,—the chloride and sulphuret of carbon, I am indebted to
M. Millon’s paper, “ Remarks on the elements which compose organic substances,
and on their mode of combination.”” Comptes Rendus, T. XIX, p. 799. That
chemist, however, gives a very different explanation of the phenomena involved.

368 - Bibliography.

themselves to our consideration. I have offered no opinion here
on the atomic mechanism which is involved in these changes
from an active to a passive state, though it is impossible to deal
with these things without the reflection arising in our minds,
that here we are on the brink of an extensive system of evidence
connected with the polarity of atoms,—an idea which, under a
variety of forms, is now occurring in every department of natural
philosophy.

Seems of New York, July 29, 1845.

. Art. X.—Bibliographical Notices.

1. Travels in North Americain the Years 1841-42, with Geological
Observations. on the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia; by
Cuartes Lyset, Esq., F. R. S., Author of the Principles of Geology,
&c. In two Vols. 18mo, pp. 251 and 231, with plates. New York,
Wiley & Putnam, 1845.—These volumes have been looked for with
much interest by all classes of readers in this country ; for while their
author owes his reputation mainly to his scientific writings, he was also
extensively known while here as an intelligent and highly educated
English gentleman, who had opportunity and a disposition to observe
the nature of American institutions and the state of society, as well as
the relations of our rocks and their fossil contents. He has given the
diary form to his travels, covering the period from July 20th, 1841, to
Aug. 18th, 1842, during which time he was almost constantly on the
wing, and actively engaged in geological observations, Sojourning in
Boston, New York, and Philadelphia long enough to give a course of
lectures on geology to audiences in each of those cities, to the first of
which he was specially invited from England by the trustee. of the
“‘ Lowell Institute,” a well known institution for popular instruction.

No one interested in American geology can fail to give an attentive
perusal to Mr, Lyell’s “ Geological Observations” —they : are found scat-
tered through these volumes with a liberal hand, in the order of his
line of route, and are drawn up in the direct and felicitous style, with
which all readers of the “ Principles” and ‘ Elements” of the same
author are already familiar. The volumes are illustrated by Mr.
Bakewell’s bird’s-eye view of the Falls of Niagara, colored geologically
—and exposing the relative position of the several beds composing the
cliffs at Queenston and in the rocky gorge of the Niagara river. He
gives also a: fac simile of Father Hennepin’s view of the Falls as he
saw them two hundred years ago, with the remarkable third schute or

Bibliography. 369

small fall transverse the British or Horse Shoe Fall, which has since
disappeared ; (the same is given also in Mr. Hall’s Final Report of the
Geology of New York.) The sections at the Falls, of Goat Island, the
Summer House, and the strata along the Niagara river from Lake On-
tario to Lake Erie are somewhat the same also that Mr. Hall has given
in his Final Report above mentioned. At p. 205, Vol. I, is a good litho-
graphic plate of the remains of fossil mammalia, found by Mr. L. at Mar-
tha’s Vineyard in the tertiary cliffs of “ Gay Head.” Vol. II is faced
by a “ geological map of the United States, Canada,” &c., compiled by
Mr. Lyell from various authorities which he cites in one corner of the
imap. We believe that Mr. Hall’s map of a portion of the same regions, in
his Final Report and the present, are the only published geological maps
of the United States since the one by Mr. Maclure in 1817. Although
the present one is confessedly very imperfect in many important points,
it is still a valuable addition to our previous knowledge, and must serve
as a useful guide until we are supplied with a better. There are also
many wood cuts to illustrate several passages in the text.

Mr. Lyell’s route in this country was mainly as follows: from Boston
through Springfield by Connecticut River to New Haven, where he
made, in company with Dr. Percival, and the editors of this Journal
and others, an excursion to some of the trap hills and sandstone beds
of the southern part of the new red sandstone of the Connecticut val-
ley; thence he went to New York, and by the Hudson to Albany.
In company with Mr. Hall he crossed the state of New York and ex-
amined for the first time the Falls of Niagara, (he was there again the
next year;) he then went to western Pennsylvania, entering the coal
region at Blossburg, and returning again via Seneca Lake and Geneva
to Albany. He here rejoined Mr. Hall and examined two swamps in
Albany and Green Counties, where mastodon remains have been found ;
and aft ; PPO Meee ee ee ¢ +h 2 oe ey pean a

ee),

their fossils in Mr. Gebhard’s cabinet, he went to New York and Phila-
delphia. Mr. Conrad here accompanied him in a jaunt to the creta-
ceous strata of New Jersey, which occupied three days; and on their
return, Prof. Henry D. Rogers conducted him through the anthracite
formation of Pennsylvania,and explained the curious structure and origin
of the Apalachian chain. He then returned to Boston, where he was
occupied during the six weeks following (Oct. 14) in his course of geo-
logical lectures before the Lowell Institute, making occasional excur-
sions in the vicinity. From Boston he again returned to New Haven,
and after a day’s excursion with several gentlemen acquainted with the
localities to the fish beds at Durham, he passed rapidly south to spend the
seven tl fanorthe winter i ini g the tertiary of the south-

ern states. A tf V £ Geil

370 Bibliography.

of Schockoe Creek, near Richmond, and the miocene beds of James
river below that city, in company with Mr. Ruffin, Jr., and descending
the river he touched at Jamestown, Williamsburg and Norfolk, and
passed rapidly on over the barrens of North Carolina and a corner of
the “* Great Dismal” to Weldon and Wilshington, aad thence by steamer
to Charleston, 8.C. Without Charleston he hasten-
ed by railroad to Augusta, Ga. with the intention of examining the low
country between the granitic region and the Atlantic, by following
the course of the Savannah river from Augusta to Savannah, a distance
of about two hundred and fifty miles. This he did by making frequent
stops wherever it appeared that the inducement was sufficient, as at
Shell Biuffnear Demerry’s Ferry, forty miles below Augusta, at Stony
Bluff about seventy miles below where the “‘ Burr stone” rocks appear,
belonging to the eocene tertiary formation. Col. Jones of Millhaven
conducted him to Jacksonborough, and other places of interest to a
geologist. From Millhaven he proceeded by land to Savannah, about
one hundred miles, where he arrived ten days after leaving Augusta,
The vicinity of Savannah afforded him industrious employment in ex-
amining the mastodon and mylodon deposits at Heyner’s Bridge on the
White Bluff river, and also at Beauly and Vernon rivers. Returning
by sea to Charleston, Dr. Ravenel accompanied our tourist on an ex-
cursion of a week up the Cooper river and Santee canal, where the
mastodon and other interesting fossils were found abundantly when the
canal was cut; they visited on this jaunt also the ‘t Lime Sinks” in the
vicinity of Vance’s Ferry, the tertiary white marl and limestone of Cave
Hall, the “ Burr stone” on Stoudenmire Creek, and they returned to
Charleston from Orangeburg by railroad. On his return north he stopped
at Wilmington and collected eocene and miocene fossils, and visited sev-
eral places on Cape Fear river, and at South Washington saw the same
cretaceous beds containing Belemnites, &c. which appear in New Jersey;
three hundred and fifty miles north. . Mr. Ruffin and Mr. Tuomey
were his companions in fossilizing in the tertiary beds near Petersburg
in Virginia, and at Washington City he had an interview with the lamented
Nicollet, and saw the cretaceous fossils brought by that zealous explorer
and eminent astronomer from the Upper Missouri. Six weeks were
now spent (Feb. 1, 1842) at Philadelphia in delivering a “ short course”
of geological lectures. Several weeks next succeeding were spent
at New York in giving another course of lectures, during which Mr.
Redfield accompanied him to Long Island while viewing the ancient
and modern drift of that island. From New York he went again up the
Hudson to view the greatly disturbed Silurian slates at Hudson City, and
by railway to Chester and Westfield over the Taconic Mountains, com-
posed of altered Silurian strata, out of which Dr. Emmons has con-
structed his “ Taconic System.” -

Bibliography. 371

At Worcester he saw the plumbaginous anthracite and mica schist
and clay slates, and then paid a visit to Prof. (now Pres.) Hitchcock at
Amherst, in company with whom he saw some diluyial phenomena
near Amherst, and at Smith’s Ferry near Northampton, they examined
the red shales of the Connecticut, containing beautiful examples of fos-
sil footprints; they ascend Mount Holyoke, and thence passed again
to Boston, from which he made an excursion to the tertiary strata of
Martha’s Vineyard, and at Gay Head he collected the head of a fossil
walrus and several cetacean vertebree, sharks’ teeth, a tooth of a fossil
seal, casts of shells, &&c: also kidney shaped masses one or two inches
in diameter, which on analysis by Mr. Middleton proved to be copro-
lites, and contained over 50 per cent. of phosphate of lime. He con-
siders these strata as belonging to beds decidedly newer than the eocene,
to which they have been referred. April 25th, he returned to Boston
and attended the third annual meeting of the Association of American
Geologists, &c., of which he makes honorable mention, and after its
close he set out on a tour for the valley of the Ohio, and the country
_west of the Alleghany Mountains, via Philadelphia and the national
road from Cumberland in Maryland, stopping at Frostburgh long enough
to examine the interesting coal and iron regions so finely developed
there, in company with Capt. Green and other gentlemen, residents of
that place. He no sooner entered the great hydrographical basin of the
Ohio, than he was astonished at the richness and extent of the coal
seams developed there, and which he saw finely exposed at Browns-
ville'and Pittsburg. At Marietta, Dr. Hildreth conducted him to some
of the interesting earthworks of the aborigines, as well as some of the
uppermost beds of the’coal measures, which he saw again at Pomeroy on
his way to Cincinnati, where in company with Dr. John Locke he reas-
cended the Ohio a hundred miles to see the rocks corresponding with the
old red sandstone, and for this purpose went on shore at Rockville, where
the equivalent of the Waverly sandstone of New York is seen, but greatly
diminished in volume. While at Cincinnati he saw the excellent cabi-
nets of Messrs. Buchanan, Anthony and Clarke, and then examined the
quarries of blue limestone about the city from which their most valuable
Specimens were obtained. Mr. Buchanan and Mr. J. G. Anthony were

is guides on an excursion to Big Bone Lick in Kentucky, about thirty
three. miles from Cincinnati, so celebrated for the bones of the mas-
todon as well as of many other extinct quadrupeds.

The alluvial banks and the origin of the natural drift of Ohio en-
gaged his particular attention. From Cincinnati he crossed the state
of Ohio to Cleveland on Lake Erie, where Dr. Kirtland took him to
Rockport and the Rocky River to see the “ lake ridges,” similar to the
“ridge road” of Lake Ontario—visiting Fredonia, celebrated for its

372 Bibliography.

natural supply of bicarburetted hydrogen gas used in illuminating the
town; and from Buffalo he again visited Niagara, (June 5th, 1842,)
and spent another industrious week in exploring its geology and ancient
history, visiting for this purpose, Grand Island, Lewiston, St. Davids,
and Queenston. (Some interesting results of this examination we
must reserve to another occasion.) At Buffalo, Mr. Hayes showed
him the diluvial furrows which the cherty limestone of that region has
so well preserved. Leaving the United States he now visited Canada,
touching at Toronto, Kingston, Montreal, Quebec, Three Rivers, and
the Falls of Montmorency, at each of which places he made excursions
and observations, accompanied by some resident gentlemen acquainted
with the localities. He returned to the United States by La Prarie and
Lake Champlain, and landed at Burlington in Vermont, where Prof.
Benedict accompanied him to the falls of the Winooski, the boulder
formation with shells at Port Kent, and the deep cleft formed by the
Ausable River in the sandstone at Keesville, (Potsdam sandstone.)
Crossing Vermont over the Green Mountains, he paid a visit to Prof.
Hubbard at Dartmouth College in Hanover, N. H., and then returned
to Boston by Concord, where he set sail on the 16th of July for Hal-
ifax, in the Caledonia steamship. He spent a month in investigating
the interesting geological features of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
and some of the results of his explorations have already been published
by us (Vol, xiv, p. 353-356) in reference to the interesting erect
fossil trees in the coal seams at South Joggins, (Cumberland,) the coal
formations, gypsum, and marine limestones of Nova Scotia. He gives
in his present volume, lists of fossil plants found in the coal measures
of Nova Scotia, as well as the fossils of the lower carboniferous or
gypsiferous formations of the same district. _

It is plain from the foregoing itinerary, that Mr. Lyell made the best
possible use of his time and opportunities while in this country ; and it
is equally plain, that on nearly every occasion he availed himself of the
aid of the best and most experienced American geologists in exploring
the places visited by him. It is only in this way that any man, however
eminent and skillful he may be, can hope to arrive at correct geological
conclusions respecting regions which must be new to him—presenting at
every step an endless succession of novel objects, and which have requir-
ed, it may be, years of patient and laborious investigation on the part of
his geological guides, before conclusions are obtained and enigmas of
complicated structure solved, which they can convey to'a well informed
geologist in a few hours, or at most a few days, in the rapid progress of
a traveller’s jaunt, Mr. Lyell could not in this respect have selected a
more fortunate time to have informed himself about the geology of North

America. Most of the state geological surveys. were just closed, oF

Bibliography. 373

near their close, and the eminent and experienced gentlemen who had
conducted them were still warm in the harness, and ready to aid so
distinguished a stranger in directing his inquiries, and in comparing
notes with him regarding some of their conclusions; and it was much
to their honor that they were willing to impart freely that knowledge
for which they had toiled so long. In carefully perusing Mr. L.’s vol-
umes, we have marked those parts which seemed to us of the greatest
interest to the geologist, and regret that the limits of our present notice
will not permit us to extract them—this we hope to do on a future
occasion.

We have said nothing of the views taken by our traveller of the
social, moral, and political aspect of things here, because these matters
belong rather to our literary neighbors. But we must say in one word,
that we have never read the journal of an English tourist who has seen
our institutions in so just a light, whose discriminations were more fair,
and whose criticisms were better worth regarding. We were also
equally instructed and gratified by remarks in chapter x11, on the state
_ of education in the English universities—drawn out by what he saw
of the general condition of educational institutions in this country.

It has evidently been no part of his plan in composing these volumes,
, to acknowledge every act of civility or hospitality which he received
while here; and in neglecting to do so, he has best consulted the feel-
ings of those most concerned, who opened their houses, not that they
might appear on a tourist’s pages, but that they might enjoy the society
of an intelligent foreigner and his lady, who, whatever instruction or
pleasure they might receive, were sure to return at least a full equivalent.

Now that Mr. Lyell has shown to his fellow laborers at home the
interest and practicability of a geological and observational. tour in
North America, we trust that his example may be followed by some
of his distinguished countrymen, whose lives and fortunes are so freely
devoted to the cause of science.

