3 "Pac AND , eee SFAMEG DO DANA: O57 ce cate ili dex» MLEN, W. H. 8. Jornan, & Y. “eg ert Reser cant hats A Pars Nassu & Baas, Hanbargh CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. | | NUMBER IV. ‘ : P. Art. I. Some Observations on the Ethnography and Archeology ; of the ee Series by SaMvEL GEORGE pare I. Ona ew: arnchieg fer obtaiking Peruiic Adis: ‘and on the pesecteucs of Aldehyde and Acetic Acid by the use of the a e of Potassa ; by Profs. W. B. Rocers and R. E. Ro lif. On ih Phvtbnes of Bossi “Peotprints of a Qiadraped allied to the Cheirotherium, in the Coal Strata of Pies Nita ai ~ by Cuartes Lye. ao EGE. IV. “psc saber ~ Analysis of a new Mineral Spécies: contain ing Tita ; with some remarks on pe Constitution of riaaitorne:t Minerals ; by Tuomas 8. Hun _YV. Observations on the Geology of a part of Raat Florida, Wis a Catalogue of Recent Shells of the Coast; by T. A. Conran, 36 ~ WI. The Physical Structure of Plants; by D. 'P. Garpner, M. a 48 VII. On Zoophytes; by J. D. Dana, 64 VUL Reply to the criticism on Prof. ‘Twining’ s Demonstation re- lating to Parallels, - 69 IX. Abstract of Thakingabiriok! Records ‘kept at the iesiouety _ Stations of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign respniges ” ching Hs Asia; cbllébted and api by Rev. Aza » M..Di, - 72 Pacts: botesiage ‘6 the Great Tulkes by Prof. C. Drive EY, - 85 occurrence of Fluor Spar, tae and ie oe range in Limestone ; by James D. a4 - “abe arb tain of a peculia arrangement of foneelea in the _ Glass Snake, (Ophiseures) nig rof. W. M. oe A. M:, Me D., 89 XA Observations a be more vent ie chen | in the Manufac. - ture of y J. Lawrence Smiru,—(continued,) 95 . ot eins INTELLIGENCE. emistry.—Ogone, 103. —Qvanttative determination of Urea in Urine, by W. Hexstz, 119.—De Rerninann of the amount of Ammonia contained in the At- mosphere, by A. GkarGer: Test for Ruthenium, by M. Craus: erate sed to distinguish between the Arsenical Antimonial Saches formed by Ma Appa- : ecom position oe? i ft - pounds: of Ammonia and ety sted by R. Sere sation of ie iv CONTENTS. Bromo-boracie Acid, (Bromide . amet ) by M. PoceratEe: Quantitative esti- mation tay tg in Mineral V y MH EINE, Pate age tar te’ of Sul- pha ate of Lime, by M. Axtuon: iy ne of Glenn . Peticot: On the Solubility of Fluoride of Lp ke ae in water, and its Relation to ne Gpther of luorine in Minerals, and in reps and Fossil Plants and Anim s, by itsun, M. D., - R.S. ie Bae Esser Discoveries in fi srporpisi, ty SCHEERER, 115.—Influence ae Magnetism on Crystallizati on, by R. 116.— Fara aday’s View of Laaiasiewege go Electrophonic Telegraph, 118. corer 4 and Geology.—Ores_and Minerals of Lake Superior, by C. T. Jacx- 3.—Damourite in the United States, by E. T eye ne r: Diamonds in sheds Carolina : cihrey, anew m mineral, b - ae : Transparent cee sp ag" Brazil, by on Poppies ds tof "thie Ural, 119. erals of the Miask: Hu uge mass of green Malac ie Gold and Platinum of the: tr and Sibovi 320. Asie and ole Minerals in a eas make by A. EE, ~ ai acs <4 as Icium in Cannel Coal, Bocas: Petrified Wood in Tex - LimBer: sea ‘istinds by ron : Tertiary of Wart rren ir Co., Mititiceipph by T. A. Conr Zoology—On the Zeuglodon Remains of Alabama, by 8. B. Been, 125.— Zeuglodon cetoides, 129 —Mastodon giganteus, 131. Bot yi Pa ke able ee napiclog vi peat an eof gas Vestiges "og Palms. in the Geological format 133.—Analogy be he Flora of Japan and that of the United Srhtess 135. _Konspeckine of ie Fossil Flora, 136. Astronomy.—First Comet of 1846: Second Comet of #846: Third Comet an teat 137.—Fourth Comet of 1846: Fifth Comet: of 1846, Bond’s Comet ree tion on the Solar Eclipse of April 25,1 38. _— mes Ae tae nee —Waves of aK Atlantic and German Ocea , by T Steve Cotton in re: oman Coins: Anthracite ~~ Bioinus Coal fa China, rs R- C. Taw ae i a air natbet eae y at Edinb : Asso- ciation of Geolog gists and Natu alisis f the accede ye my for the current year: Concord Najerat History meaege 144. Obituary.—Hon. Joun Ear 144.—Death of Brsset : Decease Metin of the Royal Society : Wittiam HesBerDEN; ae Fre aero DanieLe: Jagu ES ete ih Caine: mens RE DE Saussu : : Ct one BY fgg fo ee pad Pad 2 M.D.,A.A.S., 145.—The Weiarctor and Journal of. Agriculture, Horticulture, Education and. Literature, conduct ed y I. N. Loos, J. Eicusaum, J. S. ‘owcrer, and T. Fannine: Elemen or Phylntlogy, ine luding Pliymlagssel _ Anatomy, for the use of the Medic “ie Student, by Wa. B. Careenter, M. D. ¥. A. 8.; ? Ane i eae wares 0 aienee, © cond cte soll . Emmoxs_ 147. male and Bird s, by Ricuarp Owen, F.R.S., F. G.S., 148. —Thoughts on An- Pilar ora t Glimpse of the Invisible World revealed by the Microscope Notes of a Microscopic Examination of Chalk and Flint, by Grozoy ALcE Marrs LL, . Esq., om D., F. Ri:& 149.—Harvey's Phyeolgta Britanica. 150 - iMastrat upon ie Natural System artius, Genera et Species Palmarum : The Galkes of Russia in Europe, a bak nee ip ips ancy oA r. R. I. Mor- * “CHison, Epovuarp pe VERNEUIL, an t ALEXANDER on ‘Kevennuoek i i. —List of Works, 153. .—Scientific asatahen: 154 CONTENTS. Vv NUMBER V. Ase XIV. Notice of scab Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershau- sen’s Work on nt Eina; by J. L. Haves XV. On three several ‘Wisvawans of the American Hieete relations dl rly so called, of the Gulf of Mexino and the Honduras, with Charts Tosa ™ same ; by W. C. idee. (continued ) XVI. On re: No. II; by Ja Dan 187 XVII. Law of Electro- Magnetic cdots by ase G. Pace, XVIII. On ‘the seohabie Conduction of Gebeiulé Electricity through Moist Air; by Cua . Pace, M. D., IX. Eocene Paniaien ‘of the Walnut Hills, Pam Mississippi 21 by T. A. Nagios XX. Notice o mall Oroii thichnite; we C. ‘B. ‘Ana 215 XXI, eh ns Diseotdal Stones of the Indian BMostinda's by E. G. 216 XXII. Chemist te emmation of “advecl Natural “Wesste; by B. Sittiman, Jr, 218 1. Pesaes of a verabsen bla Sead Pbindace. ite the a estone Formation of St. Louis, dian gy by J. G. Nor- p, M. D., and D. D. Owen, M. D., Wv. ‘Obtervation on the Fossil Plants of the Coal Field ot Tus- oosa, Alabama: by C. Lye tz, Esq., with a Seer pee of aie idee be C1, F. Bunzury, Esq., F. G. S., XXV. Generality of py at eg and Diamagnetie aoe: ; by M. RADAY, 233 XXVI. Céeoasiphys by Prof, C. bidwss, M. D. and D. De. 245 XXVIII. On three new Mineral Species from elie kes sal a Discovery of the Diamond in No “t Carolina; by shoe SER SHeparp, M.D., - - . . SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, ‘y —On the Electrical ear yids onal wid certain bodies, by Ev. Becqurr- abedainn of ee a by the bursting ofa dder : Appreciation of the Force of Magnets, by M. pr is DAT, O55 —Calorific Power of the Light 0 ' the Moon: On the Cohesion of Li ~ and its effec ta n the phenomenon of ‘Ebullition, by F. Downy, 256—A New Method for the Quantitative Determ = ion n of fron » bY M. Mistikenk: 37. n wg Questithive Thctoratlapdien AN ; itrogen: Economical Met ng the he ey of Copper, by M. Wirrtsteix: Amount of Catto fr oping a ; of dividing Plates of Zinc, by M. 2 Sommer apa Ay ihe Presence of Carbon- ates in the Blood, by R. F. Marcuanp: On the jeg of pe an in Human Saliva, by Max. Fottensisn 263.—On the Digestion of Am myla vi CONTENTS. ceous and Saccharine Substances, by M. Miatue: On the Nourishing Quality of different oe Substances, reckoned from the amount of Nitrogen con- tained int y E. N. Horsrorn, 264.—A Description of a new Mercurial Trough, by ‘Prof Lovyer, 265. asi TR time Marble: Preparation of a substitute for Horn, by M. Rocn 2 melas amation of te Iron, Cast Iron and Steel, so as to prepare them “for ire Gi ilding, by R. Bot eralogy an d. Geolpey. sneer Jade and Tremolite, by M. Damour: Sub- siaheee in Guano, E. Trscuemacner Struvite : Cryptolite, by F. ? Wouter: On the Ee maiite in Connecticut, b oe G. at an ee Rt * dence of the Land at Puazzuoli, 269.—Notice of an Ear oe =e a pro Subsidence of the Land in the district of Cutch, near the Mou the Revel, or Eastern Branch of the Indus, in June, «f.On the ortease Movement assumed to accompany Eirihquakes, by R. Maur ET, 270. ari Saag Chart of M. Bovk, 272.—Analysis of Glassy Scoria of Kilauea, Hawaii, 273. oology.— Description of two New Species of Fossil Eatitnodérinsia; from the Eo- cene of the United States, by S. G. Morton: Description of a New Species of Bat fron Western Africa—Pieropus Haliesinn by Epwarp Hatowe .t, 273. Description of Unio oides, a ne cies, by Haldeman: A New Spe- cies of Apus—A. longicaudatus, by Jonn LeConre, 274.—The Soft Bodies of Polythalamia found in a Fossil Siate, 275.—Boring power of Land Snails on es gota y 7 ae On the Cause of the Circulation of the lood, by Dr. J. W. Draper Bota bitin and Bisjine ria: The relations of iene with Living Plants, 279.—Structure of the Trunk of Cycas circinalis Paect i. .—Fifth Comet of 1846: Antares, a triple star, 280.—Supposed New Miscellaneous tere en —The Potato Disease, 231.—Paper from the bande: On the Mounds and Relics of the Ancient Nations of America, -—Pipestone of the Ancient Pines: in the Indian Mounds, by E. thio Discoidal Stones, by the same, 287.—Gigantic Paleotherium, 288.—Relative hepsi of Lan and Water on the Buclore of of the Earth, by Prof. 8. Riea of Mt. Hekla: Vesuvius: Australia, 290.—Mt. Arara . Museu! ai fi d ime rai Sr M. Verneuil on the Fusulina in the Coal Formation of Ohio, 293.— r. Owen’s Report on the sane Lands of the U. 8., 294. sy acl nea of Nat. Devas ‘of Philad., 296.— Obituary, 207. LS Bibliography.—A ihn on pred by Erias Loomis: The ige e 208, : —Works of M. D’Orpieny, 299.—Legons de nee. ogie iy Works of M. Rikaaniz , 300. a Kaneeh 8 F Sdpptemebt to Schkuhr’s Caric — ae s§ Syme bole Caricologiz, &c., 302.—List of Works, 302. "Roland Researches, 303. * NUMBER VI. Pag Ant. XXVIII. On the Sabbatic River; by W.M. Toomson, - 305 XXL Three several Hurricanes of the American Seas a ir relations to the Northers, so called, of the Gulf of Mexico te Mee of Honduras, with Charts illustrating the cn by W. Speer (continued, ) vs 311 XXX- On the Voleanoes of the Moon; by James D. “‘Daxt 335 eis re of three varieties of Meteoric Iron ; by Prof, xa A A Sketch of the Geology of Texas by Dr. Faupixaxp tis Pag XXXII. Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium ; by Prof. R. Hans, 2 M. D., XXXIV. On the Meteoric iron is Texas il Lockport ; by Prof. B. Situiman, Jr., and T. 8..Hunt, 370 XXXV. Report on Meteorites ; by Prof. ‘Cuanues Urxant Sunrann, ‘dD; XXXV [. Catalogue of Shells inhabiting “Taripa Bay and other parts of the Florida Coast; by T. A. Conrap 393 VII. Description of New Species of Organic Religie Trota the Upper Eocene Limestone of Tampa Bay ; by T. A. Con- RAD, + F - - - - - : - : SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. of Chemistry.—Atoms and Ray Vibrations, 401.—On a simple method of abn from Lightning, Buildings with Metallic eg by Prof. Henry, 405.—Electric Conduction, by C. AGE, —On the production of a new aie skal tele BELMAN and Bouquet: Vitreous Boracic Ether: Vitiated Air in Apart- ments, 412.—On the 2 irae of the Oxydation ad ty tine by Chromic Acid, by Prof. Marcuanp: Colors of Quartz, by M. Heintz, 413. relia 3 and Geology. eeiee nowite, a new mineral, by M. Hermann: Xy- lite, a new mineral, by M. Hermann, 413. —Antimoniate of Lead, by M. Her- Satine: Amoibite ,416—Margarod ite: Mowenite and Harmotome: Brochan- tite and cpl vigite etoatae, Phacolite "Mica: rragonite and Cale some x Gol Rocks in Baldwin Co., Ala, by Artemas BigELow ossil Forest in the Parkfield Colliery, near "Wolverbampton: Phyllite, 422, and Botany.—Report on Scientific Nomenclature, 423. — 4 Se i- - ae Llg Fossil Ferns from Frostburg, Maryland, collected by Lyell, oy ae T. F. Buysury, Esq., 427. Late Sh 3H Lo ract of a gti ee enter tH kept in Ae city “ay nip a ', Lon. 91° 21! 42!", et ten years, by Henry Tooter, 429,— ee in the climate of Franc 432) : Astronomy.—Atmosphere of the wees , 432.—On the Projection of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon just before its Ocetlestin, by Prof. Strvetty: The Central Sun of the Universe, 433.—Antares: The new Planet Astrea, 434.— sore Comet, 435.—Fourth Comet of 1846: Fifth aan of 1846: Hind’s Comet: LeVerrier’s Planet, 439, Mi. saagteg Int elligence—Improvement in the construction of the Rails and of Railroads, 439.— Manufacture of Gas for illumination, from water: of Regents of the Smithsonian ineaviGon Wollaston Medal Geologi- cal Society of France : Prof. Louis Agassiz neuil, 440.—The Ray ety: Association of American Geologists and ao The British , 441. # Viii CONTENTS. Bibliography. _The Sidereal Messenger: The Trees of America , by D. J. Browne, 3 Aiatiinsd of Structural sis pte avis ng by ArtHuR HeEnrrey, F. . 8.,444.—Deresserrt, Ico electe Plantarum quas in Prodromo Syst. Na t. ex herb. Parisiensibus, prese anit x Lessertiano, daveriveils Aug. Pyr. DeCan- dolle, Vol. 5, 1846: A Text Book on ia Charany y, for the use of Schools and Col- F.L.8.: sq., F.G and Tuos. cam Jr. : Phe 3rain and its enw d&e., by waked, ahd. 447, Bay e ERRATA. Page 118, 1. 17 from top, for “ Jacob,” read “ Jacobi.”’—P. 145, 1. 12 fr. top. Persia,” read ‘ Prussia.” —P. 186, 1. 18 fr. top, for ‘29° 34’,”” read “79° 34 P. 292, 1. 7 from bottom, for “ the works of Argenais de Barelai,” read, “ ‘Ee: genais of John Barclay.” Vol. i, p. 375, second line from bottom, for “ additional,” read “ anticlinal.” * ; ; d | sata by H. Dex, New Pleas | Francts & Co. _ Publishe ed the first day of every second month, ps 8 ee — ) JOLY, 16. = No. 4. * THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF il SCIENCE AND ARTS. ; CONDUCTED BY a PROFESSOR SILLIMAN, B. 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The subscriber having lately returned from Europe with an excellent assortment of CHEMICAL APPARATUS, Is prepared to furnish the same articles as used by Lieste, Ber- ZELIUS, and other continental chemists Consisting of the Celebrated heat Poreelain, Bohemian Beaker Glasses and Tubes, French Chemical Glass Ware, (without lead, ) Lanktea’s Celebrated Iron Fernacee Clay Paes, Berzelius’ Lamps, Supports for Apparatus, Retorts, Receivers, Funnels, Evaporating Dishes, Safety Tubes, Woulfe’s Bottles, Crucibles of Platinum, Silver, Porcelain and Clay ; Hydrometers, Specific Gravity Bottles, Test Glasses, Liebig’s Furnaces, Five Bulb Pot- ash Apparatus, Combustion Tubes, Drying Tubes, Chloride of © calcium Tubes, Leaf Oxide and Turnings of Copper, Air Pumps, &e. &c., adapted for organic analyses. i ALSO AN ASSORTMENT OF SUPERIOR FRENCH CHEMICALS, AND PURE RE-AGENTS. Lithographic Portraits of Berzenivs, Lresie, Dumas, Ga¥ Lussac, Perouse, Vavque in, Lavorsten, BeRTHOLLET, Cuvier, THENARD, and other celebrated chemists Having a convenient Laboratory gucci with his establish- ment, he is also prepared to furnish Analyses of Ores, Minerals, Soda Ash, Potash, &c. &c. « EDWARD N. KENT, Practical Chemist. No. 611, John, near Pearl street, New York. [4t] ; —_ i had ae e, AT * 3 BOSTON JOURNAL OF NATURAL HISTORY, FIVE VOLUMES, 8v0O.—PLATES. Tis work continues to be published by the Boston Society of Natural History, in numbers of about 125 pages each, of which four make a volume. It contains numerous papers on the natural history of the United States, and a knowledge of its con- tents is indispensable to those who would understand the pro- gress of Zoology in North America during the last ten years. Price 5 dollars a volume. It may be obtained by addressing the Society directly, or by order through Witey & Purnam, No. 6, Waterloo Place, London, and from the principal Booksellers in New,York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Paléontologie Universelle des Coquilles et des Mollusques _ With an Atlas, representing all known species of Fossils. Mollusques vivants et Fossiles, ou description de toutes les espéces de Coquilles et des Mollusques, classées suivant leur distribu- tion geologique. Tue : are the titles of two works which M. Alcide d’Or- bigny has begun to publish, the one, a general work on Palzontol- ogy, and the other, confined to Molluscs, both fossil and recent. The former will constitute eight volumes in 8vo, and be illus- trated by 1500 octavo plates; price of each number, contain- ing 20 plates and the corresponding text, 6 francs. The Jatter work will extend to 10 volumes in 8vo, with 300 engraved plates ; each number containing 5 plates and 5 leaves of text, 34 francs ; or 5 francs, with the recent species colored. Subscription is de- nae at Gide et Cie., Libraires-editeurs, rue des Petits-Augustins, 5, Paris. M. d’Orbigny is desirous of obtaining specimens, and the vari- ous publications, by American authors, bearing upon the subjects of the above mentioned works, and offers in exchange his own publications, a catalogue of which is given on the advertising sheet of the last number of this Journal. The value and high character of these publications are too well known to require com- ment from us, His Paléontologie Frangaise is one of the best and most elegant works on this branch of science hitherto published. From 1826 to 1834, d’Orbigny was engaged in his travels in South America, and in that period traversed the continent from Patago- nia to the equator, over the prairies and the mountain ranges. He has since been president of the Geological Society of France. For further particulars, address B. Silliman, Jr. ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS AND NATURALISTS. The next Annual Session of this body will be held in the City of New York, on the 2d of Sept. 1846, (Wednesday, ) and fe one week thereafter. ; Dr. C. T. Jackson, Chairman. Mr. B. Situiman, Jr., Secretary. Standing Committee for the next meeting. Dr. C. T. Jackson. B. Sruumany, Jr. ex officio. E. C. Herrick. Amos Binney. . Ww. C. Reprievp. Prof. H. D. Rocers. James C. Booru Prof. B. Stnuman. Joun L. Haves Pres. E, Hircncock. James D. Dana. Local Committee for the next meeting. Hon. James Tatumanee. Prof. Joun W. Draper. Hon. Lurner Brapisu. H. Brevoorr. Maj. JosepH DewvaFriexn. Cuaries M. Wueattey. Prof. James Renwick. Com. Martuew C. Perry. Prof. James EK. DeKay. C. Conevon, Brooklyn. Jereman Van Renssevarr,M.D. James Hauu, Albany. Prof. Cyrus Mason. W. B. Kinney, Newark. Abstract Report of the Proceedings of the Session in May, 1845, at New Haven. This Report is now ready for distribution to members, it is @ well printed pamphlet of about 90 pages, and may be had of the retary, (B. Sutuman, Jr.) Five copies for $1. = wen R ES ea re a Pe k, 2 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] . Arr. L—Some Observations on. the Ethnography and Arche- ology of the American Aborigines ; by Samurn Grorer Mor- ton, M. D., Author of the Crania Americana, Crania Aigyp- tiaca, &e. Norarse i in the progress of eects knowledge is more remark- able than the recent discoveries in American archeology, whether we regard them as monuments of art or as contributions to science. The names of Stephens and Norman will ever stand beernney? for their extraordinary revelations in Mexico and Yucatan ; which, added to those previously made by Del Rio, Biumbolis, Waldeck and D’Orbigny in these and other parts of our continent, have thrown a bright, yet almost bewildering light, on the former con- dition of the western world. Cities have been explored, replete with wsiehee. bas-reliefs, tombs and temples ; ; the works of a comparatively civilized people, who were surrounded by barbarous yet affiliated tribes. Of the builders we know little besides what we gather from their monu- ments, which remain to astonish the mind and stimulate research. They teach us the value of archeological facts in tracing the primitive condition and cognate relations of the several great branches of the human family ; at the same time that they prove to us, with respect to the American race at least, that we have as yet only entered upon the threshold of one: Secoxp Sires, Vol. II, No. 1.—July, 1846. 2 On the Ethnography and Archeology In fact, ethnography and archeology should go hand in hand; and the Seieuninl object I have in view in giving publicity to the following too desultory remarks, is to impress on travellers and — others who are favorably situated for making observations, the importance of preserving every relic, organic or artificial, that can — throw any light on the past and present condition of our native — tribes. Objects of this nature have been too often thrown aside — as valueless ; or kept as mere curiosities, until they were finally lost _ or become so defaced or broken as to be useless: 'Tiorender such | relics available to science and art, their history and characteristics — should be recorded in the periodicals of the day; by which means — we shall eventually possess an accumulated mass of facts that will be all-important to future generalization. I grant that this course — has been ably pursued by many intelligent writers, and the Amer- ican Journal of Science is a fruitful depository of such observa- — tions.* With every acknowledgment to these praiseworthy ef — forts, let us urge their active continuance. Time and the progress © of civilization are daily effacing the vestiges of our aboriginal race; and whatever can be done to rescue these vestiges from ob- vied, must be done quickly. We call attention in the first place, to two skulls from a mound about three miles from the mouth of Huron river, Ohio. They — were obtained by Mr. Charles W. Atwater, and forwarded to to-Mr. | B. Silliman, Sr.y through whose kindness they have been placed © in my hands. These remains possess the greater interest, because — the many articles found with them present no trace of European — art; thus confirming the opinion expressed in Mr. Atwater’s let- ter :—‘‘ There are a great many mounds in the township of Hu- — ron,” he observes, “all which appear to have been built a long time previous to the intercourse between the Indians aud the white men. I have opened a number of these mounds, and have not discovered any articles manufactured by the latter. A piece of copper from a small mound is the only metal I have yet found.” _ The stone utensils obtained by Mr. Atwater in the present in- stance; Were, as usual, arrow heads, axes, knives for skinning deer, oe and two spheroidal stones on which J shall offer some pA ee A oe cal * See: the communications of Mr. R- C. Taylor, in vol. xxxiv; of Mr. 8. Tylana a she Prof. Forshey in-vol. xlix." + eS ee it pe utmesainhiiie 2A) tics # eer ee of the American. Aborigines. 3 remarks in another place. The materials of which these articles are formed, are jasper, quartz, granite stamed by copper, and clay slate, all showing that peculiar time-worn polish which such sub- stances acquire by long inhumation. The two skeletons were of a man asa a woman. “They had been buried on the surface of the ground and the earth raised over them. They lay on their backs with their feet to the west.” The male cranium presents, in every particular, the characteris- tics of the American race. |The forehead recedes less than usual in these people, but the large size of the jaws, the quadrangular orbits, and the width between the cheek Fig. 1." bones, are all’ remarkably developed ; while the rounded head, elevated vertex, — , vertical occiput and great inter-parietal diameter, (which is no less than 5:7 in- ches,) render this skull a — of nation- al conformation. (Fig. 1 The female head sponioats the same general character, but is more elongated in the occipital region, and of more deli- cate proportions throughout.* Similar in general conformation to these are all the mound and other skulls I have received since the publication of my work on American Crania, viz. five from the country of the Araucos, in Chili, from Dr. Thomas 8. Page of Valparaiso; six of ancient Otomies, Tlascalans and Chechemecans, from Don J. Gomez de la Cortina of the city of Mexico; three from near Tampa, in Florida, from Dr. R. S. Holmes, U. 8. A.; one from a mound on Blue river, Illinois, from Dr. Brown of St. Louis; and four sent me by Lieut. Meigs, U. S. A., who obtained them from the immediate vicinity of Detroit, in Michigan. To these may be added two others taken from ancient graves near Fort Chartres, in Illinois, by Dr: Wistlizenus of St. Louis; a single cranium from the cemetery of Santiago de Tlatelolco, near the city of Mexico, which I have received through the kindness of the Baron von Gerolt, Prussian minister at Washington ; and another very * We take this occasion to Shane that skulls taken from the mounds, should at once be saturated wel sneer: of gine or gum, or with any kind of varniohs by whic ti E is effectually prevented. 4 On the Ethnography and Archeology old skull from the Indian burying grounds at Guamay, in North- ern Peru, for which I am indebted to Dr. Paul Swift. Last but not least, I may add the skull obtained by Mr. Stephens* from a vault at Ticul, a ruined aboriginal city of Yucatan; and some mutilated but interesting fragments brought me. fron ree latter country, by my friend Mr. Norman. These crania, together with upwards of four hundred others of nearly sixty tribes and nations, derived from the repositories of the dead in different localities over the whole length and breadth of both Americas, present a conformable and national type of : organization, showing the origin of one to be equally the — of all. To this prevading cranial type I have already diverted’ Hens the long-headed. Aymaras of Peru, whom, in common with Prof. Tiedemann, I at first thought to present a congenitally different form of head from the nations who surrounded them, are proved, by the recent discoveries of M. Alcide D’Orbigny, to have be- longed to the same race as the other . Americans, and to owe their singularly elongated crania to a peculiar mode of artificial eom- pression from the earliest infancy.{ But there is evidence to the same effect, but of more saa date than any we have yet mentioned. 'The recent explorations of Dr. Lund in the district of Minas Geraes, in Brazil, have brought to light human bones which he regards. as fossil, because they ac- _ company the remains of extinct genera and species of quadrupeds, and have undergone the same mineral changes with the latter. He has found several crania, all of which correspond in form to’ — the present aboriginal type.¢ Even the head of the celebrated Guadaloupe skeleton forms no exception to the rule. ‘The skeleton itself is well known to be in the British Museum, but wants the cranium, which how- ever is supposed to have been recovered in the one more recently _ fpved in Baadalouge by Mr. L’Hérminier, and brought by him * Incidents of Travel in Yucatan, I, p. 281. _ + Ramblesin Yucatan, p. 217. + L’Homme omme Americain, Tome I, p-306. I corrected my error before I had the 5 pe = PininetineCharcternie of the Abdiigint nal Rabe of Arner shen p. 6. See Pri di Sciences of Philadelphia for Dec. 1844. to Charleston, South Carolina. Dr. Moultrie, who has described this very interesting relic, makes the following observations :— “Compared with the cranium of a Peruvian presented to Prof. Holbrook by Dr. Morton, in the museum of the state of South Carolina, the craniological similarity manifested between them is too striking to permit us to question their national identity. There is in both the same coronal elevation, occipital com: sion, and lateral protuberance accompanied with frontal Copper sion, which mark the American variety in general.””* There i is additional proof af Ademtityy:m not only of original con- formation, but of of the form of the head, which I may be excused from reverting to in this place, inasmuch as the materials I shall use have but recently come to my hands. The first of these subjects is represented Fig. 2. by the subjoined wood-cut, (fig. 2.) It was politely sent me by Dr. John Hous- toun, an intelligent surgeon of the British Navy, with the following memorandum : “From an ancient town called Chiuhiu, or Atacama Baja, on the’ river Loa, and on the western edge of the desert of Ata- cama. The bodies are nearly all buried in the sitting posture, {the conventional usage of most of the American nations from Patagonia to Canada,] with the hands either placed on each side of she tenho — erie breast.’ ‘sd ig * Amer. Jour. of Science, one P- et ae dings f Phil yvort ii, eat If I mis- tekreseh is the first to b d thi de of int. our abo- riginal nations, a as a strong evidence og ihe unity of the American race. “Thus itis that notwithstanding the diversity of language, customs and intellectual character, we trace = usage throughout both Americas Shes as we have already stated, collatera! of the affiliation of all the American ge Rais cana, p- 246, and man Mr. Bradford i in bis schanlihe work, American Antiquitics, P the Chevalier D’ ‘Eichthal has also adduced this custom, in connexi ith fit in Polynesia, to prove an pea origin fora part at idee of the American race. See ‘Mémoires de la Société de Paris, Tome II, p- 236. Whence arose this conventional position seihe body in death? ‘This question has been often asked and variously answered. It is obviously an imitation of the attitude which the living Indian habitually as- sumes when sitting at perfect ease, and which has been naturally transferred to his lifeless remains asa fit emblem of repose. 6 On the Ethnography and Archeology This cranium (and another received with it) has that remark- able sugar-loaf form which renders them high and broad in front, with a short antero-posterior diameter, both the forehead and oc- ciput bearing evidence of long continued compression. ‘They correspond precisely with the descriptions given by Cieza, 'Tor- quemada and others among the earliest travellers in Peru, who saw the natives in various ee of the country with heads rounded precisely in this manner.* SOEs Opp gS The second head figured, (fig. 3,) is that of a Natchez Indian,} obtained from a mound not far from that city by the late Mr. James Tooley, Jr., and by him pre- sented tome. The face in this, as in the former instance, has all the characteristics of the native Indian; and the cranium has undergone precisely the same process ei of ivtificial compression, although these tribes were separated from each other by the vast geographical distance of four thousand miles! Could we discover the cranial remains of the older Mexican nations, we should doubtless find many of them to possess the same fanvifia type of conformation ;{ for if either of the skulls figured above could be again clothed in flesh and blood, would we not have restored to us the very heads that are so abundantly sculptured on the monuments of Central America, and so graphi- cally described by Herrera, when he rae om that the people of Yucatan flattened their heads and forehead: _ The following diagrams are copied, on an cee seale, from Mr. Stephens’s Travels, and will serve in further illustration of this interesting subject. They are taken from bas-reliefs in the * Crania Americana, p. 116. +1 have been looking'to Dr. Dickerson, of Natchez, for more complete details derived from the tamuli of that ancient tribe which formed a link between the — nations on the one hand, and the savage hordes on the other. Dr. Dicker- is amply provided with interesting and important materials for this inquiry, wha we trust he will soon make public. + The skull brought me from Ticul by Mr. Stephens, is were of a young female. It presents the natural rounded form; which accords with the observation of M. D A (L'Homme Seeciein;) that the artificial oaling of the medians’ we: 5 Trebiee in Central Amerit pvol. ik i, p. 341. er ook : s > oe Palace at Palenque. 'The personage fig. 4, (whose head-dress we have partly omitted,) appears to be a king or chieftain, at whose feet are two suppliants, naked and cross-legged, of whom we copy the one that preserves the most perfect outline, (fig. 5. ) ” Fig. 4. : Fig. 3 _. The principal figure has better features and expression than the other, but their heads are formed on the same model; whence we may infer that if the suppliant is a servant or a slaye of the same race with his master, the artificial moulding of the cranium was common to all classes: If, on the other hand, we assume that he is an enemy imploring mercy, we come to the conclusion that the singular custom of which we are speaking, was in use among other and surrounding nations; which latter inference is confirmed by other evidence, that, for example, derived from the . Natchez tribe, and the clay effigies so abundantly found at the ruined temples" of the sun and moon at Teotihuacan, near the city of Mexico.* I can aver that sixteen years of almost daily comparisons have only confirmed me in the conclusions announced in my Crania Americana, that all the American nations, excepting the Eskimaux, are of one race, and that this race is peculiar and distinct from all others. The first of these propositions may be regarded as an axiom in ethnography ; ; the second still gives rise to a diversity of opinions, of which the most prevalent is that which would merge the American race in the Mongolian. It has been objected to a common origin for all the American nations, ee. even for those of Mexico, that their monuments * Ceinih Americana, p- 146. 8 On the Ethnography and Archeology should present so great a variety in the configuration of the head and face; a fact which forcibly impresses every one who ex- amines the numerous efligies in baked clay in the collection of the American Philosophical Society; yet. they are all made of the same material and by the same national artists. 'The varieties are indeed endless ; and Mr. Norman in his first work, has arrived at a reasonable conclusion, in which we entirely agree with him, “that the people prepared these penates according to their respec- tive tastes, and with little reference to any standard or canon.’””* They appear to have exercised much ingenuity in this way, blending almost every conceivable type of the human counte- nance, and associating this again with those of beasts, birds, and various fanciful animals, which last are equal in uncouthness to any productions of the Gothic artists of the middle ages. . Norman in his late and interesting volume of travels in Cuba and Mexico, discovered in the latter country some remark- able ruins near the town of Panuco, and among them a curious sepulchral effigy. ‘It was a handsome block or slab of stone, (wider at one end than the other, ) measuring seven feet in length, with an average of nearly two and a half feet in width and one foot in thickness. Upon its face was beautifully wrought, in bold relief, the full length figure of a man, ina loose robe with a girdle about his loins, his arms crossed on his breast, his head encased. in a close cap or casque, resembling the Roman helmet (as repre- sented in the etchings of Pinelli) without the crest, and his feet and ankles bound with the ties of sandals. The figure is that of a tall muscular man of the finest proportions. The face, in all its features, is of the noblest class of the pent se or Caucasian race. if ‘Mr. Norman was himself struck “with the resemblance be- tween this, and the stones that cover the tombs of the Knights ‘Templar in some of the ancient churches of the old world,” but he thinks that neither this nor any other circumstance proves this effigy to have been of European origin or of modern date. ‘“'The material,” he adds, “is the same as that of all the buildings and works of art in this vicinity, and the style and workmanship are those of ‘the sg unknown. artists of the western chanel ; Arpechna is Yossi, p- 216. Rasy Land ad Wats,» 145. EE aR IS ON Of the American Aborigines. — 9 _and he arrives at the conclusion, as mafiy ingenuous minds have — done before him, that these and the other archxological remains of Mexico and Yucatan, “are the works of a people who have long since passed away ; and not of the races, or the progenitors of the peep who inhabited the country at the nies ‘of the dis- covery.” With the highest respect for this intelligent tcamilians Tam not able to agree with him in his conclusion; but I should not now revive my published opinions or contest his, were it not that some new light appears to me to have dawned on this very question. In the first place, then, we regard the effigy found near Panuco as probably Caucasian ; so does Mr. Norman; but instead of re- ferring it toa very remote antiquity, or to some European oc- cupancy of Mexico long before the Spanish conquest, we will venture to suggest, that even if the town of Panuco was itself older than that event, (of which indeed we have no doubt, ) it is consistent with collateral facts to infer, that the Spaniards may have occupied this very town, in common with, or subsequent to, the native inhabitants, and have left this sepulchral monument. That the Spaniards did sometimes practice this jot occupancy, is well known ; and that they have, in some instances, left their monuments in pled wherein even tradition had almost lost sight of their former sojourn, is susceptible of proof. ‘Mr. Gregg, in a recent and instructive work on the “Com- merce of the Prairies,” states the following particulars, which are the more valuable since he had no opinions of his own in refer- ence to the American en end. cicrely gives the: facts as he found them. ‘Mr. Gregg describes the ruins called La Gran Quivira, about 100 miles south of Santa Fé, as larger than the present capital of New Mexico. The architecture of this deserted city is of hewn stone, and there are the remains of aqueducts eight or ten miles in length leading from the neighboring mountains. — These ruins “have been supposed to be the remains of a pueblo or aboriginal city ;” but he adds that the occurrence of the Spanish coat of arms in more than one instance’ sculptured and painted upon the houses, prevents the adoption of such an opinion ; and that tra- ditional et (an tradition fey) mentions this as a city that * Ra lab hae oni tages" ya 203. Srconp Senizs, Vol. II, No. earn 1846. 10 On the Ethnography and Archeology ’ was sacked and desolatéd in the Indian insurrection of 1680.* Now had it not been for the occurrence of the heraldic paintings, this city might have been still regarded as of purely Indian origin and occupancy ; as might also the analogous ruins of Abo, Tagi- que and Chilili in the same vicinity ; for although these may have been originally constructed by the natives, yet as they are sup- ‘posed to be near the ancient mines, it is not improbable that the conquerors in these, as in many other instances, drove out the rightful owners, and took possession for themselves ;} for that they did possess and inhabit the towns above enumerated is a fact beyond question. Why may not events of an analogous character have taker place at Panuco? - Was it not probably an Indian city to which the Spaniards had intruded themselves, and having left traces of their sojourn, as at La Gran Quivira, subsequently, owing to some dire catastrophe, or some new impulse, abandonded it for another and preferable location? ‘This, we suggest, is a teason-- able explanation of the presence of the Caucasian effigy found by Mr. Norman among the deserted ruins of Panuco. Mr. Stephens has, I think, conclusively proved that the past and present Indian races of Mexico were cognate tribes. I had previously arrived at the same conclusion from a different kind of evidence. What was manifest in the physical man is corrobo- rated by his archeological remains. The reiterated testimony of some of the early Spanish travellers, and especially of Bernal Diaz and Herrera, is of the utmost importance to this question ; and all that is necessary in the chain of evidence, is some link to connect the demi-civilized nations with the present uncultivated and barbarous tribes. These links have been supplied by Mr. Gregg. Those peculiar dwellings and other structures, with in- clined or parapet walls,t.and with or without windows, which are common to all epochs of Peruvian and Mexican architecture, are constructed and occupied by the Indians of Mexico even at the pceent day. After describing the sitet character of: these oe ee ; of the Prairies, I, p- 165. i bid Le, ware that the walls of +e ancient Maxieon and Peruvian edifices are often vertical ‘but where this is t case the pyramidal form is attained by piling, one on the ort Analisis uae mene each PE Ay from me other and leaving a parapet or platform at its bane. cis esl] of the American Aborigines. io modern domicils, Mr. Gregg goes on to observe, that “a very curious feature in these buildings, is that there is most generally no direct communication between the street and the lower rooms, into which they descended from a trap-door from the upper story, the latter being accessible by means of a ladder. Even the en- trance at the upper stories is frequently at the roof. This style of building appears to have been adopted for security against their marauding neighbors of the wilder tribes, with whom they were often at war. “Though this was thesia most usual style of architecture, there still exists a Pueblo of 'Taos, composed, for the most part, of but two edifices of very singular structure—one on each side of a creek, and formerly communicating by a bridge. The base story is a mass of near four hundred feet long, a hundred and fifty wide, and divided into numerous apartments, upon which other tiers of rooms are built, one above another, drawn in by regular grades, forming a pyramidal pile of fifty or sixty feet high, and comprising some six or eight stories, ‘The outer rooms only seem to be used for dwellings, and are lighted by little windows at the sides, but are entered through trap-doors in the azoteas or roofs. Most of the inner apartments are employed as granaries and store- rooms, but a spacious hall in the centre of the mass, known as the estufa, is reserved for their secret councils. These two build- ings afford habitation, as is said, for over six hundred souls. There is likewise an edifice in the Pueblo of Picuris of the same class, and some of those of Moqui are. also said to be similar.”* - The Indian.city of Santo Domingo, which has an exclusive aboriginal population, is built in the same manner, the material being, as usual, sun-burnt bricks; and my friend Dr. Wm. Gam- bel informs me, that in a late journey from Santa Fé across the continent to California, he constantly observed an analogous style of building, as well in the dwellings of the present native in- habitants, as in those older and sheniones structures of whose date little or nothing is known - Who does not see in the biden of sini Seiki dwellings, the descendants of the architects of Palenque, and Yucatan? The style is the same in both. The same objects have been ar- rived at by similar modes of construction. The older structures * Sheretien ni F the Paine, p- 277... 12 | On the Ethnography and Archeology are formed of a better material, generally of hewn stone, and often elaborately ornamented with sculpture. But the absence of all decoration in the modern buildings, is no proof that they have not been erected by people of the same race with those who have left such profusely ornamented. monuments in other parts of Mexico ; for the ruins of Pueblo Bonito, in the direction of Na- vajo, and those of the celebrated Casas Grandes on the western Colorado, which were regarded by Clavigero as among the oldest Toltecan remains in Mexico, are destitute of sculpture or other decoration. In fact, these last named ruins appear to date with the primitive wanderings of the cultivated tribes, before they established their seats in ‘Whonter and Se, and erected more finished i could only result from the combined efforts of populous communities, acting under the favor- able influence of peace and prosperity. very race has had its center or centers of comparative civilization. The American aborigines had theirs in Peru, Bogota and Mexico. The people, the institutions and the architecture were essentially the same in each, though modified by local wants and conventional usages. Humboldt was forcibly impressed by this archeological identity, for he himself had traced it, with occasional imterruptions, over an extent of a thousand ‘aaeeiins and we now find that it ally merges itself into the ruder dwellings of the more einai tribes ; showing, as I have often remarked, that there is, in every seiepeiily a gradual ethnographic ‘transition from these into the temple-builders of every American epoch.* I shall close this communication by a notice of certain dliseoidal stones occasionally found in the mounds of the United States. Of these relics I possess sixteen, of which all but two were found by my friend Dr. Wm. Pilsen during his long residence in Camden, South Carolina. These disks were accompanied, as usual, by earthern vessels, pipes of baked clay, arrow-heads and. other articles, respecting which Dr. Blanding has given me the following locality :—“ All the Indian relics, save three or four, : which Lhave sent you, were collected on or near the banks of the Wateree:river, Kershaw district, South Carolina; the greater part ao the pacnds or near the foot of pein All the mounds my Inquiry into. the Distinetive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of ben: 2a edit., Philad, 1 1844. a ieee > a oxen or of the American Aborigines. — 13 that I have observed in this state, excepting these, do not amount to as many as are found on the Wateree within the distance of twenty four miles up and down the river, between Lancaster and Sumpter districts. The lowest down is called aes mound, the highest up, Harrison’s.” "he discoidal stones,” adds Dr. Blanding, “were found at the foot of the different mounds, not in them. They seemed to be left, where they were no doubt used, on the play grounds.” The disks are from an inch and a half to six inches in diam- eter, and iene some varieties in other respects. 4 Fig. 1 represents a profile of the simplest form and at the same time the smallest size of these stones, being in diameter about an inch and three quarters. .'The upper and under surfaces are nearly plane, with angular edges and oblique margin, but with- out concavity or perforation. ig. 2. A similar form, slightly concave on each surface. Fig. 3. A large disk of white quartz, measuring five inches in diameter and an inch and three fourths in thickness. The mar- gin is rounded, and both surfaces are deeply concave though im- perforate... Fig. 4 is another initia four inches in diameter, deeply con- eave from the margin to the center, with a central perforation. The margin itself is slightly convex. The concave surface is marked by two sets of superficial grooved lines, which meet some- thing in the form of a bird-track.. ‘This disk is made of a light- ~ brown ferruginous quartz. Fig. 5 is a profile view of a solid lenticular stone, much more convex on the one side than the other, formed of hard syenitic rock. 14 On the Ethnography and Archeology Besides these there are other slight modifications of form which it is unnecessary to particularize. These disks are made of the hardest stones, and wrought with admirable symmetry and polish, surpassing any thing we could readily conceive of in the humbler arts. of the present Indian tribes; and the question arises, whether they are not the works of their seemingly extinct progenitors ?—of that people of the same race, (but more directly allied to the Toltecans of Mexico,) who - appear in former times to have constituted populous and cultivated communities throughout the valley of the Mississippi, 4nd in the southern and western regions towards the gulf of Mexico, and whose last erect and lineal representatives were the ill-fated Natchez? °°“) Lhave made Sith inquiry as to the localities of these and analogous remains, but hitherto with little success. I am assured that they have been found in Missouri, perhaps near St. Louis ; and in very rare instances in the northern part of Delaware. Dr. Ruggles has sent me the plaster model of a small, perforated, but irregularly formed stone of this kind, taken Fro an ancient In- dian grave at Fall River in Rhode Island; but Dr. Edwin H. Davis, of Chilicothe, in a letter recently seiheioed from him, in- forms me that he had obtained, during his excavations in that vicinity, no less than ‘‘two hundred flint disks in a single mound, measuring from three and a half to five inches in diameter, and from half an inch to an inch in thickness, of three different forms, round, oval and triangular.” These appear, however, to be of a different construction and designed for some other use than those I have described ; and Dr. Davis himself offers the probable sug- gestion, that “they were rude darts blocked out at the quarries for easy transportation to the Indian towns.” The same gentle- - man speaks of having found other disks formed of a micaceous slate, of a dark color and highly polished. These last appear to correspond more nearly to those we have indicated in the above grams. Set i Besides these disks, I have met with a few spheroidal stones, about three inches in diameter. One of these accompanies the disks from South Carolina, and is marked: with a groove to re- ceive the thumb i in throwing “A _A similar but ruder ball is con- ained among the articles f y Mr. Atwater‘in the mound near Haron, Gite 5 J 4 ¥ _ What was the use of the disks in question? — Those who have examined the series in my possession have offered various expla- nations ; but the only one that seems in any degree plausible, is that of my friend Dr. Blanding, who supposes them to have been used in a game analogous to that of the quoits of the Europeans. It is a curious fact that discoidal stones much resembling these have been found in Scandinavia ;* whence I was at first led to suppose it possible, especially in cotisidetation of their apparently circumscribed occurtence in this country, that they might have been introduced here by the Northmen; a conjecture that seems to lose all pecsepercct since these relies have been eee as far west as the or zs "Note. ka Sinds the rains remarks were written, I have re- ceived from my friend, Mr. William A. Foster, of Lima, ten skulls and two entire fusnietinda bodies from the Peruvian ceme- tery at Arica. “'Thiscemetery,” observes Mr. Foster, “lies on the face of a sandhill sloping towards the sea. The external surface occupied by these tombs, as far as we explored, I should say was five or six acres. In many of the tombs three or four bodies were found clustered together, always 7 the sitting posture, and wrapped in three or four thicknesses of clots, with a mat thrown over all.” These crania possess an unusual interest, inasmuch as, with two exceptions, they present the horizontally elongated form, in every degree from its incipient stage to its perfect development. By what contrivance has the rounded head of the Indian been moulded into this fantastic shape? I have elsewheret offered some explanations of this subject ; but the present series of skulls throws yet more light on it, and enables me to indicate the pre- cise manner in which this singular object has been attained. ~ It is evident that the forehead was pressed downwards and _backwards by two compresses, (probably a folded cloth,) one on each side of the frontal suture, which was left free; a fact that explains the cause of the ages; * — in every Ebrstirtwi * See Journal of the Antiquarian om of Denmark published in ee in the Danish language, vol. i, tab. 2, figs. 52, 53. t Jour. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philad., vol. viii. 16 On the Ethnography and Archeology replaces that suture by extending from the root of the nose to the coronal suture. ‘Tio keep these compresses in place, a bandage was carried over them from the. base of the occiput obliquely for- wards; and then, in order to confine the lateral portions of the skull, the same bandage was continued by another turn over the top of the head, immediately behind the coronal suture, and prob- ably with an intervening compress; and the bandaging was re- peated over these parts until they were searncersiies confined in the desired position. Every one who is acquainted with the pliable —suiitian of the cranial bones at birth, will readily conceive how effectually this ap- paratus would mould the head in the elongated or cylindrical form ; for, while it prevents the forehead from rising, and the sides of the head from expanding, it allows the occipital region an entire free- dom of growth; and thus without sensibly diminishing the vol- ume of the brain, merely ferces it into a new though unnatural direction, while it Pantha at ne same eas a momarleable tm: metry of the whole structure. | The following outline of one - of these skulls, will further il- lustrate my meaning ; mere- ly premising that the course of the bandages is in every ¢ instance distinetly marked — by a corresponding cavity , of the bony structure, ex- cepting on the forehead; ‘where the action of a firtt re aie’ has left a plane surface. | 'Fhis conformation, as we have atreaity Seinied; was ak evel among the old Aymara tribes which inhabited the shores and isl- ands of the Lake of Titicaca, and whose civilization seems evi- dently to antedate that of the Inca Peruvians. 1 was in fact at one time led to consider this form of head as pectliar to; and characteristic of, the former people; but Mr. Foster’s extensive ions conclusively prove that it was as common among some tribes of the sea coast, as among those of the mountainous region of Bolivia ; that it belonged to no particular nation or tribe ; ted at it asin every instance, the result of mechanical com pression. —T POS Set eae . of joan Aborigines. 17 In my Crania Americana I have given abundant instances of a remarkable vertical flattening of the occiput, and irregularity its sides, among the Inca Peruvians who were buried in the ro cemetery of Pachacamac, near Lima. 'These heads present no other deviation from the natural form ; and even this irregularity [have thought might be accounted for by a careless mode of binding the infant to the simple board, which, among many In- dian tribes of both North and South America, is a customary substitute for a cradle. It is probable, however, that even this configuration was intentional, and may have formed a distinctive badge of some particular caste of these singular people, among whom a pinto natural . sanemttene -was of extremely rare oc- currence, pes _ We are now locus sith four hishe i the head among the old Peruvians which were produced by artificial means, viz : L.. The teulaontally elongated, or. oyhadeae form, above de- scribed. -+ 2. he conical or sugar-loaf form, represented in the preced- ing diagrams. 3. The simple flattening or depression of the forehead, contin the rest of the head to expand, both posteriorly and laterally ; practice yet prevalent. among the Chenooks and other tribes a the north of the Columbia river, in Oregon. 4.. A simple vertical elevation of the occiput, giving the head in most instances a squared and inequilateral form. A curious decree of the ecclesiastical court of Lima, dated A. D. 1585, and quoted by the late Prof. Blumenbach, alludes to at least four artificial conformations of: the head, even then common among the Peruvians, and forbids the practice of them under certain specified penalities. These forms were called in the lan- guage of the natives, “Caito, Oma, Opalla, &c. ;” and the contin- uance of them at that period, affords anatlien instance of the tenacity with ‘which.the Peruvians clung to the: wages of their forefathe: _ Szconp jenny . Vol. ul, No. ‘asin 1846. 3 18 Profs. W. B. and R. E.. Rogers on the Arr. Il.—On a new process for obtaining Formic Acid, and on the preparation of Aldehyde and Acetic Acid by the use of the Bichromaie of Potassa ; by Profs. W. B. Rogers and R. E. Rocers of the University of Virginia. .. e! Process for Formic Acid. Since the important discovery of Débereiner, that foekiaie acid is evolved from a mixture of tartaric acid, peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid, the progress of research has shown that ina large proportion of cases, where organic matters are exposed to powerful oxidating agencies, this acid is among the products developed; and hence several other processes have been devised for its preparation, on the large scale and in the laboratory. Of these the one generally in use consists, as is well known, in dis- tilling a mixture in prescribed proportions, of peroxide . — nese, dilute sulphuric acid and starch or sugar. : The inconsiderable amount of acid yielded by this’ prookill, and its usually large admixture with other products, especially sul- phurous acid, suggested to us, some time ago, the trial of bi- chromate of potassa, as a substitute for peroxide of manganese, and has since led us to a method of operating, Semeased we pared presents decided advantages over that im general use. When bichromate of potassa, dilute. sulphuric ent and sugar are mingled in proper proportions and in a proper order, a rai amount of formic acid is developed, of which part passe during the first violent reaction, and the remainder is sieht by gentle distillation. Repeated experiments have convinced us that by mingling all the materials at once, before placing them in the retort, a-comparatively small product is obtained, partly from its being volatalized by the high temperature attending the re- action, and partly, we think, because more of the sugar is carried to its highest stage of oxidation in the forms of carbonic acid and_ water. We have therefore been led to another, and we believe, = ' better mode of operating, of which the following details will serve as an example. Introducing into a retort, capable of holding about one quart, 800 grains of bichromate of potassa and 10 cubic inches of water, we gently heat the mixture so as to dissolve the larger part of the bichromate. We then add 300 grains of powdered white sugar, ~ oe uate Sige ge ae Preparation of Formic Acid. 19 and adjusting to the tubulure a perforated cork and pipette with gum-elastic bag for the gradual introduction of sulphuric acid, we slowly inject about 1 cubic inch of the latter upon the mix- ture. By regulating the addition of the acid and occasionally intermitting the slender stream, the violent reaction which ensues is prevented from occasioning any very great intumescence. Du- ring this stage of the operation, upwards of 2 cubic inches of a clear but feebly acid liquid passes over into the receiver. When the ac- tion has in a good measure subsided, we add 5 cubic inches more of water, and apply a gentle lamp heat, continuing the addition of the acid, by allowing it simply to drop from the pipette, until an- other. cubic inch has been introduced. (The liquid which now passes over is much stronger in formic acid than in the preceding stage, andthe distillation may, without impairing the purity of the product, be continued until about 7 cubic inches have been received. By urging it much beyond this point sulphurous acid will be evolved. One hundred grains of the liquid thus obtained is angle of saturating about seven grains of dry carbonate of soda. Its purity is such as to fit it for immediate use in illustrating the striking reactions of formic acid and the formiates. Thus— 1. On adding a small portion of it to a solution of nitrate of silver previously curdled by ammonia, and applying heat, the sil- ver is promptly reduced wath, a lively effervescence of carbonic acid. . 2. With a solution of bichloride of mercury, aided by heat, it causes a precipitation of . satan sesaneneresaetie of hydrochlo- ric and carbonic acids. 3, Combined. with soda it Gin a cali salt readily carbonized by heat and passing into carbonate. 4. It is not blackened by sulphuric ; acid; but the soda salt acted upon by this acid evolves carbonic oxide with brisk effervescence. _5. This salt heated with solution.of nitrate of silver or nitrate of mercury, cpr the metal with evolution ‘of carbonic acid. All ina pane are so prompt fd striking as to evince but little contamination of the formic acid with other products. ‘On comparing this process with that commonly employed, we are convinced of its superiority, first, on account of the exemp- tion of the product from SO,, and ina great degree from other 20 Profs. W. B..and R. FE. Rogers on the impurities ; second, from the much larger amount of formic acid obtained by it from an equal weight of the oxidizing material, sulphuric acid and starch or sugar; and third, from ake ease rate which the action is controlled. According to Liebig, (Chem. coane Pp. 567,) 10 satan of scat; 37 parts of peroxide of manganese, and 30 parts of sulphuric acid, yield 3:35 parts of an acid liquid, * which 100 grains sat- urate 15 grains. of carbonate of soda. This corresponds to 7:18 parts of liquid such as we obtain.. We have thus by the old pro- cess 7:18 parts of liquid of equal acidity with our product, while the aggregate weight of the starch, sulphuric acid, and peroxide of manganese is 77. By our process we have about 1800 grains of a similar acid from 2100 grains of sugar, bichromate of potassa and sulphuric acid. In other words, by the new process, we pro- cure about nine times as much formic acid from the same weight of the three reacting materials, as by that hitherto in use. Il. On the preparation of Aldehyde and Acetic Aout . the use of the nie aati “i Pouiissa. In the weonseipidiiiceiitl by: Liebig, sGtacin: eis) pp. 378, Jani which is the one hitherto generally used for preparing aldehyde in the regular way, the product is obtained from the reaction of peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid upon dilute alcohol. This operation furnishes a liquid which is so weak in aldehyde, and so mixed with water and formic ethers, and as we have found with acetic acid also, as to present the characteristic reactions only in a feeble degree, and to require two rectifications over chloride of calcium, before it can be used in forming the ewe aE or aldehydite of ammonia. In the course of some experiments upon the reactions of. ie chromate of potassa and sulphuric acid upon alcohol, we have been led to a process which affords a larger and much purer pro- . duct, and which is entirely. under the control of the operator: The distinctive features of this method are the substitution of bichromate of potassa for the peroxide of manganese, and the peculiar mode of bringing the reacting materials together. In the use of the bichromate we have since found that we were an- ticipated by Profi Kane, who, at page 922 of his Elements of Chemistry, recommends it as a means of obtaining a purer pro- Preparation of Aldehyde and Acetic Acid. 21 duct, and specifies briefly the manner in which he conducted the process. As however his method is not noticed in other chemi- cal works, and as our mode of proceeding and some of the re- sults we have obtained, are, we think, not without novelty and interest, we deem them worthy of a brief ane in wwned Journal. When alcohol j is added to a strong aqueous patie. of arene acid in aretort, a very brisk reaction ensues, and upon applying a gentle heat hans passes over a clear liquid, containing a consider- able amount of slssabeychoy with a faint trace of acetic and probably formic acids. The presence of the aldehyde is readily shown by adding a pee drops of the liquid to a solution of nitrate of silver previously curdled. by ammonia, and then gently heating the mixture. ~The oxide is speedily reduced, forming a brilliant metallic coating on the sides of the glass. Substituting for the chromic acid of this experiment, a mixture of bichromate of potassa and sulphuric acid, and blending with this a quantity of common alcohol, the reaction is extremely violent, a large volume of carbonic acid is evolved, and the liquid which distils over, contains, with other products, much aldehyde and acetic acid. To obtain either of these substances but little mingled with the rest, special attention must be paid to the pro- portions in which the bichromate, sulphuric acid, and alcohol are mixed, and to the order in which they are brought together. Thus, in all our experiments, we found, than when alcohol is added in small quantities at a time to a mixture of the bichromate and sulphuric acid the distilled product is almost pure acetic acid, but when sulphuric acid is slowly dropped into a mixture of the salt and alcohol, the liquid which passes over contains little else than aldehyde. irene remarkable. differentea i in the products is, we think, readily explained by the different intensity of the oxidating power in the ewer eases. In the former, the alcohol, as it fallsinto the mixture of bichromate and. sulphuric acid, t yund ,d on all sides by free chromic acid, is carried rapidly. ily through the lower stages of oxidation, corresponding to aldehyde and. aldehydic acid, un- eg by the addition in-all of 4 equivalents of oxygen, and the n of 2 equivalents of water, it is converted into acetic acid, in the latter case, the sulphuric acid, dropping slowly into ‘ 22 Profs. W. B. and R. E. Rogers on the the mixture of alcohol and bichromate, liberates but a small quantity of chromic acid at any one time, and thus limits the oxidation of the alcohol in great part to the first tne, or that of the formation of aldehyde. From the observation of these facts; we were ied, after a num- ber of comparative tnals, to the wei’ Piles ae the > tion of aldehyde. ~~ Equal weights of somsiiecth dictercnete of stn and iets sp. gr. 0842 being placed in a capacious retort, connected with a receiver and the usual means of refrigeration, we adapt to the tubulure a pipette, charged with sulphuric acid, and whose stem reaches nearly to the surface of the liquid, the top of the pipette being furnished with a strong gum-elastic bag for injecting the acid into the mixture beneath. We now slowly add the acid, taking care to avoid excessive reaction, by sometimes allowing it merely to drop spontaneously from the pipette, and again when the action subsides accelerating its flow by pressure. At this period of the operation, the heat evolved in the retort is sufficient to carry over into the receiver a considerable volume of the alde- hydic liquid ; and, as much carbonic acid is at the same time disen- gaged, the tubulure of the receiver should only be loosely closed. Having thus added gradually a weight of sulphuric acid equal to about 14 times that of the bichromate, we apply a gentle lamp heat and continue the distillation as long as the aldehydic liquid passes over. When the reaction is most energetic, white fumes are evolved, which, falling from the beak of the retort into the receiver, are so dense that they may readily be poured from the latter through a funnel into a narrow necked bottle. These, when condensed, form a clear liquid consisting chiefly of al- dehyde. By this process 1500 grains of bichromate of potassa and the same amount of alcohol have on repeated occasions yielded us about 8 cubic inches of a clear liquid, containing but slight traces of acetic acid or other extraneous matters, and possessing all the characters of a nearly pure mixture of aldehyde and water. "The product thus obtained is sufficiently rich in aldehyde to exhibit instantly and strikingly all the characteristic reactions of that substance. “ It may, therefore, without rectification, pe em- ployee in class-toom experiments and in testing 1 for silver. Preparation of Aldehyde and Acetic Acid. 23 _ A few drops of this liquid, added in a test tube to a solution of nitrate of silver previously curdled by ammonia, quickly converts the oxide into metallic silver, which attaches itself as a brilliant coating to the glass. In describing this characteristic property of aldehyde, Liebig and others appear to regard the application of heat to the mixture as necessary to the effect, (Chem. Org., p. 377.) We have found however that the aldehydic liquid of the above process, as well as the more concentrated aldehyde pro- cured from it by distillation over chloride of calcium, causes a complete and. brilliant reduction of the oxide of silver in a few seconds at ordinary temperature, and that the same effect results even when the tube is immersed in snow, but in this case the change requires two or three minutes for its completion. Heated with hydrate of potassa the liquid becomes yellow, then of a deep reddish brown color, and if.a little while yields floating flakes of the characteristic resin of aldehyde. On adding to the liquid an excess of caustic baryta in the cold, little or no action is manifested ; but as soon as heat is applied, the mixture assumes an intense opaque yellow color like that of chromate of lead, which by continuing the heat passes into a deep rich brown, as in the preceding experiment. The proportion of aldehyde in the liquid as it comes from the receiver in the above process, is such, that to prepare aldehydite of ammonia, we may dispense with the two successive distilla- tions from the chloride of lime directed by Leibig, and use the fresh product at once for this purpose. We therefore add to the liquid about half its bulk of sulphuric ether, and pass a stream of ammonia into the mixture. As the aldehyde becomes saturated, the compound in question falls in an abundant deposit of brilliant transparent rhombohedral crystals. From this, as is well known, perfectly pure aieetips is ae BC by the reaction of dilute sul- phuric acid. In some experiments pers to determine the delicacy of alde- hyde as a test ~~ — of _— we wpecgmete the following results :— 43 ‘2: A solution of 1 pant of niteate of sae in 1000 of distilled water, when heated gently in a test tube with a drop or two of aldehydite of ammonia, formed a brilliant metallic pellicle on the inner surface of the glass. 24 Profs. W. B. and R. E. Rogerson the, &c. 2. A solution containing | part in 2000 produced the pellicle in distinct spots and not continuous as in the former case. At the same time the liquid became of a deep greenish purple color, and although only one quarter of an inch thick was nearly opaque. 3. A solution of 1 part in 10,000 gave no adherent pellicle, but on continuing the heat for two or three minutes became strongly colored, presenting a deep greenish purple by transmitted, ant a dull olive by reflected light. A. In a solution of 1 part.in 20,000, ddiomecelnuieunmtliciet ple tint was still quite decided, and even when the solution was diluted so as.to contain only ,;1,,;th of nitrate of silver this color was very distinctly manifested after heating it sometime with aldehydite. Compared with the faint opalescence caused by the addition of chloride of sodium to the same solution, this effect of the ee compen to ‘be the more apetone of the two. lish tint (theliquid, marked in these exner. rl, The pecul experi ments, s evide ionily due to the finely divided 1 metallie silver held in suspension, and. affords therefore a striking confirmation of the statement of Dupasquier, that not only gold, but silver and other opaque bodies, present this hue when greatly subdivided and viewed through a clear suspending medium, (Comp. Bends Bio. 1, July, 1845.) It may be added that the when a very: dilute solution of nitrate of silver i ds subjected to the reducing action of a formiate. we Allusion has already been made to se scRigtian of. hediedtseid in large amount by a modification in the above process. For this purpose the powdered bichromate and the sulphuric: acid -in ‘the proportion of about 2 to 3, are to be first mixed in the retort so as to develop a large amount of free chromic acid. The alcohol is then introduced from the pipette as in the former case and with like precautions. During the violent action that ensues, much - acetic acid passes over without the aid of external heat. When ‘the alcohol thus added amounts to about twice the weight of the bichromate employed, the action having. subsided, we apply a gentle lamp heat and obtain a large additional quantity of the acid. This we have found to be free from sulphurous acid and enn neon ai ae y | Ne on C. Lyell on causal §e. 25 pte HL —On the Boilenes of Fossil Pinte of a Pt She _ allied to the Cheirotherium, in the Coal Strata of Penns ylva- nia; by Cuarues Lye, Esq., F. R. S., FG. S., &e. (Communicated by the Author.) Ox my way from Pittsburg to Philadelphia, I visited the rocks in which Dr. King, of Greensburg, first discovered, in 1844, the footmarks supposed to have been made by a large reptile, and which stand out in relief from the lower surface of slabs of sand- stone, resting ona thin layer of fine clay. Having visited the quarry and enquired into all the circumstances of the discovery, having seen almost every specimen hitherto obtained, and con- sidered the relations of the sandstone with the rocks lying above and below it, I have no hesitation in declaring my conviction, first, that the footprints are genuine, and were made by a quad- ruped nearly alhed to the Cheirotherium of Europe, if not the same ; secondly, that they occur in the middle of the carbonifer- ous formation, having both above and below them seams of coal and strata containing Lepidodendron, FoF Stigmaria, Cala- _ mites, é&c. . Great praise is due to Dr. King for the exertions which he has made in bringing these fossils to light, and duly appreciating from the first their extraordinary importance and value. A young man, engaged in an extensive medical practice in a remote town, act- ing under every discouragement which want of sympathy. in those immediately around him, and of access to scientific books or museums could produce, he has persevered and succeeded in forming a fine collection of the fossil tracks, and become acquainted with the relations and organic remains of the contiguous strata.* I shall begin by describing the first locality to which the at- . tention of Dr. King wascalled in 1844, a stone quarry about five miles S. E. of Greensburg in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania. The slabs of argillaceous sandstone are extracted here for paving, but the excavation begun in the bank of a small stream was soon desisted from in cqnnergsante of the increasing thickness of the * Three papers have somenta shie Seni from Dr. King. The first de- scribes and figures the footmarks from five miles S. E. of Giovtshoay, vol. xlviii, p. 343; the second, those of Derry, vol. xlix, P- 216; and lastly, the supposed hoofed:prints at Connelsville, second series, vol. 3, p. 268. Sxconp Serizs, Vol. IH, No. 4—July, 1846. 4 26 C. Lyell on Footprints in the overlying useless shale. Between the slabs of stone, which are a few inches thick, are thin parting layers of a fine unctuous clay well fitted to receive and retain faithful impressions of the feet of animals. About twenty three footsteps have been observed, some more and others less distinct. One of these was seen by Dr. King, to be impressed on the upper surface of a layer of clay, but the specimen was unfortunately left exposed to the weather and destroyed. The other Cheirotherium footsteps stand out in re- lief from the under surface of a bed of sandstone, and are ac- companied by small mud-veins which have been described: as fucoids for which they were mistaken. They are in fact casts of those cracks of various sizes which are produced by the drying and ‘shrinking of mud. As the footprints are traversed and oc- casionally distorted by these veins, it is evident that the shrink- age took place after the animal had walked over the mud. There is every where seen a double row of tracks, which occur in pairs, each pair consisting of a hind and fore foot, and each being at nearly equal distances from the next pair. The toes, on each of these parallel rows, tor; the one set to the — the other to the left. The geological position of this thats is sertbeiny clear. It is situated in the midst of the Apalachian coal field, and there is no formation to be seen, except the carboniferous, for a consid- erable distance in any directions The beds are gently inclined to the 8. E., and occur on the side of one of those troughs which intervene het weeil two anticlinal folds or ridges which are not only found in the principal chain of the Alleghany mountains, but also, as in this instance, in the lower and less hilly country im- mediately west of the mountains. The sandstone and shale con- taining the footsteps, crop out from beneath the main or Pittsburg seam of coal, which is about nine feet thick, and has been worked at its outcrop in the immediate neighborhood. This coal is less © than a hundred feet above the sandstone, and there are several other seams of workable coal which lie at lower levels; and im- pressions of Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Cailamnites; ferns, and other carboniferous plants, have been found both above and rested the level of these reptilian footsteps. _ The second locality which I visited, where the supposed fossil otprints of birds and of quadrupeds resembling dogs, were ob- ‘fo served by Dr. King, is armen reuse a mile- ms noe town of Coal Strata of Pennsylvania. 27 Derry in Westmoreland county, about fourteen miles — of Greensburg, (see this Journal, vol. xlix, p. 216.) The markings here are all upon the surface of a white coal grit or sandstone, forming a bare ledge of rock, no vegetation, scarcely even any mosses or lichens having grown on the pure quartzose stone. The ledge is about thirty five feet in its longest diameter, and about thirty two in breadth. It projects above the general level about three feet at one end, and slopes down gradually but irregu- larly till it is only an inch or two high at the lower extremity. There are several other similar but much smaller ledges of bare sandstone within a very short distance, on which there are no footprints. The large ledge is covered with distinct representa- tions, not only of the tracks of birds and dogs, but also of other animals. Those of birds in particular, are cut sharply and deep- ly, and there is one long series of steps in succession, as if a bird had walked from the lower to the upper end of the ledge, and then over thé end, so as. to leave on a steep slope inclined to the horizon at an angle of 22°, a clear and vivid imprint. I found it quite impossible to imagine the layers of sand when in a soft state or capable of receiving footprints, to have been ever so placed, as to admit of such an impression being made, and it is obvious that after the loose sand had consolidated and the ledge had acquired its present. form by denudation, no bird could have left the slightest trace of its passage over so hard arock. I may state indeed that I have never seen in Germany, England, or America, any impressions of the tracks of birds or quadrupeds in- dented on so coarse a sandstone as that of Derry, although casts in relief have frequently been taken in such a matrix, the sand having been poured into the hollows made in the soft mud on which the animals had trodden Another serious objection to the. supposed geological antiquity of the footprints, presented itself to me on my first view of this ledge near Derry. . The impressions are most of them extremely sharp, although the sandstone has not only been exposed for ages to the weather, but evidently acted upon by currents of water, _ which have shaped out channels and cavities of various depths, and some perfectly round, deep, and regularly formed pot-holes, : one of them eighteen inches deep and more than a foot in dis Os eter. Icounted on this single ledge no less than nineteen pot holes, between some of which, part of the principal series of bird travks passes. 28 C. Lyell on Footprints in the * Another objection to the genuineness of the footprints, arises from the unevenness of the surface of the rock, on which, as the successive layers he nearly horizontal (which is shown by sec- tions exhibited in the vertical walls of the pot-holes,) distinct planes of stratification are laid open. The only way of imagin- in® how so great a multitude of tracks could be exposed super- ficially on many different planes, would be to suppose that each superimposed layer was originally covered with these markings, all the tracks turning in one direction, so that wherever the ex- cavating power of water cut into a subjacent layer, it laid open to view some new tracks. But this hypothesis is so far from be- ing borne out by the facts, that after cutting into the stone in more than twenty places and removing small slabs with imprints upon them, Dr. King has never been able to detect a single in- dication of a footprint in the rock below. I have lately seen good imitations of the tracks of birds on a slab of limestone sculptured by Indians, at New Harmony, in the museum of Dr. D. D. Owen. It was brought from St. Louis in the state of Missouri: The different joints of the toes were indicated as in the Derry stone. In the immediate neighborhood of the ledge of Derry there are numerous graves of Indians, and the same place is known to have lain in the line of one op their paths leading from the Alleghany mountains to the west.* — ‘It seems indeed, in the highest degree probable, ‘that ot abo- rigines of North America, whose skill in following the trail of all. kinds of game is so well attested, and who are known to have cut in some places on the rocks, rude imitations of the forms of animals, should sometimes have employed, as the symbols of the birds or quadrupeds which they hunted, a copy of these foot- prints with which they were so familiar. But the true origin of these markings on the Derry sandstone, may, I think, be consid- ents as set at rest by observations tate made in another — es he s Aerie human footprints in solid limestone, first discovered isd tepid by Me.Schooleraft in 1822, and considered by him to be genuine fossils, (Am. Jour. Sci., v ¥, p. 223,) will not soon be forgotten. These curious intaglios remained for twe enty years unexplained, menesebar ge in 1822, (Amer. Jour. of Science, vol. xliii, p. 14;) of all, their artificial origin, and attribu- |; Guetly doubt) to the ancient inhabitants of America. We refer the interesting paper for a full detail of the ob aera with figures zi fossils, and some : of the instruments w pln 5 have — — Coal Strata of Pennsylvania. 29 in Fayette county, near Connelsville, (Second Series, vol. i, p. 268, ) nineteen miles from Greensburg, and about thirty from: Derry. Dr. King and the Rev. Mr. Hackey have visited this place, and they inform me that on the surface of a hard ledge of sand- stone exposed there, some unquestioned Indian hieroglyphics with the representation of two human heads and of a serpent, are to be seen. These are accompanied with tracks of birds and of hoofed quadrupeds, and lastly of a footprint resembling ex- actly that of a dog or wolf, and identical with some of the most common tracks on the stone at Derry. I have now only to express my thanks to Dr. King for the assistance Which he gave me in prosecuting these inquiries, in which his sole desire was to arrive at the truth, and to correct any mistakes into which he might have fallen. He now agrees with me in regarding those imprints only as genuine and fossil, which occur in Unity township, five miles from Greensburg. They con- sist, as I before stated, of the tracks of a large reptilian quadru- _ ped, ina sandstone in the middle of the carboniferous series, a fact so full of novelty and interest, that when we reflect on its importance, all disappointment in the abandonment of the spuri- ous footprints is forgotten. In no formation have so many exca- vations affording facilities of paleontological researches in Europe and America been made, as in the carboniferous, No other group of strata has yielded such unequivocal evidence of the presence on the spot, of dry land, or of its existence in the immediate vicinity ; and yet here in Pennsylvania, for the first time we meet with evidence of the existence of air-breathing quadrupeds eapa- ble of roaming in those forests, where the Sigillaria, Lepidoden- _dron, Caulopteris, Calamites, Ferns, and other plants, flourished. Few geologists will now think it safe to assume, that no other species or agg or even acs of 0 pcre vertebrata existed at that period. on iclinnions it may be pkoper for me to state, that having Gsienesby examined, in company with Prof. Hitchcock, the isk. thichnites of the valley of the Connecticut river, I have by no means been led to doubt the genuineness of those imprints from what I saw at Derry. The fossil markings on the Connecticut 30 T. S. Hunt on a new Titaniferous Mineral. Art. IV.—Description and Analysis of a new Mineral Species, containing Titanium ; with some remarks on the Constitution _ of Titantferous Minerals ; by Tuomas S. Hunt of. the Labo- ratory of Yale College. ial | _ Tuts mineral, which is here Seca, accurs at Amity, New York, imbedded in a white magnesian limestone, with serpentine, ilmenite, spinelle and chondrodite. In its physical characteristics, it resembles closely Warwickite from the same neighborhood, and indeed the specimen which I have analyzed, was handed to me as a specimen of Warwickite; but its chemical. characters and com- position differing so much from, those obtained for that mineral, [ offer it as a new species, and would propose for it, the name of Enceladite, alter Enceladus one of the Titans of ancient my- thology. Mineralogical Description.—Primary fo orm. An obligtes thom- bic prism. M on M = about 93°; but from the roughness of its faces it is impossible | to measure the angles accurately. Secondary form. The primary with its obtuse lateral ‘edgeq. replaced; the summits of the smaller crystals terminated by i im- perfect planes and rounded. Cleavage with the. inciatnrtna * very perfect ; brittle ; fracture uneven... Lustre, in the jorge crystals glimmering, in ‘the smaller ones resinous, sometimes submetallic on the cleavage surfaces. Color, iron or bluish black passing into brownish black ; streak bluish black. ..Hardness 3—4. . Specific oeerite 2: 188. Chemical E'xamination.—W hen heated - ina abe it gives off water and assumes a lighter color; if ignited in contact with the air it assumes a brick red. Bice before the blowpipe infusible ; with borax it gives a clear bead colored by iron; with salt of phosphorus it gives a globule, orange yellow when hot, which on tis but slowly acted upon by hydrochloric acid, even i aided ed by heat ; but concentrated sulphuric acid readily decomposes it by the ; Sa of heat, forming a grayish mass. _, , tive Analysis.—A.. A portion of the mimeral, in fine : ae yee with, _sulphuric acid, in a platinum erucible, te gn Mh _Chaunas aN riences for es are 8 TLS. Hunt on anew Titaniferous Mineral. 31 half an hour when the color of the mineral had become yellow- - ish-gray. “ting this operation the ere oo was not — corroded. | ; B. A large quantity of water was now mide’ to the acid mass, when a brownish powder separated, which by renewing the treat- ment with sulphuric acid became quite white, and was. nearly soluble in a solution of carbonate of soda, showing that it was principally silicic acid; this was confirmed by fusing a ‘portion of it with carbonate of soda, -and dissolving the fused mass in dilute ee —_— asa aight on esepunms silicic — 86 ' _ C. The ésliainth deine Ba was boiled, ‘when titanic acid was bundantly precipitated. After long’ ebullition the liquid was fil- _ seat (excluding as much as possible the air,) and by farther con- centration reduced to a small bulk; it had a delicate green tint and was found to contain protoxide i iron, with a mere trace of peroxide, which probably arose from a slight absorption of oxygen, and the iron in the mineral was consequently supposed to exist as a protoxide. D. After peroxidation by nitric acid, the solution was precipi- tated by ammonia: the filtrate was not affected by sulphuret of ammonium, it gave with oxalate of ammonia, a slight precipi- tate of lime, but with phosphate of soda and ammonia an abund- ant one, of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. -_E. The precipitate by ammonia was redissolved by a little di- lute sulphuric acid, several crystals of sulphate of potassa were added, and the whole allowed to stand for twelve hours; at the end of this time a large quantity of crystals had formed, which were however completely dissolved by a saturated solu- tion of sulphate of potassa. This showed the absence of cerium and lanthanum, as also of thorium and zirconia. An excess of pure potassa ‘was then added to the haem the were digested for’ some hours and then filtered. : » EF. The filtrate was neutralized with. hydrochloric acid, when carbonate of ammonia gave an abundant precipitate of alumina. The precipitate by potassa was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and after being largely diluted and rendered quite neutral, succi- nate of ammonia was added ; the whole was then heated nea to the boiling point, and as soon as it had’ cooled, the sol Was filtered. These precautions were taken to prevent the 3 32 T. S. Hunt on a new Titaniferous Mineral. cipitation of yttria, which it was thought might be present; the filtrate was evaporated to a small bulk, feebly acidulated by hy- ’ drochloric acid, and oxalic acid was added. This gave no precip- itate, even aftet the nope of several eR: vie was Perce absent. A portion of the mineral deca swith. carbonate of ‘ole and dissolved in hydrochloric acid ; sulphuretted hydrogen passed through the solution on no precipitate, proving: the aban of tin. Having determines that the only: sibetintes present were Kailien: and titanic acids, with iron, magnesia, alumina, water and traces of lime, I proceeded to determine their proportions. - Quantitative Analysis.—1. A. One gramme of the quthiieal presiously dried at 250° Fahr. and cooled in a dessiccater, was mixed with sulphuric acid in a platinum.crucible ; heat was ap- plied and the digestion continued for half an hour; the whole was then allowed to cool, when water being added, a white residue - remained. The fluid was carefully decanted off, and more sul- phuric acid added, it was then heated till the acid began. to be volatilized, cooled and the soluble parts removed by water ; this process was repeated five times; the ee which was ssilicie = weighed = -185. grammes. ' _B. The solution was mixed with tartare seid: end a ndbonia in Oe a a excess ; the iron by sulphuret of ammonium, ° and wher: converted into peroxide, it weighed -130 grammes. 2. A. Five decigrammes of the dried mineral treated as above, gave ‘(095 grammes ; which when treated with carbonate of soda, left a little titanic acid. _B. The solution was piocip stated by ammonia veil the precip- itate redissolved in the smallest quantity of dilute sulphuric acid, the solution being largely diluted with water and. boiled for some time, adding water occasionally to supply the loss by evaporation. It is difficult to precipitate titanic acid by ebullition when the solution contains a large excess of sulphuric acid, but if the quantity*of the solvent acid is small, the titanic acid is spain thrown down. - _ After four hours of ebullition, the solution was filtered and the htanie acid washed with a dilute solution of sulphate of ammo- a ane “ignited ; the crust which obstinately adhered to the glass, } removed by a few drops of sulphuric acid, with the aid of Mr. T. S. Flint on a new Titaniferous Mineral. 38 heat, and then thrown down: by ammonia. The whole amount of titanic acid after ignition == -132 grammes. »C. The filtrate was then evaporated to a small bulk, ( Erie which operation no more titanic acid fell,) transferred to a plati- num capsule, and digested for some hours with an excess of pure -'The mixture was then filtered, and the filtrate being neutralized by hydrochloric acid, carbonate of ammonia was add- ed to precipitate the alumina, which, when ignited, weighed -0692 ae _D. The residue of iron from thé potassa solution, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid and precipitated by ammonia ; after ignition it weighed -074 grammes. , The excess of eight over that of _ the iron previously obtained, (= ‘018 grammes, ) was owing to a little titamic acid not precipitated by boiling, and must consequent- iy be added to the weight of the acid obtained. __E.. The ammonical filtrate from B was treated with oxalate of ammonia, ‘a precipitate of oxalate of lime fell, which was con- verted into sulphate, and was equal to ‘013 grammes of pure lime. » EF. The filtrate from E, was concentrated and mixed. with phosphate of soda and ammonia, after twelve hours the granular precipitate was collected, washed with water containing a little ammonia, dried and amuse it ngted 303 > = ‘111 gram- mes of - G. The water was deeeneiiad: by heating to whiteness, in a covered crucible, three decigrammes of the carefully dried pow- der of the mineral. The loss was ee to eines ge cent. He — thus obtain — 100 cp nites : _ Silicic acid; ©. strain dink 19-5 oe piDieaniéaisid Sib rlogty tyes elo “ae BEB - - Protoxide of oni naneiepeeds ail fee bottogd Map tiesiay oi iid +. ena Soy enh ae ina; eile by fh soeagee do a POS eres Lime, ty pines gat gt RAS *s 13° 03 WN abeeyiereh op oseamheieen hobyyne eee’ ABO ee 101-98 Re 5 ng ina vad prednes0 a agai probable that the ttaniferons irons contain a titanic oxide (‘Ti,O 2 analogous to the * Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., tome xv, ae = p. 290. Srcoxp Series, Vol. I, No. 4.—July, 1846. 34 Mr. T. S. Hunt on a new Titaniferous Mineral. sesqui-oxide of tin, and isomorphous with the peroxide of iron; and the same view is advocated by von Kobell.* This oxide is the blue compound which is formed when we digest a solution of titanic in hydrochloric acid with metallic copper ; it forms a blue solution from which the oxide is precipitated by ammonia or carbonate of lime as a bluish black substance, which rapidly ab- sorbs oxygen and becomes titanic acid. It is however difficult to prove the existence of this oxide in titanic iron by actual experiment, as it is found that if we boil the blue solution of the sesqui-oxide or rather the sesqui-chlo- ride, with per-chloride of iron, the iron becomes reduced to the state of proto-chloride, while the titanic oxide is converted into titanic acid. A similar reaction may be supposed to take place in the solution of the mineral, and hence we obtain as the result, titanic acid and protoxide of iron. This theory of the composition of titaniferous iron, is the only one which satisfactorily explains: its isomorphism with specular iron. Mosander ing tion of this fact, that a titanate of iron (Ti: i>, Fe O) piisted in these minerals, which was isomorphous with ptatirliies of iron, but we‘know of no instance of isomorphism between two bodies, one a salt and the other a simple oxide. If however we admit the existence of this titanic oxide, it can from its PR Sa: Sieanean with any proportion of peroxide of iron. : I would suggest that the titanium in ‘thie hin, exists in the form of titanic oxide, and the following reaction seems to favor this view. In an attempted analysis, a portion of the powdered mineral was mixed with sulphuric acid in asmall flask, and digested for some time at a gentle heat; the mixture formed a solid crust on the upper part, but on the under surface next to the glass, a beau- tiful ultramarine blue tint appeared, which however disappeared on the addition of water. It was I think due to the presence of oxide of titanium, and did not the scarcity of the mineral forbid, I would make more extended experiments, to determine with cer- tainty the nature of this curious reaction. Admitting that this is the state of the titanium in this mineral, and that the iron consequently is a peroxide, we have for its =— | + Annal, de Chim. we Pye ome, No 1845, p. 321. Mr. T. 8. Hunt on a new Titaniferous Mineral. 35 Silicic acid, —. : ; at rd 18°5 Peroxide of iron, ‘ , , ; 13-0. _ » Titanic oxide, 25°156 Alumina, 13°84 Magnesia, 22.2 Lime, : F ‘ : ‘ : 13 nti : ‘ E ‘ : ‘ 7°35 101-346 Which ceabetions carTeADOnG closely to Silicic acid, Peroxide of iron, . i ide of titanium, : it =16 2 Alumina, . ‘ hie. Dees or Magnesia, . os #54 3 ime, é ‘ : sg. Watery. cv) oo 1G 046 16 \. In determining the chemical formula for this mineral, it is probable that we must regard the oxides of iron, aluminum and titanium, united, (as isomorphous bodies are known to be,) in quantities which are not necessarily in the ratio of their equivalents. t will be seen that the numbers 3, 7, and 6 do not accurately ex- press the equivalents of their respective substances, but the ex- _ ess In one is precisely made up by the deficiency of another, so that the sum of their equivalents is just 16; or dividing all the numbers obtained by 8, it equals two equivalents. The formula derived. from this is, (Fe Ti Al)+Mg, Si+2H.. The small quantity of lime doubtless replaces a portion of the magnesia. The following result was obtained by calculating the quantity of two equivalents of the oxides mixed in the proportion in which sedis really occur. : Caleulated. Found. _ Siliciec acid, . 18-000 18.500 Oxide of titanium, ) ia ) e of i iron, _ 51810 51-996 na Nags 93415 «22-200 ~ Lime, BGO 1-300 cay Water, 6-813 7.350 101-138 101-346 36 ~ Observations by T. A. Conrad This mineral is interesting as differing very much from every titaniferous mineral hitherto analyzed, in containing water. This fact connected with the presence of a silicate of magnesia, sug- gests the idea that it is an altered mineral, which finds addi- tional support from its locality and associated minerals. The magnesian limestone in which it occurs, often contains crystals having the forms of spinelle and pyroxene, but converted into a soft hydrous mineral resembling steatite,a change which has evi- dently resulted from the introduction of a silicate of magnesia with water. If the mineral under consideration was originally a compound of oxides of titanium and iron with perhaps alu- mina, we should expect the form of the crystal to be a rhomboid like that of specular iron or ilmenite. Our present knowledge of the laws of ll Bian appears inadequate to the decis- ion of this question. - Yale College Laboratory Febennies 1846, - Prats Arr. V. — Observations on 1 the Soaaey of a part of Hat Florida, with a Catalogue tf Recent Shells of the Coast ; bigs T. A. 3 _ Conran. ~Havine ere some rile to the Tertiary Vetoes ‘of the Atlantic coast, I have endeavored to ascertain their relation to European formations. With regard to the Eocene of particular localities, no difficulty was experienced, because all the species of shells were extinct, and yet no Cretaceous forms or characteristic genera, such as Baculites, Hamites, &c., occurred in those places. ‘This fact alone was sufficient to indicate the Eocene origin of the strata in question, but when such shells as Cardita planicosta, Corbis lamellosa, Ostrea bellovacina, and others equally character- istic of the European Eocene, were found in company with many species having a close affinity with shells of the Paris basin, the evidence was perfectly conclusive. The upper series of Tertiary strata, [have ever regarded as equivalent in stratagraphical pa to that portion of the English crag which contains Voluta berti and Isocardia rustica, and whilst that formation was steel to the Older Pliocene, the term was used to distinguish the Amer- ican equivalent. The error was one of terms-alone, and has long nich args ce 5 aaa ee he Lig on the Geology of East Florida. 