2. On the Liquefaction and Solidification of Bodies generally ex-
‘sting as Gases; by Micnart Farapay, (from the Phil. Trans.,
1845, p. 155.)—In this paper Mr. Farapay has given greater extension
to his former researches on this subject, (Phil. Trans., 1823, pp.
——189,) has devised methods by which he has added six substances,
usually gaseous, to the list of those which have been primarily obtained
in the liquid state ; and has reduced seven, including ammonia, nitrous
oxyd and sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form, beside revising and
Correcting previous results regarding the tension of vapor, dc. ;

he gases were, as in fomer experiments, subjected to considerable
mechanical pressure and great cold by methods which we will briefly

Vol. xx1x, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 43

374 Bibliography.

mention. Two air-pumps fixed to a table afforded the pressure, the first
pump had a piston of one inch diameter, and the second a piston only
half an inch in diameter, and these were so associated that the first
pump forced the gas into and through the valves of the second, and then
the second could be employed to throw forward this gas, already con-
densed to ten, fifteen, or twenty atmospheres, into its final recipient at
a much higher pressure.

The gases on their way from the gas-holders to the pump were made
to pass through a coil of thin glass tube contained in a refrigerator of
ice and salt, and consequently at the temperature of 0° Fahr., by
which means any water they contained was effectually condensed. The
conducting tubes were of green bottle glass, from 4 to } inch in diam-
eter, and from 5 to zy inch in thickness, they were connected by caps,
and screws, and cocks, with the pumps, and great care was taken that all
parts of the apparatus should be perfectly tight. These tubes frequently
sustained the pressures of fifty atmospheres in practice, and to prove their
strength a hydrostatic pressure of one hundred and eighteen atmos-
pheres was applied to one having an external diameter of 0°225 of an
inch and 0-03 in thickness, without any fracture or any leak in the caps
and cement; a tube having the thickness of 0°0175 of an inch and an
external diameter of 0-24 of an inch, burst with a pressure of sixty
seven atmospheres of fifteen pounds each to the square inch. One such
as he formerly employed for generating gases under pressure, having
an external diameter of 0°6 of an inch and a thickness of 0-035 of an
inch, burst at twenty five atmospheres. The pressure gauge was as on

occasions a small:tube of glass closed at one end, and having @
cylinder of mercury moving init. The graduation was marked on the
gauge in black varnish and also in — ink ; the latter stood, but the
former was dissolved in some of the

The cold bath in which the condensing tubes sale immersed was
formed of THILoriER’s mixture o ,contained
in a porcelain capsule of four cubic inches or more, fitted ‘oto a similar
dish somewhat larger with three or four folds of dry flannel intervening ; 3

is bath continued from twenty to thirty minutes, retaining solid car-
bonic acid the whole time, and gave indication by an alcohol thermom-
eter made for the purpose, of the very low temperature of —106° below
0° Fahr.; by placing the bath under an air-pump the temperature fell so
ow, on working the pump, as — 166° below 0°,* or 60° below the tempe-

Commencing with the temperature of —106°, as the exhaustion proceeded the
temperature fell 64° in the first ten inches of the barometer’s rise, 84° in the next
ten, (or from ten to twenty inches of the barometer,) 4° in the next ten inches, 6°
from twenty two to twenty four inches, 8° from twenty six to twenty seven inches,
7° in the next inch, 4° in the next, and 6° from 28° to 284°, when the mercury
became stationary.

Bibliography. 375

rature of the same bath in the air. The vapor of carbonic acid, at
this low temperature, given off from the bath, instead of — a press-
ure of one atmosphere had only a pressure (tension) of 3; of an at-
mosphere or 13 inch of mercury. Carbonic acid mixed ‘ih ether is
not more volatile at this temperature than water at the temperature of
86° ; the ether was very fluid and the bath could be kept in good order
for quarter of an hour. Mr. Farapay thinks that these temperatures
are all about 5° or 6° below the truth. With dry carbonic acid under
the pump, the barometer attached was raised to 29 inches, while the ex-
ternal barometer was at 30 inches. Ingentius comer of appa-
ratus were contrived, by which the condensing tubes could be submitted
to this great cold under the air-pump receiver in vacuo, and the process
of condensation examined in progess.

As many gases condense at a less pressure than one atmosphere when
submitted to the cold of a carbonic acid bath in air, they were easily
reduced by sending them through small conducting tubes into tubular
receivers placed in the cold bath, and by a little management to seal them
up hermetically in their condensed state. In this manner chlorine, cy-
anogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, arseniuretted hydrogen, hy-
driodic acid, hydrobromic acid, and even carbonic acid were obtained
sealed up in tubes, in the liquid state, and euchlorine was also secured
in a tube receiver with a cap and screw plug. Mr. Appams furnished
the liquid carbonic acid to Mr. Farapay in portions of 220 cubic inches
each, which quantity produced carbonic snow enough for an active day’s
experiments of twelve to fourteen hours; the snow was preserved in a
triple arrangement of concentric glass cylinders and interposed flannel.

_ Olefiant gas was condensed by the arrangements described, into a
clear transparent fluid, but did not become solid even in the carbonic
acid gas iz vacuo; the pressure of the vapor of this substance at — 103°
Fahr. is singularly uncertain, being on different occasions and speci-
mens, 3°7, 8-7, 5 and 6 atmospheres. This irregularity has not yet been
resolved, but Mr. Farapay suggests that there may be two or more sub-
Stances physically and perhaps chemically different, in olefiant gas, and
varying in proportion with the circumstances of heat, proportions of in-
gredients and attending circumstances. ‘This fluid dissolves resin.

Hydriodic acid is obtained as a solid at —60° Fahr., and then its vapor
has a pressure of less than one atmosphere ; ata little higher temperature
it becomes a liquid, and its vapor has then nearly one atmosphere of
Pressure. Asa solid it is perfectly clear, transparent, and colorless ;

ving fissures or cracks in it resembling those that run through ice, It
dissolves the cap cement and bitumen of the gauge graduation, and ap-
pears to act on fat as it leaked by the plug of the stop-cock with remark-
able facility ; it also acts on the brass of the apparatus and the mercury in

376 Bibliography.

the gauge. Hence the following results of pressures and temperatures
are to be considered only as approximations, viz. at 0° Fahr. pressure
was 2°9 atmospheres; at 30°, 3°97 atmospheres; and at 60°, 5:86 at-
mospheres.

Hydrobromie acid, prepared from the perbromide of phosphorus,
condensed into a clear liquid at 100° below 0°, or lower—and has not
the pressure of one atmosphere at the temperature of the carbonic acid
bath in air. Its elastic force is less than that of muriatic acid, but it
obstructs the motion of the mercury in the gauge, so that its results
could not be relied on. At and below 124°; it is a solid, transparent,
‘crystalline body. It melts at 124°, but does not freeze until reduced
much lower than this.

Fluosilicon, was liquefied under a pressure of about nine atmospheres,
at the temperature of 160° below 0°, and was then clear, transparent, col-
orless and very fluid, like hot ether. It did not solidify. It acted on
the lubricating fat of the stop-cock and caused some leakage, and
there was no liquid in the tube at common temperatures ; but when
cooled to 32° some fluid appeared, and a bath of ice and snow caused a
still more abundant condensation.

Phosphuretted hydrogen.—This gas was carefully prepared to free
it from phosphorus, and cooled to 0°, to free it from water, and by
these means a pure, clear, colorless, transparent and very limpid
fluid appeared, which could not be solidified by any temperature applied,
and which, when the pressure was taken off, immediately rose again in the
form of gas. There seemed, from the mode of its behavior, to be another
gas present, not so condensable as phosphuretted hydrogen, which may
perhaps be either another phosphuretted hydrogen or hydrogen itself.

Fluoboron, like fluosilicon, required the lowest temperature to reduce
it to the fluid state, when it was a very limpid, colorless, clear fluid,
showing no signs of solidification, but when at the lowest temperature
mobile as hot ether,

The foregoing are, it is believed, new results of the liquefaction and
solidification of gases. The following have been before made liquid,
but some additional facts are now stated.

Muriatic acid did not freeze at the lowest temperature ; the liquid
dissolves bitumen and softens the resinous cap cement. At — 100° its
pressure is 1-80 atmospheres, at —92° 2:28, at —83° 2-90, at — 53° 5°83,
at —33° 8:53, at 22° 10-66, and at —5° 13°88, at 28° 23-08, at 32°
26°20; the result formerly obtained was 40 atmospheres at 50° Fabr.

Sulphurous acid becomes a crystalline, transparent, colorless solid,
at 105° Fahr.; when partly frozen the crystals are well formed. This
solid is heavier than the liquid acid, and sinks freely in it; at 14° Fahr.
its pressure is one atmosphere, at 32° 1°53, and at 100° 5-16 atmos-
pheres.

Bibliography. 377

Sulphuretted hydrogen, was solidified at 122° below 0° Fahr., and is
then a white crystalline, translucent substance, not remaining clear, and
transparent, in the solid state, like water, carbonic acid, and nitrous
oxide, but forming a mass of confused crystals like common salt, or
nitrate of ammonia, solidified from the melted state. It fuses at tem-
peratures above — 122° and the solid part sinks freely in the fluid, in-
dicating that it is considerably heated. The tension of its vapor is at
—100° 1:02 atmospheres, at —58° 2 atmospheres, at 0° 6°10, and at
52° 14:60.

Carbonic acid, when the snow of Tu1Lorier is melted (at —72° Fahr.)
and re-solidified by a bath of low temperature, appears asa clear trans-
parent, crystalline, colorless body, like ice—so clear as to deceive the
eye ; it is heavier than the fluid bathing it, and has at —'70° or —72° a
pressure of 5°33 atmospheres. M. Cacniarp bE LA Tour has shown
that, at a certain temperature, and under a sufficient pressure, a liquid
becomes clear transparent vapor, or gas, haying the same bulk as the
liquid. At this temperature, or one a little higher, it is not likely that —
any additional pressure, however great, would convert the gas into a
liquid. Mr. Faraday thinks that this state comes on with carbonic acid —
at about 90° Fahr. Mr. F. obtained the following pressures from car-
bonic acid by his recent experiments :

Fahr. Atmospheres. Fahr. Atmospheres.
—111° 1-14 — 15° 17°80
— 107 1:36 0 22°84
— 95 2°28 4 21°48
= 83 3°60 5 24°75
= 79D 4°60 10 26°84
— 56 7°70 15 29-09
— 34 12°50 23 33°15
— 23 15°45 32. 38-50

Euchlorine is easily converted into a solid crystalline body, having
the color and general appearance of bichromate of potassa. At 75°
below 0° it melts into an orange-red fluid, in which the solid part sinks.
It gives off no vapor when solid

Nitrous oxide was obtained as a beautiful, clear, crystalline solid at
about —150°, and then had a pressure of less than one atmosphere.
The cold produced by its evaporation is very great, and in certain cases
itseems probable that this substance may be employed in procuring
degrees of cold far below any yet obtained. Its vapor has the same
irregularity of pressure, which was found in olefiant gas, and it seems
probable that two substances are present, one more volatile than the
other. At —40° its pressure is 10-20, at 0° 19-05, at 30° 35: 82 atmos-
pheres respectively.

378 Bibliography.

Cyanogen had been previously made solid by Bunsen ; the solid melts
at —30°; one volume of the liquid gas at 63° gave 393:9 volumes at
the same temperature, and the thermom. barometer 30°2 inches. This
gives the specific gravity of the liquid as 0-866, if 100 cubic inches be
considered as weighing 555 grains. Its tension at 0° is 1°25, at 32°
2°37, at 103° 7-50 atmospheres.

Ammonia may be obtained as a white, translucent, crystalline sub-
stance, melting at 103° below 0°, at which point the solid is heavier
than the liquid. The specific gravity of the liquid is 0531 at 60°. Its
tension at 0° is 2°48, at 32° 4°44, at 60° 6:90, at 83° 10 atmospheres.

Arseniuretted hydrogen was not solidified at — 166° ; chlorine, ether,
alcohol, sulphuret of carbon, caoutchoucine, camphine or rectified oil
of turpentine, did not freeze at —166°. Hydrogen oxygen, nitrogen,
nitric oxide, carbonic oxide and coal gas, did not liquefy at —166°, when
subjected to 27:27, 50°50, 40 and 32 atmospheres of pressure respect-
ively. Hydrogen gas leaked freely at a pressure of twenty seven at-
mospheres in an apparatus which was tight with nitrogen at 50 atmos-
pheres. No degree of mere pressure has ever yet solidified a liquid,
and when a greater degree of cold can be commanded than at present,
(as may be done with nitrous oxide,) it is probable that other gases may
be liquefied.

3. On the Geological Constitution of the Altai; by M. P. de Tcut-
HATCHEFF.—This elaborate memoir has been reported upon at length
and with high commendation, before the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris, by Brongniart, Dufrénoy and Elie de Beaumont, and their
report is published in the Comptes Rendus, vol. xx, May, 1845. From
its pages we cite the following. The Russian Altai chain occupies an
area about four times that of Switzerland, and has a curving direction,
with the convexity of the curve turned to the southwest. On the south,
as Humboldt states, the older formations of the Asiatic continent prevail,
while within the curvature there is a vast area of ancient diluvial de-
posits. The chain as laid down by M. Tchihatcheff continues to the
China coast, following the course of the river Yenissei. The general
statement just made, for the most part holds true also of this eastern
portion. The contour of the ridges is generally rounded, owing to
the predominance of schistose rocks. Porphyry and granite are com-
mon, and serpentine occurs in some places ; but gneiss is met with only as
a variety of granite. The stratified rocks are mostly of the Silurian and
older formations. The carboniferous formation was distinguished at
three localities—near Rydersk, Tyrianoosk and Salair. M. Tchihat-
cheff distinguishes two grand systems of ranges—one the occidental
Altai, running from N. W. toS. E.; artd the other the oriental Altai, from
N.E.toS.W. The highest peak, Belouhha, called also the columns of

Bibliography. 379

Katoune, is 12,789 feet (English) in height, and stands nearly at the
intersection of the two systems, just as Mt. Blanc stands at the inter-
section of corresponding systems in the Alps. The oriental chain is
parallel in position with the principal Madagascar and African ranges.

4. Whitney's Translation of Berzelius on the Blowpipe.—(Die An-
wendung des Lothrohrs in der Chemie und Mineralogie von J. Jacob
Berzelius. Vierte verbesserte Auflage mit 4 Kupfertaflen. Niren-
berg, verlag von Johann Leonhard Schrag. 1844.)—The use of the
Blowpipe in Chemistry and Mineralogy. By J.J. Berzeturus. Trans-
lated from the 4th enlarged and corrected edition; by J. D. Wuirney.
Boston, 1845. 12mo. pp. 237. J. D. Ticknor. With plates.

A well executed translation of Berzelius’s long celebrated work on
the blowpipe, is a most acceptable addition to the library of every
chemist and mineralogist.

Mr. Whitney has presented us with such an one, and the mere an-
nouncement of the fact is all that is required to insure its general adop-
tion. With the high character of the work all are too well acquainted
to need. any information on this point at our hands. There can be no
doubt, that the timely appearance of this translation will materially aid the
progress of mineralogical and chemical science in this country,

5. Fownes’ Chemistry for Students—(A Manual of Elementary
Chemistry, theoretical and practical. By Georce Fownes, Ph. D., &c.
London, 1845. 12mo. pp. 566. Also an American edition, by Dr.
Rozert Buipees of Philadelphia, Lea & Blanchard.)

Dr. Fownes, by his Actonian prize essay, is already favorably known
to the general reader as an author; this pleasing production having
been extensively circulated in this country. The present work‘occu-
pies an important middle ground between the more extensive systems
of higher cost, and the numerous throng of chemical text books of minor
range. It is perspicuous in style, and in the main well digested.
Some of its arrangements of topics might be fairly criticised on any
accepted principles of classification, but on the whole it will be found
@ most valuable book. ‘The organic portion is particularly well exe-
cuted, and much fuller than is usual in books of equal volume.

6. Lieut. Wright’s Treatise on Mortars.—(A brief Practical Trea-
tise on Mortars: with an account of the processes employed at the
public works in Boston harbor. By. Lt. W. H. Wricur, U. S. corps
of engineers. Boston, W. D. Ticknor & Co. 1845. 12mo. pp. 148.
With 7 plates.)

This very useful little volume is evidently the result of practical ex-
perience in the art of construction; it is lucid in arrangement, suffi-

380 Miscelianies.

ciently full in detail, and well composed. He considers first the calca-
reous minerals, and the limes which they furnish. Next, the various
materials employed in the preparation of mortars—in this chapter un-
der the head of sand, he says, (p. 25, Art. 53,) ‘‘ sand performs no
chemical part in mortars, but is entirely passive in its influences,” &c.
This seems to us too broad an assertion, as it is by no means certain that
caustic lime does not form a combination with the silica of fine sand in
mortar, and this circumstance (the formation of an insoluble silicate) may
exert an influence in the final consolidation of calcareous cements.
This does not interfere with the generally accepted opinion, that mor-
tars owe their chief consistency to the gradual conversion of the lime
into carbonate.

The general composition of mortars and their resistance ; the fabri-

cation of limes in the large way; the preparation and application of
various kinds of mortars; concrete and some of its applications, and
the theory of the solidification of mortars—are made the subjects of
distinct chapters, all of which contain interesting and important infor-
mation ; but the last, especially, commends itself to the attention of
Chietiiists: as embracing some curious and valuable results obtained by
Lt. Kendrick of the artillery, and Assistant Professor of chemistry at
West Point Military Academy. These researches had for their object
to determine the cause or causes of the hydraulic powers of certain
cements—a question which has had many proposed solutions. Berg-
man and Guyton de Morveau, who were the first to investigate this
subject, attributed the hydraulic power to the presence of a minute
quantity of oxide of manganese in the limestones from which the spe-
cimens examined by them were obtained.

‘Mr. Smeaton, an English engineer, had remarked however as early
as 1756, the curious fact, that the existence of clay in a calcareous
stone, gave it the property of indurating under water; and Saussure
discovered that the lime of Chamouni, though entirely without manga-
nese, was nevertheless hydraulic, and with reason inferred, that this
property depended on the clay which existed in the lime. Subsequent
researches confirmed this opinion. In 1817, M. Vicat (a well known
writer on cements) formed hydraulic cements synthetically, by cal-
cining mixtures of common lime and clay. His experiments proved
that clay imparted hydraulic properties to lime, and manufactories
were established for making water cements by the mixture of the two
substances.

In Lt. Kendrick’s experiments the pure ingredients of each compo-
sition were thoroughly mixed by the mortar and pestle, and in the pro-
portions stated in table. If lime or magnesia was used, it was
previously slacked with hot water; if the carbonate of either was em-

Bibliography. 381

ployed, it was moistened, and the material subsequently heated in pla-
tinum crucibles, open, but ina close stove. The comparative hard.
ness was ascertained by a test needle ;1, of an inch in diameter, which
was held firmly in a vertical position, and the specimens were submit-
ted to trial without being removed from the vessel containing them.

The following is Lt. Kendrick’s table of results, with some unim-
portant omissions.

: &
| afil:
& a a g :
= : S 3 = | Resistance in pounds, after
5 fog | ‘ & 4 fa) = Ss ;
s| ¢]a g| 2 1a] 38
33 ee gle] § & 8| § S x days. days. days. days. days.
z\_@ a |< re) = |e) 8 a ~ a WwW bb 60 4
bee -m.|d.{h. m.| Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs.
1) 37°75] 12-25 3 low-red 2 45| 1 7 10
9} 40 357 = 5 = 30 275) 7 9:50) 10
31 40 357 =|200 ee ed 15
4| 56-60)18-40 357 = 5 \highest 16 9-75). 7 9°50
51 25 113 77 30 16
G25 30 18 3-75] 4°75 5°50
750 115 (3571200 2 45 18 30019 111 {23
g) 50 & 30 4 110° {1 24
9) 50 “ 2116 | 275) 7 |10 jl
10) 60-90}19-10 160 “ 45; 1/16 3 | 65016 |28
14| 40 : Sh: 4 1:50) 5°25;)°7 ps
yy) 40 12k.” E97 “ 30| 4 200113 [16 |20
13) 25 100 ihe die 350
25 100 | 65 “ , 1 12 ) |92
“ 40 7 1S 1-50
* 50 1 30)17
200 . Lig 30 45 23
es id. |, 3017
200 ‘ 45\1 650;
100 67 bi 48 17 16
100 “ 48| 118 3:50) 3
“ 29; {16 [21 |26
119-50} 80-50! low-red|4
119-50} 80°50) 33
11950} 80:50) [highest | 30
114 | 78 23) 6 2
150 {100 23 Ms
100 | 60 highest | 20
100 | 60 low-red}| 30} (21 450
100 | 60 re 30; 1] 4 2
100 - | 60 highest | 20) 1|14 5
100 27
140 100 = 27) 4 z
180 highest | 30) {14 10
150 “ 30;1) 3 /10
40 “s 90) 1 11
“ 30 1 55 24
100 “ 30} |14 8
200 a“ 30}. 17 8
83-60) 56-40 be 30} 112 20
100 “ 30 11
150 1100 red 45

“Tn addition to the above, a series of experiments was performed by
Lt Kendrick, with the view of testing the hydraulic virtues of the oz-
ide of manganese, but in no instance, where this substance was mingled
with pure lime, did he succeed in sipaur any good result, nor was he

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845.

382 Bibliography.

more fortunate in substituting pure magnesia in the place of the oxide
of manganese ; as appears from the table, Nos. 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 42.
*‘ The positive results exhibited in the table, are more to be relied on
and lead to more safe conclusions. The examination of them shows:
* Ist. That silica and lime employed together, without any other ad-
mixture, will give a hydraulic compound. Nos. 3, 8, 9, 11, 13, 34,

“2d. That silica, alumina and lime will produce an equally energetic
composition. Nos. 1, 4, 6, 7, 16, 37, 38,39. In some respects, the
addition of alumina improves the mixture. Being insoluble in water,
it protects the outer portions of the lime from solution, until the union
of the latter with the silica is effected, and prevents the free permeation
of water through the mortar, which might greatly injure its quality.

“3d. That silica, alumina and magnesia, will form a good Bees
compound, without the addition of lime, Nos. 10, 17, 18, 19.

“This fact may account for the existence of hydraulic qualities in
the native carbonate of magnesia, which, like the carbonate of lime,
may frequently contain a portion of clay in its composition.

“4th. That silica, lime and magnesia give a better hydraulic result
than silica and lime, Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14. This probably arises from
the formation of double silicates, the silicic acid uniting with both lime
and magnesia

** Nos. 21, 22, 41, exhibit surprising results, and lead to the inference
which is generally deducible from the table, that the induration of
hydraulic mortars is not to be ascribed to any one agent, nor ever to
precisely the same causes; though, in most cases, it is owing to the
formation of a silicate.

“« With the view of discovering (says Lt. Wright) the constituents of
some of our hydraulic limes, I submitted for analysis to Dr. Jackson of
Boston, two specimens of limestone, obtained from different localities
and possessed of different properties. They both furnish after calcina-
tion, products, which it is necessary to pulverize, in order to prepare
them for use, and are both known in commerce as hydraulic cements ;
one called Barnes’ Connecticut cement, from Southington, Conn., the
other Lawrence’s Rosendale cement, from the vicinity of Rondout,
New York.

“The second is esteemed the best cement for use, setting in five
minutes after immersion in water.

*“ The results of the two analyses were as follows :—One hundred
grains of the Connecticut cement, being thoroughly dried at 212° F.
yielded on chemical analysis—

Bibliography. 383

tesa and seein sand,* 8-780 grs. Oxygen.
Silicic ig , - 23°620 12-275
note cid, : . ‘ 8-000 5°788 18°135.
Sulphuric aaa ur ; . 0-137 0-072
Lime, . “ : - 47-285 13-281
‘Alumina, ‘ ‘ é . 6120 2941
Peroxide of iron, . , i 3°260 0-998 18-190

agnesia, , ‘ ' - 1/920 0-760
Manganese (oxide of), . » <7 100 0-077

(| ae pets . 0-792 0-133

100-014
‘014 gain, ashes.

100-000
Oxygen of the acids=18-135
Oxygen of the bases=18-190
‘One hundred grains of the Rosendale cement yielded, on analysis, as
follows :—

Silicie acid, . ‘ . . 18°170 grs. con. 4 439
Sulphuric acid, . ‘ : 1-000 0-5 sf 12-93,
Carbonic acid, ‘ . + 2°893

Lime, F ;. 44-970

Magnesia, 19-0S0 7360 7
Alumina, . pe 5°500 2°563
Peroxide of i iro, ; ‘ . 4900 1501

Oxide of cape entge ; ’ 1-000 0°464 } 12-291.
Potash, ; . 0-673 0-114

Soda, ‘ ‘ ‘ = 0-438 0-112

Water, + ..° 4 , > 0-200 0-177 §

99-931
The oxygen of the — is, 12-930
ee
' a Sh, gael en bases is, 12°291
“From which it would seem that bibasic compounds are formed when
the cement sets
“*On comparing the analyses with each other, it appears that the chief
constituents of the Connecticut cement are silica and lime, whereas a
large proportion of magnesia enters into the composition of the Rosen-
dale. The inference suggested by the results of the table is thus
strengthened by those of the analyses, viz. that the increased energy of
the latter cement may be ascribed to the formation of double silicates.
“Dr. Jackson, who has performed many experiments with hydraulic
mixtures, informs me, that the oxide of manganese will answer the same

* The sand is not in chemical combination, but is ines: mixed with the

other ingredients of the cement.

384 Bibliography.

purpose as magnesia: which is not edyening? as the two substances are
isomorphous.

“ Prof. W. B. Rogers, of the University of Virginia, has analyzed
within the last six years upwards of a hundred specimens of cement
rocks derived from the carboniferous and Apalachian series of Vir-
ginia and other states; and he believes the cause of the solidification
of the products, obtained by calcining both those classes of rocks, to
be the formation of silicates: in the former chiefly those of lime and
oxide of iron; in the strikingly hydraulic Apalachian limestones, those
of lime and magnesia.” ,

In Vol. xiv1, p. 80, we have given from Dr. Beck’s Report on the Min-
eralogy of New York, a table of analyses of the hydraulic limestone
of that state, together with some general remarks on this subject.

7. Dissertation on a Natural System of Chemical Classification ; by
Oxiver Wotcorr Gisss, of the city of New York.—In this work the
author proposes a new and complete system of chemical classification
for the elementary bodies founded on their analogies, in crystalline
form or isomorphism, their relations to each other in their mode of
combination and the molecular type of their compounds.

He remarks, “ Between the fifty six elemanie to avn all manerys ne
been resolved, ther
them first into subordinate natural families or groups, and then by gen-
eral, though not indistinct resemblances, unite them into one indissoluble
chain, each link of which differs in degree rather than in kind from its
fellow on either side, so that the whole illustrates, in unorganized nature,
the truth of the maxim of Linneeus— Natura non facit salium’—Na-
ture makes no leaps. And this, then, we assume as the fundamental
idea and central point of our essay ; namely that this law of grades,
which Linnzus announced for the organized kingdom alone, is an uni-
versal law, and prevails as well among shapeless atoms as among living
beings, and in the simplest crystals as well as in the innumerable com-
plex forms in which life outwardly manifests itself.”

The author here alludes to some of the points in which analogies
may be shown to exist; and first, the relations which exist between
the equivalents of bodies, which are such that a natural group of ele-
ments have generally either the same equivalent, or else the relation of
their equivalent numbers may be expressed by a very simple relation.
This resemblance is too marked and general to be regarded as mere
coincidence.

zs If we admit that the specific gravities of bodies represent the rel-
ative weights of equal bulks, it follows, that if. we divide the specific
gravities by the atomic weights, we obtain the relative numbers of

Bibliography. 385

equivalents, which different substances contain under the same bulk or
volume; these have been called the atomic numbers, and we find the
atomic numbers of the elements are often connected by simple ratios,
and that substances of the same natural group have usually the same
number of equivalents contained under the same volume.”

The combining volumes of substances have evidently an important
relation to the atomic numbers, as also the atomic volumes, o ed b
dividing the equivalent weights by the specific gravities, and which may
be considered as expressing the relative volumes of their atoms.

Another and very interesting point, is that of resemblance in crystal-
line form, for we find asa general rule, that those bodies closely resem-
bling each other in chemical properties have the same crystalline form.

Late researches have tended to confirm the law announced by Dulong
and Petit, that the specific heats of equivalent weights of bodies are
equal, or are connected by simple multiples.

But to come to the classification itself. The elementary bodies are
divided into fourteen classes, of which we can say little more than to
mention their names.

The first group embraces eight members. Oxygen, sulphur, selenium,
tellurium, chlorine, bromine, iodine and fluorine. These are connected
by their strong affinities for the substances of the other groups, by the
fact that any one of them may replace another, wholly or in part, in
any compound without altering its molecular type, and without altering
in kind its chemical relations. Very close relations are also observed
between their equivalents and atomic volumes, and several of them are
connected by isomorphism. ‘They are also the most highly electro-neg-
ative of all substances.