37 since been corrected. . I have explored the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and employed the lead to procure the small species living in deep water, to compare the existing fauna with that of the Miocene period, and the result is that of three hundred and forty seven species, about forty seven are yet living, making) about fourteen per cent. of recent species of shells; this accords with European Miocene strata sufficiently near in the per-centage of existing testacea, so far as such evidence is available, to establish a synchronous origin. This conclusion is confirmed by the close resemblance of the two groups of fossils, though the species are generally distinct. A considerable number of identical forms willno doubt be discovered when our collections shall be more complete. I have a small Corbula from Dax, which cannot be distinguished from C. inequale, Say, ip the Virginia Miocene, and even this evidence of cont eposition, slight as it may seem, has force and interest ‘for any one who carefully. compares the fochils of remote formations. With these introductory remarks, I proceed to give slight sketch of an expedition to Florida in the winter of 1842, made in reference to new observations on Tertiary formations. A sur- _Yeying expedition under Capt. Powel having been ordered by the Secretary of the Navy, Mr. Upsher, I was kindly permitted to join the steamer Poinsett, destined: for the survey of Tampa bay. It was through the interest of members of the National Institute that I went on behalf of the Society, in order to furnish its cab- inet with specimens of the rocks, fossils, and recent shells of Florida. As I have not yet had access to the specimens I sent the Institution, my slight sketch of ‘Tampa bay and the Florida Keys is more imperfect than it would otherwise be... Supplemen- tary observations will, however, in future be published, with a list of such fossils as I found on the Keys. In-an expedition of this kind, too little time is afforded to. study any one locality thoroughly, but the many points at which we landed, afforded a 800d opportunity, seldom enjoyed, of observing the geographical distribution of the more common: species of shells inhabiting the northern coast of the Gulf. During a stay of three months upon the Florida coast, those ‘speciesonly were obtained which can be identified with, supposed. extinct forms of the Miocene period. The erent therefore of the recent shells of that era is 38 Observations by T. A. Conrad searcely modified by these new researches, and it is not cae that it will be by future explorers. The first point at which I commenced my observations, was at Savannah, the site of which, was once an arm of the sea or bay, flowing over the land which now constitutes the extensive — rice plantations bordering the river. This submergence was in the Post-pliocene period and the evidence is derived from shells, of recent species, some of which have been thrown out of the sandy bed of the canal near its junction with the river. These consist of estuary shells, common in all the brackish waters of the southern states, and which are indicated in the fallonging list : Litiorina irrorata, Say; Solecurtus caribeus, Lam: ; Cyrena carolinensis, Bosc; and Ostrea virginiana, Gmel. ‘A bed: of the latter with the Cyrena intermixed occurs a few feet above the — level of high tide,. The water at Savannah is fresh and none of the foregoing species live therein. Several species of Unios oc- cur in the river and canal; the most common are U. Blandin- gianus, Lea, which is probably a variety of U. carolinensis, Bose j U. subinflatus, Con. ; and U. Shepherdianus, Lea. In ascending St. Fobne river, Florida, we passed a bluff on the right bank, about twenty feet high, in which appeared, a thin, very much undulated bed of abelliy which proved to be astratum of Ostrea virginiana, as I t hasty visit to the spot. It was at an elevation of ten or fifteen feet above high tide. .'This Post-pliocene deposit, taken in connexion with those of similar age on Tampa Bay, prove a considerable eleva- tion of the whole Florida peninsula in the Post-pliocene period, a movement which clearly has raised all the Florida Keys above The steamer having been beached to repair damages re- ceived on St. Johns bar, I had ample time to collect the shells near the village of Hasard a short distance above the sea. There is here a gently sloping sandy beach not rich in shells, which are few in number both of specimen and species. 'The most -abun- dant shell is Mactra lateralis, Say, which inhabits the whole coast from this point to Massachusetts, and is also common on the Keys at Tampa bay: It is also very numerous in the Post-plio- cene of Maryland and North Carolina, and occurs more rarely in the Miocene of Virginia. The age near the veieeeetee St. Johns river are pontine ee on the Geology of East Florida. 39 Bivalves. Cardium magnum. Ostrea virginiana. Lucina diyaricata. Pinna ————.* Petricola dactylus. Mytilus edulis. itus Say. Univalves.. Tellina lateralis, Say. Ranella caudata, Say, Amphidesma equalis, Say. Crytostoma perspectiva, Say. Mactra lateralis, Say. Crepidula plana, Say. ' Solecurtus caribeus. Littorina irrorata, Say. Arca pexata, Say. Oliva litterata. A. incongrua, Say. Fulgur carica A. ponderosa, Say. F. canaliculata. Donax variabilis, Say. Natica duplicata ? All of these, except Fulgur carica and Solecurtus caribeus, 1 found subsequently at Tampa bay. About half a mile from the river, I observed sand hillocks cov- ered with bleached oyster shells, among which I found some spe- cimens of Arca perata, and a water worm Gnathodon. truncatus. This is a marine Post-pliocene deposit, which corresponds with the estuary bed of Ostrea virginiana alluded to as occuring in the bank of St. Johns river. The living Gnathodon I was unable to find here, and I am persuaded does not exist in this part of Florida. ; One of our officers landing at Fort Lauderdate, found a speci- men of Tellina radiata. 1 presume this is about the northern limits of this beautiful but common bivalve. _. Having landed at Key Biscayne to take in water, I had. time for ashort walk, during which I observed myriads of the Polygyra Plicata, Say, in most places near the beach. seirc On Indian Key I was first made acquainted with the geological Structure of this chain of small islands, which border the eastern and southern coast of the Florida peninsula. This island con- tains only eleven acres, and is composed of a Post-pliocene lime- Stone, which in places seems little more than a cement for myriads of shells of such species as live in the waters of this latitude, and which are generally identical with those of Cuba. The rock on many parts of the shore is hard and full of large cavities, which are lined with four species of Nerita,t and myriads of Lit- torina muricata traverse the bare rocks far above the limit of Oe ee ee ee : * A spinous species common in Tampa bay. : t W. peloronta, N. tessellata, N. versicolor, and N. pica. AO Observations by T. A. Conrad tide water. Within a short distance is a much larger island and more elevated, with a dense forest except a narrow strip of cleared land which extends quite across the key, (here about half a mile in width,) planted with orange, lime, and other fruit trees. I found here the Succinea avara, Say; Polygyra plicata, P. sep- temvolva, and Achatina fasciata. Along the shore I observed Spirula Peronit, Janthina fragilis, Carditomera floridana, &c. — Among the fossils, I found Lucina tigrina, Strombus pugillus, &c., and as I have not the specimens at present to refer to, I am éotntpelled to defer my list of the Post-pliocene shells we the eys. ' "These Keys are numerous, all having a similar origin and differ only in size and shape. They are situated in some of the most beautiful sheets of water that adorn the shores of any continent. Around Indian Key the different colors of the shoals were depiet- ed on the surface of the unruffled water, and the tints heightened by the rays of the declining sun, were inconceivably beautiful. This halcyon sea is bordered by a long line of coral reef, and is navigable for small vessels; but in places the intricate chaititiel demands a skillful pilot. The Poinsett by some accident got out of her course and grounded on acoral bank. We had been some time running in water so shoal that the bottom was distinctly visible, and when we struck I observed variously colored Gorgo- nias and white Madrepores which strongly reminded me of a flower garden, beneath the clear water of this shallow sea. The weather was beautiful, and the novelty of the scene united to its extreme lovliness made an indelible impression on my mind. I have no doubt the islands all rest on coral reefs, and their élevation above the sea is due to the movement which has raised the Post-pliocene of the peninsula. Key West, one of the largest of the group, is a well known spot. Cocoa nut trees grow in the streets of the village, back of which seems to be an interminable forest. A variety of sponges line the beach, and many of the shells of Cuba occur here. of the town in the shallow cavities of the rock, I found Fascie- laria tulipa, Nerita peloronta, and abundance uf Fusus corona, Lam., some in the water and others in the moist limy earth, whieh i m Places covers the fro West of the town is a sand- | appearing, and upon. this several forms of cup \e ‘sponges are very abundant. > Se aes Rag” Seis Oe See ae , eee eres on the Geology of Hast Florida. AY Strombus gigas is common ae but it is not found so far north as Tampa bay. ' Leaving Key West we soon arrived at Tampa ay on the west- ern side of the peninsula, and here the surveying duties of the _ expedition commenced. We visited frequently many of the Keys which stretched across the mouth of Tampa bay, and several points on both sides of the bay, and in every locality I collected all the _ Species of shells Icould find, in order to study their geographical dis- tribution. The shellsare not g lly very abundant on the island beaches, but on Mullet Key, whose eastern shore faces the bay, there is an immense accumulation of bivalves, about four feet in depth, the decaying animals of which render the atmosphere quite offensive. The most abundant shell is Ninus cancellata, Lam., which has generally both valves united, and the whole de- posit: is remarkably like that of a pliocene formation. Near this shore is the principal entrance to Tampa bay. On the north- ern beach of this island, I found Chama arcinella and Strombus pugillus far more numerous than any where else. While on Mullet Key we find so many bivalves entire, on Palm Key, a long island the most southern of the group, there is a very wide beach seaward upon which are comparatively very few shells and in bad condition. On the bay side the shells are more numerous, water-worn, and with separated valves. The most abundant shell i 1s a Species of Mactra like the M. solidissima but smaller. Key has a similar group of shells. On North Passage =e numbers of a testaceous fragments a _ On Egmont. Key I found a ease specimen of Natiea canrena. Pecten dislocatus is very abundant here. Nearly all the bivalves are disunited at the hinge and water-worn; the surf rolls in a quick succession of waves, which s soon — —_ shells as many be cast ashore alive. - _ The shores of Tampa bay sie a range of jovi land, dhanety wooded with pitch pine and the usual undergrowth of palmettos, ‘Yarely a live oak or other tree of great size. Frequent clumps of mangroves are seen, with their dark green foliage and rugged irregular trunks and roots, the front rank standing in the water, Senerally dead and picturesque in appearance. High-water mark 18 defined by a line of pele: and other marine substances. Under this ll shells of vari- SEconp Snizs, Vol. I, No. 4.--uly, 1846. 6 * 42 Observations by T. A. Conrad ous genera may be collected. We observe here several of the com- mon bivalves which live as far north as Massachusetts. Beds of Modiola demissa are planted about the Mangrove roots ; Cardium Mortoni is profusely scattered over the flat muddy shore ; Osteo- desma hyalina is not uncommon; Pecten concentricus, ‘Mhomid ephippium, Balanus ovularis staid some other northern shells abound here ; but the greater proportion of species are limited to ais south coasts of the Union. Along the water’s margin at _ low tide, the beautiful little Marginella conoidalis crawls slowly upon the surface of the mud. It is accompanied by a far more abundant univalve, Nassa vilrx of Say, which appears in constant motion, like its neighbor. Upon the flat muddy shore, which has a great breadth when the tide is out, live great numbers of that beautiful coronated univalve, named Murex corona by Lin- nus, which also seems yery partial to oyster beds, and preys upon the animal of Ostrea virginiana. I found here a rare variety of the shell with a double row of spines. The character of this species seemed to me such as would place it in the genus Melon- gena of Sowerby ; most certainly it is not generically the same with Fusus, Pyrula, or Murex to all 6f which it has been referred by authors. The most noticeable shells on these flats, are the gigantic Fasciolaria trapezium, Fulgur perversus, and F. On the bars, nearly exposed at low tide, are beds of spinous Pinnls and a gigantic species of Venus,* (V. Morténi ,) the shell of which weighs four pounds. Many specimens of Limulus polyphemus are scattered along shore. ‘This crustacean has a wide range, a8 it inhabits nearly the whole Atlantic coast of the Union. On the grass, bushes and mangrove trees, as high as one can reach, great numbers of the elegant Littorina angulifera live and feed upon the leaves. Many of the shells of the bay shores seem to be confined to the bay, as I never observed them on the sea beaches of the Keys, and yet some of these species inhabit Long Island Sound and the waters about Newport and Boston. It would be ‘interesting could we discover which locality was first colonized 2 — ences, but we know not any clue to information - i ra stdlescondta Tampa bay is sandy and barren, filled swith th oti hk roots uae — and not worth the a i me it ‘ae f Fl id on the Geology of Fast Florida. 43 of clearing for cultivation. Rocks are visible in only a few places, the principal of which is Ballast Point near Fort Brooke, at the head of the bay. This point has been much resorted to for pro- curing chalcedony of unusual beauty, formerly very abundant, but fine specimens are now rare. It coats masses of coral, a spe- cies of Astrea; which are derived from a Tertiary limestone, rising on the shore a few feet above high tide, and containing many. casts of bivalve shells and much silicified coral, which when broken exhibits a cavernous interior lined with chaleedony and sometimes with quartz crystals. Masses of chert are also very abundant in this rock; it contains casts and shells of bi- valves and univalves, differing from any I have observed in other rocks. They appear to be extinct species, and are, I believe, re- ferrible to the Eocene period; most probably to an upper division of that formation. I traced this rock to the Falls of Hillsborough river, nine miles above Tampa. It is here very full of casts and impressions of shells of species unknown to me... It forms the basis in this vicinity of the pine and hammock lands, and from the large admixture of fragments of the rock* with the soil, and the many masses of silicified coral scattered over the ground, it 18 evident that the surface is nothing more than the disintegrated rock with just enough vegetable matter to nourish the trees and plants which grow thereon. In this spot, where there is so much lime in the soil, the pines are very lofty. There seems to the eye very little difference between the hammock and pine soils, both being light, sandy and unproductive. The poverty of the best fields I observed here is scarcely redeemed by the salubrity of the climate. On the Manatee river which enters Tampa bay on the southeast near its junction with the Gulf of Mexico, there 1s a range of hammock land about fifteen miles long. The set- tlers here have a good opinion of the soil and propose to cultivate Sugar and tobacco. 'These hammocks depend upon the presence of the Florida limestone, which is certain to be the basis of the Shores of bays and rivers where the Post-pliocene formation of shells affords the lime which seems necessary to the growth of that tree in this region of barren soils. Of this formation there are two bluffs on the bay near Sarasota Point, as it is termed, +85 ' Found here an extinct species of Bulimus; B. floridanus, Con. AA Observations by T. A. Conrad which is a low sandy and narrow peninsula, forming the southern cape at the entrance of Manatee river. The bluffs alluded to present two short sections about fifteen or twenty feet high, and consist chiefly of beds of shells, some of which are water-worn and broken, and many retain much of their original color and markings. 'The shells lie in groups of species, in a kind of in- distinct stratification. Many of them are water-worn, others broken, and the bivalves occur in separated valves. Bones of the Manatus are occasionally found. in the bluff, and the living ani- mal is not uncommon in she Manatee river. The shells of this deposit are as follows :— hie get . Bivalves. Fasciolaria .distans. Modiola demissa. ; Natica duplicata. r _ Cytherea gigantea, Murex ——, Lam. A recent 7 Pecten concentricus. _ |... cies occuring on Mullet Key, Cardium isocardia. . $Strombus pugillus Ostrea virginiana. ee eee -Melongena corona. - (Pasus, ram) - Fulgur pyrum. Fasciolaria PPE yh ke hots viheestedia ae * Palas, F. tulipa. ee The most abundant of shina are te Pectin into a vessel of glass, of the figure represented in the engraving, and pre- ff viously filled with pump- {| ance the gases evolved by: the: Toots, if any, / would rise into the up- (S$ could be added to compensate for evaporation by the leaves, and the atmosphere be completely shut out. The plants of Da- tura Were nine inches high, the grass plants about five inches. three sets of plants were used, two specimens of each being Placed in darkness, A; in diffused light with the glass uncovered, 7; and thirdly with the leaves exposed to light but the glass vessel covered, the roots being in darkness, C. = tae ; 20. On the evening of the 25th, the two plants of Datura, B, Were placed in the study window so as to receive the morning light ; at 11 o'clock the next morning there was sufficient gas in both vessels for analysis, ($ 13,) the composition of both was - iMentical—nitrogen 96-9, oxygen 3-4, no carbonic acid. A test experiment with air gave 20-9 oxygen per cent. These two Plants being uninjured and exceedingly vigorous were returned to the receiver, supplied with fresh water, and placed in a dark cup- board at 10 », w. of the 26th, where they remained for thirty-six outs without evolving a bubble of gas. At 10 a.m. of the they were again exposed to light, and yielded at 2 r. m. suf- Bigs kta to i aoe a 5G Dr. D. P. Gardner onthe, ficient gas each for three analyses, the mean of which gave, nix trogen 96:2, oxygen 3-8, without carbonic acid. aA: * air at the same time yielded 20°8 per cent. oxygen. e _ The grass. plants B yield gas, but usually in such small. asin ties as to be unserviceable, but two examinations obtained gave, nitrogen 96-0, oxyn 4:0, without.carbonic acid. P 21. The two Datura plants C, with only their leaves Thales ated, were exposed at the window on the evening of the 26th, — and furnished sufficient gas at 11 o’clock the next morning for six analyses; the gas in both was similar, cneek an “ a nitrogen 96'5, oxygen 3-5 per cent., without carbonic acid. Ss » RR Neither the grasses not Datuiras furnished any gas in cont “ plete darkness, although the experiments were continued until the specimens were decomposed. We see however that an ex- posure to darkness for thirty-six as ane not arrest the nea action of Datura in section 20. — ye ~ 23. Deductions.—The foregoing’ sa eel pean that: the as icles roots of plants, so far as these specimens are concerned, i | appear to evolve’ gas, but in different amounts, and that the gas consists of nearly pure nitrogen and is very abiform é in compo> sition under the same circumstances... The exposure of roots to light or darkness does not seem to influence the result, but the ae action of. light | on the leaves is essential to the production of gas. ne 24. The gas collected in the reservoir was in some Piwwaco dee rived from the sides of the glass and did not appear to be emitted _ from the root, but was collected in minute bubbles over its fibres. The evolution did not however depend upon the mechanical ac- - tion of light or heat, for the water in the darkened vessels and _ some placed for comparison without any plant did not furnish any. — The composition of the gas is also opposed to this supposition, — for by Prof. Morren’s researches, (Ann. de Chim, &c., Sept. 1844, ) it is shown that the sun’s light liberates carbonic acid and — nitrogen, accumulating oxygen in the water, a reoult very differ- ent from what occurred in these cases. : ] . The gas contained in pump-water and separated by- boiling, i was nitrogen 48-0, oxygen 22-0, carbonic acid 30-0. per cent. The root acting on this mixture disturbed its composition by ab- sorbing the carbonic acid and most of the oxygen present, i canine water Sobendon the nittopen for whit it Bae bat | feeble af ‘Therefore w | | ——— \ a Physical Structure of Planis. 57 body instead of carrying it into the sap of the plant; the gas thus liberated being nearly insoluble in the remaining fluid, rose through it into the upper part of the receiver. It is even prob- able that the roots gave off no gas whatever from the sap. 25. The experiments show that plants do not merely absorb the gases dissolved in water, as is usually imagined, but~ that their action is regulated by internal functions, for during night or darkness, the water, with its gaseous contents undisturbed, is ab- sorbed, but during the active condition of vegetation a selection is made of carbonic acid chiefly, and that oxygen is also ab- sorbed, whereas in all probability every molecule of nitrogen is rejected. IV. The absorption of Gases by Plants is a result of their porosity. 26. We are now in possession of sufficient data to state the case, A porous system lies between two media and contains a certain internal atmosphere; the gaseous composition of these three are as follows :— ; The air. The plant gas. The water gas. Carbonic acid, - 0:05 0-00 30-0 Oxygen, » 20-80 13-25 22-0 Nitrogen, 79°15 86°75 48-0 100: 100- 100- If the mixture designated the plant gas, were confined within an extremely delicate caoutchouc bag and surrounded by either water gas or atmospheric air, it would soon be disturbed by penetration, nitrogen would be slowly eliminated and carbonic acid and oxygen absorbed. The rapidity of the movement would depend on the gas and also the character of the membrane. So much for the physical consequences ; we now proceed to examine what really takes place in the case of plants. igRoD 27. The action of the roots on the water gas existing in the soil, and represented by that in pump-water, is given at length in the last division of the memoir; as there are no experiments on the subject accessible to me I must advance my own in confirm- ation of the correctness of the physical theory. In M. Boussin- gault’s Economie Rurale, it is stated that M. Piobert found that Toots absorbed nitrogen, but as I have not seen any evidence of | this I canno: admit it in opposition to my experiments. Stconp Series, Vol. II, No. 4:—July, 1846. ick ceakaas 58 Dr. D. P. Gardner on the 28. But that there might be no doubt on the action of a porous vegetable tissue, such as envelops every part of plants, when containing an atmosphere similar to that called the plant gas, an surrounded by a mixture resembling the water gas, the experi- ments detailed in section 7 were contrived. The results in these eases were directly coincident with theory. If it be admitted that the epidermis employed resembles the tissue of the roots, the consequences must also be admitted. ‘That the tissues are analogous and would act in the same way may be inferred from the observations of M. Payen, who maintains that the enveloping cellular tissue of all parts of plants (ced/ulose) has a definite com- position; and if the chemical nature be the same, the affinity for different gases and fluids will be identical. There is but one other disturbing cause, which we cannot enter upon in this place, —the affinity of the gases and fluids stored within cellules and closed vessels. Now the bounding membrane of a cell may ex- ert an attractive force towards a given gas or fluid, which, not- withstanding, never penetrates to the interior because of the an- tagonism of the included substance, which does not combine with it, and therefore the passage is arrested at the internal limit of the ‘membrane. Whatever effect may arise from this or any other cause in the complex processes of the higher vegetation are not before us now ; the absorption and evolution of certain gases by plants is the resultant of all the internal actions, and with these only are we concerned. 29. If we consider the action of leaves on ccidiieaens air, the : theory of physical penetration is more certainly established. In this case we find oxygen and carbonic acid absorbed and nitro- gen liberated in the same way as ‘in the experiments in section 7, where the plant gas, nitrogen 87-0, oxygen 13-0 per cent., was brought in contact by a piece of epidermis with a mixture of common air and ten per cent. carbonic acid. With living plants the experiment has been made by the most skillful observers, 2S , Davy, Daubeny, and others. In Saussure’s researches nitrogen was always evolved, whilst carbonic acid and’ oxygen were absorbed. It is not indeed admitted by all vegetable phys jologists that oxygen is uniformly absorbed and nitrogen thrown out during the growth of the green parts, but upon examining ine facts will be found abundantly con- aR a # ® Physical Structure of Plants. 59 Palmer, Daubeny, and Draper, also sustain this position. The uniform absorption of a portion of oxygen by the plant, is proved by the researches of Gough, Achard, Scheele, Cruickshank, Saus- sure and others. Gough. showed that an atmosphere without oxygen was incapable of producing the green color of leaves by changing the yellow color of such as were raised in darkness, (Manch. Mem., iv, p. 501.) -'This singular fact is now explained by the doce of the nature of chlorophyl, which M. renen shows to be an oxydized product. 30. The absorptions taking place under the influence of light owe, their continuance during the growth of the plant to its ac- The gas entering, is destined to equilibrate the internal ieee and give it a composition analogous to common air, but this it is incapable of accomplishing because of the decom- posing action of light. Hence a constant current of carbonic acid sets into the plant, the oxygen of which is partly employed in producing chemical results, and a deficiency of both carbonic acid and oxygen is consequently presented by the plant atmos- phere, these two bodies being withdrawn by the organic changes faster than they penetrate. ‘31. It is only so long as the carbonic acid and oxygen are ap- propriated by chemical forces that the internal plant gas differs materially from common air. As soon as decomposition by the Sun’s light is arrested, the absorption of carbonic acid from the at- mosphere ceases, and that portion which rises along the roots, is, according to Ingenhousz, in part thrown into the air. Oxygen is still absorbed for the production of special compounds. After a time, supposing the chemical affinities satisfied, the plant atmos- phere has obtained af equilibrium with the air, and all move- Ments cease. In Messrs. Calvert and Ferrand’s experiments, the increase of carbonic acid during night in the plant gas is a con- Stant feature, the oxygen also became equal to, the proportion in air. Under these circumstances if the fluid absorbed from the earth be rich in carbonic acid, a portion will be evolved as soon as it has been conveyed by the sap into the plant atmosphere in excess. This condition may not be satisfied in one case, and no carbonic acid liberated, as found by Mr. Pepys, whilst in ssnsthier, from the nature of the soil, the gas may be abundantly thrown Sut, as proved by Saussure, Ingenhousz, and others. 32. W Dacrdianiedie’ justified in regarding a plant as a porous system, the normal or internal’ atmosphere of which has a com- 60 Dr. D. P. Gardner on the e position resulting from the continued absorption of oxygen and carbonic acid during daylight. The deficiency thus caused as the first effect of the sun’s rays, brings into operation the laws of diffusion. From the common atmosphere, carbonic acid and ox- ygen enter through the epidermis of the leaves, whilst the spon- gioles give passage only to such a gaseous mixture as is required by the sap. The gases thus finding entrance to equilibrate a deficiency, are in their turn decomposed or appropriated, at first by a decomposition of carbonic acid an excess of oxygen is pro- duced, but a portion being evolved, the per-centage within is gradually. diminished until it becomes less than that of the at- mosphere. The same changes continuing during daylight, a stream of carbonic acid sets into the plant, whilst portions of its oxygen with nitrogen are liberated; oxygen with carbon being continually fixed by the plant. It is the unsatisfied equilibrium of the internal gases which ae and. maintains the current. V. The effects of Artificial Atmospheres upon Plants. 33. But to show more distinctly the mere physical porosity of vegetable tissues, we may examine the interesting observations of M. Marcet, which like many other similar facts remain unas- similated. This observer found (Ann. de Chim., &c., t. lviii, p. 407 ) that the same Species of fungi exposed to different atmos- pheres, as common air, pure oxygen, or pure nitrogen, gave off dissimilar gases. If we investigate these results, it will be seen that in each case the theoretical indications of a porous system ~ are satisfied. The table gives a synopsis of the action of the same living fungi on the three atmospheres; in each case 100 volumes of the gas were used, and after the plants had been im- mersed therein eight to ten hours its composition was ascertained and found— Atmospheres. . Common air. Oxygen. Nitrogen. a WXVRen, . ‘ 20 313 * Ae _ Nitrogen, . 5 77:0 24-0 96-1 Carbonic ace... 210 44-7 39 100° 100° From the a of a ees gas, it is apparent that the plant “isare se hese fungi contained a high per-centage of nitrogen and ros acid with a deficiency of oxygen, adopting this speculation enact. seam: the three atmospheres Physical Structure of Plants. 61 coincides precisely with the result. There cannot be a more complete proof of the absence of any specific antagonism or vital force than is presented in these and similar experiments; the gases expired are distinctly the same as should flow out by © exOsmosis. 34. The property of evolving nitrogen in the families of fun- goid Cryptogamia, associates them to the Vasculares, and shows that whatever points of difference may exist between these divis- ions of the vegetable kingdom in other respects, there is in this respect an uniformity of action of the greatest interest, as the chemical changes leading to the separation of nitrogen, belong to all living plants. The large absorption of oxygen in fungi is a prominent function, they do not appropriate it in the same limited way as other plants, but are even capable of decomposing water for its attainment, the hydrogen being liberated. This phenomenon has been witnessed by Humboldt, De Candolle, and M. Marcet. 35. In the researches of Th. de Saussure on germination, an interesting case of physical penetration occurs, which has pro- duced some confusion among theorists. In the Memoires de la Societé Physique, &c., de Genéve, t. vi, p. 545, it is stated that seeds germinating in common air absorb nitrogen gas; but that when the process is conducted in an atmosphere of equal volumes of nitrogen and oxygen, none is absorbed. This is precisely the result to be expected, on the hypothesis that the absorption of gases is a physical phenomenon: so long as the atmosphere with- out contains 80 per cent. nitrogen, this gas is absorbed to produce acompensation in the plant gas, but when it is reduced to 50 per cent. absorption ceases, the seeds and growing parts, containing a Sufficiency in their pores. : 6. How far confusion may arise in questions of vegetable physiology, if we overlook the physical laws of penetration, is made evident by the contradictory statements of Saussure, Ingen- housz, Plenk and De Gandolle, on the absorption and evolution of ' ases by the green parts of plants placed in artificial atmospheres. Les parties verts laissent moins de gas oxigéne dans le gas hydro- Sene que dans le gas azote; elles ne paraissent, contre |’assertion d'Ingenhousz, absorber ni l’un ni l’autre. I] parait aussi certain, malgré l’assertion d’Plenk, qu’elles n’exhalent point de gas azote, sant dans quelques cas, par les corolles—De Candolle Physiolo- Be Veg., t. i, p. 133. 62 Dr. D. P. Gardner on the 37. Some observations made by me in the summer of 1844, also serve to verify the position, that the gases exhaled by plants are not constant, but depend upon the atmosphere in which they — are plunged. Specimens of the Conferva mucosa were placed in pump-water, which is their natural medium, and others in dis- tilled water impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and exposed to sunlight. In six hours the gases produced in the receivers were entirely separated, and the arrangement left for twenty-four hours without any fresh water; the gases were again withdrawn, and thus for four and five days, no fresh water being added throughout. It is evident that the gas of the water was constantly changing — in its composition, and therefore the experiments were the same as if made in‘a number of different artificial mixtures of gases: The plants in pump-water gave in the first six hours an expired gas, consisting of oxygen 73, nitrogen 27 per cent.; im twenty- four hours, oxygen 53, nitrogen 47 per cent.; in forty-eight hours, oxygen 18-6, nitrogen 81-4 per cent. The specimens in carbonated water produced in six hours, gas consisting of oxygen _ 68, nitrogen 32 per cent.; in twenty-four hours, oxygen 63, ni- trogen 37 per cent. ; in forty-eight hours, oxygen 12, nitrogen 88 per cent. ; in pines pane hours, oxygen 3:5, nitrogen 965 per cent. These latter were in no way injured at this time, for upon adding a little fresh fluid they yielded at ninety-six hours, agas consisting of oxygen 15, nitrogen 85 per cent. The ali- — ment of these plants was not changed, for they continued healthy, the different gases expired were merely the result of physical necessity, the aériform matter of the water being continually changed. I do not assert that all the nitrogen in the foregoing measures was thrown out from the interior of the plants, because as we have already shown in section 24, the physical disturbance of the water gas will be attended with the evolution of nitrogen, — and although distilled water was used, there is no process - which all its gas can be driven out. 38. Conclusion.—From the preceding evidence I infer that plants are a simple porous system, so far as they are related to the air and the gases of fluids in the soily leaving out of consid- eration the internal phenomena of penetration. 'The advantages resulting from the adoption of this philosophical view of veget® tion, both. in assimilating facts hitherto insulated and criticising . -) t tia physiology, form its great | | | Physical Structure of Plants. 63 recommendation. For cpa we we addins two general laws which spring from this theory Ist: No hypotheses nor scxuments can be hand on the com- position of the gases expired by plants, without a rigorous regard to the influence of disturbing causes—as the amount of light, gas of the fluids of the soil, of the atmosphere, &c. 2d. No experiments on the action of plants in einige or otherwise, can be adduced for physiological argumentation, unless made in atmospheric air. Many observations have been made on plants immersed in water and artificial atmospheres, which can- not be received, because the gases employed have penetrated the interior in proportions differing from those in the case of com- mon air. The nitrogen obtained by Saussure may ina great measure have been derived from the additions of carbonic acid made by him to the atmospheres in which he experimented ; and in the observations made in water, much of the mapseets is tinguestionably derived from the fluid. - 39. Finally I would present the following summary of con- pa rage as fairly deduced from the preceding experiments. | he epidermis of plants, so far as experiments have been fei is porous and permits the passage of gases, according to the physical laws of penetration. ‘2. The roots, during the existence of chemical changes in plants, absorb such gases only from the soil fluids with which they are in contact, as will ae oe satisfy the indications of the internal atmosphere. - The internal gas ‘of plants, or plant atmosphere, is contin- ually fluctuating with the forces which operate upon it; during a State of activity in the plant, it resembles a mixture of nitrogen 86:75, oxygen 13-25 per cent., but at night appears to contain more oxygen, and from 2 to 3 per cent. of carbonic acid. 4. Its active or normal composition is that indicated by a mix- ture into which carbonic acid and oxygen are being diffused during day-light. 5. The porosity of the entire plant is fully established by its action on artificial atmospheres. . Therefore the physical structure of plants is that of a porous system, subject to all the laws of diffusion, and endowed with no vitality other than that resulting in the formation and devel- opment of Cytoblasts and their arrangement after a definite type. New York, March, 1846, 64 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. Arr. VII.—On Zoophytes ; by J. D, Dana.* Tue singular features of the erowing coral field, the resem- blance to vegetation in its productions, as well as their beauty and variety, have long excited the attention even of those little curious in the forms of living nature. _ Trees, shrubs, and other ' plants of various kinds are represented with wonderful exactness, as if they had been the types of this branch of the animal king- dom; and they grow muna s together often in rich profusion like the plants of the land. The similarity, moreover, is not confined to general form : - corals have their blossoms ; for polyps are flowers both in figure and beauty of coloring. Lika the pink or Aster, they have a star-like disk above ; and while some are minute, others are half an inch or even two inches in diameter. Every part of a Madrepore when alive is covered with these blossoms: a Gorgonia, though merely a cluster of naked stems, as seen in our cabinets, consists, when in the water, of as many crowded spikelets of flowers.—Thus it is with all zoophytes. Nothing could be more untrue than the pene dreams of a favorite poet.t . : “ Shapeless they seem’d, but en h a : Elongated like worms, they writhed aud shrunk a Fe _ Their tortuous bodies to grotesque dimensions.—’ And again, they are described as issuing from the coral, like “ capillary swarms Of reptiles horrent as Medusa’s snakes.”’ Polyps are not writhing worms. The choicest garden does not produce flowers of more graceful figure or gayer colors, than those of the zoophyte reef; and we may add too, that the birds of the groves will not rival the rich tints of the fishes that sport * In the series of articles on zoophytes, which it is proposed to prepare for this Journal, the writer presents the facts and principles that have been published in his Report on Zoophytes, one of the volumes of the late Exploring Eat se under Capt. Charles Wilkes, (see this Journal, Second Series, vol. i, p. 178.) The subject is however condensed, and the stile and arrangement alt ered to adapt it to these pages, and give it a soutonbat more popular character. It is the writer ’s endeavor to Present a sucqinot nocount of | this department, about which there is little genera n, to original observations. t Montgomery y's Pelican Island. ‘ J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 65 among the coral branches. The coral tree is without aie, but there is full compensation. in its perpetual bloom. It is not surprising that,these resemblances should have misled early investigators. For a long period only the external forms of zoophytes were known, and every analogy observed authorized their arrangement with plants.* The discovery of the flowers or seed of corals was yet to be made to prove the identity; and at last, Marsigli, an active explorer of the Mediterranean, came forward with this veritable discovery itself, and published figures of “les fleurs du corail’>—the coral blossoms.+ Other discoveries followed: but it was soon shown, that these flowers, were gifted with the attributes of animal life. This observation is said to have been first made by Ferrante Imperato, a naturalist of Naples, who published his Historia Naturale in 1599.{ It was however demonstrated independently, as is believed, and more thoroughly, by Peyssonel, who wrote an elaborate memoir on certain species examined by him in the West Indies.¢ But before a transfer of zoophytes from the vegetable to the animal kingdom was gen- erally allowed, the subject was one of warm debate among the philosophers of the day. The animals detected were suspected of being parasites, and pronounced as too inefficient for the pro- duction of trees of stone with their spreading branches; while the formation of coral was attributed to a kind of inaguilie growth by some, and to mineral aggregation or lapltlinptiens by bid oe ee authors who arranged corals with the vegetable —_— are Dios- corides, pin, Bauhin, Ray, Geoffroy, Tournefort, and Mars sah Mari, ees de la Mer, Amsterdam, 1725. His first observations were made i oT See hana s Manuel d’Actinologie, p. 1 § Peyssonel’s Memoir covers 400 pages of sailed: It was sent to the Royal pages in 1751, and an abstract of it was read, which appeared in the Transactions for 1753, (vol. x, of the Abridgment.) The Memoir, though for many years sup- posed to be lost, is still extant in the library of the museum at Paris; and a late Notice of it by M. Flourens may be found in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, ers, » iy 334, 1838. n others, should be the operations of ther iad the work of more sure vegetation, allest and largest trees with the same natural fase and influence as the minutest pla r. /Szconp Szrizs, Vol. II, No. 4.—July, 1846. 9 66 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. others.* The scientific world was divided, and Reaumur in his earlier writings condemned the new views advocated by Peys- sonel as too absurd to be discussed. The investigations of 'Trem- bley on the Hydra polyps, and of Jussieu of other species obtained on the sea-coast of France, finally convinced. Reaumur. Ellis by a laborious series of investigations, led the way in England ; and though his facts were doubted by some, they were soon received with full credit.t The figures of these authors represented actual flowers, as regards form; but these flowers were shown to have a mouth, and to be capable of eating like animals. They were actually fed, and the process of digestion watched through its different stages. Moreover they were shown to be an essential and constituent part of the zoophyte. The petal-like organs which produce the striking similarity to flowers, were observed im some instances to be used as arms in taking their prey and conveying it to the mouth; for which purpose they were con- veniently arranged in a éinels around the mouth. The coral ossoms were consequently declared to be animal in every essen- tial character. Yet Linneeus, after long hesitation, advanced no farther than to admit for zoophytes an intermediate nature be- tween plants and animals. Thus more than a century elapsed after the discussion commenced, before this one simple fact in science became generally believed, that zoophytes are animals, and resemble plants only in sometimes assuming the shapes of vegetation. The point is now no longer doubted. In these remarks we exclude sponges from the class of z00- phytes. Their nature is still a subject of dispute, and some of the most distinguished names in science are committed on oppo- site sides. If animals, they have only the most general properties of animal life, and are less nearly related to polyps than to the infusorial animalcules. They are arranged with the latter by | Dujardin. : Though zoophytes have no connection with the vegetable kingdom, polyps may be styled with much propriety flower- P. Boecone, Museo di Fisica » ot, bbc! 1694, 1 a 4to, with figures. i Employment for the Micrdscope, pp. 218—220. London, 17: t Ellis published various memoirs in the Pinal Wvtibdetione, from the years 1753 to 1776, and also a work entitled Essay towards a Natural History of Corallines, 4to, with plates; London, 1754. A posthumous work of this author ‘was afterwards published by Solander, under the title, The Nutural History of many curio ‘Zoophyes, 4to, with 63 plates, London, 1756. J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 67 animals. The word zoophyte,* originally used by Linnzus, alluded to their supposed intermediate nature. Still, the name is sufficiently appropriate, although the idea in which it originated is exploded. They are plants in form even to the coral-polyps which blossom over the surface. Yet in the mode of receiving, digesting, and assimilating nutriment, and every other function of life, they are animal. The relation of the coral to the coral animal, and the mode of its formation, are subjects about which much error has been pub- lished ; and although now correctly explained in some scientific treatises, very erroneous impressions largely prevail. Without entering into particulars in this place, one single fact should be here stated and duly considered. It is this:—coral is not the residence or hive of polyps. On the contrary, it is contained within the polyps, instead of containing them. It is formed within them by animal secretion, as bones are formed within other animals; and in most living zoophytes it is wholly en- closed, showing not a spine or point externally. ‘This is the case with the Madrepore ; no part of the coral is seen externally while the animal is alive in the water. The idea that coral polyps retreat into cells, is therefore wholly without foundation. Some- times the summit or flower-shaped part of the polyp becomes concealed, in a manner a little similar to the withdrawal of a tur- tle's head; but even this semblance of retreat is by no means general among the ordinary coral zoophytes. here is no mechanical accumulation of material by the polyp. They are as unconscious of the coral secretions going on within them, and as free from actual labor and industry, as we are in the construction of our bones. IL a‘ The word zoophyte is fr heG k Zwo animal, and Que, te Blainville States that the term was introduced by Sextus Empiricus and Isodore de Seville in the sixth century. It has been differently restricted in its use by au- single polyp, or phytozoa to polyps in general. These cannot supply the place of the very convenient terms zoophyte and zoophytes. Moreover the term phytozoa or phytozoaires (plant-animals) has been applied to the minute monad-like cellules mae the tissues of some plants, and supposed to be animalcules or plant- en é 68 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. The existence of such terms in the science as polypary, polypi- dom, applied to coral, signifying a hive or house of polyps, indi- cates the errors of former days; errors which science should not perpetuate. Asa substitute, the old term Corallum* is conven- ient and unobjectionable. Corallium has been rejected because of its application to a particular genus of corals. In Corallwm, we have a familiar word ; and one which implies no hypothesis or erroneous comparison. 'The analogy between the work of the polyp, and that of the bee or ant, though often suggested, is wholly without foundation. The existence of coral secretions, is by no means essential to the existence of polyps. Although a large number of species form coral, there are also many that are wholly fleshy, or secrete only a few seattered granules of lime. ‘The Actinize, or sea- anemones, as they are familiarly called, are examples of these fleshy species. In every point of structure, and in every func- tion except that of coral-secreting, they are identical with coral animals. They have also the same resemblance to flowers when expanded, and their rich tints and large size make them the most brilliant flower-animals of any seas. One of the most singular characters of zoophytes, is their fre- quent compound nature. ‘The branching Madrepore is an ex- ample of this compound structure. There are hundreds of polyps united in a single individual. Each little prominence containing a cell pertained to a separate animal; and by counting these prominences over a branch of coral, the kntanboe of flower-animals combined in its production may be ascertained. In the same man- ner, in Astreeas, each radiate cell or depression over the surface marks the site of a polyp. ‘The many animals, though distinct in some functions are still mutually dependent in others, as we shall explain in the sequel. Although these compound forms are most common, yet there are other zoophytes which are always simple polyps. 'The coral * Coral has been variously designated in both ancient and modern times. The erms Corallium, Corallum and Curalium, were all used by the ancients, and their derivations and use are discussed at len gth by Theophrastus in his work on plants, Iv. Kougadiov is the ancient Greek form, as says Dionysius, “ ravtn yag vidos tot1y eubgoy apolar, ” The more recent Greeks, among whom are Dioscorides and Hes: wrote the word xopadtiov. Among the Latins, Ovid wrote, “ Sic et curalium an primum contigit auras tempore durescit.” Avienus uses Coral- jum: “Fulvotamen invenire Corallo querere vivendi commercica.”” Among the derivations suggested, that of xen, damsel, and sb ae pl aang * Reply to the criticism on Demonstration of Parallels. 69 in such cases is a single isolated cup or radiated disk, and the coral animal is a-solitary flower. ‘These simple polyp-flowers instead of being microscopic, are often of large size. While many are but one or two lines in diameter, others are one or two feet. The large Fungia with its stellate surface and sprinkling of emerald tentacles around its central mouth, is one of the most beautiful objects of the coral reef. The foregoing remarks are presented as.an introduction to a more particular account of the structure and habits of zoophytes. Ant. VII. ree ig to the criticism on Prof. Twining’s Demon- stration relating to Parallels.* To the objections to my proof of Euclid’s postulatum offered by the Editors of the Journal of Science, upon authority which is shown by the appended initials-to be highly worthy of cre- dence, I should have sooner replied but for excess of occupation. Even now I feel constrained to such brevity as may involve the hazard of a want of clearness, except for such readers as may care to refer back to the original proposrr1on.t The objector first observes “there must be some fallacy” in the ning, as cases might be pointed out “ where false conclu- sions would result from applying it with proper modifications, though without essential change.” In reply it is sufficient to remark, that, as the principle on which the proof depends, is competent, in my own view, to sustain the most rigid scrutiny, I ould not but be increduildus ae #8” th possibility of any such case—even were it shown that my particular application of the Principle to the proof in question involves a fallacy. It is the less necessary to protract discussion, at this point, inasmuch as the objector has preferred the method—the more masterly one if it can prevail—of specifying the eee respects or steps in which the reasoning fails. He intimates the existence of several—all however “ similar” to the one which alone he specifies as the type of all. A par- ticular conclusion on page 95 is pointed out as “ inadmissible,” on the ground that “it is founded plainly on the assumption, that tenets * See this Journal, yol. i, Second Series, p. 147. _t Ib. pp. 94-96. 70 Reply to the criticism on Demonstration of Parallels. in determining the angle BAD to be such as to contain all of a certain class of lines, every other line is excluded from it; in other words, that the line AD, which is the limit of a certain class of lines, must itself be comprehended in that class.” Now, as to the assertion in the first member of this sentence, the reader will perceive by referring to p. 95, that what the critic has treated as an assumption, is, in fact, explicitly a condition of the hypothe- sis. For not only the application itself, in the argument, evinces what was meant by the concise definition of the angle BAD, as being “ constituted by the condition that it can contain all the lines drawn, &c.,”’ but the terms themselves intend that “every other line is excluded,’’ as completely as if that phrase had been adopted in the wording ;—how else could the angle be said to be constituted, or what is the same, defined.* If then the line AD is one of the class of which the angle BAD is defined just to contain all and “no other,” (if that last part of the expression is important to appear in the wording, ) it is contained by the an- gle, in accordance with the hypothesis, and on the reverse suppo- sition it is, by the hypothesis, excluded. I perceive, therefore, in the step objected to, no defect even of expression. The discerning reader cannot fail, at least, to take the argument, in its real force and meaning, to be as follows :— If you constitute BAD capable of containing all those lines and those only through A, which, if produced, would meet FG on the side towards G, you cannot constitute DAC similarly condi- tioned with respect to all those which would not meet. The ground of this assertion lies in the antecedent proof that under such a supposition, AD must be contained by both BAD and DAC or by neither, and, under the hypothesis, either side of the dilemma involves the absurdity that AD meets and does not meet at the same time. I know not what attempt can be made to escape from the conclusiveness of this reasoning, unless by either deny- ing the allowable character of the hypothesis itself, or taking the ground that when a line divides an angle, the being contained either part or not contained, cannot be predicated of the line. The first, or a denial of the hypothesis, is forbidden by the per- fection of the idea of space: the latter ground, if taken, would * Thus, to refer, for oe nat merely, to an instance in common parlance— measure were said to be constituted so as to -asheeien 231 cubic inches, pg toccee be just that amount and no Reply to the criticism on Demonstration of Parallels. 71 not weaken the argument; for since the angle BAD is expressly conditioned to contain all the lines of a certain class, and only such lines, it follows that if it cannot be predicated of AD that it is contained in the angle it is not one of the class, and vice versa. Turning now to the other part of the objection, in the second member of the sentence above quoted, beginning with the phrase “in other words,” I maintain it to embody not other words merely, but other ideas. Not only the two clauses convey prop- ositions that are not identical, but the latter is not deducible from the former, neither does it seem relevant to an argument which turns not upon ideas of “ limits” or limiting lines, under a classifi- cation simply logical, but upon a certain natural or geometrical relation of a line dividing an angular space to the component parts of the space it divides. If, therefore, no more weighty objection than these or the “similar” ones adverted to can be adduced by a critic of such un- questionable discernment as the one whose authorship I perceive in his initials, it may be counted asa new symptom, added to those remarked upon in the original paper, of the genuineness of the reasoning ; and with respect to the epithet “plausible,” ap- plied by the Editors of this Journal—in a manner entirely cour- teous I acknowledge—to that reasoning, I should not hesitate to transfer it, in a manner not wncourteous I trust, to the objections urged against it. If there is a fallacy in the attempted demonstration, it is to be found, as I judge, after carefully revising the method, in the fol- lowing conclusion near the bottom of p. 95, “and, of course, HAD must contain all that can meet on neither side.” If an objector should urge that, although under the supposition of more lines than one that meet on neither side, HAD might be consti- tuted, independently, to contain them a// and no others, yet that such a constitution could not co-exist or be compatible with the antecedent constitution or definition of BAD and DAC, I ac- knowledge that the best answer I could give, at present, does not seem entirely satisfactory. ‘May 5th, 1846. 72 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. Art. [X.—Abstract of Thermometrical Records kept at the Missionary Stations of the American Board of Commission- | ers for Foreign Missions in Western Asia; collected and col- lated by Rev. Azartan Surru, M. D. THe accompanying abstract of a number of thermometrical records, has been arranged in a tabular form, to present to the reader the relative temperature of the different missionary stations of the erican Board in Western Asia. The records from which this abstract was prepared, were kept, for the most part, by persons ac- customed to such observations, and may be depended upon for ac- curacy. The posts of observation have indeed been cities, and where there has been more or less difficulty in securing a place for the thermometer free from the direct or reflected rays of the sun, but it is believed that care has effected all that could be done to avoid error from these circumstances. With the exception of three or four months in the Oormia register, the records exhibit the omis- sion of observations for scarcely a single day other than those noted in the table, and even in the Oormia record, the omissions are not such, it is hoped, as materially to detract from its value as affording a general indication of the temperature of that place. Several of the records from which this abstract was made, con- tain full statements of the aspect of the sky, morning, noon, and night; several also note the direction of the wind at these times; and a few have complete and well kept barometrical observations. , As the barometrical registers however have been already pub- lished, and as it is impossible to collate the observations on the sky and the currents of the air into a compact form, I have re- luctantly substituted for these a few brief general remarks, and in the abstract, confined myself, to the thermometrical records. As it may add to the value of the observations for 1844, I would mention in conclusion, that the registers for that year were kept according to previous arrangement, simultaneously, and wit express design to furnish a comparative view of the tempe- rature of the places in which the records were made. It is to be hoped that the publication of this abstract may call out similar = from American missionaries stationed in other parts of the wor intone ites Ss e. ' 1845 fi * Place of. ‘ech, » . January. ee : Trebizon, ZA Constantinople, (Bebek,) | 1 oe (Pera) - Beirit, » ; a st a ae a ‘Mosul, ; pe. . Fepruary Snag Ges j x E tes » | Constanti nople, (Bobek , va mann (Pera) eee te: 2PM. 1836 | #1 1837 *16:8 1838 | $17-81) — 8 HHSsssss zi & 3 S8E! seb2e8 1840 1841 ee 1844 | 47-5 | aye 11845} 40-38). 47-2 : 1843 | 56:71} 63: dy ag 1844 | 52- | — . hg *. : 1845 = 32) a, ¥ omens. agi | 1844} 44- |tt55- “Maren recor |, chamenth . hestnenl ia, 1845 | 26-4} 37> ri *41-16) 147-39 2) 48 S28 av. ey temp. cM hdl sare om at en é Andex to to signs: * a Sea, Vol. M1 No: 4.—July, 1846. m. t4p.m. {8a.m, |8r.m. §74.m. *10P. mM. tt Sunset. 10 74 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. Coldest Sess rye Vear Renae eae homie frag fo Place of record. of the’ v. for _- } record. suit fsb: er. ve Kone inontt ’ ApRiL. ; ) O ° Erzeroom, ©. <>. | 18386 | *46°5 |t5015 pea C2 aie A apuise 1837 46:83 (SPADA yb 1838 | $4723) 48-02 | ||3663) 43-96 Trebizond)... ~.. 48% _ "51576 [| ‘ 1839 | -"47-731147-9. | | te4a | 4579} 4868 | 46-66) 47 Contin 1844 | 45:7 29 | 45-27) 47-75 ‘1845 | 526 ‘43 | 55-53). 57- do. 1840 | §43: 37 |**44-07| 45°82 1841 | §48-23) 55-3 [**49-97) 51-17 Broosa, 1844 | 44. | 53 48- | 48:33 1845 | 53-04) 69-03 | 58-33) 60-25 Smyrna, 1 44 43} 62: 52-10] 52.95 Beirit 1 67:8 Aitath, . . Jerusalem, . Mosul, . 2 — Fs am re c— sea) rs beat] 0 38 184 50: | 62. |tt57 | 56°33 [14th, 33) AY. —- Erzeroom, 155-31 58:57 | 1465 | 53-12 Trebizond, *23)163:55 | hg the a" *60:12)160-46 . 14844 | 57:42} 61-61 |Constantinople, (Bebek,) ‘3 | 62:22 ee. -26| 72-84 do.. (Pera;) | 1840: | §58 03) 67-48 P 1841 65:36 |**58 Broosa, eee de 1 a= ou Smyrna, « ean Re ES bes = Beirtit, lat es eas ie, ™ Fight Aitath;. j Le. Jerusalem, ‘B44 Mosul, 82: ~ JONE, eg ra 3 tates has Su 6 | *65:°83)/165-96 37 *65- .| 4 5 67-9 aes 183 3170 2 (6th to 30th,) 76 | 70. 70:37 | 67: | 67:38 |10th, OS ada (Bebek,)| 78-43 6 (Pera,) “03 74-57 7 82:33 77-97 Mm. tar. $8 aM. Sem. §7aw. 107 uw. tt Sunset. Si plbtomeeie: Observations in Western Asia. 75 ae ty neral | Coldest {Warmest} * Place 0 vt record. ‘ of the | temp. . for |tem ee | tite (eae fo urise. e | P re “ts date. lees 15th Bist, «| 1844 | 66: 815} 7% | 7858 |15th, &i'osen, ore 1836 | "69:56 175+11 4 56) Se 1837 oe 1845 | 585 | 765 | 665 | 67-17 Trebizond, 1838 | *74-77.175-03 1843} 70° | 7% 73:33 fe 1844 | 72-8 | 79-57.| 757 | 76-02 j9th, i pisiat: Meetiso a: 1844 | 71-92 82-04 | 75-15) 76°37 |25th, ) cans stantin wer & ora) 840 | §73-03 81-23 | *74-1 | 76°12 L a 844 | 71-5 | 87-5 78:5 | 79:17 |24th, a ia 1842 >| 82:38" -} 1843 | 7895 84-74 } 81-67) 81:52 Aitath, 843] 71, ‘71 | 75-26) 75-04 B Bhandun, 20th Wiss, 3343 73-50 68 | 1843 |§72-35 84-44 | 77-34 66 94 Most, 1843. | 82-1 (100-97 |+194-43) 92:52 74) 106 ae 1844 | 86 | 106 | 95- | 95-67 |10th, Maerua ai A: biel —- |} —_——- (ints —— —_—— lOormia, 1844 | 68 | 83 73: | 74-67 110th, 57j1st, 89 [Erzeroctm,. | J *1836 | *69-12180-5 ” 62 86 as e 1837 | *65.37 | eS 1845 | 89-5 | 79:5 [{rebizond, « 1838 | *75-19 175-32 A ee 1843 | 7I- | 80: BS a ae 4844 | 70-93 77-91 | 74 “onstan. (Bebek,) 1 to 8, | 1844 71) 83: : Constantinople, (Pera,) | 1840 | §69-35, 77-87 | *71- : [Broosa,* 0. | 1844] 67- 4 ‘ 1842 1 pons) 88: 1843 84-61 | 8I- ' 1843 07 77:05, | 72.63] 71:26 66 1843 | 65-03 72-94 -26| 68:41 BOP -bcad rc 1843.| 65-64, 75-54 | 72-68) 72-29 62 [Bhar ie, tS Sener | 69-16 62 ;perusalem, 1843 | §68-25) 79-06 | 70-33, 72:55 66 Mosul, | 1843 | 81-03 98+ | [4192-9 | 90-64 7 1 x ere _SepremsBer. | homer Cae ety Bee oe ee ag eee —- sts ees 1844 | 57° | 78 | 64 | 46-33 hy _{Erzeroom, og 1836 | *55°37164:19 | sf 1837 | 60-65! | ( PPetinoa, eee 1838 | *73:17172:93 |. fig 1843 | 65, | 73- 66: | 63 1844 | 68:13. 73-83 | 69-56) 70-51 4 Coneninope, (Bebeks,) | 1844 65:28, 76-31 | 68-31] 69-93 aot: eras): | 1840 | 56543, 7287 67-3) 68-58 1844 | 63: | 79. 68-5 | 70-17 : 1843 } 60:2 | 7651 | 681 | 68-27 ‘ 18421) 22d LES | 82-67 1843 | 72-77) 8213 |174:83) 76:58 1843} 64-87] 72:93 \t169-10, 68-97 é 1843. | 59-52, 63-69 /1164-15) 6412 54 : | 4843 | 62-47, 7213 |1163-67| 67-76 58 § 1843 } 71-83 62 é 1843 | 70-28) 77-18 | 69-27) 72-24 6 § 1843 | 71-71) 87-69. \183-55) 80-98 (30th, 68118th, ¢ _ Indexto signs: *9 aw. +4a.m. t4p.m. 8e.m. §7a.m. *10P.m. tt Sunset. 76 Meteorological Observations in Western ates ‘Index to signs: *94.m. +4 P.M. {8a.m. | 8p. F is Year cr 8 oe 2 — | Coldest Warm cna” Place of record. of the mp. for temp. and Fslor’ an record. B= by Mis ime monn, its date. | its date. beiph ae Oormia, : 1844 me 85: | 56 2ist, 40)12th Erzeroom, 1835 | *51°69 157-48 43) 1836 9 158: 39 837, 48°87 | *40-96) 45-12 Trebizond, 1838 | *60:95/162-:15 | b 1843 ‘74| 69°86 | 65:42 | 66°34 to 18th,| 1844 | 60-56 67-75 | 63-11 | 63-81 |13th, Constantinople, (Babel, 1844 | 59-53) 69- 60: | 63-03 2d, do. (Pera,) | 1840 | §57-58 63:94 |**59-29) 60-27 Broosa,). .)-. . °| 1843 | 57-31) 69: 59-83) 62:15 1844 | 57-5 | 69- 61-5 | 62-67 20th, ibs . 1843 | 55:32) 70-73 | 62-15) 62°73 ’ |Beird 1842 P| 7982 | Biamun, Ist to 15th, 1843 67-33 paren lem, 1843 | §64-08) 74.04 | 67: 42 Mc 2 3 | 65:3 | 78:65 |{t74-71| 72:89 ee atc MES gee aT (pee Oe pment Oormia, . 1844 56° 42>, | 44-67 lst, 23)7th, Erzeroom, 1835 | *35-43 141-07 . ; 1087 Bs a bes 3313 36-21 1 40-17 | ||33-13, 36: Trebizond, 1838 | * 59-33. I ‘ ’ | 1843 By. "er 58:17; 58:72 | Constantinople, (Bebek,) 1844 | 55-21 21) 61-72 56°03 57-65 29th, do. (Pera) 1840 re 87-3 **54-13) 54-65 Broosa, 1844 62:5 | 57 | 57-5 29th, Smyrna, 1843 29:90 60-34 | 53-67, 54-64 Beirit 1842" z 68-56 1843 | 61-10, 67-41 62:21) 63:57 1844 | 59-77 71:70 | 63-47, 64-98 Jerosalem, - }|1843 | 56-08) 6208 58:93 1843 | 56:43, 62:5 59-4 | 59:44 a lniaan ee ed Ben ees ne ee a ee wmia; / =. ..-: 5. |,1844'| 28° |-31- ‘29+ | 29-33 (28th, rzeroom, . . .* | 1835 | *22-:07424-09— 1836 | *19° » |124-05: 1837 | $22:97| 26:04 | 1117-55} 22:22 Trebizond, 1838 | *45-77/146-67 ' | 1843 | 44-65) 49:29 | 45-67) 4654}. 1844 | *42-03 ; po ER, jConstantinople, (Bebek,)| 1844 | 39-68) 44-2 “40-19 41-36 |5th, BS... dos (Pera,) | 1839.) §43-41] 46-1.» |**43-97) 44-49 | . 1840 | §37-06} 40-48 gn 38-6 [Broosa, . 1844 |} 37-5 | 44- 40°17 \6th, |Smyrna, . 1843 | 39-03) 50-93 rr 99 43°78 Beirit, . 1842 13 y Hs 1843 | 51-26} 58-63 nied 53°93 = 1844 | 52:71) 60-87 | 54-42 56- — |Aitath, soe 9842 | 51-87 tae + + ++ 11843 | §45- | 50-08 | 47-06, 47: Mosul, . . . . | 1843 | 42-45] 49:36.| 47- | 46-27 M. 67am. 107. mM, tt Sunset. — (ee ene Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. TT Abstract of the “foregoing, showing the annual average and range o of _ temperature in the specific years—arranged in the order of the aver _ age temperatures. . (Altitude. N. Lat. titan Vans A. D.JAv. : toa ° °. ~|.$9574 4037}. 1838 4361 | -20' | St | 5000? | 3730 | 45 10 | 44 & *45 1 3.| 89 4 86 “1417 |9859| 1844 58-01 2 | 86 | 62 405 |2910| 1844 58:22 241 98 | 7} 100 | 411 | 3945 |°43& 44! 59:51 Ti alee Be Soc “50. | 39261277 |'43&°44| 61-2 2% | 8 |-59 | 2500 | 3147 | 3514 1/743 &°44| 62:80 3 | 94 | 58 19 | 4310 | 43 &°44| 67°80 30 | 114 | 84 50. | 335013523] 1843 | . 68-32 44 | 90 | 46 The former of the above tables, it is thought, sufficiently ex- phiins itself. The comparison instituted between the temperatures of the several places mentioned in the latter, should be considered only,as an approximation to accuracy, since, as will be seen by reference to the first table, some of the records from which it was prepared were incomplete; and those not so, want for perfect uni- formity as to the hours of the day, and even as to the year, when the observations were made. Still, with these, and any other im- perfections which the strictest scrutiny may detect in the mate- nals collated, it is believed that the table yet gives, what is de- ‘ signed, a correct general idea of the relative temperature of the several posts of observation. Tn regard to the meteorology of Keston Asia, one or two peice peculiarities are worthy of special notice. During a period of several weeks in the warm season, rain is rarely or hever known to fall. In Syria this period embraces the months ” 3h June, July, August, and September, with but little rain in May and October. At Mosul the dry season commences a month earlier than this, and at Erzerogm a month later, but in its termi- nation there is not observable the same disregard to simultaneous- ness. The other places from which we have records, (Oormia excepted,) although exposed to a long dry season during the , are scarcely ever, owing to their relations to large bodies of Water, entirely destitute of showers for a whole month at a time. The summer of 1845 has been remarkable for excessive drought i in Asia Minor and the neighboring part of Turkey in Europe ; so excessive, indeed, as to prove fatal to a farge propor- tion of all the crops on the ground, and to lead the Sultan to pro- hibit exportations of grain from the affected region, lest the con- ee ee naire uring the en- suing winter. 78 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. All of the places recorded in the table, are subject more or less, at all seasons of the year, to siroccos or hot and dry winds, which bring with them, as is supposed, the climate and temperature - found over the interior and extensively desert country. These winds sometimes prevail for several days together, in which case they never fail to produce an excessive languor and lassi- tude. At Mosul, the air at such times is filled with particles of sand, and however, close one may shut up his. apartment, he will be notified of the existence of the wind, by the oppres- sion of his breathing, and by the deposit of this fine sand around him, and in every crack and crevice to which the air ean find access. May it not be that the effect produced upon animal life by this wind, is in all cases to be attributed) as much to inpalpable substances which it brings into the lungs, as to its heat and the quantity of moisture which it abstracts fect the body. The peculiar color of the air during some siroccos can hardly be accounted for on any other supposition. . By care- fully comparing the registers from which the abstracts were prepared, it is found that these winds visit at the same ane all those parts of Asia Minor which are reported. As the high- est temperature of each month generally takes place during the * sirocco, if one occurs, it has been attempted to present some re] evidence of. this lt s by noting in the first table the — date of the highest. temperature of several months of 1844 and 45. March, April, May, June, July, and August, 1844, and February and. March, 1845, may be referred to as well marked cases of this kind. Those instances however which appear ex- — ceptions in the table, are not in fact exceptions to our remark, since during the sive the highest heat of the month may not | oceur: e. g. Feb. 29th, 1844, gives us 62° as the temperature of Trebizond, and July 21st of the same year, though not. the warmest day of that month in Broosa, was yet nearly so; the temperature being 92°. In the northern part of Asia Minor the Sirocco ordinarily blows from the south; in Cyprus, I am told, it as regularly blows from the north; but in Syria, as the records show, no such uniformity of Lisette seems to exist. It may come from N,E., E., or S. Ripon wees to the peculiarities of climate at the several leu ' cords collated in the tables were kept, the remarks ate tbe: briefj-end. to: touch, only. upon Re Se Se ns SE Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. 79 the most important features of each, as they would strike an observer moving consecutively from one place to the other. — At Erzeroom, we find, as might be expected from a place in the latitude of 40°, and more than a mile above the level of the sea, acold winter and relatively cool nights throughout the whole year. ‘The heat of summer, more particularly of the middle of the day, is however less modified by the circumstantes of latitude and elevation than one would suppose from the mention of these particulars alone. . he extensive and nearly barren plain, which _ Stretches for several miles north and west of the city, has un- doubtedly much to do in counteracting the causes of cold which exist there, as in places similarly elevated. A remarkable free- dom from wind, which occurs during the winter season, serves greatly to diminish the amount of sensible cold, and a fper- son may sometimes be in the open air when the mercury is very low, without being at all sensible of the extreme cold indicated by the thermometer. As it is natural to associate clouds and storms with, mountainous regions, the dry season of _ Erzeroom, though not so long as that of Syria and the region of Mosul, is a feature of its climate well worthy of mention. None of the gardens and fields around the city, nor indeed any where upon the plain, are expected to bring their productions to maturity without being watered by artificial means. ‘This re- mark is supposed to be true very generally of all Turkey in Asia not lying on the declivity which looks toward the Black sea. It Is true emphatically of the mountainous region south of Erze- _toom, as the writer had occasion to observe when in the country _ of the Mountain Nestorians in 1844. There none of the lands are considered tillable, except those lying on the borders of streams or where the waters of a spring may be made to flow over them. The dryness of the soil arises not only from the in- cy of rains, but also from the great want of moisture in the atmosphere, there being no large evaporating surfaces like those of our large rivers and inland lakes. In consequence of this, the air needs only to be. slightly elevated in temperature, and it be- comes greatly undercharged with water. The nearness of the Black sea does little to supply this want, since it Is skirted along the whole southern shore with mountains so high as to thew toag it degree, the passage over them of the moisture raise Golan ss ts travelling over, and along the sides of these Mes 80 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. mountains, I have been struck day after day and week after — week with the difference observable in the meteorology of their two sides. ‘Towards the north, fogs and clouds, and towards the south, a clear and blue sky, were the almost universal order of the day. Early in the morning indeed, the view from the mountains towards the northern horizon is sometimes singularly clear ; but low beneath the feet of the observer, a vast sea of clouds stretches before him, and he rarely gets a glimpse, of what he so much wishes, the distant Euxine as first seen by the “Ten Thousand” in their signal retreat. In a short time after the sun rises, the clouds begin to creep up the declivity facing the north, and soon afterwards, attaining the summit, they pour over it towns the south, presenting a white sheet along the mountain ridge not un- like that of the brow of our own Niagara. ‘The destination of © the vapory cataract of these high regions is however very differ- ent from the one of water which it so naturally suggests. Hardly do the clouds pass these mountain summits before they begin to melt away and disappear in the arid atmosphere, which waits to receive them. Rarely, very rarely, during the summer months, does a north wind prevail so strong as to carry the clouds un- broken over an extended space so far in the interior as Erzeroom. | It is only when the season advances, as in October or November, and when the temperature is such as to give the atmosphere a greatly decreased capacity for mojsture, that the cloudy, damp, and stormy weather of other mountain top ions — to ht and the rainy season sets in.* Trebizond is remarkable for the equable nature of its” a - mate as to temperature, and for the predominance of moisture in _ its atmosphere, compared with other places mentioned in the above tables. By the abstract in the last of these, it will be seen to present a less range between the extremes of a year, than any other place besides Beirfit. If however the average daily range ‘been taken as a standard of comparison, the result — oa * Exce ptions of course occur in every climate, and one that took place in that of the plain if Erzeroom during the last season is worthy of mention. On the nights of June ‘Rist and 22d, the writer travelling with a company in tents, encountered ire plain and the Surrounding mountains, covered with snow six or eight inches was said | that raed 4 seit living had. ever witnessed any thing « of the kind, wa a a ~~ have been much more striking in favor of the equable. ture of Trebizond, the average daily variation for the year, as thus obtained being 5°, while that of Beirit the one which ap- proximates most, is about 65°. The great moisture of the at- mosphere is dbiserved in the tendency of every thing to rust, mould, or acquire dampness, even in the most favorable situation; _ Where not exposed to the direct rays of the sun. The amount-of rain which falls at Trebizond, and the great proportion of cloudy weather are also striking features compared with other parts of Turkey, and the remarks made in the preceding paragraph will furnish obvious reasons for these peculiarities. Its situation on the shore of the Black sea, hemmed in behind by mountains, and having a prevalent wind from the water, either in the form of a sea breeze or otherwise, are the causes referred to. Only eighty-three out of two hundred and sixty-eight records made in June, July, August, and September, 1843, and only one hundred and seventy-two out of three hundred and thirty inser- tions in the register for the.same months of 1844, were clear, and these months, it is to be remembered, include that part of the year when a clear, sky and dry atmosphere: — at all the other of our posts of observation. It has been remarked by one of the observers at Trebizond that the ordinary rules for predicting changes of weather from the state of the barometer, do not seem to hold true at Trebizond, but we unfortunately have no such records as will enable us to present the facts now alluded to. Doubtless the vicinity of mountains and the peculiarity of the ‘winds must be the ground of the exceptions referred to; as they are found likewise to effect equally strange and sudden changes in temperature : e.g. March 10th, 1844, we have the thermometer 71° at sunrise and 58° at 2p. m.; and Feb. 16th of the same year, 48° at sunrise, 37° at 2 p.m, and 45° at 9r.m. It may be well also to remark that Trebizond is less affected DY the ei e Dates Soon _ Constantinople —The climate of hie eapel of Turkey fur- ilehes little that is sufficiently striking to merit notice in this brief account. Its situation on the Bosphorus, and between the Black Sea and sea of Marmora renders it peculiarly exposed to northerly and southerly winds. On looking over the daily observations of a year, I find the northeasterly. winds most prevalent, and that Skconp Srnies, Vol. II, No. 4.—July, 1946. 1 ye 82 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. during the whole time there were but two instances of the winds blowing directly across the straits for the entire day, in one of which it was from the east, and in the other from the west. The mildness of its temperature during the winter, is greater than that — of the same latitude in the United States, and it is very rare to . have any considerable fall of snow; but at the same time there are enough cold rainy days to make the weather on the whole seem more chilly than the bracing air of New England. During the summer there is less of rain and a greater proportion of warm pleasant weather than is enjoyed by the Middle‘and New England — states, but ordinarily there is enough rain to bring grain to matu- rity without artificial irrigation. There isa common saying here, — that one must keep his best fuel until March, and it is observed by foreign residents, that although spring seems pretty uniformly to open in February or the first of March, with fine weather, there are after this, several days if not weeks of the most uncom fortable chilly weather of the whole year. Broosa.—The inland situation of Broosa, and its pantianest a the foot of Mount Olympus,—which is 7000 feet high and pre- serves snow on its top throughout the entire year,—causes a greater annual range than exists at any of the sea-ports from which we have records, though not-so great as that of Erzeroom, Mosul and Oormia. ‘The effect of the sirocco is more «trying and op- pressive than at either of the places already mentioned, and I should think from my limited observations, that this wind there, is for some reason, peculiarly frequent. Witness the highest _ temperature as feconted: in the first table for March, April, and May, 1845, and for June, July, August, September, and Novem — ber, 1844. Still Broosa is considered a very favorable climate for invalids, and crowds of people flock there during the summer ‘to recruit their health at the natural hot baths with which “ a of the place abounds. Smyrna.—The annual range of temperature at Smyrna ‘nb very great, but the average daily range, 14°, is wider than that of any of the other places frbvi which we Riive observations. Its. Winter consists in a damp, rainy season, and is rarely marked with _ slight falls of snow ; but Americans who sitive herein Bost morn this } sees of the year, uniformly feel more inconvenience than P s winters at home, but whether this —_ get d roron gs “te! ; a a : i iia “, the c = caer’ WW aie SU ELS VG So + See ee eS ees A ee ee ae ee ee ev 2 Would al 2 the sea, is a reasonable question, to settle which, facts are need- ed that we do not yet possess. The summer of Smyrna is warm compared with that of any of the aforementioned places, and on this account, it is the more to be regretted that our records from this place are deficient for the months of July and August. Beiriit.—The warm climate of this place is what might. be expected from its latitude ; and the slight annual range of tempera- ture, from: its fine exposure to the open sea, from which the wind prevails at all seasons of the year. The force and constancy of the southwest wind-is such as to be constantly making its impress upon the land; the sand rolled up by the sea, is raised. into the air and driven in such vast quantities into the interior, southeast of the city, as to form there, high ridges, which by gradual ad- vances of a few feet each year, are covering up trees, gardens, Vineyards, and even houses themselves when they are not re- moved in anticipation of the calamity. - ~ Mosul.—No one can cast an eye at the records of this place, without being struck with the extreme heat of the weather du- ting the summer months. _ So excessive indeed is the temperature that it will not be strange if some of the readers of this article are incredulous with regard to the accuracy of the observations, from Which the above abstract was made. But the writer may state, _ that before the -place of observation was fixed upon for the Summer of 1844, three thermometers were suspended several days in succession, in the most eligible situations in the house in which he then resided, (a house favorably situated too, it being on the highest ground in the city, ) and that among these a place was cho- Sen, which, while it was not affected by the confined air of the Court; was also in no way exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and as little as possible to the reflected rays. Moreover, the opportu- nity was afforded of occasionally comparing the temperature thus -Siven, with that of a thermometer suspended in a good position, at the country residence of the French Consul, among the ruins of ancient Nineveh (?), and there is therefore every reason to be- lieve, that local causes had very little effect on the mercury of the tmometer with which the record. was made. 'The tempera- ture at 9 o’clock P. M. , strongly corroborates this, as does also the fact that the removal of the thermometer into the sun at noon, ways cause the mercury to rise at once to 144° or 146°. nt of this excessive heat, all who are able, have rooms 7 84 Meteorological Observations in Western Asia. fitted up in their cellars, where they retreat to spend the middle of the day. The nights are uniformly spent on the flat roofs, dew and rain being wholly unknown during the summer season. One peculiarity growing out of this extreme heat of the climate, was often the subject of our remarks. Contact with every thing dry communicated the sensation of heat, our beds seemed. to have been just scorched with a warming-pan, and stone floors appeared as if endowed with the power of generating caloric. Instead of being refreshed by the cooling sensation which a change of clothes ordinarily gives in the summer, the linen taken out of our coolest wardrobes seemed always, on putting it on, to have come — roasting hot from the mouth of some glowing furnace. ‘Respecting Jerusalem and Oormia, not having visited hove places, we are unable to give, according to the plan pursued with regard. to the other points from which we have records, any pro- minent meteorological peculiarities which might not be inferred from the above tables. A great tendency to intermittent fever is known to exist on the plains of Oormia, and may be mentioned as one peculiarity of the climate of that place as a mission station. The cause of this is no doubt to be found, either in the miasmata » of the city or the exhalations from the ins pati which bounds those plains on the east. — - From observations made: for ninel years by is 0 missionaries resident in Beirat, Trebizond and Oormia, it has been found that by leaving those cities for the mountains near at hand, during the — summer months, they obtain a healthier and far more pleasant place of residence. This has led to a careful comparison be- tween the temperature of the plain and the places of resort on — the mountains, and in neither of these cases does the average-va- riation exceed 7° or 8° Fahrenheit. Still, the variation in one’s feelings is very manifest, even in ascending four or five hundred — While, on the plain the parched and sultry air of a sum- mer’s day seems almost insupportable, the breeze of the upper Strata of air seems to refresh and revive the spirits, and to-infuse new life into the whole system. “What is the cause of. this effect on the physical frame ?’”’ is yet a question open for investi- gation. Would the residents at Oormia be refreshed by a sudden removal to the sides of Mt. Lebanon, or to the hills back of Tre- bizond? Ifso, as such a removal would bring them two or three - eff ‘oct iS Facts relating to the Great Lakes. 85 not produced, as is commonly supposed, by the diminished -pres- sure of the atmosphere in elevated regions. Without doubt, dif- ferences in the electrical state of the air, will yet be found a fer- tile cause of various modifications in the working of the nervous system, but as we have thus far been unable to obtain any facts of this kind in respect to the cases now referred to, we must leave the question they suggest where we found it. It remains only to mention the individuals whose iindhineall and terest in meteorology has enabled us to present to the public the above tables. James Brant, Esq., English Consul at Erze- ‘ room, furnished the records for that place for 1835, 6, 7, and 8, and for Trebizond for 1838 and 9; Rev. Messrs. E. E. Bliss and N. Benjamin, those for Drebisond for 1844 and 5; Rev. P. O. Powers those for Broosa for 1844 and 5; Rev. C. Haadin those for Bebek ; Rev. H. G. O. Dwight those for Pera; Rev. S. H. Calhoun those for Smyrna; Rev. J. F. Lanneau those for Jerusa- lem ; Dr. H. A. DeForest those for the other places in Syria; Rev. Thos. Laurie those for Mosul prior to April 4844; and Mrs. A. H. — and Miss F. Fiske those for Oormia. afias rw X—Fac relating to the Great Lakes ;* by Prof. C. Dewev. 8 iit Phenomenon on Lake Ontario. be the September 20th, 1845, was witnessed a singular phenome- non on Lake Ontario. In the afternoon the waters suddenly mo- ved, in a mass, out of the rivers, bays, coves, harbors, &§¢., low- ering the water to different depths in different places. In ten or twelve minutes the waters returned, and rose to a higher level than they had before. This oscillation or efflux and reflux of the waters was repeated several times at about the same interval of eight to twelve minutes. At the mouth of the Genesee river, Seven miles from this city, the water fell two feet below its com- mon level, and soon rose as much above it. ‘The Revenue Cut- ter, John Y. Mason, lay in the harbor, and the hands witnessed fall and rise of the waters. At several places along the neigh- boring shores, boats were left for.a few moments on the sande. a Oswego, seventy miles east of this, a large body of logs mov- mos ted the Report of er Regents ne esas a of New age Pn i See all by the author. *. 86 Facts relating to the Great Lakes. ed out into the lake, to the great annoyance of the owner, till he saw them soon returning to their previous location. At Cobourg; a little west of the Grenesee, and on the Canada side of the lake, and distant about sixty miles, the same fall and rise were observed to be repeated, the greatest being a little before sunset, when the waters rose to their highest point or about two feet. In the efflux the shores had in many places been left dry for some minutes. At Port Hope, a few miles west of Cobourg, the steam-boat Prin- cess Royal, ran aground as she attempted to enter the harbor, so much had the waters lowered in the port. The cause of this phenomenon is doubtless to be Suan § in ie mt tornado which passed that afternoon over the lake, beginning at = Johnston’s Creek in Niagara Co., and passing in a northeast course over Orleans Co., till it sériielé: the lake at Oak Orchard. Creek, fifty miles west éf Rochester, and continued its course across the lake. The tornado was about three fourths of a mile wide in Orleans Co., and was very destructive, twisting off, and — away large trees, unroofing and destroying buildings, &c. I violence was of only few minutes duration, perhaps not on three. On the lake, it produced water spouts and was attended with toe» hail, ae lightning and thunder. ‘The steam-boat Capt. piioes: was in great jeopardy from the wind and waves aia} storm, as she was then passing up the lake on her reg- ular trip. ‘The power of this tornado, was probably suilicient to — withdraw the waters from the shores so as to produce the efflux — and reflux that was witnessed. Such sudden changes of the level of the waters, are said to have been witnessed before on the lakes. The solution’ in this case may apply to the whole, It seemed desirable to collect and connect the facts in this case and ‘to publish them, as they prevent a resort to supposed earthquakes, heaving the bottom of the lakes, or change of the level of the shores, of which not a trace is left and not a probability exists. This tornado does not appear to have moved rapidly, but to have — ‘ derived its force from the great rotatory velocity, as it twisted off ‘trees, breaking them more than overtuming them. A lumber Wagon Was raised into the air and carried a considerable distance. A'stick of timber, which required eight men to carry it, was Temoved to the distance of f fifty rods, On the lake, large water ‘Raute were rised, and a gest body of water seemod tobe elev Soe meas pa hans cama veces a Facts relating to the Great Lakes. gr the lake, as it was too far from Cobourg on the north side, and _— appetungie on the Senile side, to attract apt attention. © © cag a . ers 2. Fall of the. Water of the Lakes. “It is well known that the level of Lake Ontario slowly de- scended through several months of last year. The collector of the port of Genesee, L. B. Langworthy, caused accurate measure- ments to be made at the mouth of the river, which have been continued by his successor. The level was considerably lower last summer than in several years before ; and the level fell till the beginning of this year. About the first of March it began mi as shown by the ere record from the collector’s 0 aie : Feet. Inches. 1845. June 1, water below top of wha 1 0 : Sept. 1, 2 1 eer rn ee er Meee mee nee ee eee Oe AEE BRE OR “ Pas ad: : ee Te Dec coe eect - 8 iw“ ie Ageeees, 8 nah, 1846. Jan. 1 ee Karis 73 3 earet yRE SS 5 _ Feb. eS 66 i3 REERrs ts 3 le . March Ly “ 66 &“ 66 3 a2 : “ rs Go; “6 2. 9. Pit : it the most com- moe minerals of these limestones. _ _ The above deductions supply us with a full explanation of ifs origin of these minerals. The fluorine, phosphoric acid, lime, - Magnesia and silica present, are adequate for all the results, with- _ out looking to any other sources. Instead therefore of being eX taneous minerals introduced | into the limestone rock, their ele- See he volume of e Fo bese sing Hee S he “Exploring Expedition on ‘Zoophytes, | p- 712; and this : ea ae es ae ene | W. M. Carpenter on the Muscles in the Glass Snake. 89 ments at least are an essential part of its constitution; and they have been separated from the general mass by a segregation of like atoms under well known principles, and it may be, arranged anew, in some cases, according to their affinities. Fluoride of calcium may erystallize out when under water, without much or any heat; and it is an interesting fact that this fluoride has been lately proved by Mr. G. Wilson, to be soluble, to some degree, in pure cold water.* Mr. G. Wilson has also shown that fluor- ides actually exist in seawater, as had been suggested by Mr. Sil- liman, some months before the discovery, in his memoir on the composition of corals. Apatite and chondrodite require heat, as they are found only in granular limestones. The chondrodite is not supposed to exist as such in coral, but to form from the mutual action of its elements, (which are present) during the slow action of the heat that gives the crystalline character to the limestone. The magnesia of magnesian limestones is not attributable to the corals, as the proportion obtained by the analyses is less than one per cent.t It is derived probably from a foreign source ; and this may be true, in part at least, for the magnesia of the chon- drodite, although there is enough of this constituent present for a large amount of this mineral. The silica may also be in part foreign, or may proceed from the earthy impurities which were mixed with the limestone at its formation. New Haven, May Ist, 1846. igs Arr. XII.—Description of a peculiar arrangement of muscles in the Glass Snake, (Ophisaurus); by W. M. Carrenter, A. M., M. D., Professor in the Medical College of Louisiana. Born in the Old and the New Worlds, there are species of rep- tiles called Glass Snakes, (serpent a verre,) on account of their extreme fragility. These animals, belonging to different species, appertain however to the same group. The animal called by this name in Europe, is the Anguis fragilis of Linnzus, whilst in this country, several species of Ophisaurus are confounded, by the people, under this common name. ME ssa ie *See Chem. Gazette, No.85, May 1846, p. 183; and beyond, in this volume. tSee this Journal, New Series, i, 189, 198. Srconp Series, Vol. II, No. 4.—July, 1846. 12 90 W. M. Carpenter on the Muscles in the Glass Snake. These animals have the’ external form of serpents, but re- semble the lizard family in general structure. ‘They constitute the transition type between the Lacertian and Ophidian reptiles. The genus Ophisaurus owes its name to this circumstance, ( Og, serpent, s«vgos, lizard.) It includes several species inhabiting the southern parts of the United States, principally the pine forest and prairie regions. They have about 150 vertebral bones, about one third of which belong to the body and two thirds to the tail; the body is consequently very short when compared with the tail. All of the species receive indiscriminately the name of Glass snake from the extreme fragility of their tails. A very slight stroke with a small rod, or trifling violence inflicted by any other means, will cause the separation of a part of the tail from the body, and the tail will sometimes break into a number of pieces. The body and attached parts continue to live, and in process of time the lost portions are replaced by a new growth. If we examine the parts separated, in an animal which has been thus broken, or what is preferable, drawn asunder, several little conical and pomted fleshy processes, may be observed, sur- rounding the vertebral bones, and projecting several lines beyond their articulating surfaces, and which must have been drawn out of cavities in the muscles, that correspond in position on the adja- cent vertebral bones. iad. 7: In figure 1, I have endeavored to represent an enlarged view of this appearance. Lines drawn across the figure from the points a to a’, b to b’, ¢ to c’, and d to d’, may represent the. posi tion of the separated articulating surfaces of the adjacent verte- bre, which, when in their natural positions, would of course be m contact ; and it is easy to see that when these are in contact, the conical muscles, which project so much beyond them, must fit into corresponding cavities of their own size, in the muscles corresponding in position with them on the next bones. If one of the vertebrae is examined separately from the rest while su rounded by its muscles, it will be seen that each vertebral bone “« W. M. Carpenter on the Muscles in the Glass Snake. 