The second group consists of nitrogen, Poet. arsenic and an-

timony.
The third of hydrogen, zinc, cadmium, and magnesium ; the salts of
the three last are well known to be isomorphous, and Dr. Kane has point-
ed out a close resemblance between the compounds of zine and hydro-
gen, So that it is not improbable that if hydrogen could be sufficiently
condensed it would appear as a metal.

’ The fourth is composed of iron, manganese, chromium, cobalt, and
nickel ; the natural resemblances are pointed out in a clear and forcible
manner, but our limits will not permit us to give any thing more than the
groups and the substances composing them.

The fifth consists of aluminum, glucinum, and zirconium.

a path = molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium and columbium.

, mercury bismuth and palladium.
= eighth is s composed of bariuind, strobtium, calcium, lead and silver.
The ninth group consists of platinum, titanium, iridium and osmium.
The tenth embraces gold, uranium, rhodium and tin.

* ia |

386 Bibliography.

The eleventh comprises potassium, sodium and lithium.

The twelfth consists of yttrium and thorium.

The thirteenth of cerium, latanium, didymium, erbium and terbium,

The fourteenth comprises carbon, boron and silicon. The author
proposes to reduce the received equivalent of boron and silicon by one
third, and thus assimilate their acids in constitution to carbonic acid; thus
CO,, BO,, and SiO,, and certainly, the general analogy of boracic
and silicie acids, to the carbonic, in their chemical relations, and the
great simplification which it would introduce in our views of the com-
position of the natural silicates, appear to offer some ground for the ne
posed change.

The arrangement of the compounds is one obviously growing out of
the system adopted for the elements, and we will only mention the prin-
ciples of his classification.

** Ist. The compounds of the members of group first with one an-
einer are arranged according to their molecular type.

e compounds of the members of any other group than group
he with the members of group first, are arranged together in groups
according to molecular ho yi and according to isomorphism
wherever isomorphisms ex

Although we have seen but an imperfect outline of Mr. Gibbs’s
principles of arrangement, we may safely say that he has ably shown the
gradation by which the different substances are united to each other, and
fully vindicated the motto of his essay, “‘ Natura non a facit saltum.”

8. New Books Received. —Among numerous, interesting, and im-
portant works on our table, we have space in this number to note the
titles only of the following :

I. A History of Fossil Insects in the Secondary Rocks of England,
accompanied by a particular account of the strata in which they occur,
and of the circumstances connected with their preservation. By Rev.
Peter B. Broviz, M. A., F. G.S. 8vo., pp. 130, plates 11. London,
J. Van Voorst. 1845.

II. Report intended to illustrate a map of the hydrographical basin of
the upper Mississippi River, made by (the late). J. N. Niconzer while
in employ under the Bureau of the corps of topographical vin
Washington, 1843, (With a large map.)

Ill. The Encyclopedia of Chemistry, theoretical and practical ; pre:
senting a complete and extended view of the present state of ut
science. Part IX, ending with cobalt. pp. 464.

IV. North American Sylva: Micuavx and Nurratu. Vol. IV, 2d
half, royal 8vo. pp. 57 to 136. 23 plates. pe LO =

* Mr. Gibbs acknowledged his indebtedness to Drs. Kane and Graham, for the
aid he has derived from their published suggestions on this subject.

Miscellanies. 387

MISCELLANIES.
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC.

1. On the Hypothesis of Electric Currents in the Nerves; by M. Mav-
tTEvucct.—Never having been able, in our former experiments, to establish,
By aid of the galvanometer, the existence of electric currents in the brain,
the spinal cord, or in the nerves of the dog, the rabbit, and the frog, we
wished to make a new trial on an animal of large stature, (the horse,)
hoping by this means to place ourselves in the most favorable condition for
researches of this kind.

The galvanometer which we employed in these new experiments was
constructed by Rumkorff, and was extremely sensible ; the conducting

and so varnished as to leave only a square centimétre of “ surface ex-
posed. The needle made one oscillation in seventy secon

Before applying the two platinum plates to the nervous pest they were
immersed in spring-water for a very long time, and until the signs of the
current, which are always observed at the first immersion, had completely
disappenred.

These precautions having bed taken, and the live horse having been
thrown down upon a table, its sciatic nerve was insulated from the neigh-
boring muscles (by means of varnished silk) for a length of thirty or forty
centimétres, (upwards of one foot,) was arin wiped, and left in com-
munication with the cerebro-spinal a

fter being well assured that the naadle constantly remained at zero,
although either one or other of the platinum plates was removed from
the water and alternately reimmersed, the plates were placed in contact,
first. with the surface of the sciatic, then, after the neurilemma had been
removed, with different points of this voluminous nerve

The interval of deviation, namely, the distance comprised between the
two plates, being. at first 3 or 4 cent., the needle sometimes remained at
zero, and at other times deviated several degrees, soon returning to zero.
This interval having been suddenly extended to 15 cent., the deviation
ought to have ah notably increased, in the same direction, if electric
Currents existed in the nerves. There was nothing; or rather the needle
did not deviate to a greater number of degrees than in the preceding case,
and its deviation was still only momentary, or else was entirely wanting.

It is important to bear in mind that during the continuance of these
experiments, in consequence of the pain which was voluntarily excited in
the animal, its posterior train was the seat of energetic and repeated efforts,
and that, consequently, the extremities of the galvanometer were put into

388 Miscellanies.

communication with the sciatic nerve at the very moment when it was
transmitting the exciting influence to the muscles of the thigh and leg.

If, by varying our trials, we have occasionally perceived a very sensible
deviation of the needle, it is important to notice that this deviation did not
change in direction, although the contacts were inverted; that, moreover,
it so occurred every time that the nerve was touched simultaneously with
the two plates of the galvanometer. At the moment when these plat
were successively plunged into water deviations were also obtained, which
did not differ from those that are observed on inserting the extremities of
the instrument in the nerve itself. ,

Bearing in mind the extreme sensibility of our galvanometer, the favor-
able condition of the experiment, and the precautions which we have
taken, we think we are authorized in concluding that there does not exist
any trace of electric currents in the nerves of living animals appreciable
by the instruments we at present possess. In addition we may add, that
our previous researches had already conducted us to the same conclusion.
—Elect. Mag. Vol. I, 1845, p. 495—497.

2. New Researches on Animal Electricity: on the Muscular Current,
and on the Proper Current ; by M. Marrevucct.. (Compt. Rend., April,
1845.)—In order to complete all that relates to the muscular current, I
must first mention that I have very distinctly obtained signs of tension
with the condenser at the two extremities of my muscular piles. I have
also obtained signs of electro-chemical decomposition by the muscular cur-
rent. That which particularly interested me in these new researches was
to study, in a much more complete manner than I had hitherto done in
my preceding labors, on the one hand, the relation between the intensity
and the duration after death of the muscular current; and on the other,
the activity of respiration and the circulation of the blood, the tempera-
ture of the medium in which the animal lives, and its rank in the animal
scale. I have labored at this for five months, every day submitting to ex-
periment a certain number of frogs, that had been taken from the same
pond. Of these frogs, some were immediately killed, in order to obtain
a measure of the muscular current ; others were placed at the temperature
of the external atmosphere, in an apparatus by means of which I could
know the quantity of carbonic acid gas given out by a frog in a determinate
time ; others, finally, were placed in an ambient medium, the temperature
of which was constantly 16°, (61° Fahr.) I thus operated on frogs that
had lived from—4° (25° Fahr.) to 16°. The result of so great a number
of experiments left me not the smallest doubt as to this conclusion,—the
intensity of the muscular current is in proportion to the activity of respi-
ration. I operated in like manner upon frogs which had been preserved
for a greater or less length of time in water deprived of air, and which,
therefore, were ina more or less decided state of asphyxia. I always
arrived at the same result.

Miscellanies. 389

\

By operating upon several warm-blooded animals, I verified in a more
complete manner the result to which I had already arrived, namely, that
the intensity of the muscular current is proportionate to the rank of the
animal in the scale of beings; whilst the duration of this current after
death varies in an opposite ratio. I wished to study the influence of dif
ferent gases upon the intensity and duration of the muscular current.
For this purpose I arranged an apparatus that permitted of my having a
muscular pile in a certain gaseous medium, with power to open and close
at pleasure the circuit of this pile with the galvanometer. I operated
thus in atmospheric air, in oxygen, in very rarefied air, in carbonic acid,
and in hydrogen. In these different media the muscular pile acted equal-
ly, both as regards intensity and duration. Hydrogen gas alone present-
ed a singularity which could not have been anticipated before the experi-
ment. This singularity is not referable to an action of the gas on the
muscles, but rather to a phenomenon of secondary polarity, which is veri-
fied, whatever be the source of the current. The fact is, that on operat-
ing in this gas with a muscular pile, the deviation remains constant for
several hours. This nullity of action of the different gases named, upon
the intensity and duration of the muscular current, plainly proves that the
origin of this current is in the muscle itself, whether living or taken from
the animal a short time after death. ‘This same conclusion is rendered
evident by another experiment. I prepared with very fine intestinal mem-
brane, a great number of small conical cavities; these cavities I filled
with fibrine separated from the blood of a recently killed ox; I rapidly
prepared with these elements a pile that was in appearance similar to my
piles of half thighs. I obtained no sign of a current from this pile. This
pile acted with the same result both in oxygen and hydrogen. It is,
therefore, in the muscle, and consequently in its organization, and in the
chemical actions which are going on within its very structure, when it be-
longs to a living or to a recently killed animal, that the cause of the cur-
rent exists.

The most curious results to which I have arrived in these latter labors,
are in relation to the proper current of the frog. I am now able to affirm
that this current does not belong exclusively to the frog, but that it is man-
ifested in all the muscles of all animals, provided that these muscles pre-
sent at their extremities an unequal tendinous termination. All the mus-
cles that have on one side the tendinous extremity more compacted, more
condensed than on the other, give the current direction in the muscle from
the tendinous extremity to the surface of the muscle. I have verified this
result on all the muscles of the frog, on the muscles of the superior as
well as those of the inferior limbs; on the muscular masses of the pigeon,
the rabbit, and the dog. If I have rightly understood the latest anatomi-
cal labors made upon the structure of muscles, or their relations with the
tendons and the sarcolema, I cannot hesitate in regarding the proper cur-

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1 50

390 Miscellantes.

rent, or that from the tendon to the surface of the muscle, as the most
simple case of the muscular current. ‘The tendinous fibres are continued
among the muscular fibres, whilst the sarcolema merely envelopes the said
muscular fibres. This result is rendered still more probable when we
call to mind that the same laws preside over the proper current and the
muscular current.—Elect. Mag., Vol. IT, 1845, p. 20—22

3. Structure of Electro-precipitated Metals; by Warren Dexa Rue.
—Mr. Rue shows that in copying an engraved plate by precipitation, the
copy is imperfect along the centre of each groove or depressed line, the
two parts though apparently joined, being not so in reality. This difficulty
and the porosity proceeding from the crystalline texture of the deposit,
may be remedied by thoroughly tinning it at the back as soon as the cast
is removed from the matrix; the tin insinuates itself into a great number
of the pores, and binds the whole firmly together. With the help of a lit-
tle chloride of zinc the tinning is effected very readily, and it should be
done without disturbing the structure by filing. Owing to the porous
texture of electro-precipitated plates, they cannot be used for any purpose
where strength is required.—Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 13, p.

4. Electric Sound.—M. Jacobi has constructed an acoustic telegraph,
in which the sound resulting from the interruption of the electric current
is repeated one hundred and fifty to two hundred times in a second. The
sound produced is transmitted to a distance of fifteen miles, (twenty four
kilometres.) —L Institut, No. 600, 25 Juin, 1845, p. 231.

5. An Account of Compact Aluminum; by Prof. F. Wouter of Got-
tingen.—The author has lately found, contrary to the results of his former
researches on aluminum made eighteen years ago, that this metal is readi-
ly fusible, and that in its reduction from the chloride of aluminum by
means of potassium, it presents itself in the form of fused globules, gene-
rally so small that their shape is not distinguishable under the microscope,
although occasionally they are met with having a sensible diameter. He
effects the reduction at once in a clay crucible, the bottom of which he
covers with pellets of pure potassium, and places upon these the chloride
of ammonium, covering the whole with chloride of potassium in powder.
The crucible being then closed up, and heated in a coal fire, the reduc-
tion is instantly effected.

Fused aluminum has the color and lustre of polished tin ; it continues
perfectly white in the air; it is fully malleable, and the globules may be
beaten out into the thinnest plates without cracking at the edges. It is
entirely unmagnetic. In other respects the metal in this compact state
has the properties which the author formerly ascribed to it—London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Phil. Mag., May, 1845, pp. 450, 451.

Miscellanies. 391

6. Superozyd of Silver—On passing an electrical current through ni-
trate of silver, metallic silver collects at the negative pole, and a substance
of a blackish gray color, crystallized in octahedrons, which Ritter called
superoxyd of silver. Wallquist obtained for it the formula Ag O,, and
finds that the same oxyd is contained also in the solution operated upon.
Fischer operating by the same process, obtained a substance for which

he gives the formula Ag N-+4 Ag+2H.—A nnal. der Chem. und Phar.
Iii, 258,

7. The blue color of Gold Leaf viewed by transmitted light —M. Du-
pasquier has shown that this same color is presented by different metals
reduced to a state of extreme thinness, or in a fine powder suspended in
water. He established this fact by operating on silver, antimony, bismuth,
metallic arsenic in powder, sulphuret of antimony, binoxyd of manga-
nese, sulphuret of lead, arsenical cobalt, and many other metallic ores, —
LP’ Institut, July, 1845, p. 247.

8. Xanthine-—Dr. Unger , who has found the xanthic oxyd in guano,
finds that this oxyd forms definite compounds with acids and also with
basic oxyds, and proposes to call it xanthine. Several of these com-
pounds he has investigated and described.—Chem. Gaz. July 15, 1845,
p. 296, from the Proceedings of the Berlin Academy, April, 1845.

9. A curious change in the composition of Bones taken from Guano;
by R. Warrineton, Esq. (Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 10, p. 223.—This
substance derived from the alteration of bones, has a highly crystalline
laminated structure, with a white color slightly tinged with yellow. It
is readily soluble in hot distilled water, with the exception of some
brown particles distributed in certain parts. On examination by chemi-
- Gal tests, it was found to consist principally of sulphuric acid, potash, and
ammonia with a little uric acid, and analysis led Mr. Warrington to con-
sider it a compound mainly of sulphate of potash and sulphate of ammo-
nia, in the proportion of 4 equivalents of the former to 1 of the latter.
The existence of the potash in the midst of the guano abounding in soda
and ammoniacal salts, he accounts for by supposing it to have come from
the ashes of fires made in former times by sealers.

10. Detection of Kinic Acid; by Joan Srennouse.—To examine a
bark for kinie acid, boil.a little with a slight excess of lime, pour off the
liquor and concentrate it; filtering isnot necessary. Then distill it mixed
in a retort with half its weight of sulphuric acid and peroxyd of manga-
nese. If the bark contains the smallest quantity of kinic acid, the first
portion of the liquid distilled over has a yellow color and the very peculiar
smell of kinone. If the liquid is treated with a little ammonia, it be-

392 Miscellanies.

comes deep brown, changing in a few minutes to brownish black ; or if
chlorine water be added to another portion, it changes from yellow to a
bright green. The distillation need not be long continued as the kinone
is very volatile—Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 10, p. 226

11. On the decomposition of Salts ee Ammonia at the ordinary tempera-
ture; by H. Bence Jones, M. D.— ones shows that evaporation,
even at the ordinary temperature, of ‘his of ammonia, causes their de-
composition by the escape of the ammonia. A solution of the sulphate
of ammonia, at first neutral to the test liquids, after a while changed lit-
mus to pink; other salts produce the same result. A solution of the urate
afier standing for a while, presented minute tufts of crystals of uric acid
along the edge of the liquid.— Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 10, p. 244

12. Styrole.—The oil of storax was named styrole, by E. Simon, who
obtained it from the liquid storax of the shops by distillation with water.
Its properties have been investigated by J. Blyth and Dr. A. W. Hoffman
at Berlin. It is colorless, with a burning taste, and aromatic odor, re-
sembling a mixture of benzole and naphthaline. It evaporates at all
temperatures, and boils at 1453°C. A wick dipped in it burns with a
brilliant smoky flame. This substance consists, according to their analy-
ses, of 2 equivalents of carbon and 1 of hydrogen, and has analogies with
benzole and cinnamole.—From the Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 13, 1849,
p. 334,

13. Salicine; by M. Pirta.—Salicine is a natural combination of
grape-sugar and of saligenine; the saligenine again is a substance which
is very readily altered by chemical reagents. Weak acids convert it into
saliretine, concentrated sulphuric acid into rutiline, nitric acid into carba-
zotic acid, oxidizing agents into hydruret of salicyle, potash in a state of
fusion into salicylic acid.

hen salicine is submitted to the action of any agent whatever, two
cases may occur:—l1. If the agent is sufficiently energetic to decompose
at the same time the saligenine and the sugar, altered products of these
two substances are obtained, as if the experiment were made on a mixture
of saligenine and grape-sugar. 2. If, on the contrary, a weak agent is
employed, the saligenine only is decomposed and the sugar remains unal-
tered, but it combines with the modified saligenine. Thus chlorine first
converts it into chlorosalicine; then into bichlorosalicine; lastly, into per-
chlorosalicine: these are combinations of sugar with the saligenine, in
which chlorine has replaced 1, 2, 3 equivalents of hydrogen.

Dilute nitric acid changes salicine’ into helicine. This results from the
combination of the sugar of the salicine with the hydruret of salicyle
derived from the oxidation of the saligenine. When helicine is submitted

Miscellanies. 393

to the action of chlorine or bromine, the hydruret of salicyle which it
contains is converted into chloride and bromide of salicyle; these pro-
ducts combining with the sugar give rise to chlorohelicine and bromohe-
licine.

Lastly, all these combinations of saligenine, or its derivatives with sugar,
are rapidly decomposed by contact with acids and by synaptase.—Chem.
Gaz., August, 1845, p. 323. ;

14. Composition of Fungi; by Dr. F. Scutosspererr and Dr. O,
Dorrrine.—F ungi have been known to be remarkable for the nitrogen
they contain, and their nutritive qualities have been attributed partly
thereto. Drs. Schlossberger and Doepping have found, by analysis of
several species, that many contain, dried at 212° F., two or thee times as
much nitrogen as wheat, (some 77 per. cent.,) and a considerable propor-
tion of phosphates. In nearly all the species they examined, they detect-
ed mannite or fermentable sugar, and many of the succulent fungi (A.
russula, cantharellus, emeticus) when preserved for some days in a bottle
with a narrow neck, but not closed, passed spontaneously into spirituous
fermentation, emitting at the same time an agreeable odor like musk, and
yielding alcohol afterwards on distillation. The substratum of the fungi
consists mainly of cellulose. No amylum was detected by the iodine

15. Action of Animal Charcoal; by R. Warrincron.—Beer or ale,
and the solutions or decoctions of various astringent bitter substances, as
oak bark, Peruvian bark, strychnia, lose their bitter taste when passed
through charcoal. 12 grains of animal charcoal were found sufficient by
Mr. R. Warrington, to remove the bitter flavor of 2 grains of disulphate
of quina dissolved in two ounces of distilled water. A large quantity of
sulphate of magnesia was removed from its solution by the same means,
and also chloride of barium, sulphate of soda and other salts. This sub-
the action of animal cbaréenl on metallic salts, is under ergetn

by M. Chevallier —Proceed. Chem. Soc., part 13, p. 326.

16. Thomaite ; a new mineral species—This name is given by Mayer
to a carbonate of iron found in the Siebengebirge, having the same crys-
talline form with Junkerite, but having the specific gravity 3°10, a pearly
lustre, and granular fracture. After exposure to the air for two days the
color changes to a pale honey yellow, and the mineral becomes dry and
compact. It consists of protoxyd of iron 53°72, silica 6°04, alumina 4°25,
lime 1°52, magnesia 0°43, protoxyd of manganese 0°65, carbonic acid
33'39=100. (Leonhard’s Jahrbuch, 1845. Heft. 2, p. 200. }~Jaames
son’s Jour., July, 1845, p. 196.

394 Miscellanies.

17. Scueerer on Aventurine Feldspar.—Aventurine feldspar has been
found by Scheerer to owe its iridescence to minute crystals of specular
iron or titanic iron, instead of mica as generally stated. Scheerer con-
cludes from his various microscopic investigations of minerals, that the
microscope should be used before attempting an analysis, especially with
cleavable minerals which are especially liable to mechanical mixtures,
(Poggendorf’s Annalen, Ixiv.)—Jameson’s Jour., July, 1845, p. 195.

18. Spadaite, a new mineral; by von Kopett.—This species is near
Schiller-spar in composition. Color reddish or flesh-red, streak white,
lustre glistening or glimmering, hardness 2°5, compact with an imperfectly
conchoidal fracture; soluble in muriatic acid with a residuum of gelatin-
ous silica. Its formula is 4MS*-+-M Aq*. (Berz. Jabresl. 24th. Jahrg.
281.)—Jameson’s Jour., July, 1845, p. 194.

19. Descriptions of Polycrase and Malacrone, two new minerals; by
Scneerer.—T hese minerals are generally associated with orthite, and are
often accompanied with phosphate of yttria at Hitterde, Sweden. The
polycrase is near polymignite. It is without cleavage and has a con-
choidal fracture, breaking easily. Sp. gr. 5°105, color pure black; thin
splinters translucent and yellowish brown, streak grayish brown, lustre in-
ferior to that of polymignite. A qualitative analysis afforded titanic acid,
columbic acid, zirconia, yttria, oxyds of iron, uranium, cerium, with traces
of alumina, lime, and magnesia, Malacone, is so called from its having in-
ferior hardness to zircon. Its form is similar but not identical; cleavage
none, fracture conchoidal, hardness 6, sp. gr. 3°903, color bluish-white,
though often brownish, reddish or yellowish from a coating of foreign sub-
stances, Lustre vitreous, but resinous on a surface of fracture. Trans-
lucent in small fragments and of a yellowish-white color. Streak color-
less. Composition, silica 31°31, zirconia 63°40, oxyd of iron 0°41, yttria
0°34, lime 0°39, magnesia 0°11, water 3°03=98:99. It appears to be a
zircon containing water. Scheerer considers it probable that the zirco-
nia exists in malacone in a different isomeric condition from the zirconia
in zircons. (Keilhau’s Gaea Norwegica.)—Jameson’s Jour., July, 1845,
p. 192. ; ’

20. R. Paurs, IJr., on the State of Iron in. Soils.—Mr. Phillips
shows. by his analyses that in most rich soils the iron is found principally
in the lower state of oxydation, and urges that the presence of this oxyd
is not injurious to vegetation. He explains thus the fact that this oxyd
remains unchanged ; the peroxyd, he states, is converted to protoxyd by
means of the affinity of the carbon of the organic matter or humus
thet This he appears to confirm by experiments. He adds as fol-
ows :—

Miscellanies. 395

The non-fertility of bog-earths may, it appears to me, be perhaps ac-
counted for from the organic acid they have been found to contain; sup-
posed to be the suberic acid, but probably an acid peculiar to these earths.
The action of the manures usually employed to bring them into a state of
fertility, viz. lime and strong oil of vitriol, is made apparent if we take
this view, for by uniting with the first the organic acid would be rendered
innoxious, whilst the second would destroy it; but neither of these agents
would have any influence on the further oxydation of the iron, and the
second would render it soluble; and what makes this idea more probable
is, that I have found in all rich soils a soluble organic salt of lime to exist,
and that these soils never possessed any acid properties. The poisonous
character of the drainage water from these earths is explained by this
view; but, on the other supposition, that it results from the action of pro-
toxyd of iron, we can hardly imagine,—knowing as we do how immedi-
ately, when held in solution by carbonie acid, it is decomposed by ex-
posure to the action of the atmosphere,—that these injurious effects could
take place in the short time that would elapse before it became sesqui-
oxyd; and I have before pointed out that the soluble organic matter would
have no effect in arresting this decomposition. The use of the red oxyd
of iron in a soil has been stated to be its power of retaining ammonia. I
must confess, however, I am rather inclined to ane that it is of my
great value to it, on account of this property, as all soils containing much
of it are found to be of poor quality; but, admitting this to be the fact,
there does not appear to me to be any reason to doubt that this retentive
power is equally possessed by the protoxyd.

From the above observations I was led to the conclusion, that the pre-
servative action of the humus on the protoxyd of iron in soils was proba-
bly analogous to that of sugar in some pharmaceutical preparations, par-
ticularly in that of the saccharated carbonate of iron of the Edinburgh
Pharmacopeia. I therefore prepared some of it by the process there
given, and found, on passing a current of air over a portion of it by the
apparatus I have before described, that a small amount of carbonic acid
was given out from it. I do not, however, wish to be considered as speak-
ing positively as to this being the action of the sugar, although the experi-
ment shown above would appear to render it probable

Note.—Since writing the above communication, I have had brought
before my attention a remark occurring in several agricultural works, that
some clays require either burning or long exposure to the atmosphere be-
fore they are fitted to be mixed with fertile soils ; and as the iron in them
is found to become peroxyd during these operations, it has been brought
forward as another proof of the injurious action of the protoxyd of iron.

In my opinion, however, it is not because the iron is in the state of pro-
toxyd that clays require this treatment, but on account of its existing as
sulphuret, which, as is well known, is hurtful to vegetation; and I believe

ta

396 Miscellanies.

that the appearance of oxydation assumed by them during exposure to the
atmosphere, is nothing more than the decomposition of the sulphuret into

roxyd of iron. That this decomposition would take place under these
circumstances I may instance, in the case of an embankment of clay on
the Croydon railway, where, accompanied by the formation of sulphate of
lime, it occurred so extensively as to destroy part of the work.

the slaty clay usually accompanying the coal formation, where it is found
so extensively as to be employed for the manufactures of alum and cop-
peras.—London, Edinburgh and Dublin Phil. Mag., May, 1845, pp.
440, 441.

21. Sillimanite—Dr. Thomson has lately obtained for the composition
of this mineral the following: silica 45°65, alumina 49°50, protoxyd of
iron 4°10= , Which is the same as that given for Bucholzite.—P/ul.
Mag., xxv1, 1845, p. 536.

22. On the origin of Quartz and Metalliferous Veins; by Prof.
Gustav Biscuor, of Bonn. (Jameson’s Jour., April, 1845, p. 344.)—
The author opposes the theory of injection of the material constituting
quartz veins in a state of fusion, and advocates the view of their origi-
nating from aqueous solutions, The article is worthy of being cited en-
tire. The following are interesting facts with regard to the prevalence of
silica in solution in cold water :—

There is scarcely any water, whether it be spring or river water, which
does not contain silica in solution, though frequently in very small quan-
tities. Should such water penetrate through the narrowest cleft, there is
the possibility that more or less of the dissolved silica may be deposited
in it. It is true, that such a deposition supposes that the water, either,
being hot, cools during circulation in the cleft, or evaporates; or that other
substances maintaining the silica in solution are precipitated; but we must
not overlook other circumstances from which this precipitation may arise.
Very many phenomena show that there exists a peculiar affinity between
silica and organic substances or organic remains. As an example, I may
mention that in the wooden piles of Trajan’s Bridge, near Vienna, quartz
concretions—agates even of half an inch in thickness—have been found ;
and that, according to observations of Glocker, it is only on a lichen that
Hyalite is formed on the serpentine of the Zobtenberg. If, now, in the
above instances, the wood of the bridge pile has induced a precipitation of
silica from an extremely dilute solution, such as the water of the Danube
presents—if, in like manner, a lichen has occasioned such a precipitation,
from, probably, equally dilute solutions, then it is easy to understand, that
organic remains in a Neptunian rock, as in clay-slate, may likewise effect
a precipitation of silica.