91 has a series of these muscular cones around each of its extremi- ties, and projecting beyond its articulating surfaces, in a direction parallel to the axis of the bone; one set projecting forward and the other backward. Further examinations show that these two sets of muscles are connected together, and in fact that they are composed of the same fibres or fascicles, which, having slight at- tachments about the middle of their length to the bone, extend forward to form the anterior series, and backward to form the posterior series of conical muscles. Each of these cones is form- ed by the union of two sets of muscular fibres, which are slight- ly oblique to each other, and which meet ata very acute angle; and the same fascicles which, by their anterior projection, form the cone standing forward, are prolonged in the opposite direction, and by meeting with the oblique fascicle lying next to them, form the cones which project backward. Each of these conical muscles contains a conical cavity corresponding to its outward form, for the reception of the muscle next behind it. ‘This ar- rangement I have endeavored to represent in the middle portion of fig. 1. Lines drawn from 8 to b’ and from ¢ to e’, would in- dicate the situation of the ends of the bone. The white lines which run a little obliquely back and forth, and meet to form the zigzag series, indicate the relative position of the different fasci- culi of muscular fibres, which constitute the series of muscles that surround each of the vertebral bones. Hach of the fasci- cles has a point of attachment to the bone near its middle. {n order to analyze the arrangement of these muscles and the direction of their fibres, it will be necessary to describe the bones around which they are situated. Fig. 2 represents an enlarged Fig, ® view of two bones in their natu- 4 ral position. The anterior artic- |, ing surface is concave>the , posterior convex ; they are cov- E§ ered witha stiiatitie cartilage, and are susceptible of very free mo- tion; they are represented by E ® and By A and A’ are the superior spinous apophyses, between the crura of which passes the superior spinal canal, containing the Spinal marrow. B and B’ are the inferior spinous apophyses, be- tween the crura of which passes the large artery. C C’ are the oS WwW. M. Carpenter on the aces in the Glass Snake. transverse apophyses—D and D’ are the oblique articulating - physes. These bones are but slightly attached to each other by Lise ments. There are rudiments of capsular ligaments, which are very thin fibrous membranes surrounding the articulation ; and there are a few fibrous filaments passing from one of the spi- nous apophyses to the other ; but they are all so delicate that they would be > inadequate to hold the ~~ —. In the diagram, fig. 3 have attempted to tn the relative situation and direction of the muscular fascicles which enter into the composition of the * muscles, situated around two contiguous vertebral eines bones. Supposethelayer : of muscles to be detached ————. SIRs from the bone and spread —— out on the paper, begin- Y ning at the dorsal median line. Let the 1 line A A’ represent the di- rection of this line, in which the points of the superior spinous pro- cesses are represented by the points A and A’. Starting from the spinous apophyses A and A’, the first fascicle on each side of the median line, runs obliquely forward and downward, and may be represented by the lines Ad and A/b’, and are met at their anterior extremity by fascicles 16 and 1/6’; running with equal obliquity, forward and upward. The fascicles 61 and 6’1’ are met at their other extremities by fascicles cl and e¢/1’; and so on with the other fascicles which are thus connected, and may be followed on around until we get back to the starting points at the spinous apophyses, on the side opposite to that on which we commenct following this zigzag and continuous series. These fascicles have attachments near their middle to the bones, with the excep- tions of those which are attached to the spinous and transverse apophyses, which have their attachments by one of their extrem- ities. Thus in the diagram fig. 3, the points A A’, BB’, CC’, represent respectively the superior spinous, the inferior spinous, and a seepeyese, and it twill be seen that the fascicles respective Soe eee W. M. Carpenter on the Muscles in the Glass Snake. 93 Now each of the fascicles of this series being met at each of its extremities on alternate sides, by other fascicles at acute an- gles, unite with them to form the hollow little cones already mentioned. Each of these cones is received and exactly fits in- to the hollow of that which stands next to it in the direction of its point ; and in turn it receives the point and body of that which stands next to it in the direction of its base. Each of these cones may perhaps be one third or one fourth as long as the entire fas- cicles of which it is composed. Some of the fascicles being attached near their middle to the bones, have both of their extremities free, and it is by these free extremities that the conical muscles, in each direction, are form- ed; while those fascicles which have their attachment to the spi- nous and transverse processes, are attached by their posterior ex- tremities, and from them project only forwards, and having only one free extremity, enter into the formation of only one set of muscles. 'The points of attachment which are in the middle of some of the fascicles, are common to both the anterior and pos- terior sets of muscles. The fascicles surrounding a bone have each a single point of attachment to that bone, and are not at all attached to any other bone ; and the series of amuanles surround- ing a bone, has. fibrous or aumeralen attachments to this bone alone, and has no fibrous attachments to any other tissues, except- ing a very slight one on its contour, to a thin fascia which sur- rounds the series and binds it together. - Fig. 4. EBLE ms —— A MEA tz Iasi 4, [have endeavored to show the arrangement of the fibres in each of the fascicles, which, in the middle portion, is a flattish muscular membrane, and for a portion of its length to- wards each extremity, forms the lateral half, A and A’, of a hol- low muscular cone, the concavity, in the two, presenting in oppo- Site directions, and which meeting with other similarly arranged fascicles, completes the cones which stand in opposite directions, The foscicle j is attached to the bone by the middle at B. In fig. 5, I have endeavored to exhibit the manner in which the systems of muscular cones, connected with two contiguous bones, mutually receive and are received by each other. The e 94 W.M. Carpenter on the Muscles in the Glass Snake. muscular arrangement A B C D E, belongs to one bone, while the arrangement F' G H, belongs to the adjacent bone. The points of attachment of these two muscles to their respective bones, may be represented by the points* and **. The cones F and H, of the muscles of one bone, fit into the cones A B C and C D E of the other, while the cone C of the latter, fits into the cone G of the former. 'Thus the muscular cones of the succes- sive bones, mutually invaginate into each other, where they are retained, not by fibrous attachments, but merely by fitting nicely into each other, and by the harmony of their contractions one upon another. The muscles in their natural position, surrounding the bodies of the bones, form the fleshy cylinder of the animal, as at f, fig. 1 This is surrounded by a thin fascial sheath, which lies ienrneilia ately under the skin, as represented at e, fig. 1, and ‘which con- stitutes the principal means by which the bores and muscles are held together in the direction of their length ; as the skin, though © forming rather strong rings around the body, separates easily into these rings when force is applied in the direction of the length of the animal. This animal is not only easily broken by blows, but has like- wise the power, when caught, of casting off the part of the tail which is held. It is also said that the Anguis fragilis of Europe, possesses the same power. This power may be accounted for, by supposing the animal capable of exercising separate and dis- tinet control over the contractions of each of the muscular cones. This being the case, if the animal contract all the invaginated cones belonging toa bone, and does not contract the invaginating cones, it is evident that it would cause a partial loosening and drawing out of the invaginated cones; and as the cohesion of this. arrangement seems.to be one of the principal forces that holds the different segments together longitudinally, * On the Blast Furnace in the Manufacture of Fron. 95 these would then separate at the point where this force is’ re- ed. * mov It isa popular error which supposes that the separated joints or segments reunite, and that they will come together even if sep- arated to a considerable distance. The spinal marrow and large artery run through the entire length of the animal, the former occupying a canal which passes between the crura of the superi-. or spinous apophyses; the latter in one which lies between the crura of the inferior spinous apophyses. In separating the bones from one another, these important organs are of course broken, and the death of the separated segments is an inevitable conse- quence. ‘I"he animal, however, acquires a new tail by growth. When first healed the animal ends in an abrupt truncation, which is covered with small scales, arranged in concentric circles around its centre ; but in course of time, this truncated extremity begins to séchive. a conical shape, which gradually takes a more pro- jecting and tapering form, the circles of scales then assume the position of rings, which surround and cover it; and by slow growth the tail acquires about its wonted length. This arrangement is interesting, privicipally, from being a new _ and application of the muscular structure. Notwithstanding modifications which the muscles undergo, in assuming this pst eer may fix upon the particular muscles of which the fascicles are formed. ‘The muscles which form these fasci- cles are, principally, the a the longissimus dient the inter-transversales, and some others Arr. XIIL— Observations on the more recent researches in the Manufacture of Iron, (continued ;*) by Dr. J. Lawrence Surtu, of Charleston, S. C. “In the last article on this subject, the operations of the blast furnace alone were alluded to, and among the statements then given, was that of the composition of the gas taken from the mouth of the furnace; which gas contained about 24 per cent. of carbonic oxide, this representing a large portion of the com- bustible used, which is lost in most of the ne now in ope- ration in this country. hood OS ee * See this Journal, Second Series, i, 170. | 96 Onthe Blast Furnace in the Manufacture of Iron. M. Ebelman states that the combustion of the gas passing from the mouth of the blast furnace is equal to from ;3, to ,°,4; of the calorific effect of the coal used, and MM. Bunsen and Playfair set it down as ,°,°,, which last 1am inclined to believe is rather too large a fraction ; they ene - the furnace worked with bi- tum 1, and Epainian h to one worked with char- coal. Without being able to decide exactly what portion of the combustible of the blast furnace is lost, it is sufficient to know that it is far greater than that consumed, to lead at once to the employment of means bringing into use this waste combustible. — The employment of the heat lost from the mouth of the blast furnace, for the purposes of metallurgy, &c., has been claimed by many as having been used by them since 1834. The following are some of the claimants :—MM. Thomas and Laures, (civil en- gineers); MM. d’Andelarre and de Lisa, (forge masters at 'T'reve- ray); M. le Marechal Marmont, (in Austria); M. Houzeau Mui- ren, (of Ardennes; and M. de Faber Dufaur, (of Wasseralfingen). All their claims of priority, however, ought to be laid aside, since the operation was performed many years prior to the time that any of them claim to have first employed the lost heat. And as a proof of this assertion, I give the following extract from the — Journal des Mines, Juin 1814.—‘M. Aubertot of the department of Cher, and owner of furnaces and other works in excellent con- dition and management, which he superintends personally, made, several years ago, a great many experiments to discover some means of economizing the amount of fuel used in the working of iron, either by endeavoring to introduce the operation by the catalan furnace, or otherwise. He was led to try what could be accomplished by making use of the flame which passed out of the blast and refining furnace. He first employed it for the ce- mentation of steel, in which he succeeded perfectly ; then he used it for calcining lime, also for burning bricks and tiles. Af- terwards he passed it into a reverberatory furnace, in which the temperature was raised sufficiently to heat the blooms and bars, for hammering the one and drawing the other out. Finally he succeeded in producing all the above effects at one and the same time, by ysis the flame to circulate through several furnaces. side by side.” In 1834, M. Houzeau Muiren took out a patent for using the waste heat from the mouth of the blast furnace, for carbonizing On the Blast Furnace in the Manufacture of Iron. 97 wood at the furnace ‘of Bievres (Ardennes); in which he states that twice the quantity of charcoal is obtained by treating the wood after his method, than by the ordinary way of burning in the woods. By the heat lost from the furnace, 100 parts of wood gave 35 of charcoal, and from 40 to 45 of charcoal roua (half burnt wood). _ But after all, it is not to those who first applied this lost heat to economical purposes, that we are indebted for the practical in- formation that is now in our possession; for had they made their arrangements so as to exhibit an undisputed advantage arising out of its adoption, it would not have been so tardy in its progress. ~ It isto M. de Faber Dufaur, superintendent of the iron works at Wasseralfingen i in the kingdom of Wurtemburg, that most of the credit is due for the present method of converting pig into wrought iron, by using and burning the gases that escape from the mouth of the blast furnace. The best idea that can be given of the manner in which the operations are conducted in the above works, and the advantages accruing therefrom, is contained in the fol- lowing short extract from a letter written by M. Grouvelle to M. Dumas.* St if ‘The establishment at MapereaMiaigen is supplied with ore,. ditso-Giuthe of which is a hydrated oxide of iron, and the other fourth is an ore in grains. The influence of the first species of ore gave to the pig so bad a quality that it was used altogether for castings. M. Dufaur, by his processes, without altering the operations of the blast furnace, now obtains from the Pig: a wrought _ iron of superior quality. » “The first gas furnace put in viento by him was a refining - furnace, into which the pig metal was run as it issued from the blast farnsve, where the refining was executed with the air of the hot blast. From this the most beautiful results were obtained, and it worked regularly during the year 1837. In 1838 he erect- eda puddling furnace ; and finally in 1839 he completed his mag- nificent system for suk fabrication “9 iron, by constructing a fur- nace for re-heating and welding.” — At Wasseralfingen there are now ¢-tumed out annually, one million pounds of wrought: iron in various forms, made in these new furnaces, and owing to the deficiency of moving power, all the pig cannot be worked up. ‘This operation of refining iron Re sree aedieh conan alae tal ere * Comptes Rendus, 1841, p. 382. Srcoxp Gineie, Vol. II, No. 4.—July, 1846. 13 98 Onthe Blast Furnace in the Manufacture of Iron. by the combustion of gas without any other fuel, has been in successful operation at the above locality for several years, and it has been followed with a great improvement in the quality of the iron and has reduced the loss to one fourth of what it was ori- ginally. This method of rofitiing the pig yhae sake been in active opera- tion in a number of places, and whenever properly executed, is always attended with economy and success. M. d’Andelarre, in one of the departments of France, in a letter states, “our pud- dling furnaces, heated altogether by the gas lost from the mouth of the blast furnace, has been attended with the most complete success, which rarely happens in the first attempts at the applica- tion of any improvement, which most generally require long ex- perience. We lighted up our furnace on the morning of the 5th, and put in the first charge at 11 o’clock on the ener of the 6th, and shingled the same at three-quarters past 12. | The ac- complishment of the results so eae passed our —— resulting in “Ist. An economy of the total amount of fuel wast in i re- fining of iron, (which, in a furnace with two doors, amounted, in witty Four pees to 6,000 areas omnes ona —_ twelve dollars.) . _ & 2d. Improvement inte miadliwot seichinis 2. _ 3d. The loss was very small, vanes 5 aoe of 20 per cent which it is by the old processes. “Ath. 'The operations of the iaaiat are snohabs iste: Here we see that the experience of M. d’Andelarre accords ex- actly with that of M. Dufaur, and already have Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Germany sent commissioners to Wasseralfingen, to study the processes as they are there carried on. ‘The govern- ment of Wurtemburg have opened their works to the inspection of all who may wish to make themselves acquainted with their character. The advantages arising from the employment of ss waste gas from the mouth of the blast furnace, is no longer problemati- cal, and as some of those interested in this matter may not be ac- quainted with the method by which the gas is collected and em- ployed, a few words explanatory of it will not be out of place. » The gas, as it rises through the fire room of the furnace, con- taining 1 from 60 to 80 per cent. of the combustible effect of the _ty off the gas, which is drawn out by means On the Blast presaantccamcce 99 fuel used, is made to pass into a chamb unding tl 1 outer part of the fire. Seetiny some idea of. which may be. formed by the representation in fig. 1. B, is the mouth of the furnace ; A A, gas chamber surrounding the upper part. ‘Fig. 1. of the fire room; D D, pipes connecting the ye fire room and gas sehen ber ; C C, pipes to car- of blowing cylinders and forced into the refi- — ning, puddling or other furnace, through a number of small orifices alternating with oth- er orifices, through which a cold or hot blast ~ of air is thrown, that serves to keep up the combustion of the gas when once united ; and by regulating the supply of air by means of stop-cocks, the maximum of heat can be obtained. In order to arrive at the maximum of heat, just sufficient air should be admitted to burn all the carbonic oxide and hydrogen contained in the gas coming from the blast furnace. If the amount of air be too small, some of the combustible gases pass out unconsumed ; if too great, the excess cools the furnace, and at the same time oxidizes the metals undergoing refining. The regulation of the supply of the blast is of the utmost nepertenes, and is said to be easy of accomplishment. The differences between the reverberating furnaces worked in this way and those in-which coal is used, is that carbonic oxide with a little hydrogen is the fuel, and it is burnt by a full supply of air. It is hardly necessary to say more of the advantages that are to arise out of this important change in the working of iron ; for there is no expense for fuel in the refining of the pig, as the gaseous combustible issuing from the mouth of the blast furnace is more than sufficient to refine all the pig made from the furnace. The quality of iron is also improved, as none of those impurities Contained in the coal and other fuel can interfere in the working of the iron.* The sooner these mot Bemsini ‘are introduced into our fur- haces, the sooner will ‘we be able to place iron in the market at @ price to compete with that coming from. any other quarter of — "IFT I mistake not, the Dufaur patent has been yee out in this country by Mr. Detmola, and has al already been applied to one or two furnaces.—J. L. 8S, bs {ST 100 On the Biast Furnace in the Manufacture of Iron. the world, and entering our ports free of duty ; at the same time it will increase the value of those works whose wood-land has been diminished by a too rapid and improvident use of fuel. I next pass on to make a few remarks about the refining fur- nace used in the working of iron. In these furnaces the air is thrown by one or two tuyers, into a crucible filled with charcoal, into which the pig to be refined, along with scraps coming from . previous operations, is placed in a certain relative position. The changes that take place by the reaction of the air upon the coal, is similar to what occurs in the lower part of the blast furnace, namely, the conversion of the oxygen into carbonic acid, which is immediately changed into carbonic oxide. The analyses of the gases taken from the centre of the furnace, prove that the transformation of the oxygen into carbonic acid corresponds to the position where the workmen constantly place the iron that is about to be forged, and this is just what we should — as it 1s the point of maximum temperature. Ebelman states that the atmosphere which sommes the sapls: ed iron, contains hardly a trace of carbonic acid, either in the blast or puddling furnace; this being contrary to the opinion which is generally admitted, that the decarbonization of the iron takes place by the action of the air during the melting of the pig, but it would appear that this reaction is attributable to the protox- ide of iron covering the surface of the-mass undergoing refining. In the second period of refining, in the puddling properly speak- ing, it is easy to deduce from the analyses of the gas, that there. is oxidation of a considerable portion of the iron by the ee of the air thrown in at the tuyer. ‘Here again much of the fuel ‘passes off under the form of car- bonic oxide, thereby causing considerable waste. . Of late yearsa modification has been introduced into the refining furnaces, even when the waste gases from the blast furnace are not employed; a modification by which none of the combustible is lost. A few words will suffice to explain how this is accomplished. x All the furnaces are modifications of the reverberatory furnace. The fuel is ;o : | ~ . Fig. 2. the zeit, by a bellows am otherige. On the Blast Furnace in the Manufacturé of Iron. 101 is first converted into carbonic acid, and then, if the bed of coal be thick enough, this last will be changed into carbonic oxide. As this however is generally not the case, a part of the carbonic acid passes beyond the upper surface of the fuel without having undergone a change, particularly if the blast from below has been strong and abundant. By this operation the chamber B becomes - heated, and a mixture of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, nitrogen, and a little hydrogen passed out ofthe flue C. The object of the metallurgist, however, is not to permit any carbonic oxide or hydrogen to escape combustion, but to endeavor to add to the heat of the furnace, that heat arising from the combustion of these two gases. This is readily accomplished by throwing in a sec- ond blast of air, through a number of small orifices just above the surface of the fuel, D; this blast to be regulated as required. By this process we re-create, as it were, the maximum intensi- ty of heat (which first shows itself at the lower part of the fuel on the grate, just where the air becomes converted into carbonic acid, ) and in the chamber B, where it is most wanted ; for the amount of heat rendered latent by the reduction of the carbonic acid into carbonic oxide, is rendered sensible by the reproduction of the former. ~The advantages arising from this method of burning the fuel, are important. In the first place, the heat is diffused over a lar- ger space, thereby heating more uniformly the metal, than when it is placed in the midst of the fuel. Again, fuel of the most in- ferior quality can be made use of, and as evidence of this in some trials made at Audincourt, it was proved that the reverberatory furnace could be heated to whiteness by burning the gas, and the pig melted and puddled, when a mixture of charcoal dust and earthy matter was made use of as fuel. - Kbelman, whom I have so often quoted in these articles, and who has certainly made the best series of scientific researches upon the subject, says that instead of employing the action of air upon an excess of charcoal to produce the combustible gas, the vapor of water may to an extent be substituted, which produces, in contact with burning charcoal, carbonic oxide and hydrogen. The heat of the combustion of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbonic oxide is about the same, and it can be easily deduced that the decomposition of the vapor of water by the charcoal, de- termines an absorption of latent heat, equal to that which is pro- 102 Onthe Blast Furnace in the Manufacture of Iron. duced by the transformation of the same volume of carbonic acid into carbonic oxide. The vapor of water alone passed through the-ignited coal produces all the effects just mentioned, but the absorption of latent caloric is so great as to cause the operation to cease ina few minutes. By projecting, however, a mixture of air and the vapor of water through the coal, the operation is said to be carried on advantageously. It was my intention to have remarked at length about the effects of the hot blast, but it is now so generally admitted that the hot is to be preferred to the cold blast in reducing the iron from the ore, and bringing it to its most refined state, that any thing on the subject at this time would be superfluous. All that is important to make known upon this subject, is the results late- ly arrived at by M. Scheerer* as to how it is that hot air produces such remarkable effects in the blast furnace. ‘By calculations based upon his own experiments as well as those of others, he was led to the conclusion, that the most ele- vated temperature that charcoal ‘could produce in burning in air, is 2571° Cent., which is that at which platinum melts. This temperature is situated in the middle of the space upon which the air is projected, and it goes on diminishing towards the exterior, so as to form a space for melting, the center of which is at 2571° and the exterior at 1550° Cent. When the hot blast is made use of, the temperature of the center does not change, but the por- tion heated to 2571° becomes more extended. . The exterior of the mass which was at 1550° while using the cold air, acquires when the hot blast is employed, a temperature as many degrees higher as there is difference between the temperature of the two blasts ; for instance, if the temperature of the air be 280° C., that of the exterior of the heated mass will be 1830° C.—if 300°.C., the latter will be 1850° C, Thus the influence that hot air exercises, is to extend the space of fusion, which is twice as great with the air at 300° C. as it is when the air is at 0° C, * Pogg. Ann. lix, p. 508. Scientific Intelligence, 103 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry. 1, Ozone,—For some years, Prof. Schénbein, of Basle, has been en- gaged in experimenting on the cause of the peculiar odor developed by electricity ; during the electrolysis of water, the oxygen given off is mixed with a small quantity of a volatile odorous substance ; to this he has given the name of ozone. For some panna of its production, see this Journal, Vols. x1 and xix. This substance he supposed to be a halogen body, analagous in its reactions and affinities to chlorine and bromine, and indeed it has many points of resemblance ; -it destroys vegetable colors, decomposes bro- mide, iodide and ferro-eyanide of potassium, and acts upon the metals. _ He regarded it as constituting the base of nitrogen, which he suppo- sed to be a compound of ozone and hydrogen, analagous to the chlo- ride of hydrogen. He supposed it to be a secondary product of the elec- trolysis, and formed by the reaction of the nascent oxygen on the ni- trogen of the atmospheric air dissolved in the water. _ M. Schénbein was subsequently enabled to produce this body by purely chemical means; when. phosphorus, at ordinary temperatures, is exposed to moist air, ozone is always generated.t_ ‘This reaction is best observed by introducing into a large glass vessel, a piece of phos- phorus one or two inches long, and sufficient water to partially cover it; the whole may now be ersoied for 24 hours to a temperature of 68° to 75° F., when the air will be found very highly charged with ozone. a Brom its supposed nature as the base of nitrogen, this body has at- tracted considerable attention from chemists, and has been made the subject of much experimental research, as’well as a great deal of theo- rising and speculation, It has been particularly examined by M. Ma- rignac and Mr. Williamson. The former. chemist has shown that ozone js: generated by the elec- trolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, independently of the presence of ni- ogen; ; it being produced equally well in a vessel pe of air.t M. * See also, qabdtheie Archives te YElectricité No. 15. Tom. iv. pp. 333-454; No. 17, Tom v. p- 1J-23, and No. 8, Tom. v. p. 337-342, Marignac, i ie. 5-11; béeities other authorities abe farther. a The wast “ye of phosphorus i is probably due entirely to the formation of Is new #In pic npestinte water acidulated by sulphuric acid was decomposed in wersel, from which the air was completely excluded. After the origi Sie had 104 Scientific Intelligence. Marignac also instituted a series of experiments on ozone produced by chemical means; air was made to pass through a long tube containing phosphorus, and thus it became sufficiently charged with ozone for the purposes of experiment. He found that perfectly dry air is incapable of generating this substance, and also that air freed from oxygen by pass- ing over ignited copper, produced no trace of it; but if a very little oxygen (insufficient to support combustion for a moment,) is present, ozone is produced with the same ease as inordinary air. Pure oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen alone, do not produce it, but if a small quantity of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen, ozone is formed with great rapidity, on passing the mixture over phosphorus. Air impregnated with ozone looses entirely its characteristic proper- ties, if passed through a tube heated between 570° and 750° F. This principle is absorbed by water, but not by oil of vitriol, ammonia or chloride of calcium. If the air is passed through a solution of iodide of potassium, it loses its odor, and the salt is decomposed with the liberation of free iodine. Some iodate of — is also found in the solution. Ozone is readily absorbed . the metals. If the ozonized air is passed through a glass tube containing silver in a porous form, (from the de- composition of the acetate by heat,) it loses its peculiar odor, and the silver is converted into a blackish brown substance, which, when throwa into water, gives off oxygen gas with effervesence, and the remaining substance has all the characters of ordinary oxide of silver. These curious results, many of which were previously obtained by Schonbein, prove that nitrogen is not concerned in the formation of this substance, and seem to show that these —— reactions are seritet to oxygen in a loosely combined state. Mr. Williamson’s experiments confirm these dahavediic: and go to prove that it is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In. his experi- ments, the oxygen from the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, was thoroughly dried by passing it over chloride of calcium ; the gas thus dried, was passed through a glass tube containing metallic copper, and heated to redness ; water, was formed abundantly and condensed in the cool part of the tube, and this formation of water continued as long as the process lasted. From this it appears that water is formed by the reducing power of the metal. To remove all sources of error, the oxy- gen was evolved from the electrolysis of a solution of sulphate of cop- per, in whose decomposition no hydrogen is set free, the oxygen thus been continued for two or three days, and when more than one fourth of the mee had been driven off in the form o koh eae, the oxygen was found to be as strongly im f the experiment. = pate — toe fk Chemistry. 105 obtained possessed strongly the peculiar ozone odor. It was now pass- ed over copper (obtained by decomposing the oxide by carbonic oxidé,) heated to redness, “ water was immediately formed as in _ — ext periment. > In subsequent dipesituedi, the ozonized oxygen sebitaiaap dried, was passed through a glass tube heated to redness, by which the pe- culiar odor was completely destroyed ; to this an accurately weighed chloride of calcium tube was fixed, after the gas had been passed a short time, the tube was found to have increased perceptibly in weight. _ When the ozonized oxygen is passed through water, it communicates toitthe peculiar odor. If this solution is added to a mixture of starch paste and iodide of potassium, a blue color is produced; and when mixed with ferro-cyanide of potassium, this salt gives a blue precipitate with proto-salts of iron. Solutions of lime and baryta give, with a solu- tion of ozone, a heavy and’apparently crystalline precipitate. - Mr. Williamson states as the result of his experiments, that ozone is hot produced by the action of air on phosphorus, but we cannot admit - this; for'several reasons. The results of M. Marignac were obtained the substance’ formed in this manner, and many of the results ob- | tained by him are precisely the same with those of Mr. Williamson ; and these as we as others omen — be referred to the action “4 phosphoric aci Mr. Finatobe s sisi ginasiel, which paces of a tube containing asbestos, on which the phosphorus was deposited by sublimation, was Such as completely to defeat the object in view ; for although ozone is generated by the action of phosphorus on ‘air, yet it is itself absorbed or osed, when brought in contact with a large surface of phospho- Tus ; and this result would especially occur when the phosphorus was heated, as it must have been from the exposure of so large a surface. own observations also have shown that something distinct from . : phosphoric or phosphorous acids, is generated by this process, for after — the air enclosed in the globe had been thoroughly agitated and allowed to stand some hours, in contact with a mixture of carbonate of lime and water, it still retained the peculiar odor, and the aeope decompo- sing ‘iodide and ferro-cyanide of potassium. The conclusion which these gentlemen deduced from ‘their experi- ments was, that the substance which presents these curious reactions is @ compound of oxygen and hydrogen, containing more oxygen than water, and perhaps isomeric with the deutoxide of Thenard. This view was certainly consonant with their results, and indeed they appear- ed to be inexplicable by any other hypothesis. The oxidation of silver to such a degree, and the conversion of iodide of potassium into iodate of potassa, evince the existence of oxygen in a feebly combined and Suconp Sentgs, Vol. II, No. 4—July, 1846. ' 106 Scientifie Intelligence. very active state, while the formation of water by passing it through an ignited glass tube or over heated copper, show that hydrogen is also present: More recently, however, we have a memoir on this subject by MM. Louis Rivier, and professor hi‘ R: 0g eeerer which con- tains many interesting facts. In their experiments they passed for two hoors a series of electrical sparks through a glass vessel containing humid air, and whose sides were moistened with a solution of carbonate of potassa. ‘The air ac- quired strongly the peculiar odor of ozone; which, by standing some time, disappeared, and the liquid was found to contain nitrate of potas- sa. They then proceeded to examine the ozone produced by chem- ical means. © The arrangement consisted of a tube a about three feet in length, in ‘which were placed several pieces of phosphorus moistened with a little distilled water; to one end was adapted a recurved tube; dipping in a bottle 6 which contained milk of lime; by means of an aspirator c connected with the other tube d, the air was made to pass slowly over the phosphorus and through the milk of lime, at the rate of 10 litres in 24 hours, The ozone thus formed was absorbed by the al- kaline fluid, which after 24 hours was removed. After filtration, it was _ evaporated to dryness, redissolved in distilled water, decomposed by carbonate of ammonia, and the resulting salt again decomposed by a solution of strontia, when it afforded a salt in beautiful needles, which gave the following reactions: with sulphuric acid and brucine, a red- dish yellow, and with narcotine a red color; it destroyed the color of sulphate of indigo ; rendered brownish-black the protosulphate of iron; its solution in water with pure hydrochloric acid, readily dissolved gold leaf, and from the solution, chloride of tin threw down the purple pre- cipitate of Cassius; some of the salt mixed with bisulphate of potassa, and heated in a glass tube, gave off abundant red vapors, which prom pte _ ly blanched indigo paper held in the tube. - They next proceeded to distill a portion of the acid liquor a by the slow oxydation of phosphorus; a very gentle heat was applied, and about one third of the liquor distilled over; the vapors were re- ceived in a solution of strontian ; at the close of the operation, this had lost its alkaline reaction; a little more strontian was added, and the ‘whole evaporated to dryness; by re-solution and crystallization, a quan- tity of salt in fine crystals was obtained, weighing about one and a half grains. This salt gave the same reactions as that above, which must be regarded as decisive evidence of nitric acid;, the test with gold, and above all the red fumes evolved by the mixture with — of iy hssanud ete Bees; its nature esse? all aguht, pa te AS € Beek tec oh seins NS eae cee tes icite No. 17, Tome ¥. 1845 - From these experiments they concluded, that the reactions attributed — to ozone, are in reality due to the presence of a small portion of ni- trous acid ; and they found that air mixed with a very small portion of nitrous gas, acquired an odor similar to that of ozone, blanching turme- ric, dahlia and indigo papers, and presenting generally the same phe- nomena as ozonized air. ‘They supposed that the acid first formed is’ the nitrous, as pure nitric acid when very much diluted, does - not ren- der blue a mixture of starch and iodide of potassium, which reaction is'readily produced by the nitrous acid; and that the nitrites formed are converted into nitrates by the absorption of oven during the subse- quent evaporation. These experiments seemed to show, that a iets relation uiviiiie exists between nitric acid and ozone, and many chemists were disposed to regard them as identical; but the late researches of M. Schénbein* have cleared up to some extent the difficulties which seemed to envel- op the subject. M. Schdnbein has ence that when water acts on hypo-nitric acid, there is formed besides hydrated nitric acid, a compound. having the formula NO?+-HO2?, and which he calls the peroxide of azote and hydrogen. It is to the presence of this in the solution of hypo-nitric acid, that we are to attribute its remarkable powers of oxidation. The Same reaction takes place when the hypo-nitric acid is introduced into a flask of moist air. If having ozonized the air of a jar by phosphors, we suspend in it a piece of carbonate of ammonia, till the air acquires the property of immediately blueing litmus paper, we shall find that it still retains all the properties of .ozone—the peculiar odor, the power of decomposing iodide and ferro-cyanide of potassium. This body can then exist in an atmosphere of carbonate of ammonia, and aanis as is found as experi- ment, in one of pure ammonia. ~ If we take a portion of bypo-nitric or fuming nitric, and dilute it with water till it loses its colgr, and having poured a small portion of it into a flask, suspend in the air of the flask a piece of carbonate of ammo- nia, till the air acquires an alkaline reaction, we shall find that it is ca- pable of decomposing iodide of potassium, and blanching indigo paper, ‘and even of converting a crystal of ferro-cyanide of potassium into the ferro-cyanide in the course of twenty-four hours ; ia fact it possesses all the properties of ordinary ozonized air. ‘The circumstances under which these reactions are exhibited, do not admit of the view that the oxidizing agent is any acid of nitrogen, and hence M. Schonbein con- cludes that there exists the compound NO?+-HO?. * Archives de ]’Electricité, No. 20, Tome V, 1845. 108 Scientifie Intelligence. _ An interesting fact bearing on this, is the manner in which the mix- ture of hypo-nitric acid decomposes ferro-cyanide of potassium. If we mix in a tube closed at one end,a solution of the ferro-cyanide with an acid solution prepared-as above described, and then invert the tube in water, a violent disengagement of gas takes place, which is found to be pure nitric oxide, ats ‘the solution contains. nitrate of potassa and the ferricyanide, This Scedeeeiaaath cannot be atiribated: to the nitric. ete contained in the mixture, for we find that pure nitric acid if slightly diluted, does not decompose the salt, and as neither the hypo-nitric nor nitrous — can exist in the presence of water. _ It is well known that ozone decomposes the iodide of setanslaii libs erating iodine. If to a solution of the iodide, we add the acid liquor above mentioned, an abundant escape of nitric oxide takes place, while iodine is precipitated and nitrate of potassa forms. Pure nitric when diluted with the same portion of water as in the acid mixture; does not decompose pure iodide of potassium. . The results of Fellenberg are certainly possessed of great sabetdats The production of nitric acid from the elements of the atmosphere by electricity, was long since noticed by Cavendish, and is a well estab- lished fact; but that this acid is formed by the action of phosphorus on air, is a new and highly interesting result. That this highly oxidized body should be generated in the presence of phosphorus, seems at first paradoxical ; and we can only-refer it to that mysterious force, which Berzelius. has named catalysis, and which is in fact only a manifesta- tion of the law announced by La Place, that ‘¢a molecule set in motion by any power, can impart its own motion to another molecule with which it may be in contact.” In other words, the phosphorus, while in the act of oxidation, communicates its own peculiar state to the nitro+ _gen, which is thus enabled to combine with the oxygen and generate nitrous acid. ‘This certainly affords us a very striking illustration of that law, and we think that this phenomenon is incapable of explana- tion’on any other principle. . M. Marignac has suggested that electricity generated by the oxydation of the phosphorus may be the cause. This. however seems improbable, as it has not been shown that it is excited during the process, and the theory rests on the idea that all chemical action is attended by a development of electricity. But when we con- sider that our most powerful electrical discharges can generate com- paratively very minute quantities of ozone, the amount of electricity can be supposed, under a? circumstances, to be generated by the ae of a omall Atione 6 vitae seems meee inadequate to result. Chemistry. sy, 109 The experiments of Fellenberg, it will be seen, do not really mili- tate against the existence of ozone ; they have only shown that in the ordinary processes by which ozone is generated, nitric acid is also pro- duced, and the similarity between the reactions of air mixed with a little nitric oxide, (by which hypo-nitric acid is generated oan ozonized air, is readily explained by the researches of Schénbein. In explanation of the production of nitric acid and ozone by the slave oxydation of phosphorus, we may suppose that nitrous or hypo- nitric acid is generated in the manner before suggested, which, by the action of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, is converted into nitric acid, and the hypothetical peroxide of azote and hydrogen. _ Although ozone produced by chemical means is probably always as- sociated with nitric oxide, yet we cannot avoid the conclusion, appa- rently overlooked by Schonbein, that the ozone generated under certain circumstances, by the agency of electricity, (as in the experiments of Marignac above mentioned,) must be independent of, and free from ni- tric oxide. This has the odor and all the other properties of ozone produced by chemical means, and it is difficult to suppose that there can be two compounds, one of which is HO? and the other NO?4-HO2, identical in all their properties, and we are hence led to conclude, that, although such a compound may exist in the mixture of hypo-nitric acid and water, it does not exist in the ozonized air, whether this impregna- tion is effected by the action of ae teat or by agitation with the acid solution in question. - MM. Marignac and de la Rive* have recently obtained some results that seem to prove that water is not essential! to the production of ozone. They find that if a series of electrical sparks are passed through oxy- gen, however carefully dried, ozone is formed, and they suggest that ozone may be nothing more than oxygen, to which “‘a peculiar state of chemical activity” is given by the influence of the electric current. M. Schénbein, however, regards the formation of ozone as a certain indi- cation of the presence of water in the gas, but in quantities so minute as to escape the action of the ordinary hygrometive substances. The gentlemen above quoted however, find that the oxygen evolved from very pure chlorate of potassa previously fused, gave ozone, when expo- sed to'the action of the electric spark, as abundantly and rapidly as moist oxygen. M: Schénbein’s hyputhesiay iatiianaity: rests on the assumption that the gas obtained as above and apparently perfectly dry, still con- tains water. The suggestion that it is modified oxygen, is one of great interest, and derives some weight from the recently observed facts re- * Archives de I’Electricité, No. 18, Tome v. 1845, 110 Scientific Intelligence. garding the allotropism of elementary bodies ; and particularly the late ‘researches of Draper on the allotropic condition of chlorine.* If oxy- gen, by the influence of the electric fluid assumes a state of exalted energy and chemical affinity, we are furnished with a key to the modus operandi of electricity, in causing many chemical combinations. But in a science which is based on experimental knowledge, we must carefully avoid deducing our conclusions from isolated experiments or theoretical generalizations, however elegant those deductions may.ap- pear; and in the case of ozone, very careful investigations, performed with the most rigid. exactness, are required before we can admit — a “—_ and interesting conclusion At present, then, we agree vith Prof. Schénbein, that the: ‘hon weight of evidence rests with the view that it is a deutoxide of hydro- gen, which, although differing from the deutoxide of Thenard, has yet ‘many striking points of resemblance; both bleach powerfully, both transform many protoxides to peroxides, (as, for example, protoxides of ealcium and barium,) both transform sulphurous to sulphuric acids, and are decomposed by heat and many organic substances. With regard to the late results of Marignac and de Ja Rive, M. Schonbein remarks: 1.-Ozone has so strong an odor, that extremely small quantities are capable of affecting the olfactory nerves. 2. Quan- tities of ozone by far too minute to be ascertained by weights still per- ceptibly color the test paste. From this it follows that a ieee of aqueous vapor, too small to be sensible by our most delicate hygroscopic tests, may generate S® much ozone’as shall be sensible both to the smell and the iodine test. We have thus endeavored to give a brief abstract of the present state of our knowledge with regard to this subject, and would-refer the reader who wishes to examine ie Sy 909 more thoroughly, to the au- .thorities already quoted. ' T. 8. Hung» 2. Quantitative determination of Seas in Urine; by W. Hentz, (Pogg. Annalen, No. ix, 1845, and Chem. Gazet., Jan. 1846.)—His method is based upon the fact that urine when mixed with sulphuric acid and heated, has all of its urea decomposed, with the formation of sulphate of ammonia. Take two or three drachms of urine, and heat it with about two drachms of sulphuric acid, until all evolution of car- bonic acid ceases, not allowing the temperature to exceed 190°. ‘The liquid is next filtered into a porcelain dish, and most of the water evap- orated ; then add twenty drops of muriatic acid, and a sufficient quan- ‘tity of chloride of platinum and alcohol mixed with ether. Allow the mixture to stand for some feney oelbeese ee acenaeeiteS and from “named ‘estimate the amount of ea: * See this Journal, voli. p. 346. - The potash, free ammonia, and uric acid of urine, will interfere slightly with the accuracy of this. result, but even this cause of error can be avoided, by first adding to another weighed portion of the urine, some chloride of platinum with three volumes. of aleohol and one of ether; which will give the double chloride of the potash and free ammo- nia contained in the urine, that can be subtracted fram what was given by the reaction of sulphuric acid. The error arising from: the uric acid is seldom more than zobao 3 and this acid may. be separated from the urine prior to adding the sulphuric acid, by treating the three drachms of urine with thirty drops of muriatic acid, allowing it to stand. for twenty-four hours and filtering. J. Lawrence Sirs... 3. Determination of the amount of Ammonia contained in the At- mosphere ; by A. GraEcER, (Archiv. der Pharm.,xliv, p. 35, and Chem. Gazet., Jan. 1846, p. 34.)—The method employed by the author, was to pass the atmosphere through muriatic acid contained in a convenient vessel. After thirty-six cubic feet of air had been made to pass through slowly, the acid liquid was evaporated to dryness in a small platinum crucible placed in a water bath, chloride of platinum being . previously added. The residue was treated with alcohol and ether, and the insoluble portion collected and weighed. In the above experi- ment 0-006 grm. of ammonio-chloride of platinum were obtained, and this was found on calculation to correspond to 2 millionth of carbonate of ammonia in the atmosphere., The experiment has been performed in both dry and wet weather with very nearly the same result. J. L. 8. 4, Test for Ruthenium; by M. Cuavs, (Chemist, Jan. 1, 1846-7.) —The best means of ascertaining the presence of Ruthenium in the ore of platinum, is the following :—Melt it with an excess of nitre in a small platinum spoon, exposing it to a strong heat until the mass no ‘longer swells, but becomes perfectly liquid; then allow it to cool and dissolve it in a small quantity of distilled water. A few drops of nitric acid produce in the orange colored solution, a black precipitate, cou- sisting of ruthenium and potash. If we add hydrochloric acid to the liquid in which the precipitate is found, and heat it in a porcelain cap- sule, the oxide is dissolved, and by concentration assumes a beautiful orange color, Finally, if we cause sulphuretted hydrogen to pass through the solution until it has become almost black, and then filter it ; a liquid of a beautiful sky-blue color will pass through. L. 8. 5. Iodine used to distinguish between the Arsenical Antimonial taches formed by Marsh’s Apparatus; by M.. Lassalcne, (Comptes Rendus, Dec. 1845, p. 1324.)—The taches formed by Marsh’s appara- tus are exposed. to vapor of iodine, when, if they be arsenical, they be- come of a pale yellowish brown color, which changes to a lemon yellow, and subsequently disappears by exposure to air or to a gentle heat. 112 Scientifie Intelligence. The antimonial taches under the same circumstances, become of a car- melite yellow, which, by emote to the air, passes to. an orange oe then they remain unchan The alcoholic solution of riodine dissolves instantaneously the ciecuiial tache. The antimonial tache is not acted upon immediately by the same solution, although as the solution evaporates, the metallic antimonial tache is replacad by one of an orange red, ne ioduret of eae ) JT Be 6. On the Decbunipinition tind ‘Analacis of the Coiislaniee of Ammo- nia and Cyanogen ; by R. Smitu, (Phil. Mag., March, 1846, p. 222.) —The ammonia compounds are analyzed by liberating all their nitro- gen by means of some of the chlorine compounds, and estimating the amount of ammonia by the gaseous nitrogen. ‘The chloride of lime was the salt usually employed for this purpose. This method is re- garded by the author as being peculiarly applicable to the analysis of organic substances. He also proposes the employment of chloride of — lime as a ready and accurate method of estimating the quantity of ni- trogen contained in urine, from the amount of gas deengtes by its action in the nitrogenous compounds. Hydrocyanic acid and the cyanides are also very rapidly eon by the chloride of lime or soda, yielding nitrogen gas and woes of lime or soda. The author has also discovered that the | decompose uric acid in a very satisfactory manner, and he is ealtell to believe that they may be et -as solvents for uric acid calculi in the meee és 8. 4. Pre Hopophiaphite’ Rating sh Wantz, (Ann. de Chim. et dle rst Feb. 1846.)—This salt is prepared by boil- ing a solution of sulphuret of barium with phosphorus, until gas ceases to be evolved. If the ebullition be continued long enough, the whole of the sulphuret will be decomposed ; should this not be the case, it is readily got rid of by the addition of a little carbonate of lead, or by the careful addition of sulphuric acid as long as sulphuretted gas is evolved. If an excess of acid be added, it is easily got rid of by @ little carbonate of baryta. All the other hypophosphites are formed from this by double dence position with the soluble sulphates. J. Le S: 8. New Acid in Tobacco; by M. Barrat, (Comptes Rendus, Dec- 1845.)—It has been found that the acidity of water in which tobacco leaves have been steeped, is due to a new acid, called by the discoveret nicotic acid, composed of C?HO2-+-HO. J. L. 8: 9. Valerianic Acid and a New Substance from Caseine ; by Prof. pono HAE und Pharm., Jan. 1846.)—Caseine when gas is evolv- oOo site See PREP Se en ees Si Chemistry. 113 ed along wich the precy: long to cool, mene - wart — and eee ener. , furnishes aq and super-satur is but slightly sohibly in cold water and insoluble i in alcohol and ets Its composition is C16NH®O5. It is soluble in the alkalies, and com- bines with acids. If the fused caseine and potash be treated with tar- taric instead of acetic acid, and the liquid’ submitted to distillation, it furnishes valerianic acid. This acid appears to be preceded in its forma- tion by leucine, which substance is itself converted in to valerianic acid ee the action of potash. 10. Bromo-boracic Acid, (Bromide of Boron;) by M. Pools, dni fe Rendus, Jan. 1846.)—It is prepared by passing the vapor of bromine through a mixture of charcoal and boracic acid, heated to red- ness in a porcelain tube. It is well to heat the mixture of charcoal and boracic acid for about half an hour previous to passing the vapor of bromine through it, in order to get rid of any moisture. The acid, which is a gas, can be collected over mercury, this metal absorbing any excess»of bromine. It is a colorless gas with a pungent odor and acid taste ; it extinguishes combustion and affords white vapors in contact with the air. Chlorine decomposes it with the liberation of bro- mine. Its density is 86443, and its composition is BBr*, J. L. 8. ‘11. Quantitative estimation of Bromine in Mineral Waters; by M. Heine, (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., xxxvi, 181, and Chem. Gazet., March, 1846, p. 103.)—A series of liquids containing a known amount of bromine is prepared, by dissolving in every ounce of distilled water from five to fifty milligrammes of bromide of potassium, making a series of ten liquids. Equal quantities of ether, measured in the same glass, are added to these different solutions and the tubes immediately closed. An equal quantity of chlorine water is next added to the solutions and the mixture well shaken. Upon allowing it to rest, the ether collects on the surface, holding in solution the bromine, and we thus obtain a regu- lar scale of colors, from yellow to brown, and these solutions now serve as standards of comparison. Beyond fifty the comparision becomes more uncertain, because the tints of every additional five milligrammes of bromide of potassium can no longer be well distinguished, on ac- count of the dark color.’ Five milligrammes of bromide of ergo is equal to 3:3 milligrammes of bromide. — As soon as the scale of colors has been piped an ounce of the liquid to be examined, is introduced into’a vessel similar to the ones con- taining the test solutions, and to it is added the same amount of chlorine and ether as in the other cases, it is shaken, and the ether allowed to collect upon the surface, the color of which, by comparison with the Scale colors, will indicate the amount of isd present. J. L.S, Sxcosp Srnigs, Vol. II, No. 4.—J uly 1846. 114 Scientific Intelligence. 12, Solubility of Sulphate of Lime; by M. Antuon, (Chem. Gaz., May 1, p. 173, from Buch. Report, xli, 363.)—M. Anthon. digested pure artificially prepared gypsum, at the ordinary temperature, in a close vessel with distilled water, and in another with a saturated solu- tion of common salt. On examination he obtained from 1000 grains of the first liquid with chloride of barium, 31 grains, and from the second, 11-1 grains, sulphate of baryta.. In accordance with this, gyp- sum dissolves in 438 parts pure water, and in 122 parts solution of chloride of sodium 3. Analyses as Glass ; by M. Pettcor, (L'Institut, No. 638, March 28, 1846.) —Bohemian fine glass—silica 76, potash 15, lime 8, alu- mina 1. Bohemian agate sheak-satian 80: 9, potash 17:6, alumina 8, traces oh oxyd of iron 0:8, lime 0°7. Artificial aventurine from the works at Murano wed Venice—silica 67-7, lime 8-9, sesquoxide of iron 3:5, oxyd of tin 2°3, metallic copper 3°9, oxyd of lead 11, potash, soda 12°6, with traces of alumina, mag- nesia, and phosphoric or boracic acid. From this analysis it appears that this aventurine differs widely from the glass made in imitation of it by MM. Frémy and Clémandot.* 14. On the Solubility of Fluoride of Calcium in water, and its Re- lation to the occurrence of Fluorine in Minerals, and in Recent and Fossil Plants and Animals; by Grorcze Witson, M. D., F.R.S.E., (Chem. Gaz. May 1. 1846, p. 183—read before Roy. Soc. Edinb.)— After a preliminary reference to the existence of fluorine in recent an fossil bones, Dr. Wilson stated that he had made a series of experiments with a view to discover what solvent carried fluoride of calcium into the tissues of plants and animals.» . His first trials were made with cambedie: acid, which was passed i in a current through water containing pure fluor-spar in fine powder sus’ pended init. The fluor-spar was, by this treatment, dissolved, yielding a solution which precipitated oxalate of ammonia, and when evaporated left a residue, which on being treated with sulphuric acid gave off by- drofluoric acid. ‘The author was inclined, in consequence, to suppose that carbonic acid conferred upon water the power of dissolving fluo- ride of calcium; but on observing that, long after the whole of that gas had been expelled by warming the liquid, the latter remained un- troubled, he became satisfied that water alone can dissolve fluoride of calcium, contrary to the universal statement of writers on chemistry. On prosecuting the inquiry, he found that water at 212° dissolved more of the fluor-spar than water at 60°; but. he has not yet ascer- tained tard sor sroreeoneyabon, up by that liquid at either re: "See this Journal, Second Series, , 430 e : sdttiaatiiianie 115 The aqueous solution of fluoride of ealcium was found:to give with salts of baryta a precipitate, which required a large addition of hydro- chloric and nitric acid to dissolve it. The author pointed out the difficulty which must in consequence occur in distinguishing between fluorides and sulphates, and suggested that fluorides may have been mistaken for sulphates in the analysis of min- eral waters. He referred also to the objection which must now tie against the present method of determining the quantity of fluorine pres- ent in bodies, consisting as it does in converting that element into fluo- ride of calcium, which, in the course of the necessary analytical opera- tions, is washed freely, and must be seriously diminished in quantity ; a fact which has of necessity been hitherto overlooked. Dr. Wilson stated, that he was not yet able to suggest an unexcep- tionable quantitative process; but that, at all events, the fluoride of ba- rium, being much less soluble than the fluoride of calcium, might in the meanwhile be substituted for it in the examination of fluoride. The author then proceeded to state, that, in consequence of the ob- servation he had made as to the solubility of fluoride of calcium in water, he had been led to look for that body in natural waters, and had found it in one of the wells of Edinburgh, viz. in that supplying the brewery of Mr. Campbell, in the Cowgate, behind Minto House. At the same time he stated, that preceding observers had already found it in other waters; He believed however, that he was the first to detect it in sea water, where, by using the bittern or mother-liquor of the salt- pans in which water from the Frith of Forth is evaporated, he had found it present in most notable quantity. The author referred to the presence of fluorine in sea water, as adding another link to the chain of observed analogy between that body and chlorine, iodine and bromine. _ Dr. Wilson further stated, that he had confirmed the observations of Will as to the presence of fluorine in plants: and Berzelius’s discovery, that fluorine exists in the secretion from the kidneys; and had, in addi- tion, detected fluorine in milk and blood, in neither of which has it hith- erto been suspected to occur. The paper concluded by some observa- tions on the presence of fluorine in fossils, and its relation to animal Ca 15. Remarkable Discoveries in Iomorphism ; by M. Scuerrer, (ina letter to B. Silliman, Jr., from Berzelius, dated March 10, 1846.)— Mr. Scheerer has just found that in compounds containing magne- sia, protoxide of iron, oxide of nickel and other oxides isomorphous with magnesia, a part-of the base may be wanting without a change of crystalline form, provided that this part be replaced by a quan- tity of water which contains three times as much oxyaen as this part of the base. For seven the compounds Me°Si, Mg?Si+-33, and 116 Scientific Intelligence. MgSi+6H i in accordance with this principle, are isomorphous. ‘Thus chrysolite and serpentine may be isomorphous. ‘The composition of the first, Mg3Si, is anhydrous and constant. Serpentine is hydrated and has a varying composition, wherever found, not affording a chem- ical formula. But examined with reference to M. Scheerer’s views, we observe that in all the best analyses of serpentine, the oxygen of the magnesia and of the protoxide of iron, added to one third the oxygen of the water, is equal to that of the silica; and ‘conse- quently serpentine is a variable mixture of two isomorphous silicates, Me3Si, and Mg2Si--3#. M. Scheerer has brought forward numerous other examples from among silicates, sulphates, &c. M. Scheerer has also discovered that oxide of copper may be re- ~ placed in an isomorphous manner by two atoms of water. ‘We inay now see clearly why so many hydrated minerals have never given uniform results, even with the most careful analyses. The memoir of Scheerer will appear in two or three er in Pog- gendorff’s Annalen at Berlin. ‘The facts here briefly stated were com- municated by him to the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, at its last session. 16. Influence of Magnetism on Crystallization ; by R. Hunt, (Phil. Mag., Jan. 1846, p. 1.)—It has been supposed by many writers that electric or magneti¢ currents must have an influence on the position and character of forming crystals. The experiments of Mr. Hunt illustrate and — ere point in an interesting and satisfactory manner. ~ A tube containing a concentrated solution of nitrate of silver, was placed against -the poles of a permanent horse-shoe magnet, and an- other tube was set away by itself. Crystallization commenced first in the former, and the crystals started at different angles from the glass where it was in contact with the magnet; none forming above the magnet. In the other tube the crystals had no regular arrangement. Ina second and third experiment, by using for comparison another metal, he shows that the cooling influence of the metal was not the cause of this arrangement of the crystals, The crystals, when both poles of the magnet were placed against a capsule containing the same salt in solution, and a piece of metal not magnetic on the opposite side, formed in the fluid almost wholly adjoining the north pole ; only three long crystals appeared opposite the south pole, and these were directed towards those springing from the north pole. The same result was obtained i in four ee of the experiment. “~ steel needle ign dh rac aicaena one, to each pole of a ‘ie gda mag: . © were made to dip into a solution of nitrate of silver in ae NOS . JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. _ [SECOND SERIES.] * - * & E x % Nt ee Ee pisie pe, he ls, gheegey sie xIV. —Notice of Baron Wolfcane Sartorius von Walters- Capa “hausen’s s work on Mount Etna ; by J. L, Haves. oer erest which attached to Etna in ancient ‘nil when anid ountains were considered rare and accidental phenom- ena, and nearly all that was known of volcanic agency was de- rived from an observation of this remarkable mountain, has been * much enlarged — the sphere of igneous action, and have shé 7 that those mysterious phenomena which weregapparent exceptions ~ and magnitude of volcanic agency are enlarged, the more inter- seer is the theatre where - its operations are best displayed. he voleanio is ‘the point of departure to the geologist in his sneha of. the ‘most ancient | revolutions of the globe. It Sp ssi in his own times the phenomena of the disturbance and _ elevation of mighty masses of the earth’s crust. It spreads be- fore his eyes beds of crystalline rock, analogous to those formed in ancient periods. It exhibits a power still at work, which is inherent to the nature of the earth, and must have been active - daring its earliest epochs. — But above all other volcanoes, and wemay say above any other known point on the earth’s surface, : Bitlis fall of instruction to: the oo as well as delizht to a oe Vol. I, No. 5.—Sept., 21 : in no respect diminished by modern discoveries, which have ‘so 158 Baron von Waltershausen’s Work on Mount Etna. all who would observe the terrible and beautiful in nature. The majesty of its proportions—the individuality, if we may so speak, of its form—the frequency and terrible effects of its eruptions, dis- ie playing every form of activity, in the flow of lava currents, the formation of lateral cones, and the uplifting of the solid basisof the mountain—the light which its internal structure throws upon some of the most difficult- questions of voleanic geology—the — fullness and authenticity of its history, going back to’a more re- mote epoch than that of any other volcano, make Etna, the clas- sic volcano, and its phenomena, types of all that is curious and ~ wonderful in the most sublime agency of nature. Etna has never been without its observers from the time of Pin- — dar, who described it with such graphic skill. Notwithstanding: the details respecting its structure and phenomena, presented in the works of the Sicilian savans, Recupero, Ferrara and Gem- mellaro, whose lives were passed at the foot of the mountain, new and important facts have been made known by foreigners who: opportunities for observation have been limited, and particularly by Dolomieu, Spallanzani, Hamilton, Scrope, ‘Hoffman, Abich — and Lyell. The observations made by Elie de Beaumont in 1834, during a visit of only a few days, have thrown a flood of light _ upon the structure of this mountain, and seem almost to have re- _ solved the great question as to the mode of elevation of the vol- - _ eanic piles. But. even this most acute observer acknowledges that all the materials for the construction of an edifice whose ~ achievement would present. the first interest to science, could not be condensed into a complete work, except by one.who should make a prolonged sojourn upon the places to be described. In deed nothing less than a faithful picture of this portion. of the crust of the globe, founded upon all the observations of former explorers, prepared with all the appliances of modern science; and illustrated by the highest art, could satisfy the curiosity as which this remarkable spot is regarded. . These considerations will enable us to appreciate the service Which has been done to science by the labors of a German sé van, Baron von Waltershausen, who has’ finished and is 10W presenting to the world a popeleie history of Etna and its con- vulsions. "A brief’ personal sketch will convey the ones sabe of hie 6 4 | for the great work. which he Boe endetaken cel eee ee ntif , Baron von Wailtershausen’s: Work o on Mount iy 169 Baron Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, now sabout 37 . years old, was born in Géttingen. His father, a corresponding member of the French Institute, and a representative of one of the German States at the Congress of Vienna, is still well known on the continent of Europe as the author of an important and learned history of the Hanseatic cities and their league. From the intimacy existing between Géthe and the family of Baron Waltershausen, that great poet was his godfather, and gave him his own name, John Wolfgang. He was educated chiefly at the University of Géttingen, where his father was for some years a professor, lecturing with great reputation on History and Politi- eal Science, and refusing from his attachment to the place and its resources, frequent offers that were made to him of higher posi- tions in the service of Russia and other German States. But the son so far as intellectual occupation was concerned, showed no disposition to follow in his father’s footsteps. From __. his earliest youth he discovered a passion for the study of nature, and especially of mineralogy and geology. When hardly seven years old, in a childish letter to a friend of the family, a distin- guished s scholar of this country, who was about to visit Italy, he said, “ la am making a collection of mineral stones, and I wish I had some lava. If you go to Naples, pray send me a piece from Vesuvius.” The passion thus early developed grew with his - years, and after the death of his father, who died in his arms in © - 1828, and that of his mother, a lady of some accomplishments _ -and personal attractions, which followed two or three years later, ‘ he found. himself still young, in possession of:a good fortune, as and free to devote himself to the pursuit of his favorite sciences. His deter wn was at once taken, and he prepared himself by the most entebak study, and by personal investigation of the min- -eralogy and geology of Gomer: for the enquiries that he i in- ¢ Rended to make elsewhere. _ He was satisfied however, that in onder to do any eg aie for the (ubvntioeeatee of the sciences to which he now devoted his life, he must avoid the common fault of extending his researches over - “too wide a field. After much consideration therefore, he selected asingle point, Etna and its neighborhood, as the scene of his la- ~ bors, determining to remain there until he should have accom- - Bed whatever in the present state of knowledge could be un- derta for the magma of its eae! phenomena, 160’ Baron von Waltershausen’s Work on Mount Etna. As soon then as he could make the large arrangements necessary - for his undertaking, in 1835-6, he hastened to Sicily, carrying © with him such draftsmen, surveyors and other assistants as could be useful. He was delighted with the region so admirably cho- sen for enquiries intended to enlarge the boundaries of science, and establishing himself on the highest habitable point of the voleano, devoted himself with the greatest zeal, self-denial and _ perseverance to his task, until he had completed the most ample topographical and geological maps of the whole country, investi- gating at the same time its peculiar character with great muinute- ness, and preparing drawings and sketches of every thane: that could illustrate his discoveries or their results. - In this great work he and his assistants spent; seven ‘years, un- til the “mad German,” as the ignorant part of the population sometimes called him, had become as well known to the sail tants of the island as the mountain itself. ~ “At last in 1842, he returned to Germany, carrying with him a great work which he had completed amidst much personal expo- sure, peril and suffering, without support from any European gov- ernment, and sustained only by the love ef science and his own _ strong will. This work he is now publishing both in Germai _ and French, under the title of “ Etna and its Convulsions.” It _ is when completed to consist of two parts. The first part. is to be an atlas folio volume of engravings, containmg 1. A topo- graphical chart of Etna and its neighborhood, drawn in the pro- portion of 1 to 50,000 in., from trigonometrical surveys made by himself, or under his own. supervision, on 15 large folio sheets. 2. A corresponding geological map on 15 similar sheets, and 3. — About 54 large engravings of views, sections and other sketeh- €s appropriate to the illustration of the whole subject; explana- tions of the plates accompanying each. The first number: of this part.of the work was published in Géttingen in 1845, and» beautifully engraved by artists of much merit, one of whom, Ca- ~ vallari, Baron von Waltershausen had in his service in Sicily, and took with him to Germany on account of his great skill 10 this particular department of topographical drawing and engrav- | ang. Five other numbers will’ follow at intervals of a year, ma- — an femee one bipiee of each. of which will be seven a M, wae” Se +e io gatas haere t ux See fae, $2 ee Baron von Waltershausen’s Work on Mount Etna. 161 The second part of the work is to consist of a thick qtiarto _ volume, containing after a general and scientific topographical in- troduction, the astronomical observations made to determine the localities, the base measurement and triangulation of the volcano ; a minute topographical description of it; trigonometrical and barometrical observations to determine its height; an examina- tion of its terrestrial magnetism; its mineralogy complete ; a his- tory of its eruptions from the days of the Licanians to the ent time ; its entire geology, with an account of its origin and of the anion it has undergone, as far as they can now be tra ced or recognized ; and in conclusion, a discussion of the general theory of volcanoes, and a comparison of Etna with the Liguri- an voleanoes, Vesuvius, and the volcanoes of the South of Eu- rope. This part will be published as soon as it can be prepared. This remarkable monograph, on which its author has so disin- terestedly spent and is now spending the best years of his life and a large part of his fortune, is published wholly at his. own expense, and without any expectation of being remunerated for his sacrifices, except by the reputation he will earn, and the con- Sciousness of what he has done for the great cause of science and the progress of intellectual culture. ; - ‘Thinking that there may be persons in this country who have a spirit like his own, and are interested in similar pursuits, he has — sent, we are happy to say, a few copies of the first number of — his work in French to a friend in Boston. 'They may be found | on sale at Little & Brown’s, booksellers, Boston. We need hardly mention that this is the same work of which some early speci- were presented by Hon. Nathan Appleton to the Associa- tion of American Geologists, at their meeting in Washington in 1844, and with respect to which resolutions of high commenda- tion were passed by the Association. - Until the present time the model for jobiories in voleanic eile fi been the elegant monograph by Leopold von Buch, the Phy- sical History of the Canary Islands, which at the time of its ap- “pearance was justly esteemed the most beautiful geological work ‘ever published. The highest praise that we can offer with re- gard to the execution of “Etna and its Convulsions,” is to say that the illustrious work of the father of German teblécints has been wholly surpassed by the genius and industry of his coun- trym = man. zs 162 Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane. We hope that this elegant and valuable work will find its way to the libraries of our men of science and fortune. It is a model © which our best geologists and topographers may study with pro- fit. It will exhibit to younger students in physical science, the a rich rewards of concentrated and long continued labor, and it | may excite some of our own countrymen to achieve among the \ unexplored volcanoes of the South, and on our western coast, conquests in science more glorious than those of victorious arms. Art. XV.—On Three several Hurricanes of the American Seas and their relations to the Northers, so called, of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Honduras, with Charts illustrating the same ; by W. C. Reprimip. (Continued from Vol. I, p. 369.) Review of the Poca teouge and Characteristics of the ee _ Hurricane. Devs detailed observations and accounts which have now been. submitted, afford us a comprehensive view of the two Cuba storms, in their daily progress, and may serve for enabling other 3 ‘to make a more complete analysis and generalization of - the several. phenomena than can be attempted on the present oc- casion. It will be my province to elucidate some of the more prominent facts and characteristics which pertained to these aii , and especially to the great hurricane. Track or THE Storm.—From what primary sources, or in what particular region this hurricane had its origin, or on what portion of the earth’s surface it first took effect as an observable gale of wind, does not appear. Its observed route, as indicated by the ferkwoing recitals, appears nearly direct from the shores of Central America, crossing the islands of Cuba and Newfoundland, and may fairly be estimated as extending from Cape Honduras, lat. 16°, lon. 86°, to a point on the axis line opposite to the ors tion of the Independence at noon of Oct. Sth, near lat. 50° 25° lon. 49° 45’; which, following the axis route, exceeds three thousand stdtuts miles. To what further extent this storm ~~ be tmpcedy does not dissinesly appear.* MH eoc porry \f th. OY Pe Soe At> oo os ‘ * erin See oe 163 Rare or Pascialineat, —This may be approximately. shoWeeby the following estimate of the progress of the storm’s axis,—whieh, : so far as known, coincided nearly with the observed minimum of the barometer, at the several points of observation. We com- _ mence from a point on the axis line opposite to the Cpenango, (recital 7,) about 9-30 p. m. on the 4th of October. — No.7 to opposite Key West =246 miles in 164 hours ; rate 15 miles per honr. . ey West to-let. 279.30! =324-.* 12) « “6 26 Son isha © Tat. 27° 30! to lat. 31° IF HF lh ee = lat. 31° to lat. 40° Sa peouo tt etl Be = bor id Cah wege Tat. 40° to lat. 45° SEROUS OR = St ea ee ae ee Previous to the night of the 4th its progress may have been slower than the lowest rate here given. (1.) We notice that while below the tropic, the rate of pro- gression did not exceed that which has been found in several of the West Indian hurricanes moving in the same latitudes but following a widely different course. (2.) We find that a highly rapid, if not unexampled progression was acquired by this hurricane while on its course from the tropic to the usual exterior ~ limit of the trade winds ; in which region the progress of hurri- canes has often been comparatively slow. Such former cases of retardation I have attempted to explain by the change froma westerly to an easterly progression; a change that does not ap- pear in the Cuba storm. (3.) We find that the most rapid ad- vance of this storm was from the northern border of the trade winds to the parallel of 40° or 420 ; this being the region, in < which, if I mistake not, the pertoaneit currents of the lower at- '__ mosphere are commonly found in their fullest activity. (4.) We here ascertain a gradually decreasing rate of progression in the latitudes beyond 40°, which has probably occurred in other storms, and which, in connexion with other causes, may serve, in some degree, to explain or account for the extent and compli- cation of the barometric waves. and other meteorological phenom- ena in the higher latitudes. The average progression of the ston from the Bahamas to lat- itnde 45°, may be stated at forty miles per hour. So far as is yet known, the most rapid progression has been attained by those storms which have pursued the most northerly . courses, in their progress from the lower latitudes. The highest ae tate previously known, in the American seas, appears to have ai 97) 164 Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane. been about thirty miles an hour; while in the case before us the rate, through perhaps twelve degrees of latitude, appears to have — exceeded forty-three miles an hour. The integral progression of the great storms of the lower at- mosphere may be viewed as affording data of great value for any investigations of the actual course of atmospheric circulation, or of the great planetary laws by which this circulation is chiefly maintained.* LateraL Diameter or THE Storm.—In determining the full diameter or breadth of the storm, across its path, it is somewhat difficult to mark an approximate limit of its action on either side of its axis, independently of any deficiency in the observations. Thus it might be questioned whether we should test its extent (1) by the observed prevalence of an active storm-wind, at the surface only,—or (2) by the entire extent of the conformable or vorticular winds at the.earth’s surface,—or (3) by the presence and observed movements of the lower stratum of storm-clouds, ~ as connected with the foregoing,—or (4) finally, by the more widely extended effects on the barometer. ; e may conclude, however, that the broadest lateral extent over which the winds of this storm prevailed in observable strength at the surface, or in which the weather exhibited a stormy ap ‘pearance, or effect, exceeded a diameter of nine hundred miles and perhaps equalled one thousand ; while the general breadth of the gale, as one of ordinary, as wel as extraordinary force, may be estimated as, at least, eiatil hundred miles.+ This last, if taken as the average width of the storm path and multiplied by the observed length of the latter, as before esti- mated, indicates an area of two millions and four hundred thousand square miles, which was swept over, with more or less violence, by this gale; an extent nearly three times greater than all the territory of the United States east of the re *It may be proper again to state, that the results of the author's inquiries 09 the courses of winds, and their relations to temperature, in different regions, and at different elevations, have constrained him to relinquish the common theory that heat is the sole or main cause of wind, or progressive motion, in a planetary at- mosphere. He has been aware of the disadvantage in which this ayowal may tend to place vn. in ote minds of many votaries of science whose approbation it would be his pine: obtain. The erties r elucidation of this question, he conceives, Will i ONCE BF RE ee cane dae PPE nok ana ane csaptn te tehlatentenngtn ener sats The width of that portion of the ack ee was 2 Salih ited either the violence of a hurricane or that of a severe or de- structive gale may be estimated to exceed five hundred miles.* D1taMeTer OF THE Storm oN ITs Center Patu.—The diameter of the storm-wind from front to rear might be directly determin- ed by the distance from a point in front to another in rear at which it severally began or ended at the same time; provided that we could obtain good hourly observations which should so coincide. An available substitute for this method is found in plotting the observations for a given hour, on successive days, as on Chart IV, and the other charts which follow. Thus the distance between the two several positions assigned to the axis of the storm at noon - on the 5th and 6th days of October, respectively, is 784 miles. Now the Demarara, (45b,) in front of the gale on the 5th, was brought to reefed topsails as early as 8 a. m.; while at noon on the 6th, after an advance or drift of 88 miles in the Gulf Stream, this vessel remained hove to, and did not set reefed topsails till 1 P.M. ; nor let out reefs and make full sail till 6 vp. m., a period of 34 hours. This authorizes an estimate of 1084 miles for this diameter of the storm as a reefed topsail gale. The distance between the two axis positions on Chart TV for noon of the 6th and 7th, respectively, is 950 miles, and the ob- servations of the winds and minimum of the barometer on board the Pique frigate appear to show that the storm figure for noon of — 7th should have been placed thirty miles further in advance, mak- — ing the distance between the two axial points equal to 980 miles. Now, even at Bermuda the strength of the gale was marked 6 at two hours before noon of 6th; and, more in front, the gale was _ strong with the Wakulla (148) at noon, and continued to blow a gale till noon of the 7th. These facts indicate a diameter of more than a thousand miles. These — inelude neither the incipient nor the closing moderate and light winds whic were conformable with the body of the oe Another good estimate of the diameter in this direction is ob- tained by multiplying the rate of progress by the whole duration of the storm wind, at the several points where the observations have been most complete. If we apply this to the éntire obser- vations at Key West, (38,) about 48 hours, with an average rate * Recitals 11, 0, 66, 118,, ree 156, and — ae 166 Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane. of 15 miles for the first 26 hours, and of 32 miles for the last 22 hours, we have 1094 miles for this diameter. The like estimate applied to the observations on board the Demarara, (45b,) with the increased rates of advance, and deducting the vessel’s progress, will give a result fully equal to the foregoing. These conclu- sions may be sustained, also, by a like reference to the recitals mentioned below.* These results cannot be invalidated by the reports which are less determinate, nor by those which refer only, or chiefly, to the more violent portion of the gale. They are satisfactorily tested by the fact that the daily advance of the gale, which from lat, 27° to 42° was equal to 1032 miles per day, does not, in all ca- ses, afford space on the chart sufficient for the separate daily de- lineation of all the observations of the earliest and latest wind of the storm. We may hence conclude that the entire extent of. the gale on its line of progress was somewhat greater than its lateral diame- ter; unless we admit that, on its southeastern border, the gale was extended much beyond our points of observation on that side. Its limitation on the left or continental side, owing prob- ably to the obstructions and elevations of the surface and the pressure of the natural currents from the western board, is more distinctly determined. The Naa of the violent portion of the sles 5 in the direc- tion of its progress, does not appear to have been less than in the transverse direction.+ Revoivine Cuaracrer or THe Storm-Winp.—As regards the general manner in which the wind was exhibited in this case, aS well as in other great storms, I can find no ground for the sup- port of opposite or dissimilar conclusions. On a general review of the observations, the following state of facts is presented to our notice. (1.) In the early part or front of the storm, on its centre path, we find the wind to have blown from the southeastern quarter, transversely from the right towards the left side of the path. Continuing to follow this wind in its course, as we depart froni the axis path the observations show it to proceed. Successively from more eastern and northeastern points, * Nos. 72, 86, 100, 118, 121, 123, 129, 130, 141, 142, 144, se mies on an examination ded == cates in cases 35, 38, 64, ae si ee > * daa clog ne 167 till, on the passing of the gale’s axis, it has veered so far tithe left as to blow from northern and northwestern points of the ho- rizon, thus turning gradually towards the center path, and, final- ly, recrossing it, in the rear of the storm’s axis, on the fair-weath- er or clearing-up side. See observations in Table 1; which fol- lows. We find, indeed, in some localities, that a portion of the successive changes in the wind’s direction have oceurred some- what suddenly, or with some irregularity, but this will not inval- idate the general result of the observations. (2.) If now we place ourselves again in the front of the storm, on its center path, and follow back the first southeasterly wind towards its apparent source on the right hand side of the storm path, the observations will show, that as we recede from the axis line and the storm advances, the wind comes, successively, from _ points more and more southward or southwesterly, till, on the passing of the gale’s axis, it comes from points qcteniealy more westward and leading us again towards the axis line, on the pos- terior side of the storm, till, finally, we find ourselves in the same northwesterly wind from which we had parted at the end of our first semi-circuit of the gale. See the successive observations in Table III. In thus tracing the circuit of the wind, on the two sides of the storm-path, we have followed the order in which the wind’s chan- ges are severally presented to observers. We have seen that these changes have been in opposite courses of succession, on the opposite sides of the axis path, viz. from the right towards the left, on the left hand side of the path, and from the left towards the right, on its right hand side. But if we follow out our first trace continuously round the circuit, from the rear to the front of the storm on its right side, being the constant direction from right to left, ©), we shall then follow the wind in its own order of progress, which is the reverse of the order in which its suc- cessive changes are always presented to observers on this right hand side of the axis route, by the advance of the storm over the places of observation. It is evident, therefore, that observers in the right side of a storm, in this hemisphere, have the changes of wind presented in a batkward or reversed succession; while with those on the left side of the path the succession of clithoen 3 is a forward one, coin- with the order of the wind’s rotative progress. . a 168 Phénomena of the Cuba Hurricane. (3.) In accordance with the foregoing facts, we find that the observed changes in the wind’s direction were most rapid or sud- den in places nearest to the axis of the gale. On and near the axis path the southeasterly wind, first mentioned, was found to continue without much change of direction as the storm advan- ced, until the approach of the axis; when, commonly after an axial lull or remission, a change to the opposite quarter took place, more or less sudden, or rapid, and the wind then continued to blow from the northwestern quarter, till the close of the gale. See observations in Table II. It may be seen that these several statements are but connected summaries of ‘the observations which were made under different portions of the gale, during its progress. Synopsis of THE OssEeRvATIoNs.—T'o facilitate a satisfactory examination of this important question of rotation, I annex, in a brief and tabular form, the principal observations contained in the previous recitals ; which are comprised in the three tables al- ready referred to. The several cases are marked, in the first col- wnn, with the same numbers as before, and the order of progress is observed, except that the observations made within sixty miles of the axis line, comprising a belt of one hundred and twenty miles wide, along the center path of the storm, are comprised in ‘Table TI, while the remaining observations on the left side of the path are contained in Table I, and those from the right ~ in Table Il. (For these tables see pp. 170—173.) I also add the subjoined Sete eg obtained since the for- mer recitals were printed. 4. Report from Capt. Brown, British ship Gossypium, reduced to civil time.—Sept. 30th, 1844, moderate breeze from N. N. E.; hauling northward, with hazy weather. Oct. Ist, a. m., wind N. to N. N. W., gradually increasing ; strong current carrying the ship to ee lat. 20° 19’, lon. 84° 30! :—p, m., clear weather, wind N. W., increasing- M., gale = Sg ae to double reefs ; current one and a half to mutha ; we 20° 5’, lon. 85° 7 :—p. M., freshening from N. N. W., ship heading N. N. E.; (on larboard tack,) bar. net 20; reduced sail to close reefed topsails, sent down top gallant wen at midnight, in lat 20° 46’, lon. 84° 37’, the gale increased rapidly toa har- ricane, gia ng from N. W Oct. 3d, a. M., harricane with small rain and heavy sea, lying to on larboard tack with tarpaulins in mizen rigging, to keep the ship's head to i sea; wind veering from to W. and 8. W.; barometer about 29 inches :—r. m., severe hurricane with rain; win nd veering from S® W. to S. and S. E., from which last pete it blew ree d longest; at 11 Pp. m., the mainmast blew over the side. Oct. 4th, a. M., severe hurricane; at 7a. m., the foremast blew over the side; wind | Patan wading, E. to E. and N. E.; iiadina iach, Si before :—p. M., hurricane with “onl fee Ponto: Beilanae weal roeeas Soa 8 ee cae me a sais Fee re Se, oe AE hg w Deen Paap 29h Phe Ge oho the pincer o> se Sela Foe . 4e- Oct. 5th, a. m., gale continues; baromete oly vende Lae W.; séa running high and ship laboring sae :—P. M., strong spas from N. W. with a heavy cross sea. Oct. 6th, aA. M., winds moderate, from N. ms lat. a 52, 84° 21’. (Capt. B. ete this as an abstract of a atthe time. It eth the same phases of the gale on the 4th ei 5th as ee the Ang (6) and ma 0 (D; while the previous report of the wind’s veering “round the compass,’’ dur the gale, is also proved to be strictly correct. This statement shows, ass. a perfect continuity in the double gale, at this locality, and Rie aa indicate a detour in pe axis- second storm while in the Honduras ~ corresponding to the general system of progres- sion which is seen on Chart Il. The complete enti’ of the st eae with this ship, whose change of position was ak very eg but whose track a winds differ much in direction from those of the Norman (19), Pek remarkable.— Capt. Brown says, “the ship’s drift was about two knots an nie forming a kind of circle.” The di- ameter of this a may have been 39 to 40 miles. Capt. B. was in the Barbadoes hur- ricane on the 1 of August, 1831, and thinks this storm quite as bad, while it was of much longer Ba He thinks the ship must have foundered had she been on the oth- er tack.] 118. cia Zaida, Sept. 27th, was near Cape Cruz, S. side of Cuba, in lat. 20° 12/, winds E. by N. to N. E., and continued to vary betwee oS and N. W. till night of Sept. 30th, ‘Silke with tosh gales from ety Ist, at A made Cape Antonio, E W. end of Cuba,] bearing N. N. W.; wind N. N. E., fresh aD and clear; noon, , lon. 30’; P. Oct. 2d, strong breezes N. by E.and pleasant; 6 a.m. N.E.by N.; 11. m. single reef- topsails; lat. obs. 22° 30’, lon. 85° 28’; Pp. m. commences strong from N. E., squally ; 3 Pp. M. took in jib and spanker; 4 p.m. close reefed fore and main topsails and furled mainsail, reefed foresail; ends strong gales from-N. N. E.—Oct. 3d, took in fore topsail ; 4 a.M, furled foresail ; sent down top gallant yards and hove to; gale still ye Ny. rj — a heavy cross sea from N. E. and o nN; a ship laboring hard; up N. W gale fi heavy avila with apa 4 3. A. M, set seclat esis £1 A. M. gale N. E. by N., urs ses.—Ott. 5th, 4 a. m. wind N. by W.; 7 a. m. N.N. W., squally, a heavy sea from N. E.; noon, lat. 23° 15’; p. m. fresh gales from N. N. W., hig a heavy sea from S. E., N. E. and dN, W..;2 P. ee aoe nsail; 4 Pp. Mm. wind N. N. W.; 8 p.m. N. W. by W.—Oet. 6th, a. Mm. wind N. W. by N., fresh breezes and fine weather ; noon, ble. MAN states that during the gale the Gulf Stream current, off Cuba, had be- come cBaiigad i its course, drifting the Zaida rapidly to the westward; so that on the — of vel 7th he fourfd himself off Cape Cartouche, in lon. 86° 40’. On the Ith of October, at 3p. Mm. he — up the -“ aervevers of he 4th off Cape Florida, in lat. i 40 [This positio , also, the extraordi check of the surface current of the Florida ‘treat; for these men were drifted off the Bank as early as the 7th. See case 43, ante. The Zaida rg had the double gale ; the second superseding the first, early on the night of Oct. 3d. _ Capt. rg of the Rebecca (20), er § ves a second o at Santa Cruz, began At n the S. E. quarter, and went round by the e westward, ending on oe 5th. 10 A.M. of sh “had got to be very | heavy, d fl d i S. S. W.and W. S. W. ull4 P.M d, gradually abating. 356. ripe bah from St. Juan de Los ino [N. side of Cuba, lat. 22° 37’, lon 79° 40/,) reports that a wes severe gale of wind occurred at that place on the Ist of Octo- ber and continued until the 3d, commencing es N. to N. E, and ending at S. E., caus- ‘on Patriot 45c. Barque California, Sept. 30th, lat. obs. ‘Me SY Ton . 79° 34’; 2 p. m. fresh gales N, Ete, oe sea; 4 P. M. meeret: the topsails ; 10 r. M. wind E. N. E.— a ae TaBLe I.—Left side of the Storm Path; Hurricane of Oct. Ath to 7th, 1844. | These apervasions show the progressive occurrence of the storm-wind, first from the eastern and northeastern quarter, and successively chan : state of the barometer noticed during the gale. a lace, or Mesiei |. tat: | Lan. Lon. | Date — duation of | Rocieaea a ga of —_ a, bead wet th poe eee | 2. |Marwa £ ey Parts Oct. a ae “Webibaes "ending a at me Coombes Baath | ogboo | 4, |Go: um, 40 | oi, (ath nt - NE, 29 in. Capt. Brown’ * dnpogety | 6,\Angola, . . 