Miscellaniés: 397

23. Mean Height of the Cintinanis above the Surface of the Sea;
by Baron von Humpoitpr.—Since immense and lofty chains of moun-
tains occupy our imaginations, by presenting themselves as evidences of
vast terrestrial revolutions, as the boundaries of climates, as great water-
sheds, or as the bearers of different vegetable worlds; it becomes so
much the more necessary to show, by a correct numerical estimate of
their volume, how small the whole quantity of the elevated masses is in
comparison with the area of entire countries. The mass of the Pyrenees,

tga.
would, if distributed over the area of France, increase the height of that
country only 115 English feet. ‘The mass of the eastern and western
chains of the Alps would, in the same manner, raise the height of the
flat country of Europe by only 21°3 English feet. By means of a labo-
rious investigation, which, from its very nature, only gives the upper limit,
i. e. a number which may be smaller, but cannot be larger, I have ascer-
tained that the centre of gravity of the volume of the land which rises
above the present level of the sea, is situated at a height of 671 and 748
English feet in Europe and North America, and 1131°8 and 1151 Eng-
lish feet in Asia and South America.* These calculations indicate the
lowness of the northern regions; the great steppes of the plains of Sibe-
ria are counterbalanced by the enormous swellings of the surface of Asia
between lat. 285° and 40°, between the Himalaya, the northern Thibe-
tian Kuen-Lun, and the Sky Mountains. We can, toa certain extent,
determine, from the estimated amounts, where the plutonic force of the
interior of the globe has operated with greatest power in elevating con-
tinental masses. The mean height of the non-mountainous portion of
France does not exceed 512 English feet—Jameson’s Jour., July, ites ,

24. Infusoria. —Ehrenberg has examined various tufas and other beds
in volcanic regions, and finds that they often consist largely of infusoria.
His j investigations were made upon specimens from Patagonia, Ascen-
sion Island, the Rhine, Pompeii, Mexico, Chili, and other regions, and
he shows their connection with the formation of opal and other siliceous
deposits. The tufaceous rocks of the Hochsimmer volcanic hill, near the
Laacher-Sea, contains the infusoria ia a ‘roasted’ condition, and of thirty
eight species found, only two were n

Ehrenberg proposes to distinguish ee without infusoria by the gen-
eral term Stechiolitic, alluding to their pure or simple character; but
when they contain infiisieia, they are styled Hydrobiolitic :—or if connect-

* The corresponding -amount for the whole globe will consequently be some-
what less than 1000 fe
Vol. xrix, No. 2.—July-Sept. 1845. 51

*

398 Miscellanies.

ed with volcanic operations, and changed by volcanic heat, Pyrobiolitic ;
and tufas containing infusoria he calls Pyrobiolite. When the infusoria
are of fresh-water origin, the deposit is described as Hydrozoolitic, and
when marine, Halizoolitic.* It may be doubted whether the science
stands in need of these terms.—Proceedings of the Berlin Academy,
April, 1845,

25. On the Kunker, a Tufaceous Deposit in India; by Capt. New-
spoLp.—The kunker is a more or less compact tufaceous deposit of car-
bonate of lime or silica. Capt. Newbold brings evidence to prove that
they were produced from springs of water, remains of which may in some
instances be detected. ‘The vast kunker deposits in the plains and val-
leys of India are sometimes upwards of seventy feet deep, overspreading
places where they could not have been formed from rivers or rivulets,
Along the edges of trap dykes mounds of kunker are occasionally ob-
served, like those around the mouths of kunker-depositing springs. In
the Kurnool territory, there is a warm spring from which deposits of a
calcareous mud are forming. But around it and below there is a bed of
kunker partly siliceous, in some portions of which fresh-water shells—
Melaniz, some Planorbes, and others, and impressions of leaves, are con-
tained. The shells afford instructive examples of the various stages of
fossilization. Some of their coats have been completely converted into
sparry carbonate of lime; others have been filled and remain as casts
when the exterior shell is inekon off. Others again are lined with drusy
-erystals of . quartz; in some, this siliceous crystallization i is just beginning
to roughen the surface of the interior, and is hardly perceptible without
the aid of a lens, thus exhibiting interesting examples of the processes
by which fissures in rocks are lined and filled up with minerals which we
look in vain for in the enclosing walls. Some of the kunker is so firm
as to resemble the siliceous tufa deposited by the hot springs of Iceland.
Capt. Newbold states that the siliceous deposits are apparently of older
date than the calcareous, and were probably formed when the waters of
the it Si springs had a somewhat more elevated temperature—Phil.

26. On some of the Substances which reduce Oxide of Silver and pre-
cipitate it on Glass in ihe form of a Metallic Mirror ; by Joun Sren-
noust, Ph. D.—It has long been known that aldehyde, when heated in a
tube with: ammonio-nitrate of silver, reduces the oxide to the metallic
state, and forms a brilliant coating on the inner surface of the tube.

* The above names are derived as follows :—stechiolitic, from oorxe10v, an ele-
ment ; es drobiolitic, from vag, water, and Biov, life, and Ar1Sos, stone ; pyrobiolitic,
from mv, fire, and the same as the last; hydrozoolitic, from vdug and (wo, animal ;
halizoolitic, from aas, the sea, and {wov, animal.

Miscellanies. : 399
Three other substances, saccharie acid, salicylic acid and pyromeconic
acid, were also known to possess the same property, though the coatings
which they yield are much darker, and therefore leas beautiful than those
formed by aldehyde. This was the state of our knowledge previous to
the announcement, about six months ago, of Mr. Drayton’s process for
silvering mirrors in the cold, by means of ammonio-nitrate of silver and
an alcoholic solution of the oils of cloves and cassia.

I find that the number of substances which,- especially when assisted
by heat, give more or less brilliant coatings of reduced silver, is muc
greater than has hitherto been supposed. Thus grape sugar forms a
pretty brilliant mirror even in the cold. When unassisted by heat the
mirror is rather slowly formed, requiring from six to twelve hours; but
when a slight heat is applied it forms very readily in the course of a few
minutes ; the coating is much darker than that produced either by alde-
hyde or by Drayton’s process. Cane sugar also yields a mirror when as-
sisted by heat, but none in the cold. Gum-arabic and starch also yield
dark colored mirrors, but more slowly, and require considerable boiling :
so do phloridzine and salicine. Oils of turpentine and laurel also give
mirrors, but with still greater difficulty, the solutions requiring to be very
concentrated. Resin of guaiacum acts in a similar manner.

Oil of pimento, as is well known, consists of two oils, one an acid oil,

bases ; this in the course of a few minutes, even in the cold, produces as

brilliant a coating of silver as the mixture of the oils of cassia and cloves.

The neutral portion of the pimento oil, which is lighter than water, doe

not reduce nitrate of silver even after long boiling. I could not succeed

in forming metallic mirrors with cinnamic, benzoic, meconic, komenic, |

tannic, or pyrogallic acids, with gum benzoin, become or olibanum, with
oil of rhodium or with glycerine.

Ingenious as Mr. Drayton’s patent process certainly is, it labors under a
very serious inconvenience, which I greatly fear will not be easily remedied.
In the course of a few weeks the surfaces of the mirrors formed by his
process become dotted over with small brownish-red spots, which greatly
injure their appearance. The cause of the spots seems to be this—that
the metallic silver while being deposited on the surface of the glass car-
ries down with it mechanically small quantities of a resinous matter, re-
sulting, most probably, from the oxidation of the oil. This resinous mat-
ter, which is interposed between the glass and the silver, in the course of
time begins to act on the metallic surface with which it is in contact, and
to produce the small brown spots already mentioned. If an excess of the
essential oils is employed to precipitate the silver, the metallic mirror is
much darker, and gets sooner discolored than usual. No doubt the alco-
hol present in the solution keeps up much of the resinous matter ; still a
little of it is almost always deposited on the silvered surface, and acts in
the injurious way described.— Proceedings of Chem. Soc., Part 10.

400 Miscellanies.

27. New Self-registering Barometer; by Rosert Bryson. (Trans.
Roy. Soc. of Edinb., xv, 1844, 503.)—The arrangement in Mr. Bryson’s
instrument is as follows :—In the open end of a siphon barometer tube,
there is a float consisting of an ivory ball, which rests on the mercury,
and a float rod extending out of the extremity. This float rod is bent at
right angles at top and shaped to a knife edge, to act as the registering
rod; and near it a tin cylinder, about three inches in diameter marked
with the hours, is made to revolve by machinery, once in twenty four
hours. In this cylinder there is a series of short pins corresponding to
the hours, which, as the hour arrives, acts upon a bent lever, which presses
the registering rod against the cylinder, upon which an impression is thus
left, indicating the height of the barometer at the time. On passing the
pin, the rod is thrown back by a spring, which is sufficient to shake the
float and remove any adhering mercury. Mr. Bryson, who describes
minutely his mode of arrangement, proposes that there should be seven
cylinders, each marked with a day of the week. To fit them for use
they are streaked with chalk and water well levigated and applied by a
camel’s hair brush.

28. Onthe Manufacture of Enamelled Cast Iron Vessels in Bohemia.—
Tron pots, and especially those of enamelled cast iron, are very exten-
sively used in domestic economy. To enamel these vessels, they are
cleaned as perfectly as possible with weak sulphuric acid, then washed
with cold water, and dipped into a thin paste made with quartz first melted
with borax, feldspar, and clay free from iron, then reduced to an impalp-
able powder, and sufficient water added to form a rather thin paste. These
vessels are then powdered in “the inside with a linen bag containing a
very finely pulverized mixture of feldspar, carbonate of soda, borax, and
a little oxyd of tin. Nothing then remains but to dry the pieces and heat
them in an enamelling furnace. The coating obtained is very white, T¢-
sists the action of fire without cracking, and completely resists acid or al-
kaline solutions.—Chem. Gaz., July, 1845. p. 290.

. The Tagua Nut or Vegetable Ivory; by A. Connett. (Trans.
Roy. Soc., of Edinb., xv, 1844, p. 541.)—This remarkable seed is now ex-
tensively carved into a variety of ornaments, which resemble the finest
ivory both in texture and color. The nuts are often as large as a hen’s
egg and somewhat angular in shape, and come from a species of palm,
(Phytelephas macrocarpa.) Excepting the outer shell, about 3/5 of an
inch thick, and a brown epidermis, they consist throughout of the close
grained material called vegetable ivory. Its density is 1°376 at 53° Fabr.
The analysis afforded Mr. Connel, gum 6°78, legumin or vegetable casein
3'8, vegetable albumen 0°42, fixed oil 0°73, ashes 0°61, water 9°37, lignin or
other woody matter 81° 34— 100. _'The ashes contained phosphate of lime,
sulphate of lime, chlorid of calcium, carbonate of lime and a little silica.

Miscellanies. A01

80. Lithographic Stones.—A new locality affording a superior quality
of lithographic stone has been opened at Belbéze, Haute Garonne, in the
French Pyrenees. According to M. Leymerie they are. inferior to none
before known, being even superior in hardness to the stone from Munich.
This locality belongs to the cretaceous formation, while all previously dis-
covered have been found in the jurassic system of rocks.—Z’ Institut, 9
July, 1845. p. 245.

31L.. On the Leaves of the Coffee Tree.as a Substitute for Tea.—Prof.
Blume of Leyden laid before the meeting of naturalists of Bremen sam-
ples of tea prepared from coffee leaves, which in appearance, odor, and
taste of the decoction agreed entirely with that from genuine Chinese tea.
It has long been employed as such by the lower classes in Java and
Sumatra.—Chem. Gaz., July 15, 1845, p. 299, from Buchner’s Repertor.
fir Pharm., xxxvu, p. 34.

32. Upon Anastatic Printing. (Translated from Dingler’s Polytech-
nic Journal, June, 1845.)—Prof. Faraday lately delivered a lecture at
the Royal Inatitatian upon Anastatic printing, the recent discovery which
enables us to reproduce to an unlimited extent and in a very short time,
the impressions of any kind of printing, whether ordinary type work,
engravings on copper, or lithographs. ‘The theory of Anastatic printing
is based upon the well known properties of the substances employed in
the process. For instance there is, as we are aware, an attraction in
water for water; oil, as we know, attracts oil, whereas these two sub-
stances repel each other. Metals are far more readily moistened by oil
than by water, but more readily still by a weak solution of gum; and with
even yet greater facility by water in which phosphoric acid is dissolved.
In addition to these properties thus possessed by water, oil and the metals,
the following may be looked upon as the fundamental principle of Anas-_
tatic printing, namely, the facility with which the ink of a newly printed
book or engraving may be transferred by pressure to another even surface.
The impression of a recent newspaper, for instance, when laid upon a
white sheet of paper may be transferred to the latter by pressure, so that
all its letters will be distinctly reproduced thereupon. This will enable
us to comprehend readily the process of Anastatic printing.
The.printed paper, be ittype or an engraving, is first to be moistened
with dilute nitric acid and then powerfully pressed by means of a roller
into the surface of an even zinc plate, by which means every part of the
sheet is brought into immediate contact with the zinc. The acids with
which the white portions of the paper are saturated attack the metal, the
printed portions thereof being simultaneously transferred to its phe
that the zinc plate after this process presents a revers de the printed
object. The principles shove allnded to are now brought to > heel The

A02 Miscellanies.

zinc plate thus prepared is to have poured over it a solution of gum in di-
luted phosphoric acid. -This fluid is attracted by those portions of the
plate that the acid has previously attacked and moistens them without diffi-
culty, whereas it is repelled by the oil contained in the transferred portion
of the printer’s ink. The plate is now to have an inked roller passed over
it, whereby the very reverse action is brought about. The repulsion be-
tween the oil of the ink and the moist surface of the plate over which the
roller is passed, prevents the grease from adhering to those portions of its
surface upon which there are no printed lines or strokes, while from the
attraction of oil for oil, the ink is retained upon all the printed parts. The
Anastatic plate is thus ready for use, and impressions may be thrown off
from it as in the ordinary lithographic process.

Prof. Faraday described likewise the method of obtaining, by the
Anastatic process, copies of antique originals, the ink of which is no
longer transferrable by simple pressure. The process is as follows:—
The printed paper is first ‘to be laid in a solution of potash and subse-
quently in a solution of tartaric acid. The consequence thereof is that
all the blank portions of the paper become penetrated by minute crystals
of tartrate of potash, and as this salt repels water, an inked roller may
then be passed over the surface of the paper without the .ink adhering to
any parts but where the ink of the impression is. The tartrate is then to
be removed by careful washing, and the operation proceeded with as
above described, beginning by moistening the paper with dilute nitric
acid.

The February number of the Art Union informs us, that as yet the

: Anasta tic process is only used in London, and that ona aietall scale, at the
printing office of Mr. Wood, Bargeyard Chambers, Buchlersbury. The
impressions which it is desired to reproduce may be either from recent or
from old originals, (a hundred years old indeed or more ;) their age is
quite immaterial ; the copies produced being in every case equally ex-
cellent, so much so indeed, that they are not to be distinguished from the
originals themselves.

y means of this process old or faded engravings and etchings may
be so renovated as to have all the appearance of recent impressions. One
special merit in the invention lies in the method resorted to, and that with
complete success, for preventing the extension of the ink when exposed to
any pressure to which it may be submitted, and by which means the finest
lines and the sharpest outlines are reproduced with the greatest precision.
When ordinary type is transferred by this new process to a zine plate, the
impressions which the latter affords have precisely the appearance, as
they leave the press, of being taken from metal types; and as in this new
method of printing the impressions are not transferred to stone but to
zinc, which may be used with the ordinary steam-presses in the form of
cylinders, we have it in our power to multiply to any extent both text and

Miscellanies. 403

illustrations in the cheapest and in the most rapid manner. There is a
single printer in London whose stereotype plates are valued at £300,000,
an outlay which this discovery renders henceforward unnecessary. What
advantages for printers, booksellers, and the public!