20 3 83 16 a. mi to NNE, Py! ‘3. “4th, Ao aM. 29 in. Log: Capt. | 7. |Openango, 21 15'83 30 morn. of 4th to at a oo : " Fa Mn Ay? ae 9-30 t. Vosr’s statement, 1\F ny 22 407185 407 4th to Sth, oN xe northerly, 235 “ night, ‘Marine Tepor Zaida,. . 23 28184 2d 4th to 5th NEbN, to xb w, NNW, ee 180 “ ** |Log: Capt. Coordin, : Plantagenet, 24 307/83 40? 4thto 5th, } NNE, . 230 “ (5th, lla.m Macine reports. eee aoneio, 22 55'82 43'5 p.m. 4th to 5th, | &, ENE, N, Cs ee , Bit Diario de la Habana. Batabano, 2 43/82 32) p.m. 4th to 5th, NE, to nw. (7% seg: do. Guat Be ear |Hav. noon 4th to p.m. 5th,ENE, NE, NNE, . Nw.80 « 9-30 do. Havana, . . {23 09/82 19'4.m.4th to eve. 5th, ESE, ENE, NE by k, N, NwW.85 “# 10. shes Fosren’s journal. as : 3 457/82 20?) 4th to eve. 5th,ENE, NE, NNE, N, NNW,Nw.90 “ Capt. Hover ene est, 27/81 50' a.m. 4th to noon 6th, E, ENE, NE, N, Mew, w, Nw.|l18 .m, 29:13 Rep. to Sur. Gen. Law sn pa Bay, tf 57182 35 ‘morn. 5th to . 6th, » dct NE, “ night, 29°79 rag pan ‘Aoguie ) 40/81 35 morn. 5th to noon 6 6th, “NE, NE, nw. (305 “ (|6th,2 a.m. 29°82 dpe en 35 79 30 eve. 4th to eve. 6th, ENE, inh, NNE, N, NNW, N w.187 i g. ornia, + 79 - 10 A.M. 5th to 101 >a, Geha ENE, NEby £, Nbyk, N ~ “210 “ 5°30 “ Log: Capt. MayvuEw. Merling, . . 4 [75 40 noon 5th to waht of 6th,| » « N, NNW, Nw. (230to 150 9°30 « if. Charleston, 46 |79 46 p.m. 5th to night of 6th, £, . NNE, . Nw, 335° 7:30 29°80 Rep. to Surgeon Gen. Cape Fear, 54|78 1 hight of th tonightor hy E, NE, en me eee: & 10 “ do. Beaufort, 41/76 50} do. te ightof6th, . N,N, 270 noon, do. Emeline, . 30 |74 night of 6th, NE, NN®, liz: 2 do. B65 t Capt. Sawyer’ Seeaihem sepublic, . 40 |7 port th, EN“, ‘NE, NNE, bs ae Nw.| a “ 0°30 p.m. og: Capt. Gar Ww . Nelson, 7 a | NE, to NW. 162 2 as di Genome tiga, . 10\75 early 6th to morn. 7th, da el 7 NNW, Nw. (205 * 2 ¢ Log: Capt. Hattock Cotton Pla ) v4 = 6th NE, NNW, Nw. 162 230 « Log: Capt. Pra. Zt FP, Lamar, 4 Pras 74 pA early Bh to early 7th, NE, NED N veering by N, He e 23 “ Log: Capt. SANNERMAN. . TO, . 4 . us| : : * anaes ‘. . (34 30/7 ow E? se NNW, nw./100 “ 2:3 Mar. Rep. i Seat Cuark. onroe, {37 76 9 nightofSthtonightof 6th ey NE, oh us ENW. IS 3 “ 29°82 |Rep. to Sur. ing or veering, more or less gradually, by the north, to the northwestern quarter, as the gale advanced in its course ;—with the lowest Remarks. evere ange Sa ev ale ened from N.N. E. ous — cane. pomene and — hur. lerr rific hur N. n.| Destructive hurricane. a : pee t of lei rida. eight of gar einn n yl Stre ofl Farid, a. oe 3 88 ae many others. od hi hurricane. siege gre ale Select ngly heavy. ip dismaste "rerndndotis hurricane. Jismasted. ‘remendous gale. a ee a ae “UDOLLEN ET =n ayy fo needs 5050729154 a.m. 6th to morn. 7th,'NE, o NNE, . NNw. [108 5 . Log : d ; lost top 4 var,/73 20?! night of 5th to 6th, |NNE, NE, . N nw. |140 * ba’ A Capt. ig ccm arse cose hurricane. x 3 4574 25 early 6th to 7th, (NE, NE, NN, NNw.'320 * Ces, nw apt. Sergeant. |Heavy gale. “Wh: ) 30/73 ' 6th to 7th, | “NE, ° NNE, N, NNW.300 * 830 “ Mates’ statement. Close reefed gale. ry. 42/74 1 noon 6th 7th,|NE, NNE, . bw, nnw.400 “ 9:30 |29'84-\Jour. of W. C. RepFIELD.| AG es 40-70t073 m. 6th to th, ; ONNE, ON, NNW. (265 “* 10°30 * Log. Strong gale. “ 18'72 57 noon 6th to P.M, 7th,Nbx, NE, . Nbw, . Nw.359 “ 11 = (29°72 Jour. of Col. CurLer. a 30'72 |p.m.6th to 7th, |NEy NNE, N, NNw, Nw.306 “ i ce Marine Reports. Very hard 20\72 8 |p. m. 6th to p.M. 7th, NE, F N, We oe =f 11-40 * Rep. to - ee Gen. Heavy rain eer high wind. a 28 a 23\p.m.6th to p.m. 7th, od ot . Nw. (384. # 12 * (29-7 hy. 15,706 |p.m.6th to p.M. 7th,m, N ; N, NNw. (260 “ (7th, 0:30a.m.'29°50-Jour. of Wu. MITCHELL. ens lagi heavy. > 47 |63 56 P.M. 6th to eve. 7h, bos. we, N, NNW, -- 153... 030 “ evere hur.; lost sails, &c. a 20 (68 20 P.M. 6th to eve. 7th, NE, . N, NNW, w.l52 1 “ sale a apt. penalty do. : Ss \66var.1 P.M. 6th to endof 7th,fsz, ENE, NE, NNER, N, W105 0 to 50 330 « ; Mates’ stateme do. 30 (67var. or P.M, 6th * eve. 7th, ENE, NE, NNE, WN, ‘80 2 a do. —’ ; 4 67var. p.m. 6th P.M. ‘7th, NE, . N, NNW, Nw. — to 1s i Se Lo og. Heavy gale. S 21\71 12 pe. M. 6th ve hx 7th,| NE, NE, Nw. /|852 1:30 * 29-795 Rep. to Sur. Gen. ef @ 03/70 43 |p. m. 6th to a: a ee 364 230 “ Ss 41/72 22 |p. “ hay: to sight’ of ith, N, N, N. 460 * 2-30 = Jour. of Prof. Y * 10 |65 6th to ENE, N, NNw, Nw.85+ ‘ 1:30“ |28-25*|Capt. CoLLin’s prnee t. pee | 2 67 a ‘oth 2 ith . NE, - i : 182“ 4:30 « arine Reports. Severe gale. 30 70 21 on 7th, |se? : Nyce uW, NjB68 & 4:30 “ 29°73 |Rep. to Sur. Gen ae 351/66 5 jeve. fin . night 7 “th, NE, ‘ N, Nw. (225 * 1 Marine Reports. eavy gale. J 35 (65 4 : ee ‘ . . aE O45 “ Marine Reports. Severe gale ; lost topmasts,&c.| _ rh L53'67 jend ote bth to mica att 7th, <7 ey N, nw. |310 “ ih. Rep. to Sur. Gen, beets - 67 40| “ 6thto “ 7h, ne nw, . (390 # 10°30 | Mavic hi (68 20) * Gthto * u NE, N,N. 460“ 1-15 do. Meh ee 36 /63 28 12 a.m. 7th to M. 8th,\x NE, ENE, NE'terly, N, . NW. 168 11:30 * 129° 23 88 MS ship Illustrious. |Ad.SirC Apam,thro’Col REr b t 21/63 end of 6th ra ase Nets E, ENE, NE, — ee = 188 to 132 11:30 * 28-90 4. M. ship Scylla. do. a ee ee 20 60 58 early 7th 8th, |sz, : and nw.98 2°45 Pon M.| Menten of Schr. Actress. hina Z 33.61 18 ‘early 7th 2 ‘0 A.M. 8th,'sk b KE. Eb N. NNE, N, NNW, NW will3 “ 3 * 29:19 |Log Hu. M. ship ique. do. ‘i ! 4 ~ Shij ips 121 and 123 were in the Gulf Stream, bound SnsNArT longitude uncertain. Ships 111, 122, 183, 144, with probably 137, were running rapidly west ; ward, as was the case in some degree with several others ¢ In the cases of the barometrical “oo having this mark, t the several barometers have been compared with my own at New York 3 * corrections 5 ty index errors are here made. This remark applies to all the tables. * Barometer said to have varied an inc t The course and drift of the Courier (123) should be more eastward than is represented in the storm charts. § Barometer as Saament at Boston, by R. T. pe sq. * Barometer corrected by verbal information. ae a Taste Il—Center Path of the Hurricane of Oct. 4th to 7th, 1844. * & asi cutive observations show the progressive storm-wind, first from the southeastern quarter of the horizon, which, on the passing e’s axis, changed rapidly or suddenly to the western or northwestern quarter ;—with the lowest state of the barometer observed. eel. Lat, Nn, Lon, | ute and wiererany of gene oo sea ere eng When axis | Bar. pognnc iiss and ob- hia. | ee ee ori Spates LANE passed. min. j20°30183°10'Oct. 4th and 5th, |Ese, — aaa oo ‘wNw.|30 miles L./4th, 3 p.m. ? Honduras Siiaanar Totally dismas oa hy 3 |81 41/10 p.m. 4th to p. th,|E, NE, variable, w. 48 “ L5thy, eh hi iM, 28 in. |Diario de Habana. Violent hurrica =~ 32 (81 15 leve. of 4th to eve. 5th, « i |Vio. hur, fr.11- 20 ra, Abe 24 ha. S L 15 11 p.m. 4th to 2 a. M. 6th,|sE, ESE, hall oud ts waw,2 nw.i30 “? L. z ’ P.M. Mar, Rep. : OM ates’ stat.| Hur 30 hs shifte (15 |77 |p. M. oth ll A.M. 6th,|se, sud, lull, sw, w. L, near axis.\6th, een A.M. Log: ates’ stateme r. s.£,8ud, lull shit toweat : 1 25/77 10\r.M. 5th to a.M. 6th,/EsE, sud. lull, Ww. : gel do. 28°241|Log : Capt. f penny Hr. £.8.£,]ull 30 m.then fu.fr. w.| / 402|77 6 2\p.m. Sth to a.m. 6th,/sE, sud, lull, Nw. do. 3 ’ |Mar. Rep. A.'THomson.|Hove on b’m i ae lost spars. s 40 |74 15 . Sth is A " th,/EsE, veered sud. to N, NNW, NW. ip asus do. Bip Log: Capt. Couns. _|'Totally dismaste ed. 30 |75 M. 5th th,/EsE,, lull, sud. to wnw. 55 m. Li 9:30. “ Log: Capt. BuNKER. Seared, Furious hur. e 73 night of sth . end of th,|sE, NW... 1540 oR eakbh ap * Marine reports. ost all but lower masts. ex 72 3 sk, rapidly s,to westward. (88 ‘ R.| noon, Stat. fr. Capt. Bunce. |Dismusted. Furious hur. >= 30/71 30; “ oh “ E, ESE, 60 * Ri 1:30PM. Marine reports. ismasted ; close of g. not rep.| © 50/69 2? | 44 ‘s SE by E, SSE, sv, Sg, NWd: “SP Rie. Capt. VARNEY’S stat. urious hurricane. a ‘var./69 36 |1 P.M SE, 4 4 e Bd0, Marine reports. ismasted, = 67 30 \4 og X: 6th cag “ hats, SSE, 8, pray oes os 148 to20R| 10 2\27°75t)Log: Capt. Moutrorp. ove on b’m ends ; ~ orig o 10 |66 30 |a. : : 150 to 20 R.\7th, 0°30 a.m Marine reports mendous hurrica 8 58 65 = As ‘Sth ‘* Pine SE, 47+ Rj « 290, “ Master’s protest. both es st a ‘ no ri to ey _ sud. by 8, andswtow. (6+ 2 a Master’s protest. eae disabled & ret ocean to = to 7th ESE ssw, w, Nw. (|40L. to98R.| 4 an) t|Log: Capt. Caapwick.|Crossed axis ~ * calle a 3 io r ne “Sth to P.M. 7t th, ni ty a “jul, sud.tonw. (25 Lto31R| 320 “ |28:37t\Log: Capt. Pen. 3. 0 6 mM. 6th to A.M. 7th, |x NE, ESE, 8S ne) wsw, w./40L.to90R) 345 “ Log : . Barstow 8 ae : “4 = 6th to eve. 71h, SE 2. 11) 3 430, Marine reports. Dismasted we ro = (63 30 “dep 6th : bi hur. ssk, — 8w, me Ce 3 ee se 128-50t pole oo Gazette. Dismasted in the hurricane. g 36 60 f 6th, h,|ESE, SE, NW. 34 Rj 0.40 P.M. : Capt. Corrin. [Vio ] L 19 158 barly, "th ho noun: oh SSE, S, SE, as — 60 . 45 RJ. 3:30 low, Log Capt. Furser. |Heavy gale. 3 45 53 45 to 8t » |ESE, [E. true) to. ™ and N A 40 m. L. Sth, 8 4 S a.m. 2} 2 rom a seaman of N.F.|Damaged sails "bee * These thitée wali were Se the Gulf Stream bound eastward, ae pala ty the line pursued by the axis during the height of — gle ; the Mediator and Cambridge : me in front of the axis, - - St. Nicholas nearly intersecting it, Vessels 143 and 151 were running into the gale. The winds for 146 seem better * to a lower Nedtade es long Errobsodsly printed N.N.W. in the recitals. {+ Index error of barometer corrected. { Sympiesometer. Fo 5 >, i%& se oy \ med: ee, bah iE ap Be ccilin, f ‘ %, “ Eng? by JM atwoad. NY. a % : | 3 ’ | : 2 Taste UL—Right side of the Storm Path; Hurricane of Oct. 4th to Tth, 1844. No. 19 was running fast to westward, into the ys Nos. 154 and 158 were running rapidly eastward, the latter in the Gulf Stream. iN Date < Sen of cay eeros 4 of _| Dist. from, When axis a No. toe, or Vessel. ik N.| Lon. star axis line.| passed. <4j\ i 05! 180°50! = n4 88 — sw. Eee 4th,8 p.m es 15 |78 25 jnight of 3a 0 ove snake, veering by . wi sw. . {315 10 #2 iy. Note Tay. 28 77 57 4t 8, _ Fi i9 . B2var. night af Selgin: ag of 5th, | ss ' 8, wsw. 200 to 100 9 : aol phew, ‘ 44 |78 to 5th, » & ssw, wsw, B25 5th, 3 A.M. 2 25,|Bay of Gonaives 19 38 \73 ath to th 8, *. sw. ’erl a pod, .# P.M. ? en} 53.|Nassau, 4 |77.18 5th to 6th, SE, ssi ssw, D0 ,.f 30 “ ) | 55.| Berlin, 75 |p.M. Sth to 6th, (se, veering round to ud 175 “ (|6th,2 a.m. Ve 56.|Lagrange, (75 Oth ti 6th, SE, 127 “80 * 2 | 57.\Herald, 73 ve, St 6th, SR, “ +30 « = | 58,|Sea _ 70 7 night of 5t 6 6th, SE, ree round to w. ra a8 4 | 62..Pion . 30 6! morn. — to idee a 8, wsw. 295 10 213 P.M. ? @ | 65. Brothers, f ough 6th, E, ee wnw.| 140 “45 4 S| 64.|St. Cloud, , 3070 25 jend of Sth to night 6th, pede se, ab + ssw, sw w.|95 + “ Q= u 66,\H. W. Tyler, 68 265 «6 ae 68,|Falcon, . 50 65 40 6th to early 7th, oak veering = 5, a: and w. [300 « i ie 69.|Bermuda, 2 15 64 40 6th to * 7th, SSE 375 Vd “ 9 149,|St. Lawrence, (36 50 67 2 ae by “ thy 60 O15“ 154.\Lowell, \GOvar.|4. M. ,'s Ww, — WNw.|380 to 460 %th,1 A.M. 155.|Wm, Engs, / . 60 29 “#4 os bth a rnightof ath Sw, baering to wNw. 3.30 ** 156.|Charleston, 60 6th to end of 7h, sw, w bys, wsw, w, Nw./380 to 904 6 i 158.) Sherida ; Mes night of 6th to noon 8t th,|R, wsw, sW, W, WNw.|75 to 270 °30 P.M. 164,|Prince Albert, 20 |48 th to bm EB, w bys, why N, wnw,/325 “ 8th, early, 161./St. Johns, 33 58 th ms, ‘ery, w by 8, w by % wnw,|85?# 8th, a.m.? 162.| Independence, ( i ie ba nigtl of ith to ih erly, NW, Wwnw,|282 # oon ? 163.| Adirondack | _ early 8th to ee BR, NW bw, var., ,wnw.\415 + Corrected for index error of the barometer. | Bar. min, . 29-45 28:40 28°50t| Log. 29°86 |Serg. as are: , Sig. Sta. 8 : 28-102\Log : C Log: Ca These consecutive observations show the progressive appearance of the storm-wind, first from the southeastern quarter, changes or veering, by the south, to the western quarter ;—with the lowest state of barometer noticed during the gale. and its successive petoritins = ob- Remarks. roa Ca aptain’ . statement Nautical Maga : Mates’ statement. Maxine te orts. Bertie: Gazette. | Marine reports. a do. do. Log: from navy depart. St. al Ca Dt. EMERSON. Ma apt. CLARK. a. t. Prrr. me rine r ig : Mate’ 8 ratoment. Japt. apt. Estee OL apt. DE PEYSTER. Log: Capt. Senor d Per EMan. Sapt. Nyx’s jour. 00k, fond oF bod Severe hurricane. Severe gale, Vessels Spinal on shore, wane & Through Lt. Severe hur. ; rricane. Hu Severe gies lost sails, &e, ours, c Lying to eight ho epee fp ‘waa , en gale. {Strong ¢ gale. Heavy gale. = Near west end of Jamaica. oe gale, 0. 174 Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane. Oct. Ist, gale continues ; 1 p. m. took in foresail; 5 a. m. close reefed topsails and set fore- sail: lat. obs. 26° 6’, lon. 79° 35’, in Florida channel: p. m. heavy gale and squally with some rain.—Oct. 2d, a. m. moderate ; lat. 27° 2’, lon. 79° 45’; p.m. heavy squalls of rain and rough sea; 4 Pp. m. furled mainsail.—Oct. 3d, Le abated, a ood weather through the 4th.—Oct. 5th, 6 a.m. N. E., fresh; 10 a.m. E. N. E., ations cloudy : lat. D. R. 30° 49’, lon. 79° 16’: 2p. mM. E. N. E., Rauby, wok 3 in top gallant sails; 6 vp. m. N. E. by E., single reefed; 8 p. roe in ‘oulniail, jib and spanker; 10 rv. m. N. E., gale increas- ing, close reefed.—Oct. 6th, 2 a. m. E. by N.,’sev ero nls, hove a 4a. mM. up E.N. E, off E. 8S, E.: [showing the wind at about N. N.E at 6 a. M. was i 220 miles from axis line of the gale]: 10 a. m. up N. E. b yi Ss of E. N. E., [wind N. by W.?] heavy gale; noon, lat. obs. 31° 13, lon. 78° 51’; 2 p.m. N. N. W., more seated set foresail ; 4 Pp. Mm. out one reef from topsails and cava: at 10 4. m. gale had ceased, and light winds came from the eastward. The logs of the Demarara and California, with the other ac- counts, will enable us to trace the first gale more perfectly, in its ~ progress from Cuba. 65. Brig Brothers, iy New York, Oct. 5th, winds N. W. to S. W., set top Ome noon, lat. 30° 48’, wind W. N. W., light, cloudy; 6 p.m. calm and much rain light breeze from N. Be midnight, a breeze from S. E. ct. 6th, begins as. E., and at M. had incre eng to a strong gale, close reefed the topsails and farted the oe iat deo topsail; at 10 a. m. hove to, blowing very heavy, in lat. 32°, lon, 70° 22/; at 11 a. m. blowing a reieans from S. E., cut away the bea creasing; all hands at the pumps, blowing a complete hurricane, which at 2 P. M. shifted to S, W., making a tremendous sea and vioantag the brig on her beam Bie cut away the Sintinianhe at 4 p. m. gale abating and a ge eg ns sea; at 8 p.m. wind had veered to W. N. W.—Oct. 7th, light winds from W.N. W. to N. Ww. and quae wens ae: 32° 19... [ k. 97. Dr. Jonny AvausTiInE Smirn, who was at a apolle in Virginia about 60 miles W. N. We. from ie pene informs me s that on the 6th October the storm schibiied aa the 144. H. us S. Pique, river St. Terence ‘Cuba gale :—Oct. 3d, a. Mm. winds 80 easterly, strength 2 to 4, weather b ¢, ¢; 9a. M. bar. 30:24 in.; noon, 30°20; lat. 49° 30, flon. 66° 267 ») St. Ann’s River S. by W. 4, W. 22 baie: P.M. winds southensterly, — —Oct. 4th, begi . m. ba 8 p. m. bar. 30°19. 4 ins calm; 4a.M. 8. E. 4,c¢; 8 3018; 10 a. m. wind S. §. E., 4b; . 8. E.,.5; 17; 1 oar joo a1 42', off the W. end of Anticosti] At 1p. m. wind S. E., 6; reefed topsails and spaak- 4 P. M. two reefs in topsails ; 6 r. m. wind ,5,c; 8 p.m. 4,¢, Lg te set top gal- lant sails; 10 p.m. S. E. by E., 5, e—Oct. 5th, 1 a.m. S. E. by E., 5, c; 2 a. M.6,¢43 in third reef of main topsail ; 4 A. on * c 4 $s | set reefed foresail, clove on = furled ore and mizen eee? lown top g j wr d E. 8. E.,7; 64. m.8; 8 a 8 Ey cvmter 29-44 ; werd eee aie bar. 2936; 11 a... Eby 8. 5; noon, 8. Eby 4, oan 29-1; Int 4° 3. sveiriil teed saaide’ etl: 2 P.M. rome ke enced y E., 3; 2 8 ber. 29.23% 6 Pp. M.S. S. W. 4, eq, bar. 29-16; in second ef of tps and driver, 7»

; 7 ee ee . i LEE ; Axial Oscillation, 181 - Oscrtiations or THE Axis or Roratron.—We may infer that ‘the centrifugal force, within the body of the revolving storm, will seldom be equally balanced on all sides, by the exterior pressure which is indicated by the barometer, and that the impulsion which results from the temporary predominance of pressure on any side, will be propagated around the axis, causing the latter to move in a series of spiral revolutions, or curvilinear deviations, during its progression. This revolving oscillation may often be observed, even where there is no progression of the whirling body; as in the case of a vortex in water discharging into an orifice or through a funnel. This oscillation of local pressure and the eccentrical revolution of the axis, may go far, among other causes, in explaining the flaws, puffs, gusts, and squalls, as they are loosely and sometimes interchangeably called, which are sO very common in violent storms ; and, in the larger movements, may account for some of the irregular changes previously noticed. Puenomena or AxtaL Oscrttation.—The specific course of the actual center of gyration, under the oscillations referred to, must differ greatly in storms which have different rates of pro- gression. It has been shown by Mr. Propineron and Mr. THom that the progression of some storms of the Asiatic seas and Indian ocean, during some portions of their advance, has been as slow ‘as three miles and even two and a half miles per hour. 'Vhis re- markably slow progress, in connexion with the axial oscillation, must produce unusual conditions in places near the center of the storm, and may serve to account, in part at least, for the most extradelinary series of opposite es successive abiifits veerings, and calms, recorded by Mr. Luoyp as having occurred at Louis, Mauritius, in March, 1836, in a slow moving hurricane which lasted three days.* In this storm, the line pursued by the ' axis of gyration might have been somewhat like that seen in the following figure. : Fig. 1. _ In this case, if we suppose the circuit of the axial oscil- lation to have been equal to the diameter of the lull, inclusive of the interior edge of the gale, this course of its axial point would produce, on or near its center path, a series of oscillating changes not unlike those observed by * London Nautical eg June, 1837. Sxconp Sentzs, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept., 184 24 182 Phenomena of the Cuba Huricane. Mr. Luoyp. It is proper to add, also, that Port Louis is situated near an abrupt ridge of mountains which might have greatly dis- turbed the regular course of the wind at that place. With a higher rate of progression the center of gyration might move on a line or course more like the following : Fig. 2. LMI But with a very rapid progression in the body of the storm, like the case before us, the revolving center or point of gyration might describe a line more nearly like one of the two following figures. Fig. 3.) :° Fig. 4. Such oscillations of the axis of a storm, however, cannot easily be detected, for want of sufficient and exact observations in the axis path, in those regions where the winds have free action. They may be best noticed in a storm of slow progress, like that of Mauritius, above mentioned, but may also be often evinced in other observations. In the case before us, we find cause to infer that some deviations existed in the axial course, without being able to determine these with precision. Crecurr Samine 1x Storms.—In the rapid progression of the Cuba hurricane, no great portion of a circuit of revolution would be described by any vessel, in sailing before the wind. Nor is the ordinary progress of the Atlantic gales sufficiently slow to in- duce often such a result, under the courses ordinarily steered in these gales. But I have formerly shown a case on the American coast, furnished me by Capt. T’. H. Sumner, where a ship, in scud- ding before the gale, performed nearly half the circuit of the hor- izon, before the gale abated.* In the slow progression found in storms of the eastern seas, 4S noticed, not only a complete circuit of revolution, but more * Ship Cabot. Son temennkal Fmebindaniante tans A, vol, xxiii, p. 3705 with a diagram. Circuit Sailing in Storms. ~~ 183 than one circuit might sometimes be made in a gale by the same vessel, in sailing around the axis of the storm ; thus adding another practical demonstration of its revolving character. One such case of complete circuit sailing I have referred to, in 1836.* Mr. Tom, in his account of the Rodriguez storm of April, 1843, has shown that the Robin Giray run once and a half times around the axis of the storm, from left to right, (5, (this being in the southern hemisphere, ) till, being thrown on her beam ends, she was prevent- ed from continuing her circuits. In the same storm the Argo made part of her second circuit, scudding round in the gale in the same direction. In like manner the Margaret made a cir- cuit and a quarter around the axis, chiefly m the heart of the gale. Several vessels, after once falling out of this hurricane, pursued their course, again overtook it and plunged into the heart of the storm, where they suffered most serious disasters.t It ap- pears probable, and indeed certain, that nearly all of the great loss and damage sustained in this hurricane might well have been avoided, by a knowledge of the laws of rotation and progression in these storms. But the most striking case of circular sailing in a storm is that of the Charles Heddle in a hurricane near Mauritius, in February, 1845, which has been furnished me by Mr. Pmpineron. This was a clipper built vessel, once a slaver, and was bound from Mauritius to Muscat. It appears from the log, that in her course, round and round in the gale, the wind veered five complete rev- olutions in one hundred and seventeen hours, with an average run of eleven and seven-tenth knots per hour, the whole distance thus sailed being thirteen hundred and seventy-three miles ; while the progression of the hurricane, at this period, was less than four miles an hour. The average distance from the gale’s axis is estimated at about forty-five miles. During this time, the ves- sel made good a course S. W. 3 W., three hundred and fifty-four miles, only ; nearly on the usual course pursued by the hurricanes, near Mauritius.{ * Lond. Nautical Magazine, an 1836, p. 205. This Journal, vol xxxi, p. 122. + Nature and Course of Storms in the Indian Ocean ; with Diagrams. Lond. 1845. t These highly interesting cases of circuit sailing in storms give proofs of their revolving character not unlike those which are afforded of the earth’s rotundity in es of circumnavigation : and, like the latter, may be received by some who perhaps may not be able to appreciate the evidence, equally conclusive, from other sources. ee” 184 Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane. . These are results obtained by Mr. Pippineron, who has al- ready published his T'welfth Memoir, and who informs me that he is preparing another on this hurricane of the Charles Heddle. In his Eleventh Memoir, he has given an account of two storms, which were nearly contiguous, but on opposite sides of the equa- tor, and revolving in counter directions, ©) tj, each ac@ording to the law of rotation and progression of its own polar hemisphere.* Vertical Heicut or THE Storm Winp.—What is the general height or thickness of the storm, and by what means can this be approximately determined? These questions and their solution are: doubtless of some importance in their bearing on meteorolog- theories, and seem to deserve our attention. In nearly all great storms which are accompanied with rain, there appear two distinct classes of clouds, one of which, com- prising the storm-scuds in the active portion of the gale, has al- ready been noticed. Above this, is an extended stratum of stra- tus cloud, which is found moving with the general or local cur- rent of the lower atmosphere which overlies the storm. It covers not only the area of rain but often extends greatly beyond this limit, over a part of the dry portion of the storm, partly in a bro- ken or detached state. This stratus cloud is often concealed from ban Scar mimbns and scud. oe in the rainy pation: of the ‘* Prof. Dove, ini apr. on barometric minima, alledged that storms in gene- ral are eee turning or rotation of storms in the southern hemis- phere i is in the negate

kingdoms of ape the vegetable and the animal, are still i in Dore It would seem as if the two lines diverged from the same low nisms; for besides the moving spores - ‘Aiea, there are actual animalcules which are claimed by the wy on the ground that they act on the atmosphere like plants, giving out oxygen in ead of carbonic acid. Thea argument appears to ; be good, oe the ving motions they present, and their complete re- 196 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. dra, (figs. 2 and 3,) they usually form compound groups, hundreds and often thousands to a cluster. Some, as in the annexed fig- ure* (fig. 1,) grow in crowded tufts or thread-like stems; ma- Fig. 1, wet. e semblance to other infusoria. The effect mentioned depends on the nature of the process of nutrition, which i is of more importance than the motion of vibratile cilia. The principles ceo us fake on vignhity. 5 f ‘hat the animal fopcueyY con- sist more or less comple ation prcoonrestly going on in the > organism. Now, it appears to be a del whieh per oy rest; re is af in pialecaipe forces: + as well as alternate seuign rn bah the Operations of life. Conse and growth, going on in a monad, pit give alternate or senda action to the cilia or other means of motion ; and if sufficiently minute, and free to move, the organism will have progressing motion, whether plans or siege No perveus ayaa. is ne- cessary rate higher os bs power ; in a higher plant, there is no natious ayatem, and little concentration, and organism remains fixed without motion. Owing to the constitution of the plant, 1 the action on air results in giving out oxygen, and it appropriates inorganic substances as nutriment: and for a like reason the animal gives out carbonic acid on peapiration, and a mgeg mostly on organic These figures y a.F. Couthouy,. and represent a species from Rio de Ja- ; neiro, whieh be iin Tubularia ornata. Fig. 1 shows the animal of natural size. These. ural shoved totettine be. 2, 3 end 5, are copied from Report on Zoophytes by the author. "Snare view on eso May Ma, 38 8 J. Ds-Danaso ny are much branched, and each branch ‘is tipped: atascof stage as in the nee pee 4and 5. In the seen 23 . * 3 Campanularide. ec rptes part of the species, minute calicles or little ewps, but in- "distinctly visible to the naked eye, are arranged in one or- more _ series along the branchlets, and the cluster is a neat imitation of the most delicate plumes (fig. 6) trailing vines or mossy tufts; and when alive, every calicle is the site of a polyp-flower. These _ zoophytes are occasionally but a few lines in height ; yet others no eeraiaute 1 in their ¢ells and polyps, attain a length of several feet. . The species are sometimes fleshy throughout, (figs. 2, 3; i) - exterior; the minute cell or. cali- cle is of the same nature, and is. properly the exterior of that part ‘ of the animal which surrounds |. the stomach: The cccoumpeny. os : pre figure (6) represents one of X Bs lumes,—a Sertularia,—with — mie of a branch, (6a, 6b,) and 4 calicle (6c) enlarged. Under a 7 - Microscope they are objects of exquisite bawiity, wapeeially when ‘covered with the delicate Oe ae On contraction, the arms _ Szconp Sznirs, Vol. I, No. 5.—Sept., 1846. 26 198 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. of the little animal are here folded away (fig. 5.)* Thestomach communicates with the tubular cavity below it, (figs. 4, 5,) and empties into this cavity the chyloid fluids after digestion. There is thus a community of visceral cavities often throughout a whole group, and the several polyps eat for the general good. ‘The flu- ids (as the writer has observed, but which has been more’ fully ascertained by Lister and others) vibrate back and forth, or have a cyclosis movement like the circulation in a Chara, sometimes flowing quite into the stomach again; in connection’ with admit- ted water, they take the place of a proper circulating fluid.f There are floating particles as in the circulating fluid of other animals. Thus aération and assimilation go on without any of the usual appurtenances of gills or glands. The tentacles are commonly slender tubular,t and become ex- panded by injection with water. They usually aid in capturing animalcules, minute crustacea, or whatever prey comes within reach; and they apply themselves to the work, with considerable dexterity, though less nimble than the more active Bryozoa. In some species, they are short and sluggish, sa can subserve out the purpose of aération. i iotu. te * There a 2 oes here to be a'retreat into a cell; but in fact, it is only the head or upper part of the polyp, and not the polyp itself, which becomes concealed. ‘The whole animal has a c artilaginous or corneous exterior, exce summit and tentacles, and these c consequently, on contacting, fal fall down into the extremity of the tube. This extremity is the part about the stomach, and the an- imal is usually pes here than below; when not ated there is generally me _ ré- traction of the polyp : +3... ae Philosophical Trausactions, 1834, p- 369, rite fine ‘illustrations on ‘idieas 9 and 1 We quote ee following from his very interesting observations. The geri ‘* flowed in one channel, alternately backwards and forwards, through Speci the particles were hardly distinguishable; but it became much slower when neat the change. Sometimes it returned almost without a pause; but at other times it was quiet for a while, or the particles took a confused - ‘whirling motion for a few Seconds; the current afierwards ‘appearing to. set the stronger for the suspension.” ead lis and five flows occupied fifteen minutes and a half; the same average ing spent in the ebb as in the flow.’ Lister states that the vibrating mo-_ rae of the internal axial fluids were first noticed by Cavolini in his oe gence _ _ Servire Storia ia de’ Polipi Marini, published at Naples, in 1785. * The Tebslaride sod alos Ie 4 ‘a cir a en Hydra in not ing oo organs properly t mar e : ‘ihe eee oo stead of bred bavi = 334 with mi Sr — em) Bl. Si cocdeniasasbila place by salina. tioned in $ 17, a that from internal lamelle, which char- acterises the Actinoidea Ova.—The ova pa from the sides either singly or in clus- ters; and the clusters are naked as in figure 1, 10, or enclosed, in membranous cases or vesicles. The fsbiie 5, 6, 6d, 7, and 8, : Fig. 7. Ta Fig. 8. Plomularia. Sertularia, | ieditesent some of these ova-bearing vesicles. ‘They gradually ‘develop from the side of a branch, or at times from a creeping -- Yoot-like shoot, which grows watward like the creeper of a plant, ‘sending up its bade and flowers at intervals (fig. 8). They some- times may be shown to be the production of particular polyps in a cluster, and in other cases individuality seems to be lost and they belong rather to the group as a whole. The ova are easily distinguished arranged along an axis, or on one side of the vesicle, and Lister has shown that they communicate through this main axis with the trunk of the zoophyte and the fluids vibrate into ‘them. Dr. Charles Pickering, an associate in the Exploring Ex- : pedition, pointed out to me in 1838 the close analogy which sub- sists between the structure of a vesicle with its included ova, and a branchlet of the zoophyte. This singular point has been thoroughly investigated by E. Forbes, Esg., and the fact of this arrangement fully ascertained.* The above figure (fig. 7) is a _ good example of the fact; it is by Dr. Pickering and was drawn from the specimen on which the observation was made. ‘The vesicle to the right contains evidently i in its structure all the ele- ments of the central pmnate frond, and appears as if made by folding together the branchlets from either side of the midrib, ' these branchlets.and traces of the eatioles being distinct over the surface of the vesicle. . cee Brit. Assoc. for 1844, p. 94. 200 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. On coming to maturity the ova develop their young, either at the time of leaving the vesicle or soon after, and the vesicle be-. coming vacated, drops off. The young soon plant themselves upon some support and bud and branch, and soon become a grove of corallines. According to van Beneden the Campanularidee when first developed are like minute Meduse in shape, and have eight © | eyes, which are lost as the animal attaches itself.* Sir J. G. Dalyell, who had previously observed their forms, states that the young, after the tentacles are formed, enjoys the faculty of pro- gression by means of the inverted tentacula, as on so many feet, apparently to select a site; when again resuming the natural direction with the extremities upward, the lower surface sca itself below and roots there forever.t+ 22. Buds.—Buds in the Hydras fall off after coming to maturi- ty ; but occasionally they give out successive shoots till small com- pound groups are formed, though ultimately becoming each an in- dependent animal. In the Sertularie and most other species, the’ buds are persistent. In some instances, before the zoophyte reached its limits in size, the number of polyps constituting it becomes immensely leg In a single specimen of Plumula- ~ ria (P. angulosa), collected by the writer in the Hast Indies, there are about twelve thousand polyps to — each plumose branch ; and, as the whole Bait ‘Fig. Op arte ae 10. Ty . phyte, three feet long, bears these plumes, on and produecd by successive buddings. , the development of the bud, there is at first @ "protuberance in which the chyléid fluids gain access, and either move by vibration or have a kind of cireulation up along the sides’and down the axis; after a while the calicle forms, the polyp eaesids its arms and begins its con- tributions to the body-coralline. The an- rp hee In hen 9 the cells are m2 os, Pthiindisie’tet lew amples, Brus , 1044 : ee a: Lawes Sage sh a mtr my i fo. an it AVIA, aveny half inch, on ape sds, “ te xa ao all the offspring of a single germ, In 7 nexed figures represent different results of — - single series, - nile polyp. budding out one, which. dianetidileten summit one, this another and so on. In figure 10 there are two series; the axis lengthens between the two terminal and then buds again other two at the extremity, and so the branch lengthens. In figure 11 there is a series of clusters, the. (hana pone? be- ing in. part intermittent. In some Tubularide, certain caducous waco oaeiie into ‘dalicgta flat memberless animals resembling a Planaria, and which _consequently were called planules by Sir J. G. Dalyell.* These, ‘according to Van Beneden, are the developments of the buds al- ead to on.a preceding page, ($ 17,) which contain ova. - 23. Connected with the process of growth and reproduction, ‘there is a corresponding process of dying often going on in the older. parts of a zoophyte: the polyps disappear, and the lower branches often drop off, leaving the trunk in this part bare. ‘These zoophytes are thus dying and budding in different parts at ' the same time. In the large species, the main stem or midrib of the zoophyte becomes lifeless, or a mere support for the numer- ous lateral plumes or branchlets. 24. Besides this mode of limiting the existence of these polyps, - Some Hydroidea are said to be absorbed in their cells, and after a while to reappear again ; and this has been observed to take place _ at nearly regular intervals. All the polyp cells of a living group have been found, after a certain period, empty, or with patie the re- mains of the wasted polyps, the fluid of the trunk showing the only prilenes of vitality by its continued vibration. And in the course of a few days other polyps have appeared in the vacated cells, _.. with the same perfection of form and. the same activity and life _ astheir predecessors. The polyp heads, as Sir J. G. Dalyell states ¥ respecting a 'Tubularia, sometimes seem to drop off like a decidu- ous flower, and again, after ten days or more, are reproduced. Har- vey observes, that after he had kept his specimens two days, they began to look unhealthy ; and on the third “the heads were all thrown off, and lay on the bottom of the vessel.” After an- other three days, changing the water in the mean time, the polyps were entirely renewed, with no essential difference, expept absence of color. The cold of winter ; sR of its Perr pore which remains thus apparently eid til * Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1834, p. 602. 202 Law of. Flectro-Magnetic Induction. spring, when it is warmed anew to life, and the deniere once more appear. - 25. In conclusion, the Hydroidea are animals cetih no external organs but tentacles and a mouth, and no internal, but.a simple stomach cavity and its prolongation below in the form of a tube or tubularaxis. Without any special glandular system, and with but a single opening to the alimentary cavity,—the food is digested by the gastric fluid of the stomach, and the refuse matter ejected. by the mouth. Without a special absorbent or a circulating system or branchie,—the digested material of the stomach passes down- ward into the tubular axis, where it has a vibratory or cyclosis movement ; and here it is farther elaborated by the action. of air from the admitted water, and becomes absorbed and assimilated by the surface of the cavity, or of the tubular organs, cavities, or pores, connected with it—these chyloid fluids acting in place of a proper circulating fluid; aération: of:the same ‘also takes place through the tentacles and the exteriorsurface of the animal, which receive air from the waters about them. Without ovarian ‘ glands, almost any part of the polyp. possesses the reproductive function, excepting the tentacles; and buds or ovules are formed, and pass out'directly from the dite of the animal. Without a distinct nervous system, in addition to the above negative char-. ery. part seems equally a centre of organic forces (unless _ acters, evi we except the tentacles), and consequently sections made almost re still live and puree eat’ the entire polyp — mos poet XVIl. Bi oo of Bioctem Macnee iididiens ont Cuas. G: Pace, M. D., Prof. Chem. and Pharm., Columbian. College, - Washington, DA: ay the first fruits of the Arial Galvanometer, (see this Jour., i, ‘ii Ser., 242,) I have to communicate the establishment of a defi- nite law of inductive action of currents upon soft iron, and a direct -~iprai tical corroboration of the law of Ampere as to the modifying influence of distance upon induction, ci rded ne. action b of a ae spirals, or concentrated : iid ie eer re soe First: As regards the inductive action with reference t to sur-- and mass. mass.—Although. the weight of authority upon. this _ action upon soft iron, as proportional to the surface i ndent: of the mass, [had long since suspected the fallacy of the posi- _ tion; and this mainly from the fact, that when the magnetism of -» _ soft iron was made to react upon the helix in the development of » __—s secondary currents, the intensity of such currents always appear- ed to be augmented in proportion to the increase of the mass of ‘Soft iron—that is, with the same helix. For instance, a tube of soft iron gave much less reaction, as judged of from the spark and shock, than when a solid bar of the same diameter and length Was used; and from the well known law of action and reaetion, ____- nothing else could have been inferred than that the development Of magnetism was in proportion to the mass and not to the sur- face. The azial galvanometer clearly establishes this point. _, The apparatus used in the experiments consisted of a small Grove’s battery, of six pairs—three helices, formed each of the same length of wire, but each having central openings or bores of different diameter—several bars and tubes of soft iron,—and a deli- i 2 tate spring balance. The bore of helix No. 1 was. 32 inch di- ___- ameter ; helix No. 2, 43, and helix No. 3, 42. Soft-iron bar No. 1 was four inches longer than the helices, and ; inch*diameter, _ . and-when suspended within the helix No. 1, was distant from it __ #y inch; having therefore freedom of motion within the helix. Tt is not important in these experiments, that the axis of the bar : Should ‘exactly coincide with the axis of the helix; for the sum of all the actions is the same for every position of the axis, as 7 found by careful experiment. Soft-iron bar No. 2 was hollow, Ps of the same length and diameter as bar No. 1, and half its weight. ga Tt is important that the lengths should correspond, for reasons to be hereafter given. Soft-iron bar No. 3 was of the same di- _. Ameter as bars 1 and 2, but shorter by two inches. ae | ee When bar No. 1 was suspended to the hook of the spring bal- _ Alice, and inserted about half way through helix 1, and the helix _ Sennected with the battery, the bar was drawn down into the helix with a force of six pounds, as indicated by the spring bal- _ nee.’ This balance is sensitive to the ;'; of an ounce, and when _ dealing: with pounds, may be considered as sufficiently accurate. : The’ hollow bar No. 2 was then substituted for bar No. 1, and Was drawn down by a force of three pounds and a fraction over, “the fraction doubtless arising from some difference in the textures 3 of the two bars. We are thus furnished, by this satisfactory and _ Practical test, with a definite law of inductive action, viz. mas 3 ge tee ae! * et 204 Conduction of Galvanic Electricity through Moist Air. The inductive action of a helix upon inclosed bars of soft iron of uniform lengths and transverse diameters, is directly in pro- _ portion to the weight of those bars. ~The bar No. 3 was then inserted, and it was drawn down by a force of five pounds and one ounce; but here the result became — complicated, and will require further trials with many variations of length and also diameter of the soft iron bars. «It probably woud not follow that the indefinite increase of weight by increase of: length would give a proportionate increase of inductive action, for there must soon be a limit for every size of bar, and this limit will — with the different sizes. The experiments as tried, however, are in favor of the conclusion that the action is as the ities not the surface. One experiment remains yet to be tried in this connexion, for which [ have not yet had opportunity, viz. to make the masses the same, and vary the diameters. 'The resul here also would be complicated by the element of the distance. - The second investigation was directed to the law of Ampére, viz. that the action of helices upon a magnetic bar, is inversely as the distance. 'The same law of course applies to soft iron as to permarient magnets. The law was fully confirmed. Great care was taken in the preparation for these experiments. The helices before mentioned were all wound upon steel mandrels, _ carefully turned and polished, and all of the same length of wire. The bores of three helices regularly increased in diameter ;'; of an inch. When these helices were placed in succession upon a | bar of soft iron, they gave by the balance, f rsely pro- ee to the distance. é opti he < sitlh hee "city through Moist Air ; by Cuas. G. Pace, M. D., Prof. Chem. and Pharm., Columbian College, Washington, D. C. ‘Pavan or eight years since, I observed a curious fact, which Jed me to the conclusion that many substances considered as per- fect insulators, or rather non-conductors of galvanic electricity, might under certain circumstances prove conductors. I took two 3 oe, of zinc and coiled them together, the two sheets be- 5 a ribs India rubber cloth. The sheets of Arr. XVIII.—On the perigee Conduction of Galvanic Electri- with: the- poles of a battery, = ica — ie Conduction of Galvanic Electricity through Moist Air, 205 current passed from plate to plate through the India rubber cloth, When however the battery consisted of twenty compound pairs, a slight current passed, as indicated by a delicate galvanoscope. I made no further investigation or application of this fact till 1843, when recurrence was had to this feature to solve some difficulties experienced in the projection of a line of Morse’s teleZraph be- tween this place and Baltimore. Ten miles of lead pipe contain- ing four well insulated wires had been laid in the ground, and upon trying these wires respectively, making the wire one half of the circuit, and the lead pipe the other half, with a battery of inten- sity, a current could be established through any one of the three extra wires. Being consulted by Prof. Morse as to the probable cause of this cross firing as it was technically called, the solu- tion seemed to me to be obvious in view of the above experi- ment. The reasoning was sufficiently plausible to induce Prof. Morse to abandon the undertaking of the pipe, and resort to his original plan of raising the wire upon posts. The expla- __ hation was simply this, viz. that the insulating or non-conducting Material would under any circumstances conduct the current; but in some cases, the amount transmitted could not be apprecia- ted by any known test however delicate, was a postulate subse- quently borne out. Does not stich a conclusion follow directly from the law of Pouillet, that the conducting power of wires is directly as their cross section and some inverse ratio of their length, in connexion with the well established laws of the dif- ferent conducting powers of metals? For example, copper hav- ing from four to six times the conducting power of iron, a wire of iron, to equal in this respect a wire of copper, should be of from four to six times the size. Let this rule be applied to poor- _ & conductors, and we may infer that the poorest conductor, or what has been usually considered a non-conductor, would become 4 conductor, if the area of its cross section were indefinitely in- creased and its length remained nearly nothing. In the case of the wires in the lead pipe—the one for instance joining the two Poles of the battery—is separated from that lying next to 1t and the lead pipe, by a layer of thin non-conducting material through- out its length; and if we suppose the width of this layer in con- tact to be + of an inch, the length of ten miles would give a sur- face of 550 square feet, while the length of the conductor would be only the thickness of the material, and a constant quantity, Secoyp Szaizs, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept-, 1846. 206 Conduction of Galvanic Electricity through Moist Air. for any length of wires and tube, and increase of surfaces in con- tact. A full realization of the principle appears in the fact, that * although the earth is a much poorer conductor than copper, mass for mass, yet upon the telegraphic routes, it is found that the earth is a much better conductor than the copper wires used, the mass of ‘the former being indefinitely greater than the latter. - These phenomena induced me to try the following experi- ment, in order to ascertain if the air might not act as a conduc- tor. The roof of the patent office building covered with copper, exposes to the air twenty-two thousand square feet of this metal, and thus affords an enormous surface for conduction. A wire was connected with the metal of the roof, another wire with a plate of zinc of about four square feet. 'The free ends of these two wires were connected with a galvanoscope of exceeding semsi- tiveness, and with matters thus arranged, the zine plate was insu- | lated from the earth and building, in the open air, and when the upper surface of the zine plate was moistened with water or what proved still better, acidulated water, the needle of the galvano- scope was deflected from two to five degrees. There was a slight drizzling rain at the time. Before the zinc plate was moistened - no action was noticed. The inference from this experiment seems safely to warrant the position that a moist atmosphere con- ducts galvanic electricity. Many years since, I proposed in this Journal a plan for ascertaining the level of the water in steam boilers consisting of a zine plate or a pair of plates, which should indicate the failure of water in the boiler by the cessation of action upon a galvanoscope placed in any convenient position outside the boiler. I have never had opportunity to test this de- vice, but was at the time somewhat apprehensive that pure steam might act as a conductor and thus defeat the invention. I have recently been informed, though not in a direct manner, that the experiment had been tried in Philadelphia and that the steam acted as a conductor. Whether dry air could act at all as a con- ductor remains yet to be ascertained, and I shall be able soon, ; to put it to the test. Immediately after the above experiment was tried, the zinc plate was buried in the earth, other things re- maining the same. The galvanoscope is inside a window in the “second story, where I am enabled to watch it through most of the day. To my surprise as soon as connexion was made with — one being the copper soos, and d the other buried verti- ee ae gare poe sal Conduction of Galvanic Electricity through Moist Air; 207 cally in the earth, the needle was deflected forty degrees, and the quantity of electricity afforded was sufficient to operate the mag+ nets used in Morse’s telegraph, as witnessed by the Professor, and others present. Is the conduction through the material of the building or through the earth and intervening atmosphere? Prob- ably through the mass of the building, which is constructed of blocks of sandstone, the walls being 2} ft. in thickness. A small Piece of this stone was found not to conduct this current percep- tibly, either dry or when moistened with water. But when mois- - .tened with acidulated water, the current passed feebly. The fact is interesting whether the air or sandstone becomes the con- ductor; for if the conduction be through the building, it is through a material which in a block of eight or ten cubic inches, is apparently a non-conductor, but which in the aggregate of the immense pile of the edifice is a conductor. 'The extreme sensitive- hess-of the galvanoscope is evident from its frequent disturbances from the slightest causes. Imay safely say that the needle is affect- ed by a flash of'lightning one hundred miles distant. Whenever a thunder cloud is visible, the needle is deflected at each flash of lightning, and the deflection is in one or the other direction, as the induced current varies according to the direction of the light- ning. When the thunder cloud is near, the action upon the _ Needle is very strong and has several times twisted it suddenly off from the silken fibre to which it is attached. When no cloud is visible in the horizon, the needle on certain days—particularly at noon when thunder storms most frequently occur—is subject to frequent disturbances, resembling the former. I may remark here, as evidence of the rapidity of induction, the movement of the needle and flash of lightning appear simultaneous to the eye. : 1e extraordinary influences upon the needle, having a kind of periodicity, which cannot yet be accounted for, or iden- tified with any meteorological fluctuations. There are also reg- ular changes, which have thus far been noticed during the day. In the morning the current is at its maximum. About 10 o’clock here ara a A) M. it declines, and gets to its minimum about half past 2 p. M., when the needle begins to return and arrives within four or five degrees of its maximum of deflection at 8 Pp. M. Whether his point observed at 8 a. m. is the real maximum is not known, _ 48 Thave not been able to observe it in the night. The range of Vatiation from morning to night is about ten degrees. I have not * = 208 Conduction of Galvanic Eléctricity through Moist Air. been able to notice any irregularity in these changes except as to the time. The irregular disturbances are very interesting, and may be identical with the magnetic storms of Gauss. Upon cer- tain days they are hardly perceptible, though they never cease altogether. On some days they are violent, if I may be allowed the expression. 'The needle does not take a sudden start and re- turn as when influenced by lightning, but moves gradually with- out oscillation to some fixed point, from: which it will return sometimes in two minutes and sometimes in ten or fifteen min- utes. An extended series of observations will be necessary be- fore any deductions can be safely made. If the wires should be separated by a slight interval during a thunder storm, doubtless electrical sparks would be visible. During heavy storms, a flash of lightning twenty miles distant from the wires of Morse’s tele- graph will induce electricity in the wire sufficient to operate the magnets, and work the telegraph, sometimes recording several signals. A flash of lightning in Baltimore, forty miles distant from this place, ‘will 7 the ee: at this end of the line. Washington, D. C. Appendiz. —Mr. Lane remarks, in his communication on the electric conduction in metals,* that in his experiments he found no confirmation of the statement made in this Journal t a few years since, ‘that the conducting power of a wire is greatly i im- paired by bending or twisting it.” Mr. Lane has somewhat mag- nified my meaning by introducing the word greatly, which I did not use, and it is probable that he has really confirmed my state- ment, as he remarks, that after winding and unwinding a thick Wire hava times over a cylinder less than an inch in diameter, the conducting power appeared scarcely affected, implying that some effect was produced ; and if in Mr. Lane’s ingenious and well arranged experiments, which were made with only a few feet of wire, he found even the slightest loss of conducting pow- er, it is reasonable to suppose that in many hundred feet of wire the loss would be a very notable quantity. A statement which I also made in addition to the above, should have been explained. The Statement was that ‘‘a wire which has once heen wound pee a magnet is not fit for the same purpose again.” There are ms Le _ * Bee this Journal, Second Series, 1, 230. - CER SE Bey ite this Journal, Fi irst Series, xxxv, 109. ei alent: — Conduction of Galvanic Electricity through Moist Air, 209 two reasons why such wire would not answer as well as before. First, its conducting power would be impaired, and secondly, it is extremely difficult to straighten such wire, so as to wind the sev- eral turns as closely as before. In regard to the tables which have heretofore been made for the relative conducting powers of different metals, it must be observed, that they cannot be regard- ed as any thing more than approximations to the truth. What is true of many practical applications of science, is particularly _ $0 of galvanism, viz. that laws, rules, or principles deduced from miniature experiments, have entirely failed when applied to ope- rations upon a large scale. As for instance, the law of Pouillet, that wires conducted directly as their cross sections and inversely as their length, was admitted until the experiments in telegraphic Operations upon hundreds of miles of wire, disproved this law and confirmed the law of Ohm. I have some interesting facts here- after to be communicated, showing the importance of operations . upon grand ‘scales, in establishing general principles. Most of your readers will remember the signal discovery of Liebig of the existence and economy .of ammonia in the atmosphere, which he owed to his departure from the limited eudiometrical experiments of other philosophers and investigating large quanti- ties of air instead of small. ‘The effect before alluded to of bending and twisting wires is much more apparent in some spe- “ies of wires than others. There has been a spurious copper Wire now for some time in the market, and it has been my mis- fortune to purchase about ten thousand feet of it.* Its conduct- ing capacity as measured by the arial galvanometer, in lengths of 1000 feet, is about one-third less than pure copper awite. It is well known that a wire may soon be broken by bending it back and forth for a few times. Each bend of course approaches to this solution of continuity, and must interrupt that integ- tity of molecular arrangement which is essential to good mnt ‘uction. Now a few such short bends may not be appreciable by ordinary tests, but when multiplied several hundred times, the resistance to the current becomes of sufficient moment to be a subject of attention. ‘ G. G. P 3 Washington, D. C,, July 3d, 1846. ecg ee OTe Cl ne “Tt is the Same wire that has so perplexed the telegraphic operations between ; New Y AE iad Philadelphia, breaking almost daily merely by its own weight. 210 T.. A. Conrad on the Bocene Formation Arr, XI[X.—Eocene Formation of the a Hills, §¢c., Mis- ateaiyips 3 by T. A. Con Tue elevated bluffs on the Mississippi above New Orleans, on which stand the towns of Natchez, Rodney, Grand Gulf, and Vicksburg have a similar geological origin, and these interesting hills present sections of two formations or depositions widely dif- ferent in age, as well as in the phenomena presented to our notice and in the causes which produced them. The lower strata are wholly of marine origin, and.as I stated in a former publication, they are members of the Hocene, admirably characterized by the peculiar forms. which existed in the seas of that period, The shells are extremely abundant, and as in all other localities of the | Union which have been explored, the line of demarcation be- tween this formation and the Miocene is as strongly marked as a total diversity of species can make it.. My: investigations during a late tour in Mississippi, have been chiefly confined to the vi- cinity of Vicksburg. ‘The hills here rise steeply from the Missis- sippi river and are some miles in extent., They have been wash- ed into frequent and sometimes very profound ravines which cut through and expose the Eocene strata, and the sides of the hills ravines are whitened ‘in many places by the shells which have been washed out of the ferruginous marl ‘or fossiliferous mixture of sand and clay. The strata appear to be nearly hori- zontal and. the greatest elevation about sixty feet above the ordi- — nary high-water level. ‘The lowest stratum exposed is a bluish compact limestone, which is quarried for the purpose of paving the streets of Vicksburg. It is full of shells and casts of shells of such species as are common in the marls above. . One of the , most abundant bivalves is Pecten Poulsoni, (Morton,) a species Oceurring in the white limestone near Claiborne, Alabama. A very thin wafer-shaped Nummulite, described by Dr. Morton, is common in the limestone as well as in all the strata above, and connects the formation of Vicksburg with the Eocene white lime- stone of St. Stephen’s, Alabama. A new species of Pinna is one of the most striking fossils of the limestone at Vicksburg, and which is rare above it. Over this rock are various strata of sandy marl, sometimes indurated and ferruginous, clay, and clay nd sant mixed, 4 all of which are very analytes dm: fossil shells: : ee ~ of the Walnut Hills, §c., Mississippi = 2.11 ‘Near the summit of the Eocene are beds of coarse gravel mixed with whole shells and fragments, from which many fine agates have been procured by Mr. Anderson of Vicksburg. These strata do not appear to have been much disturbed or inclined by the force which elevated them to their present level. ‘Fhe group of fossil shells though as strongly marked in its Eocene character as any in the Union, is yet remarkably distinct from that of Clai- bore or of any other locality which I have seen, as out of about sixty-two species, thirty-eight are new, and J am confident that ten species will on comparison be found identical with Claiborne ‘shells. In most of the strata here, small and large fragments of shells are very abundant, some of which are water-worn and others not in the least abraded. Occasionally we find a black water-worn shell just.in the proportion to the others as we see them on the sea beach of New Jersey. The vicinity of an an- cient sea beach is strongly indicated by the phenomena of these strata, which is not the case at Claiborne. Bivalves with con- hected valves are rare, fragments abundant, and the many water- ‘Worn specimens all tend to prove the action of the surf. In the elay stratum of the upper portion of the formation, the shells in some rare instances retain a trace of their original colors and their : Polish is fully equal to that of recent shells, though they become chalky on exposure to the sun. .The large Cardita planicosta, which so generally prevails in Eccene deposits, is unknown here, and the Crassatella alta of Claiborne is also absent, but there is _4n allied though very distinct species... There is one bivalve here, anew Panopea which is common, and yet unlike the other bivalves is almost in every instance entire, and placed vertically m the Strata, just as it occurred when living and burrowing in the bed of the sea. It therefore lived and died on the spot where itis now found, whilst nearly every other shell had been abraded by the surf or. transported by currents. This is precisely the case with all the various species of Panopea in the Miocene forma- hon, and it is clear that they burrowed deeply in the mud or sand beyond the influence of the agitated waters which scattered the various shells at that time existing near the surface. The principal development of the Eocene is north of Vicks- burg, and every ravine cuts through its various strata, but it is inaecs | impossible to procure an accurate section of them, as they ate universally sunk and displaced by land slides and subsidence. 212 T. A. Conrad on the Eocene Formation As near as I could ascertain, the Eocene strata rise to a level of sixty feet above the river when there is an ordinary freshet.. The limestone, nearly on a level ‘with the water, is the lowest stratum known, as debris and deposits from the river cover and conceal whatever may be ata lower level. At the plantation of Dr. George Smith, five miles northeast of Vicksburg, a ravine cuts through the Eocene strata and exposes about the same elevation of horizontal beds, and between them and the loam with land shells, is a stratum of loam with coarse gravel without a trace of organic remains. ‘This gravel is also visible at Vicksburg, but the thickness of it; or its relation to the Eocene is not oe de- . termined. The only abundant shell of the Vicksburg Bocens, common ~ also at Claiborne in Alabama, is Dentalium thalloides. It is prob- able that the deposits of the Walnut Hills were made in shoaler water, and nearer the shore of the Eocene ocean than those of Clai- borne, but it is remarkable that no species of Cerithiwm occurs, a genus so abundant in species in the Eocene of France, and which is supposed, where it abounds in a fossil state, to indicate an ancient estuary. Vicks burg Fossiliferous Loam. wins the Eocene of Vicksburg, Grand Gulf, Rodney and Natchez, there is a thick deposit of loam of uniform composition and appearance, which is at least fifty feet thick in many places, and probably much more in others ; but owing to land slides and the vast accumulation of debris between this loam and the Eo- cene, the depth of the former is uncertain, and there may be a distinct deposit between the two. The loam is apparently iden- tical in composition with the cane-brake lands of the Mississippi, and abounds in land shells of such species as exist plentifully in the alluvial flats subject to the overflow. of freshets. I have collected Helix thyroidus, H. ligera, H. concava, H. setosa, H. arborea, H. perspectiva, &c., together with Succinea ovalis and Helicina orbiculata. Of fiedh water shells, there is a small Cy+ clas and Paludina which I have not seen in the rivulets near Vicksburg, though two other species of Cyclas abound in one of these small streams. ~'The fossiliferous loam has a very undula- ting summit line, following the outline of the innumerable hills, and it is covered by six to eight feet ne Breaches kind of Pa Pe «ee Pane ©. Sea ae. of the Walnut Hills, §c., Mississippi. 213 earth, in which no shells oceur. No gravel is mixed with either of these strata, but calcareous concretions abound in the lower stra- tum of loam with shells. I am indebted to the polite attention of Dr. E. H. Bryan, who resides near the Jackson rail road, nine miles east of Vicksburg, for an opportunity to make some inter- esting explorations in his vicinity. We visited one of the nu- merous horseshoe lakes formed by the rivers’ deserting old chan- -nels and seeking a new course. We passed through a tract of alluvial land still subject to be overflowed, and in one of the riv- ulets collected two species of Cyclas which are not seen in the fossiliferous loam. The land shells, on the contrary, are precise- ly of such species as abound in it, and occur plentifully under logs and dead leaves in the woods, where they must be subject to be killed by freshets and buried under the deposit left by-the retiring’ Waters. Almost as soon as the freshet subsides, another genera- tion of these shells exists here, and thus as the deposition goes on, the land shells are distributed throughout the alluvium to a great depth precisely as they are in the fossiliferous loam of the hills. In the rivulets the Cyclas exists, and is carried out by floods and distributed among the land shells, but they are rare in comparison with the latter both in the fossil and recent state. In _ the numerous cut-offs or lakes Unios and Paludinas abound, and these are represented in the ancient deposit by the beds of similar shells, all of existing species, which occur in patches everywhere throughout this singular region. They always occur in a black soil, evidently once the bed of lakes, and entirely different in and consistence from the loam containing land shells, and they are always at a much lower level than the top of the latter deposit. One of these beds of the fossil Unio we observed near Big Black river, which though much below the surface of the hills of fossiliferous loam, is yet at an elevation of about fifty feet above the river when the water is moderately high. Among these shells I noticed Unio cicatricosus and Paludina ponderosa. In the bluff near Vicksburg and on Dr. Smith’s plantation north- east of the town, Unio quadrulus, Raf., was the most common Species observed. The identity of the fossiliferous loam with the alluvium of the Mississippi, is confirmed by a singular phe- Nomenon in the nearly perpendicular banks formed by cutting through hills on the line of the Jackson railroad. Dr. Bryan called my attention to the willow and cottonwood trees, which _ Steonp Senizs, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept., 1846. * 214 T. A. Conrad on the Hocene Formation, §c. have their roots in the summit line of the fossiliferous loam; eight feet beneath the surface of the hills. These are the kinds of trees which first take possession of the soil made by deposition from the Mississippi near its mouths, and which refuse to grow on the hills above the loam or in the earth which overlies it. These trees grow only on the summit line of the loam, follow- ing all its undulations, and many are of such a size that they are evidently nearly as old as the excavations which have given them a chance to spring. up. ©The railroad has been made about ten years, and Dr. Bryan assures me that the trees made their appear-_ ance soon after the hills were cut through. The seeds or roots must therefore have been in the newest deposits of loam, and it is evident that no vegetation, except canes or reeds, occupied the soil before its latest deposition, at which latter period it is probable that the willow, cottonwood, and other trees, first made their appearance on the earth, and perhaps the mastodon, elephant, hip- popotamus, é&c., came into existence at the same time, since the remains of the mastodon and elephant have been abundantly found in the vicinity: of Natchez and Vicksburg, though I have not ascertained in what part of the stratum they occur. The foregoing facts and observations have led to the inference that all this thick and elevated deposit, with land universally distributed through it, was the result of ancient floods in the Mississippi and its tributaries.. The cause, whatever it may have been, which elevated the Eocene strata of the Mississippi bluffs, raised at the same time this ancient alluvium, and thus the uprise of the ter- tiary may be referred. to a very modern period, and one which seems to have been connected with the causes which destroyed the mastodon, elephant, hippopotamus, &c. which once existed in North Amenca. It is difficult to account for the origin of the peculiat earth above the fossiliferous loam, or to assign a cause for the un- dulations of the surface of the latter, which conforms to the slopes of the innumerable hills in this country, where there is no level ground except that subject to floods from the rivers. — It is certain, however, that the lakes are numerous, their shores steep and high, and that a future elevation of the country would present a large proportion of steep declivities, having their origin in the present sloping shores of the cut-off lakes which are common near all the rivers, where they approach the Mississippi. There Seems to be no other theory than the one I have sug- stec ‘which can account for the origin of the fossiliferous loam. _ Notice of a small Ornithichnite. 215 A lacustrine origin is out of the question, because such an uni- versal diffusion of land shells with no fresh-water shells among them, except Cyclas and small Paludine, could under no cir- cumstances take place in a lake of considerable size. In that case, Unios and large fresh-water shells would be the predominant fossils, and land shells of rare occurrence. Admitting the loam to have been deposited by the overflows of the ancient Mississippi, it assumes a‘feature of extraordinary interest in proving a con- siderable elevation of the Eocene strata in a period as recent as that when the mastodon existed. This rise of land, I have no doubt, was coeval with that of the Gnathodon beds of Florida, Alabama, and Louisiana, of the keys of Florida, and of the oyster shell deposits of Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey. At this _time the change of climate occurred which has restricted the liv- ing Gnathodon to the estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico, and which was probably connected with the disturbance or revolution that exterminated the mastodon and its gigantic associates. — Arr. XX.—Notice of a small Ornithichnite; by C. B. Avams, State Geologist of Vermont, &c. Tur specimen from which the following figures were drawn, was obtained in Wethersfield, Ct., at the locality of Ornithich- nites described in the Final Report on the Geology of. Map 1g. . setts, pp. 466-7, and with many others from the same locality, is now in the cabinet of Mid- dlebury College, Vermont. It is a fine red slate of the new red sandstone. The tracks ~ ee ae es ow \ 1 { \ \ \ \ \ ba have had slender toes, but a broad heel, like ae Polemarchus gigas, Hitehk.,¢ which, as in that “ase, indicates a much heavier animal than would have been sup- z Posed from the slenderness of the toes. 'These two animals, so + Proceedings of Sixth Meeting of Association of American Geologists, p. 24. 216 Discoidal Sténes of the Indian Mounds. extreme in size, may possibly have been more nearly related than has commonly been supposed. 'The dotted’ line ace includes the slope of the depression made in the a stratum around the heel. Fig. 2. But the principal object of this notice is to call at- tention to the small track, fig. 2. It is near the lar- ger track in the slabs which show their relative ") \ position, and is quite moderately depressed. From its general resemblance in form to the other track, it seems probable that it was made by an animal of the same species. The difference in the form of the toes may be readily accounted for by the want of an exact proportion between the width of the toes and that of their tracks, and by differences of the former consequent on dif- ference of age. As the extremities of the impressions of the toes are sharply defined, it cannot be supposed that the track is imperfect in front. The posterior portion of the heel is less dis- tinctly defined, and the whole heel was less deeply impressed, the deepest part of the track being represented by the dotted line n. ‘This corresponds with the " Geter character of Argoides minimus, as described by Pres. Hitchcock, “heel rarely making an impression’”—our fig. 1 representing a track of the heel very remarkable for the depth and size. In pl. 42, fig. 35, of the Fi- nal Report above quoted, we see several tracks of the same size with the small specimen, fig: 2, but without the heel. The dis- covery of the latter in one of these small tracks, strengthens the conclusion that ni were made by the Argoides minimus. s ee pee Re Arr. XXI.—On the Discoidal Stones of the Indian — by E. G. Squier. Ix the paper contributed, by Dr. Morton, to the last number of the American Journal of Science,* reference is made to certain “discoidal stones,” some of which are figured. Exact counter- parts of these stones, are in the possession of Dr. Hildreth of Mari- etta; in fact, they occur in considerable numbers, all over Ohio, and may be found in the cabinets of almost every collector of abo- riginal remains. After extensive exploration, I have reason to think it extremely doubtful whether discs of this description were ever found i in| the mounds, Se in cases when pers were ia. ll iii ia atalagem rei SS NEA FN Discoidal Stones of the Indian Mounds. 217 i ited by the modern (existing) race of Indians. The stones met with in a mound near Chillicothe, to which Dr. Morton alludes, are very unlike those figured in his paper, as they are of horn-stone, rudely blocked out, while the others mentioned, are of great symmetry and manifestly the result of much labor. , ' Nor is there, apparently, much mystery as to the use made o . these stones. Iam assured, by Rev. Mr. Finley, “ the Wyandot Chief,” (distinguished for his zealous efforts in christianizing the Indian tribes of Ohio,) that among the tribes with which he was acquainted, stones of this description were much used in a popu- lar game, somewhat resembling our game of “ten pins.” A smooth and well packed area of earth was selected, at one ex- tremity of which a small wooden pin was stuck, while the player stationed himself at the other. The point of the gamie consisted in striking the pin oftenest ina given number of trials. The form of the stones suggests the manner in which they were | held and thrown, or, rather, rolled, The concave sides received the thumb and second finger, the forefinger clasping the pe- a riphery. Adair, in his account of the Indians along the gulf,* gives a minute, and graphic account of a game, somewhat analogous to | that described by Mr. Finley, in which stones of this description Were used. He says:—“'The warriors have another favorite game, called Chungke ; which, with propriety of language, may be called « Running hard labor.” They have near their state house, a square piece of ground well cleared, and fine sand is carefully strewn over it, when requisite, to promote a swifter mo- tion to what they throw along the surface. Only one or two on a side, play at this ancient game. ‘They have a stone about two fingers broad at the edge and two spans round ; each party has a | pole about eight feet long, smooth and tapering at each end, the i Points flat. They set off abreast of each other, at six yards from the edge of the play ground; then one of them hurls the stone > 9n its edge, in as direct a line as he can, a considerable distance towards the middle of the other end of the square: when they have run a few yards, each darts his pole, ‘anointed with bear’s stease, with a proper foree, as near as he can guess, in proportion to the motion of the stone, that the end may lie close to the a eH atsiy ot ine American Indians, particularly those nations adjoining to the “issippi, East and West Florida, Georgia, &c. by James Adair, London, 1765.” 218 B. Silliman, Jr.,.on the same—when this is the case, the person counts two of the game, and in proportion to the nearness of the poles to the mark, one is counted, unless, by measurement, both are found to be an equal distance from the stone. In this manner the players will keep moving most of the day, at half speed, under the violent heat of the sun, staking their silver ornaments, their nose, finger and ear-rings, their breast, arm and wrist ‘plates, and all their wearing apparel, except that which barely covers their middle. All the American Indians are much addicted to this game, which appears to be a task of stupid drudgery; it seems, however, to be of early origin, when their forefathers used diversions as sim- ple as their manners. The hurling stones, they use at present, were, from time immemorial, rubbed smooth on the rocks, and with prodigious labor ; they are kept with the strictest religious care, from one generation to another, and are exempt from being bu- ried with the dead. They belong to the town where they are used and are carefully preserved.’ —Adair, p. 402. _. Dr. Morton is, I think, mistaken in supposing the occurrence of these stones to be ecicunipsabed They certainly occur through- out the west, as do also, the spheroidal stones. apna which,. it is quite evident, were used for similar purposes. — It will be seen, from the above, that Dr. Blanding was right in his suggestion, ati these stones were =e in the anener of the aborigi Chillicothe, ‘Ohio, Jaly, 1846. gests Aes Arr. XXII. 7 Doonan of several Natural Wa- - ** by B. Srtuman, Jr. ‘f Tr is nearly a year since the analyses here tabulated, were made and published in the document, whose title is given below. No mention however has been made of them in this Journal, and we now propose, to give only the scientific results in a con- densed form and with the omission of much —— which was proper to the pages of the ‘ Report.’ The writer received the water in samples of two or three gal- lons in well stopped glass bottles, and designated by numbers ole It was supposed that they were all the product of a gran- or ain ihe ge eRe ” oo. a. the Water Commisioner, 1845. Beaoi: City Decgeent, No. 41, Pa Atom ee Sees B Silliman, Jr. Chemical Examination of Natural Waters. 219 itie region, which was not however: the case... The seinen amined were severally as follows. Water No.1. From Mystic Pond, near Boston, about 60 rods above the outlet, taken from the surface, 100 to 150 feet from the shore, where the depth was more than 10 feet, collected August 16, 1845. No. 2... Croton River, N. Y. taken from the upper reservoir, City of ‘New York, near the S. E. corner and near the outlet leading to the dis- tributing reservoir, collected August 25. No. 3. Spot Pond, taken July 17th, 150 to 200 feet from the proposed outlet of conduit, and from the surface,—over a depth of 13 feet. No. 4, Schuylkill, Philadelphia; ni Ph Avg. 234, 100 to 200 feet shore the fore- -bay in the pool of Fairmount dem, o. 5. Long Pond, Mass., collected July 19th, from the point of exit of eta aqueduct, 150 to 200 feet from shore, Taken from the surface where the depth was 10 feet. ‘No. 6. Charles River, Watertown, Mass., collected July 29th, 150 to 200 feet above the lower dam, in the middle of the stream. “No. %:? Charles River, South Natick, Mass., collected July 22d, in ~ middle of the pool, and 200 feet above the dam. 0.8. Spot Pond, Mass., between the island and southeast shore, at Sand 13 feet depth from the surface, collected Sept. 3d and 6th. No. 9. Long Pond, Mass., upper division, from a depth of 62 feet, a. Sept. Sth. 10. Ber ~ Mass. 26 feet cep tems locality as No. 8— ll’ Aug. No. 11, spel a cael on “pre promises of ae K. Mills, Esq. No. 20 Beacon street, Boston ; taken Oct. 1 In color and transparency, these waters range almost exactly, in the order of their numbers. No. 1, being most transpar- ent and No, 10 least so. No 11 was a very clear water. Nos. 8, 9 and partcularly No. 10, were very deep brown colored waters. No. 10 looked like an infusion of tan bark or weak coffee, and had a cape brown precipitate, like hydrate of iron at the bot- tom. In ta e, they were generally good and sweet. No. 1 was however varie and saline, and No. 11, quite nauseous, from amount of common salt and magnesian and lime salts it con- tained. The highly colored water, No. 10, was not disagreeable in taste, while No. 2, (the Croton, ) bad a decidedly swampy flavor. ieasicus dnimalcales were observed in most of them when frst examined and Prof. Baily detected in samples sent to him, . ec all the common: forms of soft and hard shelled polessenia 220 - B. Silliman, Jr., on the infusoria, usually present in the sweet waters of our ponds and rivers. Water which will not support the life of these delicate creatures is not fit for human use. Fora list of these, see the copy of his letter in the report in question. Only Nos. 1 and 11 were decidedly hard waters. The others were generally quite soft. The general course of analysis was in most respects, similar to that usually pursued. A full qualitative examination was first made, to determine the number and eer ebundinek: of the foreign matters. This examination showed that the waters were all neutral ex- cept, Nos. 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11, which contained an appreciable quantity of crenic and apocrenic acids. The carbonic acid was determined by Berzelius’s mode, on a separate quantity, and the sulphuric acid was subsequently estimated on the same portion. - No ammonia was detected in any of them. The solid contents were determined by evaporation to a small bulk, of a carefully measured standard gallon of each, in capacious glass flasks, and the evaporation was completed in counterpoised capsules of platina or porcelain. The subsequent. ignition of these capsules gave us the amount of matters volatile at redness. ‘The ultimate analysis of the solid contents was divided into two ais that soluble in boiling water, and the insoluble residue. The phosphoric acid was determined by a re-solution of the ammoniacal precipitate of alumina, iron, &c. in pure acetic acid. If an insoluble residue remained, it was collected, weighed, and then separately analyzed to determine with entire certainty the presence of phosphoric acid. For this purpose the supposed phosphates (of alumina and iron) were fused with one part of silica and six parts of pure carbonate of soda, for half an hour, in acrucible of platinum. The fused mass, treated with water, was filtered, and the silicic acid removed from the filtrate by di- gestion with carbonate of ammonia and evaporation to dryness. The neutralized filtrate was then treated with nitrate of silver, which promptly threw down the characteristic precipitate of yel- low tribasic phosphate of silver, blackening by light, and wholly soluble in dilute nitric acid. This is the method advised by Ber- zelius for the separation of alumina from phosphoric acid, and no better proof can be required of its presence. ‘The occurrence of phosphoric acid in water has generally been overlooked, be- nsuspecte: “Iehas escaped under the general tile of si Ce Nici ee ee oe a eel tbe 5 Chemical Examination of Natural Waters. 221 mina and iron, with which it is thrown down on addition of caustic ammonia. It is certainly interesting to observe that a compound indispensable to the full development of the human frame,-should be so widely diffused as to be present, in minute quantity, in almost all natural waters. We are less surprised at this fact now than we should have been a few years ago, since we now know that phosphoric acid is found in granite, mica slate, various limestones of all formations, as well as in many simple _ Minerals where it had before been overlooked ; the writer has also detected its presence in connection with pone Sty in most re- cent corals and coral limestone*—and Dr. Jackson informshim that in the analyses of sea waters for the Exploring Expedition, he also detected phosphoric acid.t It is also a fact of significant in- terest, that silica, in its soluble modification, should ‘he found as an almost gan? ingredient of natural waters, The nitric acid was determined quantitatively, daly in one instance, ne its presence’ was very evident in several of these waters; from the rapid deflagration of the residue of evaporation, on ignition. It is worthy of remark. that in all cases where this deflagration was observed, the residue was found to be strongly : alkaline, and to effervesce on the addition of a dilute acid: the | _, Carbonate of soda and potassa being formed from the decomposi- tion of the nitrates and crenates of these bases. - Table I presents the general results of the evaporation of one gallon of each water: and the estimation of the quantity of car- bonic and sulphuric acids in the same quantity. ee G88 SH EE LAB oh Je matter in I 000 , ; fe oe SCA Reet 50-752 i874 = 5.770 1059597 $5 Venne of solid in 1 gallon, 3971 2-13 15: CAR aatie Leaving soma 6.02 | 425 | 085 I 4-62 (50-055) Keaving solid matter, 33-68 | 6°66 | 1:25 4 : a hee er share wae ‘Soluble el ards 431073 bp bone 245 | 240 | 0-69 0 ye : ne a 24 | 447 | 0:56 Cenk a fares te 5 I 549 trace ete es) |10-313]17-418} 9-516 3 ; : Sul: acid in one gallon, > 1058 “00551 00824! 02451 (0037 “00246 4-968 ated ay n give a aR ee he one acid, ab we cannot doubt do but in exceedingly small quantity—in sea waters. We were led to these examinations by the coral analyses before eo to. tases ‘Vol. Il, No. 5,—Sept, 1846, | 222 B. Silliman, Jr., on the’ Tn reconstructing the supposed condition of the various ingre- _ dients, found as they probably existed in the waters, the rule adopted has been, to follow as nearly as possible the order of af- finities of the various elements concerned, and to regard also that partition of acids among bases which undoubtedly obtains in na- ture. It is indeed the opinion of Berzelius, Rose and other emi- nent chemists, that the effort to restore with accuracy the precise condition of the elementary combinations concerned in a mineral water, is altogether futile—except in cases of extraordinary sim- plicity ; and that it is the better way to state only the quantities of the various ingredients found, and leave it for the ingenuity of the student to reconstruct them as he finds most convenient. In my analysis of the waters of the Dead Sea I have peste.” this principle.* =~ It was however in the present case sedan renee the apeiee nature of the report in which these analyses appeared, to state them in the more usual form. ‘Table II shows the recon- structed condition of the —— of ten of the waters, — No. 11 is presented by itself. Taste If.—Showing the composition @ of the — social : of one gallon of each water. ; M. Pt] C. (SP. P. Number of water, Ee a ee 4, 8.4 Chloride of e a seta eat T a 367 03869 5 "1593 Chloride of < fam gan teu :372| . 0044 Chloride of ; Se eee ves Chioride of aluininium, 7166; Sulphate of potassa, . eC age eer of Boda, . = 8. ete 153 0-2276 ‘1510 Sulphate of magnesia, Is Tre rie 1350) * *2624| 4940) +5700/2' Sulphate of ~n ow aes 235). nd | ¢ silica} silica ee “yt ba é ae tt A ‘i Phospha’ 32). » «|. . (0830) 0973) -0740 Alumina, phalie 2: i ehteatiale do.| . 0. 1081 Real Pails Wag nd Ped ee : ‘0800 Alumina,. ©... “0800 Peel \o's7Sa11'87200-2380 4970} °1610) -0490) « nate of m “662 0°1420) °3510} .0630)-1300) °0399) +1030) - r bi Aragon of mio poor to ni- ; ; i ; and carbonate of do. . 11865)... 16436) -5295)-7116) -5291) -9403) -4757| -2816 any r,t Si Pella a MM Si es ee ji}. . |1-2468 | Actual amount after ignition, 33 e803 6 666, 1°2500 4.2608 1 12200 /2°550 1-6680)2°1000 2.21 462 Bre 9162... 00032 SSER EN TS 5 It will be seen that these tables afford us the means of com- paring the respective purity of different samples of the same wa- oe ‘taken from various positions and depths. The greener result Journal of f Science, First Bale xlviii, 10. on P., Mystic Pond—C., Croton River—C. R, Cliarles River—S. P., Spot Pond—s. , Pond: —S.R., — River. =—L.P. . Chemical Examination of Natural Waters. 223 is, that the surface water of lakes is purer than that taken from ‘some depth. Nos. 3, 8, and 10, also 2, 6, and 7, also 5 and 9, offer illustrations of this remark. The rivers also gather impuri- R ties as they draw near their mouths, the water from high up the tl being purest. It will also be seen that the number and al Siagortion of the ingredients vary in the same water. These re- sults were not a little interesting to the writer and his excellent assistant, Mr. Hunt, when after our labors were closed, we were for the first time supplind with the names of the various sources ftom whence the waters on which we had labored were obtained. The specific gravities of these waters were. taken, with a Wei eate balance, and, with ery | -Acglass bottle with a Facioamtid stopper was ; used for the purpose. _ The results were in some cases anomalous, giving for some of the Wwaters.a density less than that of pure water. But these differ- ences are so infinitesimal as to be easily accounted for by. the gaseous matters which these waters contain. The actual differ- ences from the density of pure water at 60°, afforded even by the Most dense of the waters examined in this research, affect on- ly the third place of decimals. Thus No. 11 has 87-811 parts of solid matter in a hundred thousand parts of water, or nearly "one per centum, yet its gravity differs from pure recently boiled Water distilled from glass by only.z.¢¢hrz¢- We should not look ore for a very appreciable increase of gravity in a water con- taining only three parts of solid matter in a hundred thousand. . le IIT shows the eapecite gravity. | ne = — 1-000060 a0 10000894 | near oT | ORNS ae J OS TO Pee E a a [aa FOOT jowane7T | Cour | | The water No. 11 (from a well in Boston) proved to be highly saline. One standard quarter gallon of the water was boiled with the previous addition of a known quantity of pure anhydrous carbonate of soda, which threw down, during the progress of the ebullition, all the earths and other bases present, except the soda, converting them of course into carbonates. Then by the well nown methods of analysis, the various ingredients were sepa- Tately determined, and the soda quantitatively. I give subjoined the actual quantities obtained for one gallon of the water, with- = attempting to reconstruct the order of arrangement which we et Suppose they had in nature. We found— 224 B. Silliman, Jr., on the Chemical Examination, §c. Chlorine, . ‘ ‘ ; ‘ ; oy oy oe MBO pamerre acid, . ; : : ‘ ; ort cle Ae QGBB . ‘ ; ‘ ; é bcs 10-5853 Sitesi F , : ; \ 43922 Alumina and ini of ated ye LG ‘ é i 9884 Phosphate of alumina, . . ebieae sh : 3 3°8857 Silica, . " é ‘ 6:1158 Carbonate of modes wexjttiveleiats of ‘ 73209 Nitric and crenic acids and loss, Bar tet at 50-0550 “Both the silica and phosphate of alumina in the analysis of No. 11 were separately analyzed after their weight was recorded, to ascertain their entire purity and freedom from other matters. We also made a series of experiments to determine the action of these waters on metallic lead. The result of these trials was that every water, except No. 2, (Croton,) acted more or less on the lead. Those interested will = these — —— in the re- port before quoted. In conclusion we may denies shat all natural waters may in a certain sense be properly talled mineral waters, as they must each possess a specific and peculiar character dependent on the nature and amount of solid matters which they contain, and this must depend ultimately on the geological structure of the country where they are found. It is curious and instructive to see that | even those waters which we consider the purest, contain, in @ notable quantity, matters: which are absolutely intliggonisible to satisfy the demands of the vegetable world, (and ultimately the animal also ;) and when we remember the vast amount of evap- oration from the expanded leaves of a full grown forest tree du- ring a single summer day—can we any longer be at fault for a cause sufficient to account in the most satisfactory manner, for the various inorganic constituents of plants? It cannot be doubt- ed that natural waters act a most important part in conveying ito the upward current of organic life those inanimate elements, which, from their constant presence in plants, must be of primary tierortanos:, nee we are ata loss to explain the mode of their action.* eee Reto: Bul 15, 1846. re oing analyses were ede by. authority « of the city of Boston, prepat- “the sources to y that m a ‘Long Pond (Nos. = nr sat = ee Description of a remarkable fossil Echinoderm. 225 Art. XXIUL—Description of a remarkable fossil Eichinoderm, from the Limestone Formation of St. Louis, Missouri; by » JG. Norwoop, M. D., and D, D. Owen, M. D. | * “In the winter of 1844-5, during a visit to St. Louis, our search __after organic remains in that vicinity, was rewarded by the dis- covery of a slab containing three specimens of a magnificent fossil belonging to the class Radiata, one of which is here repre- agi ciate - ean Teg Bae Melonites multipora. A minute inspection of the specimens, induces us to believe that they are gigantic Echinoderms, closely allied to the Echini- ins ; especially to the Echinus. It is true that in some parts of their anatomy, they differ from Goldfuss’s description of that di- ae) tae ‘ 226 Description of a remarkable fossil E'chinoderm. vision of the order Echinodermata ; yet, it is thought these aber- rant characters are hardly sufficient to entitle them to be classed as a distinct group. With the Echinideans or Echinides of Goldfuss, they agree in three essential characters, viz.: They are composed of ten fields (aree); five broad (aree sndj owes, and five smaller (are@ ambu- lacrorum); and these are made up of little plates, disposed in - rows. Pores or holes run in vertical rows up and down the small field (area ambulacrorum). There is, moreover, every evidence that the. os inferum and the anus were central, as in the genus Kchinus. In the following, more inal characters, they. differ from Gold- fuss’s description of this group. The plates of which the aree majores consist, are mostly six- instead of five-angled, and are far more numerous than the ele- mentary plates of which Goldfuss’s genera-are made up. The plates of the aree majores are arranged, not in single or double rows, but in. many rows, varying from seven or eight at the widest part, to five or six at the top and bottom. The plates constituting the aree ambulacrorum are, doubtless, also more numerous, for, though rather obscurely marked; a close ty tion shows that there are two kinds, viz., a double vertical row of elongated hexagonal plates, interlocking aul connected lat- erally, on either side, with three rows of smaller, four-angled, Fie rhomboidal plates, (very like the éschars on some spe- | cies of Lepidodendron,) making in all, eight - rows of plates, arranged as exhibited in fig. 2; ° while the corresponding aree of Echinides, ac- cording to Goldfuss’s description, are composed of but two rows. Each plate is perforated by two holes; so that each ambulacrum consists of eight double rows of pores. No evidence of any kind has been obtained to show whether these bodies were pedunculated ; but there is strong presumptive — evidence that they were not. This is rendered probable, Ist, from their near approximation to the true Echinides; 2d, from their gigantic dimensions ; 3d, because no stems have yet been found connected with any ow. the specimens ; 4th, because pedun- culated Echinoderms of such vast dimensions, would require @ much nie stem than is exhibited as any portions of columns ¥ Description of a remarkable Sossil Echinoderm. 227 hitherto discovered in this rock; 5th, all the Echinoderms at all approaching the size of this fossil are free bodies; 6th, the absence of a pelvis or circular rim for articulation to a stem; 7th, the presence of depressions in the position, and apparently for per- forming the offices of the anus and 0s inferum. . “To sum up, then, with a connected description of the fossil, as far as the specimens in our possession will enable us to do so:— eet we . _ Body ovoid or nearly spherical, free; os inferum central ; anus central and above ; are ten, five large (are@ majores), five small (aree ambulacrorum); plates of the arese majores mostly 6-sided, in many rows; those of the aree ambulacrorum of two kinds— one set are elongated hexagons, disposed in double vertical rows in the centre of the area, which is elevated into a prominent ridge, along the summit of which the interlocking serrated suture of this double row is situated ; the other set smaller, irregularly rhom- boidal, and running in oblique rows on either side of the former. Each plate of the ares ambulacrorum is pierced by two holes ; these are central in the rhomboidal plates, but in the hexagonal Plates, are situated near. the angle furthest from the before men- tioned central suture. Each ambulacrum is thus constituted of eight alternating double rows of pores. Figure 3, is an outline of a restored repre- : Sehtation of the fossil reduced: We propose — as an appropriate name for it, Melonites mul- Hipora, on account of its resemblance, in gen- eral outline, to some species of melon, and the ‘Sreat number of pores in the ambulacrum. This fossil is known amongst the quarry- \ y: _ Men, as the “ coltsfoot.”” By reference to SL fig. 1, it will be seen that it bears considerable resemblance to the _ mpress of the frog of a horse’s foot. This is worthy of note, since _ It confirms, in a most remarkable mater, an assertion made in a formernumber of this Journal, (1st Set. vol. xliii, No. 1, p. 17,) that ‘those unacquainted with the science of geology, frequently mis- take for fossil footprints, what are, in fact, moulds of shells, or _. Merely casual appearances. It also warns the geologist _ —_ Hous he should be in inves The discovery of this fossil is peculiarly interesting, not only _ N aecount of its gigantic dimensions, measuring, as it lies on the 228 _ OC, Lyell and C. T. F. Bunbury on the slab, five and a half inches in vertical diameter, and fourand two- tenths in transverse diameter, but, also, as affording additional ev-— idence of the existence of this group of radiated. animals at wi: remote periods, All the specimens,* hitherto found, were obtained near lon water at St. Louis, from a limestone formation, considered the equivalent of the mountain limestone of Europe, associated with the Producta figured in vol. xliii, No. 1, p. 81, Ist Ser., of this Jour nal, an Aulopora,? Gorgonia, Retepora, Ceriopora, ? and a small Delihyris.t It is situated, by estimate, from fifty to seventy-five feet below the lowest seam of coal at ance known in sodas Illinois coal. field. Ser att Madison, Ia., June 20, 1846. Arr. XXIV. - Obsétvations on. the “Fossil Plants, “et the Coal Field of Tuscaloosa, Alabama ; by C. Lyeun, Esg., with a - description of some. sangria by C. 7. BF. Borsunr; Esq., F. G.S. oie a former number of the ‘American J ournal,{ I described the ographical position of the coal fields of Alabama, and stated ca the carboniferous strata of the Warrior river extend south-_ wards to the town of Tuscaloosa in the neighborhood of which, aided by Professor Brumby, (who had already made some pro- gress in the investigation, ) I succeeded in collecting. impressions of Sigillaria, Stigmaria, | Lepidodendron, Calamites, Neuropt eris and several other ferns. I also stated that I recognized a specific identity between several of these fossils, and some of the most abundant coal plants of Pennsylvania and Europe. On my return to England in June, 1846, I submitted the specimens to my friend eh, 2. Banbury, who immediately compared them with the best published plates and descriptions, and with European fossils in the cabinets of the Geological Society of London. The re- sult of his examination has fully confirmed the conclusion to | * The first specimens of this fossil were found by H. A. Prout, M.D., of St- Louis, sometime previous to our discovery. Most of the specimens yet obtained, » compressed ; but Dr. P. has one in his cabinet which is detached, and in the original spheroidal form 1 For or want of the necessary works of reference, we are unable, at present, to de- oot whether. these genera, heling undescribed species. ad Series, i, 371. ind came) Fossil Plants of the Coal Field of Tusca a vik Ate. 299 which I had arrived, and it will be seen in the sequel that not- withstanding the loss of several ferns and Sigillarise which were obtained in a disintegrating matrix near the outcrop of the strata, where the shales are changed into soft, pale, laminated clay, this _ botanist has been able to detect no less than sixteen forms, of which the following is an enumeration—1. Sphenopteris latifo- lia, Ad. Brongn. 2. S. Dubuissoni? Ad. Brongn. 3. Sphenop- teris, allied to the last, perhaps:a variety of the same. 4. Neu- ropteris tenuifolia, Ad. Brongn. 5. Neuropteris Grangeri, or N. gigantea? 6. Calamites canneeformis. 7. Calamites, obscure spe- cimen allied to the foregoing. 8. Lepidodendron elegans. 9. Lepidodendron allied to L. dilatatum, Foss. Flora. 10. Lepido- phylum? 11. Sigillaria, decorticated: 12. Stigmaria ficoides. 13. Poacites? 14, Bechera tenuis, n. sp., very nearly allied to B. grandis, Foss. Flora. 15. Asterophyllites? flaccida. 16, Phyllites, resembling the leaf of Sparganium or Eriocaulon. - The Palwontologist will perceive at once that no less than half of the specimens in the above list, agree with well-known Euro- _ pean fossils of the old carboniferous formation, and the rest belong to genera which are common in our coal measures, and may per- haps agree with European fossils when procured in a better state of preservation. 'The leaves however resembling Sparganium, or still more closely some of the Junci such as Eriocaulon, and _ which are very abundant, appear to Mr. Bunbury to be new, (see fig. p. 232.) | Bie The three species of Sphenopteris mentioned in. the above list all differ from any ferns which I met with in my travels in North America in 1841-2, but one of them S. latifolia is a common Northumberland species found at Newcastle. Neuropteris tenuifo- lia is also met with at Neweastle, and N. Grangeri occurs in Ss I- fordshire, as also at Zanesville, Ohio. Calamites canneeformis 18 one of the most abundant forms both in Enrope, the United States, and Nova Scotia, and the same may be said of Lepidoden- dton elegans, the Alabama variety being that commonly met with at Sidney, Cape Breton. Lepidodendron dilatatum is a Northum- . berland fossil. - Lepidopyllum, probably the leaves of the preced- ing genus; is also a form frequently met with in the British _— other European coal strata. "The same is true of Stigmaria ficoi- des, and the genera Stigmaria and Sigillaria are as yet exclusively __* Skeonp Szares, Vol. 11, No. 5—Sept., 1846.» 30 230 Description of Alabama Coal Plants. characteristic of the carboniferous group. Lastly, —— tenuis has been found in Coalbrook Dale, Shropshire. When we recollect that the Tuscaloosa coal field is sith m lat. 33°10’ North, and that so many of the species now first ex- amined agree with fossils occurring more than twenty degrees farther north in the British Isles, and at a distance of five thou- sand miles, with a broad’ ocean intervening, we cannot but be struck with this wide diffusion of a Flora, so singularly uniform in its character. The phenomena seem to imply at the remote period in question the existence, first, of continuous land across the space now occupied by the Atlantic, or at least of a chain of islands in that region; and secondly, a remarkably equable cli- mate ; for Dr. Hooker, author of “the Antarctic Flora,” has late- ly observed that no existing Flora, viewed as a whole, preserves so uniform a character for so great a distance in a north and south direction, as that extending from the south of the island of Chi- loe to Cape Hom, a range of twelve or thirteen degrees of lati- tude. This wide distribution occurs where the climate in win- ter and summer, and throughout the whole year, is peculiarly equable. Alabama is the most southern spot in the nerthenh hemisphere where the ancient carboniferous flora has yet been studied ; geol- ogists therefore will rejoice to hear that Prof. Brumby is fully — alive to the importance of a more full investigation of the plants of that country, of which he will soon, it is — have it im his power to form a. ponueiersnie collection. Description of Alabama Coal Plants ; by C. T. F. Bunsury, Esq. 1. Sphenopteris latifolia. Ad. Brongn. Veg. Foss., p. 205, t. 57, f. 1—3. (Not of Lindley and. Hutton. ) One of these Alabama specimens approaches to S. acutifolia, Brongn., which is probably not distinct from S. latifolia. : 2. Sphenopteris Dubuissoni? Ad. Brongn. Veg. Foss., P- 195, t..54, f. 4? Agrees so nearly with Brongniart’s description and figure that I can hardly suppose it to be a different species ; the only distinc- tion I perceive, is, that in our plant both the main rachis and that ~ gf the primary pinnae is beset with numerous small pean We sant yt Deas) feet aps ae ARG 3 np eee Description of Alabama Coal Plants. ' 31 (forming pits in the impression, ) indicating the insertion of hairs or scales, which are not noticed by Brongniart. That author’s specimens of S. Dubuissoni were obtained from the coal mines of Montrelais, Loire-Inferieure. 3. Sphebopteris:s - Perhaps a variety of the last, ora different singe of poi _ The secondary pinne however are much longer, the pinnules more distant and more saeply wah es with narrower mare more diverging segments. - A. Neuropteris tenuifolia. Ad. tic Ap 241, t. 72, f. 3. _ + 5. Neuropteris gigantea? or N. G One or two detached leaflets, we ahd tthe with cer- tainty. a: oan canneformis. Ad. Brongn, p- 131, t. 21. 7. Calami An Mister spectineli With narrower and more prominent tle es than the foregoing, and no distinct tubercles. _ 8. Lepidodendron elegans. 3 - ‘The Alabama plant has narrower and more Inaction areole abn the British specimens I have seen of L. elegans, but agrees Sails with specimens from Cape Breton. 9. Lepidodendron. - Decorticated, and very obscure ; evidently a sn 2 with a broad rhomboidal areole, like L. diilatapinel: Foss. F' - 10. Lepidodendron?- ~ Probably the leaves of a Lepidedendrou or some cag allied _ plant, and much resembling those of L. acerosum, Foss. F'7., t. 8. < ‘They are two inches or more in length, narrow, linear, straight, | Hat, (probably owing to compression,) and marked with a dis- ~ tinet but somewhat irregular ridge or ~ Se the middle. ‘LL. Sigillaria. A-Deevttivated and indeterminable. 12. Stigmaria ficoides? This is doubtless one of the forms which have been commonly comprehended under the name of Stigmaria ficoides; but it is hot quite clear that it is either the Stigmaria ficoides or S. Ana- bathra. of Corda. The scars do not exhibit the distinctly umbil- a ~ ieated socket-like appearance observable in the best characterized Specimens ofthese fossils; they appear as if the leaves (or root- lets) had been. abruptly broken off, rather than dis-articulated. [ 23 _ Description of Alabama Coal Plants. have elsewhere noticed the same paaony in specimens of Stig- maria from Nova Scotia. 13. Poacites? Fragments of a broad leaf, rounded at the base, without a mid- rib, with very numerous, fine, close, apparently simple veins, ‘Wilivch diverge at first in a curving manner from the base of the leaf, and then become ses No stalk visible. 14. Bechera tenuis (n. sp This has so close a anal to the Boctiangh pH Lindl. and Hutt. Foss. F'l., t. 173, that I am not quite confident of the propriety of considenitig it a distinct species. It is however a. much smaller and more delicate plant, and of a more lax and dif- fuse habit. I think it safer for the present to treat it as another Species, especially since it comes from a locality so very remote. Lindley and Hutton’s plant was from Coalbrook Dale. 15. Asterophyllites? flaccida. Fragments, very numerous, but in so unsatisfactory a state as hardly to admit of description. It-was probably an aquatic plant, of a very tender and flaccid consistence, with small, verticillate, linear, bluntish leaves, which appear to ies no distinct midnb, but several faint longitudinal strie or veins. In. this last pecu- liarity it departs from the character of Asterophyllites, and it may not be really allied to any of the plants hitherto comprehended un- _ der that vague name, It is possible that the apparent leaves may in reality be short branches, and that the ~~ moe" have had some affinity to Chara. 16. Phyllites?. In many of the Tuscaloosa specimens. aor occur, very plen- tifully, thin layers of vegetable matter, possessing a very remark- i able and delicate structure, but without any definite outline that I can discover, so that I remain uncertain whether they are por-. tions of leaves or of . ff stems. ‘Their surface appears; under an ordinary pocket magni- : “MLS fier, most delicately and regularly we : » erossbarred, with strong longi- sii Got eid ik ik transverse bats ace ress oe nearly rectangt ) a lac a 4 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. 233 The longitudinal lines or veins, though in general nearly paral- lel, are by no means accurately so, but are wavy in direction, approximating to one another at uncertain intervals, and occasion- ally even becoming confluent. This structure somewhat resem- bles that of the leaves of Sparganium natans, but is far more mi- nute and delicate. It approaches still more closely in texture to the leaves of some species of Eriocaulon. London, June 30, 1846. f Azr. XXV.— Generality of Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action ; _ by M. Farapay, Phil. Trans., part i, for 1846, p. 52. Parl Iv the last Volume of this Journal, p. 421-425, we gave an ab- stract of Dr. Faraday’s recent researches on magnetic actions. If our limits would permit, we should wish to publish the whole me- Moir, but must content ourselves with giving the general conclu- sions with which the distinguished author closes his remarkable es.—Eps. _ 2417.* Such are the facts which, in addition to those presented by the phenomena of light, establish a magnetic action or condi- tion of matter new to our knowledge. Under this action, an elongated portion of such matter usually places itself at right angles to the lines of magnetic force ; this result may be resolved into the simpler one of repulsion of the matter by either mag- hetic pole. The set of the elongated portion, or the repulsion of the whole mass, continues as long as the magnetic force 1s sus- tained, and ceases with its cessation. 7 2418. By the exertion of this new condition of force, the body moved may pass either along the magnetic lines or across them ; and ‘it may move along or across them in either or any direc- tion. So that two portions of matter simultaneously subject to this power, may be made to approach each other as if they were Mutually attracted, or recede as if mutually repelled. All the phenomena resolve themselves into this, that a portion of such matter, when under magnetic action, tends to move from stronger to weaker places or points of force. When the substance is sur- rounded by lines of magnetic force of equal power on all sides, 7 numbers are those of Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches. 234 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. it does not tend to move, and is then in marked contradistinetion with a linear current of electricity under the same circumstances. 2419, This condition and effect is new, not only as it respects the exertion of power by a magnet over bodies previously sup- posed to be indifferent to its influence, but is mew as a magnetic action, presenting us with a second mode in which the magnetic power can exert. its influence. - These two modes are in the same general antithetical relation to each other as positive and negative in electricity, or as northness and southness in polarity, or as the lines of electric and magnetic force in magneto-electricity ; and the diamagnetic phenomena are the more important, because they extend largely, and in a new direction, that character of duality which the magnetic force already, in a certain degree, was known to possess. 2420. All matter appears to be subject. to the magnetic force as universally as it is to the gravitating, the electric, and the | chemical or cohesive forces; for that which is not effected by it in the manner of ordinary magnetic action, is effected in the manner I have now described ; the matter possessing for the time the solid or fluid state. Hence substances appear to arrange themselves into two great divisions, the magnetic, and that which I have called the diamagnetic classes; and between these classes the contrast is so great and direct, though varying in degree, that where a substance from the one class will be attracted, a body from the other will be repelled; and where a bar of the one will assume a certain position, a bar of the other will: — a poe tion‘at right angles to it. 2421. As yet I have not tated a single solid or fluid body not being a mixture, that is perfectly neutral in relation to the two lists; i. e. that is neither attracted nor repelled in air. It would probably be important to the consideration of magnetic action, to know if there were any natural simple substance possessing this condition in the solid or fluid-state. Of compound or-mixed bodies there may be many; and as it may be important to the advancement of experimental investigation, I will describe the principles on which such a substance was prepared when required - for use as a circumambient medium. _ 2422. It is manifest that the properties of magnetic and dine magnetic bodies are in opposition as respects their dynamic ef- ects 5 acai ‘cea! that by a Sneeixiee of bodies from each eS Se a ie La ae Ss Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. 235 class, a substance having any intermediate degree of the of either may be obtained. Protosulphate of iron belongs to the _ Magnetic, and water to the diamagnetic class; and using these substances, I found it easy to make asolution which was neither attracted nor repelled, nor pointed when in air. Such a solution pointed axially when surrounded by water. If made somewhat weaker in respect of the iron, it would point axially in water but equatorially in air; and it could be made to pass more and more into the magnetic or the. diamagnetic class by the addition of more sulphate of iron or more water. 2423. Thus a fluid medium was obtained, which, practically, as far as I could perceive, had every magnetic chirakter and effect of a gas, and even of a vacuum; and as we possess both magnetic and diamagnetic glass, it is evidently possible to prepare’a solid Substance possessing the same neutral magnetic character. 2424. The endeavor to form a general list of substances in the _ present imperfect state of our knowledge would be very prema- ture: the one below is given therefore only for the purpose of conveying an idea of the singular association under which bodies Come in relation to magnetic force, and for the purpose of general reference hereafter :—Jron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, palladium, frown-glass, platinum, osmium—0° air and vacuwm, arsenic, ether, alcohol, gold, water, mercury, flint-glass, tin, heavy-glass, antimony, phosphorus, bismuth. . It is very interesting to observe that metals are the sub- stances aahich stand at the extremities of the list, being of all those which are most powerfully opposed to each other in their magnetic condition. It is also a very remarkable circum- Stance that these differences and departures from the medium condition, are in the metals of the two extremes, iron and bis- muth, associated with a small conducting power for electricity. At the same time the contrast between these metals, as to their fibrous and granular state, their malleable and brittle character, will press upon the mind whilst contemplating the possible con- urea of their molecules when subjected to magnetic force. . In reference to the metals, as well as the diamagnetics ‘hot of that class, it is satisfactory to have such an answer to the pinion that all bodies are magnetic as iron, as does not consist in a mere negation of that which is affirmed, but in proofs that they are in a different and opposed state, and are able to counter- act a very considerable degree of magnetic force (2448). 236 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. 2427. Asalready stated, the magnetic force is so strikingly dis- tinct in its action upon bodies of the magnetic and the diamagnetic class, that when it causes the attraction of the one it produces the repulsion of the other; and this we cannot help referring, in some way, to an action upon the molecules or the mass of the substances acted upon, by which they are thrown into different conditions and affected accordingly. In that point of view it is very striking to compare the results with those which are pre- sented to us by a polarized ray, especially as then a remarkable difference comes into view; for if transparent bodies be taken from the two classes, as for instanton, heavy glass or water from the diamagnetic, and a piece of green glass or a solution of green vitriol from the magnetic class, then a given line of magnetic force will cause the repulsion of one and the attraction of the other; but this same line of force which thus affects the parti- cles so differently, affects the polarized ray when passing through them precisely in the same manner in — cases; for the two bodies cause its rotation: in the same directio 2428. Thi important when we connect it with the carotene and the optical properties of bodies which rotate a polarized ray. ‘Thus the iron solution and a piece of quartz, having the power to rotate a ray, point by the influ- ence of the same line of magnetic force, the one axially and the _ 4 other equatorially ; but the rotation which is impressed on a ray of light by these two bodies, as far as they are under the influ- — ence of the same magnetic force, is the same for both. Further, this rotation is quite independent of, and quite unlike that of the quartz in a most important point; for the quartz by itself can only rotate the ray in one direction, but under the influence of the magnetic force it can rotate it both to the right and left, ac- cording to the course of the ray. Or, if two pieces of quartz (oF two tubes of oil of turpentine) be taken which can rotate the ray different ways, the further rotative force manifested by them when under the dominion of the magnetism is always the same way; and the direction of that way may be made either to the right or left in either crystal of quartz. All this time the con- trast between the quartz asa diamagnitic, and the solution.of iron as a magnetic body remains undisturbed. Certain consider- ations regarding the character of a ray, arising from. these con- ‘ote, press strongly 0 on Toy mares which, when I have had time ee %. Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. 237 to submit them to ae eaperiinens, T —_ to keen to the ve ociety. © * 2429. Theoretically, an Suilanation of the movements of the diamagnetic bodies, and all the dynamic phenomena consequent Upon the action of magnets on them, might be offered in the _ Supposition that magnetic induction caused in them a contrary state to that which it produced in magnetic matter ; 7. e. that if a oe of each kind of matter were placed in a magnetic field both would become magnetic, and each would have its axis paral- Jel to the resultant of magnetic force passing through it; but the particle of magnetic matter would have its north and doit poles Opposite, or facing towards the contrary poles of the inducing magnet, whereas with the diamagnetic particles the reversé would be the case; and hence would result approximation in the one autour, recession in the other. : Upon Ampézre’s theory, this view would be equivalent to the: supposition, that as currents are induced in iron and mag- - Retics parallel to those existing in the inducing magnet or battery _ Wire ; so in bismuth, heavy glass, and diamagnetic bodies, the * Gatrents induced are in the contrary direction. This would make . the currents in diamagneties the same in direction as those which are induced in diamagnetic conductors at the commencement of the inducing current ; and those in magnetic bodies the same as those “produced at thie? cessation of the same inducing current. No difficulty would occur as respects non-conducting magnetic and diamagnetic substances, because the hypothetical currents to exist not in — — but round the Te of the ‘matter 2431, As far as axprinnenit yet bears — stich ‘a notion, we may observe, that the known indtictive effects upon masses of Magnetic and diamagnetic metals are the same. If a straight rod of i iron be carried across magnetic lines of force, or if it, or a he- of tron rods or. Wire, be held near a magnet, as the power in ‘it tises electric currents are induced, which move through the or helix in certain determinate directions. If a bar or a he- lix of bismuth be employed under the same circumstances, the currents aré again induced, and precisely m the same direction as in the j iron, so that here no difference occurs in the direction of the induced current, and not very much in its force, nothing hke _ 80 much indeed as. between the current induiced in either of these _ Szconp a Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept., 1846. - a 238 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. metals and a metal taken from near the neutral point. Still there is this difference remaining between the conditions of the experi- ment and the hypothetical case; that in the former the induction: is manifested by currents in the masses, whilst in the latter, 7. ¢ in the special magnetic and diamagnetic effects, the currents, if they exist, are probably about the particles of the matter. 2432. The magnetic relation of ariform. bodies is exceodinght remarkable. ‘That oxygen or nitrogen gas should stand in a position intermediate between the magnetic and diamagnetic classes; that it should occupy the place which no solid or liquid element can take ; that it should show no change in its relations by rarefaction to any possible degree, or even when the space it occupies passes into a vacuum; that it should be the same mag- netically with any other gas or vapor,; that it should not take its place at one end but in the very middle of the great series of bodies ; and that all gases or vapors should be alike, from the rar- est tate of hydrogen to the densest state of carbonic. acid, sul- phurous acid, or ether vapor, are points so striking as to persuade one at once that air must have a great and perhaps an active part to play in the physical and_ terrestrial arrangement of ago forces. 2433. At one time I looked. to air and gases as the bodies which, allowing attenuation of their substance without addition, would permit, of the observation of corresponding variations M their magnetic properties; but now all such power by rarefaction — appears to be taken away; and though it is easy to prepare 4 liquid medium which shall act with other-bodies as air does (2422), still it is not truly in the same relation to them ; neither does it allow of dilution, for to add water or any such substance ~ is to add to the diamagnetic power of the liquid ; and, if it were possible to convert it into vapor and so dilute it by heat, it would pass into the class of gases and be magnetically undistiD- guishable from the rest. 2434, It is also very remarkable to observe the apparent dis- appearance of magnetic condition and effect when bodies assume the vaporous or gaseous state, comparing it at the same time with the similar relation to light ; for as yet no gas or vapor has beet — _ MInade to show any magnetic influence over the polarized ray; even by the use of powers far more than enough to manifest er men ah it bene, ae Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetie Action. 239 2435. Whether the negative results obtained by the use of gases and vapors depend upon the smaller quantity of matter in a given volume, or whether they are direct consequences of the altered physical condition of the substance, isa point of very great importance to the theory of magnetism. I have imagined, in elucidation of the subject, an experiment with one of M. Cag- niard de la Tour’s ether tubes, but expect to find great difficulty in.carrying it into execution, chiefly on account of the strength, and therefore the mass of the tube necessary to resist the expan- . Sigmof the imprisoned heated ether. ' 2436. The remarkable condition of air and its relation to betes taken from the magnetic and diamagnetic. classes, cause it to point equatorially in the former and axially in the ee Or, if the experiment presents its results under the form of at- taction and repulsion, the air moves as if repelled in a magnetic medium and attracted in a medium from the diamagnetic class. Hence i it seems as if the air were magnetic when compared with - diamagnetic bodies, and of the latter class. when compared. to wpyiettio bodies. — ~ 2437.-'This result I have ecinaphcrod as explained by the as- sumption that bismuth and its congeners are absolutely repelled by the magnetic poles, and would, .if there were nothing else Concerned in the phenomena than the magnet and the bismuth, beequally. repelled. So also with the iron and its similars, the attraction has been assumed as a direct result of the mutual ac- tion of them and the magnets; further, these actions have been sufficient to account for the pointing of the air both axially and equatorially, as also for its apparent attraction and re- pulsion ; the effect in these cases being considered as due to the ‘travelling of the air to those positions seed the magnetic or dia- magnetic bodies tended to leave. 2438. The effects with air are, eiglatinds in these results pre- cisely: the same as those which were obtained with the solutions of iron of various strength, where all the bodies belonged to the magnetic class, and where the effect was evidently due to the Steater or smaller degree of magnetic power possessed by the so- lutions, A weak solution in a stronger pointed equatorially and Was repelled: like a diamagnetic, not because it did not tend by Attraction to an axial position, but because it tended to that posi- tion-with less force than the matter around it;-so the question 240. Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetie Action. will enter the mind, whether the diamagnetics, when in air, are repelled and tend to the equatorial position for any other reason, than that the air is more magnetic than they are, and tends. to occupy the axial space. It is easy to perceive that if all. bodies were magnetic in different degrees, forming one great series from end to end, with air in the middle of the series, the effects would take place as they do actually occur. Any body from the middle: part of the series would. point equatorially in the bodies above it and axially in those beneath it; for the matter which, like bis- muth, goes froma strong to a weak point of action, may do.so only because that substance, which is already at the place of weak action, tends to come to the place where the action is strong ; just: as in electrival induction. the bodies best fitted to carry on the force are drawn into the shortest line of action. And so air in— water, or even intestate ee iS, or appears to ies drawn towards the magnetic pole. 2439. But if this were the true view, and, air had south power amongst other bodies as to stand in the midst of them, then one would be led to expect that rarefaction of the air would affect its place, rendering it, perhaps, more diamagnetic, or at.all events al- tering its situation in the list. . If such were the case, bodies that set equatorially in it in one state of density; would, as it varied, change their — and at last set axially: but this they do not do ; and whether the rarefied air be. compared with the magnetic or the diamagnetic la or even. hareneins ie it ita its lace. : 2440. Such a view also wile ati mere space ining and precisely to the same degree as air and gases. Now though it may very well be, that space, air and gases, have the same general relation to magnetic force, it seems to me a great addi- tional assumption to suppose that they are all.absolutely magnet ic, and in the midst of a series of bodies, rather than to suppose that they are in a normal or zero state. For the. present, there- fore, I incline to the former view, and consequently to the optl- ion that diamagnetics have a specific action, antithetically dis- tinct from ordinary magnetic action, and have thus presented us With a magnetic property new to our knowledge. 2441. The amount of this power in diamagnetic substances ‘seems to be very small, when estimated by its dynamic effect, _ but the motion which it can generate is perhaps not the most : ‘ a : striking measure of ‘its force ; and it is probable that when its na- ture is more intimately known to us, other effects produced by it and other indicators and measurers of its powers; than those so imperfectly made known in this paper, will come to our knowl- edge ; and perhaps even new classes of phenomena will serve to make it manifest and indicate its operation. It is very-striking to observe the feeble condition of a helix when alone, and the astonishing force which, in giving and receiving, it manifests by association with a piece of soft iron. So also here we may hope for some analogous development of this element of power, so new as yet to our experience. It cannot for a moment be sup- posed, that, being given to natural bodies, it is either superfluous ‘or insufficient, or unnecessary. It doubtless has its appointed office, and that, one which relates to the whole. mass of the globe ; and it is probably because of its relation to the whole earth, that its amount is necessarily so small (so to speak) in the Portions of matter which we handle and subject to experiment. And small as it is, how vastly greater is this foree, even in dynam- le results;-than the mighty power of gravitation, for instance, which binds the whole universe together, when manifested by Masses of matter of equal magnitude! ~ ae 2442. With a full conviction that the uses of this power in nature will be developed hereafter, and that they will prove, as all other natural results of force do, not merely important but es- sential, I will venture a few hasty observations. } | 2443. Matter cannot thus be affected by the magnetic forces without being itself concerned in the phenomenon, and exerting mm turn a due amount of influence upon the magnetic force. It Tequires mere observation to be satisfied that when a magnet is acting upon a piece of soft iron, the iron itself, by the condition ‘Whiolt its particles assume, carries on the force to distant points, 8iVing it direction and concentration in a manner most striking. ‘So also here the condition which the particles of intervening di- aMagnetics acquire, may be the very condition which carries on and causes the transfer of force through them. In former pa- ‘Pers* T proposed a theory of electrical induction founded on the action of contiguous particles, with which I am now even more _ Content than at the time of ‘its proposition’: and I then ventured * Philosophical Transactions, 1838, Part I. 242 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. to suggest that probably the lateral action of electrical currents which is equivalent to electrodynamic or magnetic action, was also conveyed onwards in asimilar manner. At that time I could discover no peculiar condition of the intervening or diamagnetic matter; but now that we are able to distinguish such an action, so like in its nature in bodies so uniéke in theirs, and. by that ‘so hike im character to the manner in which the magnetic force per- vades all kinds of bodies, being at the same time as universal in its presence as it is in its action; now that diamagnetics are shown not to be indifferent bodies, I feel still more confidence in repeat-. ing the same suggestion, and asking whether it may not be by the action of the contiguous or next succeeding particles that the magnetic force is carried onwards, and whether the peculiar con- dition acquired by diamagnetics when subject to magnetic action, is not that condition At which rome pees of the force is affected ? 2444, Jap salosiies view we tadoee a. solid. ind rea ccnesii whether as forming two lists, or one great magnetic class (2424, 2437), it will not, as far as Ecan perceive, affect the question. They are all subject to the influence of the magnetic lines of force passing through them, and the virtual difference in property and character between any two substances taken from different places in the list (2424,) will be the same ; for it is the differen~ tial relation of the two which governs their mutual effects. 2445. It is that group which includes air, gases, vapours, and even a vacuum which presents any difficulty to the mind; but here there is such a wonderful change in the physical constitu- tion of the bodies, and such high powers in some respects are re- tained by them, whilst others seem to vanish, that we might al- most expect some peculiar condition to be assumed in regard. to a power so universal as the magnetic force. Electric induction being an action through distance, is varied enough amongst solid and liquid bodies; but, when it comes to be exerted in air or gases, where it most manifestly exists, it is alike in amount in all; neither does it vary in degree in air however rare or dense it may be. Now magnetic action may be considered as a mere function of electric force, and. if it should be found to correspond with the latter in this’ particular relation to air, gases, ¢ _ it — : .— £ rg grees Poe ai. = ees Dr, Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action, 243 _ 2446. In reference to the manner in which. it is possible for electric force, either static or dynamic, to be transferred from par- ticle to. particle when they are at a distance from each other, or across a vacuum, I have nothing to add to what I have said. be- fore. The supposition that such can take place, can present nothing startling to the mind of those who have endeavored to comprehend the radiation and the conduction of heat under one _ principle of action. | mR 2447. When we consider the magnetic condition of the earth asa whole, without reference to its possible relation to the sun, and reflect upon the enormous amount of diamagnetic matters which, to our knowledge, forms its crust ; and when we remem- ber that magnetic curves of a certain amount of force and uni- versal in their presence, are passing through these matters and keeping them constantly in that state of tension, and therefore of action, which I hope successfully to have developed, we can- not doubt but that some great purpose of utility to the system, and tous its inhabitants, is thereby fulfilled, which now we shall have the pleasure of searching out. : 2448. Of the substances which compose the crust of the earth, by far the greater portion belongs to the diamagnetic class; and though ferruginous and other magnetic matters, being more ener- getic in their action, are consequently more striking in their phe- Nomena, we should be hasty in assuming that therefore they over- tule entirely the effect of the former bodies. As regards the Ocean, lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere, they will exert their pe- culiar effect almost uninfluenced by any magnetic matter in them : _ and as respects. the rocks and mountains, their diamagnetic: in- fluence is perhaps greater than might be anticipated. I mention- ed that, by adjusting water and a salt of iron together, I obtained @ solution inactive in air (2422); that is, by a due association of the forces of a body from each class,, water and a salt of iron, the Magnetic force of the latter was entirely counteracted by the di- amagnetic force of the former, and the mixture was neither at- tracted nor repelled. T'o produce this effect, it required that More than 48-6 grains of crystallized protosulphate of iron should be added to ten cubic inches of water (for these proportions gave @ solution which still set equatorially), a qtiantity so large, that I Was greatly astonished on observing the power of the water to Overcome it. It is not therefore at all unlikely that many of the 244 Dr. Faraday on Magnetic and Diamagnetic Action. masses which form the crust of this our globe may have an ex- cess of diamagnetic power and act accordingly. 2449. Though the general. disposition of the magnetic curves which permeate and surround our globe resemble those of a very short magnet, and therefore give lines of force rapidly diverging in their general form, yet the magnitude of the system prevents us from observing any diminution of their power within small limits ; so that probably any attempt on the surface of the earth to chassite the tendency of matter to pass from stronger to weaker places of action would fail. Theoretically, however, and at first sight, 1 think a pound of bismuth or of water, estimated at the equator, where the magnetic needle does not dip, ought to weigh less when taken into latitudes where the dip is considerable ; whilst a pound of iron, nickel, or cobalt, ought, under the same change of circumstances, to weigh more. If such should really prove to. be the case, then a ball of iron and another of bismuth, attached to the ends of a delicate balance beam, should cause that beam to take different inclinations on different parts of the surface of the earth ; and it does not seem quite impossible that an instrument to measure one of the conditions of terrestrial mag: netic force might be constructed on such a principle. 2450. If one might~ speculate upon the effect of the vinci system. of curves upon very large masses, and these masses were in plates or rings, then they would, according to analogy with the magnetic field, place themselves equatorially. If Saturn were a magnet as the earth is, and his ring composed of diamagnetic substances, the tendency of the magnetic forces would be. place it in the position which it actually has. 2451. It is a curious sight to see a piece of wood, or of reef or an apple, or a bottle of water repelled by a magnet, or taking the leaf of a tree and hanging it up between the poles, to ob- serve it take an equatorial position. Whether any similar effects occur in nature among the myriads of forms which, upon all parts of its surface, are surrounded by air, and are subject to the action of lines of magnetic force, is a question which can tis be answered by future observation. 2452. Of the interior of the earth we know nothing, but pie are many reasons for believing that it is of a high temperature. On this supposition I have recently remarked, that at a certain 2 from the surfa eee substances must be’ entirely destitute, either of the power of retaining’ magnet- ism, or becoming magnetie by” induction from currents in the crust or otherwise.* This is evidently an error; that the iron, &e. can retain'no magnetic condition of itself, is very probably ‘true, but that the magnetic metals and all their compounds retain acertam degree of power to become magnetic by induction, what- éver their temperature, has now beew proved. The )mag- netic. contents of the earth, therefore, though they probably do not’ constitute of themselves a central magnet, are just in the condition to act as‘a very soft iron core to the currents around them, or other inducing actions, and very likely are highly, im- ‘portant in'this respect. What ‘the effect of the-diamagnetic part inay be under the influence of such inductive forces, we are not prepared to state ; but as far as Ihave been’ able to observe, = bodies have not-their power diminished by heat. /24530-1f the sun Have anything to do with ‘the tides tio of | the globe, then it is probable that part of its effect is due to the aetion of the light that comes to us from it; and in that expec- ion the air seems most’ strikingly placed rotind our sphere, in- vesting it with a transparent diamagnetic, which therefore is per- i, ‘meable to his rays, and. ‘at the same time moving with great ve- Y across them. Such conditions seem to suggest the possi ity of magnetism being there generated ; but I shall do better efrain from giving expression to these vague thoughts (though they will press in upon the mind), and first submitting thém: to rigid investigation by experiment, if they prove ——— then pre- | m seenener to this camper —e" TPR ae Poh “Ane, ; EER Capingrapiy by Prof O. Dew, D. and “a D. ; ne yy ‘ (Append, continued from Vol. xlix, First Series, p- 48.) ‘ have —_ cs ey” “ae “No. 199. C. flaccospermi, Dew. ‘Spies distinctis ; staminifera unita ehiiact ‘squamam ob- Jongam deka ferehtes pistilliferis 3-6 tristigmaticis, oblongis ie eylindraccis, sublaxifioris: bracteatis, Superiore subsessile, inferior- : Doversne pedunculatis, suberectis, subremotis ; fructibus ovatis, OB Io1 is, subobtusis, acer 9m nervosis, ethan subinilatis, ore inte- Syhike! ere 1845, vol. — p- 3. Es, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept-, } 6. 246 Prof. Dewey on Caricography. gro vel emarginato, squaamam ovatam acutam _ vel “en lon- gioribus; culmis pedalibus glaucis. Culm a foot high, smooth, leafy towards the tai Sirs Jan: ceolate, 3 to 4 lines broad, glaucous, smooth, shorter piolow's stam- inate spike short cylindric with an oblong and obtuse wali pis- tillate spikes 3 to 6 with three stigmas, long and cylindric, sth rect and loose-flowered; the lower ones exsertly pedunculate with jong leafy bracts and shortish sheaths; fruit oblong-ovate; obtuse or emarginate, slightly nerved, a little inflated ;- pistillate: scale ovate acute and about one-third as long as the rine Sieorsie ens leaves smooth and glaucous. *\ Florida and Louisiana, Dr. Levon erty; has a remote resem- blance to C. granularis, Muh. No. 200. C. pewissnehdiies Dew’ Spiculis ovatis aggregatis 3-5, superne staminiferis sessilibus, sqamo-bracteatis ; fructibus ovatis, compressis, superne convexis, acutis, brevirostratis, distigmaticis, ore integris, brevibus, glabris, ‘squama ovato-acuta vix wins i cetenle en uibus basi foliaceis. Gate Ni Culm 6-12 inches high, erect, inet: triquetrous, ite below the middle ; leaves linear, narrow and slender, flat, often. longer than the Galiie: shorter towards the root; ; spikelets aggregated into a head, staminate above ; staminate scales lanceolate ; fruit short- ovate, convex above, short-rostrate, sinooth, with an ovate and — acute scale shorter than the fruit; under the pene isa bret or ovate scale passing into a long cusp or awn. A hal Louisiana, Dr. Leavenworth. From the kindred piled os. 3 rosea, C. retreflotti C. disperma, it is readily distinguishable. It ‘closely resembles Tab. Ee, fig: 91, Schk., and called by him 4 variety of C. muricata; but from this our plant is poe’ ot its fruit and scale. No. 201. °C. Crawei, Dew. Spicis staminiferis 1-3, sepius unica, oblongis ssp indasles superiore multo ia ew et rarissima apicem fructifera, cum squa- ‘mis oblongis cepsit fpevi-oo its ; pistiltiferts 3-6 oblongo-cylin- draceis, tristi ilibus vel exserte pedunculatis, densi floris, remotis, vel subaggregatis, infima subradicali et longo-ped- unculata; fructibus ovatis teretibus vel ee einSeteaict ‘a ‘em ere em j obtusa ras eae Culm 18-30 inches high, triquetrous, rough on the pees erect, leafy towards the base ; leaves long, scabrous on the edges, surpassing the culm and sinks spike compounded of many sets ef spikelets, ovate and sitecauion and staminate at the apex; stigmas two; fruit short ovate with a very long slender beak; nerved and. anil, beak. very scabrous on the edges; - pistillate scale ovate, acute, hyaline on the edges, and scarcely one third the leaptly of the fruit ; ~~ ses green ; lower part. of the spike subpaniculate. , Ky-, Dr. ‘Short swamps of Mississippi river “in. Dr. Leavenworth and Dr. Hale. Confounded with C. stipata, from which it is clearly distinguished by. its fruit and scale. In C. stipata the fruit is a regular taper from the base to the vertex. or has a triangular outline, and its form:is-entirely dif- ferent from ons as well as the relative deat of. mon beak and atinicee fe Feige “No: 204. C. Parvin sae Rota siete: » oan ay staminifera unica cylindracea pedunculata, cum squamis oblongis. obtusis conferta; spicis pistilliferis 2-4, tristigmaticis, cylindraceis, stricto-floris erectis, raro apice staminiferis, superiore incluso-bracteatis, inferioribus remotis. vel perremotis, exserte pedunculatis, brevi-vaginatis; fructibus brevi-ovatis, conicis, stib- | triquetris, nervosis, ore integris, squama ovata acuta paulo longiori- bus ; foltis hnear+lanceolatis subradicalibus, bracteis’ lanceolate foliosis, ~ Culm 4-8 inches high, erect, slightly Piquetrouss stiff, leafy: at the base, with broad leafy bracts; staminate spike single, long pedunculate, with oblong and obtuse scales white on the edges - and brown on the back; pistillate spikes 2-4, about three, cylin- ps rather close-flowered, rather distant, with peduncles’ partly in the sheaths, the upper nearly sessile ; stigmas three; fis short-ovate, mines — entire at. the otifice pistillate taaaenatae 2ieisoiee ‘shorter than th the lower some- Bs oo Rape Bad See came gi ae i : Pe Se ek A Sip Fy cic S PST _ times mucronate and about the length of the fruit ; plant Tight — bracts much wider than the leaves and lancoulnge - Drummond Island in. Lake Huron, Dr. Torrey ; ; Macouth Co, Michigan, ‘Dr. Cooley. A distinct species. - ~~ No. 205. C. Woodii, Dew. _ Spica staminifera unica, triquetra, oblongo-cylindracea, squamo- bracteata, cum squamis oblongis obtusis densis ; pistillifera tristig- matica panics, interdum bine, ovato-oblonga, ‘daxcifices, superior@ exserte lata, erecta, fe ta, perlongo-pedunculata, recuva ‘léxa ; fructibus obovatis, obtusis subtriquetris, ore strictis erostratis, snfernd teretibus, squama ovata subacuta duplo-longiori- bus ; culmo tereti laxo, foliis angustis Priests: striatis ; foliis et eulinis é exigue pubescentibus. =~ “Culm a foot or more high, slender, idaetiots, lax, striate ; leaves of the culms short, striate and subradical, but of the roots very long, slender, flat; staminate spike single, triquetro-cylin- , oblong, an inch jog: with oblong and obtuse tawny scales, ~ the ieee subbracteate ; pistillate spike, 1-2, ovate, short, loose- : flowered, upper one stidathed and exsertly phininallate, the low- er very long pedunculate and lax; fruit obovate, obtuse, trique- trous, orifice closed, , tapering below, with its scale ovate acutish and half as long as the fruit, and white with a green keel ; plant green, and very slightly pubescent. Found by Drs: Crawe and Wood on Perch Lake and Peck River, Jefferson Co., N. Y., and named after one of its discover- _ FS, Dr. ‘Wm. A. Wood. Tt appears to be very distinct. shatter, NY, Mares 1846... — ”% Ann. XXVIR—On jhvets eth » Mineral Species from Arkansas, _ and the Discovery of the Diamond in North Carolina; by _ Cuaries Urram Suerarp, M.D. Prof. of Chemistry in the - Medical College of South Carolina, and in, Amherst College, ta “Massachusetts, For the ininierals here doseribed from. indi. Tam indebt- ed to r my friend, the Rey. E. R. Beadle, formerly .missionary to Palestine, but at present, a resident in New Orleans. I believe riche have been collected by himself, during a late journey ough the re gion of the Hot Springs. 250 New Minerals from Arkansas. 1. Arkansite.* - ‘Primary form. Right rhombic prism. M _ on M, 101°. Stents form. Mone, 133° 45’, c on c over hee, et edge x inclines to edge | x at about 94°. | / Cleavage indistinct. Surface, M brilliant, c less so, d brilliant, though drusy, and channelled vadcally. Fracture sub-conchoidal, to uneven, Lustre metallic. Color dark steel-gray to iron-black. Faces ¢ tarnished blue, like specular iron. Streak dark ash-gray. f The powder (until it becomes perfectly fine) shows points with a metallic lustre. Brittle. Hardness = 7-0—7‘5._ When heated in a glass tube, the mineral affords no ) traces of moisture, or of hydro-fluoric acid. . Alone, before the blowpipe, a on charcoal, it is unalterable. With borax, it enters SOD into fusion, and gives a transparent, deep yellow glass. - x Ssodey fom the State in which: iti is fou ak es a { None of these angles were obtained from perfect reflections. t A crystal weighing 0-68 gr. in the state of powder, was boiled for an hour in sulphuric acid, during which it underwent decomposition, The yellowish green insoluble matter separated, was thrown upon the filter and subsequently ignited. Its color became pale straw-yellow. | Its weight was. 0-32 gr. It afforded the reac- tions of titanic acid. The sulphuric solution irons been found to afford a pre- anes with sulphate of potassa, which was soluble by addition of more of the rated solution of sulphate of potassa) was precipitated, ignited and = Ite amounted to 0-28 gr., and had the properties of yttria, aaa it is possible there might have air rae intermixture of zirconia and thorin a second trial, 1-68 grs. were fused with 12 grs. bisulphate potassa. The re- sulting mass aoe a thint tinge of yellow. It was boiled in excess of water which a fine, white, heavy powder was precipitated. Mingled with this powder was an saother, rather heavy, enc ites grayish white matter, in a quantity, which remained behind in the basin as the other was removed to the filter by 4 stream from the wash-bottle. Sulphuric acid was boiled upon it cheers produ- cing any change; but it afterwards slowly disappeared on being. digested with ‘ydrochloric acid. From a portion of this solution, ammonia threw down a pre cipitate, resembling yttria. “The titanic acid, separated from the original sulphurie —s > Wei — after ignition, 1-14 gr., or 67 p. ¢. ‘my examination went, (which. was restricted for want of material to enisiin: were at the time, in Arete ‘to regard the 1e substance in question as a titanate of ytrit which neither lime, oxide of cerium, iron or manganese are present. ' ‘ ‘The erystals are about one-fifth of an inch. indiana and are implanted upon quartz crystals, which last are attached toa surface of a brownish green coccolite. The quartz crystals are dark brown within, but coated by a thin layer of milky quartz ; and are about one inch in sen by one-fifth of an inch in di- ameter. The ticket to the specimen is marked thus: “ Magnet Cove, = atid § 21. Bias Rppiter'Oos Arkansas.” ay 2. Ozarkite.* eee Carseat, lamin: (confused) nearly ‘anpalnalle Pectire unev - Lustre focble, yitpous to resinous. Color white (rarely bluish ) to flesh-red. Streak white. ‘Translucent. Brittle, Hardness 4:5. Specific gravity, 2°746. ae: in a glass tube before the blowpipe, it emits water very _ (Ignited in the state of powder, it loses 15:1 p. c., and the paren is left slightly cohering.) Alone before the blow pipe, it melts almost with the facility of eryolite, into a transparent col- orless glass. With borax, it dissolves into a transparent glass. . s Tt dissolves. freely. without effervescence, in nitric and in hy- drochloric acid, with deposition of silicic acid; and appears to be ms ices hydrate of lime and yttria, possibly also having traces thorina. At oceurs diffused in irregular v veins and ovoidal masses (about one-fourth of an inch diameter) through a flesh-colored eleolite, from. which mineral however, it is constantly separated by a thin layer of a red jasper-like substance, which is obviously distinct the two minerals it tends to separate; and may itself be an undescribed species. Its locality, like that of the Arkansite, teagae Cove, Hot ot Springs: Co., Arkansas. © 8. poe ea ois Primm ipiiivs ‘Rhomboid. racickieibinkamsinewtt © speci besetpailieg i in the nearest relation to it, would seem to be the “Eschy- nite, which however is a titaniate of zirconia and cerium; but the properties of the two minerals when oureanies will at once show the impossibility of their be- 8 included within the same “ae 2 Npsed from wg Guaric Mountains in 5 which extensive range its locality is sit- cS a “Prom Schork, dthastiers variety of tourmaline, and opas, no from its resem- Mulan, facture and among to that mineral. nay oo ae 252 New Minerals from Arkansas. Secondary form. Hexagonal prism, with lateral wie trunea- ted by narrow and. brilliant planes. Cleavage indistinct. Fracture conchoidal. ‘Surface of. the broader planes rather dull, of the narrow ones smooth and brilliant. Lustre vitreous. Color black. Streak grayish black, with a tinge of lavender-blue. Tarnished with blue and pavonine tints, thus causing it to resemble specular iron, (for which substance it had been mistaken.) It also strikingly resembles some varieties of bluish black, massive, or imperfectly crystallized, tourmaline. Hasdnga: 7-67. 5. Specific gravity =3°862. - Heated in a glass tube, it emits a little moisture, and glows with redness, immediately as the tube on which the fragment rests, becomes red. Its powder loses’3 p. c. on being ignited, Alone on charcoal, it fuses readily (and with scarcely any. percep- tible effervescence, into a shining obsidian-like globule, which is not affected by the magnet. With — it trent a ‘transparent glass, slightly tinged green by iron. pail “Tt is easily decomposed by the oie giant silica being separated. It consists essentially of silicic acid, yttria, thorina,(?) oxide of iron and water. I could not — in it, either oxide of cerium or lantanum. It approaches in some of its properties the species allanite ‘a gadolinite ; from both of —— it is semapeiccag distinct bowen to entitle it to a specific The specimen affording is ste sme with that last selatved to, as embracing the ozarkite. The crystals are very minute ; but a large mass of the mineral occurs in eleolite, more than two inches i in diameter, and which appears to belong to a single in- dividual, which (like the indicolite crystals of Goshen) has been much interpenetrated by the gangue, so as on the whole to have less perhaps than one-half of the outline of the crystal occupied by the pure mineral. Fragments of pure schorlomite an inch in seer: however, may be detached from ee saw artic oh nih Benn called a eompaet. feldspar, is a Beatie well méination of Mer dire ; ; by E. Mitton, (Annales de Chem. et de Phys., 1846, and Chem. Gaz., March, 1846. ) —A long glass tube, such as is used in organic winged is first con- tracted near to one of its extremities, and at the very extremity drawn out to a. point and curved upwards ; the space between the two contrac- : tions being from three to four inches. A small quantity of asbestus is : introduced into the tube next to the point first contracted, and upon this are placed fragments of caustic lime to the extent of six or eight inches; the mercurial compound is next introduced varying from. 15 to 60 grains, and then the tube is filled with caustic lime similar to the other. In the” analysis of nitrate of mercury, the lime should:be replaced by metallic — The tube is now placed in the furnace used for organic - A-current of pure hydrogen: (purified by passing the dry ee sktnecapor-totnias heated to to.redness) i is made to enter at the un- contract 1 xt ni id th heat a ied exactly as in organic anal+ . pee Syren. Chemistry. ; 259 ysis. The water is first seen on the pertion of the tube between the contractions ; it is dissipated by gently heating it; this part of the tube is then allowed to cool, and the mercury soon makes its appearance, condensing in its turn without any difficulty. At the end of the opera- 3 tion, the part of the tube containing the mercury is separated by slightly _-‘Moistening the heated tube; the portion of the tube is weighed with the mercury it contains, the mercury poured out, the particles adhering as toit removed by nitric acid; it is then washed, dried, and weighed -_—s again. ~The difference of the two weights gives the weight of the 4 8..A New Method of estimating Copper ; by M. PeLovze, (Comptes “| Rendus, Feb., 1846.)—It is based upon the discoloring of a solution of if @ persalt of copper in ammonia by any deoxydizing agent. The fol- ie lowing is the method of procedure. One gramme of pure ‘copper is x dissolved in half an ounce of nitric acid, the solution diluted with a lit- tle water, and slight excess of ammonia added. A solution of sulphu- ‘Tet of sodium in water is next made, (Pelouze used about 4 oz. toa ‘quart of water—this however is altogether arbitrary,) poured into a - graduated. tube, and let fall drop by drop upon the solution of copper, / heated to boiling, until the discoloration is complete. The quantity of Sulphuret used is noted, and it then becomes a standard solution, of Which so many divisions of the graduated tube are required to discolor ‘one gramme of copper. If we now wish to analyze an alloy of copper, it is dissolved in ni- tric. or Nitro-muriatic’ acid, super-saturated. with ammonia, heated to boiling, and discolored by the solution of sulphuret ; the required quan- uty of which is noted, and from our knowledge of the amount requi- Ted for one gramme of copper, we estimate the quantity of ‘this metal Present. “Se By this method M. Pelouze says that we can approximate to within one-half per cent., and even less if great care be observed. ‘The pres- ‘ ence of tin, zinc, lead, arsenic and antimony, do not interfere with the Aecuracy of the result; nickel and cobalt will. The solution of -sul- Phuret slowly undergoes alteration: by contact with the atmosphere, so (eis necessary prior to each assay, to test the strength of the sul- ‘i ‘ Phuret by a known weight of copper. eta: . fe i 3 J. L. 8S. A new test for Manganese; by R.. Parturs, (Chemist, April, __ 4846.)—Place the solution of manganese in a bottle, so that it may Cover the bottom of the phial to the depth of about the tenth of an — Inch, and lay on the fluid a common stick of phosphorus, by which Means one half of the stick will be exposed to the air; the mouth of - : ‘the bottle: should be but imperfectly closed. After keeping the bottle _ Inthe dark fora few hours, the fluid will be found to possess a beauti- 260 Scientifie Intelligence. ful amethystine tint, if it contains any manganese; by exposure to the light of the sun the fluid soon becomes colorless, but the color may be again renewed by placing the bottle in the dark. 5GL:S. 10. Separation of Cobalt from Manganese ; (Journ. de Pharm, March, 1846.)—M. Barreswil has taken advantage of the fact that sulphuretted hydrogen will precipitate cobalt froma perfectly neutral solution of all its salts, but not the manganese. The object to be arrived at, is to keep the solution neutral as the cobalt is precipitated, which is done as fol- lows :—An excess of carbonate of baryta is added to the solution con- taining the cobalt and manganese, and through it the sulphuretted hydrogen is passed. The cobalt is precipitated, the manganese re- mains in solution, and the carbonate of baryta keeps the solution neu- tral without interfering with the result. The rest of the analysis is conducted in the ondietty way. J. Lx Bi ‘11. Upon the Precipitation of different Oeiparse and Mineral Sub- stances by Animal Charcoal ; by M. Werrens, (Rev. Scientifique, Feb., 1846, p. 251.)—The animal charcoal used was prepared from bones, and washed repeatedly with boiling hydrochloric acid in order to dissolve the phosphate of lime. Thus prepared it precipitates bitter extracts, resins, and astringent substances from solution. 5 parts of colocynth, gentian, columbo, and quassia being infused in 600 parts of water, this latter was completely deprived of its bitter taste by 16; 10, 5, and 16 parts of charcoal respectively for the four substances mentioned. 600 parts of water containing 14 of aloes was rendered tasteless by 21 rts of charcoal. The sulphates of copper, zinc, chrome, iron, the nitrates of mercury, nickel, cobalt, silver and other metallic: salts are — to a certain extent precipitated by animal charcoal. Sule Sy 12. On the Incandescence of Iron, Copper, Brass, &§c., in the Vapor of Alcohol; by Prof. Borrerr, (Annalen der Pharm. und Chem., Jan., 1846.)—Dr. Riensch has lately discovered that the above metals heated _ toa certain point, would, under favorable circumstances, glow in the vapor of alcohol. Prof. Bottger endeavors to show that this phenom enon is not attributable to the metals themselves, but rather to their OX- ides, for he says every one who has performed the experiment as a scribed by the author, must have found that it requires a long time for it to succeed perfectly, and when it is successful it will be found that it is owing to the surface of the iron having become oxydized. He farther states, that a coil-of wire, which from repeated use has been super ficially converted into oxide, will glow in the vapor of aleohol — as — pure metallic platinum. —_. JL.S iB Astras: Simple Method of proprig Chlorie Acid Pot ae Chenaibostates cc? 261 sing bitartrate of soda with chlorate of potash, in the following man- ner:—seven parts by weight of crystallized carbonate of soda, and 74 parts by weight of tartaric acid, are dissolved in twenty-four parts of boiling water, and to this boiling solution is added six parts by weight of chlorate of potash previously dissolved in sixteen parts of water likewise heated to 212° F., at the same time agitating the mixture. As soon as this is done, it is taken from the fire and. allowed to cool, in order that the bitartrate of potash formed may separate properly ; af- __ ter which it is poured on a double paper filter, and to the filtered liquid _ is.added a saturated solution of oxalic acid, consisting of. six parts by weight of oxalic acid, and eighteen parts of water heated to about 134° F.; the whole is then well agitated, and the vessel placed in an ordi- nary refrigerating mixture, for the better separation of the oxalate of soda, which is then entirely and easily removed by a simple filtration. This method is based upon the superior solubility of the @hlorate of ‘Soda over the same salt of potash, and upon the sparing solubility of the oxalate of soda, The chloric acid thus. obtained:is, it is true, not _- absolutely pure, but still sufficiently so for most chemical and techni- cal purposes—for instance, for the preparation of chlorate of barytes, which is so much consumed in the manufacture of fire works. To ob- faina chemically pure and at the same time more: concentrated acid, ; the solution above obtained should be treated with recently precipitated : ‘Carbonate of baryta, avoiding any rise of temperature; but the solu- _ ton of the barytic salt may now be evaporated over the fire, and the large beautifuy crystals which soon form are pulverized, dissolved in Zh water, and. decomposed with a corresponding quantity of sulphuric acid, ae ae ei atss é ; Tide BPs M4. A ready Method of preparing Hypochlorous Acid ; by M. Wit- Mamson, (Journ. de Chem. Med., March, 1846.)—Saturate a neutral Solution of sulphate of soda, at the ordinary temperature, with chlorine... large amount of chlorine will be absorbed, and the liquid will con- ‘ain bisulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, and hypochlorous acid. If the liquid be distilled, the hypochlorous: acid will come over with the _ MISt portions of water. ‘This acid will be found very useful in the lab- : : Oratory > as it possesses an oxydizing agency superior to nitric acid at oe the ordinary temperature. . fog sae J.-L. §, ws. Preparation of Chromic Acid; by M..Botty, (Annal. der Chem. » Ind Pharm., vol. Ivi, p. 113,)—This is @ modification of Pritzsche’s : “Method, and is based upon the fact that concentrated sulphuric acid ‘Precipitates chromic acid from solution if a little water be present. Take a weighed ortion of bichromate of potash and make a boiling ‘Saturated solution ; during ebullition, add sufficient concentrated sulphu- acid to form isulphate with the potash of the chromate. Decant the Stcoxp Sznizs, Vol. LI, No. 5.—Sept., 1846. 34 ’ 262 Scientific Intelligence. liquid portion from the granular mass, add repeatedly small portions of waterto the granular mass and decant, until the residue of bisulphate is of an orange color. _ Unite the portions decanted, concentrate by evap- oration, precipitate the chromic acid by sulphuric acid, throw it upon a funnel and let it drip, spread it on porous bricks, redissolve and crystal- ize. Inthis way large crystals of the pure acid can be obtained. The solution of chromic acid in sulphuric acid is a powerful oxydizing oR J. LS 16. Preparation of the Phosphuret of Nitrogen; (Rap. ninseil de Berz., 1845, p. 40.)—M. Balmain has pointed out the following method vehicle furnishes very readily the substance in question. Heat gently in _ a flask, chloramide of mercury, and then add phosphorus in small pieces so long as any reaction takes place. Agitate from time to time, and complete the operation by heating the bottom of the flask to red- ness. The sal-ammoniac, excess of phosphorus, and mercury, is vola- tilized, and the phosphuret of nitrogen remains behind. J. L. 8. 1%. Economical Method for preparing the Protoxide of Copper; by M. Wirrsten, (Revue Scient., Feb., 1846, p.-258.)—Dissolve 1 part of sulphate of copper and 1 part of sugar of milk in 10 parts of water, and add to the cold solution a solution of caustic potash until the pre- cipitated hydrated oxide of copper is redissolved by agitating the liquid. The blue solution is heated in a water bath, it being kept constantly agitated. Ina very short time the color passes to a grayish green, and a precipitate begins to appear, which is at first brown, but becomes fi- nally of a cinnabar red color. So soon as this happens withdraw the vessel from the fire, and place it in cold water to facilitate its cooling; after which it is readily collected on a filter. If the action of heat be continued its color becomes changed. ? is ha. 8. 18. Amount of Carbon expired by Man; by E. A. ScHarbINne, (Annal. der Chem. und Pharm., vol. lvii, p. 1.)—These researches have reference to the amount of this substance expired by the as well as by the lungs. in one hour. __| in one hour. ; Grains. ai Adult of 28 years, ‘ ; 174-7 ee xs, Young man of 16 yore, 166-4 2°78 Boy of 10 years, 9 1:90 bea girl of 19 years, * 193-7 ds, BRO henner i ie ere .L.8. 19. Mode a siviing plates of Zine; by M. Warpetz, (Revue rigs 257. ideo Geapenss a ae _, Chemistry. 263 ing is a simple and ready method of accomplishing this end. . Grease the plate over by means of a rag,and a little tallow,—with a pointed instrument draw a line in the required direction of the cut, so as to re- move the grease from that spot, and penetrate slightly into the metal,— ass a little dilute sulphuric acid over this line by means of a feather, and then let a drop or two of mercury fall on the same spot,—the zine soon becomes amalgamated in the direction of the line, and through its - tire thickness ; a slight blow properly given will cause it to break. 4 ! J.L.S. 20. On the Presence of Carbonates in the Blood; by R. F. Marcu- AND, (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., April, 1846, and Chem. Gaz., June, 1846, p. 213.)—In these experiments the author endeavors to substan- tate his former opinion upon this subject, which is in opposition to that of many chemists. One of the methods. by which he proceeded to establish the presence of carbonates in the blood was.as follows :— The mass obtained by evaporating five pounds of blood in a retort, Was conveyed into a long-necked flask, closed with a cork, through "Which a long funnel and a tube for conducting away the gas were in- Serted; the latter was fitted air tight into a Woulf’s bottle, which was half filled with a clear solution of barytes. On heating the liquid in the flask to gentle ebullition, the steam passed through the barytic solu- tion, causing not the slightest turbidness during the course of half an hour ; but on pouring dilute sulphuric acid through the funnel, and con- uing the gentle boiling, a white precipitate very soon appeared which _ Wsided in.dense flakes, and after separation from the clear liquid, dis- Solved €ntirely in a little hydrochloric acid, so that the precipitation Could not have arisen from any sulphuric acid having been carried over. The author repeated this experiment three times and always with the same result ; so he thinks himself justified in his conclusions concern- ing the presence of carbonates in the blood. ip Pe 8 21. On the presence of Sulphocyanogen in Human Saliva; by Max, PETTENKOPER, (Buch. Rep. xli, p. 289, and Chem. Gaz., May, 1846, “Ds, 191.)_As authors are not agreed upon the occurrence of Sulpho- _ ©yanogen in the saliva, Gmelin, Ure, Liebig and Wright, speaking In favor of it, whilst Berzelius, Kahn and Miller are opposed Pa Me, tape - Peated requisite to the author to investigate the subject Again. The "live used was collected from the author himself, and its secretion was Promoted by Smoking tobacco. The saliva in its examination was evaporated almost to dryness, ex. hausted with strong spirits, again evaporated and the residue dissolved a i water, _ The solution was very strongly reddened by neutral chloride - fiton and let fall some brown flakes, but it could not be caused to dis- “PPear by the addition of chloride of sodium or ammonium. The ex- £ 264 Scientific Intelligence. tract was boiled with sulphuric acid, and a moist piece of lead paper held over it, which latter was rendered brown by sulphuretted hydrogen. — It was submitted to other characteristic tests for ire and responded to allof them. The mode of formation of the Pinebhenncinalnk in saliva has hitherto proved a stumbling-block ;. but if we regard urea as a cyanate of am- monia, C2 NO+-NH+40, and compare the formula of sulphocyanide’ of ammonium with it, C?7NS?+-NH°, we find a striking relation between them ; for if we place 2 equiv. of oxygen in the urea by 2 equiv. of sulphur, we have the elements of sulphocyanide of ammonia. More- over, the products of decomposition of the two substances on destructive distillation ‘are to a certain extent similar. The author has also found that urea may be converted into a compound of sulphocyanogen by the action of alkaline sulphurets. Since the urea occurs already formed in the blood, it would not appear improbable that by combining in the sal- ivary glands with the sulphur in the protein compounds, it forms sulpho- cyanogen. Wright has remarked the excretion of urea in the-saliva during dadivetion.. J. L. 8. 22. On the Digestion of Aveiluicions and Seathduken Substances ; by M. Miatue, (Comptes Rendus, March, 1846.)—The author has found that the saliva contains a’ principle identical with vegetable diastase. - _ Itis procured by treating the filtered saliva with 5 or 6 times its weight | of absolute alcohol, which precipitates the substance in question in the form of white flakes, which can be collected on a filter and dried. Itis _ readily preserved if kept in well stopped bottles. It does not act upon fibrine, albumen, gluten, or any of the azotized substances ;—if heated © i with starch and water in a sand bath, to a temperature of from 158° to 4 175° Fahr., the oe is rendered soluble, it being converted into det . . trine and gluc The saliva Pe shots séoth of this principle, which the author seems to think exerts remarkable effects in. the digestion of amylaceous substances ;—as regards their assimilation, as well as that of saccharine substances, he is still of opinion that the alkalies of the blood exert con- siderable influence. J. Lae 8. 23. On the Nourishing Quality of different Vegetable Substances, reck- oned from the amount of Nitrogen contained in them; by E:.N. HorsFor?, of Albany, U.S., (Annal. der Chem. und Pharm., vol. lviii, p. 166. \} This is a very nile research conducted in the laboratory of Prof. Liebig _ by the author, who appears to have devoted much time and care tothe — analyses. Besides simply. reas the amount of carbon, hydrogen, s various vegetable substances : rom can his: hands, vino of we as azotized sub- ‘Star zach do this i pabdulnied: from a a ities Ss ee: i a: tn Pind > " = 7.2 se pelea es 265 the amount of nitrogen and the known composition of these principles as made out by Milder, Scheerer and others. . _. The following is the statement of the nutritive value of some of th _ substances alluded to in the extensive table accompanying the memoir. Wheat is taken as the standard, and the numbers in the table represent ‘how many ‘parts of the corresponding vegetable are equal to 100 of “Wheat, : ‘Theory. “by Bonssingault, Dried at 212° F./ Fresh. . Fresh. - 100° |100- 94° ¢ é 98'8 97:6 97-6 é 115- 113° 108 220° 225° : 170: 166° 1227 57° 60° 90°7 ‘ 55° 58° ‘ ‘ . | 220° 5963 429- Ree eee 1827 919-4) 589.7 a ee | | ILLS. 4A Description of a new Mercurial Trough; by Prof. Louver, (Phil. Mag., May, 1846.)—It consists of a small oblong oak-box, 1} Inches in depth, nine inches in length, and six inches in breadth. To the bottom is cemented a plate of glass exactly covering its whole ex- tent; this glass has a small piece cut out of the middle of one of its shorter "Sides, either of a rectangular or V shape, extending about an inch and a half from the ‘margin; the upper surface of the glass is ~~ ground ‘perfectly level. The side of the box next to which comes the edge with the piece taken out, has a groove cut in it from the top to - the bottom, terminating in an excavation in the bottom of the box; just °ver which the rectangular opening in the glass comes; so that a bent ‘tube coming from a vessel in which gas is being generated, may have ‘lls lower extremity placed beneath the floor of the trough. The re-. Celvers used are tubulated, having the lower edges well ground. To flhthe receivers, the lower edge is placed upon the bottom of the trough, it being ious! eased if thought necessary, the stopper . previously greased if th Withdrawn, and then it is entirely filled with mercury and restopped. Asmall quantity of mercury is next poured into the box, so as to fill ie Stall cavity, and cover the bottom for about the tenth of an inch; Sad the Teceiver can now be moved in all directions, and placed over the : cavity into which the extremity of the curved tube from which the gas A disengaged, is placed. The advantage of this species of trough is “at with a small amount of mercury, large receivers may 7 eye 266 Scientific Intelligence. II. Arts. 1. Artificial Marble, (Journ. de Chem. Med., April, 1846, p. 299.)— M. Bouisson has taken out a patent for preparing artificial marble from gypsum, which is to be cut of the required size, placed in a metallic trough in a furnace, and kept at the temperature of 90° for some time, after whieh a solution of alum in boiling water is poured upon it and a gentle heat continued for some length of time, the water being re- newed as it evaporates. Fora block six feet long and two feet in the other directions, exposure for five hours before the addition of alum solution, and seventy-two hours after, suffice to impregnate the plaster. The strength of the alum solution is one pound to six quarts of water. It is always well to cut the plaster in the form required before harden- ing it. By introducing colormg matter into the solution, various tints J. Tae. may be obtained. 2. Preparation of a Substitute for Horn ; by M. Rocuon, (Voigt. Mag. de Naturk. and Revue Scient:, Feb., 1846, p. 256.)—In many of the arts, more especially where neal instruments are manufactured, glass windows are of great inconvenience owing to the frequent break- age by fragments of steel. The substitution of horn is attended with some inconvenience, principally on account of its want of transparency. A substitute is proposed to be made of very light cloth or wire gauze composed of fine brass wire, which is to be immersed repeatedly into a solution of isinglass until all the meshes are filled and a sufficient thickness acquired, after which it is covered with a coat of copal or wo varnish to protect it from the weather. 3 meee J. L. 8. 3. Amalgamation ‘of Wrought Iron, Cast Iron and Steel, so as to prepare them for Fire Gilding ; by R. Borrrarr, (Poggend. Am., 1846, No. 1, and Bib. Univer., March, 1846, p. 201.)—Place in a glazed earthen ware or porcelain vessel 12 parts by weight of mercury, 1 of zinc, 2 of sulphate of iron, 12 of water, and 14 of hydrochloric acid of 1:2 sp. grav.; then introduce the iron or steel into the mixture, which is to be heated to ebullition. In a little time the objects become covered with a thin coating of mercury; which enables us to apply immediately, the amalgam of gold that is used in the gilding. All that is now necessary, is to apply a strong heat which will drive off the ‘Mercury and the trace of zine that may have attached itself to the iron, leaving a surface of pure gold. By the ordinary way, it becomes neces- ee ae db, vz “ f pi aati | ahi Pe Pe werknacities, —- Cy te ee ee rf sight ae IIL. Mineranocy anp Gronoey. 1. Oriental Jade and Tremolite, by M. Damour, (Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. April, 1846 ; Phil. Mag. xxiii, 568.)—The jade selected for anal- eS ysis had been worked in India; it was of a milk-white color and semi- transparent, and had the appearance of white wax, or perhaps rather Spermaceti.. Its fracture was splintery ; it scratched glass, but feebly. Its specific gravity was found to be 2:970. Its tenacity was very great ; when reduced to powder and heated in a glass tube, its appearance was ‘Not altered, and it yielded no water. In the flame of the blowpipe it swells up, and fuses slowly into a milk-white enamel. Borax dissolves , it without color ; the salt of phosphorus dissolves it, leaving a skeleton hd silica, It is not sensibly acted upon by hydrochloric acid. | ~ Two analyses gave the following results :— : a. ilies, : oF pegs ; 58°46 5802 |. “Lime, ¢ , ‘ ; AE A 11-82 Ber eNO MA, Re ge: OE Se BR er ha ED _ Protoxide of iron, . a ee ‘T12- . a 98-76 98°15 __M. Damour having observed that this is precisely the composition of _ Temolite (white hornblende), submitted this substance to the same pro- Ces of analysis as that adopted with the jade. The specimen which he selected was from St. Gothard, and in colorless crystals, very per- __‘Heetand associated with granular dolomite, which was separated by hy- _____-‘“techloric acid previously to analysis. = pe ee |, Wyielded—sitica 58-07, lime 12-99, magnesia 24°46, protoxide of oe rn | in From Ee similarity of these results, M. Damour is of opinion that this jade may be ranked with tremolite ; and if this opinion should be % opted, he observes, that in collections oriental jade will hereafter be : assed as compact tremolite. : — & Substances in Guano; by E. F. Tescuemacuer, (Phil. Mag. — 546, June, 1846.)—Mr. Teschemacher has detected the following _ *Ubstances in guano :— be ied te Phosphate of Ammonia, occurring as a crystalline salt, perfectly in Tent, with a brilliant cleavage in one direction. The quantity | _ Was too small for an analysis. eae 8 i Bicarbonate of Ammonia, mixed with guano in its cavities as a crys- talline salt, having brilliant cleavage in two directions. Measurement With t e reflecting goniometer gave the angle of 112° between the ad- E sind planes. It proved on analysis to consist of ammonia 21-0, car- ue acid 55-50, water 23°50, —100, affording nearly the formula Ts+2CO,42H0. 268 Scientific Intelligence. Ammonio-magnesian phosphate, imbedded in patches in the guano of Saldanha Bay on the coast of Africa. It occurs in distinct brilliant crystals, highly modified, having for its primary a right rhombic prism of 57° 30’ and 122° 30’, with rhombic cleavage. . The specific gravity is 1-60 and hardness 2. _ It afforded on analysis, ammonia 14°30, mag- nesia 17-00, phosphoric acid 30°40, water 38:10, —99-80, giving nearly the formula NH;MgO, PO,+-5HO. It is usually white and translu- cent, though sometimes discolored brown. Mr. Teschemacher pro- poses the name.guanile for this species, it being the first occurrence of the compound as a native salt. Besides these, there were detected in the guano of Saldanha Bay small globular particles consisting of concentric lamin, which gave on analysis, carbonate of lime 37: 50, carbonate of magnesia 32-00, phos- phate of lime 12-00, water with a little ammonia~ and animal matter 12:00, sand 3-00, alkaline sulphates and chlorides 52°50, 99-50. 3. Struvite, (L’Institut, No. 644. )—Like the Guanite, this mineral, described by M. Ulex, is a phosphate of ammonia and magnesia ; but it differs in containing 13 per cent. of water. The primary is a rhombic prism of 95° 10’; sp. gr. 17; hardness that of talc; slightly soluble in water. Jt was found on the site of an old church at Hamburg. 4. Cryptolite; by F. Wouter, (Pogg. Ann., No. 3, 1846; Phil. Mag., xxix, 31, July, 1846.)—Cryptolite is a phosphate of the ox- yd of cerium, found in the sea-green or reddish apatite of Aren- dal in Norway. It becomes apparent when the apatite is placed in large pieces in dilute nitric acid, appearing, as. the apatite dissolves, _ in the form of fine crystalline needles of about a line in length. . It occurred only in the reddish variety of apatite and constituted but 2 or 3 per cent. of the mass. It crystallizes in transparent apparently six- sided prisms of a very pale wine color; specific gravity 4:6. It un- dergoes no change at a moderate heat. It afforded on analysis per- oxyd of cerium 73°70, protoxyd of iron 1:51, phosphoric acid 27°37, ==102-58. The excess arises from the cerium having been determined as peroxyd instead of protoxyd, in which latter form it evidently exists in the mineral. The presence or absence of cymiepe and lanthanum remains undetermined. _Itis probable that the apatite of Arendal contains another cerium mineral which is soluble, and it may possibly be monazite. 5. On the Hematite in Connecticut ; by J. G. PercivaL, (Report the Geology of Connecticut, p. 182.)—The rock which contains. a Hematite i iron ores in the northwest part of Connecticut and the adjoin- _ ing part of New York, is a micaceous schist, the predominant variety gM wl 4 grey color, is sometimes mor more or less talcose, @ n : des, Greenish epi: chlorite) and ‘ Mineralogy and Gieology. 269 bluish varieties also occur, the latter highly pyritiferous and approach- ing argillite. The Hematite region includes within its limits the ore beds of Salisbury, Sharon and Dover; and traces may be observed more or less frequently throughout the formation from Patterson to Massachusetts. Mr. Percival goes on to observe :—From the obser- vations I haye made, I have been led to believe, that the Hematite, like bog ore, is of secondary formation, and is derived from the decompo- sition of the pyrites, contained in the mica slate.of the formation, par- ticularly in the black. sub-argillitic variety, and in a less degree, in the dark blue variety with transverse mica. Seams of Hematite may not unfrequently be observed in these varieties of the mica slate, which are besides characterized by their dark red brown rusted surface. The ore beds themselves present usually a distinctly stratified arrange- ment, in parallel beds interposed between the strata of the undecom- posed mica slate adjoining, and quartz veins are also found in the’ ore _ beds, arranged: precisely as they occur in the unaltered rock of this format The ore is accompanied with alternate layers of a yellow or reddish ochry earth, called fuller’s earth by the miners, derived ap- parently from the decomposition of the light grey mica slate of the formation, which corresponds, in this respect, with the light grey mica _ Slate of the preceding formation, as already obseryed. The different Tesults, from the decomposition of the different varieties of mica slate, _ May perhaps depend on the peculiar composition of each, or on the ‘act, that magnetic pyrites abounds more particularly in the darker va- ‘Reties; and common pyrites in the latter. The most important ore beds mm Salisbury, namely, the Ore Hill, and Chatfield’s, are situated on the. _ Cast side of the depression south of Taconic Mountain ; the others, in that town, along the east base of that mountain, farther north. Indian Pond'ore bed, (Sharon,) is at the western base of the ridge next south # Taconic Mountain, towards its southern termination, and the Dover bed; on the eastern declivity of the present formation, west. of Dover. . “This formation extends only a short distance along the west line of the state, namely, from west of Sharon village, to its northwest corner, te “i op included within the limits of New York and - simu rr Teed. es fig ee 5 FS S on Ls me eA ae Ff pe: et Kale a va a i . 6 Subsidence of the Land at Puzzuoli, (Jameson’s Edinb. Jour., #1846, 385.)—-Mr. J. Smith stated to the British Association, that ot. en he Visited the temple of Jupiter Serapis at Puzzuoli, in March, i Asi, its floor was elevated about 6 inches above the level of the sea ; | » dat on the 11th of May, in the year 1845, it was covered to the depth ; Of 18 inches at low water, and 284 at high tide,—the sea being calm tthe time. "Phe custode*of the building told Mr. Smith that this a Change ‘was progressive, amounting to 1} English inches per annum. _ SB0onp Sznizs, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept., 1846. 35 270 Scientific Intelligence. The cicerone, too, who had exercised his profession for thirty years, said, he knew a difference of at least 3 feet 6 inches in the height of the sea upon the piers of the Bridge of Caligula, giving the same amount of subsidence yearly. There were, besides, many similar proofs in the partly submerged houses and causeways of Puzzuoli. The perforations of the Pholades in the columns indicate a former period, during which the temple remained submerged at a stationary level ; and contemporary accounts state, that, by an instantaneous movement, it was lifted to some height above the sea, which receded nearly 200 paces, leaving an immense quantity of fish, which were collected by the inhabitants. This took place in October, 1538, im- mediately before the elevation of Monte Nuovo. 7. Notice of an Earthquake and a probable Subsidence of the Lad in the district of Cutch, near the mouth of the Koree, or Eastern branch of the Indus, in June, 1845. (Extracted from a letter to Capt. ig Nelson, R. E.—Journ. Geol. Soc. 1845, p. 103.) —** One of Capt. Me- .'¢ Mardo’s guides was traveling on foot to him from Bhooj. The day he he reached Luckput there were shocks ‘of an earthquake, which shook down part of the walls of the fort, and some lives were lost. . At the same time as the shock, the sea rolled up the Koree (the eastern) mouth | of the Indus, overflowing the country as far westward as the Goongra : river (a distance of twenty English miles), northward as far as a little : north of Veyre (forty miles from the mouth of the Koree), and east- A ward to the Sindree Lake. The guide was detained six days (from t June 19th to 25th), during which time sixty-six shocks were counted. ‘i He then got across to Kotree, of which only a few small buildings on a bit of rising ground remain. Most of the habitations throughout the district must have been swept away, the best houses in Scinde being built of sun-dried bricks, and whole villages consisting only of huts made of a few crooked poles and reed mats. The guide travelled twenty miles through water on a camel, the water up to the beast’s Of Lak nothing was above water but a Fakeer’s pole (the flag- staff always erected by the tomb of some holy man); and of Veyre and other villages only the remains of a few houses were to be seen. “ There are said to be generally two earthquakes every year at Luck- put. The Sindree Lake has of late years become a salt-marsh.” © 8. On the Vorticose Movement assumed to accompany Earthquakes ; by R. Mauer, (Phil. Mag. xxviii, 587, June, 1846.) —The phenomenon to which Mr. Mallet refers, is the apparent displacement and twisting of the stones of a column of masonry, as if produced by a partial revo- - lution around a vertical axis. He shows that the supposition of an ac> tual vorticose movement in the earth is not only improbable, but unne- ‘ere to.account: for the facts: > inane —— ‘ Mineralogy and Geology. 271 motion is sufficient, if the centre of adherence, in the stone to be moved, is not directly under the centre of gravity. This is proved by simple trial. With regard to the possibility of restoring of the stone to its original position by the backward move of an earthquake vibra- iy _ tion, he argues that the forward and backward action are not equal, as the force producing the earthquake is usually progressive in one di- rection; and further, the new condition of the stone, after. the first motion, renders it scarcely possible that the reverse motion, however, nearly the same, could exactly neutralize and return the stone to its former place. The following are some instances of this peculiar motion mentioned 88 on record. _ “The first notice I find recorded of such a peculiar motion, is in the Philosophical Transactions, in an account of the earthquake at Boston, in New England, of November 18th, 1755, communicated. by John Hyde, Esq., F.R.S. He says, ‘the trembling continued about two minutes; near one hundred chimneys were levelled with the roofs of the houses, and many more shattered. Some chimneys, though not thrown down, were dislocated or broken several feet from the top, and partly turned round-as on a swivel. Some are shoved to one side hor- izontally , jutting over, and just nodding to fall” &c. This author _ does not seem to have been struck with this odd circumstance of the twisting round of the chimneys, and offers no explanation. The next - Instance that I have found is in the aceount of the great earthquake of ‘Calabria, in 1783, as recorded by the Royal Academy of Naples, quot- ed by Mr. Lyell, in his Principles of Geology, vol. i, page 482. After ri ing several other remarkable phenomena, tending to show the _ Seat velocity of the shock, such as that many large stones were found, — aSit were, shot out of their beds in the mortar of buildings, so as to ce leave 2 complete cast of themselves in the undisturbed mortar ; while iN’ other instances the mortar was ground to powder by the transit of ~ the’ stone, he says, ‘'I'wo obelisks (of which he has given figures) Placed at the extremities of a magnificent fagade in the convent of St. Bruno, in.a small town called Stephano del Bosco, were observed to have undergone a movement of a singular kind. The shock, which Agitated the building, is described as having been horizontal and vorti- _ 608e.. The pedestal of each obelisk remained in its original place, but the separate stones above were turned partially round, and removed _ Sometimes nine inches from their.position without falling.’ |. od Dave: found: some.few. other notices of similar phenomena in old books of travels. ‘Two additional instances, however, will be sufficient. The first will be-found in the quarterly journal of the Royal Institution, _ M)@narrative of the earthquake in Chili, of November, 1822, commu- 272 Scientific Intelligence. “The church of La Morceda, at Valparaiso, built of burnt bricks, stood with its length north and south. [The houses are built of adobes, or sun-dried bricks.] ‘The church tower; sixty feet high, was lev- eled ; the two side walls, full of rents, were left. standing, supporting part of the shattered roof, but the two end-walls were entirely demol- ished. On each side of the church were four massive buttresses, six feet square, of good brickwork ; those on the western side were thrown down and broken to pieces, as were two on the eastern side. The other two were twisted off from the wall in a northeasterly direction, and left standing.’ The direction of the. shocks was thought to be either from the southwest, or from the northwest. “The last instance I shall quote is from the pages of the able and delightful Darwin, in his Journal of a Naturalist’s Voyage, (Colonial Library, edit. p. 308), in describing the effects of the great earthquake of March, 1835, upon the buildings in the town of Conception; and after noticing also the evidences of immense velocity in the shock, by which the projecting buttresses from the nave walls of the cathedral had been cut clean off close to the wall, by their own inertia, while the wall, which was in the line of shock, remained standing ; he proceeds, ~—‘Some square ornaments on the coping of these same walls were moved by the earthquake into a diagonal position. A similar circum- stance was observed after an earthquake at Valparaiso, Calabria and other places, including some of the ancient Greek temples’ (for which he quotes 5 in a omni bes oar gs scare ngs a 1, p. 892). 9. Geological Chart of M. Boué; (Bull. de Ia’ Soe: Geol, he. Frail 2 Ser., i, 572.)—The fine large geological chart by Boué embraces a general view of the geology of the globe, and was published under the auspices of the Geological Society of —, The following results appear to be established by it: - -1.-The more ancient formations prevail towards the poles, in the principal ossature near the equator, and around the great ocean. 2. The intermediary (Silurian) formations exist‘about the poles and in the northern temperate zone. But they fail almost entirely under the equator. 23 3. The secondary formations rest in the concayities of the interme- diary formations in the northern hemisphere, whilst rat rest upon ' = primary of the equator. ~ 4. The tertiary abound near rie equatety ; they fill the lowest oath of the basins of the sea, and form a zone extending from the Desert of _ Cobi, ee the Caspian ceeh-oPebd fererssvat pm { northern Zoology. 278. 1. Analysis af the Glassy Scoria of Kilauea, Hawaii, (Proceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., July, 1846, p. 121.)—This glassy scoria inelu- _ ding some of the capillary glass of the volcano, has been analyzed by Mr. J. Peabody in the laboratory of Dr. C. T. Jackson, with the following result : silica 50-00, protoxide of iron 28°72, lime 7-40, alumina 6: 16, potash 6-00, soda 2:00, 100-28, re IV. Zoouoey. 1. Description of two New Species of Fossil Echinodermata, from the Eocene of the United States; by Samven Georce Morton, M. D., (Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. iii, 51, May, 1846.)—Cidaris Alaba- msis. Compressed, pentagonal, the angles rounded so as to form a ten sided figure. T'en rows of tubercles, with nine or ten in each row. Ambulacra arranged in five pairs, with delicate, slightly oblique fissures Separated by a double elevated line. Surface between the tubercles and ambulacra finely granulated. : _ Galerites? Agassii, Elevated, hemispherical, with four pairs of _ambulacra which diverge from the apex and meet at the margin, having each two rows of pores connected by transverse fissures. Surface marked by numerous, distinct granulations, which are continued over the whole base df the fossil. — . - Thave much pleasure in dedicating this remarkable species to M. Louis Agassiz, whose profound researches into this class of organized beings, have thrown much.new light on their structure, affinities and Seological relations: © > . . 18-0268... 234487 “ 100: 139 N rl temperate zone, i 1266308 . . .192:5247 “ 100: 105 The late discoveries in the Lennie region will require a correction of the to here given for the whole sphere. Dr. Long obtained for this ratio, omitting © Polar circles, the ratio of 100 to 281. es j 2a Saeed 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ‘ :' Land, . North half of torrid zone, . 52°5582.. 146. 8162 “ 100: 279 South half of torrid zone, . 4671592... 153-2156 “ 100: 332 South temperate zone, , 22'5488 ...236-6060 “ 100: 1049 Land. N. Polar. ; N. Temp.j N. Torrid./S. Torrid. |S. Temp.y Total. Europe, 0:9524 1569891 16°6513 oe and islands, 1-1 50329 65°5901)13-6039) 3- 9743 0- 0-5308|88-7320) Ay] ES FO Vad (231) 10° (091 SU0 000 10E News Holland, “ a 6:°0263 9:7063|15°7326| North America, . |12°041035.0658) 3- 4857 50-592: a America, ' 5°7455)20-3889|8-504 1/34-6385 The waters of rivers and lakes were taken into account as wellas those of the oceans. 8. Eruption of Mt. Hekla, (Lond. Atheneum.)