33. On a gigantic bird sculptured on the tomb of an officer of the house-
hold of Pharaoh ; by Mr. Bonom1.—In the gallery of organic remains
in the British Museum, are two large slabs of the new red sandstone
formation, on which are impressed the footsteps or tracks of birds of
various sizes, apparently of the stork species. These geological speci-
mens were obtained, through the agency of Dr. Mantell, from Dr.
Deane, of Massachusetts, by whom they were discovered in a quarry
near Turner’s Falls. There have also been discovered by Captain
Flinders, on the south coast of New Holland, in King George’s Bay,
some very large nests measuring twenty six feet in circumference and
thirty two laches in height ; resembling, in dimensions, some that are
described by Captain Cook, as seen by him on the northeast coast of
the same island, about 15° south latitude. It would appear, by some
communications made to the editor of the Atheneum, that Prof. Hitch-
cock, of Massachusetts, had suggested that these colossal nests belonged
to the Moa, or gigantic bird-of New Zealand ; of which several spe-
cies have been determined by Prof. Owen, from bones sent to him from
New Zealand, where the race is now extinct, but possibly at the present
time inhabiting the warmer climate of New Holland, in which place
both Capt. Cook, and recently Capt. Flinders, discovered these large
nests. Between the years 1821 and 1823 Mr. James Burton discoy-
ered on the west coast or Egyptian side of the Red Sea, opposite the
peninsula of Mount Sinai, at a place called Gebel Ezzeit, where for a
considerable distance the margin of the sea is inaccessible from the
Desert, three colossal nests within the space of one mile. These nests
were not in an equal state of preservation ; but, from one more perfect
than the others, he judged them to be about fifteen feet in height, or, as
he observed, the height of a camel and its rider. These nests were
composed of a mass of heterogeneous materials, piled up in the form
of a cone, and sufficiently well put together to insure adequate solidity.
The diameter of the cone at its base was estimated as nearly equal to
its height, and the apex, which terminated in a slight concavity, mea-
sured about two feet six inches, or three feet, in diameter. The mate-
rials of which the great mass was composed were sticks and weeds,
fragments of wreck, and the bones of fishes ; but in one was found the
thorax of a man, a silver watch, made by George Prior, a London
watchmaker of the last century, celebrated throughout the East, and
in the nest or basin, at the apex of the cone, some pieces of woollen

404 Miscellanies.

cloth and an old shoe. That these nests had been but recently con-
structed was sufficiently evident from the shoe and watch of the ship-
wrecked pilgrim, whose tattered clothes and whitened bones were found
at no great distance ; but of what genus or species had been the archi-
tect and occupant of the structure Mr. Burton could not, from his own
observation, determine. From the accounts of the Arabs, however,
it was presumed that these nests had been occupied by remarkably large
birds of the stork kind, which had deserted the coast but a short time
previous to Mr. Burton’s visit. To these facts, said Mr. Bonomi, I beg
to add the following remarks :—Among the most ancient records of
the primeval civilization of the human race that have come down to
us, there is described, in the language the most universally intelligible,
a gigantic stork bearing, with respect to a man of ordinary dimensions,
the proportions exhibited in the drawing before you, which is faithfully
copied from the original document. It is a bird of white plumage,
straight and large beak, Jong feathers in the tail; the mail bird has a
tuft at the back of the head, and another at the breast : its habits appa-
rently gregarious. This very remarkable painted basso-relievo is sculp-
tured on the wall, in the tomb of an officer of the household of Pha-
raoh Shufu, (the Suphis of the Greeks,) a monarch of the fourth
dynasty, who reigned over Egypt, while yet a great part of the Delta
was intersected by lakes overgrown with the papyrus,—while yet the
_ smaller ramifications of the parent stream were inhabited by the croco-

dile and hippopotamos,—while yet, as it would seem, that favored land
had not been visited by calamity, nor the arts of peace disturbed by
war, so the sculpture in these tombs intimate, for there is neither horse
nor instrument of war in any one of these tombs. At that period, the
period of the building of the great pyramid, which, according to some
writers on Egyptian matters, was in the year 2100 s.c., which, on
good authority, is the 240th year of the deluge, this gigantic stork was
an inhabitant of the Delta, or its immediate vicinity ; for, as these very
interesting documents relate, it was occasionally entrapped by the
peasantry of the Delta, and brought with other wild animals, as
matters of curiosity to the great landholders or farmers of the pro-
ducts of the Nile,—of which circumstance this painted sculpture is @
representation, the catching of fish and birds, which in those days occu-
pied a large portion of the inhabitants. The birds and fish were salted.
That this document gives no exaggerated account of the bird may be
presumed from the just proportion that the quadrupeds, in the same pic-
ture, bear to the men who are leading them ; and, from the absence of
any representation of these birds in the ror ancient monuments of
Egypt, it may also -* tired conjectured — disappeared soon

after the period of the erection of these tombs. With respect to the
relation these facts bear to each other, I beg to remark that the colossal
nests of Capts. Cook and Flinders, and also those of Mr. James Burton,
were all on the sea shore, and all of those about an equal distance from
the equator. But whether the Egyptian birds, as described in those
very ancient sculptures, bear any analogy to those’ recorded in the last
pages of the great. stone book of nature, (the new red sandstone forma-
tion,) or whether they bear analogy to any of the species determined by
Prof. Owen from the New Zealand fossils, I am not qualified to say,
nor is it indeed the object of this paper to discuss; the intention of
which being rather to bring together these facts, and to associate
them with that recorded at Gezah, in order to call the attention of those
who have opportunity of making further research into this interesting
matter.— Atheneum, (London,) June, 1845.

34. On the Heat of the Solar Spots ;. ap Prof. Henry, of Princeton
College, New Jersey.—Sir D. Brewster read an extract of a letter
which he had just received from Prof. Henry, who had recently been
engaged in a series of experiments on the heat of the sun, as observed
by means of a thermo-electrical apparatus applied to’ an image of the
luminary thrown on ascreen froma telescope in a dark room. He
found that the solar spots were perceptibly colder than the surrounding
light surface. Prof. Henry also converted the same apparatus into a
telescope, by placing the thermo-pile in room of the eye-glass of a re-
flecting telescope. ‘The heat of the smallest cloud on the verge of the
_ horizon-was instantaneously perceptible, and that of a breeze four or

five miles off min = be inet perceived. tis (onda
July, a p- 700. és

“85. “Notice in’ a! ‘Later ee enidon to ia. Senior Editor, dated
Aug. 30, 1845.

A new line of railroad is belie: ‘surveyed to connect Bath with Wey-
mouth, and a railroad now cutting for the:line from Tunbridge to Tun-
bridge Wells (in Kent). passes- through i a fine series of wealden sands
and clays. Some of these beds abound in fresh *t shells and crus-

sie A

tacer, and land and marsh plants. In certain siete: Noclishin the sandstone
is full of stems of the Bqoiderind: rae from.a few dnchesito two feet
long ; ? and numerous veins of eMains

of the same. species of végetablese: “These sands shernaie: ink lami+
nated shales, which are literally full-of the erustaceous shells of Cypri-
des, (Cypris Valdensis,) sprinkled with minute scales of fishes. A small
Species of the’ pe ep shells. sciplains) so characteristic of the
fluviatile deposits, also abounds, together or layers of shelly lime+

Vol. xxix, No. 2.—July—Sept. 1845. 4

406 Miscellanies.

stone; also compound of Cyclades. Some of the clays present deeply

surfaces; and many of these are studded over with elevated
ramose sub-cylindrical casts of vegetable stems, peprwaky of some of
the grasses.

36. Supplement to Prof. Loomis’s Paper, at p. 266 of this No.—
The following table shows the average cloudiness of the different
months at Nantucket, Mass., deduced from observations taken from
April, 1843, to July, 1845, by Miss Maria Mitchell. It was received
too late for insertion in its proper connection at page 281 of this No.

8 a. mM. Noon. 4 P.M.

March, 6°19. 6:21 6°08

April, 547 5-93 6-09

May, . B52 524 535

June, 3°43 3°51 4°24

July, 3°85 345 364

A ts 4:46 + 4°67 4°15

_. September, 4-79 481 4:89

October, 5:36 4:83 4-87

November, 5°20 5°64 5°78

December, . 6-48 6°30 6°05

_ January, é 6°41 5°81 5°35

_ February, . 5:47 5-09 521 .
as The results * the Geveetin observations, sti i by seasons, are
“wetehoiny: ghee ee
ele. Meee Lay ae “tee OOM. 4 P.M ait:
Spring, 4 kg UR cs ee ae
Summer, . a | 8885000 BOL gee.
Autumn, . j ; 5:12 5-09 Ae Wc ee
Winter, 4.0% o> sugaI2 FS... -: Ae ae!
Year, : 5:22 5: 19.7" @ 14

37. Burning Well; communicated in a letter from P. B. int
dated Gustavus, Ohio, Aug. 21, 1845.—The land near the centre of
the township of Southington, Trumbull County,, Ohio, is low and boggy;
although water is not easily found by digging... The soil at the surface
is clay, with some sand, and the rock below in this district is a light
colored sandstone, which underlies the coal strata of Ohio and western
Pe ia. No coal has ever been found here below this rock, of
north — of this —_- The nearest beds of workable coal are
twenty miles distant,

A pit was sunk for. orate ich region in aids? by Mr, Wanne+
maker to a depth of wiaad four feet, an was” = eontinned sixty seven

feet seven inches beyond this by boring. It passed through clays in
some parts containing selenite, and at bottom reached a coarse sand
from which the gas was derived resting upon a rock, probably sand-
stone. Upon striking into the sand, the carburetted hydrogen gas rush-
ed up by the sides of the augur rod. with a shrill whistling noise, upon
which the workmen left the well and withdrew the drill... They expe-
rienced no difficulty in breathing, and can now descend _ into the pit
without inconvenience. One of the workmen, thinking it might be in-
flammable gas, lighted a lamp with the design of lowering it, but did
not have the opportunity ; for no sooner had the match been kindled,
than the whole took fire and blazed up to the height of twenty feet,
with an explosion that was heard to the distance of three quarters of a
mile. ‘T'wo individuals were scorched and somewhat injured by the |
explosion. After the first explosion the gas continued to burn at the
bottom of the pit for twelve days before it was extinguished. Since
this occurrence, which happened-on the 17th of July, the gas has con-
tinued to issue without abatement, and i is feoqennity set on fire for oe
amusement of visitors. °

The sound of the gas as it issues from the drilled hole eect
noise of water boiling in a steam engine, ‘and the quantity discharged
is sufficient to heat a small steam boiler. Seven years ago the gas from
@ spring in the vicinity accidentally took fire and burned three or four
days. Inthe summer of 1842, a well was dug in Wethersfield (sixteen
miles from the well I have described) to the depth of fifty feet, when car-
buretted hydrogen wasalso found. A laborer in attempting to descend
with a. lamp in the evening for his tools was killed by the explosion.

38, Particulars of the fall of Meteorites in the Sandwich Islands;
communicated by request, by the Rev. Hiram BineHam, pempenerh: in
those Islands, in a letter dated Boston, May 1,.1845. ..

To Prof. Silliman—On the 27th of September, 1825, a iubheus of
meteoric stones fell, partly in the channel between Molokai and Lanai,
and partly between those islands and Oahu, and. partly at Honolulu,
where I then resided. One explosion was heard at Lahaina, and seve-
ral in quick succession at Honolulu, eighty miles to the northwest, be-
tween the hours of 10 and 11, A. M.. The fragment that was seen to
pass Lahaina towards Oahu fell in the Molokai Channel,, and threw a
mass of water into the air, and was said to be followed by a rumbling
sound.

The Rev. Mr. Richards of Lahaina nina the repcrt of the explo-
sion for that of cannon on board of some ship. The explosions which I
heard at Honolulu led me at first to suppose they were cannon on
board of ships not far distant. But soon after I was satisfied that they

Ba

¥

408 - — Miscétlanies.

were meteoric. Very soon the servants of Kalanimoku, secretary of
state, brought me the fragment which they affirmed had just fallen from
the sky in our village. This fragment I carefully preserved and brought
over, and had the pleasure of presenting to you. A different pleasure
from that with which Mr. Richards and myself picked up and forward-
edto the Missionary Museum in Pemberton Square, Boston, a cannon
, ball—one of several which had been fired at our heads.

_ 89. Remarkable Meteor at Fayetteville, N. C.—A correspondent. of
the junior editor of this Journal says, in answer to an inquiry addressed
to him concerning this meteor—‘t September Ist about 2 o’clock, A. M.,
as 1 lay in bed, awake, the curtains of my windows being let down,
there was.a sudden flash of light, which was more durable than that of

lightning, | and so brilliant that every object for the minute was visible

in the room. Supposing it to be lightning, for there had been a heavy
thunder storm during the preceding evening, 1 expected that immedi-
ately thunder would follow, and was surprised at the delay. After a
_ Space, as I judged of two minutes, there was a tremendous report resem-
bling the continued discharge of heavy artillery. The house seemed to
tremble and the windows were shaken in their place. When I rose, noth-
ing was to be seen. The sky was clear, and all was silent.~. On in-
quiry in the morning, | learned that a meteor had been seen by sev-
eral persons passing over the place. The description given by dif-
ferent persons employed as city watchmen is nearly this: The cap-

minutes past 2 o’clock, A. M.—that the meteor seemed
to rise in the horizon on the east of the town—pass over the town in a
direction about N. E. to $; E.—that the light for the moment was as
bright as the noon-day sun—and as he thinks, a space of from 5 to 6
minutes intervened. between the first appearance of the light and the
report. Another watchman gives nearly the same account. The light
became extinct as he thinks about five minutes before the report was
heard. The captain of the watch says that pieces seemed to fly off
from the main body. A countryman, who came to market in the
morning, says he was encamped about 74 miles from town, that he
Saw the meteor coming ‘in the direction where he was, and thinking that
it might strike him, he sprang behind a large pine tree for shelter. I
cannot find that any thing was seen or heard of the meteor further
than about 35 miles south of this.” C.
¥ area +, Ni C., Sept. =. 1845.

tain of the lye says he was exact in marking the time, and that it ©
precisely

¥

\

pos
Amphignthus pustilne, ane
copper an ™ ig verfrom iensriqund

INDEX TO VY

OLUME XLIX.