—An eruption of Mt. Hekla commenced September 2, 1845, and continued with unabated fury, until the 2d April of the present year. There is no example of such a prolonged phenomenon in the annals of Iceland. Very singular consequences have ensued. The winds have carried the volcanic ashes all over the island, and the cattle are perishing, poisoned by the herb- age which it taintsand covers. The poison developes itself in singular forms of disease, and it is thought that if the eruption continued two months longer, all the cattle in the island must be destroyed, or aban- doned to death by this strange malady. The eruption is described in fearful characters. The flames from each of the three craters were thrown up to a height of 2400 fathoms, and their width exceeded that of the greatest river in the island. ‘The lava lay mountains high: and masses vat pumice-stone weighing half a ton, had been carried a dis- tance of a league and a half. The ice and snow of centuries, had all melted in the heat, and overflowed the rivers : and the Rangen, swelled also by the burning lava, left its. fsiny tenants on its shores dead and cooked. The Royal Neadenty of Beiétisen, at Gottingen petitioned the King of Hanover to send commissioners into Iceland, at the Government eX- pense, for the purpose of observing this phenomenon ;. and two distin- guished Geologists, Mess. Berez and Sartorius were comin fam, that duty. Since the eruption of the siinniek has ceased, the whole southern portion of Iceland has been disturbed by frequent earthquakes. 9. Vesuvius; (Atheneum, July 18, 1846.)—Letters from Naples _ announce that Vesuvius is in full eruption, throwing out masses of lava and making the night magnificent with its spectacle. 10. Australia.—The late voyage of the Beagle under Commander 2 : L. me R. mid has resulted i in 1 the discov overy of five rivers. on tbe, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 20% _ ders. Victoria was much the largest, and its course ‘was examined for 140 miles. The natives discovered on the banks are represented as fine, bold men, contrasting strikingly with the “ miserable objects” seen at Sidney. The Albert and Flinders empty into Gulf Carpentaria. The former runs through a country of great beauty, the best seen in northern Australia. The farthest point reached was named the Plains of Promise, from the conviction that future explorers of the interior of this continent, must here take their departure. Capt. Stokes feels assured that with camels and little expense, the exploration would be easily effected— Discoveries in Australia, during a voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, under J. L.. Stokes, Commander, 2 vols——Athenum, June 27,1846. . te ____ InSouth Australia valuable copper mines have lately been opened. The first was discovered at Kapunda in 1842, and to the close of 1845, ‘No less than 1200 tons of ore had been sent to England. ‘The ore is -PMincipally the sulphurets and carbonates of copper. The Montacute Mine was opened in 1844, and is considered very promising. Still an- other mine of great-extent has been since found in the. vicinity of Ra- zorback Mountain about 100 miles north of Adelaide. — “11. Mount Ararat ;. (L’Institut, No. 649.)—M. Abich, who has lately been engaged in a scientific journey over Asia Minor, has dis- ‘Covered in the vicinity of Mt. Ararat, rocksof the era before the coal, 4nd to the southeast of the valley of the Araxes, where in the middle a ~Of the: river stands the island of rocks of Corvirab, he has detected es Sprifers, Terebratulas, a Productus and Crinoidea. Hardly 20 versts ‘tom Ararat he collected the Cyathophyllum flexuosum ; and not eS distant, in the Daralagian Mountains, perpendicular beds filled with a Productus, Orthis, and Crinoidea occurred surrounded by Jurassic beds __—s entaining small Exogyri. M. Abich will return to Ararat by the B*. Mountains of Maku to complete his chart of the region. 1. Museum of Natural History at Paris; (Athen., July 11, 1846.) ee The Chamber of Deputies has voted a sum of 136,786 francs for ene of ground wanted for the purposes of the Museum of ' 18: IM. Jacobi-—This distinguished geometrician of Berlin has been elected to fill the vacancy in the list of foreign members of the Acad- my of Sciences at Paris, occasioned by the death of M. Bessel. The “other candidates were MM. Brewster, Buckland, Herschel, Liebig, Melloni, Mitscherlich, and Tiedemann. — oes Lavoisier, (Athen. July 18, 1846.)—The founder of Chemistry, Lavoisier , Was, as our readers know, snatched away by a violent and Siterang, re death, ere he had found time to collect and arrange his “rks. In 1843, the Minister of Public Instruction consulted the Acad- 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. emy of Sciences as to what works of that philosopher should be in- cluded in a national publication ; and a committee was appointed to ex- amine, and report on the matter. This committee has now made its report ; and recommends that the Chamber of Deputies be asked for a sum of from 40,000 to 60,000 francs for the purposes of the publica- tion according to its suggestions. It is only with the view of giving a national character to this edition of Lavoisier, as the Committee ob- serve, that they apply to the State for its cost; for a member of the illustrious chemist’s own family would gladly take upon himself the en- tire expense, and renounces his right to do so only because of the greater glory redounding to Lavoisier from the sponsorship of the Gov- ernment. 15. Leibnitz, (Athen. July 18, 1846.)—The honors paid to the memory of Leibnitz, on the occasion of the two-hundredth anniversary _ of his birth, have not been confined to his native town, Leipsic. In _ that city, however, we must not omit to mention, the King of Saxony contributed to the celebrations the important one of the creation of 4 Royal Academy of Sciences. It is divided into two classes ; the first including Natural Philosophy and the Mathematics—the second, His- tory and Philology. Each class is to have twenty-five national mem- bers—residing either in the kingdom of Saxony or in the Saxon coun- tries of the Ernestine line,—and a certain number of foreign associates and corresponding members. On the first occasion, the native mem- bers are, as in the Vienna Institution, to be named » ‘by the King—but after-vacancies will be filled up, in each class, by its own election. The Academy is to hold two public meetings yearly—one on the King’s birthday, the other on that of Leibnitz. When these come too close together, the second public sitting is to be held on the 14th day of No- vember, the anniversary of the philosopher’s death.— At Hanover, where Leibnitz died, the occasion of the recent anniversary was marked by the opening to the public, for the first time, of the Chamber of Leibnitz, at the Royal Library. This room contains a crowd of objects -which belonged to that philosopher—including many of his manuscripts, pub- lished | and unpublished—his journal of the year 1696—his correspond- ence with the Duke of Hesse—the fauteuil in which he sat, and the book which he was reading, when struck. by death. This book is the first volume of the works of Argenais de Barelai,—Amsterdam edition. M. Eccard, the pupil and friend of Leibnitz, has written in it, in Latin, the following note :—‘ The illustrious Leibnitz had in his hand, and was anges this book; apo, in ‘the year 1716, the 14th day of No- pected khim. Witness, George Eccard.” A arse use in which Leibnitz liv ved, at Hanover, aa = an : coe eee ae ee eee will be deposited all that may in future be collected relating to the de- _ ceased philosopher. _ ‘ ; ebee PEs. 16. Comet Medal, (Athen., July 18, 1846.)—A letter from Prof. Schumacher, says, “ The King of Denmark has offered the Comet Med: al (20 Dutch ducats in gold) for the best discussion of ‘Tycho’s obser- vations of the Comet of 1585. Prof. Gauss:is appointed judge. . The _ Papers must be sent.to me before July Ist, 1847, without name, dis- tinguished by a motto only, and the name of the author in a sealed pa- Per; inscribed with the same motto, You will find in No. 533 of the _ Astronomische Nachrichten all the information which can be required:” _ |. Chinese Map, (Athen., July 18, 1846.)—Amongst the articles _ brought from China. by the Commission who have just returned from . that country,—and which are exhibited at the Ministry of Commerce, f —1s.a map of the world, presented to the Commission. by the head - Mandarin of Canton. The Chinese geographer has arranged the earth Quite in his own way. | With him, there are. no isthmuses, no peninsu- las; the Isthmus of Suez is replaced by a magnificent arm of the sea, Which detaches itself from the Mediterranean to fall into the Red Sea. © see-nothing of the Isthmus of Panama, and the two seas on that side are connected in the same way. ‘There are neither Pyrenees nor Alps, and hardly are the vast mountains of America indicated. On __ the other hand, however,.China is liberally dealt with by the geograph- &; for upon this point it occupies not: less than. three-quarters of the _ Whole globe.—Galignani.. S geataiens. + 18. Mm Verneuil on the Fusulina in the Coal Formation of Ohio, (in letter to'the editors of the Amer. Quart. Jour. of Agriculture, iv, 166.) ic, have made in the carboniferous formations of Ohio a very inter- _ ‘Mil stone of this country, is a siliceous-band which occupies about the Sentral: part of the carboniferous series.. This stone is full of small des - CaVities; similar to. the impression due to a grain of corn oF wheat. These cavities, as I assured myself, have been filled by a small animal Of the class of the Foraminifera, which Prof. Fischer has cplled-+3 _ Mussia, Fusulina cylindrica. You will easily understand the pleasure felt to find my old traveling guide. In Russia, the Fusulina pe a Phincipally the highest division of the carboniferous limestone, and here tis Confined also to the coal series; but what is the most. astonishing 3S, that in the old.continent, the Fusulina is exclusively found in Rus- Sia, where it constitutes hills of two hundred feet, entirely composed of them, When you come to Germany or the British islands, the Fusuli- wanting ; and,so it had seemed to us that it was a being organi- IL, No. 5.—Sept 1846... 38. Miscellancous Intelligcnte. 993 : esting discovery for me, as a Russian traveler. The burrh stone, or — a 294 Miscellaneous Inteliigence. 19. Dr. Owen’s Report on the Mineral Lands of the United Statess —This important document, which has been for six years sleeping in _ the archives of the Treasury Department at Washington, has at last been brought out with all its maps, plates of fossils, and picturesque views. The ground covered by this report contains about 11,000 square miles, and the results possess a high interest, both in a practical and — scientific point of view. The time in which this great labor was per- _ formed seems incredibly short, and the fact that the work was done, and well done, is sufficient proof, not only of Dr. Owen’s great energy; 7 forethought and tact, but of his thorough fitness for the task, by pre- — viously acquired knowledge. He thus alludes to his labors: j ~ After duly weighing the nature of my instructions, estirnating the — extent of country to be examined, considering the wild unsettled char- _ acter of a portion of it, and the scanty accommodations it could afford to a numerous party, (which rendered necessary a carefully-caleulated _ system of purveyance,) and ascertaining that the winter, in that north- ern region, commonly sets in with severity from the 10th to the middle of November, my first impression was, that the duty required of me was impracticable of completion within the given time, even with the liberal permission in regard to force accorded to me in my instructions. But, on a more careful review of the means thus placed at my dispo- sal, I finally arrived at the conclusion, that, by using diligent “exertion; assuming much responsibility, and incurring an expense w was. aware the department might possibly not have anticipated, I bight strict accordance with my instructions, if favored by the weather and in other rea zits ‘succeed in a the eaparation:! in the rose ed time. “T therefore cecil dotnineiatadt engaging sub-agents and assis tants, and proceeded to St. Louis; there (at my own expense, to be re- paid to me out of the per diem of the men employed) I laid in about three thousand dollars worth of provisions and camp furniture, inclu- ding tents, which I caused to be made for the accommodation of the whole expedition ; and in one month from the day on which I received my commission and instructions in Indiana, (to wit, on the 17th of Sep- tember,) I had reached the mouth of Rock River; engaged one hun- —— dred and thirty-nine sub-agents and assistants ; instructed my sub-agents _ in such elementary principles of geology as were necessary for the — performance of the duties required of them; supplied them with sim- ple mineralogical tests, with the application of which they were made acquainted ; organized twenty-four working corps, furnished each with skeleton maps of the townships assigned to them for examination, and . the oo : sme where their labors commenced, Tr pared Miscellaneous Intelligence. ; 295 Phence the expedition proceeded northward, each corps being requir d, on the average, to overrun and examine thirty quarter sections daily, nd to report to myself on fixed days at regularly appointed stations : receive which reports, and to examine the country in person, I cross- | the district under examination, in an oblique direction, eleven times he course of the survey. Where appearances of particular interest sented themselves, I either diverged from my route, in order to be- y upon these a more minute and. thorough examination; or, when time did not permit this, I instructed Dr. John Locke, of Cincinnati, {formerly of the geological corps of Ohio, and at present professor of chemistry in the medical college of Ohio,) whose valuable services I had been fortunate enough to engage on this expedition, to inspect these in my stead, SB _ “By the 24th of October, the exploration of the Dubuque district was completed, and the special reports of all the townships therein Were dispatched to your office, and to the office of the register at Du- buque. On’ the 14th of November, the survey of the Mineral Point _ district was in a similar manner brought to a.close; and by the 24th of November, our labors finally. terminated at Stephenson, in Illinois; the €xaminations of all the lands comprehended in my instructions having ‘been completed in two months and six days from the date of our actual Commencement in the field. Also several thousand specimens—some (Of rare beauty and interest—were collected, arranged and labelled. a “The weather was favorable, and the winter did not set in with sever- ity until about a fortnight later than is usual in that latitude; yet, the Same day on which the survey was completed, a severe snow-storm Sceurred, a. gale. blew up from the northwest, the thermometer fell to Ror 14 degrees below zero, and the expedition could not have contin- ‘ued its operations in the field a single day longer. , _ “The district of territory explored lies nearly in equal ogee both sides of the Mississippi river, between latitude 41 and 43. degrees ; __- S°mmencing at the mouth of Rock river, and extending thence. north, _. "pwards of 100 miles, to the Wisconsin river, which discharges cana __ Into the Mississippi immediately below Prairie du Chien. “The average width of this body of land exceeds 200 miles. It -Comprehends about 11,000°square miles, equalling in extent the state : of Maryland.” . pene : __ We cite from the report at the present time only the following gene- talremarks:— ps 7 ot The general geological:character of the country explored may be briefly summed up. It belongs to that class of rocks called by t geologists secondary, and by others occasionally included in nsition series, Jt belongs; further, to a division of this class of ? 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. rocks described in Europe as the mountain limestone, or sometimes ma the carboniferous, or metalliferous, or encrinital limestone.- And it be- longs, yet more especially, to a subdivision of this group known popu-. larly, where it occurs in the west, as the cliff limestone, and described \ under that name by the geologists of Ohio. s “This last is the rock formation in which the lead, copper, iron, and . zinc of the region under consideration, are almost exclusively found} j and its unusual development doubtless much conduces to the OR nary mineral riches of this favored region. It therefore ad shall hereafter receive, particular analysis and attention. cs ib ‘In the northern portion of the district surveyed, an inte erosthlgadt r ry consin river ; whence (if we may rely on the representations of School- craft and others) they extend: north, even to the falls of St. Anthony. “ These strata are interesting, first, as being the only instance known to me, in the valley of the ‘Mississippi, in which the rocks underlying the blue limestone can be seen emerging from beneath it to the surface; _ and secondly, as apparently supplying an example of those meronten of neighboring.strata, to which I have already pe as being os ‘ exceptions to the invariable order of geological superposition.” 20. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia._The wef of this institution, and the interests of science in general, hav greatly promoted by the munificent liberality of Dr. Thomas B, Wik son, a citizen of Philadelphia, and a member of the Academy. This gentleman has recently. eae in Paris, the splendid collection of birds known as the Rivoli Collection; which is admitted to have few tivals, either in respect. to:the beauty or the variety of its specimens. e number exceeds 10,000, embracing 5,000 species, mounted and na- med, and illustrating. all the diversities of plumage incident to the = ference of age, sex wad locality. Dr. Wilson has. not only become the proprietor of this retinal collection ; he has also resolved to place it in the Academy, where it” will be accessible to the public, and thus diffuse the knowledge of one of the most pleasing branches of natural history. But the present Hall of the Academy, spacious as it is, is too small to accommodate this gi- gantic acquisition, and it therefore becomes necessary to extend the building, which can only be accomplished at a heavy expense. But Dre ‘ilson, with a oot that: has few ens taee has removed this. ; sole nse; ee yao ’ Miscellaneous Titeltigence, 207 are to be completed early in the coming year. The main saloon, by ‘this arrangement, will be one hundred and fifteen feet long by forty- five feet broad, admirably lighted, and fire-proof throughout. = We record with pride and pleasure this noble contribution to the sci- -e of our country; and we may justly and emphatically apply to r. Wilson, a remark that was made of William Maclure, the veneras le founder and benefactor of the Academy :—* It is rare that afflu- €nce, liberality, and the possession and the love of science, unite. so sig- Rally in the same individual.”* rei Osrruary.— Denison Olmsted, Jr., died of consumption at New Ha- en, Conn., Aug. 15, 1846, aged 22 years. Mr. Olmsted was a son of high promise of Prof. Olmsted of Yale College. He had already dis- inguished himself as a mineralogist and chemist, and had displayed hcommon ability as an original investigator. His devotion to mineral- xy commenced at a very early age, while yet a school boy; and ‘When but nine years old, he had made great proficiency in mathemat- ies. He had been for two years prior to his death, in the chemical lab- oratory of Yale College, where his services were highly valued, and tion of his labors. _ Bonpland, (Lond. Athencum.)—M. Aimé Bonpland, the celebrated _ haturalist, and fellow traveler of Humboldt, recently died at Corrientes, ‘Where he had resided since his release from Paraguay, where he was long held a prisoner by Dr. Francia, the Dictator. es Benzenberg, (Lond. Athencum.)—M. J. F. Benzenberg died in the Spring of 1846, at Dusseldorff, aged 67 years. In conjunction with the late Prof. Brandes, he undertook near half a century Binee,; ae ‘Systematic manner, the investigation of the orbits of shooting npgah. and the various works and papers which since 1798 he has published - Sarthis subject, have obtained much celebrity. He has also contributed Memoirs on mathematics, natural philosophy and mineralogy. - He has ___-Bequeathed to the town of Dusseldorffy the observatory which he had built, his rich collection of astronomical and other philosophical instru- ments, and the sum of 7000 thalers, the interest of which is to keep hl “@pparatus in repair. ; ieee en. Jour. of Science, iii, 362.. _the former as enabling us to treat of classes of quantities where We : - place of a primary proposition. We venture to say that there will 298 Bibliography. eh BrstiogRaruy. 1. A Treatise on Algebra; by Exias Loomts, A. M., Peston @ ie Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in the University of the City of Ne York, Member of the American Philosophical Society, of the Americar Academy of Arts and Sciences, &c. Harper & Brothers. 1846. se aimed at exhibiting the first principles of Algebra in a form which, : while level with. the eapacities of ordinary students and the present — state of the science, is fitted to elicit that degree of effort which edu- — eational purposes require. We think he has been generally success- — ful, and that the intrinsic merit of the work will concur with his official _ situation in securing to it the favorable attention of teachers. — ay designed for general use as a text-book. We have not found entire freedom from errors of the press, and it would be unr e to ex- pect it. Throughout the work, whenever it can be pee with advan- tage, the practice is followed of generalizing particular examples, or of extending a question proposed relative to a particular quantity, to the class of quantities to which it belongs: a practice of art = ty as accustoming the student to pass from the particular to the e the tendency to which constitutes the basis of the philosophic me ra { of all enlarged useful action,—and also as fitted to impress a main dis tinction between the Literal and Numeral Calculus, the superiority of should otherwise be compelled to confine our view to individuals, and the immense assistance afforded by mere notation to the operations the human intellect. 'The General Doctrine of Equations is expound ed-with clearness, and, we may add, with independence. . The author has developed this subject in an order of his own; theorems which find a place in other treatises are omitted, and what sometimes appears ina generic form or in that of a corollary, becomes specific or assumes but one opinion respecting the general character of the exposition. Bes The Horticulturist ; by Ak: Downinc.—The first number . : i on. Your tab re =e It is et Bibliography. — all horticultural and rural matters, architecture, and the literature of ts own departments. The editor of this attractive Journal has earned wide renown by his elegant and most useful works on Landscape rdening, Cottage Architecture, and Pomology. As an original and scomplished author in these attractive and popular pursuits, he has no al since the death of the indefatigable Loudon, and his merits have en acknowledged by marks of high consideration from some of the owned heads of the old world. Under his conduct, and judging m the merits of the first number, the Horticulturist bids fair to run h useful and honorable course. __ ' 3. M.D’ Orbigny has already brought out the first numbers of his ew enterprize, as follows :— _(1.) Paléontologie Universelle de Coquilles et de Mollusques, avec un lilas représentant toutes les espéces de Coquilles Fossiles connues. _livraison, 29 plates. Gide & Co., Rue de Petits-Augustines, 5.— is great systematic work is designed to contain all known species of molluscs with a figure of each species. It will be completed in it volumes of text, Svo, with an atlas of about 1500 plates. _ raison will contain 20 plates and the corresponding text, and costs 6 franes. Cost of the whole:about 450 francs. This work will com- ‘Prise all the plates of the * Paléontologie Frangaise” of the same au- , thor, which hag already reached 150 livraisons and about 600 plates, nd is. still in progress. In fact all that this voluminous author has done in these departments of Zoology, in-his monograph of the Ce- -Phalopodes, his Geology of South America, his works on the Antilles, id numerous others, will be comprised in the Paléontologie Univer- selle. When finished, the Paléontologie Universelle will supersede _ all other systematic works in the department of geology which it covers. (2) Motlusques Vivants et Fossiles, ow Description de toutes les especes de Coquilles et de Mollusques classées suivant leur distribu a % tion Géologique et Géographique; par Axcipe D’OrsieNy. 3 livrai- __ Sons, with colored plates.—This work will form ten volumes in Svo of text, with about 300 plates. It will appear. in livraisons containing 5 ‘Plates and 5 folds of text, which will cost with uncolored plates each 7} ?f050:c., and with colored plates 5 fr. The plates contain exquisitely x engraved and colored figures of the. typical species of each oA iy: ~ el | as of those species which are most characteristic of each for- (a (3) Baléantely ie des Coquilles et des Mollusques étrangers a la a Franc 3 par M. 2 a D’Orsieny.—This work is designed more par- ~ Ucularly for circulation in France, and for those who have already pos- i themselves of. the Paléontologie Francaise. It contains only @ plate which the last mentioned work does not, but the text of the ; tolo: ‘ complete. 300 Bibliography. We have received for distribution from the author, a supply of prospectus with specimen plates, and also several copies of the fi them (post paid) to the address of B. Silliman, Jr: We have befo: € mentioned that M. D’Orbigny, was desirous of procuring the works of all American writers on geology, and well labelled suits of fossils fro 4 our several formations. For these he will make an equivalent in ar By the kindness of the author we have received a copy of several o f his most important works, beside the foregoing. 3 4, Legons de Géologie Pratique, tome premier, Paris, 1845, 8yo, inaries, descriptions of instruments, mode of observation, collection and preservation of specimens, i he lecturer commences with 7 the loose material of the surface, the sands of the deserts and the sea. He then considers the phenomena of low lands in all parts of the globe, the mouths of rivers, and the great deltas of the Nile, Ganges, and oo with which the eleventh lecture closes. The work will be in three similar volumes, of which the third is announced for August of this year. 5. Works of M. Agassiz.—We are favored with the continuation ae several bf the publications of this. industrious author, whose works.are not more numerous than mee are excellent. We notice the following for the first time :— (1.) Matériaux pour servir 4 une énumération aussi compléte que possible des papies 4% publiés sur Vhistoire naturelle, dés les temps les plus anciens jusqu’ a ce jour, et que je me propose d’éditer plus tard sous le titre de Bibliothéque Zoologique et Paléontologique. - This is an alphabetical list, in folio, of authors and woes in all de- +k aiiaent: eat aietee iology the % partments of zoology, general an study of fossils, geology, all monioiviior on chemistry and shiphiasied “which have any bearing on physiology or relate to the structure of the globe. The sheets now issued of this gigantic undertaking are 282 in number; forming a ponderous folio, with a single column of letter press and @ wide margin for additions. ‘This issue is distributed by the author to shoe who este aid him i in ee to fill up and complete this great ituralists, and the cooperation of all is invited in endeavoring to ren- er these lists as corffplete as possible. ' ; ot by (2.) Iconographie des Coquilles Tertiaires, 4to, 1845.—This memoir devoted to the descriptions and figures. of those tertiary fossils which re reported to be identical with living species, or with those in different rata of this epoch. ‘This memoir contains fourteen plates and twenty-eight species be: nging to the four genera Cytherea, Cyprina, Venus,and Lucina. (3.) Notice sur la Suecessions des Poissons Fossiles; folio.—This an extract from the last livraison of the Poissons Fossiles, giving an ccount of the position of fossil fish in the series of geological formas ons. Also an essay on the classification of fishes. (4.) Tableau Général des Poissons Fossiles rangés par terraines, ar L. Acasstz.—This thin quarto (only 16 pp.) is a most important €m to all students in this department, being a well arranged catalogue 1 all species of fossil fish known in 1844. | (5.) Monographie des Poissons Fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge. (Old red sandstone) des iles Britanniques et de Russie, par L. AGassiz. “Aree parts of text in 4to, and three folio atlases of plates.—This Work was undertaken at the request of the British Association at the "Manchester meeting in 1842. Those who have followed Hugh Millar In his delightful wanderings “in an old field,” will here recognize the totesque forms and uncouth portraits of those progenitors of the, finny _tbes which characterize the ‘‘ Devonian System.” The work sur- Passes even the Poissons Fossiles in the splendor of its illustrations. x is ee (6.) Etude Critique sur les Mollusques Fossiles, par Li. Acassiz, and 4 livraisons,—The former parts of this monograph we have: al- feady noticed. These two livraisons complete the genus Mya in 95 ~) Plates 4to, and accompanied by full descriptions. 7%) Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens nomina systematica generum | animalium tam. viventium quam fossilium; auctor L., Acassiz.—We have already noticed* somewhat at length, in connection with the re- _ Port of the British Association on the subject of nomenclature, this im- Portant labor of the Swiss naturalist. os alee. The fasciculi vii. and viii. contain chiefly the Pisces and Hymenop- fra, With additions to several of the previous families. The work will be complete in 12 fasciculi, and published without delay. It will when _ Complete contain 31,000 names without the synonyms, each order be- ng distinctly and separately paged and alphabetized. There will also full index to the whole work. Kunze’s Supplement to Schkuhr’s Carices ; part iv, contains fig- ' full descriptions of the following species, viz :—C. gynocrates, Uae This Journal, Ist Series, xlv, 1- 39 Serizs, Vol. II, No. 5.—Sept., 1946. ing with the middle of 1845,) by Wm. Engelmann. Leipzi 302 Bibliography. Wormsk ; C. Redouskiana, Meyer ; C. crus-corvi, Shuttlew. Mss. ; disperma, Dewey; C. Hochstetteriana, Gay; C*planostachys, Ga: C. Mairii, Coss. and Germ. ; C. macrolepis, DC. ; C. Durieui, Steudy; C. lucorum, Willd. ; C. oii Walaa, Michzx.; of vil the first is a native of the Arctic regions, and five others bolaog to the United States. The ‘ 4 C. crus-corvi (from New Orleans, Drummond) is the same as the siceformis of Boott, in the Journal of the Boston Natural History - ciety for January, 1845 ;. we are uncertain which name has the priori C. disperma is figured from specimens collected by Rugel in the moua-_ tains of Carolina; as also is C. lucorum, Willd., which appears likea@ — common state of C. Pennsylvanica. C. subulata is well represented, we believe from New Jersey specimens, communicated by Dr. Knies+ kern. A. Gr. 7. Dreser, Symbole Caricologie Synonymiam Caricum extricandam stabiliendamque et affinitates naturales eruendas. Adjecta sunt tabula @ane@ XVII, (Opus Posthumum ab Scient. Danica Soc. editum, pp. 4 imp. 4to, 1844.)—The late S. Drejer, of Copenhagen, author of th Revisio Critica Caricum Borealium, etc., 1841, died just as he was ri sing into high reputation as a Caricologist, and while preparing more extended works upon his favorite genus. This posthumous production was doubtless intended as merely the first of a considerable series. Several interesting North American species are admirably represented in the plates, and of the natural size, viz. Carex Shortiana, Devw., s, Eil., C. Cherokeensis, Schwein., C. stenolepis, Torr., C. squarrosa, Bins: Weare glad to learn that the C. stenolepis of Torrey is to retain its name, the earlier homonym of Lessing being, a8 Drejer asserts, only a boreal and depauperate form of C. vesicaria. The introduction contains some observations on the natural group- ing of Carices, illustrated by three elaborate engraved tables. a R. LIST OF WORKS. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, and of the Museum of Eeo- nomic Geology in en vol. i, roy. 8vo, with wood cuts and 9 large plates 1846, London. _ Botanical rg - British Flowering Plants and Ferns, by H. F. Knapp. 8¥ ; Nemkitidiaes 7" Colors, by D. R. Hay, 2d edit. 4to. London, 1846. 35s. cl. Bibliotheca Historico-naturalis, (containing a notice of the works on Natural lished in different as of Europe during the past century, and end- zig, 1846. ts eg Omitolgiane, (in illustration of the Buffon Series,) by Friedrich Is issued in party in folio with 6 colored sheets, and also in 5 atch Minerng Ar, ) Professor at Wetzlar. sno, Frahfurt ei Bibliography. 303 Giornale toscano di Scienze mediche, fisiche, e ome diretto dai Professori . B. Amici, Matteucci, Puccinnotti, G. Paolo Savi, Pisa Lehrbuch der Zoologie, Dr. A. Berthold. 8vo, 592 pp., , 1845, Gottingen. Lehrbuch der lili oi Anatomie, von Pr. y. Siebold und Pr. Stannius, heft, 1845, B Phycologia ‘Garmin, by Prof. Fr. Phil. Kitzing. 8vo, 240 pp., 1845: Nord- bei [Giornale zine, for deflagrations and decom- pesitions ; Smee’s Batteries, with platinized silver and amalgama- _ted zine ; Galvanic Batteries of other construction, as F'araday’s, Daniels’ &e. : Portable Furnaces, Evaporating Basins, Retorts, Crucibles, Tubes, &c. of the finest Berlin porcelain ’Puatina W are—such as Crucibles, Capsules, Spoons, Forceps, Silver Crucibles; Steel and Agate Mortars; Berzelius’s, ’s, and other Chemical Lamps and Stands ; Compound Blow- Pipes, Superior French Air-pumps, with double glass barrels and Mmproved valves; Electrical Machines and Apparatus; delicate : ona and Weights; all the Apparatus acre nid for Organic ite. &c. JOLLECTIONS OF MINERALS AND GE OLOGI- CAL SPECIMENS, SHELLS, FOSSILS, ec. “Particular attention paid to the Analysis of Ores, Metals, Min- oes Laas Fiecia Commercial Articles, &c. as heretofore. 4 November [tf] ANATOMICAL MODELS. JOSEPH M. WIGHTMAN, Philosophical Instrument Maker and Importer, No. 33 Corn- hill, Boston, Has just received direct from Paris, three of Dr. Avzoux’s cel- rated Anatomical Models for illustration in Physiology, viz. One large model of the Human Head, sbowing all the organs Sight, hearing. smell, taste and voice, with the nerves, muscles, etd, arteries, &c. One large model of the Ear. One large t are.made of Papier Maché, and are colored za true to nature yall the parts can be se ire tions are made as correctly as with the HOG s bj Models and Manikins a the 2 Boston Medical College, and many other eminent Surgeons and Professors. 'They have also begun to be introduced into Acade- mies and High Schools. J. M. W.’s Catalogue of Philosophical Apparatus for 1846 is is- — and can me had on application, if by letter post paid. ovember 1, 1846 .TO.CHEMISTS, &«: The subscriber ry lately returned from Europe with an excellent assortment of ae eTE LY APPARATUS, Is prepared to furnish the same articles as used by Liesic, Ber- zELIusS, and other continental chemists. Consisting of the Celebrated Berlin Porcelain, Bohemian Beaker Glasses and Tubes, French Chemical Glass Ware, (without en ») Luhme’s Celebrated Iron Furnaces, Clay Furnaces, Berzelius’ m upports for Apparatus, Retorts, Receivers Punt ; Deeetine: Dishes, Safety Tubes, Woulfe’ s Bottles, Crucibles of Platinum, Silver, Porcelain and Clay ; Hydrometers, Specific Gravity Bottles, Test Glasses, Liebig’s ‘Grmsecns Five Bulb Pot- ash Apparatus, Combustion Tubes, Drying ‘Tubes, Chloride of calcium Tubes, Leaf Oxide and Turnings of Copper, Air Pumps, &c. &c., adapted for organic analysis. ———— ALSO AN ASSORTMENT OF SUPE FRENCH CHEMICALS, AND PURE “RE-AGENTS. Lithographic Portraits of Berzeivs, Lresie, Dumas, Ga¥ Lussac, Petouse, Vauque.in, Lavorsier, BerTHOLLET, COTLEs THENARD, and other celebrated chemists. Having a convenient Laboratory connected with his establish- ment, he is also prepared to furnish Analyses of Ores, Minerals, Soda Ash, Potash, &c. Se. Sacguald Practical Chemist. o DWN _ No. 116, John, near Paint street, New ¥ RAY SOCIETY.—INSTITUTED aia ; OFFICERS. _ President.—Prof. Bett, F. R. ., F. L. 8. oy _ Council—Prof. D. T. Anstep, M. A., F.R.S.; Caarues C. re a INGTON, Esq., M..A., F.L.S.;. Prof. Rar wate M.D., F.L.8.3 Rosent Batt, Esq., M. R. I. A., Sec. R. Z. 8.1; Geonce Busx, Esq-, F.R.C. 8.3 J aasaess Esq. , F.R.C.8.3 Prof. Bera : a ; Sir P eG. peeeret Bart., M. P. F.R.S 14. Prof EDWAh” @ FR LS, F L.S.; RK. Gaeviriz, LL: D. F.R. 8. By 3 H.M.C.P.8.; Sir W. Jarpme, Bart., F. R. S.E., L.S.; Rev. Leonarp Jenyns, M. A., F. L. S.; Prof. Owsn, F. R. 8.; Prof. JouN Puituirs, F.R.S.; : Beat, F. Rove, M. D., F.R.S., F. L. 8S. ; Pai- peaux J. Se.sy, Esq., F.L.S.; Huew BE. Srriccranp, Esq., M. a -G.S.; Wa. Tuomrson, Esq. ., Pres. Nat. Hist. Soc. Belfast; N. B. Warp, Esq., F. L. S. Treasurer.—J, S, Bowerzank, Esq., F. R.S., F. L. S., 3 Highbury Grove, Highbury “Seana Jounston, M.D., LL. D., F.R.S.E., Berwick- upon-T weed; E. remade. Mid, Fie S., EL. 8., 22 Old Bur- lington Street, London . THE LAWS OF THE RAY SOCIETY. I. That this society shall be called “Tue Ray Society ;” and that its object shall be the nape y of Natural History, by the printing of original works in Zoology and Botany, of new editions of works of established merit, of rare tracts and MSS., and of translations and re- Prints of foreign works which are tsiooralty. inaccessible from the lan- guage in which they are written, or from the manner in which they have been published. __N.B. It will be a direction to the Coneall that they shall not print any thing that appears. to them suitable to the transactions of established societies, nor any the author ich a respectable publisher shall andunakt to publish without charge to tho) Il. ese subscriber of one see annually to be counter a Member of the Socie ety, and to be entitled to one copy of every book published by the Society during the year to which his pa Ee Telates ; and no Member shall incur any liability beyond the annual subscription. Ill. That the annual nhorseh aie shall be paid in advance, and con- Sidered to be due on the 2d day of February in each year; and that Such Members as do not signify their intention to withdraw from the on. before the 2d day of June, shall be apogee to continue Mbers, and be liable for the year’s subscriptio The e€ management of the Society shall be mee in a Council of twenty-one Members, of whom one third shall have their stated resi- ences in sea and all of whom shall be eligible for re-election at the annual meeti g. V. That the Council hereafter shall be elected by the Members, at a “yi: to be held at the time and place of the —- of the Brit- ociation for the advenerets of Science, and tha neil > subscription is in arrear be allowed to vote at any meetings. a “Vi. That the Council shall elect ms Secretaries (one of ohon sha be re in London) and a Treasurer, who shall ex officio be Mem 4 the ‘VI. The anal subscription = be — ina — bank, of the. T. mbers of the Counci he Society @ accounts of the port Fund —-. of t annual ‘0 Auditors ted by the Council ; shyt: ho are not Members of 4 1X. That the number of copies of the Society’s publications shall, iless otherwise directed by the Council, be limited to the nu ber o actual Subscribers who shall have ew oe and paid their sub- scriptions, on or before the 2d day o X. That the editors of works ublished by the Society be entitled to aes of copies, not exceeding twenty, as may be decided by the uncil The following Works have been published, and may be obtained by heer nee E FIRST YEAR. -. phen: ON THE Dh sctes ss oF Zootocy AND Botany, consistin ng o 1. Observations on the oe of Zoology in Pass by ny rles eS n Buona- arte translated by Hugh E. Strickland, Jr., M.A., F. Report on she Progress of Vegeta ble Physiolog T; by Dr. H. F. Link, trans- see by E. Lan kester, M. D., 3. Report on the Progress of Zoology, for the year 1842, by Wagner and w.D B. others, translated by D. Macdonald, If. Memoriats or Joun Ray: consisting © of the Life of John Ray, by Derham; the Biogra apical Notice of Ray, by Baron Cuvier an upetit ine in pe Biographie Universelle; Life oF Ray, b Sir J. E. Sm ith ; the Itineraries © with Notes by Messrs. Babington and varrall; edited by E. Lankester, M. D. il. —A Monocrapu Cor Colored Das ings o every Spee oF THE oes Mohaaamenits Mott , by Messrs. Alder and Hane FOR THE SECOND YEAR. I. SrEENsTRUP ON ee ae or Generations, translated from the German, uy George Busk, F R.C.8. Il. A MonoGrapuH OF T THE Be risa Nupisraxcutate Moxtusca, with 13 col- ored ose = lithotint, ee Messrs. Alder and Hancock. art I p Parers on Botany, consisting of translations from. the — an: Zocearini Res. the Morphology of the Conifer, with 5 plates, translated by = bask ie Progre: Bo 1842, 3,4, the ss of Geogra a tany, for ’ trbetarad | by be Ww =D Macdonald, - A., and G, Bask, F C.8. Z 3. Naigeli Memoir on the nuclei, formation and owt of vegetable ¢ wees by Arthur Henfrey, 4. Link’s Report on the Progress of Vegetable Physiolog y, for 1842, 3, trans- lated by J. Hudson, B. M. ells, R THE THIRD YEA I. Meyven’s Caen oF Beare: This ssolk is in the press, and will be speedily issue Il. | Acne oN THE ORGANIZATION oF TRILOBITES, with deena! trans- lated from the German, aid edited by Professors Bell and Edward Forbes. ALDER AND Haxcockx on tHE Nupiprancuiate Mouusca. Part III. is The following W ther in the Press, or in a state of great forwardness. — wits Bibliotheca Zoologica et Paleontologica, be eing a complete bibliography of on Zoology at Pilmoticlony: by Prof, Agassiz, of Neufchatel, edited jo Hoch E- Str ickiav her nC. on ee Doan of Zoology, translated from the German, by George. a “Linngwus's’Trav els, translated from the Swedish, by W. Lewi d ae Ray's s Letters, comprising those ublished i in the "Paiosphial I Lear; an Shoes 5 in manuscriptin the library of the British Azara’ al History of Par mbt scanulantds feta the Spanish. y -bevaddressed to the Leno on, ition Vv et ae i AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.]_ am Josrreus in the 5th Chapter of. fis, ‘7th Book on the 1 Rare Was, gives the following description of this remarkable river. ow ‘Titus Cisar, tarried some time at Berytus, as we told oe you before. He then removed and exhibited magnificent shews jo in all the: cities of Syria through which he went, and made use oS ® captive Jews as public instances of the destruction of that } nation. He then saw a river, as he went along, of such a nature as deserves to be recorded. in history. It runs in the middle, be- tween Arca belonging to Agrippa’s kingdom, and Raphanea. It lath somewhat ¥. very peculiar in it; for when it runs its current is ‘Strong, and has plenty of water, after which its springs fail for six ao fogether, and leave its channel ay as cad DDR TORY, BOE 5: ‘a a Anr, XXVIII —On the Sabbatic River ; by W. M. ‘Taomson. ‘4 eta day of the Jews.” DOES i th exit of pee _ *iiny* mentions this river, as is generally supposed ; but s to unply that it ran six days and rested on the seventh. dea Tivus sabbatis. omnibus siecatur.” . Pliny thus makes a more sidan Jew than does in ee * Nat. Hist. 31, 2. 6.—N. 1846. Bi ote 306 On the Sabbatic River. . The translator of Josephus says that this famous river is now extinct: and in this opinion the learned Reland in his Palestina Illustrata concurs. And Galatinus rather sarcastically argues against the T'almudists, that—“ If this river while it existed was a sign that the sabbath ought to be observed, now since it never appears, the sabbath should no longer be kept.” Niebuhr, the celebrated Danish traveler, having discovered an independent tribe of Jews residing in Arabia, says—‘‘ The circumstances of this settlement have perhaps given rise to the fable of the Sabbat- ical River.’ What the “ circumstances” were which could have given rise to such a fable, he does not mention; nor is it easy to discover, or even imagine. I believe however that the long lost river is at length found; and if this can be established, we shall not only demolish the odd argument of Galatinus against the per- petuity of the sabbath; but rescue the Jewish historian from a imputation of gravely réavartlinig idle fables. To return to the quotation from Josephus. . Titus it appears — made rather a protracted stay at Beirit. He then traveled north to Zeugma on the Euphrates, dragging after him crowds of Si- on’s most miserable captives, whom Josephus says he everywhere exhibited as public instances of the destruction of this nation. Now it was in this march northward from Beirit, that he saw the _ Sabbatie River. It ran between Arca and Rphanes, in the king- dom of Agrippa. ‘The latter part of this sentence I apprehend has extinguished the river, or at least started all travelers ona fruitless search for it. They have endeavored to find it some- where in, or near to the kingdom of Agrippa; and as there is an Arcea and a Raphanea between Palestine and Egypt, they natu- rally have sought for the river there. But it is plain that we can- not hope to find it in that direction, and for two good reasons. First, because there is no such river there ; although I'read many years ago the journal of a traveler dirotiph the destit from Egypt to Jerusalem, who suggested that a wide channel or wady which exhibited signs of having, at times, a great volume of water— | perfectly dry when he reesed it—might possibly be the lost Sabbatical River. 'To any one however who has either resi- ded or traveled in Syria, there is nothing remarkable in the dry ‘channel of a wide stream. santa are common in all parts: of eur” Se ge el ___ tance north of Beirfit. . Titus was on his march towards Antioch ___ when he noticed it. The river could not therefore have been in __ Agrippa’s kingdom; and I think it not improbable that the words, Tig Ayolnna Puothelos; are an interpolation of some transcriber or _ Seholiast, intending to make the description of Josephus more.de- - finite, by limiting it to the Arca and. Rajhanea. in the south of _ Palestine—the only cities of that name probably with which he Was acquainted. Nor would such a geographical mistake be at all surprising. For ages, Syria was a kind of terra incognita, Few even of the learned knew that there was such. a place as ___Beirat in existence ; and fewer still had any accurate information as to its relative position, A) transcriber therefore might very ____ Teadily ‘suppose it to be in Agrippa’s kingdom, and so add the ex- _ Planatory clause. The Jewish origin of the name might suggest the same thing. : This much however is certain. If Titus saw the river on his tour northward of Beirit,'we must travel in the same direction lo find it. Accordingly, about half a day’s ride to the north of ‘Tripoli, (or three days north of Beirit,) there was a well known | ancient city called Arca or Arcea; and afew miles farther north, @town called Raphanea. Between these two places, no doubt, _, flowed the Sabbatic River. In all probability this river derived _ lSorigin and peculiar character, from one of those intermitting fountains which are to be met with occasionally in different parts of ‘th world, and of which there are several examples in Syria, This necessary supposition will guide to the precise spot where our Tver first appears, In the valley below the Kulaat Hissn, and near the great con- _ Vent of Mar Jirjius, there is a fountain which throws out at sta- _ led.intervals an immense volume of ‘water, quite sufficient to en- litlevit in Syria to the name of river. And it is‘in fact the head _ Source of one considerable branch of the Nhr el Kebir, the an- Gent Eleutherus. ‘This locality answers, in all respects, to the eas i ion of Josephus, with the single exception of the words, “in Agrippa’s kingdom,” explained above. Arca is on the south, _ id a village called Raphanea or Rahanea on the north. There are however somedifficulties in the account which re- ire explanation, In the first place, this fountain at Mar Jirjius now, as I was informed, quiescent fo days and active on the The account given me on the spot was, that every third xe descended, and forced out the water with loud 308 On the Sabbatic River. sores and great violence, to irrigate the extensive plantations of this richest of Syrian convents. I examined the cave out of which the river flows, through a wide low aperture. It is situa- ted at the base of a limestone hill or rather mountain. This limestone hill is isolated—entangled in an almost boundless re- gion of trap rock. It was one of its resting days, when I visited the cave; but I noticed very evident traces, in the bed of the riv- er below; of the large volume of water which had meercn — it only the day before. _ Aecording to Josephus, the river ran on the seventh day, anid rested during the week; but Pliny reports that it flowed six days, and was dry on the seventh. At the present time it rests two days and runs on the third. To reconcile these discrepancies, we need not suppose either that the river (having grown old during 1800 years) requires twice as much rest as when Josephus wrote ; or that St. George doubled the number of working days in order the better to irrigate his gardens. Both historians probably deri- ved their information from general rumor, and had not visited or examined the river for themselves. - And the numbers in both versions of the story were adopted, from a desire to connect so singular a phenomenon with the Jewish division of time. It is a of them iis: ‘strictly accurate; and — opinion of the setmcas without hav- ingp the viveriself to efer wane the actual f whose ac- ould swe must admit, siatapsiniers that one or abe other of these statements was literally exact, (and certainly they could not have both been true,) the difference betwixt the periods of activity and intermission eighteen hundred years ago, and at the present time, admits of a satisfactory explanation. I believe it is now well as certained that these intermitting fountains are nothing more thant the draining, on the principle of the Barees. of a a pool or reservoir of water. Let. A scant such a reser voir, under the mountain upon ¥ which stands the convent of St 3 On the Nabbatic River. a which fill the pool. Now the condition necessary to make the stream issuing at B intermit, is that the capacity of the syphon S be greater than the small rills D, E, F, can supply. If the supply were greater,.or exactly equal to the capacity of the sy- phon, the pool would always be kept full, and of course no inter- mission could occur.’ The periods of intermission, as well-as the size of the river, depend upon the capacity of the reservoir A, the supply from D, E, F', and the caliber of the syphon, 8. If _ it required six days for D, E, F, to fill the pool, and the syphon Could exhaust it in one day, you have the conditions required by ____ the statement of Josephus, a river running only on the Sabbath. _ _If.D,E, F, fill the pool in one day, and their continued supply is so nearly equal to the draining ¢apacity of the syphon as to re- quire st to exhaust it, then you have the river running six days, _ cording to Pliny’s account, and resting on the seventh. The fact now is, if my information be correct, that the supply fills the pool in about two days and a half, and the syphon draws it all off in half a day. ne ERE OP iis _ “Ifthe account of Josephus was strictly true when he wrote, *ne-of the following changes must have occurred, during the | __ “ighteen hundred years that have since elapsed. Either the sup- Ply from D, E, F',-must have so increased, as to be able to fill the Pool’ in two days and a half, and the capacity of the syphon so _ Snlarged as to exhaust the pool with its triple supply of water in half the time it formerly did; or, the supply, and the capacity of u Syphon remaining unchanged, the size of the reservoir must have been reduced to about one third of its ancient dimensions. The former supposition is not probable in itself and is diseounte- hanced by the consideration, that in the time of Josephus the athount of water was so great as to obtain the name of river, and it can only claim that title now by courtesy. But we may read- — ily admit that the pool may have been partly filled up by debris, _ or by the falling in of its superincumbent roof of rock. If Pliny’s : account Were true, then either the supply must be greatly dimin- - ished, or the reservoir greatly enlarged, for according to him, it ‘Tequired but one day of rest to fill the pool, while now it takes ‘wo days and a half. Either of these hypothetical changes is pos- Sible, but neither of them very probable. Nor are we compelled _,1© resort to any of them. -I suppose the Sabbatic River was al- nearly what we find the stream at Mar Giirgius now to be. Vagueness of general rumor, the proverbial love of th 2% 310 On the Sabbatic River. ancients for the marvelous, and the desire to conform this natural phenomenon to the Jewish division of time, will car: ac- count for the statements of these great historians. The following circumstance corroborates the general correct- ness of the preceding statements, which were drawn up after my first visit to the convent of St.George in 1840. In October, 1845, I again had occasion to visit the same part of Syria, and had opportunities to make farther inquiries in regard to this re- markable river. Having visited and examined the ruins of the magnificent-temple at Arca, I traveled across the country towards the north, along or near to the line of the ancient Roman road, according to the itineraries and old geographers. At length I came to the dry channel of a wide stream, coming down from the mountain on which the convent is built. - As I expected, the peasants informed me that its source was at the cave below the eonvent. After traveling two or-three hours farther north I crossed another river, called Abrosh, or Leper’s River, on the banks of which there is an ancient site, still called Rahanea, which is exactly the Arabic pronunciation of the Raphanea of Josephus. I spent the night with an old Sheikh of the Ansairiyeh at a village about twenty miles to the west of the convent. The Shiekh was not only acquainted with the fountain, which he call- ed Neba el Fair, but immediately gave to the stream itself the name of Nhr Sebty, or seventh day river. And he insisted. that it ran only once every seven days, although I knew to the con- trary. But, in accordance with his own religion, he made it a mosilem, declaring that it flowed only on Friday. From some such Sheikh as this, Josephus (or Titus) may have received his ac- count eighteen centuries ago, as he passed along this road. Nor ought it to be regarded as very wonderful, that traditions should be handed down, in the east, for somany generations, unchanged. We have the very names of the places preserved unaltered, vat why not the singular tradition connected with them. My traveling companion on the latter tour, Capt. Deiat : the East India army, subsequently made a visit to the convent of St. George, solely to examine this river. He is fully convinced of its identity with the Sabbatic River of Josephus.. He however understood the monks to say that the periods of anger sa ith the rainy: 0 Arr. XXIX.—On Three. several Honricasies of the American _ Seas and their relations to the Northers, so called, of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Honduras, with Charts tllustrating _ the same; by W. C. Rupriexp. thee . (Continued from Vol. II, p. 187.) Phenomena of the Cuba Hurricane and Cotemporary Storms, _ Errecr or tHe Gaue’s Roration oN THe Baromerer.—The extraordinary fall of the mercury in the barometer which takes place in gales or tempests, has. attracted attention since the earli- __- @st_use of this instrument by meteorologists.. But lam not aware i that the principal cause of this depression had ever been pointed ee Gath previously to my first publication in this Journal, in April, 1831; when I took the occasion to notice this result as being ob- viously due to the centrifugal force of the revolving motion found in the body of the storm.* ' Since that period, inquiries have been continued by meteorol- 3 ogists in regard to the periodical and other fluctuations of the ba- iad Tometer, and the relations of these fluctuations to temperature and Aqueous vapor.+ But these incidental causes of variation in the atmospheric pressure prove to be of minor influence, and we are left to the sufficient and only satisfactory solution of this marked Phenomenon which is found in the centrifugal force of rotation. _ In the Cuba Hurricane, the fall of the barometer may now be Viewed in its obvious relations to the known rotation of the gale. Tn the previous Tables, I, I, and III, the reader may have noti- ced the depressing effects of the centrifugal force at different dis- tances from the storm’s axis and in the various stages of its ac- uivity and progression. These tables enable us to determine, ap- Proximately, the mean of the barometric curve, through the cen- ‘al portion of the storm, transversely to its path, as shown by the lowest observations obtained during its progress, which may be grouped as follows: * ¢ oo ~~. ‘This Journal, xx, 45-46. hi sae ’s surf TEE Spbarent that hygrometrical observations made at the earth s surface can- : © relative condition of the higher strata of ait, which move, as cur- t i De he > + } ? .—) J ys can observations at mountain stations re- ok: a 312 : ! On the left side of the storm path, the lowest observations found in recitals 45a, 75, 97, 106, 109, 114, 126 and 135, at points varying from 305 to 400 miles from the axis line and at an aver- age distance of 349 miles, afford us a mean of 29°76 inches. At most of these points, as at others, the true minimum doubtless occurred between the times of observation, but only in 45a is a subtraction of -12 in. made on this account. Recital 118, ata distance of 260 miles, shows 29°50 in., probably within an hour of the true minimum. Recitals 4, 6, 116, 38, 81, 124, 133, 141, 142 and 144, in positions from 69 to 168 miles from the axis and at an average distance of 126 miles, show an average minimum of 28°34 inches. On the center path, as per Chart, the average minimum, as per recitals 34, 51, 148, 129 and 130, is 28°13 inch- es. On the right hand side of the path, recitals 19 and 64, ata ‘mean of 98 miles from the axis, show an average minimum of 28-45 inches. The Pioneer (62) at 230 miles gives 29°45 inch- es :—and at Bermuda, at 375 miles, being a station where the ba- rometer shows an annual mean of at least 30°16 in., our lowest observation is 29°86 inches. 'These several elements afford us the approximate curve which is here annexed. See M Bi Ci the Cub Hi to its path, _ Oct. 1844.—Vertical scale, one half. 4 e "$000 asides sh Tas m tw a 3 ; It is worthy of remark that the barometric depression in this gale does not appear to increase according to the increase of lati- tude ; showing that the proper effects of the centrifugal force of rotation are constantly found on the center poik ot; the storm, in all latitudes. The mean barometric curve on the center path, in the direction of the storm’s progression, appears not to differ essentially from given above, so far as may be inferred from the various ob- rie Pi. 4 with the Cuba Hurricane. Showing the Daily Progress of the: Tk: wx = 4 ¥ . eV BAIN ayy mers Show the places or vessels named in the recitals. Effect of Rotation on the Barometer. 313 its previous reduction. The contrary of this effect is sometimes _ seen in other storms. Thus, during successive days of the storm’s greatest activity, and while passing through twenty-five degrees of latitude and near twenty-three degrees of longitude, we find an extraordinary — barometric depression, the intensity of which increases rapidly as we approach towards the axial area of this great progressive whirlwind, coinciding, also, most remarkably, with the progress and intensity of the whirling action. We find, too, that the greatest intensity of the hurricane, and of its influence on the barometer, has no necessary connexion, or coincidence, with the local point of greatest rain or condensation; as clearly appears _ from recitals 38, 148, and other reports. Nor can any such coin- cidence at all lessen or contravene the known centrifugal force of Totation. 'T'o deny the proper influence of this force in rotatory Storms, would appear equivalent to a denial of the great law of _ Matter and motion to which the term is applied. _ The same law of centrifugal action must tend to produce an accumulation of pressure beyond the verge of the active whirl- _ Wind, or at least in the areas or spaces which separate distant _ Storms; a result which we have already viewed, in another con- Nexion, in the two October storms of 1842 and 1837. In the + f¥esent case, the barometric curve, in front of the hurricane as _ Well as laterally, is found to blend with the more advanced and _ extended depression of the first Cuba gale ;f and if we view the two centers of depression as comprised in one great area of gyra- tive influence, the accumulated exterior pressure, or summit of barometric wave, will appear to be strongly exhibited, over a vast extent of surface, previous to the arrival of the storm, is is apparent from the various recitals previously given, and is shown more extensively by the barometric observations compri- _ Sed in Table IV, which is annexed. Me OS ee eee "It may be noticed that the barometric depression in this gale does not ae to increase according to the increase of latitude ; showing, that the ae Pe ae: of the centrifugal force of rotation are truly shown in the center path o ) Mm all latitudes. 1 See Plate XI, figs. 21 and 22. Szconp Serizs, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 41 Tapee 1V-—Height of the Barometer (corrected for elevation) at the hours of 9 a. m. and 9 P. M., or other nearest hours of ob- seryation, for seven days in October, 1844; together with the highest and lowest observations made in this period.—In the dai- Ay columns, only the excess of 28 inches is noted, 2 inches being thus the equivalent of 30 inches of the barometric scale. VIE umbered for| Dist.fr. het. | Len. Feet | Oct. Ist. { Oct.2d. | Oct. 3d. pack. 4th. | Oct. vie ee 6th. | Oct. 7th. | Lowest obs.| pain Inches. ab.tide}a, M. P. M.A. M, P,M.J|A.M. P. M.A. M. P.M./A.M. P P.M.JA.M. P.MJ Ist g.| 2d g. | _ Si SSP OREO ft aes oe P1212 07205 2052-10 2-03)2" 305 2: 2°05)29-98 |30.03 | No 30 53 |6 229/220 2142-07 2-04:2-08 2-06/2-03 2-06/2- 23130-04 |30:06 | None 47|95 10 600 2 2-27|2'30 2232-28 2:172:13 2-06/2-07 2-032: 2-22/30-05 [30°03 | None 33/95 05 600 ? 20/222 215/218 2042-05 1-95/1-96 1-801: 2'10)29-92 (29°80 | None 39184 43/600 39/204 1°78/1-62 1.74193 1-95/1-91 2 |2- 2-06}29-61 |30°16 |2-3d, 46 in. 80 08 390 26/229 216212 2012-05 2-01/2-06. 1-93)2: 2-23129-96 |30-03 | None 30/93 47/270 ? Q2215 212217 2142-21 2-141214 2-11}2- 2-11]30-13 30-13 | None 91 25 |270 95/227 225/218 2082-06 1-99)2- 98} 1: 2°2029:99 |29:39 | None 24/82 28/5 31/223 203/189 1831-95 1-931-:99 2-04/2- 21529: ) th, 15 7/90 05 “31/229 226/216 2132-05. 2032-08 2-04)2- 2261304 Non 39/79 21/342 *36)2°22 1-°91|1°75 1°70,1-69 1-67|1:79 1-87|2- 2-10)29-¢ 2-3d, rain 53178 56/6 43/236 2°13/2.92 1°79)1-84 1-76)1-:86 1.95/2- 2: 10}29- 10 |2-4th, “46 08|77 51)506 37/236 226213 1-96)1-76 1-62/1°75 _1:83)1- 190 2-11}29- ‘ 5th, "16 18/87 12 17/219 2232-16 207.207 2012-02 2.07|1-99 2:03:2-08 2-08;30- nt. 6th, "30 57|76 04)s 37233 213203 1:89)1-79 1-60/1-63 1-94/2-11 2-11/210 2-13)29-¢ 3-Sth, 85 41|73 26/240 2 35 2.42 2392-03 1:91)1-77 1-781-60 1-73/2-01 2-03'2:19 2'19|29- 3-5th, 1:18 12|77 10/473 02°41 2292-11 1-94]1-84 1-78)1-78 2-01/2-13 2-05,2-05 2-16)29-" , 1:55 27|81 35\370 23225 220215 2-10/2-04 1-90,1-92 1-98|1-90 1-99)1-94 2-15}29- 41/72 22 $0,248 223/216 2 [1-80 151/160 1.84/1+ 96199 21129 ) 2°85 3564 30 | 224 2191218 2-021-36 1°19}1-40 1-90,1-50 1-19}29: bth, 7s Thy 22\72 28 (290 42,247 235,222 2-10/1-82 "1-69/1-64 183/202 2:02)1-99 2-10/29-¢ At 1:98 43\74 01 48.249 234/217 1-94/1-73 1-69-82 1°89/2-06 1842-05 218/29 (4th, sli per. 16|71 47/376 240 2282-03 1-99)1-70 1-47)1:53 207/189 1-841-73 1-94)29- ah, 24 ; 7th, “21 42/68 56/180 249 260/243 2:302-03 1-50)1-49 168/203 2-04/1-85 2°14)/29-4 “lath, °95 ; gis 54 2 20/71 05 ‘33,240 2-34)2- ‘96|1-90 1481-55 1-79'1-92 1-79)1-83 2-03]29-47 (4th, 1-34; 7th, °74 7 02176 12 ‘55.253 255,222 1991-87 1-81-06 2-07 2- 86216 228,295 () 46|79 46 40/235 2-25/2-11 190 1851-95 2 {1:80 1-95,210 2-20,29°85 28/71 23 44.247 239221 2 {1-63 1601-64 1841-98 1-79/B83 2 |29-¢ an xe 7th, 1 7 57182 35 ‘61216 216207 203/194 1:95,1-89 1791-86 1942-07 2 rt 8 2d, ) 40)81 35 22218 WIGB2%1G 2% [1-92 1-86 1-91 1831-85 210213 2-10,29-86 |29-75- Sth, r 1 15/70 06 20.229 2272-15 2 1155 150156 1-531:85 1:851-70 1-85'29-59 2950 |4th, alas Gari, Se 1 Bee * ous -19|209 ale hat bl . oie 38 Peay ia 4 2 “% 4 2 Tes fe 4 27/81 50 2:08204 2 |1-97 Loa|L-e7 1821-54 1°5911°98 21 62-18 ~_S 2 99. 13 /2-5th, 13.50 ! 3 0381 15 60 | L | n./28- in.'4~5th, heavy r. * The Pique’s position in th ad gal b 130 miles left of the axis Jine, in lon. 61° ae p suoynalasqgQ Lin . ou -auponein Fy MAND 24? Effect of Rotation on the Barometer. 315 This table is taken from a fuller one, so as to suit the di- mensions of the printed page; and the field of observation will be seen to comprise a breadth of thirteen hundred and fifty miles on the left side of the axis path of the hurricane. An approxi- mate correction has been made for the known or supposed eleva- tion of the stations in the interior, at the assumed rate of one tenth of an inch of mercury for ninety feet. 'The places stand in the order of distance from the axis line, beginning with the Most remote; and the order of succession in the storm’s course, parallel to this line, is indicated by the numbers affixed in the first column. As there is room for but two daily observations, those of the military posts are given for 9 a.m. and 9p. m., as divid- ing the time into equal periods, and in other reports the times nearest to these hours are taken. The Toronto observations, only, are reduced for temperature to 32° F The observations made at Bermuda, Newfoundland, and on board the Trent, (2c) at Vera Cruz, and the Prince Albert, (164) in lon. 38° 30’, (the latter being six hundred and filty miles to the right of the axis line, ) should also be included with those in the table.* Our barometrical survey is thus extended to two thousand miles, laterally to the path of the hurricane, and over a. than thirty degrees of latitude, and fifty-six degrees of ude. During the progress of the two associated Cuba storms they are seen to have been immediately preceded, over this vast field, by a barometric wave or accumulation of pressure, rising above the usual or annual mean. An approach to this condition 1s ion Drea ee * The observations at St. John’s, Newfoundland, are entitled to an additive cor- Tection of 16 in. for 140 feet of elevation. The elevation of the barometer at Ber- muda is not known: but another barometer, observed by an officer at the naval Station, ranged from ‘30-46, on the Ist of October, to 30-07 on the 4th. Winds 8.8. E. veering to W. S. W. on the 4th and 5th; and 8. 8. E. veering to W. on the 6th aud 7th. : importance of establishing a station for muda, like those which have been instituted Fea Alara cbarecte 316 Cotemporary Storm of the Great Lakes. also on the left flank of the two storms, and in the rear of the hurricane. But the decided inequality which thus appears in the wave of maximum pressure in front of these storms as compared with their left border, together with the early disappearance of any excess on this border, in the Atlantic states, after crossing the thirty-first parallel of latitude, will be understood better when we take into view another storm which this extended inquiry brings to our notice. I will only remark here, that the areas or waves of cumulated pressure which are thus found between dis- tant storms, as well as the gyrative character of the storms and their extensive barometrical depressions, appear entitled to special consideration in estimating, relatively, the mean barometrical con- ditions of different zones of the same polar hemisphere. Coremporary Storm or THE Great Laxes.—The inspection of Table IV and other observations leads me to notice another storm, as above mentioned, the central portions of which passed over the basin of the great American lakes, and the St. Lawrence, cotemporaneously with the progress of the first Cuba gale. 'The first decided barometric indication of this storm, we obtain at Fort Brady, at the outlet of Lake Superior, on the 2d of October ; from whence, advancing at the rate of about twenty-two miles an hour, we find its influence extending over the northern parts of the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia, crossing the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and coinciding in part, with the phenomena of the first Cuba storm.* Its action, though widely extended, ap- pears at first to have been meideaies and it was accompanied with light rain, which extended over Miskiveri and a part of Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and a large portion of the New Eng- land states. As the storm advanced in its course, its activity ap- pears to have increased, and its barometric curve, blended with that of the first Cuba storm, becomes deeper, and, after a partial rising, is found to merge in the marked depression which attend- ed the Cuba hurricane. __ We may suppose that these different storms continued to pur- sue their several distinct courses, each crossing obliquely the path of another. Perhaps, too, the progress of this storm from the lakes might avail us in explaining more perfectly the origin of __* The effects of this storm on the southern borders of Lake Michigan were n0- mele "ate agrees re % __showite “the ' Daily Pr ogress een ee ey See ee ee Nee Ie AYE re ft ; ~ 2. mpm Soe left, ©), its first effect will be to bring in the warm sin obit LR, a and when the axis of the ra tanenopenrily follows and { Distribut Taste V.—Showing the state of the Thermometer at 6 a. M. , (or at sunrise,) and a t 3 P. M., with the daily mean, from the Ist to the 8th of 2 ober, r, inclusive, 1844 ; with. some je obaervations 2 at other Bc as a indicated in the body of ae able. of Pl Tes ; ae a t. 3d. "ae : aces. Daily | Wet Ssa-3 a Day | Wet [Sun ae “| Wet. oun My Wek sun, @ Dally Wet |Sanj) 3 |Daily | _ Wet — sctieepei aelg ahs r.jmean.| bulb. | r. |p.m.|mean. | bulb. | r. ml es | bulb, Pi. M. pee bulb.| rv. 'p.a.!mean | bulb. sa, leat bulb. ° °o Fort Snelling 58 sfs 4? Sola? 58 4€ [3% Bod 5? & [98 's7 85 B ort Crawford 60 532 |44 591443 62 52:2 (41 5742 60 51 \40 4 55 ort Gibson 79 66- 50 65)49 85 67:2 |46 74157 81 69-2 (55 51 66 @ |Fort Towson 82 69 55 67145 83 64 42 44/48 68 42 S |Fort Brady 48 \44 514 48:5 \45 49145 48 46°5 |44 bp (ef: Barracks 62-5 |48 5 575 |43 55/47 63 55 [39 = —_ Jessup 676. 45 75152 68:5 |46 61 82 71 «(154 : eZ 63 Ss Detroit 50 6 1 44 521445 58 51:5 Ss |New Orle 71 71163 725-156: 61153. 77 65 g Toronto Obs.t 54 55}44 | 50-4. |43 51148 52 48.8 & |Buffalo 60 4 54 146 «60/143 54 48: = {Pittsburgh Ars 575 154 57/44 49°5 |44 42/48 59 53:5 3 nsacola 70 3 70/62, 84-73 58 60152 82 67 5 |Sackett’sHarbor 53 ) 55153°57 55 |52 55/49 52 505 lattsburgh f 52 2 58152 58 50 8.59 53:5 ) > |Carlisle 62 7 54)62 63 54 56154 68 61 2 4 Lugusta Ars. 715 )- 71165 69 64 55/56 72 64 } Janover, N. H. 5g 2 49 59 4 S, |H. M.S. Pique M.50°5;9P.M.56 9.4.M.53;8P.m.56.5 94.M.55; 3p.M.57 ©? |Amherst, Mss. 52'5 55 59 43 55 49 2 |New Yor 595 [52 62160 67 63.5 [58 63152 65 58-5 |49 -2 |Worcester 3 50 8 62 46 60 53 amden 47-7 54 55°7 53 60 54:7 oston 55 9 615 59 63 61 ‘ort Monroe 66-5 (61 63/62 65:5 |59 64158 68 6 56 harleston, 8S, C 71 65)67 61 62 59160 71 65°7 153 ort Adams 515 {51 58161 645 (61 63/554 64 59 [52 ort Brooke 76 THA7T3 Wo 1) F471. Y4 725-468 t. Augustine 80 77 77170 745 167 72:5 168 antucket oo € 61 € falifaxt 452. E 54:5 9 62 542 . M.S. Scylla |, 5B ey West — 76[79 78 785 178 7 76 7 TS (7% 73 72 725 At Fort Se oe : ponte cr ei taken every two homey, night and ai: and the daily mean of the whole * given; b oth Jail not always 320 Storm Winds which preceded the Hurricane. creased, apparently, by the subsidence or vorticular depression of the higher and colder currents on the posterior or western side of the gale. Indeed, this rising of the thermometer during the ac- cess of winter storms, and its great depression as they pass off in their northeasterly courses, might in itself afford us good proof of the storm’s rotation, were more direct evidence wanting. In summer, when the geographical distribution of temperature on the path of the storm is more equal, the case is greatly altered, and a sinking of the thermometer is not unfrequently noticed in the earlier portions of the storm. The mean temperature of the several storms, is then often below that of the periods between the storms. Thus, while the general course and revolving char- acter of North American storms, at all seasons of the year, are essentially the same, the picneenens and ranges of their: tempe- ratures are greatly varied in the different seasons. Winps or THe two Precursory Storms.—The axis of the first Cuba gale, in its early progress, seems to have advanced ona more inflected route than that of the subsequent hurricane, and having passed to the southward and westward of the island of Jamaica, it appears to have crossed thg north shore of Cubaat — some point eastward of long. 80°. It seems to have partially aba-_ ted in its visible force in approaching the ‘parallel of 30°, at least on its left and central portions, till it arrived near lat 40°, from whence onward it appears increasing in activity and extension. Its revolving character, when below the tropics, seems fully made out by observations on its different sides; and, during its course in higher latitudes, its right hand portion. prsats nearly the same winds and. consecutive changes that characterized the like portion of the Cuba hurricane. Its more central-portions also, exhibite southeasterly winds, followed in the higher latitudes by north- westerly ; while, in the eastern states of the American Union, it8_ northerly winds appear to have been partly intercepted by the passing storm from the lakes, and by the closely following hurti- cane; a result which I have several times observed, in similar cases. In regard to the pee of the Lake storm, it may suffice to 20 tice that they. were chiefly southeasterly in the earlier part of the «| storm, in the basin of the great Lakes, ome northwesterly or north- ~ erly during its later periods ;—sometimes strong, and_at other a and Snctosting in dietion. At Hapane & age oh c beer ie n noes Pe ig ht “Lake Hurricané of Oct. 18th, 1844. = 324 at S. E. is noted on the 4th,—winds strong from S. W., N. E. and N. W. on the 5th,—and northwesterly on the 6th. In more south- ern portions of this storm the winds were southerly, and south- westerly, for the most part,—passing to the W. and N. W. ‘The subsequent state of the storm in approaching the Atlantic, may be seen in the previous recitals, at stations where the effects of this and the first Cuba gale appear as partially blended, or as closely succeeding each other. . Numerous observations w _ Were made in New York and other states, at this period, are omitted for want of space ; but these appear to afford no a addi- tional facts or views requiring our consideration. In overland storms of this character, where but little force is ‘ound in the surface winds, attempts to-map out the true vortical Course of the storm-wind by means of the local observations will be but partially successful. This difficulty may be owing in part to the want of symmetrical uniformity in the revolving action, and to the diversities of the positions and elevations, over the face of a great coritinent or island, as well as to the intrusion of oth- er winds, stratiformly, in the same geographical area. ‘Thus the true bétison of the storm-wind may be but imperfectly noted, in the assemblage of observations, and different strata and fluctua- tions of the aérial currents be represented to our view as being in the Same plane of movement. These and other causes of discrepancy and want of conformity in the winds, the enquirer may be wholly unable to classify or detect. Strongly characterized as was the Cuba lurticane, we have seen, clearly, the intrusion of other winds be- heath the true horizon of the storm, in the New England states. Indeed, too much reliance may be placed upon mere observations the surface winds, in meteorological inquiries. But the falling of the barometer in the storm, and the direction, strength, and. order of succession of its viitielpal winds, on one or both sides of the es th, will commonly afford eniicrent ee of its essen- tially revolving character. Ake Gane on Hunercane or Ocroser 18th; 1844.—T wo Weeks after the ‘occurrence of the Lake storm above noticed, a Very violent and destructive gale. passed over the basin of the steat Lakes, on a course which also nearly corresponds to No. XI, on Chart I. Its effects were eminently destructive to the Fesvels - onthe Lakes, and also in the town of Buffalo, and during its fur- progress, it was severe also in “pagal aes Scotia and the “Srcoxp Sznies, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 322 Relations of the Cuba Gales to the Northers. estuary of the St. Lawrence. At New York, and, generally, in the interior of the continent, the anterior winds of this gale were felt but moderately, though, at Toronto, the barometer fell to 28°86; the violence of wind, at the surface, being chiefly in the posterior side of the storm, on the rising barometer, as is the case in most of our overland galas: and in many of those on the Atlan- tic. This common feature of the Lake storms greatly enhances the value of the barometer, in navigating these inland seas. ~ Relations of the Cuba Grales to the Northers of Honduras and ucatan ‘Having previously shown that a portion of the great storms of the United States and the Atlantic ocean are identified with the Mexican Northers, several of which have been traced to the Atlan- tic,* it remains to notice a like identity of the Northers of Yucatan. and Honduras with the storms which sweep over the island of Cuba and the Atlantic ocean. 'The common name of Northers has been applied to the gales which visit the northern coasts of Central America, as well as to those of Mexico, as far eastward as the Musquito coast and gulf and near to lon. 80°, over which re- gion they are found frequently to occur, except in the summer months. The swell from these Northers is often mjurious | in ports of this coast which are sheltered from their immediate force. From the Musquito coast to Cape Honduras, (lon. 83° to 86°;) when the wind gets “to S. E. and then veers to S. and S. W., 4 gale will surely succeed.” These gales are very violent, and oc cur more frequently from W.S8.W., west, and N. W., than from north.—Upon the Musquito shore, FasGuss, and the "eastern coast of Yucatan, the general winds are frequently interrupted in Feb- March by norths. In September, October, November, December, and January, the winds are from the northward oF southward of west, [northwesterly or southwesterly,] with fre- quent gales from W. 8. W., W., N. W., and north.—On the north-, * The events of the present year, (1846,) have served to bring to our notice the frequent occurrence of the Northers in the countries and on the coasts which bor- der the Mexican sea, and their subsequent progress to the Atlantic as revolving gales, not vinta during the winter season but in the months of May, June, and July: n ould be an error to suppose that American storms or gales are limited, in heir RA to any one portion of the year. The great gale of the Atlan- fe'conbt, ee 10th, since the foregoing was, in in type, was also a norther from where it New York, and other vieesels on “mee 6th dh 7th. ? ' ei, es Relations of Storms to Contiguous Currents. 323 em and western coasts of Yucatan, the general winds are inter- __ * rupted by hard Northers, in the season of them.* | _ -* "That these northers of Central America move in a reeu course of progression, like other storms, cannot well be doubted. ; In the case of the Racer’s gale, we have seen that the course cor- responds with the westerly progression of hurricanes which have ___- visited the windward islands of the Antilles; while in the two . Cuba storms, which have been considered, the northeasterly pro- : gression has been found commencing in the northwesterly portion of the Caribean sea. A like course with the latter, I find was pursued also by other hurricanes from the Caribean sea, which have crossed the central portion of Cuba. _ A-similar course, at least from the north side of Cuba, was taken by that destructive hurricane of the western Atlantic which pass- ed the coast of the United States on the 11th of December, 1844. . The hurricane which devastated the western part of Jamaica on the 3d of October, 1780, also pursued a northeasterly course from the Caribean sea, as I had occasion to notice in 1836 has ee we +] nce been fully shown by Col. Reid, in his work ;+ and is the Most eastward of the storm tracks known to belong to this par- ticular group. Of these storms which have thus crossed the island of Cuba, not one has. been traced from the eastern por- tions of the Caribean sea, and hence there is reason to conclude that they can only have belonged, locally, to the class of storms known under the appellation of Northers, on the western borders - Rexarions or tHe Cusa Gate to Contiguous Wuxps anp au Currents.—These relations may be viewed, first, in ref- as erence to the rotation of the gale, and second, to its geographical progression. > DEA tings already referred to the natural tendency to a left-wise 3 fotation in the winds of the northern hemisphere, when moving 4 | n the earth’s surface from the equator-towards the poles. But tis evident, from the prevalence of violent storms in some re- _ Sions and their absence from other localities in like latitudes, that this general tendency of rotation does not serve to explain the actual distribution or prevalence of these storms. I have found, ue however, ona careful examination of marine Journals, that this ~-* Derrotero de las Antillas.—American Coast Pilot, &c. ‘Lond. Nautical Magazine, v, 203-204. This Journal, xxxi, 120. y * 324 Relations of Storms to Contiguous Winds. tendency to rotation is commonly shown in some degree, in the successive phenomena and phases of the trade winds, in the re- gion near St. Helena and in other tracts of ocean which are ex- empt from severe storms. In some other regions, as in the west- ern portions of an oceanic basin in the tropical latitudes, the In- dian ocean near Mauritius, and in the south Pacific from the Socie- ty to the Navigator’s Islands, this tendency to a vorticular rotation appears to be directly promoted by local or specific causes, the most -efficient of which are found in the actual courses of the several local winds or aérial currents, either in the same plane of the horizon, or at different elevations. Thus, Mr. Thom main- tains that the hurricanes of the Indian Ocean are due to the op- posite or tangential action of the N. W. and S. E. monsoons on each other in that sea; and I apprehend that the earliest activity and violence of the iitertneipicnl hurricanes may often be rightly explained in this manner.* This, however, cannot ane: explain the sisfonnitet of the direction of rotation, nor the continued: activity of the storms in their progress to other regions and in higher latitudes, where their greatest violence is sometimes developed.t | Nor is the extraneous and tangential force of contiguous winds or currents at all neces sary to the continued activity of the storm, when once the fall of the barometer and the involute vortical movement has been produced; for the pressure of the external atmosphere, around the basin of the storm, constantly aids or impels the involute movement at the earth’s surface, and may be sufficient to mail- tain the existing vortical ae ad be seen in the case of a common vortex or whirlwind. whe _ We have seen that the two Cuba storms, as’ ose as the Mexi- can Northers, have appeared to come from the contiguous border of the Pacific ocean. Now, are there any peculiarities in the winds and aerial currents of those regions which may serve to in- duce or support a leftwise rotation invextensive portions of. lower atmosphere, while moving on or-near the earth’s surface? ™~ I apprehend there are such eRe e mécogiente: tole xteeatty chnetant and. rene influence. ae fee . ‘In ‘such cases a suppose that ex . of these different 0 or ri winds ma may coale esce in a vast. erie: oer of pursuing their , Stratiform without ‘interference of: Relations of Storms to Contiguous Winds. 325 _ First, we find on the eastern portion of the Pacifié from ip per Califoriia to near the Bay of Panama, an almost constant prevalence of northwesterly and westerly winds at the earth’s sur- face. Next we have an equally constant wind from the south- erm and southwestern quarter which, having swept the western coast of South America, extends across the equator to the vicinity of Panama, thus meeting, and commonly oversliding the above mentioned westerly winds and tending to a deflection or rotation — of the same from right to left, €). As this influence may thus become extended to the Caribean or Honduras sea, we have hext the upper or S. E. trade of this sea, which is here frequent- ly a surface wind, and must tend to aid and quicken the gyrative movement, €) ascribed to the two previous winds; and lastly, we have the N. E. or lower trade from the tropic, which coin- ciding with the northern front of the gyration, ©), serves still further to promote the revolving movement which may thus re- sult from the partial coalescence of these Gra winds of Central America and the contiguous seas. - Thus, while a great storm is in part on the Pacific ocean, its N. E. wind may be felt in great force on that side of the conti- hent, through the great gorges or depressions near the bays of yo'or Tehuantepec, as noticed by Humboldt, Capt. Basil Hall and others, the elevations which there separate the two Seas being but inconsiderable; and when the gyration is once yr aasae the whole mass will gradually assume the movement “predominant current, which is generally the higher one, = will move off with it integrally ; as we see in the eases of the Vortices which are successively formed in particular portions of a stream, where subject to disturbing influences. It is true that flerent winds which are found moving direct or obliquely to- wards each other in the aérial ocean, are never found to meet, in the opposing or antagonistic sense, any more than currents of the ‘Aqueous ocean ; but they either stratify one upon the other when arriving on: the same field, of else blendin a partial or common _ Syratior and a united progression of their masses. ~ There. seems, then, to be pigment cause why the ipeieling winds of southern Mexico and | Central al America should essnmne i aggregated and sinistrorsal rot «hie __ hibited.in the Northers and Atlantic pambedene the Norther ee in the dry wind of the Pacific coast, should’ on first 326 Progress of Storms due to Aérial Currents. reaching the S. W. border of the Gulf of Mexico at Vera Cruz, be found to afford little or no rain ;—and why these North Amer- ican storms should be distinguished for their almost iim peri- odicity of occurrence. Proeress or Storms DuE TO PREVAILING CupitenmeellPans the progression of these and other storms is caused by the pre- dominating current in which they are imbedded, appears nearly a self-evident proposition ; and there is much evidence of the prevalence of aérial currents which correspond to the courses pursued by the several storms. At the windward islands of the ‘Antilles, we have seen 1 that the course of the lowest trade winds is often from E. to 8. B.; although, from thence to the northern border of the ne it comes, most commonly, from the N. E. quarter. Mr. has shown us that at Barbadoes, during a part of the year, o“ predominating course of the neina both at the surface and in the region of clouds, is from east.to. aailedact; and this is also the prevailing course of the higher portion of these winds in other months.+ His observations, which are confirmed. by others, may be deemed to show the actual. course which is there pursued by the great body of the trade wind, and thus may fully account ~ for the west-northwesterly course which is commonly pursued by the hurricanes of the Antilles, while passing to the extra-tropical latitudes. In the United States and north of the tropic in the Atlantic, the predominating currents come. from the southwest quarter, which also corresponds to the courses here pursued by the great storms.—I have now to maintain that this prevailing southwest current exists far back in the intertropical latitudes, — where it is derived, not from the trade wind of the Atlantic, north of the equator, but, toa large extent, from the. aasiacinted winds of the Pacific ocean. _ In the lower latitudes a general current from the southwest equdtter has been noticed, as seen in the common course of the higher clouds, which pertain to the Lowen hnlées of the atmosphere; ae #7 ho:jntarial bébwecn the great Cuba gale and the next stormy weather Was the same at both Apt i ‘and New York. “I have long since referred to . a or approximation to weekly periods which is shown in the occurrence of our pence pa cael which is. wery wanerelly noticed when they occur on Sundays. wendy rom the natare oft the pease, t this pe i. ¥ ey z pe | Great Southwest Current from the Pacific. 327 while immediately below. this current the upper portion of the trade wind is found to be from the southeast, as above noticed, and no longer moves towards the equator, but becomes also in due course of its progression to the higher latitudes, a southwest- erly wind. This higher and main current from the southwest, coincides with the observed course of the two Cuba storms in the lower latitudes ; and in its further progress and periodical va- Nations it also accords with the general course of the storms which have been traced in the temperate latitudes. _ That this predominant current is mainly or largely due to the prevailing winds of the Pacific Ocean, I cannot doubt. The great extent of northwesterly and westerly winds found on the eastern border of the Pacific, in the trade wind latitudes, has been noticed above, and a portion of this current appears to. find its way to the southern parts of the Caribean sea as a surface wind, at certain seasons. Without inquiring whether the higher por- tions of this current of the north Pacific may not unite with the _ Westerly winds of the Atlantic basin, it may suflice to state, that on the southern coast of Central America it is not found within six or eight degrees of the equator. On the contrary, we here meet with the vast stream of southwesterly winds, which have crossed the equator from the southern hemisphere, where they Constantly prevail, as the southerly winds, on the coasts of Chili - and Peru, That the lowest and most westward portions of this current are deflected in the southern hemisphere and merged with the southeast trade wind, I do not doubt ; but the main current Still pursues its course, which is noceasarily more towards the Northeast on. crossing. the equator, and in its further progress, as abtive: Stated, it is found superimposed on the westerly and other winds of Central America and southern Mexico, and con- stitutes the main southwest current which is so often recognized in the lower latitudes. © There are two other extensive winds of the Pacific, of a char- acter somewhat anomalous, which in. their ultimate tendencies “May serve to promote and strengthen this aerial movement to the North Atlantic basin ; first, the great westerly monsoon, south of = the equator, which, even as a surface wind, is found to cross the ; greater part of the Pacific, from the Indian Seas, in the principal - 8Son af the Northers ; and, second, the equatorial belt of west- seg which is so remarkable a feature in the aérology of ‘that great ocean, 328 Aérial Currents shown by Volcanic Ashes. ee a A, The course of the great aérial stream into the Atlantic basin, | after crossing the equator from the southern hemisphere, is seen from other evidence than the reported courses of the clouds, and . occasional surface winds. We learn from Humboldt, that in the r great eruption of Jorullo, a volcano of southern Mexico, which is 2100 feet above the sea in lat..18° 45’, lon. 101° 30’, the roofs of the houses in Queretaro, more than 150 miles N., 37° E. from the volcano, were covered with the volcanic dust. In January, 1835, an eruption took place in the volcano of Cosiguina, on the Pacifie coast of Central America,.in lat. 13° N., and having an elevation of 3800 feet, the ashes from which fell on the island of Jamiaca, distant 730 miles N. 60° E. from the volcano. «The elevated currents by which voleanic ashes are thus pape sa are seldom or never of a transient or fortuitous character, these results therefore afford us one of the best indications of their general course. 'Thus the progress of the higher portion of the trade wind was marked by the eruption of Tuxtla, lat. 18° 30, lon. 95°, which covered the houses in» Vera Cruz with ashes, at the distance of 80 miles, N. 55° W. and also at Peroté, 160 miles N. 60° W. The ashes from the‘ volcano at St. Vincent, which fell at Barbadoes and east of that island in 1812, mark the course’ of a current from the westward, which appears there at times, i the region of clouds, and may perhaps be connected — with the permanent winds on the Pacific coast of Mexico. Few - factsin j meteorology are more worthy of our attention than the stratiform : character and the vast horizontal extension of the serial: cunentsy in different portions of the globe.* = Over the United States and the temperate ‘aeiendes of the! At lantic the course of this great southwest current is strongly mark ed both by the movements of the clouds and the general course of the surface winds, notwithstanding the degree of obscurity which is induced by the generally revolving character of* the lower winds ; for even the northeasterly and northwesterly winds are found comprised in a general movement of the lower atmos- el towards the northeast.t elaies we find’ the great ¢ om see ¢ Chartal aah ly. resulis of seven years’ observations on the courses “of the. donde wd _ winds, at New York, see ope bac ib i Ser., nigcntreasit ; oe tep, gate str! “eeny ae ni ae at Aggregated and Specific Courses of Winds. 329 hurricane moving in this direction, with a progress of 500 to 1000 miles per day, overlaid and accompanied by a regular southwest current ; and yet, if we should attempt to resolve the aggregate course and progression of this storm solely by a general mean of its observed winds, at the earth’s surface, we might be led to very erroneous conclusions. For these rotary winds, instead of showing the true progression of the storm, might appear nearly to balance each other. Moreover, the winds of this storm, when considered locally, are found to exhibit nearly the same phases or Succession of changes which are common to the temperate lati- tudes of the north Atlantic basin; which serves to show that our successively observed winds are commonly of a rotary character, and that the common method of estimatmg the mean resultant courses or progression of the surface winds is necessarily defec- tive and cannot show the true progression of the lower at- _ mosphere. : - Some writers have described our northerly winds as sweeping from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and Cuba, and thus re- ducing the temperature of the latter regions. ‘But it is evident that these persons have mistaken the cold winds which are found on the western side of our revolving storms, as being a direct cutrent from the higher to the lower latitudes. I cannot find that the above geographical course has ever been pursued by the Winds of this continent. On the contrary, in times of the greatest ression of the thermometer, in numerous instances, the cold Period has been found to have first taken effect in or near the tropical latitudes and Gulf of Mexico; and has thence been prop- agated towards the eastern portions of the United States, ina manner corresponding to the observed progression of the storms. - The only proper current of surface winds found coursing to- wards the equator, in the temperate latitudes of North America, exists on the western side of the continent. But a high current from the northwest, which may have crossed the Rocky Moun- tains in its course, appears at successive and alternate periods, of Considerable duration, in the higher region of clouds. Its direc- tion nearly coincides with the closing winds of our revolving Storms, and in the winter season, in some cases, it probably sub- Sides to the surface and immediately follows these storms, for two r three days, and sometimes longer. This will accord with news which have been expressed by the sg President Dwight me Szcoxp Series, Vol. Il, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 330 Cause of Aridity in Western America. — and other writers. But I have in no case found the integral pro- i gression of a great storm to be in accordance with the specific direction of this wind. To my own apprehension, it is the constant course of the low- er winds towards the equator, on the western shores of America, below the latitude of 40°, that best explains the aridity of those regions. And itis to a counter course of progression, in the lower atmosphere, that the United States, China, and western Europe are mainly indebted for their rains and fertility. 'T’o these gene- ral and remote causes may also be ascribed the varied electrical and hygrometric phenomena of these different regions. In closing these imperfect remarks and statements on the American tempests, I tender my thanks to all who have aided me in the inquiry. To Col. Rein, Governor of Bermuda, and through him to Vice Admiral Sir Cuartes Apam, and other officers.of the . British Navy, and to the officers and agents of the R. M. steam- ships, Iam indebted for valuable logs of various vessels. Sur- geon General Lawson, under the favor of the War Department, has kindly furnished me with the meteorological reports from our ; military stations, and by the aid of Lieut. M. F. Maury and the e favor of the Navy Department I have obtained the logs of our . national vessels. Prof. J. R. Becx, secretary of the Board of Regents, has given me free access to detailed reports from the several academies in the state of New. York, and various profes- sors and other gentlemen have furnished me with copies of their private journals. I am indebted, also, to many merchants, ship- masters, and others, for important aid, and can only hope that the results attained may prove useful to those who may be engag in commercial and other pursuits. Practica Depucrions.—It was my purpose to add some further practical exposition of the law of rotation and progression 12 : storms, which might aid the mariner in avoiding their destrue- ; tive violence, and render the rotary winds and gales more sub- servient to navigation ; but my proposed limits have already beet It is necessary, however, that the character and get- eral extent of the rotation, and the usual courses of progression, — be-once clearly understood. Perhaps no one case can better i- these conditions than the Cuba hurricane, viewed iol a Choice of Courses and Tack, in a Gale, 331 Ss successive positions and local changes of wind, as shown in 4 Charts IV to X, and compared, also, with the varying courses of 3 progression which are shown in Chart I. Let the mariner sup- , pose himself in any position which may fall under the approach- F ’ ing gale as there delineated, and he may perceive the successive : changes of wind which must necessarily take place, as the gale passes onward. 'T’his gale, in its various local phases, may be taken as illustrating pretty fairly, nearly all the great storms in the northern temperate latitudes, as well as the successive local changes of a large portion of the common winds of these lat- itudes. | The chief difficulty, in some latitudes, may be in determining = the actual course of the gale’s progression ; for the choice of any _ Course for avoiding the heart of the gale must depend partly on this knowledge. But the local position and latitude of the ship, together with the attending appearances of the storm, will com- _ Ionly afford sufficient indications. ? ~ But a course for avoiding the heart of the storm is not all that is to be considered ; for this may be controlled by imperious cir- F cumstances or considerations, and little choice be allowed. Other ; things being equal, it is important, in the commencement of a gale, to. take such a course as will be favorable to the ultimate Prosecution of the voyage, and will enable the ship to en- Counter with most safety that portion of the gale which may bechosen, or found unavoidable. This may involve the questions of seudding and of lying to, which must partly depend on the character and lading of the vessel; and also the tack to be pre- ferred, in the latter alternative. The early direction of the storm- Wind and the course taken by the ship, will usually decide the further changes of the gale, and it will be proper to Jay on that lack in which the ship’s head will come up to the sea, as the : Wind veers or changes,—not that on which she will be headed off : by the wind into the trough of the sea, and perhaps taken aback inthe heart of the gale. A glance at the storm figures on the Charts will commonly show which tack should be chosen, m dif- ferent parts of the storm, by vessels bound in different directions. The chief difficulty in deciding is when the ship happens to be _ Mor near the axis of the gale; in which case the discretion of the mariner must rule ; but it is desirable first to get away from em this line as far as possible. The degree of caution and fore- “us line as far as possible. degre thought which it may be proper to exercise, may best be deter- 332 Choice of Course and Heaving to in a Gale. mined by the indications of the barometer, not neglecting other appearances. Thus when are are bound westward, in the temperate lat- itudes, and h terly winds with a falling barometer, they should steer to the northward and westward, instead of keeping their direct course ; and when the wind has veered to the north- east quarter they may resume their true course, with a fair wind which will veer northward ; but if finally compelled to heave to with the wind northeasterly or northerly, they should then take the port tack, so as to come up to the wind, in its further changes. This curved course will be found to Rives a speedy passage, in 8, as it gives a fair wind of longer continuance, by placing the ship in the left side of the storm path, and in a posi- tion which renders the subsequent northwesterly wind more available. But in case of a gale’s hauling southward and west- ward, the ship, when headed off from her course, should be hove to on the starboard tack, being in the right hand side of the storm path. The ship will then come up to the sea, as the wind veers - by the west towards the northwest. It will at once be seen that in revolving winds a direct course is not always most conducive to a quick passage, but such vari- able course should be preferred as will render available the suc- ceeding changes of the wind; which changes, whether by south or north, sometimes depend on the course of the vessel.* — ' The foregoing statements and suggestions are equally appli- cable in the southern hemisphere, with only this difference ; ViZ., that in the actual courses of the winds and storms, south is there always substituted for north; east and west remaining the same- Hence, the practice must ies varied accordingly. These practical deductions accord with the statements and di grams which I have published in 1831 and subsequent years: Storm figures of this kind, better elaborated, have also been give? by Col. Rem, in his work, accompanied with remarks on lying to, and by him and Mr. Pmprneron have been placed on cards, and on plates of horn or glass, in order that a mariner may deter- mine the place of a vessel in a storm, by placing the figure 0? the face of his chart, in such manner as to coincide, on the outer _* See, also, Col. Retn’s valuable Note on Progressive Rorelring.¥ ee and the of Sailing on Curved Courses Jameson's Ed. New 1. Journal for . Also, ho, Romar an Ting, fn he — Shien tu ak an o = a ft Oke aa Sse Practical Deductions Sor Navigators. — 392 circle, with the observed direction of the storm-wind, at the first shening or commencement of the gale. In this manner the geographical position and coming changes of the storm may be apprehended by those who may not fully comprehend the law of € wind’s rotation.* These storm figtires and their uses, may be exemplified in the annexed diagrams.+ Fig. 6.—Storm Figure for Northern Hemisphere. ort se a, General Course of the Storm in the low latitudes; changing successively to 6, which itudes. is the general course in the Temperate latitud ing to the North, and in such location on the Chart that one of the wind arrows in the Suter circle will conform to the actual direction of the wind. arly t true position of the storm at that time. Then move forward the figure in the direction in which gales commonly advance in that latitude and locality, but without turning the * See Col. Riw’s work, first edition, pp. 5—7 and 424427. Weale, London, 1s, Also, Horn Book of Storms, for the Indian and China Seas, by Hexry Pinpineron : Ostell & Lepage, Calcutta ; W. H. Allen, London, 1845. I have lately received from Mr. Pinpineroy his Thirteenth Memoir, which relates to the “9 i ne of the Charles Heddle, before mentioned, and is well worthy of the at- tention of both navigators and meteorologists. = a aegeng Bowditch’s Navigator, edition of 1839, pp. 441, 442; edition of 1845, $s : . > 7 ‘ 334 _ Telegraphic Warning to Navier cators. _ Fig. 7.—For the Southern Hemisphere. North. Ss a, General Course of the storm in low latitudes, south of the seat’ changing, on its ar ga to the tropic, to b, which is the general course in the southern Temperate |: ons.—Place the figure or storm card as before, with the api pointing to the dikes. ot follow y out the directions as before given. The size of the sto for use, may be drawn to the common proportions of a storm on the Chart. In the Atlantic ports of the United States, the approach of a gale, when the storm is yet on the Gulf of Mexico, or in the -southern or western. states, may € made known by means of the electric. telegraph ; which, probably, will soon extend from — Maine to the Mississippi. This will enable.the merchant to avoid exposing his vessel to a furious gale-soon after leaving. her port. By awaiting the arrival of. a storm and promptly putting to sea with its closing winds, a good offing and rapid progress wal be secured by the voyager. However useful the knowledge of storms may prove, no one will expect the tempest to be disarmed of its power.’ Nor can disasters in navigation be in all cases avoided, But, contempla- ting this subject in its relations to the thousands of lives and the mnillions of property which are lost by shipwreck, almost: annual- ly, we cannot doubt that much of this loss might be prevented, _ by the exercise of timely and intelligent precaution. Indeed, t Se value of accurate paeion and. Date wae in all J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 335 Arr. XXX.—On the Volcanoes of the M oon ; by James D. “ong | Read wonee the Assoc. of Amer. Geologists and Naturalists, Sept, 1846.) Tae ad of the moon affords a most interesting subject for the study of the geologist. Though at a distance ve many thou- _ sand miles, the telescope exhibits to us its structure with won- - derful distinctness ; and already, as a learned astronomer has ob- served; we are better acquainted with the actual heights of its Mountains, than with those of our own planet.* Having an atmo- sphere of extreme rarity} (if any) and never obscured by clouds, its features are wholly open to view, and the eye aided with S, may wander over its rugged crags, survey its craters, its ie and its Apennines, from their bases to their summits. _Nei- ther are there any sedimentary deposits, soil, or vegetation,—for ome there can be none without water,—and the igneous surface therefore j is still its own. naked self, exhibiting the results of ig- | rs halal *M. Arago, ang des Lonptudde pour I’an 1842, 2d ed., Paris, 1842.—P. 526, in an a n the Lunar Volcanoes, Arago says :—* I] est remarquable que eta 1 exactitude d’Hevelius on ait connu la hauteur des inentegnas de Ja Lune Sa plus tOt que la hauteur des montagnes de la Terre. yet to prove that the moon has any atmosphere, adding that it must be v Much more rare than the rarest gas on earth. They observe also that sepidaiiag our atmosphere to extend through space, its density h half way to the moon, ac- yet. to the Mariottian law of d ectease, would be er eee by ae fraction son (R ‘The enn of any , bodies of ‘eats on Shei by Actual telescopic examination and by in _fupiinns fro There « are no streams, lakes or seas. ‘Aneminen ¥ of the surface is placed beyond doubt, both m ad ewe * oe tay at the transfer of any water the this obi and per- 4 a case, ould occasion a 336 J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. neous action in their simple grandeur, unaltered and uncompli- cated by any attending operations. We may hope therefore to find some profit in contemplating for a few moments this land of the skies: and although we may not look for very speedy “an- nexation,”’ we may possibly gather some facts and ideas which the decree of Truth will annex to the domain of Science. The moon, as we all know, has been minutely studied ina physical point of view, and already some important geological conclusions have been drawn from the facts it presents. The al- titudes of its mountains were first estimated by Galileo,* and af- terwards were mathematically calculated by Heveliust and Ric- cioli. Sir Wm. Herschel continued the investigations, and re- ported the probable activity of three of its voleanic mountains.{ Mayer, Huth, Harding, and Schréter,§ and more lately Gruithui- sen and W. G. Lohgmann,|| are other prominent names among those who have added largely to our knowledge of the moon’s urface. More recently still, MM. Beer and Madler have pursued this science of Selenography with wonderful perseverance and labor, and have given corrected results of all previous calcula- tions, with magnificent maps of the moon’s topography.1 1095 heights were carefully measured by them, and their features, to a great degree of accuracy, ascertained. 'These maps have af- forded M. Elie de Beaumont some deductions alledged as sup- porting certain geological theories. James Nasmyth, Esq., in the Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society for the present * In the article referred to in the Annuaire des Longitudes, (p. 522,) Arag? states that Clearchus, on the authority of Plutarch, described the moon as smooth and lustrous like a mirror. Democritus attributed ah spots to inequalities of sur- face. Galileo first observed the lunar mountains with his telescope in 1610, and estimated their height at one twentieth of the diameter, giving 8800 me etres for ee altitude, which but little exceeds their actual height. J. Hevelius, Selenographia ; St. y Gadent; I 1647. t Phil. Trans. fort 780, p- 507, Ot i lating to the Moon: —for 1787, p. 229, An Account of Three Volcanoes in the Moo n:—for 1794, p- 39, Account of some particulars observed during the late Lgegee (in 1793) of the Bun. § J. H. Schréter, Selenotopographische Fragmente zur genauern Kenntniss Mondilache ihrer erlittenen Veranderungen und Atmosphire ; 2 vols, 4to, Gottin- gen, 1791 and 1802.—Gruithuisen, in Bode’s Astron. Jahrb., 1825. || Topographie der sichtbaren Mondoberfiactie: von W. G. Lobrmann; 410, Dresden und Leipzig, 1824. 1 ao ee vergleichende Selenographie; mit besonderer Beziehung auf die pees Sy ee Mappa selenographica, von W. Beer u : ai © Mt Mia: Berlin, 1837. J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 337 year, has published important observations on the features of the moon’s mountains, and traced out their voleanic character.* A very valuable memoir on the same topics has been presented with- in the current year to the Institute at Paris, by M. Rozet, in which the moon is shown to have been a globe in complete fusion, which has slowly cooled ; and its peculiarities are dwelt upon as an ex- hibition, in many rexpdetss of the former state of our own planet.t “In all the geological observations which have been hitherto made with regard to the moon, one important feature remains un- satisfactorily explained. I refer to the vast magnitude of its era- ters. It is not surprising that in view of their stupendous size, many should have been incredulous as to their crater character, and preferred to designate them by some non-committal term, as circular ridges, or ring-mountains ; nor that geologists in general have hardly ventured to acknowledge their belief in these lunar _ Imagine if possible, in place of an ordinary crater, cir- cular ateas 50 to 150 miles in diameter, and 10,000 to 20,000 feet in depth. -Such are many of the lunar craters; and they are crowded in great numbers over the larger part of its surface, va~ tying from even a more capacious magnitude, down to those that Measure’ but a few miles in breadth. It is not astonishing _ that there should be found much ‘difficulty in reconciling their features with those of Vesuvius and Etna, hitherto received too generally as the types of volcanoes and volcanic action. The crater of Kilauea in the Hawaiian Islands is of a wholly different character, and I propose to present some illustrations which it af- fords, appealing to such general facts regarding it as are already well known. If I mistake not, it will be found to give a full in- terpretation of whatever has been considered mysterious in these lunar ring-mountains. After these’ illustrations, we may return again to earth, and apply the knowledge which we have derived abroad, m exemplifying the former ese on history of our own a may first consider the gener features of the moon’s sur- “About two-thirds of hig fever betaibphiorel in view, oasis almost the whole of the aisstiay ball and the northeast quarter, RG a SNS _ Aran ages myth, Esq, pl sh Main sk oe Rend me xxii, 470. 338 J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. are covered thickly with voleanic mountains. Over a large part of the northwest quarter, there is only here and there an eleva~ tion, and this comparative nudity extends a considerable distance southward across the equator. The features of the surface may be nites as of aes viz :— ws The ring-mountains, anieks are broad truncated cones vith immense circular craters. (See the following figures from Beer and Madler. ) 2. Conical mountains, seats like ordinary volcanoes. ~ 8. Linear or irregular ridges. 4. Large depressed areas, usually wiebos ans ‘Sat not supped to contain water. | 5. Broad pale streaks, of great length. 6. Narrow lines, supposed to be fissures. Out of the 1095 heights measured by Beer and Midler, ‘stg are above 20,000 feet in altitude, and tventy-two exceed 15,750 feet. ‘The broad truncated cones with. large: circular craters, are its most common elevations, and are among the loftiest. ‘The pits, as we have remarked, are of all dimensions to 150 miles, and of various depths to near 25,000 feet. 'The crater Baily is 1492 statute miles in diameter ; Clavius is 1431 miles; Schickard is 128 miles. 20 to 60 miles is the more common breadth. The depth of Newton is 23,833 English feet; of Casatus 22,822; of Calip- pus 22,209; of Tycho 20,181 feet. The height above the sul- * We have stated that Galileo (note to page 336) made the altitude of the high- er of the moon’s mountains 8800 metres. Hevelius reduced their height to 5200 metres, Riccioli, as M. Arago states, increased Galileo's estimate, and his’ obser- vations, as calculated by M. Keill, gave for the mountain St. Catherine more than 14,000 metres. Herschel in 1780, (Phil. Trans. 9 1780, p. 507 ; also for 1794, p- 40,) sgead again the heights, concluding from his observations that the aga did not t excced a “mile and a betray The latest investigations have nena” the central plain of a crater or the extorioi surface, or by Hots ing the colette ” summit when it first becomes illuminated, and calculating therefrom ; the higher the peak, the Jonger will be the shadow, and also, the sooner its top w will be tip- ped with light. Should it hereafter be esta tablished that the moon ae an i sphere, it must be too slight to affect appreciably the altitudes determin with regard to the breadth of the tke nly there can be no more doubt, than with respec to the diameter of the moon are many who receive ith scepticism the a titans ive wae, or even deny where they know noting. ‘At is taking @ high ground, to dispute with all ” J. D. Dana.on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 339 face exterior to the cone, is said by Beer and Midler to be of- ten but one half or one third the height above the bottom of the crater; the outer slopes are generally steep, so that the mar- gin appears like a raised rim around the pit. Mr. Nasmyth figures one which is filled to its summit, and is tipped with a plain 40 miles in diameter ;* looking, he says, as if “brim full of molten lava,” having cooled, probably, when thus ad Fig. 2 The largest craters are not _ sctiaieia actuated Contained in the highest a Mountains:. on the contra- === ty, they are of less altitude 2==— than those of medium size, and to a certain extent the height varies inversely with the diameter. = 3 ZFS artificially regular. = Why : . SS sb are others which consist of ===" a= two or. more coalesced cir- _—Heinsius, seen a little obliquely. ignorance alone would presume. mption, is to take the first oppor- e Mem, of the Roy. Astronom, Soc., XV, 152. 340 J.D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. eular pits. In still others, especially the largest, the enclosing walls are broken into a series of ridges, sometimes with large openings like the break of an eruption: yet even then the irreg- ular forms may generally be referred either to a single circle, to a combination of circles, or to the formation of successive ridges one within another. .The bottom of the pits though generally flat or nearly so, not unfrequently contains small cones, or ridge- like elevations; we call them small, though some are 5000 feet in height, for they are mere dots in the immense basin. Over the exterior slopes there are many lateral cones of the same small dimensions, and occasionally one as large as Etna may be distin- guished, besides others of different sizes to a few hundred feet in breadth. There are also circular craters within the a “ which are of various dimensions. The pointed cones or peaks, excepting those immediately con- nected with the pit-craters, are few in number. According to Beer and Midler, Dérfel, the most elevated lunar peak measured, is 24,945 feet in height; it is situated in the lunar Aue Huygens, another peak, is 18,209 feet in altitude. The mountain ridges are peculiar in being generally slongatal elevations, or clusters of such elevations, without valleys intersect- ing their declivities, and thus very unlike the chains of our globe. As M. Rozet and others have remarked, there is no water on the moon to wear out valleys. . Many of the depressions called seas, of which the Mare Seren- itatis, and Mare Crisium, are examples, vary in breadth to five or six hundred miles, and notwithstanding their size, they are identical in character with the great pit-craters, their extent and less depth being their only characteristics. 'This view is suggest ed by M. Rozet, and their features clearly sustain it. They con tain cones-and circular areas like the better defined pits.* The light streaks alluded to form radiating lines around large cones, and especially about Euler, Kepler, Copernicus, and Aris- tarchus. 'They are from one to five hundred miles in length, and cross ridges and depressions, without interruption. They coalesce about the summit of Honiet, so that the whole surface appears nebulous. sit ne er le di inline * The ‘‘seas,” according to M. Rozet, ha have escarpments of 45 degrees, some of which are 400 metres in height. In the interior there are annular lar eatin pei rings in shape, the diameter of which attain to 100,0 ae, J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 341 The various pit craters differ in shade of color, or rather in the degree of light they reflect; and ten different degrees are distinguished in the work of Beer and Midler. 1 to 3, he says, may be described as gray, 4 to 5 light gray, 6 to 7 white, 8 to 10 shining white. The so-called seas, though but slightly depressed, are sometimes very much lighter than the surrounding surface. In some instances, as these authors state, two pits, side by side, alike in size and features, so differ in bril- lianey that one» is wholly obscured in the full moon, while the other still shines: the two are seen together again as soon as their shadows reappear. he brightest craters are Aristarchus, Werner and Proclus. Aristarchus is 7629 feet in depth. It has @ point of greatest brilliancy, besides two or three separate cir- cular spots remarkably light. Werner has a single brilliant point. Proclus has brilliant walls, yet is dark at bottom. _ Sir Wm. Herschel published the first account of existing volean- ic action in the moon. In a notice of three lunar volcanoes,* he says that two of them, on April 19, 1787, were either nearly ex- tnet or about to break out, while the third was in actual. erup- tion. April 20, he observed that the active one burned with greater violence ; and he estimated that the fiery area was above miles in diameter. All the adjacent parts of the crater seem- ed to be illuminated by the eruption.t The other two volcanoes, he says, resembled large pretty faint nebule, that are gradually much brighter at the middle, but no well defined luminous spot could be distinguished. Herschel alludesalso to an eruption seen by him previously, in 1783. . _ Such are the general facts, which call for explanation, to wit: the existence of circular pit craters, 5 to 150 miles in diameter, and five to twenty-four thousand feet in depth ;—the great number of these pit craters, and their peculiar features ;—the depressions of a Similar character of still larger area;—and the various degrees of il- »* Phil. Trans. for 1787, p. 229. nso tltis supposed that this crater was that called Aristarchus, or the Mons Porphy- rites of Hevelius. Aristarchus is described as apparently in action in 1821, by H. Kater, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1821, p..1303 also by Rev. M. Ward, it nearly the same time, in the M _ 1573, also the following year by Rev. Fearon Fallows, in the Philosophical Trans- actions for ] 237. Dr. Olbers observed Aristarchus ne ' Kater BF gd eile the light to the reflection of the earth’s light by its: 342 J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. lumination of the craters. Well may the Vesuvian vulcanist look with doubt upon such vast gulfs; for he finds in his well known volcano, nothing parallel in kind or degree. The little dark hole at the top of his mountain, has scarcely a single monte of resem- blance to the open walled areas of the moon. - But the case is different with Kilauea, to which we now direct our attention. . We observe that the facts this crater Aen are pan the same in kind as those of the moon. . 1. The crater is a large open pit, exceeding three miles in its longer diaméter, and nearly a thousand feet deep. ; » 2 It has clear bluff walls through a greater part of its cireuit, with an inner ledge or poten at their base, raised 340 feet above the bottom. 2 1Ehe totter da: plain of solid lavas, catincly open to ere which may be traversed with safety; over it there are pools of — boiling lava in active ebullition, and one is more than a thousand feet in diameter. There are also cones at times from a few yards to two or three thousand feet in diameter, and varying greatly in angle of inclination. The largest of these cones have a cpa pit or crater at summit. Compare these characters severally with the lunar craters, aud an identity will be perceived even to the ledge that surrounds lower pit, and the various forms of the cones. A large number of the lunar craters have an inner circle either as a terrace or ridge. The ledge within Timocharis (figure 1) is very similar to that of Kilauea, and is continued around the whole pit unbroken as im the Hawaiian crater. he other figures illustrate the same fea- ture in different conditions.. Some of them too contain circular areas with the rim scarcely elevated, (figure 2,) and others raised into cones, (figure 3): and so, in Si testeni there are at times boil ing lakes in the bottom plain, and other pools constitute the sum- mits of cones which they themselves have formed. 'T'o appre- ciate the comparison, it must be remembered that the Hawaiian pit-crater is upwards of three miles in length, and averages neat- ly half this in breadth ; and that the largest boiling pool, though more than a thousand feet in diameter, is still a small spot-in the extensive area. During times of greater activity, the whole pit is in every part lighted with the fiery lavas, overflowing at times ol Pe mamerous lakes, and sodanie from the many cones. Fe ag aie J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 343, _ The etreular or slightly elliptical form of the moon’s craters is also exemplified to perfection. For the lakes of Kilauea have this shape ; and although the pit itself is oblong, owing to its sit- uation on a fissure, other large though extinct pit craters of Mount Loa are quite as regularly circular in form. Some are. twins ; that is, are made up of two or three coalescing circles. We have chosen Kilauea for these illustrations because it is now in action, and the features appealed to have been familiar to us, Since the first publications of Admiral Byron, and Rev. Charles 8. Stewart. I may add that the facts are finely illustrated in the Narrative of the Exploring Expedition by Capt. Wilkes,* and they will be farther detailed in the Expedition Geological Report on the Hawaiian Islands, now in course of preparation. The exact application of these facts, as far as regards general features, to the. swmmit crater of Mt. Loa, will be found fully sustained by the plans and views accompanying the Narrative. - » Whence all this close resemblance to the lunar craters, while other volcanoes are so different? It arises from the fact that the action at Kilauea is simply boiling, owing to the extreme fluidi- ty of the lavas. The gases or vapors which produce this appear- ance of active ebullition, escape freely in small bubbles with lit- tle commotion, like the jets over boiling water; while at Vesu- Vius and other like cones they collect in immense bubbles before they accumulate force enough to make their way through ; and consequently the lavas in the latter case are ejected with so much Violence, that they rise to a height often of many thousand feet and fall around in cinders. This action builds up the pointed mountain, while the simple boiling of Kilauea makes no cinders and no cinder cones. Still, although the lavas of this crater are not thrown toa great height, they may make cones of any an- gle, even by overflowing alone ; especially by small or partial - Overflowings, which melt together, cooling at the same time rap- idly. They thus sometimes raise a steep rim around a pool. This point has been well presented by M. C. Prevost,f and in an- other place we shall mention many facts in illustration of it. If the fluidity of lavas, then, is sufficient for this active ebul- lition, we may have boiling going on over an area of an indefi- _ * See Narrative, Vol. iv, p. 125, and the map of part of Hawaii in Vol. vi. _ t Bulletin de la Soe. Geol. de France, xi, 1839 & 1840, p. 183. : 344 J.D, Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. nite extent; for the size of a boiling lake can have no limits ex- cept such as may arise from a deficiency of heat. The size of the lunar craters is therefore no mystery. Neither is their cireu- lar form of difficult explanation; for a boiling pool necessarily, by its own action, extends itself circularly around its centre.* The combination of many circles, and the wail sea-like areas are as readily understood.+ . With so perfect. a correspondence, and so satisfactory pane nations by means of an appeal to facts, it is hardly necessary to enter a protest against the ordinary view that these craters are the result of cinder eruptions.{ We remark only that such erup- tions will never take place except from small vents, for the cold which gives the viscidity on which they depend, necessarily contracts the area. Ina large pool the fluidity is such that the rising vapors pass off freely: the ejections over its surface, ex- cepting those at the margin, will: fall back again into the pool, as in boiling water and Kilauea, and could neither rise to the height nor make such curves as are represented by Mr. Nasmyth. Instead of a large open crater having greater projectile force im proportion to its size, it will actually have far less; and within certain limits the force may be inversely as the diameter, shone dependent also on the size of the chimney above. Any vents in the moon in which the fires had etnies aie sided, would have densely viscid lavas from partial cooling ; and in these there would be loftier ejections like those of ordinary volcanoes, forming high conical peaks with narrow —_ if any, at summit. * The great depth of the lunar site seems to require aie ale ment for its explanation, in addition to what has been presented. This is supplied by the fact of the less specific gravity of sub- stances on the moon; for objects on its surface have but one-sixth the ene gravity diay have on the earth: that is, iron would aoe * Mr. Nasmyth suggests that the quietness of the lunar meet may account for the regularity of the circles. t M. Rozet observes, in his article referred to, that the moon’s craters do not resemble oe riseoe volea noes: and he explains them by supposing that during the cooling of the moon’ cireular flowings, which carried the scoria o— the centre to the sisnameenene, and thus accumulated the - ng ridges. We see no cause for gd existence of ba aed nor _— ese! 7 It from move! ’ mente ¢ See the i d rk of Mr i taanateien a Baar epee ah uit ei J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 345 weigh but one-sixth what it does here. 'The lavas would there- fore not only be specifically lighter, but would become ‘more - blown up with the vapors, or more spongy. On the same ground too, we understand why the moon’s great craters should so gen- _ erally terminate in a raised’ rim, while those of the earth, like Mount Loa, have very gently sloping sides and ‘summit. This raised rim is fully illustrated about the Kilauea pools, as we have already stated: but in large overflowings, the earth’s lavas, ow- ing to their weight, flow far away by gravity, and this feature is therefore never exemplified on the earth on the same grand scale as in the moon.* , We may therefore say unhesitatingly, without fearing an im- peachment of our sobriety, that the moon’s volcanoes are in fact - Volcanoes, either extinct or active, although the craters would re- ceive comfortably more than a score of Etnas. We also com- prehend the important fact, that a cooling globe would become at first a scene of great boiling lakes from the hardening of some portions ;—that on a farther diminution of heat, these lakes would partially cool, excepting points or areas of greatest heat, and thus a subdivision of them would result: or else, they would grad- ually contract their overflowings, and so, as gradually, contract the size of the vent, obliterating all evidence of the former size : or again, they would more abruptly contract, and consequently form an inner ledge concentric with the outer walls, and perhaps also other concentric ledges still smaller. ae ~ This is well illustrated in the figures, and nothing could better indicate the mode of action which characterizes the moon's craters, for we may trace out the successive diminutions. In Heinsius, (figure 3,) which is forty-eight miles in its longer diameter, this is beautifully shown ; there is one low ledge within another nearly concentric, and finally a smaller circular pit, of twelve miles breadth,—no mean size, though we call it small. An Cuter concentric ridge is also apparent through part of in citenit, which may have béen a still earlier outline ; and’ being wer than the ridge next within, it illustrates the statement, if the hypothesis be true, that the larger craters have lower walls. It is however possible that it may have resulted from a subsi- | * The elevation theory of Von Buch has been supported from facts in the moon. i We offer nothing here on that subject. _ Scoxp Srrizs, Vol. I, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 45 346 J.D, Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. dence in the area around, as has happened at Kilauea. The same - facts are shown by the mountains Abulfeda and Timocharis ; and we have already remarked that the crater of the last mentioned has very nearly the features of the Kilauea pit. Again they might finally so far diminish their size by the cooling in progress, that there would no longer be free ebullition, and the vapors having to force their way up, would break through with explo- sive violence, producing an alternation it may be of cinder and lava eruptions, or cinder eruptions alone at summit, and raising up conical pointed peaks. These different phases, itroorhieotion with fissure eruptions and upliftings from contraction, from both _ which causes ridges might result, give us a complete and com- prehensive view of the origin of the moon’s features. Are the lunar craters still active? To avery great extent ie surface has evidently cooled, and whether there are any active points is a matter of doubt. But without admitting igneous ac- tion at the present time in some parts, how can the facts men- tioned with regard to the difference in the light of different por- tions of the moon’s surface (p. 341) be satisfactorily explained ? This difference may possibly be partly accounted for on the ground, (borne out by Kilauea,) that the bottom of a crater may have a smoother surface than the-declivities or plains exterior. Perhaps also there is something attributable to a difference of ma- terial, though this is not probable. If these explanations are received as sufficient for the craters, they fail of satisfying us with regard to the light streaks which are so remarkable about some cones—coursing over ridges and depressions without inter- ruption. The fact of illuminated walls to a crater when the bot- tom is not illuminated, and the general diffusion of light when one or more bright areas of small extent may be distinguishet are also points not easily understood on the above suppositions- May it not be, that we should attribute some of the instances of lighted areas to a covering of vapors from the igneous action be- neath? The light streaks are not depressions, and therefore not broad fissures having the great width they exhibit ;. but they may be regions containing many fissures from which vapors are escaping, and by the coalescence of such areas, the summit of @ rater like Euler might appear illuminated. Such vapors might 80. cover the bottom of a crater that the walls would pone ite: — might pesca terre famear a crater rE URS GER RD ES Ud or J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. 347 : still distinct ; for if spread-out at a height of five hundred feet above the bottom, they would still in many instances be more than ten thousand feet below the summit, and far below too the tops of interior peaks. : - As there is little or no water in the moon to aid voleanic action, sulphur has probably played an important part im its igneous changes ; for this is not only a prevalent means of igneous. ope- tations on our globe, but occurs in meteoric stones, pyrites being one of their common constituents. We may therefore believe that, wherever there is action in the moon, sulphur and any other Vaporizable material present, are constantly escaping either as simple vapor or in some gaseous combination, and forming a very low covering over certain portions. As we have observed, the existence of actual volcanic eruption in the moon. is still doubtful, and we must look to new facts to _ Settle the point. . But we cannot doubt that the surface in former periods has been everywhere in violent action, and that its pools of fire were once measured by scores of miles instead of by hun- dreds of yards, as with our existing voleanoes. And many of these immense basins remain still open for examination, presenting indications of the various changes which accompanied the grad- ual decrease of igneous action during the cooling in progress. A Map of the moon, if there is any truth in these views, should be in every geological lecture room; for no where can, we have & more complete or more magnificent illustration of voleanic ope- tations. Our own. sublimest voleanoes would rank among the smaller lunar eminences; and our Etnas are but spitting furnaces. In continuation, I would ask attention to some thoughts bear- ing on our own planet, which are suggested by this study of the Moon’s surface, i L If the earth was once a melted globe, it must have through the same phases as the moon, with this very ¢mportant difference, that the whole surface during its progress was subject to the denuding action of waters, and from the first had valleys _ and sedimentary rocks in progress. It must have had originally its boiling pools of vast extent; which as the action decreased in lence would more or less gradually contract. Are there any Temains of these great craters? Or have they disappeared by a decrease in the voleanic action and thus graduated into existing 348 J.D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. mountains, or have they been swept away by the changes of time? M. von Buch has described a circular area on the island of Palma, one of the Canaries,* six miles in diameter, which has been compared to a lunar crater, with some appearance of reason. It is in fact hardly twice the diameter of Kilauea, which it oth- erwise resembles. On Mauritius there is a similar area fifteen miles in diameter, surrounded by precipitous walls composed of the edges of strata dipping outward.:+ Either it is a volcanic mountain whose centre has fallen in, as suggested by M. Bailly, or it is the remains of a great pit-crater.. I merely state the fact without expressing an opinion. Other instances might be men- tioned, but this will suffice. At the present period, few active boiling pits remain, and Kilauea is’ the only one whose charac- ters have been well determined.’ The surface fires of the globe have so far eee in meee: that in nearly every existing vol- cano, cinder-ejectio the action at summit, and erup- tions of lavas in streams are confined to fissures nee the sides and flanks of the mountain. Bic ig.cnaled by the facts avinped,, to remark also. on-the origin of the mineral constitution of igneous rocks. It has been a difficult problem for solution, why volcanic re- gions should have.a centre of solid feldspathic rocks, unst and compact, while the exterior consisted mainly of. ‘olin lavas. .Scrope, Von Buch, and. other writers on voleanoes, have mentioned instances of this structure; and it seems to charac- terize generally the large voleanic mountains. It is-well exhib- ited when the elevations are cut through by gorges; and when not, the clinkstone appears often atthe summit of the cone oF dome. . The explanations we here venture, proceed on two principles : 1. The motion which belongs toa boiling fluid. _ 2. The less fusibility of hidenin than the other ingredients. Inthe great boiling pools, there will necessarily be a rising of the fluid, in the hotter part, and a flow away towards either side, producing a kind of circulation, This is no hypothesis, as the fact may be witnessed in any boiling cauldron; and the lavas of Haonen, are a visible example of it, The ebullition, in lavas _ Aa Saabs Canaries., noe = - 281. ba ca a ee Origin of the Constitution of Tgneotis Rocks. 349 on the earth, proceeds principally from the: vapors of water and sulphur, which are constantly rising through them, inflating them More and more as they ascend, and finally escaping in bubbles at the surface. Now the feldspar being the less fusible part of the lavas, would thicken somewhat, wherever the temperature became too low for complete fusion; the more liquid portion would then ascend most easily, being carried along by the infla- ting vapors, and much of the feldspar would thus be left behind, and it might be in a nearly pure state. 'The centre of the vol- ' cano-under this action, becomes necessarily feldspathic. The summit might therefore eject either basaltic or feldspathic rocks from the material of the vent; though when the action was violent and deep, it would eject feldspathic rocks alone. , “At the same time the basaltic lavas, descending laterally in this system of circulation along the sides of the great central con- duit, may pass out as flank eruptions through fissures. Besides, there will also be basaltic ejections from sources of lavas at a dis- tance from the central conduit, where they have not been sub- jected to the separating process described ; and this may be the More common source. Mountains with a feldspathic centre, and basaltic layers form ing the circumference, are therefore quite intelligible without Supposing the feldspar to have been first thrown up, or appealing toa different system of fissures for their origin, and the examples Which the moon presents, are more extensive than is necessary to explain the widest facts on the earth.* phic In these remarks we have spoken of the lavas as consisting mainly of feldspar and augite, their more common constitution ; but we use the terms in a general sense, understanding by feld- Spat one or another of the feldspar family of minerals, and by 2 SRM err ofr or ae er cree % sequently that there would have been scoria and cinders lions? or may we believe it probable, that the paste was so Would not make its ‘way up and escape as vapor? Is this last supposition borne Sut by any existing example of subaérial volcanic action? 350 J.D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. augite the remaining fusible material, whether ordinary augite (silicate of lime, magnesia and iron) or silicates of one or more of these bases or alumina in other combinations. _ There is some difficulty in applying this hypothesis to particu- lar cases, on account of our ignorance of the actual fusibilities of the materials of the lava, in the condition in which they are pla- ced; for we know that an infusible.mineral may be held in fu- sion under certain circumstances, or with certain mineral associa- tions, far below the temperature at which it fuses: or, previous to the commencement of cooling it may be in some other combi- nation. - _ We should salen that the process which separates a feldspar, pelt also separate any excess of the more infusible mineral quartz. This may not follow: still it is a remarkable fact that the quantity of quartz contained in trachyte is often in great ex- cess, as analyses have shown. But why is not the infusible min- eral chrysolite also detained? The fact appears to be, that it is — of subsequent formation. The small proportion of silica it con- tains implies a deficiency of this substance, while, as we have stated, in the feldspathic rocks there is often an excess. It may, therefore, under certain circumstances proceed from the basaltic material, for its elements are the same in different proportions. ee investigations may give us more light on this point. The general principle which we have above brought f is well illustrated in the fact that the scoria or surface glassed any vent, where it occurs, is the most fusible part of the lava, consisting in general of ferruginous or alkaline silicates, and con- taining no magnesia. On account of the diminished heat, this material alone remains sufficiently fluid to be inflated and borne up to the surface by the rising vapors: and this takes place in spite of superior gravity. We hence comprehend the rapid cooling which characterizes ejected lavas, for only a part of the material is in complete fusion. The actual nature of the cooled igneous rock may be more cor rectly understood, if we consider that the minerals present depend, not only on heat and pressure and the causes above alla ded to, but also-on rate of cooling. The effect of slow cooling is 1s exemplified i in the feldspathic centre of a volcanic mountain. mg wholly . enclosed by, rocks, the heat of fusion ea and owing to the pressure of its own superincumbent : ! q = a a ey nT a a i eset e Origin of the Constitution of Igneous Rocks. 351 portions, the rock is compact. Whatever augite may be present, instead of appearing as augite, will take the form of hornblende, a mineral which requires slow cooling, and differs from augite in the crystalline form which it thus receives. In corroboration of this statement, hornblende is common in trachytes and such feld- spathic rocks. The same remarks apply to mica: and other min- erals also may form according to the elements present. Chryso- lite is not met with: it occurs only where there is a more rapid sen of cooling, as in the formation of ordinary basaltic rocks or _ Farther we observe that with a still more gradual rate of cool- ing, the whole feldspathic rock becomes crystalline in’ texture like a granite or syenite, and it is well known that granite-like or syenitic rocks or peaks occur in some volcanic regions, whose iterior has been laid open by denudation. Many minerals too might crystallize under these circumstances, which with more tapid cooling would not be distinguishable. The boiling process in a large volcano, therefore, in connection With the circumstances of temperature, rate of cooling, the fusi- bilities of different minerals, and the other causes alluded to, will 4ccount for the various features, positions agd relations of igne- ous rocks, and for many facts relating to the distribution of igne- ous minerals.* We may hence reasonably infer that granite and granite minerals may form under the same circumstances, if the ents are present in the material in fusion ; for the syenites al- luded to are closely allied rocks in texture and character. Ata 7 former Meeting of this Association, it was suggested by me that Some regions of granite peaks may have been centres of ancient '§heous action ; and their being surrounded or bordered by horn- blendic rocks, seems to point to some actual analogy with the tra- chytic centres and basaltic circumference of mountains admitted tohave been volcanic. . _ The opinion that the nature of the resulting rock is directly Connected with the nature of the rock which had entered into fu- ; Sion, cannot be maintained if the above views be true. On the Contrary, it appears that while the result may thus be varied, the ; : tennant ie fir Sect aw omaeeer see "The general causes coheed to, act under the guiding laws of crystallogeny, Which laws regulate the particular positions of minerals according to the principles emplified in segregations or radiated crystallizations, and the laminated or clea- vable structure of j eile: 352 J.D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. mode of distributing minerals in a volcanic focus by the boiling sess, may produce from the same material, rocks of a predom- inant feldspathic character in one place, and rocks of a hornblen- dic or augitic character in other places. Simple feldspathic gran- ites may be fused and ejected as feldspathic rocks, like those of porphyry dikes. But it is an interesting fact, that the rock of most dikes is of the augitie (or hornblendic ) kind, like the dikes of voleanoes that rise from sources in which the giptrio process could not have been operating.* We also arrive at the important conclusion, that rocks perfectly compact in texture may be of subaérial origin, as we have: pres- sure from the fluid lavas themselves in the volcanic focus.. _ Another deduction proceeds from the facts stated ;—that the same igneous rocks may occur of all ages, provided the atmo- sphere or waters of the earth were not too warm for the more rapid rate of cooling required. for uncrystalline rocks. Seorias, basalt, trap, porphyry, syenite, granite, have no relations to one pbosk rather than another, beyond what may depend on the cir- cumstance just mentioned. Whenever therefore in the history of the world, the variations in heat, pressure, and rate of cooling; now possible, may have taken place, similar rocks to those of the present day may have been in progress :—and as far as the varia- tions of former times, in these respects, may now take place, for- mer rocks and minerals may still be in progress. In this state- ment it is implied that the necessary elements are pores in the fused material. IIL. Origin of Continents.—The moon gives us hints on anoth- er topic of great interest, relating to the distribution of land and water on our globe. We have mentioned that there is a large area covering nearly one third of the hemisphere facing the earth, which is mostly free from volcanoes, while on other parts the craters are closely crowded together. We may therefore reason * Mr. Darwin has accounted for the distribution of feldspathic and aug tic rocks in volcanoes, on the ground of their different specific gravity, But with this cause heavier augitic material, which is not the case. He also argues that the feldspar would rise in the fluid as crystals, and so the au gite sink. But we know in the first place, that crystals do not appear till incipient ectidibiontions and if the augite and feldspar were both in distinct crystals, where would be hi fusion? Again, the elds are , except with a very slow rate of cooling; wert then can the existence of erystals be assumed ? ie F q : oe ae a ig eae Origin of the Continents of the Earth. 353 ably infer, that over this naked portion, the surface first became solid, and has therefore cooled the longest and to the greatest depth.~ Consequently, the contraction from cooling, which was: going on, would take place most rapidly over the thinner and more yielding volcanic portion; and unless the ejections made up the difference, this part would become somewhat depressed, A melted globe of lead or iron in the same manner, when cooling unequally, becomes depressed by contraction on the side which cools last. Now on our own globe, the continents have to’a ve- Ty great extent been long free from voleanic action. A glance at amap of Asia and America will make this apparent. It is usual to attribute this almost total absence of volcanoes from the inte- nor of the continents to the absence of the sea; but it is fatal to this popular hypothesis, that the same freedom from volcanoes ex- isted in the Silurian period, when these very continents were’ mostly under salt water, a fact to which the wide spread Silurian tocks of America and Russia testify. Over the oceans, on the contrary, all the islands excepting the coral, are igneous—and the coral may rest as we have reason to believe on an igneous base. It is therefore a just conclusion that the areas of the surface constituting the continents were first free from eruptive fires. “portions cooled first, and consequently the contraction in progress affected most the other parts. ‘The great depressions oc- - cupied by the oceans thus began; and for a long period after- ward, continued deepening by slow; though it may have been unequal, progress. This may be deemed a mere hypothesis ; if 80, it is not as Jless as the common assumption that the oceans may have once been dry land, a view often the basis of geologi- reasoning. — _ Let us look farther at the facts. Before the depression of the Oceanic part of our globe had made much progress, the depth Would be too shallow to contain: the seas, and consequently whole land would be under water. Is it not a fact that in the ‘Maly: Silurian epoch nearly every part of the globe was beneath l@ ocean? So we are taught by the extent of the formations. The depth of water over the continental portions would be very Vatious ; but those parts which now abound in the relics of ma- tine’ life, were probably comparatively shallow, as amount of pres- Sure, light, and dissolved air, are the principal circumstances 1n- Uencing’ the distribution of animals in depth, and acted former- Srconp Srrixs, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. . 354 J. D. Dana on the Volcanoes of the Moon. ly, we may believe, as at the present period. Here then we see reason for what has been considered a most improbable supposi- tion, the existence of an immense area covered in most parts by shallow seas and so fitted for marine life. If we follow the progress of the land, we find that with each great epoch there has been a retiring of the sea. In the coal de- posits we have an abundant land vegetation. Subsequently; the progress on the whole was giving increased extent and height to the land and diminishing the area of the waters. Instead there- fore of a bodily liftmg of the continents to produce the apparent elevation, it may actually have been a retreating of the waters through the sinking of the ocean’s bottom. The process how- ever has not been a continuous one: for during each epoch,—the Silurian and the more recent,—there have been subsidences as well as seeming and actual elevations, and various oscillations of the continental surface, from subaérial to submarine and the re- verse. When contraction had once taken place over the conti- nents as well as under the ocean, there may have afterwards been expansions again through the return of heat from some cause. And thus various irregularities have taken place, such as the rocks indicate. In the tertiary period and since, the apparent rise of the land has been still to some extent in progress. _ And. is. there any evidence that this could have arisen from a sinking of the ocean’s bed? The evidence is undoubted. For Mr. Darwin has shown satisfactorily, (and farther observations to the same end, and to many interesting conclusions, will be presented in the wri ter’s geological report on the Pacific), that a subsidence of some thousands of feet has taken place since the corals commenced * their growth. Every coral island is a register of this subsidence.* And why should not the ocean’s bottom subside, as well as the land? What has given the continental portions of our globe their elevation, as compared with other parts, if not the unequal contraction of the whole? Can we safely affirm—in words of high authority—“ that the stability of the sea and the mobility of the land are demonstrated truths in geology,”+ when mobile land forms also the bed of the ocean, and its changes must affect the -* See Silliman’s Journal, xlv, 131, 1843. x ~ t Leonard Horner, Esq., Anniversary Address before the Geological Society of London, January, 1846; Q rly Jour. of the Geol. Soc., No. 6, p: 199. . > ee ae pala ~ —— # avoir soulevé et rompu le sol pour 8 Origin of the Continents of the Earth. 355 stability of the superincumbent waters; I ask, can we safely make this affirmation, until we know doupetieiiag more certain than past investigations have revealed, about the geological history of the two-thirds of the surface of our planet that are concealed be- neath its oceans ? In our conclusion from. the above reasoning, we fall in nearly with the views presented by a distinguished French geologist, M. C. Prevost, who has argued with much force in favor of subsidence as acause of the apparent elevation of the land: though it may be night to state that these conclusions were arrived at previously to seeing his memoir.* There appear to be many objections to the opinions of M. Prevost, as they are expressed by him, inasmuch as no allowance is made or admitted for minor disturbances and actual elevations by subterranean forces. His views however are well worthy the attention of the geological enquirer. _ The principles explained place the general theory of change of level by contraction upon something better than a hypothetical basis, and are believed to explain the actual causes by which the changes have been produced. They correspond moreover with the view that ruptures, elevations, foldings and contortions of Strata have been produced in. the course of contraction. ‘The ‘greater subsidence of the oceanic parts would necessarily occasion that lateral pressure required for the rise and various foldings of the Alleganies and like regions. sf The ples a theory of changes of lovel “A contraction and oxcanaias and the rise thus of continents, was first presented by Mr. Babbage and De la Beche. M. C. Prevost takes the different ground that all seeming elevations are the result of ence. His propositions are as follows, (Bulletin de la Soc. Geol. de France, ah cia’ & 1840, p. 186) :— a 1. Que le relief de Ja surface du sob est le résultat de grands affaissements suc- sits, qui, par contre-coup, et d’une maniére secondaire, ‘ont pu oceasionner acci- dentellemen nt des élévations absolues, des pressio age des ploiements, des nts, mpeg des iaatagete des failles, etc. ; rte a er croire que ces ont été produits par une cause agissant sous sol, c’est-a-dire par une » force piers i sol sont des effets complexes de retrait, de contrac- tach ‘Que les dislocations du: Hon, de plissement et de chute ;” “3. Que les matiéres ignées (granites, pened trachytes, basaltes mie s’echapper, ont seulement pro te u- , lavas,) loin tions de continuité qui Jeur ont pe offertes par le retrait et les ruptures, pour sortir, Suinter et = een au-dehors Dis SO Aye Ry as * 356 Description of three varieties of Meteorite Iron. Arr. XXXI—Description of three varieties of Meteoric. Iron. —1. from near Carthage, Smith County, Tennessee; 2. from Jackson County, Tennessee ; 3. from near Smithland, Living- ston County, Kentucky ; ie G. Troost, Prof. in the si sity of Nashville, Tennessee. . 1. Meteoric Tron from Carthage, Synith County, Tennessee. In nile xlix, p..336,.of this Journal, I published. a descrip- tion of four varieties of meteoric iron, one of which was of the highest interest as its fall had been mitnosiad by several per- sons. My collection has since been augmented by three other newly discovered specimens. A friend of mine, Samuel Morgan of Nashville, learned sometime in 1844 that a large mass some metal had been found in Smith County near Carthage, Ten- nessee, which was considered as silver, and a small sample of it was given to him which we both recognized immediately as me-_ teoric iron. Mr. Morgan immediately endeavored to learn its his- - tory and to get possession of it; but as I observed above, it be- ing considered a precious metal, he failed, and every thing was enveloped in mystery, -till it became known that it was not silver. He learned then that it was in the possession of a black- smith, that it was found about a mile from Carthage the County seat of Smith County, and Mr. M. obtained it last year for amodet- ate price. It weighed 280 pounds—an oblong shapeless mass, its surface showing here and there some projecting oetahedral erys- tals. A piece of it was sawed off weighing 39 Ibs. which now forms one of the ornaments of my cabinet. This magnificent - Specimen has a polished surface of about 12 by 94 inches. None of the metallic meteorites, that I have seen, exhibit such beauti- ful Widmannstattean figures which have become visible on its. ished surface, without the aid of acid. It shows rhomboidal and triangular sections which are generally a full inch, and a few, more than an inch, inlength. These figures cover uniformly the the whole of the polished surface. No het ible in it. There is only one cavity of about 4 1 inch on its surface. The unpolished part is partly crystallized and partly amorphous and compact. Some crystals (parts of octahedrons) project for more than an inch above the mass. The iron is very tough : alleable, and, as it contains no traces of pyrites, not susceptible * ¥ " Description of three varieties of Meteoric Tron.. 357. of being acted upon by atmospheric agencies. A partial a sis has convinced me that it contains’ a notable es al nickel ; the other components I have not. ascertained. ies Oi me Meteoric Iron from Jackson County, “Tennessee. : : » Tam also indebted to my friend, S. Morgan, for the knowledge of a variety of meteoric iron which is found in Jackson County in this state. Mr. M. received only a sample of it, but its. histo- Ty, quantity and locality are still kept in profound secrecy, as it is: yet considered as silver and its owner 1s looking out for its original deposit. The piece in my possession weighs 15 ounces. {t is an accumulation of large crystals, some of an octahedral, Others of a tetrahedral form—of a very soft malleable iron. . Its bold:and solid. crystals distinguish it from the other Tennessee eels iron. » It-was sicmnenasdil by some jancace of the crust of mete~ ore iron weighing 31 ounces. It is a hydroxide of iron of a brown and yellow color, penetrated here and there with metallic iron and resembles the crust of the Sevier County i iron ; but the iron itself differs very much from the last name This crust and the bold crystalline structure; shows that. aa digi? mass must have been large. 3. Meteoric Tron from Livingston County, Kentucky. oe Some six or seven years since a, piece of metal was handed me with the request that I would see how much silver it con- tained. When I told the person, who showed it, that it.did not Contain silver and was only iron, he became island and de- parted without answering my queries as to its locality, quantity, . ete. Some years after I received another piece of it from a dif- - ferent person. I convinced him that it was iron, but all the in- formation I could obtain was that an abundance of it was found, and as he intended to purchase the land on which it occurred, he refused to mention the locality but promised to send mea large Piece of it. ’The man did not keep his promise and I have not heard of him since. But some time last year Colonel Player Of Nashville mentioned to me that he had the offer of a tract of land on which such iron ore (showing the identical meteoric Won) was found in abundance—he thought it was ore of an ex- oats did not require any preparation’ and could 358 A Sketch of the Geology of Tezas. be worked in the same state it was found in, showing me acold chisel made of it. I told him to examine the land and see whether an abundance of it really did exist, mentioning at the same time, that I was convinced that but a single, or at least very few pieces of it could be found, because it was meteoric iron, which, so far as is known, falls only in single masses. Colonel Player went to the spot-and then learned that only a single piece of it had been found. From this gentleman I learned that. the original piece was pretty large but that it had been cut up and worked in the blacksmith shop; that the only piece now ex- isting in its natural state, and which he had in his possession was of about 8 or 10 pounds; part of it, together with the cold chisel mentioned.above, is now in my possession. This piece weighs 43 pounds. » It is.a remarkable entetd has _ a fine granular feletnbes similar to that of steel, is very compact, and has no traces of crystals, or of a cicsit:illisigratnintiiate Itisa shapeless mass and has a rough surface, where it has not’ been cut—it has the properties of steel; in fact the above mentioned chisel is equal to one made of cast steel. An incomplete analysis has given me 10 per cent. of metal mostly nickel. It was found near Smithland,. me dae —— Sacre x BE _ Nashville, Aug. 17th, 1 ’ fi =— Art. XXXII1.—A Sketch of the Geology of Texas ; by Dr. Fer - pinanD Rewer. (In a letter to the Editors dated New Braun- _ fels, German settlement on the Guadalou Pe, in Western idtenet ~ Comal County, Jane 12, 1846. y- Shrestek the four months welibith I have already sail in Texats my time has been employed in the study of its geological rela- . tions: and although my knowledge of the country is yet incom plete and mostly confined to the western section of the territory, I may hope that the following sketch of what I have seen, con- sidering the little that is known, will prove of interest to ous readers, and afford a basis for further investigations. — It is not a very encouraging fact to the geologist i in Texas, _ that only there, where civilization ceases and the wilderness com pe the: geological relations of ‘the country begin to be inter- ed part of the country A Sketch of the Geology of Texas. 359 from the hunting grounds of the Indians, is-almost exactly iden- tical with that which divides the more modern diluvial and allu- vial deposits from the secondary formations. The three points, lying in the same straight line, San Antonio di Bexar, New Braun- fels, (the German settlement on the Guadaloupe,) and Austin; are alike the extreme frontier parts of Western Texas, and. the limit of the cretaceous deposits of the upper country t ‘ds the south- east. In the. few observations which I have to make, I shall therefore separate the particulars relating to the. lower country from those bearing upon the secondary formations in the section of country lying beyond the just mentioned line. in ‘The route by which I reached the northwestern section of the country, leading through Houston, San Felipe, Austin, Colum- bus on the Colorado, Gonzales and Seguin, is nearly devoid of any geological interest; you see no solid rock in place through the whole distance, excepting irregular layers of a coarse calea- Teous sandstone of very modern origin, exposed on the steep banks of some of the rivers. The surface is elsewhere a thick diluvium: of loose materials consisting either of a fertile vegeta- ble mould, or of rounded pieces of hydrate of iron—as over the barren section between San Felipe and Columbus—or of sand and gravel, as near Gonzales and elsewhere. . _» The gravel and sand are of some interest on account of the - abundance of fossil wood which they contain at many different Places. I saw numerous localities of it between San Felipe on the Brazos, and Gonzales, and in the valley of the Colorado be- tween La Grange and Austin. This petrified wood is often found in large pieces, and it is said that occasionally whole trunks of trees are met with, which however I have not myself seen. © The fossilization of the wood is generally imperfect, the silex tite which it has been turned showing most minutely the ori- 8inal structure: Most of the wood is dicotyledonous; but not having the leisure or the necessary books of reference, I : have hot made out the species. I have only observed that in some of the wood the fibres are extremely close, and the whole structure Very compact, exceeding any tree in the existing flora of Texas. _ As the gravel and sand in which most of this fossil wood oc- : curs is generally covered by post oak timber, which alone grows Sa soil of such sterility, it is a common belief among the far- ‘Mets of the country that the fossil wood was derived from simi- 360. A Sketch of the Geology of Texas. lar oak trees of earlier growth in the same region. But this is evidently a mistake, as the fragments bear distinct marks of hay- ing been rolled and transported by water ; and the question arises as to. the geological formation in which this wood was originally deposited and petrified. 'The gravel where it occurs consists chiefly of rounded pebbles of silex, mostly of a reddish color and of a similar appearance to the silex of the cretaceous formation in the upper country. This might lead to the supposition, that the wood as well as the pebbles derive their origin from creta- ceous strata. But it is an objection to this view, that no re- mains of dicotyledonous plants (the Conifere and Cycadex ex- cluded) have hitherto been found in strata older than the tertiary deposits, excepting the leaves of Credneria in the green sand of Germany ; and moreover, the fossil wood becomes scarce as you approach the hilly country where the cretaceous strata are im place. We may hope that the doubt will be removed by an ex- amination of the eastern section of the country, where the fossil wood is said to be still more abundant, and where according to Kennedy,* between the T'rmity and Nueces rivers, tte num- bers of petrified trees lie imbedded in the soil. » The thickness of the diluvial beds diminishes ae you pa proach the cretaceous deposits, and when you are near the above- mentioned line the cretaceous strata begin to show themselves in the deep ravines and gullies; but they do not: appear at the sur- face until you pass that line. At the same time the topographical character of the country entirely changes. Instead of the low undulations of the prairies, hills of considerable height. with sharply defined outline, and but -a. short. distance beyond, : mountain ranges show themselves to the north, marking the limit between the rolling and mountainous region of Texas. | ~ The place where [ first met with a cretaceous deposit: samara New Braunfels, exactly where the old Precidio road from Sam Antonio to Nacogdoches crosses the Guadaloupe. Here in the bed of the river a white limestone is exposed which looks very Similar to the “chalk marl” of England, and to the “ planer- kalk” of Saxony. It is white, rather compact, in some beds more marly, and occasionally it contains green particles of silicate of iron. The stratification: is perfectly horizontal. ‘Some of the a » ea Bet peng, a5 i ereeiee A rel = sey sae c Aa aaa ~ ‘A Sketch of the Geolovy of Texas. 361 Strata abound in fossils. - The most common species is a small Ostrea, similar to Ostrea vesicularis, Lamk., but never growing as large and generally not being more than one inch in diame- ter. Next to it comes a large species of Exogyra, analogous: in fom to Exogyra costata, Say, but having concentric lamine instead of the oblique folds of that species. It certainly is the largest species of the genus, as some specimens of it are more than nine inches in length. Equally common with this Exo- gyra, there are two species of Inoceramus, one of them being similar to the Inoceramus Cuvieri, Sowerby, and the other to the Inoceramus cripsii, Mantell. The Pecten quadricostatus, is also abundant in some beds, a characteristic fossil, widely Spread in cretaceous deposits. Of the large family of the Bra- chiopoda, I saw but a few specimens of T'erebratula gracilis. The family of the Cephalopoda is not better represented. I saw two Species of Ammonite, one of them of the section which the Am- monites varians belongs to, and a Nautilus, which certainly is hearly allied to the common Nautilus simpler, if not identical With it. In one stratum which is only about five inches thick, sharks’ teeth of the genus Lamna and other genera abound. The same limestone ranges very far on both sides of the Gua- daloupe, and every where parallel to the chain of high hills or Mountains which separate the Indian country from the settled part of Texas. On one side I have followed it as far as Austin on the Colorado. The hills, on the slopes of which this city is 80 handsomely situated, consist of limestone with the same mine- talogical and organic characters as that’ on the Guadaloupe. Among the fossils I found here a large Ammonite similar to the Ammonites Rhotomagensis, Sowerby. Near Austin also a single Specimen of the Eixogyra costata, Say, was met with. It seems that this species among the fossils of the North American creta- ceous formation has the widest range. Besides its most abun- dant occurrence in the cretaceous marl of New Jersey and at Some places in the Southern States, “it is mentioned wy me erstonhaugh* to be frequent at different localities in the State of _. From several facts I have obtained, it is certain that the same limestone extends beyond Austin much farther to the northeast. AP ea, - * Exenrsioncinto the Slave States, p. H9. Seconp Srnizs, Vol. I , No, 6.—Nov., 1846. vA 362 A Sketch of the Geology of Texas. On the other side of the Guadaloupe, the limestone is exposed in many places on the road from New Braunfels to San Antonio, which leads in a southwestern direction. Where the road. cross- es the Cibolo, the limestone forms in the bed of the river singular- ly shaped rocks, through which the water has eaten its channel, and which are teeming with fossils. At San Antonio the lime- stone is opened by several stone quarries, and the far famed Ala- mo mission has been built of it. West and south of San Anto- nio, I have not yet seen the limestone myself, but I have reason to believe that it extends much farther in both directions. A spe- cimen of the same Exogyra which abounds on the Guadaloupe, was brought to me and said to have been found anni the peb- bles in the bed of the Rio Grande. Besides this white marly limestone, there is anothiie-d series of strata to be described.. Ascending, from New Braunfels, the range of steep hills which stretches to the northwest of this place, as soon as you leave the level of the valley, horizontal strata of a compact yellowish limestone are seen, resembling very much the compact limestone of Italy, and of Southern Europe in general. Some of the strata are very siliceous, containing large compress- ed nodules of pure dark colored silica. Other. beds are so soft that they easily decompose through the action of air. Where limestone is very compact, hardly any trace of fossils is seen in it, but some of the looser strata abound with shells. Among them there is a small species of Exogyra, which for its promi- nent, spiral beaks and general shape might easily be mistaken or a species of Chama or Diceras; it is very common, and in some localities oecurs in great abundance. ‘Together with this Exogyra, there is in most places a new species of Gryphea; al- so a smooth and globose Terebratula, and occasionally a specimen of Pecten quadricostatus: These beds of soft marly limestone are not only seen every where on the mountains in the neighbor- hood of New Braunfels, but they extend north of this place about seventy miles as far as to the Piedernales river, every where con- ‘the same fossils. Over the same wide range, there are ethic fossiliferous strata of an entirely different character. I saw them first in a deep ravine near the narrow rock-bound channel of the Guadaloupe, eight miles north of New Braunfels. One thick bed of compact limestone contains, in immense numbers, certain organic bodies. of cylindrical shape. These fossils are * _ A Sketch of the Geology of Texas. 363 generally an inch or two in diameter, twisted both Ways, and mostly fturowed longitudinally on the surface. At first view I was rather puzzled as to their relations, but on closer inspection of their internal structure, it became evident that they must be- long to the order of the Hippurites, that singular division of shells which gives the peculiar fossil character to the. cretaceous forma= tion of Southern Europe, from Lisbon in Portugal as far as Asia Minor along the Mediterranean. Some beautiful specimens of a real: Hippurites resembling very much a species of Southern France, were afterwards met: with. In the same beds of lime- - Stone with these Hippurites, several species of bivalve shells are found which belong to genera equally characteristic of the Medi- terranean cretaceous formations, viz. Diceras and some analogous Senera. At last in the same beds also occur a large Pecten of the same section as the Pecten quadricostatus, besides several univalves. _ Some Hippurites and several species of the Diceras family, Were also found on the Piedernales; so that it seems probable _ that the strata just described have a very extensive range. “ Having presented the facts observed, I offer a few general con- clusions from them. At first there cannot be the least doubt that all the strata just described are equivalent to the cret forma- tion of Europe. ‘The identity in the general character of the fos- Sils ineontestibly proves it.» It is more doubtful to which division Of the cretaceous formation they ought to be referred. So much however is certain a priori, that they do not represent the lowest divisions of the cretaceous system; since among the organic re- Mains there are no characteristic fossils of the lower green sand orof the gault. 'The fossils of the white marly limestone first Mentioned indicate an age not older than that of the “chalk marl” of England in the series of the cretaceous deposits of Europe. We might even be inclined to believe those strata equiv- alent to the white chalk of Europe, if some of the most charac- teristic fossils of the chalk among them especially the Belemnites mucronatus were not wanting altogether. The system of strata Partly consisting of compact siliceous limestone, and contain fossils of the Hippurite order, next described, belong still high- er in the*European series; for near New Braunfels they cer- tainly lie above the marly limestone. From some observations | ver made at other localities, 1 have reason to believe that the two systems of strata are not every where so distinctly sepa- \ 364 A Sketch of the Geology of Tecas. rated, and form together a single continuous succession of strata of nearly the same age; and with regard to the age we can at present only say that the beds belong to the upper division of the cretaceous formation. It is interesting to compare these creta- ceous deposits with the cretaceous strata of New Jersey, Virginia, etc. In the latter regions we find beds of a loose calcareous marl and of ferruginous sand, representing the upper division of the cretaceous formation. In their fossils and also their miner- alogical constitution they bear a striking analogy to some depos- - its of England and Germany. In Texas, we have a system of rocks which equally correspond to the upper division of the cre- taceous formation, but of a very different character and not con- sisting like those just mentioned. of loose unconnected materials, but partly at least a very compact siliceous limestone.. By their fossils as well as the composition of the rocks they are closely allied to the cretaceous formation as it is developed in the sit of Europe along the Mediterranean. A new and interesting analogy in the. outa constitution of the two continents has thus been ascertained, proving the gen- eral similarity of physical condition and of the laws of organi¢ life in both hemispheres during the period when the cretaceous strata were originally deposited. Still another observation of a peneiak character remains to be ous deposits. About 20 miles.north of Bredesichebanay- shin new & Gorin settlement on the Piedernales river, a rock more than one hundred feet high with nearly per pendicular sides stands out from the ground. ‘This rock which very probably is identical with that which has been laid down on the maps of Wilson and others as “the enchanted rock,” ¢on- sists of a rather coarse grained granite. I obtained specimens of the granite from some friends of mine who were on the spot, and ascertained also that beds of limestone extended to the very base of the rock. This fact in connexion with the other one that on the San Saba river, silver mines have been worked. for- merly by the Spaniards in a plutonic rock, seem to lead to the supposition that here on the tributaries of the Colorado we arrive at the boundary where the stratified rocks of the east side of the continent come in contact with the crystalline masses of the ponisvale mountains. If this supposition is correct, it follows that the cretaceous formation is the only one of the whole wtOee ~ ’ ; a , ; t Vo ee or Fusion of Iridium and Rhodiwn. : Oe stratified rocks which exists in this part of Texas.. From the facts observed in Texas, we derive additional confirmation of the hypothesis ong since made with great sagacity by M. Leopold von Buch and never refuted, that the oolite series of Europe have no equivalent on the American continent. _ + ai In the course of this summer I hope to extend my investiga- tions to other parts of the country, and may be able then to give your readers some more satisfactory information about its geolog- ical relations. ; Arr. XX XIII.— Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium ; by R: Hare, M. D., Prof. of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylva- _ Tats communication respects mainly my success in fusing both iridium and. rhodium, neither of which in a state of puri- ty, had been previously fused. It may be supposed that the glob- ule of iridium, obtained by Children’s colossal battery, forms an exception; but the low specific gravity, and porosity, of that bule, may justify a belief that it was not pure ; and at any Tate, the means employed were of a nature not to be at command for the repetition of the process—so that iridium might as well be infusible, as to be fusible only by such a.battery. The first specimen of the last mentioned metal, on which I Operated, was one given me by Mr. Booth, a former pupil of Wéhler, whom he had assisted in obtaining it by the excellent Process devised by that distinguished chemist. This specimen Se *T0 THE EDITORS. Gentlemen—The facts and observations of which the accompanying comraunica- tion is intended to give an account, having been communicated, sh wt — at the meeting of the American Philosophical Society, Fs ‘ete ny numbers of their bulletin in the spring and summer of 1842. spo saadat Pag ee work, I believe they have not yet been published. Under these comtian Se trust that a communication embodying the statements sxe a 3 sit ntioned. mav be d 3 } f bl ie lately allowed Mr. Goetz, one of the contributors to the “ Revue Scientifique,” Published at Paris, to make therefor a translation of this article, accompanied by a titable letter to the editors. ¥ wah am, gentlemen, with esteem, yours very truly, R. Harr. : 366 Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium. was fused in the presence of Mr. Booth. Subsequently I procu- red specimens, warranted pure, severally from the house of Pelle- tier at Paris, and from Messrs. Johnson & Cocke, London. An- other specimen was given to me by a friend, who had received it as pure, from a source on which reliance may be placed ; and last- ly, I obtained myself, by Wohler’s process, a specimen of about sixty grains, from the insoluble residue of platinum ore. All the specimens thus procured, were found to be fusible under my hy- dro-oxygen blowpipe. The specimen obtained from Johnson & Cocke, after repeated fusions by which it was much consolidated, weighed sixty-seven grains. During fusion there appeared to be an escape of volatile matter, supposed to be osmic acid, arising from the presence of a minute portion of that metal, between which and iridium, an affinity of a peculiar degree of energy ex- ists. At acertain point of the process, a reaction took place sufli- ciently explosive to throw a portion of the metal, in globules, off from the support. One of these, about twice as large as the head of a common brass pin, proved to be hollow. By prolonged and repeated fusion, _ metal became more cn cieke and more 5 sible. - Fused iridium has nearly the grain of soft cast steel, with the pale whiteness of antimony, and appears to be susceptible of a fine polish. Although as hard as untempered steel, it is some- what sectile, since when split by means of a cold chisel, the edge penetrated about the eighth of an inch before a division was effected. By light hammering a corner was flattened without fracture, although under heavier blows the mass cracked. I infer that sithoash nearly unmalleable and very hard, iridium may be wrought in the lathe. I have already mentioned that.I fused into a globule a speci men of iridium, obtained by me from the insoluble residuum of pla- tinum ore by Wohler’s process. From this globule, while congeal- ing, a portion ran out from the inside, leaving a cavity and cov- ering one of its sides externally with an incrustation, among which erystalline spangles, or facets, were discernible. ‘The spe- cific gravity of the globule of iridium, from the specimen fur- nished by Messrs. Johnson & Cocke, was taken by Mr. T. R- Eckfelt, of the United States mint at Philadelphia and by Dr. Boyé, both having balances of the greatest accuracy and ing very skillful in the employment of them. In the first in- ET, Te ete Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium. 367 Stance there was a perfect coincidence in the results obtained, 21°83 being the numbers’ found by both of these gentlemen. Agreeably to another trial made by Dr. Boyé, using river water instead of distilled, the number was 21-78, water being in either case about “sixty-eight with allowance for the difference of the water, and the temperature being above the standard of 60°, The Specific gravity of the specimen, may then be estimated at 21-80. _ The specific gravity of fused platinum, purified according to _ the instructions of Berzelius, before subjection to the hammer, proved in one specimen to be not more than 19-70, although by hammering it became equal to 21:23. It is with fused platinum that fused iridium should be compared. Of course the specific gravity of the last mentioned metal when both are obtained by fusion, may be assumed to be one tenth greater than that of the former. Moreover as this metal is the only impurity existing in the standard platinum of London, of Paris, or of St. Petersburg, it follows that a high specific gravity is not to be viewed as a proof of purity. Accordingly a ‘specimen of platinum, purified from indium by the Berzelian process and which had proved eminently Susceptible of being beaten into leaf, was found only to be of the gravity of 21-16, while that of a specimen of standard RuSsian atinum, very brilliantly white, but inferior in malleability pre- sented to me by his Excellency Count Cancrine, as a specimen of the purest platinum of the Russian mint, was 21°31. _ Of rhodium, I have fused two specimens, one of five penny Weights, purchased of Messrs. Johnson & Cocke, the other re- ceived through the same channel as the specimen of iridium above mentioned*. Rhodium is at least as fusible as iridium, both of the specimens alluded to, having been converted into fluid globules, That procured from Johnson & Cocke, gave a glolf ule Weighing ninety grains. Onasecond fusion, it formed a per- fect globule as fluid as mercury; and yet in congealing lost sd brillianey by becoming studded with crystalline facets all over its Surface, excepting the portion in contact with the support. The facets had the appearance of incipient spangles. The rapidity with which they were formed seemed to be anomalous. The mass being split by a cold chisel and viewed by a microscope, 1t ns ~* One other larger specimen from the same source has been fused since the above Was Written. % i SS : . : 368 Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium. appeared porous immediately beneath the facets. When the mass was first fused, I found by the gravimeter the specific gravity to be 11:0, which coincides with the observations of Wollaston. Yet by acareful trial made at the U. S. mint by Mr. Eckfelt, after the second fusion, and the formation of the facet, the speci- fic gravity proved to be only 10°8. This is sufficiently explained by the porosity above mentioned. In fact the porosity to which rhodium and iridium are liable, may render it difficult to find = cimens of precisely the same apie gravity. In sectility, malleability and hardness, rhodium did not appear to differ much from iridium, but it is not of so palea white as iridium. The one has the pale white of antimony, the other the ruddy hue of bismuth. _ Osmiuret of iridium as existing in the native spangles associ- ated with platina ore, or as otherwise obtained, is far more diffi- cult of fusion than pure iridium. The propensity to assume the crystalline form, and to adhere to it, is even greater in this alloy than in the last mentioned metal. On first exposure to the most intense heat of the hydro-oxygen blowpipe, some slight appear- ances of fusion may be seen, and the spangles or grains may be magfe to cohere. Wevertheldes it yields very slowly, and requires an expenditure of gas too great to be incurred unless it were for the purpose of once well determining the question of its ultimate fusibility. This object was obtained completely as respects @ globule of forty-five grains in weight. The specific gravity of this globule appeared to be 20.4, but this result was evidently less than that which would have been obtained had there not been some minute cavities, which after splitting the globule, were de- tected by a magnifier. * The specific gravity of some large spangles of osmiuret of it dium from South American ore, was by Dr. Boyé found to be 19-835. That of some grains heavier but not so flat, presented to me by Count Cancrine, was found to be 20.938. That the alloy of iridium with osmium should be more aifi- cult to fuse than pure iridium, leads to the inference that osmium must be the most infusible of the metals, although, like carbon, very susceptible of combustion, and capable, like that infusible non-metallic radical, of forreing a volatile peroxide. Of course its liability to oxydizement, would render it impossible to mee it by the hydro-oxygen Bers of which the efficacy requires the — Fusion of Iridium and Rhodium. 369 simultaneous presence of oxygen. and the most intense heat. It might be fused by exposure in vacuo to the discharge of a pow- erful voltaic series, by means of the apparatus of which a descrip- tion with engravings has been. given in a recent volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, and ae lished in this Journal for 1841, vol. xl, p. 303. _Thave obtained osmium by honing the osmiate of ammonia in a glass tube with sal. ammoniac, agreeably to the instructions given by Berzelius. In this way a result was obtained which the information given by that distinguished chemist, had not led me to anticipate. 'The tube became coated with a ring of osmi- um, which it would be impossible by inspection merely, to dis- tinguish from the arsenical ring on the peculiar features of which, reliance has been placed for the detection of arsenic. ~ It follows from my experiments and observations, that of all metallic bodies, osmiuret of iridium is the most difficult to fuse ; _ that rhodium and iridium are both fusible by the hydro-oxygen blowpipe, properly employed ; that the former has the rosy white- hess of bismuth, the latter the pale white of antimony ; and that both of them are slightly sectile though. extremely hard and near- ly unmalleable; that iridium merely fused, is | than platinum condensed by the hammer. —'Thus it follows from my experiments and from the recent observations of Breithaupt, on some specimens of native iridium, that the metal whether in this state or pure as obtained by chemical skill and. consolidated by fusion, must be allowed that preéminence in density which, until of late, was given to platinum. _ Itmay be proper to add that subsequently to the writing of the preceding narrative, receiving some large quantities of iridium and thodium, from Johnson and Cocke, my experiments were success- fully repeated on a larger scale, but without any result besides that of confirming the facts above stated. Srconp Srnizs, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nor., 1846. ae 48 370 Meteoric Iron of Texas and Lockport. Arr. XXXIV. —On the Metconic Ir on of Beige mal | Lacport by Prof. B. Struman, Jr., and T. 8. Hounr. Srverat notices of the Texas Iron will be found in the former series of this Journal.* It was at first said to be not nickeliferous, but. Prof. Silliman soon proved this statement to be an error. We are indebted to the united cupidity and ignorance of. those who procured this fine specimen of celestial matter, for its being known to science. 'I'wo costly, armed, and well organized expeditions were sent out for it, and inconceivable difficulties were encountered in a wilderness among hostile savages, before they at last succeeded in bringing it nearly two thousand miles over land to the Mississippi, elated with the confident delusion that it was platinum. Wehave in our possession a large number of orig manuscript documents, which collectively constitute a full histo- ry of the discovery and procuring of this specimen. Our lim- its do not permit their publication, nor is it necessary that even a full abstract of them should be given. A sufficient account of these papers will be found in vol. viii, p. 218, of this Jour- nal. After this mass was presented to the collection i in Yale. College by Mrs. Laura. Gibbs—widow of Col. George Gibbs, so well known to all cultivators of * mineralogy—a portion of the s ler end was sawn off with much difficulty, which when reduced to a smooth surface, gave a brilliantly polished face . about eight inches in diameter, on which is engraved. an inscription commemorative of Col. Gibbs and the donor, and the weight ' of the mass—1635 pounds, . This section revealed in a very “perfect manner the crystalline structure of the mass, by the broad octa- hedral cleavages which appeared at one or two points where 4 fracture was made. By a planing machine, the surface of the * 1. “ Notice of the Malleable Iron of Texas,” viii, 218, (18 24.) This notice cou- tains a historical account of the. discovery and af the expeditions of G and John Maley to obtain the mass now in the Yale College meinecelogin® collection- 2. “ Analysis of the meteoric iron of Loumiana, ” by C. U. Shepard, _ 217, 1829. 3 A notice of the presentation of this mass to Yale College by Mrs. Gibbs, : “4. Some farther facts concerning the locality and othér masses of metallic iron staan tor Fe ana i Mat Meteoric Iron of Tecas and Lockport. 371 portion which was removed was rendered quite smooth and level, and after being well polished, it- was washed with dilute nitric acid. The lines of crystallization at once made their appearance in the most beautiful manner. The action of the acid was continued until the lines were etched boldly enough, to take ink and give an impression. 'The mass was so imbedded in type metal as to be capable of passing the copper plate press, and the impressions were then taken, of which the accompanying plate is one. This mode of proceeding, causes the iron to record its own crystal- line character in the most faithful manner. \ This. crystalline structure of meteoric iron is found in mos¢ but not in all the spe- cimens of such iron which have been examined. Those who have seen the work of Schreibers* will remember the beautiful Structure of the Agram iron, and many others, developed by acids. The Alabama. meteoric iront has however no distinct crystalline structure. ‘The Columbia, South America, has very little; and the supposed meteoric iron from Oswego,t or Scriba, in New. York, has none. wae ~ The Texas mass is a-magnet; its greater diameter is nearly inthe magnetic meridian, as it is now placed, and in this sit- uation it possesses true polarity. One of the artizans employed in finishing up the polished face, noticed that the filings of the iron arranged themselves on the face in lines parallel to the crys- talline planes, as if influenced by magnetic attraction. No large ‘nasses of pyrites were observed in this mass, though so abun- dant in the Lockport iron. This mineral is however not entire- ly wanting in the Texas iron, as is shown by chemical examina- ton; and one or two small lumps of pyrites were encountered by the saw, in cutting the section before mentioned. ; Chlorine.—V ery soon after the section was made, both of its 9pposite faces were observed to be bedewed with moisture. This Was washed off with distilled water and the washings tested for chlorine by nitrate of silvery with abundant evidence of the pres- ence of this element. This exudation soon ceased, and the chip- Pings of the iron examined by solution in pure nitric acid, and testing with nitrate of silver, gave no further evidence of the Presence of chlorine. We conclude therefore that this iron prob- 200 * Der Meteoreisen. t This Jour., lst. Ser., xxxiv, 332 + This Jour., Ist Ser., xl, 366. 