A.
of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
peanes of, noticed, 183.
Acari, production of, 227,
Allttopisin of ‘ehtoibite, 346.

pan em
bhis,

mountains, geological constitution of,

Aluminum, compac
American Geologis
ciation of, sixth meeting, 2
Ammonia, ‘carbonate of,
with m ewes and zine
ition of salts of, 3
w plant,
Pout, Lake Super
bit vino coals, 169,
oF the
of. nitr nt e, ra

= alloys of tin and Pe 206.||

meteoric iron
of hydraulic cements, 383,
of ‘Thomaite, 393.

the 'Tagua nut, 400,
Anestatio printing, year of, 401.
Antimony, gray, at Lyme, N Hi, 2
pparatus, new philcseiiea. 20,

: 4
Bache, A. D., his improvements in the Coast;

a noticed, 229.
ter, observations of, at Hudson, Ohio,

new self-registering, 400. °
treswil, M., on the
zoic acid ane k hydruret of ae 194,

achian fodtmarks, new species
Benzoic acid and hydruret
“composition of, 1
Rersehus, J. J., on the oxide of ——"

‘.

t of Sesitaie, de.

H. -, On the fll La meteorites in the
‘Sandwich Islan ds,

t, 390.
sts ‘and ee wey Asso-

Ca
ite aititisns dis
, 200.

ecomposition of bén-

Boussingault’s Loon Economy noticed, Lia
Bouvé, TT. w of Dr. Jackson’s Fina
pag the, Geta? and Mineralogy at

w Hampshire oT
romine, occurrence of in Ohio
Bion R., new self-regis tering ion a

Butter, volatile acids of, 202,

yore = on the detection of sugar in
abetic ,
arbonic atid, no instrument for the solid-

stion of anew Vulture, 186,
Cathartes Bortovln nus, 186,
Cements, hydraulic, anly ses of, 383,
Charcoal, animal, action of, 393.
Chevalier, M., analysis of the alloys of tin

and antimon
Chlorine, Canine m of, 346.

and hydrogen, relations of, 355.

Saeaes, obseryations of, at H ee: eee

at Nantucket, Mass., 406.
Coals, Feaing power of, 166.
, Prof. Johnson's Rites
eee

Coast Survey of the United State
pace e tree, leaves. of, a subsutoteilie tea,

| coloring substances in wine, test for, 198.
Columbite, co ompos sition of, 228,
omets of
Conant, M., description of the cai
Connel, A., on the Tagua nut, 4 mA
Copper mines of Lake Jeong
er of Kewenaw Pi , Lake

Superior, ' ‘8
atomic weight of,
||Currents of the ocean ‘ ae influence in in the
transport of rocks, 1

transporting power 0 of, 2.

f the atmosphere,
etal, in the nerv' es, denied, 387.

—D.

in of quartz and me- Tens. =e minerals of trap and the
talliferous veins allied i,
Blood, new method of analyzing. apie Ws etna wl objections to confuted,
Blume, Prof., on the substiesad¢ th oe leaves|| 277
the coffee tree for tea, 4 ‘Dean e, J. on a new species of Batrachian
Blyth, J., on the decomposition of narco-|| fo oar 79.
tine, on fossil footmarks and rain-drops,
Bones taken fom ADO change in, 391. «813. i 3
Bonomi. Mr., e ancient sculpture of a|/De Can rodromus, Vol. IX, noticed,
og bi as "403. 174,
t

Mons., discoveries amongst the ruins
of 3 Nineveh, 1

“The eorie tasaitbie- de la Bo-
tanique, noticed, 17.
Delessert, B., aa mu

Boudault, M., | 2 decomposition of ben-,
zoic acid and hydruret of benzoile, 194.

of, 171.
Deville, M., on guiac resin, 1 te

410

Dewey, C. on nee ma 42,
Diabetes, caus of, 202
Diabetic urine, ‘how to ries ect sugar in, 200,
Doepping, O., on the composition of fungi,

Dorudon, a aap ware? animal, 216.

Dra per, ss W..j e allotropism of chlo-
rine

Drayt
Drift
Puposy
: gold
leaf, viewed by transmitted light, 391.

on, Mr., method of silvering glass, 198.
of the United States, thearies of, 1.
ee of,
, in Berkshire Co., Mass., 258. |

Ebelman, M., Pg silicic ether, 192.
Mirephers.. , investigations of infusoria,

a

Piecwie mec kg in tl ied, 387.
Electricity, « statical, ger generation of, 93,
<span new, 131,

Electro. Aap aN metals, sichntast® of, 390.
ast iron vessels,

ra the atomic weaehs of cop-

petpmetc reury and sulphur, 203,

Ether, mabe, 192,

E s chrysocome, or penguin, habits of,

Exploring ¥ Expedition, U. S., Capt. Wilkes’s
e of, reviewed, 149,

F.
Faraday, M., memoir on the Liquefaction
aud Sotidifients tion of Gases, noticed, 373. _

with magnesia and zin

ireland of second comet 8h 1845,

Idspar: turine, 394,
uier, = ewe inethodk of saat the

Fe
Fig
blood, 2

isiana
a sonal — ee Bay, 2
1 of i Chem.
ove a ore
Fremy,. al je ‘the ‘compounds of osmium,
Fungi, composition 7 393.

Galvanometer, ee

Geology, physical, of ye United States, 1,|)

Gibbes, R. W., on Dorudon, a new fossil an-
imal, ag

Gibbs Dissertation on Cupes
cise, Smter 384. —

Get ieaf the ee color o of, viewed by trans-

G ae re bi <r ion oh
ray iblio cal notices, She.

oS Toxt Book, not

Guano, xanthie oxidesin, 200,

Hermann, M.. on the dec

— gp
“|)K

INDEX.

Guiac resin, a volatile oil obtained from, 194.
Gunpowder, Capt. Mo oF ae. s Report of Ex-

periments on, noticed, 1
Halos, theory of, 73.
_ eR , letter fo Berzelius on chemical no-

iene J., on Fog heat of solar spots, 405,
ecay and mouldering

‘|| Hite ico m /E. 0 nm some Fecnontens of drift
in Berkshire Co., Mass S., 25
ord, ., ona new aan for the

soldiieation of carbonic acid,
Hough, F. B., ona burning well in Ohio, 406
Hon belds, uM on bo mean height of conti-
nents shove the
Humphreys, H., on ihe saliness of the ocean,
mya go the "effects of light on turbid waters,

H ygrometer, observations of, at Hudson,
Ohio 271.
Daniell’s, objections to answer:

ed, 277.
Icebergs of the Aceaegnin al seas, 150.
Inde = Solar, a new magnetical instrument,
escribe

Infusoria, Prof. Ehrenberg on, 397,
lodine, — of, 205,

oce hio, 211.
Tron ore = Bartle tand Lisbon, N
deoxidation of the ealts of the kee

©

z 203.
meteoric, in ‘Tennessee and Alabama,

in soil, state of, 394.
vessels, enamelled, 400,
é:

ww
&

Jockeon, £ a Final Report on the eso
perils ralogy of New Ha
view

ee pe fide Ke-
enaw ig ta A Sup
nm tests for pd an

R., on the heating power 0
various coals 166.
Re eport on American Coals,

reviewed, 310.

Jones, H. B., = = = es salts
of ammonia, 3

Kena

meer igenen a _ the ;
comet of
and

gas, 209.
Kendall "EC O., 0
of Mercury, May 8, 1845,
elements of hd
1845, 22

elvan ah oh Point, Lake Superior, copper
sil

g, A.T 4 fossil on 216. ©
Kinie aci “etection oO
, on the characters of Spr

Rage of the Zyglodon in

seein instrument for the ee | '
mn of carbonic acid, 206.

een
Nixoch, A. C.
Alabama a, 2
Kraft, S-

tufaceous deposit in India, 98

wt
Nad

INDEX.

Jeerenser. M. C., on ]
n the fluoride of iodine,
Leibita "Mackie s Life of, noticed, a
Leon ndwérterbuch der Topo-
graphischen pti noticed, -

sa

is \Nerves, electric currents in, deni
IN.

Ail

N.
\Narcotine, decomposition of, 205, 206,
|Nemostyles Rte a 130,
emmi

d, 387.
e unker, a i tedeabide

wis, J. A., on the
reef om Mays
Leze h, J. U. on the i acids of butter
Light, inflection and ol of, ‘appa-

ia tus

ffects of on turbid ne 208.
Lime, phosphuret of, 193.
_ c stones, 401.
mis, E, meteorological observations at
Buds , Ohio ‘0, 266,
"su pplement to
Lyet, oe Cn in North America, re-

M.
Mackie, J. M., life of Leibnitz, poy g 187,
bo:

Ma se rone, chayacters of, 394.

aes gas, easy mode of dhisthing, 195.
nme ine, analysis of, 204.
|Nomenclature, chemical, Dr. Hare on, 249.

Olmsted, D., report t of observations on the
transit of Mercury, fae 1845, 142..
Opianie acid,
Osmium and its 8 com:
tan Illustrated

atalogte saints 190.
e, properties of,

Fy
ig te G. G., new electro-magnetic engine,
on axial galvanometer, 136.
on do uble axial reciprocating en-

gine,
Parhelion, si jaguar ea

ee G. ; Bisa te on ‘the from £ ical Paricti . ra hed 73.
tructure of the country see tort ith) £arietin, properties 0:
Hill, noticed, 191. on Peirce, B., elements of “hid comet of 1845,
Panes and, E., method of Perit nitrogen | Pellet PM so cresin, 194 :
atomic wei sp-|| Penguins, habits
per, mercury pre sulphur, of oo nasa oie . nag pi gm 206.
arsh, R., meteorological | ister at Steu- Phillips, R n the state of iron in soils, 394.
benville, we for 184 Rea : ince oxide 2 z
zr, m the geo) imp
the United States, 1 284. bey , on sa ee
e ogvenepiice of bromine [Plants , description of severa ral new, 1

and iodine i “ Ohio, 21
atteuc

M ci, M., on the hypetheis of Sfoanie!

_ currents in the nerves,
n animal electricity + 388,
Mazer, M., No the sfargerre of ‘Thomaite,

Maynas resin, 194,
Merear ury, atomic 1 of, 208,
age ll — of Le “B, 1845, ie
Du Mer he ure of pure carbonates

of
act posh phar an structure of,390.
Meteor remarkable, at Fayetteville, N.C.,

Meteoric iron in Veciisiled and Alabama,
Meteorites, fall of in the Sandwich Islands,
Mise register at Steubenville,Ohio,
eh ~ observations at Hudson, Ohio,
lement to, 406.
Miathe, 1.., on the enuse of diabe 202
yor’ ‘trap ph —s allied rocks, 49.

Mi tig Miss M.,
Mos, tions at Nantue
Mordec
powder, noticed, 180.
Mortars, Lieut. W Wright
-_ ced, 379.

ets Sdn ‘
ai, A, Reportof Experiments on Gu é

lessy, M., onthe oY ten of cd 200.
Plumbago formed by
Se crase, character Of 304.
Postage pn gla and, 228
Potash, ration of “carbonate é. free:
from’ sie

Potassium,
of, 203.
Printing, anastatic, 401

Quartz, origin of, 396.

Railroads, atmosphi
Rain, eee oe at a dson, Ohio,
Rain-drops, 8, foss: in onnecticut valle
Rains, ¢ W.,

Re wok . Pay University of New: York,
ae 176.

282.
213.
; the generation of statical

Resin,

= 194.
Review of Dr. Jackson’s Final Report on
the Geology and Mineralogy of New

a t. Wilkes! : Narrative of U.S.
ing Expedito
anak 8 Repti on Amer- -

412 INDEX.

Rose, H., examination of Columbit ca 008.
Rosse, Sete hoe Plerne of, 22 aie: roperti
on the structure of igi bs dat ed Pde e, pte on the Geologi-

eo Constitution of the Altai Mts. noticed,
npel Telesco , large, Earl of Rosse’s, 221.

“ona large trilobite, and Iowa /Thenard, M., on phosphuret of lime, 193.
coralline marble, 216, - Thermometer, observations of, at Hudson,
=
* Thomaite, a new mineral species, 393,
homson, R. D., on parietin, 195.
Phoptnati 'T., analysis of Sillimanite, 396.
bigs observations on, in the Coast Survey,

n preiitted metals, 390.
heen 3" the copper mines of Lake
erior,

Salicine, pro emt of, 392.
y soni “ e ocean

on veri feldspar, 394.

Polygrase and Malacrone

Schenck, M, on transit of Mercury,
May 5, ist 148,
Schlossbe Fy hers on the composition o

‘Win ore, found i in Jackson, N.ll., 34.
antimony, analysis re the alloys of,

Trap, ‘aged + and the allied rocks, 49.
fun gi, 39: Trilobite, lar,
Sehinbein, M, on the properties of ozone, \Troost,

deoxidation of the

ferichtreside: a potassivin and the ‘salts
of the peroxide of iro

Sea te instruments Or ilastratn

a penal of meteoric iron found
in We ees and Alabama, 336,

Uhmus crassifolia, a hotanical species, 129.
Unge er, M,, on xanthic oxide in guano
391.

523

Sedimenta ks of the United. ;
phoncantaestr, of, . . _||University of the State of New York, 58th
uses of . their eleva. _ annual report of the Regents, vate: 176.
ve the ley acre tt ie sea, 284, Urine, diabetic, how to detect sugar in, 200,

_ tion abov
Sigillarie and Stigmarie, mee density, 227,
nie amet sop ee <n ‘Westgg cof th the. “Sia History of Creation,
Silimanite, an analysis of, 396. wade

ilver and copper of Kewenaw ~~ Lake Vapmien. 1. pes on the fall of meteoric iron in
1 1. >
aoe 4 194, . bit description os a new species of, 186,

Silvering of oe bose 398. 1 a
as 3. iM : f silver, 194.
See ot pb ogc f Ninev Derr ft M., peste silver,
Reso Sool phere a ; composition of bones :
ba . I . i >

Se

ena of, “bi chlorine in the

fem 3 3.

‘Wave motion, iusiumeat rilustrting 120.

‘Well, burning, in Ohi reins

Wells, vile a of, 2
spots, hea : Whitney, J.D. ranfation ‘ot’ Berzelins on

Sophora sititn, A a A boguicnl’ species, 130 wits Bown e, ;

Bosch, waves of, apparatus for ‘Shuang, a a Ache oth. vane wh

Wilkes, age experiments on on the oeedtie

of Acari,”

Win , observations D, Phio. | 279.
Wie ior tee eokarkay Mutt

Wohlers Sao ‘on the rahe, deeompeation, ry x

r Index, a new poe Bel inatrament,
~ described, = .

3 ehiwa 390.7 #
paren Sir James, “a Lend Resanie lange seh)

ious, charaete ers 0 reer?
‘ Beam navi sp fener sh |
i te ag eS itsion atin ai ya ‘Clone.
sete rah rata ca fete Nar noticed,
} Kanthic oxide i in guano, = . ,
‘

Styrole, s : ‘ ¥ s ee
sce a et = ected with | Xanthine, 391.

act aluminum, 390.
ompact of Botany, noticed,

suit: ‘