372 Meteorie Iron of Texas and Lockport. ably contains in its interior parts, a small portion of. chlorine, which has escaped from its surface, and hence only the — section of the mass, gave evidence of its presence. The frequent chemical examinations, by able investigators, of meteoric masses, have shown that their rhode of combination is frequently peculiar, but so far no new elements in addition to ose before known, have rewarded the search. Although our ideas of the unity and simplicity of eosmical laws are thus enlar- ged, we are not yet warranted in the conclusion that the matter of meteors is in all respects the same as that of our earth. From the fact that almost yearly additions are made to our list of ele- ments, in minerals brought from parts of the earth long known d seemingly well investigated; may we not hope that these celestial visitors may yet present us from the distant regions of space, with some element before unknown? Perhaps an obscure affirmative answer is given to this question, by a fact noticed in this paper as observed in the Texas iron. Thus far our search has been far too limited to authorize us in asserting from the neg- ative evidence obtained, that new el ts do not exist m meteors. The attention of chemists has been too generally confined to the detection of a few bodies, which are already recognized as ingre- dients of meteoric masses, and no substance. has fora id ‘ame been added to that list. — ii We have spent some time in the examination of various mete- orice irons and stones, and although we have little that is new 10 present, our researches have not been without interest as showing the great general similarity in composition, which characterizes this remarkable class of bodies. We present now only the re- sults obtained on the 'Texas and Lockport irons. Examination of the Texas Tron. When this iron is dissolved in hydrochloric acid (A) a very small amount of insoluble matter remains, being only about“ per centum. This residue is a black powder, (B) interspersed with some scales of a leaden gray and containing numerous bril- liant metallic plates of a silvery whiteness. It is almost entirely magnetic iron, the brilliant scales being either metallic — or an gsi of iron with ea tan of wicket: ‘ Tat ae Meteoric Iron of Texas and Lockport. 373 The hydrochloric solution’ (A) afforded no precipitate when treated with sulphuretted hydrogen; and the iron being thrown down from a portion of it by ammonia, the filtrate bow f examin- ed in vain for cobalt, manganese and zinc. The insoluble black powder (B), when digested in aqua regia, _ Was partly dissolved, while another portion remained, consisting of flakes of graphite, or at least of a very incombustible carbon containing a little iron. Sulphuretted hydrogen passed through the solution gave a yellowish brown precipitate, which was dis- solved by hydrosulphuret of ammonia (C), leaving only a trace of sulphuret of copper. The soluble portion (C) was precipita- ted by acetic acid, and its color appeared to be orange, but was ‘Somewhat obscured by free sulphur. 'The results obtained from its examination were anomalous and rather unsatisfactory. It fused with nitre and carbonate of soda, forming a mass which was Soluble in water without residue, and whose solution nitric acid did not sensibly affect. ‘Treated with nitrate of silver and a dilute solution of ammonia, with reference to the detection of arsenic acid, it gave a white precipitate in place of the red-brown of the arseniate of silver. A part of the solution was treated with acetate of lead, and the precipitate obtained, when reduced before ate blowpipe, gave a globule of lead, which at a red heat evolved area inodorous. fumes resembling antimony. A want of suffi- .. cient mat fi tion, and the question SEAL IAL e ofitstiue nature is eth secienely i unsettled. Antimonic acid is ‘Precipitated from its salts by any strong acid, which was not the ‘Teaction of the substance under examination. - If not antimony, it ls probably a new body hitherto unexamined, although such a conclusion requires further evidence to warrant its correctness. oe analysis of 100 Bei of ine ies be ‘secon ; ne): | wh DCH, : pe ee — Phosphorus, eal : Carbon, : u nie Antimony? and Riis Pe 93 Copper, 7 | ae 92.3 The i iron in n (B)i is pdnin in: the state of magnetic oxyd, and a8 such would make up the deficiency in this analysis. 374 Meteoric Iron of Teras and Lockport. The proportion of nickel and iron in the 'Texas meteorite seems to-vary. The mean of several analyses gives us— Tron, ’ ‘ é ‘ ; 90:911 Nickel, . . ‘ ‘ praten@ 8-462 Insoluble : : s 0°500 Phosphurets, &c. : | 99-873 The nickeliferous iron, or that part of the mass most rich in nickel, seems to have been segregated from the general mass, and forms the elevated lines of brilliant whiteness which appear on etching a polished surface of the metal Eramination of the Lockport Iron. The history of this mass was given in this Journal, Ist Series, xlviii, 390, and also a preliniinary analysis by the late D. Olmsted, Jr. For the sake of comparison, we again introduce the figure, showing its crystalline structure, and the white and yellow pytee which it contains. A quantity of this iron in small fragments was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, with the aid ofa gentle heat; the solution easily and rapidly effected, and the gas given off, being passed through a solution of acetate of lead, was found to con- Rl Meteoric Iron of Texas and Lockport. 375 tain some stlphureted hydrogen, arising from the solution of the pyrites with which the mass is impregnated.. ‘A small in- soluble residue remained in the solution, which was digested with a fresh portion of dilute acid without any effect. It was then collected and dried; it was partly light and flocculent, but ‘the larger portion of it consisted of blackish gray scales, nearly all of which was attracted by the magnet. This insoluble residue makes up 1-4 per centum of the entire mass of the iron. It dissolved in aqua regia, leaving a small amount of finely divided chestnut brown matter, so intimately suspended in the solution that it did not subside in twelve hours, but ‘still gave _@ brown tint to the liquid. When ignited, it glowed for a mo- ment and left a light reddish ash. It dissolved with efferves- cence in pure fused carbonate of soda and the mass treated with _ Water, gave flocculi of silicic acid. ‘These characters show the -teddish ‘brown matter to have been either silica with a trace of carbon, or silicon, which last Prof. aac has ey shown to exist, in the Csweps iron.* Hydrosulphuret of ammonium, threw “town the metals from the solution in aqua regia, and the filtrate from this was found to contain phosphorie acid. ‘The metallic sulphurets consisted Solely of iron and nickel. A. careful secinegconete failed to caer either “cobalt, manganese, or any other metal. 1 é with stlphureted hy- BMAGLUS “aes a ‘small precipitate, ‘of. which - -é pant was taken up by al- Kaline sulphurets and the residue ‘consisted only of copper. "The soluble part Was too small to obtain from it definite reactions: It was probably arsenic. One jvundred — na this insoluble reside ae ei ; . Nickel, Bee ae Seis ity oie BS Phosphorus, . e uF ‘ ini ne 3 wees Wiieedd Or ps Oe gos 1D 90-00 The considerable deficiency 10 this shoal is probably due to the fact that the iron occurs in the compound, as magnetic ox- yd, which is here estimated as metallic iron. The quantity of a See this Journal, First Ser., vol. xl, p. 366. 376 Meteoric Iron of Texas and Lockport. phosphorus is very little more than is required to form a phosphu- ret with the nickel (Ni,P), or with about. half of the iron, and it is certainly difficult to conceive of the iron as retaining its magnetic condition, and resisting the action of hydrochloric , unless we suppose it to be in the state of magnetic oxyd. § | We may phenenty rhage tigi as the constitution of the entire Liisa tes elle ites, 5 8 acim BE hy pets Coppe: ~¢ ; yas Big r , } Traces erie ; y ie re depen roo ; é Bee * ig : * * , 1-4 ¥ if ‘ a eat eine 4699-991 “We rena as yeh no soncioshteds on. 1 the contests of the. pyrites contained in these irons, which if. we can obtain a sufficient quantity of the material, will be discussed on a future occasion. It will be seen that we have not noticed. the existence, of. co- balt in either of these masses, and as it. has generally. been spo- ken of, as a pretty constant ingredient i in meteoric iron, it will be well to state the manner in which the examination for, this metal or as.a basic salt by the process of lution were then. precipitated eights hurets. From of these rendered ammoniacal,. the nickel was ‘thrown. caustic potash, agreeably to the. directions of Phillips, whe drosulphuret of ammonium gave no re ar in. the. flat, even after standing one or two hours. - ilar ‘mode of pro- ceeding with both of the hydrochloric s icon ,and those of the residue insoluble in that acid, gave the same results, & and was sup- — posed to prove the absence of cobalt, ‘The oxyds of nickel and iron thus obtained, when examined by the blawpipe, gare” no ev- idence of this me — aun Laboratory, J ei 27, 1846. ips Sed 4) ced (nae DEORE OS Structore of the 7] % ¥ Pao Sy - Pei By vression taken } Li Te ie ee! Report on Meteorites. — 377 Be Bae XKXV.— Report ‘on: -Miateorites-—Read. before he Amen. _ ean Association of Geologists and Naturalists, at their meeting in New York, held September 2d, 1846; by Cuarues Upuyam Sueparp, M. D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Col- lege of South Carolina and in Amherst College, Mass. Tus report was undertaken with a view to collect all the in- formation within reach, relative to the meteoric productions of _ the United States, (or at farthest those of North America.) In the prosecution of the work, however, I have been led to pay at- tention to meteorites generally ; at least so far as to classify and describe the various mineral species they contain, to give a view "of their chemical constitution, and to treat of some of those re- lations familiar to us as geological so far as these are common to meteor-masses, id Part I. ae Description of the Mineral Species found in Meteor-Masses. ‘The number of species recognized in these bodies is thirty- Seven. 'Their natural history properties readily permit them to be distributed into the three classes, and under thirteen of the orders of the mineralogical system of our earth. But as meteor- ites are now, by universal consent, admitted not to be of ter- testrial origin, it would obviously be improper to describe the Species of which they consist under the science of mineralogy, _ although we may perhaps be allowed to borrow temporarily the hames of its orders; since, in the use proposed, no change in their Significance is to be made. ‘The natural history treatment of the meteoric species will therefore constitute a new science, for which the name AsrroxirHotocy is suggested, (from «orig a meteor, dos a stone, and hoyos & treatise.) The following is a tabular View of the systematic arrangement of the species. CLASS I. Order 1st, Gaseous. Sp. 1. Sulphurous Acid. — Order 2d, Soluble. 2. Ey | Sp. 4. Vitriolic Nickel. . 3. Glauber's salt. Sp. 5. Copperas. COND Sxnizs, Vol. If, No. 6—Nov., 1846. 49 ane, Sp. 15. Sp. 16. Sp. 20. Sp. 21. Sp. 22. Sp. 25. Sp. 27. Sp. 28. Sp. 30. Sp. 31. Sp. 32. Report on Meteorites. . Hyposulphite of soda, (nov. sp.) . Hyposulphite of magne- sia, (nov. sp. Chloride of Tron. Chloride of Nickel. Sp. 10. Chloride of Cobalt. Sp. 11. Chloride of Calcium. Sp. 12. Chloride of Magnesium. Sp. 13. Chloride of Sodium. Sp. 14. Soluble Silica, (nov:sp. ) CLASS IL. Order 1st, Halide. Apatite? Apatoid, (nov. Sp: ) ‘Sp. 17. Sphenomite, (nov. sp.) Order 2d, Ochre. Sp. 18. Dyslytite, (nov. sp.) Order 3d, Mica. Sp. 19. Mica. - Order 4th, Spar. Iodolite, (nov. sp.) Chad, (nov. sp.) Anorthite Sp. 23. Pyroxene. Sp. 24. Chantonnite, (nov. Sp.) Order 5th, Gem. Peridot. Limonite. Chrome-ore. Sp. 26. Garnet. ied 29. Magnetic Iron. Order Tth, Metal. Native Iron, (nov. sp.) Nickeliferous Iron. Native Steel, (nov. sp.) Sp. 33. Nickaliforotis Steen sp. ) Order 8th, Pyrites. Sp. 34. Magnetic Iron-pyrites. Order 9th, Glance. Sp. 35. Schreibersite, (nov. sp.) CLASS If. Order 1st, Sulphur. Sp. 36. Sul __ Order 2d, Graphite. | shee Suasece phur. ” * Ripertisil. Mictoosess eve Descriptions of the species in the order of the. Soregoing ar- rangement.—Such of the species as are common to eavepecmebich will be ate over with sian descriptions. " Siege Acid, —This gas is freely evolved from a major- ity of meteoric stones, at the time of their descent. .A fresh frac- ture or slight friction davelops. its odor, very perceptibly, in the Bishopville (S. C.).stone 2. Epsom Salt. _-This is dissoingl out by water from the Alais stone, (Berzextus,) as also from that of Bishopville. 3. Glauber’s Salt.—Dissolved out from the Bishopville stone. 4: Vitriolic Nickel—Dissolved out fromthe Alais stone in small quantity, (Berze.is. ) opperas.—Dissolved from pyritic masses of Cocke Co., Tenn. iron. 6. Hyposulphite ait Soda.—Dissolved froth the Bishopville apna a aesrontiphite of M agnesia. ns Dieealeed from the Bishopville . Chloride of Tron.—Dissolved from the Claihdme: iron, (Jacx- SON ay and from Asheville (N. C.) iro 9. Chloride of Nickel. — Dissolved from the Claiborne iron, + eas ) 10. Chloride of Cobalt. Contained i in red rain which fell during an hour at Blankenberg, Pays Bas., Nov, 2d, 1819, (MM. Meyer and Sroopr.*) AL. Chloride of Calcium.—Dissolved out from the Bishopville stone. 12. Chloride of Sodiuim. —Found in the Stamnern stone, (Scurerrn. AB. aaa of Magnesium. —Dissolved out from the Bao nrer Soluble Silica. Tieaplvel. out from the Bishopville stone. 15. Apatite ?—In small, yellowish-green, transparent grains, (H=5-0,) found in the Richmond stone. 16. Apatoid, ( Shepard. )—Thus named from its resemblance to apatite, It occurs in very minute quantity, in small, yellow, OO * Jour. de Phys., tv Ixi, p. 469. t Chladni, isi oS enats meteore, Wien 1819, p- 46. 380 Report on Meteorites. semi-transparent grains in the Richmond stone, and still more sparingly in that of Bishopville. H.=5-5. It fuses partialky be- fore the blowpipe on charcoal, at the same time turning black. With borax it dissolves into a diate anita glass. It does not contain phosphoric acid. 17. Sphenomite, (Shepard. \—Thus named from its resem- . blance to sphene. It occurs in brownish-grey (with a tinge of yellow,) thin, tabular crystals. H.=5-5. Implanted on crystals of black pyroxene, and associated with anorthite in the Juvenas stone. Before the blowpipe, it fuses readily into a black glass, which is magnetic. It dissolves in- borax with effervescence, presenting the reaction of sphene. It is soluble in nitric acid, _ with the exception of a heavy white powder, insoluble in ammo- nia. ‘The solution contained silicic acid and lime. 18. Dyslytite, (Shepard.)—Named from dvoivtos, insoluble. It is a blackish-brown powder, which is brought to view by the action of acids, in the greater number of meteoric irons,—being present in them in proportions, varying from 0:25 to 2:25 p.c. It © consists, according to Brerzexius, of a phesphaget of iron, nick- el, and magnesium.* 19. Mica.—F ound, in a single instance, in small, brownish- grey, pearly, scales, attached to a mass of nickeliferous iron bs 8 ing 54 grs., from the meteoric stone of Weston. 20. Lodolite, (Shepard.)—Named from w Schreibersite. 20. Plumbago. ~ The following is a list of seven of the most abundant of the meteoric species, (which are enumerated in the supposed order of their prevalence, ) in the aggregate of meteor-masses at present “1. Nickeliferous iron. 5. Anorthite. a Re Peridotesd — 35 « 6, Native iron. - + 3. Pyroxene. . 7, Chiadnite. _ +» 4) Magnetic iron pyrites. And of these, it is probable, that No. 1 constitutes ,%;ths the _ Weight of all known meteor-masses; while the seven species ta- _ ken together, form 12ths of such masses. The four species out of these seven which are common to the earth, (peridot, pyroxene, magnetic iron pyrites, and anorthite,) 3 form too insignificant a part of the crust of our globe to enable + to give, even a conjectural expression, in numbers, of their amount. Kea - The contrast is therefore very Position of the meteor-masses and of our earth. A species whose Specific gravity is above 7, and which is metallic in its character, ib eG oe fe ee +1 ¢ fi a forms ,°,ths of the former, while all the analogous species (i. e., those belonging to the order metal,) taken together, do not prob- ably constitute rasleaath part of our globe! This remarkable iscrepancy however will be much diminished, when allowance is made for the loss of all those meteoric stones which have fal- len in early times, prior to the period in which mankind have - begun to collect and preserve them. From the peculiar chemical Composition of meteoric stones, it is plain, that unless collected Soon after their fall, they would cease to be cognizable : whereas the iron-massés are capable of withstanding almost indefinitely, the action of the atmosphere and other destructive agencies to which they may be exposed after contact with our earth. It is probable then that Yasths, at least, of the meteor-masses wn, fell in early times; some of it perhaps, anterior to the . existence of man on the earth: and if we would form an idea of the correspondence between the metallic and the stony meteors Of those times, we can only do so by comparing the ratio between the two during’a fixed modern period, within which the masses ofboth kinds have been observed. ‘Taking the last one — Years With such a view, we find in the weight of the two iron- falls (Croatia, 1752, and Tennessee, 1835) as set off against that __ Bkcoxp Senizs, Vol. If, No. 6—Nov., 1846. 50 386 Report on Meteorites. _ of all the stones for the same length of time, a ratio — ting that of one (for irons) to twenty (for stones. ) The preponderance of the stony minerals in theteainmndede would also appear considerably greater, if we could correctly allow for the immense loss of matter which on the explosion of a meteor, must often accrue, in the pulverization of a body so weakly cohe- rent as is the majority of the stones. The clouds from whence the showers of stones have so often been seen to issue, may be compos- ed of the fine dust which has resulted from the complete rending of such bodies: while numerous accounts are on record, of the precipitation for hours together and over wide areas of country, of a fine impalpable powder, whose chemical composition has been found, in the general, to correspond with that of meteoric stones. But after every allowance is made on the above mentioned grounds, it will still remain true’ that a prevailing metallic char- acter and a high specific gravity, characterize the meteoric min- erals when epmnpenng with those of our own planet. . Part II. Chemistry of Meteor-Masses. "The chemical elements thus far known’ to exist in these bodies, are here arranged in the supposed order of their prevalence. 1. Iron. _-» 12. Cobalt. 2. Nickel. i send _ 13. Carbon. 3. Magnesium. - | 14.. Phosphorus. A, Oxygen. 15. Chlorine. 5. Silicon 16, Manganese. 6. Sulphur. Bet Ad oS 7. Calcium. . - 18. Copper. 8. Aluminium.. 19. Hydrogen. 9. Chromium. ? 20. Titanium. 10. Sodium. Seek Arsenic. 11. Potassium. The above elements are among those most frequently found entering into the composition of the crust of our globe, (includ- ing also its atmosphere.) .The individual parallelism in the we. cases, may easily be seen from an inspection of the following table. It would be still more striking, if we knew how to make a just allowance for that portion of meteoric matter (the stony) mi he ll re. san mad from «the natnre: of Mt TET Pee oe Report on. ~ chemical constitution has either suffered, from atmospheric in- fluences, a total decomposition, or at least become so much al- tered.as no longer to be distinguishable. This arrangement of meteoric elements, like that given above, is constructed from a view of the totality of meteor-masses at present known to be in existence, on the surface of our globe. The terrestrial ele- ments being arranged also as nearly as possible in the order of their abundance, the correspondence they sustain to the meteoric group, will at once be discerned by a reference to the numbers by which one and the same element is preceded on the two lists. The seven elements, among the twenty-eight terrestrial series, not | me detected in meteors, are followed each by a star. . Meteoric Series. Terrestrial Series. 1. Fe. 1. Ox. ” 2.. Ni, 2. Si 3. Mg. ee 4, O. 4, Ca. 5.. Si. 5. Mg 6. S. 6. Fe. 7. Ca. 1 he 8. Al. 8. Na. 9. Cr. 0. 3. 10. Na. 10. C. #1. K. il: HH. 12. Co. 12. Mn. 13. -C 13. Cl 14. P. 14. F.* 15; Gl. 16...P 16. Mn. 16.7 17. Sn. 17; Be: > 18. Cu. 18:..Zn.* 19) 037. 19. Pb. £20. Ti. 20. Cu. 221, As. 21. As. ae and 23. Bb* fw y 24, Sn. 25. Cr 26. Th 27. Ni 28. Co 388 Report on Meteorites. It is scarcely to be doubted but that fiuorine will soon be de- . tected in meteoric stones, inasmuch as it is a frequent constituent both of mica and of apatite; the former of which minerals, in very minute quantity, has been detected in the Weston stone, while the existence of apatite has been rendered highly proba- ble, if not certain, in the Richmond meteorite. It is easy to con- i ceive that several other terrestrial elements belong to the meteors, which from their volatility, may have been dissipated and lost in our atmosphere, before the masses to which they oniginnly ad- hered could have reached the ground. - ‘The manner in which the meteoric einiticrine are nesocianed’ is readily seen, by throwing the mineral species se wivel rise to, into four groups or orders. OrpER First. 1. Iron (Fe, Native Iron), and Iron-alloys (Fe*Ni, Nickel- aferous Iron). 2. Sulphur (S, Sulphur), and sulphurets (Fe*S’, Muagnete Iron Pyrites: Cr?'S*' Schreibersite). 3. Carbon (C, Plumbago), and Carburets (Fe*C, Native Steel : ” Fe’Ni*C. Nickeliferous Steel). 4. Phosphuret (Fe Ni Mg* P, Dyslytite). 25, Silicet (Fe'Si ———_). Orpver Seconp. > 1. Oxides (Fe?02+HO, Limonite: Fe*O*, Magnetic Iron ; Cr?0°, Chrome-ore). 2. Chlorides . Cl: Ni Cl: Ca Cl: Mg Cl: Na Cl). Orper 'T'arrp. 1, Oxygen acids (SiO*, Soluble Silica: SO?, Sulphurous acid). 7 | Orver Fourru. ® 1. Sulphates (Mg0+S0?: NaO+SO:: NiO480°: FeO+ SO; 2. Hyposulphites (Na0+S8*0? : Mg0-4$?02). 3. Silicates (Mg0+3Si0° Chladnite: Silicates of magnesia, protox. iron, lime, alumina, soda and potassa, Peridot, Pyro? ene, Anerihaie, Chantonnite, and Garnet). , 24. Titaniate (—— Sphenomite). #5. Crees (deat #) Report on Meteorites. 389 The following is, to'a short extent, a comparative table of the most abundant ehiomeical compounds, among meteoric and terres- asi) minerals. Fae 1. Iron alloys. 2. Silicates of magnesia, iron, lime, &e. _ 3. Sulphuret of iron. 4. Oxides of i iron and chrome. 5. Chlorides of iron and nickel. Ss ? ‘Terrestrial. 1. Silicic acid. _ 2. Silicates of alumina, potassa, soda ain iron, (Feldspar, AL bite and Mica.) 3. Silicates of alumina, lime, magnesia baa iron, (Hornblende, _ Pyrorene and Garnet). 4. Water : 3 : Carbonates of lime, magnesia and iron. _ 6. Sulphurets of iron. 7. Chlorides of sodium, magnesium and calcium. 8, Oxides of iron and manganese. so Pei If. | Astropetrology. “Binder this general head, the name of which is formed like that, of the first department, (astrolithology, ) with the exception of the two middle syllables, which are derived from the word mézgoc,a rock, instead of from 460s, a stone,—the former having reference to an individual species, the latter to a rock-mass, it is intended to embrace information of the same general nature as that, which, in respect to our own planet, is contained under Ge- 4 ology. Aatrspeirligy therefore, will very naturally have two de- partments of its own: viz. Descriptive and clasts aoe Pology. | 1. Descriptive Astropetrology. Under this head, the various rock-masses, or astropetrological Species, will be enumerated and ers They will form two Report on Meteorites. ‘CLASS I. METALLIC.. WES Sey ‘Seriba, N. Y.o¢ Sec. 1. Pure. - eee $ Walker Co.; Ala: ite, def Green Co., Tenn. Order Ist, Closely as. od Malleable, _._..Jjerystalline, } Dickson Gog. 1s homoge- a ie | Burlington, N. Y. neous Bec. 2. Alloyed: ) oe Be Kalb Co.; Tenn. : Coarsely | Asheville, N. C. |erystalline. } Guildford, N.C.- | E Carthage, Tenn. Order 2d, [See. 1. ‘Amygdalo-peridotic, Krasnojarsk, Siberia. Sec. 2. Amygdalo-pyritic, Lockport(Cambria),N.Y. neous. peas. 3. Pyrito-plumbaginous,Cocke Co., ‘Tenn. a : Bedford Co., Pa. we Se ee | 2. teak oa Bendophcoe eee " (Sec. 2, Alloyed, - = Otsego Co,, N. Y. CLASS IL STONY. E P f ; Weston, Conn. : (Sec. 1, Peridotic, | Coase grained, Richmond, Va. Nobleboro, Me. Trachy.” ei keer Littl Piney, Mo. tic 1" Sée: 2. P yroxenic, 2 - Juvenas, France. Sec, 3. Chladnitic, - Sec. 4. Carbonaceous, ot, - Bishopville, 8. C. - ColdBokkeveld,Af Order 2d, Sec. 1. Homogeneous, - Chantonnay, France. -'Trappean. / Sec. 2. Porphyritic, - © - © Renazzo, Italy. Order 3d, ( : Re ae iret Picnic ticest asian sett Ee Metle Mes Theoretical Astropetrology.—The few facts known under this head, (i. e. which relate to the origin and formation of meteor- masses, the changes they have undergone from the various con- ditions in which they have been placed, and speculations regard- : ing any traces of life they may contain,) have induced me to post- pone any detail of them, to a fuller report on this branch of know! edge, which I hope to submit to the Association at a future period. Parr IV. Summary of American Meteor-masses. ~ CLASS I. der 1st. Section Ist. “1. Seriba, (Oswego,) N. ¥. Found 1834. Described 1841. Report on Meteorites. 391 2. Walker Co., Ala, hem 1832.. Disteribed. 1845. Troost. Weight 165 lbs os iia ag Section 2d. Closely Crystalline. ' 3. Green Co., Tenn. Found 1842. Described 1845. Pb. Weight 20 Ibs. 4. Claiborne, Ala.- Foima 1834. Described 1838. desert Weight about 40 Ibs. 5. Livingston Co., Ky. Described 1846. Troost. 6. Dickson Co., Tenn. Fell July or August, 1835. Described 1845. Troost. Weight 9 lbs. 7. Texas, (Red River.) Found 1808. Described by Gress and Sittman, Sen. Weight 1700 Ibs. | 8. Burlington, N.Y. Found 1819. Diéieribed 844. ‘ona create Jr. ~ Weight about 150 Ibs. Coarsely Crystalline. ee DeKalb Co.,. Tenn. Described 1845, Troost. Weight 36 Ib : ner 10. ‘Asheville, N. C, Described 1839. Sserarp. Weight about. 30 Ibs. : iL Guilford, N.C. Found 1820. - Described 1841. Suep- Arp. Weight 28 Ibs. my 12. Carthage, Tenn. ‘Described 1846. Troost. Weight 280 Ibs. , 3. Jackson Co., Tenn. Dekeribed 1846, T'RoosT. Order 2d. _ Section 2d. an Lockport, (Cambria, ) N. Y. Found 1818. Described 1845. Suntan, Jr. ae 36 Ibs. See 15. Cocke Co, Tenn. Pegi 1840,. Troost. Weight about 2000 Ibs. . Order 3d. Section Ist. 4 16. Randolph Co., N.C, Found 1822. . Described 1846. HEP t 2 Ibs. AW. Aael cae shes Found 1928. Described 1846. Suep- 4RD. Weight a few ounces. Section Qd. 18. Otsego Co., N.Y. Found 1845. Described 1846. Suep- AR, Weight 276 grs. 392. Report on Meteorites. Appenpix To Crass I. - . 19. diencaiaibe Co., N. C. Found 1845. Described 1846. Sueparp. Weight 27 Ibs. ‘ 20. Grayson Co., Va. J. B. ain: 21. Roanoake Co. , Va. W. B. Rogers. 22. White. Mountaine, (near F'ranconia,) N. H. Described 1846. Sueparp. Weight about 20 lbs. sorte Staoheat Order 1st. Section Ist. & _ Coarse Grained. 1 Weston, Conn. Fell Dec. 14, 1807. Described by Siti MAN, Sen., ‘and ‘Kinestey. Weight about 300 lbs. Re: Richimandk Va, Fell June 4, —_ Described by Sueparp. ; Weight 4\bs. - Fine Gained. 3. Nobleboro, Me. Fell Aug. 7, 1823. Described by vont LAND and Werster. Weight about 5 Ibs. 4. Nanjemoy, Md. Fell Feb. 10, 1825. Described by Car ver and Cumron. Weight 16 lbs. 5. Sumner Co., Tenn. Fell May 9, 1827. Described by Six. BERT. Weight il Ibs. 6. Forsyth, Ga. Fell May 8, 1829. Described by Smuum1as, Sen., and Sueparp. Weight about 36 Ibs. . 7. Little Piney, Mo. _ Fell Feb. 13, 1839. Described by B Hex- rick and Sueparp. Seb about 50 Ne n 2d. 8. Bishopville, S. C. © Feld March, 1843. Described by SHer- arp. Weight 13 lbs. Order 3d. 9. Waterville, Me. Fell Sept., 1826. Described by SHEparD. Weight about 3 ouinces. Appenpix To Cuass IL. 10. At Sea, lat. 30° 58’ N., lon. 70° 25/ W. Fell June 20, — 1809, Described by Ciimetivateh Weight 6 ounces. 11. Caswell Co., N. ©. Fell Jan. 7, 1810. _Deseribed by Maprson.. Weight: 3 Ibs. ‘The descriptions of the foregoing Aieribasi Localities so faras _ they have net heretofore been published, will conclude the pres- ees a ree Hemme. of shin tent beg - . Shells of Tampa Bay. 393 Ant, XXXVI—Catalogue of Shells Inhabiting Tampa Bay and other parts of the Florida Coast; by 'T. A. Conran, Bivalves. Amphidesma variegata, Lam.; rare. Mullet Key of Tampa _ Bay.—A. radiata, Say; found alive on Mullet Key.— A. orbicu- lata, Say ; rare. Mullet Key.—A. equalis,* Say; common. Mul- let Key. : _ Arca zebra, dredged up alive in Tampa Bay. Artemis elegans,* Conrad; rare. Mullet Key.—A. concentrica, Lam.; common. This and the preceding species have probably been regarded as identical, but in every stage of growth there is a uniform and marked difference ; the former species being more orbicular and convex, and having much more remote and distinct stooves, a character as obvious on the young shells as on the adults. It is much the rarest of the two species, and occurs fos- sil in the Miocene of North Carolina. Anomia ephippium,* Lin.; common. Keys of Tampa Bay. Area scapha? common. Mullet Key.—A. incongrua, Say ; tare. Mullet Key.— 5 Bh Sek PSS ei Led a, ee a es Chemistry. ~~ 403 of the masses of matter, we infer that the atoms also, cannot act where _ they are not ; and that, in very truth, they are every where, (as Fara- day assumes,) but diversely in different places. Thus, as the masses are gravitantly and electrically every where, excepting within certain small limits about their centers ; so, within these small limits, they are present to each other in a different manner, namely, chemically, ‘and mechanically.—The atoms being universally present in space. through their electric and gravitant relation, they do really fill all space and con- stitute a true «ther capable of propagating the motions of heat and light. The small limits within and without which the powers operate, are the i imaginary spheroidal limits of the ‘ nucleus’ or lesser sphere o the atom. * By this new atomic theory, the chemist unburthens himself of a great variety of hypotheses ;—such as that of “ latent heat,” “ specific heat,’’* “visible dead molecules,”+ “ interstellary ether,’t “caloric,” * elec: trie fluids,”§ with all the hard drawn lines which separate the parts and powers of matter from each other, end promee the conception of it as a whole. It reduces every thing to forces. Reasoning from the always elec trified and gravitant mass, to its least particle, it ‘finds that ‘elit in in relation, through a line of gravity, (which i is also a line of electric in- duction.) with every other least particle in the universe. The number of these lines being truly infinite, the whole of space is occupied by them. The substance in which they are generated is the ancient. First Matter, or Potential, of which the human understanding forms an idea to itself, and calls it matter, or, (dynamically) force. This first mate ter always appears as positive and negative, resolving itself into oppo- Sea ee sh siancaolae * Proceedings of the sixth annual meeting of the Assoc. of Amer. Geol Nes, held in New Haven, Conn., April, 1845, (pages 17-22, of the inten re- "e id., page 20, fi IPthe Saul ‘nucleus’ contracts by pulses, or minute vibrations, these must be radiated from it in the manner of waves; anaes space, like the fadinint inless of oe But paige are ni these! waves,’ "therseme with those ¢ ‘pe ie Fa pocala A404 Scientific Intelligence. sites. The theorist shows, that gravitation itself is a consequence of such a resolution: and that two atoms so composed will necessarily gravitate. (See Art. in this Journal for April, 1845, and mages of . of Americ, Geol. and Nat. for the same year.) By this induction from the mass to the atom, the atom is ssahs an Indi- vidual, having a specific size, which is the variable limit of its molecular force; and an infinitude, which is the extension of its gravitant and elec- tric force :—It preserves this individuality, while it extends through, and interpenetrates with every otheratom. It has also two kinds of polari- ty, the remote and the near; and also an antipolar, or unresolved state, when its two forces are coincident about the same center,—which is the gaseous condition. Liquidity is assumed to be an intermediate state between solid and aeriform; and solidity to be the state of ultimate polarity, when all its force is resolved, and divided into polar axes, (‘ crystallogenic axes of Dana.’) It will be seen, on a careful examination, that a theory of matter founded on such a method of induction admits of the exactest mathe- matical applications ; and that it ease a — which adapts it alike to all phenomena. Mr. Whelpley, in the following paragraph expresses dahesigthy the views above alluded to and also others of equal importance with refer- ence to we nature of heat. (Proceed. Assoc. of Americ. Geol. and Nat. 1845, p. 1 tase = a agirey is Sante’ it expands mdienomaoaiun of pea ir is the same with an expansion of the molecular spheres of the atoms. If the motions of heat and light can be otherwise explained, the notion of an ether distinct from, gravitant matter, may be set aside ; butall the properties of a mass are reducible to forces, causing motion and rest: all the properties of an atom are, therefore, its forces, or powers. It follows that an atom can be known only by these forces ; and because the force of gravity is every where present, in that sense, the gravitant atom is itself‘ every where present :’ and the same is true of its mag- netic and electric force. The extended atmosphere* of an atom is, there- fore, its proper ether, through which it radiates pulses of heat and light, and is wislectrioally, magnetically, and attractively, present in the whole me Some substances, such as the metals, being more susceptible than others to change of temperature, the same is true of their atoms, The impenetrable nucleus, or molecule, of an atom, may be either greater or less. When a cold nucleus touches a hot one, the greater contracts, and | the Jeeser iia stadt to a law of RGR of aude h, , omnipresent power, first principle. eter Chemistry. — 405 ture ; which necessitates, that a molecule, or repellent nucleus, shall be of equal temperature with those that are in contact with it, And the reason of this law is axiomatic; for that all motion is attended with the loss or attainment of an equilibrium. All forces of action and reaction, attraction and repulsion, develope each other, and are therefore equal. “* When two nuclei, the same in kind, but differing in size, are brought: in contact, they will presently divide the difference, both attaining the mean diameter, and the mean intensity of repulsion ; for it is necessary toadmit, that the intensities of the spheres of temperatures vary in- versely as the cubes of their diameters. But if they be of different spe- cies, (e. g. gold and iron,) one will contract, or expand, more than the other. Thus, gold, under the same influences, contracts, or cools, more than iron; and this difference expresses what is Mconveniently termed, their specific heat ;’ meaning their ‘relative degrees of insuscepti- bility.’ It would be more convenient to speak of their susceptibility.” ~Itis necessary to caution the chemist, against confounding the ‘ nu- clei’ of this theory, with the “hard particles” of the Epicurean, or Wollastonian, hypothesis: they are not ‘hard, visible, particles,’ but mere variable, invisible, limits; in which the repellent, and cohesive, forces are developed. 4 2. On a simple. method of protecting from Lightning, Buildings with Metallic Roofs; by Prof. Henry, (from Proceedings of Ameri- can Phil. Soc., June 20, 1845.)—On the principle of electrical induc- tion, houses thus covered are evidently more liable to be struck than those furnished either with shingle or tile. Fortunately, however, they admit of very simple means of perfect protection. It is evident, from well established principles of electrical action, that if the outside of a Were encased entirely in a coating of metal, the most violent dis- charge which might fall upon it from the clouds would pass silently to the earth without damaging the house, or endangering the inmates. It 's also evident, that if the house be merely covered with a roof of metal, Without projecting chimneys, and this roof were put in metallic connec- ion with the ground, the building would be perfectly protected. To make a protection, therefore, of this kind, the Professor advises that the metallic roof be placed in connection with the ground by means of the T'oe Copper gutters which serve to lead the water from the roof to the earth. For. this purpose, it is sufficient to ‘solder to the lower end of the gutter a riband of sheet copper, two or three inches wide, surround- ing it with charcoal, and continuing it out from the house until it ter- Minates in moist ground. ‘The upper ends of these gutters are generally Soldered to the roof; but if they are not in metallic connection, the two Should ‘be joined by a slip of sheet copper. The only part of the house tected by this ar rangement will be the chimneys ; and in order ta A406 Scientific Intelligence. secure these, it will only be necessary to erect a short rod against the chimney, soldered at its lower end to the metal of the roof, and extend: ing fifteen or twenty inches above the top of the flue. Considerable discussion in late years has taken place in reference to the transmission of electricity along a conductor; whether it passes through the whole capacity of the rod, or is principally confined to the surface. From a series of experiments presented to the American Phi- losophical Society, by Professor Henry, on this subject, it appears that the electrical discharge passes, or tends 1o pass, principally at the sur- face ; and as an ordinary sized house is commonly furnished with from two to four perpendicular gutters (generally two in front and two in the: rear,) the surface of these will be sufficient to conduct, aneaeys the most violent discharge which may fall from the clouds 3. Electric Conduction; by C. G. Pace, (in a letter to the Eai- tors.) —Since my last communication on Electric Conduction, §c. pub- lished in your Journal for September, 1846, finding that the merit of original observation of the inductive action of atmospheric electricity upon extended conductors, has been by some attributed to me, I take early opportunity through your indulgence to correct any such impres- sion. Your readers by a careful perusal of the paper, will perceive that I have introduced the subject, rather incidentally, to prove the sensitiveness of the galvanoscope used in the experiments, and that a sufficient disclaimer will be found in aconcluding passage, as follows, viz: “ During heavy storms a flash of lightning twenty miles distant from the wires of Morse’s telegraph, will induce electricity in the wires sufficient to operate the magnets and work the telegraph, sometimes recording several signals,” an occurrence which has been noticed oc- casionally, since the erection of the telegraph in the early part of 1844. The merit of prior and original investigation with reference to these phenomena, belongs to Prof. Henry ; the results of whose observations were published sometime since in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. The only novelty as far as induction is con- cerned in the observations made by myself, is that extraordinary kind of disturbance which the needle incurs, under which it will frequently move, not as if by sudden impulse, but rather gradually through an arc, sometimes of 10°, and there remain for sometime, and then re- turn to what may be called its standard position, viz. that which is due solely to the influence of the galvanic current. It would appear that these changes are due not to sudden discharges of atmospheric elec- tricity, but to the passage of clouds or masses of air in différent elec- trical states over or near the building. ‘The question then arises, the roof of the Sean collect and transmit sufficient electricity to de- flect the needle to this extent, or is it due to some other influence. It int sty. + 407 has occurred to me that a charged eloud or stratum of air may by simple induction, without transference, so affect the conductors as to produce this disturbance. If so, a new field. for investigation will be opened. At present, circumstances will not allow of any observations in the night, and pressing official duties forbid any thing more than casual observations.during the day. I may mention in conclusion, that at pret: the usual daily range of the galvanoscope i is 20°, that. is, from 8 a.M.to6,m, At 8 a.m. the deflection is from 43° to 45°, lelibi.20: M. 23° to 25°, » 4 On the production of a new organic alkali; by G. Fownss, (Philosophical Transactions, 1845, 2d part, p. 263.)—When starch is distilled with diluted sulphuric acid, a small quantity of an oily matter passes over, accompanied by formic acid. This oil is obtained in larger quantity from bran; one pound of this, distilled with half a pound of sul- phuric acid and three pounds of water, yielded a drachm of it. When pure, it is a colorless, oily fluid, which becomes brown by exposure to _ the air; it is slightly soluble in. water, but easily in alcohol. -Its odor Tesembles that of a mixture of oil of bitter almonds, and of cassia, Its Sp. gr. is 1:168; boils at 323° F.,-and distills unaltered. Cold sul- Phuric acid dissolves it, giving a magnificent purple tint; nitric acid oxydizes it, forming oxalic acid. .. MreFownes has given to this sabainncin the name of furfurol, (from furfur, bran,) and expresses its composition by the formula, C, ,H,O,. » When placed in contact with five or six volumes of liquor ammoniz, they slowly combine, and in few hours form a solid mass, which con- £ Sists of a yellowish-white, flocculent crystalline matter, insoluble in wa- ter, but soluble in alcohol... Repeated analyses give for this substance the formula C,,H,NO, ; it is formed from the oil by the addition of one equivalent of ammonia and the abstraction of three equivalents of water, This substance has all the properties of an amide. Acid composes it immediately, forming a salt of ammonia and setting free the oil, The same decomposition takes place slowly with water, the sub- Slance combining with the elements, ofthe liquid, and regenerating am- Monia and furfurol. The action of alkalies is however very. peculiar. A boiling dilute solution of potash readily dissolves it without the evolu- tion of ammonia, and on cooling, deposits brilliant silky needles of a new substance. This has precisely the same composition in hundred Parts as the amide from which it was derived, but. differs from it en- tirely j in its properties. It is agerreenene base, neutralizing acids, . and forming definite crystallizable sa - The analysis of its salts gives the saan C,5H,2N,0,, which is } just double that of the amide. .This substance is the only product of the reaction , the whole of. the amide being obtained in the form of the 408 Scientific Intelligence. new alkaloid. It is soluble in boiling water, but crystallizes on cooling, and dissolves very readily in alcohol. These solutions have a strong alkaline reaction; their taste is slightly bitter, but that of the salts is pow- erfully so. Its combinations with acids are beautifully crystalline. The hydrochlorate forms fine acicular crystals resembling those of t corresponding morphine compound. Its formula is C,,H,.N,0,, Cl H+2HO. It is quite neutral in its reactions. _ With bichlorid of plati- num it forms a sparingly soluble double salt, which is composed of one equiv. of each of its constituents. Mr. Fownes has described a large number of other salts of this new base, which he denominates furfuro- line. He observes that they are precipitated neither by solutions of per- oxyd of iron, oxyds of copper or silver, lime or baryta. This substance is very remarkable in several particulars ; the man- ner in which it is derived from an amide, is peculiar and interesting. Caustic alkalies generally decompose this class of compounds, evolving ammonia, but we see in this instance only a re-arrangement of its elements, producing a new and peculiar compound, Ponies has also shown that hydrobenzamide, a product of the action of ammonia on oil of bitter almonds, is slowly changed by the same. process, into a new alkaloid which he has named benzoline. . In this case the atomic weight remains unaltered. The statement relative to the behavior of the salts of furfuroline with those of other bases, is worthy of especial notice. That a hydrochlorate or sulphate, should not precipitate salts of silver or baryta, is an anomaly in the history of the alkaloids; and finds an analogy, only in the peculiar nature of the salts of ethyle and methyle, and the no less curious reactions of the analogous compounds of of chromium. The nature of the affinities which unite the elements in such cpempowldhs presents a highly iit subject for —_ and speculation The sbifvtials Sasttasitiein of ve sosipoteiie must be regarded as one of the greatest achievements of organic chemistry. ' The result of such discoveries does not however furnish us any key to the nature of the vital forces, but only demonstrates more clearly the fact that these com> pounds, although generated in organized structures, are the results of chemical, and not of vital action. “All the products of organic life which the art of the chemist has as yet succeeded in artificially forming: * are but the secreted or excreted products of the organism, and ¢ affinities alone have produced them. These affinities are perhaps en- abled to act with a peculiar power in the living structure, only so far as the organic forces may present the plated in such conditions as are favorable to their atest the results which have rewarded: ae iaventigatioinel ) highly i curious. “Thiis-by the oxy A aitaistihap 8? 409 dation of salicine, the bitter principle of the willow, we obtain a peculiar _ oil which is identical with the fragrant essence of the Spirea ulmaria. The oxydation of this oil has afforded usa new acid, the salicylic, which _ Wvery like benzoic acid in its properties, and may even be formed om from it. In the decomposition of ligneous fibre by heat, a peculiar yol- __ atile liquid is generated, closely allied to alcohol in its relations, and containing, like that, the oxyd of a compound radical, which was named Methyle, to denote its nature and origin. Both of these compounds were however regarded as merely results of the decomposition of native pro- ducts. The late researches of Cahours and Gerhardt on the fragrant oil of wintergreen, Gaultheria procumbens, have shown us that it is a com- pound of this methylic oxyd, with salicylic acid. Thus we are able bya simple recomposition, to form the oil of wintergreen in any quan- st lity. This is only one example of the beautiful results which have ; been unexpectedly developed in this department of science. These discoveries we may observe, have been principally the results of acci- dent 3 the object of the investigator having been to decompose substan- _. €es by various agents, and study the results of. this decomposition. A more difficult, but more fruitful field of investigation, seems to the application of the knowledge that we have derived from these ex- periments, to the artificial formation of certain determinate products. Already we have a large class of artificial alkaloids, and although itis not yet certain that we have formed one of those bodies which _ €xists in nature, we have produced compounds closely allied to the _ ‘Ratural ones in their properties. In anilene, which we are now able to : form by a number of reactions from different bodies, we have an alka- loid, which closely resembles both in its chemical relations and in its effects on the animal economy, the alkaline principles of tobacco and Conium maculatum. It is worthy of remark also, that the composition of these bodies differs only in the proportions of carbon and hydrogen. We form anilene by a peculiar action, from benzole, a carbo-hydrogen, derived from benzoic acid; and if among the great number of com- Pounds of these two elements which result from the decomposition of Various organic substances, we can find the hydro-carbon which bears ao the Same relations to nicotine that benzole does to aniline, we can at Once form from that compound, the alkaloid. In the present state of 4 chemical science, this seems by no means improbable, and we may yet - beable to form morphine and quinine to such an extent as will render US quite independent of the present sources of these important remedies. ~~ &. On the relations of Oil of Mustard ; (Chem. Gazette, No. 61, p. 178, and No. 75, Pp. 495.)—The late researches of MM. Wertheim, Gerhardt and Will, have shown that the oil of mustard is the sulpho-cyanid of a ‘Rew radical, which is capable of forming combinations with sulphur, Scop Sznrzs, Vol. II, No.6—Nov., 1846. 53 A410 Scientific Intelligence. chlorine and oxygen. This, because its compounds are also found in the garlic (Allium sativa), he has named allyle. The oil of mustard (Sinapis nigra) does not exist ready formed in the seeds, but is gener- ated when they are bruised and treated with water. A reaction between two bodies previously existing in the seed, gives origin to the oil. The transformation is analogous to that which occurs in similar cireumstan- ces in bitter almonds, and produces hydruret of benzoyle. The new radical allyle is C°H®, (or All,) and the oi/ of mustard All Cy S?. The essential oil of garlic, to which it owes its characteristic odor, is found to be a sulphuret of allyle, AJl S, and the oil of assa- fetida another sulphuret of the same radical. An oxyd of allyle has also been obtained. When oil of mustard is heated for some time to a temperature of 248° in contact with caustic soda and lime, the pungent odor of mustard entirely disappears, and we obtain in its stead a liquid which has a faint aromatic odor like that of leeks. This substance analysis shows to be oxyd of allyle All O. The soda is in part con- verted into sulpho-cyanid of sodium. The reaction is very simple, All Cy $?-4-Na O=All O+-Na Cy S2.. The oxyd of allyle appears to constitute the volatile oil of leeks, and also exists in the crude oil of garlic. It forms with gown of silver, a beautiful crystalline coer which is Ag O. All O--N O The essential oil of garlic, as ~~ mentioned, is a sulphuret of allyle, but in its crude state contains also the oxyd of allyle. It is easily formed from the oil of mustard. When we distill with a gentle-heat a mixture of this with proto-sulphuret of potassium we obtain an oil which possesses none of the properties of the original, but evolves a powerful odor of garlic and is pure sulphuret of allyle. The reaction is similar to that affording the oxyd, All CyS?4-KS=AllIS+K Cy S?. The oil of garlic forms interesting double salts with chlorid of mercury and bi- chlorid of platinum. With a solution of the bichlorid of platinum, an alcoholic solution of the oil forms an orange-yellow crystalline precip!- tate, which is (Pt Cl?, All Cl)+-3(PtS?, All S$). Sulphuret of ammo- “nium decomposes the chlorids, and we obtain an insoluble compound, which is the double sulphuret of platinum and allyle (Pt S2, AUS.) Sim- ilar compounds are formed with mereury. The precipitate with an alco- holic solution of chlorid of mercury is 2(Hg Cl,) AlbCl,+-2(Hg. 5) AILS. When thisis distilled with sulpho-cyanid of potassium, a decomposition ensues by which we obtain the oil of mustard. The reaction is between the double chlorids, forming chlorid of potassium and sulpho-cyanids of A ‘mercury and allyle; at the same time the double sulphuret is decom- poset nes ae ae rete ao ns ae —— last is VO ren eee . 5, sala Ma cae : ae aia Bee oe oes eee oA Te eee fd SP ae e ee tay inci alciadalrn, olalia d i Chemistry. All If we add the oil of garlic to an alcoholic solution of nitrate of silver, we first obtain sulphuret of silver, followed by a crystalline precipi- tate. If we dissolve this last by boiling, and filter the hot solution, we obtain on cooling, beautiful white prismatic crystals of the compound of hitrate of the oxyd of allyle and silver, AgO, AllO, N05, Ammonia decomposes this, and liberates pure oxyd of allyle. When we distill oil of mustard with one of the higher sulphurets of potassium, we obtain a crystalline compound which is probably a higher sulphuret of allyle. It has a powerful odor of assafetida, and is probably identical with the sulphuret observed in the oil of that substance. The roots of Alliaria officinalis yield a volatile oil, identical with that of mustard. ‘These results are interesting as developing a new and beau- tiful relation between a number of organic substances. They show the simplicity which nature exhibits in all her operations, deriving a number of complex and apparently distinct bodies from a single radi- eal, by combinations which we are able to imitate in our laborato- fies. These discoveries are a beautiful illustration of the doctrine of compound radicals. Although we have not as yet been able to isolate allyle, yet we can form all its combinations, and transfer it from one union to another, so as to afford the most satisfactory evidence of its existence. : 6. On the Acid of the Bark of Viburnum opulus ; (Chem, Gazette, No. 77, p. 9.)—L. von Monroe has shown that this acid, which was sup- Posed to be identical with that obtained from the fat of the dolphin and named phocenic acid, is really valerianic acid. This confirms the Tesults originally obtained by Dumas. _ 1. On the Artificial formation of Specular Iron; by T. 8. Hunt.— The following. is perhaps worth recording, as it beautifully confirms Mitscherlich’s theory of the formation of this oxyd in volcanic products. I Precipitated a concentrated solution of perchloride of iron by caustic ammonia, threw the thick magma upon a filter where it was allowed to drain until it became solid, This was then partially dried ata gentle heat, when it cracked into small angular fragments. ‘These consisted of hydra- ted peroxyd of iron mechanically mixed witha large quantity of whine Ee rid of ammonium. On heating this in a-platinam crucible, to. ar one 500°, the vapors of water and the ammoniacal salt were abundantly dis- €ngaged, and the mass became inflated and porous.» The residue how- €ver was not pure oxyd of iron, for on heating it to bright redness, fumes of chlorid of iron were evolved, accompanied by hy drochloric Seid, and an abundant deposit of dark red-brown oxyd of iron coated ‘the side of the crucible. On cooling, the oxyd was found coated with @ brilliant. iridescence, which was still, more beautifully seen in the Small cavities disclosed on breaking the porous mass. — A microscopie Rat a mt DERE a noe A412 Scientific Intelligence. examination showed this coating to consist of small scales of specular oxyd of iron, which exhibited all the splendid tints of the beautiful iridescent specimens from Elba. The reaction which produced the specular iron, is possibly ‘he follow- ing: A portion of the ammoniacal salt confined in the mass, which was half an inch in diameter, was unable to escape before the exterior be- - came ignited. The heated oxyd reacted upon the chlorid of ammonium to form chlorid of iron and water. Both of these bodies can probably exist undecomposed when in contact with oxyd of iron, or at least the oxyd and hydrochloric acid if formed, would immediately react upon each other. But when they come to the suface the oxyd is deposited and the hydrochloric acid escapes. 8. On the Compounds of Boracic Acid with Ether; by MM. Eset MAN and Bouquet, (An. Chem. et de Phys., May, 1846.)—Chloride of boron is prepared by passing dry chlorine over an ignited mixture of poracic acid and charcoal, and the product is conducted into a bottle of alcohol, by which it is readily absorbed. Thealcohol is kept cooled, and after a time separates into two layers; the upper one contains the new product, and the lower hydrochloric acid and water. The ethereal liquid is purified by distillation, till a product is obtained which boils at 246° F. It is a limpid fluid of a fragrant odor and burning taste. Its specific gravity at 60° is ‘8849. It dissolves readily in alcohol and is also solu- ble in water, but is almost immediately decomposed by it into boracic acid and alcohol. It is combustible and burns with a fine green flame evolying fumes of boracic acid. Analysis gives for its composition the formula BO,, 3C,H,O. 9; Wile dines Brondo Ether bor ate the nscidiig acing is distilled from the original fluid, there remains in the retort a liquid, which on cooling forms a vitreous mass, having the odor of ordina- ry ether, but a mr bitter taste. The composition appears to be (BO,)?C,H,O. By a process similar to this, the authors have abiained compounds of boracic acid with the oxyds of methyle and amyle, which resemble in general character the borate of ethyle, and have a similar formula. One ae of boracic acid—=BO, combines with 3 equivalents. of the raeret nd t crystallized boracic acid B,O,,3HO, while the vitreous etbyl compound i is analogous to anhydrous borax (BO,)?Na0. «0. Vitiated air in-apartinenis ; (L’Institut, No. 654, Suly 15, 1846, p- —M. Lassaigne has shown by a series of investigations, that con- ‘common opinion, the air in a room which has served for res- withe ee ies alike in every ber abe ee Pe Mineralogy and Geology. — 413, part, above as well as below; the difference in proportion is but slight, and where appreciable, there is some reason to believe that the carbonic acid is in greater quantity in the upper parts of the room. These ex- periments establish the very important fact that all the air of a room must be changed in order to restore its purity. The plans sometimes resorted to, to draw off the air in the lower part of the room, or change this portion only by circulation, are wholly ineffectual as a means. of _ Yentilation. pi cit 11. On the Products of the Oxydation of Gelatine by Chromic | ; Acid ; by Prof. Marcuanp, (Chem, Gaz., No. 77, p. 10.)—40 gram- mes of gelatine were dissolved ina mixture of 1000 grammes of water and 300 of sulphuric acid, and the solution, after cooling, was mixed with 160 grammes of bichromate of potash. On heating the mixture the odors of the oil of bitter almonds and hydrocyanic acid are evol- ved. The distillate was agitated with oxyd of mercury, when a con- siderable quantity of cyanid of mercury and some formiate was obtained. The liquid distilled off from an excess of oxyd of mercury, still retain- ed the odor of bitter almonds, which only disappeared after the addi- tion of caustic potash and prolonged exposure to the air. From the Solution a salt was obtained, soluble in alcohol, which gave with hydro- *hloric acid, crystals having all the characters of benzoic acid. These Teactions leave no doubt that hydruret of benzoyle is a product of the oxydation of gelatine. When the gelatine is in excess we obtain noth- ing but carbonic with pure formic acid. 12. Colors of Quartz; by M. Hertz, (Poggend. Ann., |, 519.)— M. Heintz shows that the color of carnelian is not due to an organic Substance ; and that instead, it contains 0-05 per cent. of peroxyd of iron, He also states that the tint of amethyst is due toa compound of Peroxyd of iron and soda, and not to manganese. Il. Mrneratocy anp GEOLOGY. 1, Stroganowite, a new mineral ; by M. Hermann, (Journ. d’Erdmann, XXxiv, 177.)—This mineral was found in Russia, in the bed of the river Sludanka, in crystalline masses of a clear green color and foliated tex- ture, cleaving also in two directions nearly at right angles. Specific Stavity 2:79; hardness, that of apatite ; lustre resinous; translucent or Semi-transparent. It has the composition of scapolite, along with a Portion of carbonate of lime, (a mixture ?) giving the formula Ca?Si-+- 2Al Sit-Ca 6. ) oh: Xylite, a new mineral ; by M. Hermann, (Journ. d’Erdmann, xxxiv, ste -)—Xylite is from the copper mines of the Ural. It is essentially a ee si of ion ; it has a deep brown color, a fibrous fracture, specific 4 Ald Scientific Intelligence. gravity 2935; hardness inferior to calc spar. It is but slightly at- tacked by acids. It contains silica 44°06, peroxyd of iron 37-84, lime 6°58, magnesia 5-42, oxyd of copper 1.36, water 4°70—99-96 3. Antimoniate of Lead; by M. Hermann, (Journ. d’Erdmann, xxxiv, 177.)—-This ore is from the district of Nertschinsk in Russia. It is amorphous, with a compact texture and resinous lustre ; color gen- erally sulphur yellow, sometimes grayish, green or black; specific gravity, 4°60—4-76, It consists of antimonic acid 31-71, oxyd of lead 61:83, water 6-46—Pb?Sb+48. 4. Native Titanium.—It is reported by Mr. Rogers that native Tita- nium in cubes of a copper-red color has been found in the mines of Merthyr-Tydrill, in Cornwall, similar to those detected in the scoria of the furnaces at the same locality. It appears that in 1794, similar crys- tals were sent to Hairy, who considered them pyrites. 5. Loxoclase ; by A. Bretruavrr, (Phil. Mag., Aug., 1846, xxix, 150, from Poggend, Ann.)—Loxoclase is near feldspar in its characters, and comes from Hammond in the state of New York. It is distinguished by having an oblique cleavage parallel with the long diagonal though not always very distinct, and from this its name is derived. Hardness a little above ordinary feldspar; specific gravity 2°609— 2°620 ; color yellowish gray, whitish and bluish gray. It has the gen- eral crystalline form of common feldspar, with the angle M : T=120° 15’. It fuses-before the blowpipe with difficulty and shows in the outer flame an intense soda reaction. Composition, according to M. Plattner, silica 63°50, alumina 20-29, oxyd of iron 0-67, potash 3°03, soda 8°76, lime 3-22, water and me of silicon 1:23. It occurs with pyroxene, graphite, and calc sp 6. Digenite and E Ctipr stabs by M. Brerruavrt, (Poggend. Ann., Ixi, 671.)—These are two ores of copper from Chili. Digenite is a massive sulphuret of copper having a metallic lustre, a dark lead gray color, and giving a black streak. Hardness between 2:5 and 3:25 of Breithaupt’s scale. Specific gravity 4680. The same mineral has been ‘found near Sangerhausen in Thuringia having the specific gravity 4-568. Composition ; copper 70-20, silver 0°24, sulphur (loss) 29°56 ; formula, Gu+40u neatly. Cuproplumbite has the cleavage of pilots; a metallic lustre, black streak ; specific gravity 6°42 ; fuses easily. Composition, sulphuret = copper 24°45 ; iit of lead 74-98, sulphuret of silver 0, 57-=Gu-L2Pb. 7. Vanadate of Copper ; (L’Institut, No. 525, p. 68. )—This ore has been met with in the Ural, associated with sulphuret of copper, ime : and Malachite: een also in remit consi ow color and pearly | | | Mineralogy and Geology. ‘AIG 8. Native Tin; by M. Hermann, (Jour. f. Prakt. Chem., Xxxxiii, 300.)—According to Hermann, native tin oceurs in the gold washings of : the Ural, in small gray metallic grains containing also some lead. | 9. Turgite; by M. Hermann, (Jour. f. Prakt. Chem., xxxiii, 96.)— ‘Targite is a hydrated peroxyd of iron from the Ural, of a brownish-red color, 3:54 to 3°74 specific gravity, consisting of peroxyd of iron 85°34, Water 5:31, oxyd of lead and copper 1°85, gangue 7°50, formula QF ot er. 10. Bodenite ; (Poggend., Ixii, 686 ; Berz. Jahresb., xxv, 1845, 365.) —Breithaupt has given the name Bodenite, derived from the locality, Boden in Saxony, to a mineral resembling orthite, containing cerium. 1]. Parisite, a new cerium mineral ; by M. Bunsen, (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., 1845, No. 2. )—Parisite was discovered by M. Paris in the valley of Musso, New Grenada. It occurs crystallized in bipy- ramidal dodecahedrons; the basal angles are 164° 58’, and the lateral i of the pyramid 120° 34’. It cleaves easily, parallel to the base; hard- - hess between fluor and apatite; specific gravity =4:350; color reddish brown; fracture vitreous and conchoidal; transparent in thin fragments. Heated it loses water and carbonic acid and becomes friable. It is in- fusible and phosphorescent before the blow-pipe. Composition, car- bonic acid 23:51, protoxyd of cerium, Jantanum and didymium 59°44, _ lime 8:17, fluorid of calcium 11-50, water 2°38=100-00, | _ 12. Saccharite ; by M. Scumipr, (L’Institut, No. 549, p. 227.)—Sae - Charite resembles somewhat a granular feldspar, and is from Silesia. At is either white, or greenish from a mixture with pimelite. Specific gravity 2-668. It is infusible before the blowpipe alone, and with great difficulty with soda... M. Schmidt obtained in his analysis, silica 58°93, alumina 23:50, peroxyd of iron 1-27, oxyd of nickel 0°39, lime 5°67, magnesia 0-56, potash, 0°05, soda 7°42, water 2°21. Excluding the water, it gives the formula R* Si?-+-3RSi?, which is identical with that of leucite, a 13. Fischerite ; (Berz. Jahresb., xxv, 1845, 390.)—Fischerite is a Phosphate of alumina (Al® P*) containing, according to M. Hermann, 24 equiv. of water (24E2). It comes from Nischne Tagilsk, in the Ural, Where it occurs of a dull green color and translucent ; specific gravity, *46. It is sometimes met with in transparent six-sided prisms. 14, Turquois.—M. Hermann finds that the blue Turquois has the for- mula Al? P24 Al+ 15H. 15, ee fe mineral; by A. ExpMaNnn, ( Kongl. Vet. Akad. _ -*andi., 1845.)—Keiihauite was found near Arendal, in Norway, ina feldspathic rock. It is massive, of a brownish-black color, and grayish- pad a Se ee aes spcilfscres aE RE tine Sa pore = Pag) gi er ie 5 a ae oe ei Se WOT eahe ye gea % ge ee : A16 Scientific Intelligence. © brown powder ; splinters are brownish red by transmitted light. It has “one distinct and two indistinct cleavages, with the surface of the first vitreous in lustre and the others resinous. Hardness between quartz and feldspar. Sp. grav.3°69. Before the blowpipe it fuses easily with some effervescence to a black shining slag. With borax it dis- solves, taking an iron color, but after strong reduction becomes blood na. fine powder, it dissolves entirely in muriatic acid. Erdmann obtained in an analysis, silica 30-00, lime 18-92, peroxyd of iron 6°35, alumina 6:09, sesquoxyd of manganese 0°67, oxyd of cerium 0°32, titanic acid 29-01, yttria 9°62; from which he deduced the approximate for- mula 3Ca? SiR Si+Y Ti?. Scheerer (Poggend. Ann. Ixiii, 459,) has named this mineral Yttro-titanite. 16, Anatase, Brookite, and Rutile, (Rammelsberg’s Zweites Supple- ment; Jameson’s Jour., xl, 383.)—Prof. Rose has shown (Poggend. Ann., Ixi,516,) that Anatase is pure titanic acid, like Brookite and Ru- tile. When exposed to heat, by which its specific gravity is not alter- ed, or, to the action of solvents, it presents no phenomena different from those exhibited by the two minerals just mentioned, and the quan- tity of iron contained in it is still less than the amount in those two sub- stances, (the Anatase of Brazil contains 0-25 per cent. oxide of iron.) Rutile, Brookite and Anatase, are the first decided example of a tri- morphism, in whose members the titanic acid is distinguished by a dif- ferent specific gravity. On being exposed to heat, however, the Ana- tase acquires the specific gravity of Brookite, and afterwards that of Rutile, and Brookite itself acquires the specific gravity of Rutile. It thus appears that, by the action of heat, the one substance is converted into the other; and precisely the same phenomena occur in the case of artificially prepared titanic acid. 17. Kaliphite; by M. Ivanorr, (Annuaire du Jour. des Mines de Russie, for 1841, St. Petersburg, 1844, p. 386; Berz. Jahresb., XXv, 1845, p. 331.)—Kaliphite is a Hungarian einen, but the particular locality is not known. It forms a fragile, feathery mass, separating easily into acicular fibres; lustre resinous; opaque ; powder reddish- brown ; specific gravity, 2°81. Fuses easily on charcoal, before the hawpies to a brown bead, gives an iron color with fluxes and becomes green with soda on platinum, affords much water and dissolves easily in muriatic acid. Composition, peroxyd of iron 28-80, binoxyd of man- ganese 28-13, water 19°01, silica 12-10, oxyd of zinc 6°30, lime 2°55, titanic acid 1-20, alumina 0-60, magnesia 0,70=99-39; formula, Mile, Ge) Si43PeH?4+8+MnH?. is’ .. Amoibite ; (Jour. f. Pr. Chem. xxxiii, 402. )nofThie name is pro- po: 2 cd by v. -Kobell, for an ore of nickel, from Litchtenberg, in the telgebirge, which has the expel 794 in 60 ee Ss ype ah Pe oe eg ea all ns a eo Pines ae Fae Se ae sie =i é x = S'on that these two minerals are isomeric, Mineralogy and Greology. 417 0:82, cobalt, a trace, arsenic. 45°34, sulphur 14-:00=100; leading to the formula Ni?(As, $)%.. It crystallizes in the tesseral system, and has the specific gravity 6-08. Heated in an open tube it affords arsen- gus acid, metallic arsenic, and sulpburet of arsenic. . It fuses easily be- fore the blowpipe, disengaging arsenical fumes. Nitric acid dissolves it, with a deposition of the sulphur. 19. Margarodite—This name has been given by Schafhautl, to the schistose talc of Zillerthal, a mineral allied to mica, and consisting of silica 47-05, alumina 34:90, peroxyd of iron 1-50, magnesia 1-95, pot- ash 7-96, soda 4:07, water 1:45—98:88. — 20. Mowenite and Hurmotome ; (L’Institut, No. 644.)—MM. Da- Mour and Desctoizeavx, suggest the propriety of uniting the mowenite of Thomson, with harmotome, both on crystallographic grounds and chemical composition. Mowenite afforded on analysis, silica 47-60, alumina 16-39, baryta 20-86, oxyd of iron 0°65, potash 0-81, soda 0-74, water 14°16—101-21. a. 21. Brochantite and Krisuvigite ; (Poggend., Ann. Ixii, 138 ; Berz. Jahresb., XXV, 1845, 395.)—M. Ramme.ssere obtains for the formula of Brochantite CuS+3Culz, which is also that of the so-called Kris- Uvigite: 22. Perowskite ; (Poggend. Ann., lxii, 596; Berz. Jahresb., xxv, 1845, 370.)—Perowskite has been analyzed in the laboratory of H. Rose, and 25. Arragonite and Calc Spar ; (L’Institut, No. 654, July 15, 1846, . set p. 240.)—_MM. Silberman and P. A. Favre have arrived at the conclu- and that the dimorphism of of lime is due to this principle. The arragonite is shown to ’ the isomeric compounds. | Secoxp Srrizs, Vol. HI, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. AI8 Scientific Intelligence. 26. Bucholzite of Chester, Pennsylvania; (Berz. Jahresb., xxiv, 1844.)—Erdmann has determined the composition of this mineral as follows :—silica 40°08, alumina 58°88, protoxyd of manganese 0°74= — 99-67, which approaches that of andalusite, and gives the same for- mula, Al+Si3, 27. Sillimanite ; (Ofversigt af K. V. Ac. Forhandl., 1844, 91; Berz. Jahresb., xxv, for 1845, 348.)—M. Staaf, in Svanberg’s laboratory has analyzed the Sillimanite of Pettypaug (Chester) near Saybrook in Con- necticut, and found for its composition, silica 33°362, alumina 58-622, peroxyd of iron 2-174, magnesia 0-398, lime a trace, evaporated 0:428—98-984: which affords the formula of Kyanite, A? S?. 28. Bismuth Silver; (Ann. des Mines, 4 Ser., vi, 165.)—Domeyko gives for the composition of a bismuth silver from Copiapo, 8. A., silver 60:1, bismuth 10.1, copper 7-8, arsenic 2°8, gangue 19-2, The silver compound, omitting the copper, &c., equals Bi Ag’. 29. Arsenical Antimony ; (Poggend. Ann., Ixi, 137; Berz. Jahresb., XXV, 1845, 334.)—This ore from Allemont in Frankreich, has been an- alyzed — by Rammelsberg, with the result, antimony 37° 85, arsenic 62°15=Sb As?. 30. Staurotide ; by M. Jacozson, foenend: Ann., Ixii, 419. \The staurotide of St. Gothard has afforded M. Jacobson, coder the direction of H. Rose, silica 29°72, alumina 54-72, peroxyd of iron 15°69, mag- nesia 1-35—101-98. Other analyses by him correspond nearly with the one here cited. The above gives the formula Al2Si or A?S, the oxyd of iron, being included with the alumina 31. Scolezite and Natrolite ; (Poggend. ha: lix, 368 and 373. )- An analysis of scolezite by Giilich gives for its composition, silica 46°76, alumina 26°22, lime 13°68, water 13:94, corresponding to the simple formula, CaSi--Al | Si i+3Hz. Natrolite, according to analyses by Sander and Sokbanek. affords the formula NaSi+-Al Si+-2m. One of Scheerer’s analyses (of the var. Bergmannite) gave silica 48-12, alumina 26-96, lime 0°69, peroxyd of iron 0-22, soda 14-23, potash, a trace, water 10°48. 32. On Iolite ; by W. Harpincer, (Pogg. Annal., 1846, Ixvii, 441.)— In an elaborate memoir on the mineral lolite, including its several va- rieties, M. Haidinger shows that the so-called mineral species, Pinite, Fahlunite, Weissite, Bonsdorffite or Hydrous Iolite, droga Chlo- rophyllite, Praseolite, Esmarkite, and perhaps also Oosite,* are only Se ek ee * Mt. brea i cites the suggestion jade » by Mr. Dana in his Mineralogy, (2d edit. p. 307,) that several of the above-enumerated minerals were derived from the alteration of Tolite, eye aeee eed wwe Oe pseudomorphs of Iolite, arising from a change of composition in crys- tals of this species. The change approximates the material to the ‘mica or steatite family, altering the crystallization and rendering the structure foliated or micaceous, parallel to. the base of the prisms, 83. Geld at Dedham, Mass.; by J. H. Buaxx, (communicated for — this Journal.)—Recently, upon exposing to view a small portion of a vein of quartz-in granite in the town of Dedham, IJ discovered numer- ous small particles of gold, some of them weighing from two tenths to eight tenths of a grain. The average width of this vein is about four inches; its course is E. 10° N. by W. 10° S., and its dip is to the ' Southward at an angle of 76°. ' Occurring in the same vein there is found also sulphuret, black oxide and carbonate of copper, together with galena containing silver. An- other vein affording galena, about five feet south of this vein, and hay- ing a like direction and inclination, has been exposed. - Gold washings of the Rhine; by M. Davzriée, (L’Institut, No, 654, July 15, 1846.)—Some centuries past, the gold washings of the Rhine were quite flourishing : but since the discovery of America, they have lost their importance, till now there are but few persons employed upon the banks of this river, and only about 45,000 francs of gold are annually extracted between Basle and Manheim. Explorations have een made above Constance; but the most productive region is within the limits just stated; and here both banks are equally productive. The working is considered as paying when a workman. can collect One and a half francs per day. The sands of the first quality have s _ Tichness represented by 0000000562; those of the second quality, by 0:000000163 ; the sterile sands, taken promiscuously furnished scarcely 0:000000008. The sands of Siberia are five times more rich, and those of Chili ten times more so, than the best of the Rhine. The auriferous land of the river is calculated to contain 52,000 kilogrammes of gold, having a value of 165,828,000 francs ; but it is mostly cover- ed by soil under culture. : ; .. . 35. Observations upon some Sandstone Rocks in Baldwin Co. Ale. 5 by Artemas Bicetow.—I perceive by Mr. Lyell’s letter in the March number of this Journal, that he has recently been in Alabama ‘ but he Makes no mention of a sandstone formation, which is quite extensive in the southern part of that state. Mr. Buckley, in one of the former num- bers of the Journal, mentions it-as being near the wocks 28 “nen ci Zeuglodon is found, and as containing tubes of sandstone. It is also exposed near Pensacola. In Baldwin Co. it is exposed frequently “through an extent of several miles along the sloping ground which de- Scends to the Tensaw River; which river divides from the Mobile on Mls tndeoses agein at the Bay. { have found the sandstone, also _ 0 the level land more than six miles from the river. 420 Scientific Intelligence. Baldwin Co. is a part of that alluvial region lying along the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. It extends from the Gulf along the east side of Mobile Bay, Tensaw and Mobile rivers, about 100 miles, and is about 50 wide in its broadest part. Its general surface is nearly level, covered with a continuous forest of the long-leaved-pine, with the ex- ception of here and there savannahs, which are wet and miry, produc- ing tall rank grass. On the edge of one of these, a large quantity of clear water boils up with much force, through a bed. of quicksand. There are also numerous small ponds... Wherever the recent action of water has worn away the earth for several feet, beds of clay are ex- posed. This surface is about 200 feet above the Tensaw River; at about two miles distant from the river, it begins to slope down to it, and is cut into deep ravines, from the sides of which and upon the sloping surface, the sandstone is exposed. First, nearly on the height of land, are found tubes like those mentioned by Mr. Buckley, with this difference, those contained yellow ochre, these contain fine or coarse sand varying in color from the purest white through the shades of yellow to almost a red; the sand «is stratified, generally lengthwise the tubes, sometimes transversely. In some localities these tubes con- tain silicified wood; the wood is found, in small fragments, in. great abundance. Ihave dug out tubes from four to six feet long. About 60 feet below these, three quarters of a mile distant, are three or four small masses of the sandstone jutting from the sloping surface, which contain abundant but very obscure impressions of ‘shells, apparently all bivalves. There are evidently several genera; the outlines of some ‘are quite regular, and in two or three a part of the hinge is discernible. Still lower 40 or 50 feet, a quarter of a mile distant, the sandstone is exposed several feet thick, but I could not find any Pe sania The impressions of shells contained yellow ochre. eAt the highest point, where the tubes are found, there are several ledges of the sandstone, over which fragments are scattered, bearing N. E. and 8. W., appearing to have been washed by currents of water from the north. ‘The strata vary in thickness from one half an inch to two inches ; are inclined at an angle of 15°, 25°, and 30°, according to the locality, generally about 30° ; and dip to a. point a little S. of E. as if deposited from the W: or N. W. They are very much fractured, the faults perpendicular, yet the sandstone appears to be in its original position. The evidence for this is the fact, that the tubes are nearly all found horizontal, which would be their proper position if formed around sunken wood, as I suppose they were. The strata are every where at an angle of about 30° to the tubes; these are imbedded in» Sandstone ; they are nearly as hard again as-the strata, the proportion . | ee nee —, ES eS i vated to the depth of about six feet under one of the ledges, and found that the stone had entirely decomposed, leaving the tubes smooth and perfect, filled with variously colored sand. The fact that the sandstone, is so much decomposed under the surface, has led me to think that __ much of this sandy region in Alabama has been formed by the wearing away of this formation. The evidences tend to show that it extended over a large portion of South Alabama, but organic remains are dis- covered only ina few places. It is questionable whether impressions of ‘shells can be found in any other place than the one I have mention- ed, and there the extent of surface exposed is not a rod square. £2 a Ok WER Zz Neary Se : nae WN _—\ = a . " _ : A\\ . == aS \ TW a aa On eSS= ay RUE ee ey aa terminal « us bi ": ch ov “ 6“ um x ee c ov “ u yx ¥ neh OL ee @ P 17 j 74 ng " - y The aspirate (°) h 6. In compounding two Greek words, the first of the two words should have the form of the genitive case, dropping only the terminal consonant ; as from ogvis, bird, and gvyzoc, beak, we have Ornitho- rynchus—not Ornirhynchus ¢. Words of different Kite must never be compounded together. We add— d. In compounding two Latin words, the same rule should be fol- lowed, except that 7 should be substituted when the genitive ends in . @3 penneformis should be penniformis. _ & Specific names, derived from localities, should terminate in ensis : those derived from names of persons, when given in honor of the dis- coverer, should end in the genitive 4, or ti, (¢, when the name ends in # consonant, and 77 when in a vowel); but when in compliment to a 1 not a discoverer, the adjective should end in anus. But names a derived from the names of persons or localities are very objectionable : see beyond, § 6, 3, c. MI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE IMPROVEMENT OF SYSTEMATIC NOMENCLATURE. The Sorters suggestions, although they cannot be aedinte the authority of laws, are worthy of being strictly regarded in the future introduction of scientific names. § 5. The best names are those derived from the Greek or Latin xf guage, the former being in general preferable for generic names, the latter for specific. 6. It is desirable, -@. To select names which may indicate some sensible characteristic of the object: this will greatly aid the memory. : ee To ‘avoid specific names derived from localities. 8, Vol. I, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 426 Scientific Intelligence. ce. To avoid invariably deriving generic and specific names from the names of persons. d. To avoid comparative names, such as Picoides, Emberizoides, maximus, minor, minimus, &c. é. To avoid ancient names of species, except when they can be cor- rectly applied with their ancient signification Ff. To avoid names closely resembling cali in use. g. To avoid names having no meaning, h. To avoid the introduction, under a new signification, of names that have been once ranked among synonyms, except in the cases al- luded to in § 2, c. i. To avoid making a generic name out of a former specific name. k. To avoid introducing for a genus in Zoology a name already in use fora genus in Botany, and the reverse. ~L. To avoid names of harsh and inelegant pronunciation. § 7. It is recommended that names of Families should end uniform- ly in ide, and Subfamilies in ine. These names are Biko by changing the last syllable of the genitive into ide Oring ; as Striz Strigid@, from the genitive a Buceros gives Bucerotide, te the parted paler not Strizide, Bucerid. § 8. It is recommended that generic names, and specific names which are derived from names of persons, be written with an initial capital ; that all other specific names be written with a small initial letter. é Thi ‘iple is introduced ik Selercnae to names of this kind already in use ; for it is to be hoped that they may not be added to in future. (§ 6, ¢) $9. It is recommended that the original suthosty of a species al- ways follow. the name in brackets; and if the name be subsequently altered, the authority for the same as altered, be added without brackets. It has been common for systematists to change. generic name, and then to add their own name to all the species. To prevent this injustice, which is no less than a soe of piracy, the above rule is oe eng As an example—the Tyrannus erinitus inson is the Muscicapa crinita of Linneus: to distinguish here the sone the former name and give due justice to Linneus, it may be written, Tyrannus crinitus, (Linn.) Swain. By this we do. not intimate whether the genus Tyrannus is Swainson’s or not; it is sufficient for the purposes of science to show here that the above title, as a whole, was Fee adopted by Swainson. The authority for the genus will be found elsewher § 10. It is recommended that when an author, through ignorance of __ What bis predecessors have done, gives to a species an appropriated spe- tific name, the name of auch author be omitte pli. h an author only corrects a false or y> his name be not added as authority for the corrected term. 2 Mee pe Zoology and Botany. 427 § 12. It is recommended that in subdividing a genus, the new generic names proposed for the subdivisions formed, agree in gender with that of the original genus. ~§ 13. It is recommended that in proposing new genera, the ety 4 of the names be always stated ; and that one species be pointed out as a type or standard of vehipende, § 14. It is recommended that new genera and species be amply de- fined, and that the descriptions be inserted in such periodical or other or as are likely to obtain immediate and extensive circulation. James D. Dana, A. Binney, S. S. Hatpeman. C. U. SHeparp. D. H. Storer. C. Dewey. Pe Pas : A. A. GouLp, J, D. WuenPtey. ‘A E, C. Herricr. 2. Apntacs. —Mr. Francis Walker of London is engaged in the pre- paration of a work on the Aphides of Great Britain. : 3. Caricography- —In the third portion of Dr. Boott’s memoir on ; new or little known Carices, read before the Linnean Society of Lon- don in February last, seventeen species are described, the characters of which are given in the Proceedings of the Linn. Society, published in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for September. The following are na- tives of North America, viz. Carex Geyeri, gathered in the Rocky Mountains by C. A. Geyer ;—allied to C. phyllostachys : C. juncea, Wild. (to which Dr. Boott refers C. miser, Buckley, described in this Journal) : C. Sullivantii, first described in this Journal, vol. xlii, p. 29; and C, Tuckermani, (C. bullata, Tuckerm., not of Schk 4. Fossil Ferns from Frostburg, Kirst collééted by Mr. Lyell ; by C. T. F, Bunsury, Esq., (Quart, Jour. Geol. Soc., ii, 82; read be- fore the Geol. Soc. of London, Dec., 1845.)—Mr. Bunbury in a’short memoir describes three species of ferns from Frostburg, two of which are figured. The first is supposed to be identical with the Diplazites emarginatus of Géppert. Mr. Bunbury : shows that the genus Diplazi- tes is founded on an error, and proposes’ to retain the species for the _ Present in the genus vain agen arp cagemtIe: of which he gives the following description: P. fronde @ pinnata (?): pinnis aes obtusis Jaté et obfusissimé crenatis; basi subcontractis ; costa valida apice attenuata; vyenis coste subperpendicularibus pin- hatis; venulis yaldé obliquis, rotten in angulum acutum confluentibus; soris ro- tundis confertis i inter venas biserialibus. ‘The Second species is described as new, and named Pecopteris el- liptca Description, P. fronde bi anaid Sade ellipticis oblongisque convexis inte- gerrimis apice Fanti basi contractis discretis remotiusculis ; venis obliquis pro- pe sonia fences; soris subrotundis confertissimis. It is stated to be near the P. 428 Scientific Intelligence. adiantoides (Fossil Flora, i, 37) in the form of its pinnules; but the description of the latter is insufficient to determine their identity The third species agrees nearly with the Danaiies asplenioides of Goppert, and is ranked for the present as a variety of it (var. major). This species is described as follows: The frond appears to be bipinnate, ae if a flattened stem (apparently the stipes of a fern) which occurs in the same slab belonged to this plant, it was of large size, for the stem in question, in its phan state, measures an inch and a half The pinnules are closely set, oblique, rounded at the end, slightly com- bined at the base, but neither dilated nor decurrent, of an oblong or broadly lin- ear form, flat, or scarcely convex, about four-tenths of an inch long, and about half as sensi in breadth. Veins very indistinctly marked, but seemingly nearly perpendicular to the margin. The fructiferous pinnules ( Wiiiel are on a separate pinna, but which I believe to belong to the same species) are rather larger than the others, but of the same shape; the fructification has the appearance of linear masses, placed parallel and nearly contiguous to one another, perpendicular to the midrib, and extending from it quite to the margin. Its general resemblance to the fructification of the curious genus Danea is very striking, but I am not quite sat- isfied that it is really of the same nature; for on a close éiamidation one may de- tect traces of round spots; and perhaps “8 Raed linear masses may have been made up by the aggregation of numero Mr. Bunbury remarks that “ slisbogh oe itecdadieen of fructifica- tion in all these three plants are clear and unequivocal, yet in the first two species at least, it is invariably the upper surface of the frond that is exhibited to our view ; now, in all recent ferns, the fructification is sit- uated on the under surface : we must therefore suppose that what we see in these specimens are not the masses of capsules themselves, but the impressions of them, as it were, stamped through the substance of the leaves by the pressure to which they were subjected in the process of fossilization. This appears to be most usually the case with those fossil ferns which occur in a fertile state, and may be one reason why it is more difficult to determine with precision the characters of the fructification in these than in the recent plants. Dr. Lindley long ago observed,* that fossil ferns are much more often found with their uppet than with their lower surface exposed to view, the lower seeming to adhere more closely to the matrix; and Professor Goppert,t in bis cu- rious experiments on the artificial production of vegetable impressions, found that plants of this tribe did, in fact, constantly remain attached to the substance in which they were imbedded, by their lower and not by their upper surface, especially if they were in fructification . ~The other plants procured by Mr. Lyell are the Nediaaets cordata, N. gigantea ?, ? Dr a (?), Pecopteris arborescens, P. abbreviata ?, ? endron tetragonum, L. aculeatum, L. ——??, gillaria senltieni ?, Stigmaria ficoides, ‘Kécetopbyliites foliosa; A. tu- bereulata ?, A. equisetiformis?, A. ——?, Artisia ——?, Calamites Pr ash ea al (is B : z pues yee! "Fol Flor, tex 1 Foi Pica Fail, p28 y Meteorology 429 ‘IV. Merzornotocy. == ie eases of £, j Meerralegical pesinler kept in je city of aichez, Lat. 31° 34’, Lon. 91° 42", for ten years ; to show t. sep and annu 6 mean, maximum and minimum of the t arometer, the weather, prevailing winds, and depth of rain; : mente Tooxey, Sen. : Kime shy 3 Bs, Thermometer., _ Barometer. el Darel Prevailing winds. a : r=] Be | sol ath cal Months. S | 5 | S (Mean. Max. |Min. | 3) 3} | s. |s.w.s.e| 2] ™. [ymyow.w. een Sars eee e 3 15) 12, 310 41d 2)2 é 6. 12) 11) 3 3) 6 12) 4) 1] 44 7, 13) 1} 12 2) 2) 5 13, 2] 2/0 6 12, 121 22 5/0} 4/10 0] 0} 2 2) 17) 1 8; 0; 6 7 2} bio 0} 3 16| 11 711). O 7 0}. 34 2- July, 8 2 19} 10 5/0} 3 74) 0}4 A 7 14) 10 3/ 914 11 4] 9 ‘ee 4 | yal 8} 14] 10. 3} O} 1 | October. 474 13 14) 4 5\ 4 17 5 y i | November, | 52: 01 9 _» | December, | 46:2 64 0 13 18 u 0| 0} 4 sa 19'76 168|122 | 122,154 33 |°72|131! 20} 44 |34 Ey Bard to ; EB Hamuary, | 47:2'50 gees 753 29-966 2950011 7 13\ a 6/3| a 16 7| ohn > | February, 52-3626 ae 600) 8} 10/ 10: 10, 3) 5 14) 15 4} 8 id March, | 59-5 69-3:49 E 7| 12) 12; 2) 5/8 15,92 2/ 5/4 - 12 | 64-374" |5 44} “6) 15] 1311 | 101 19 4] 317 : 73: (81-661 4} 4} 2414/4) 8118 1) 3 fir —— fune, 80-7/87: |72 5} 18} 7] 18; 35/13} 6 10 0, O}1 = 83-3 86-379: 0) 21) 10} 14 14! 6 | 3' 416 : 83-2'87-3'76-1 3} 0) 25) 6) 4) 6/2) 10 17 6) 3) 6 : 754.765 63-4 “4 16 10) 8/8) 17) 7 5) 1/3 : 67-5 7481476 1 6 8! 4} 15) 17.2) 144 5 » 63571347 73i11| 13, 6] 11} 5)10|.12% 8 1) 113 4 57-633" 470) 7) 15, as elke ean . ‘eevee TA 99°50 94 173 108 1 123 |66 |124)173) 87 | 34 ‘ 31-6163: ‘33: |30-0 10130-376.29-666) 5| 1 s| sl a{7| 412 2| 2}o 42-3 61-4 22.3.29:902| -253) 606 4) 13} 12} 1) 8) 6) 2 15, 2) 1/3 3433-743 +23 6| 6 9 6 | 41 3; 318 : 2| 24) 4) 1) 7] 14 6| 313 3 17, 13) 5| 5|9} 216 c . at gat 5 | 4|8 19 12) 17] 8 )10) 2 |14 12} 10) 11) 7 ; 3/6 : 6 13) 3 11)-2 5/2 — 8 4) 10! 2] 8 12)-5| 0)}2 = ei | 4|2)° 7 14) 3) 3) 1) 3 msl. 7] 4} 3,17] 2| 210 : : 97) 84 87 \61 | 67 132) 41 | 30 on - Ort ke ; gr, . 1012 5/5} 2 1] 2 an 7 10 2 614} 4 9 7) 4/6 : 1017 6|6/ 5| 10, 0; 5) 6 : 4| 12, 812 |. 4 2} 3/3 a 7 11 18/2) 3/2/13 - 4 8 20/3 1} 016 ; 8} 10, 14/5 | S$ 1! 0} 4] 6| 10, 12) 4 | 2 5) 4) 5) 3] 6 12/5{ 4) 912] 2} 1 11 | 13| 14) 2 1| 9 10) 8| 5\3| 7 4| 0/4 i 4 716 5 ae, “B4/107)120 66 44 | 28 \49 —A30 Scientific Intelligence. \Thermomet’r. Barometer. iret Prevailing Winds. ‘Rain. : gps] & | Months! &/ %-| 6 |Meam. |Max.: |Min. || & 2 s. | s.W./s.E. |, sea AEF asthe aes Sd joe i a eee 1840..| | | | jigh Jan’ry, 49-4 65° |31°6/29-901'30-300 29-603) 7} 16) 8 8}. 9) 5 4} 10 0} 4 3: Feb’ry, 56'S 67° |32- | -911|_ °370) 573). 2) 15 12 14} 4] 3.7.5] 2) 01 1) 3 March, 61-5 74°6 53-3 | 350] 2 17] 12 17) 9] 5) 7 1) 1) 5) 43 April, |71-2806)57 | 776) 0) 19 11/20 11] 5° 7 6| 2 0) 5 873 72573°3|62 | +450 413; 9} 2 13) 6 3] 5| 225 81-2.86-6\73°3 690] 3 18) 9 1} 7] 1 1) 3 g 1) 4:19 82-2 85: \76" 753) 0| 1'7| 14| 16, 14| 8 9 2| 0| 7:70 82-6 88°3/77 720| 0, 28} 3 Tic 5 2 2}1)) *75} 75-9 82 3 -736| 3, 21) 6 5| 4).J0) 7° 2| 4; 3:90 (68:5 80" (51:3 6 653] 4| 21) 6 13, 6) 8 7 4| 7| 468 , [53 (71-3133 +116, 520/11} 15} 4, 17) 7} 8) 14) 1 2| 7) 188 Dec. 190-264" 37. 146° 3) 22| 6 7 6| -8| 15) 14) 7 1} 3) 4:28 67-1 76-8) 46°7'29-806, 30-046 29°644 37234) 95 155) 93 | 681103 130: Fe48 841.5; | { ei: ; ry fh HS5'6) 35: 2977 1 AS 20:460 8 6) 1 ll}. 6 30°3) -771| -206, » -450 3) 121 9| 5} 4) 12) 4 39: | +733) -093.. -400} 4) 17) 10) 11 19}. 8} 5} 0 759)29°943 -486 9) 12} 14) 9} 5} 8} 1 “960, 5 10} 11) 12). 9 13 10} 12| 16; 7 6} 12) 5 ‘83 7 14) 2 5| 12) 1 “808 LM 09 10} 14} 20) 2) ‘730 9} 1 12} 3| 1). 4 840 5| 5 1)} 12) 14) 7 ; ‘827| +153 4 8 7 13, 2 5 | 883} - 10) 9 11 5 29°786 30-031 29° 123/120 '110; 891137) 45 WI AID +1 ie 00 0B ww Te C9 Bl neo xBR~oBapeoyo- El een a WOKMWOw ws et SE ee Dw ns ~ oO Ss te (67-4768 1843. pe gy | \59'3139-911'30-070 6| 20 3 101 7] 998 Feb'ry, 26° al 043} iN 4 20) 4 : - ae 8 Mz 17 4 16 11} 3 s 4 . 14} 98} 14| 13° 12} 6 : 10| 5] 16} 19) 1) 10 -430} 1 9 9} 8} 17} ‘ 6| 3 4 5c) Ep fee Pg Se Fa 38 221 |106 120! 107'115) 83'11 Prevailing Winds, . SW. cae N. ai FAT Pr ed HO ee 5 alata 1}. 12} 8 4) 8) 4 3s} ag 2 )} 20! 1) 4). OF 21; 3) 2 ] 8) 915) afo 20) 317 ol. 11] alg 4) 6/15} 15) 2 8111] 1 2 61-7} 9110! 0 3} 4] 13,0) 81/81} 99| 16 8 sg 8 31 si 4) 7.0 78) ii} 1 7} 97 3.4 9} 9113 4 | gle 1 6 3 11) 7) 610 2 3] 512) 9 2 1] 10115} 10, 3 47 4) 6} 31 1 i “Fe | 80\84) 104 “27 37 5+ ‘9'72°8'54-6 174-3.53-4 67-8'75°1/56° 1 ‘1/76:5)46-7 76°5}53:5 17°9'76°8: 56-9 rt 6353-7 {08-2 77-6 57- 67-196°7 51-4 02 50 1215 |100 06 8)75-7 54-4 59-595 1497'316890-1 Mean depth of rain for 6 y’rs, : REMARKS. ~The foregoing tables are designed to show the mean, maximum, and “minimum, of the Thermometer and Barometer, the number of clear, cloudy and wet days, the prevailing winds, and depth of wai for ten years in the city of Natchez. These tables show clearly that the cli- “mate is good, and conducive to life and health, and all other Seckar that heart can desire. With the exception of occasional epidemics, far between, Natchez is as healthy a city as can be found in the same parallel of latitude around the world, proved by the multitude and healthiness of the children; and where temperance, industry and good behavior are observed by the adult citizens, they are as healthy, and Tong lived as i in any part of the United States, let that part be where it 432 Scientific Intelligence. may. Extremes of heat and cold, dry and wet weather are unknown. Injurious drought and heavy rains are rare. Within the last thirteen years, there have been eight destructive fires in the city, seven of which were followed by rain more or less heavy.. These facts are mentioned as probable confirmation of Professor Espy’s doctrine upon the sub- ject; but whether true or not, let every one judge for himself. Natchez, Aug. 12, 1846. 2. Variations in the climate of France; (L’Institut, No. 647.)—M. Dureau de Lamalle, in May last, read a memoir before the French Academy, in which he contested the value of the citations taken from ancient authors by M. Fuster adduced to prove that the mean tempera- ture of France had diminished. V. Astronomy. 1. Atmosphere of the Moon ; (from an article on the Physical Con- stitution of the Moon, by Prof. E. Loomis, in the Sidereal Messenger, Cincinnati, i, p. 20.)—Whether we observe the moon with the naked eye or with the most powerful telescope, we have no difficulty in say- ing precisely where day ceases and night begins. The shadows of the lunar mountains are dark as midnight.—The transition seems instanta- neous from midnight to noonday. We conclude that the moon has no twilight—or rather the legitimate conclusion is, that the moon has no twilight which can be appreciated by this mode of observation. More refined methods of observation have disclosed the existence of a feeble twilight. If there was no atmosphere, the line which joins the extrem- ities of the horns of the new moon should pass exactly through the centre of the disc—that is, the ring of light should be an exact semi- circle. . By observing the moon when her phases were extremely fal- cated, Schréter discovered a faint glimmering light extending from both the cusps beyond the semicircle. The greatest breadth of this twilight was two seconds, corresponding to about two miles on the moon’s sur- face.— We admit then that the moon has a twilight, extending about two miles in breadth, from which we compute that the height of the denser part of the moon’s atmosphere is 1500 feet. When the edge of the moon’s disc approaches a star, the instant be- fore its disappearance, its light must pass through the moon’s atmos- phere, if there be any, and suffer refraction. The light of the star, instead of moving in a straight line, must be bent behind the moon, and the star must be seen later than it would be without refraction. ‘The effect must take place at emersion; the star must re-appear sooner thant it should if there were no refraction—in other words, the aur of an occultation is diminished by refraction. Now it is easy to bri ing aoe to the test of experiment. We can compute the st Comes i eae: aera ie ~ ee ete = 23 Oe cee ts ee ee, ee SP a BER Sr SE et a a a a a i ea a ‘ : Spec e S ete Se = 3 ee ay Bae Astronomy. 433 time required by the moon to move oyera space equal to its diameter, and we have but to compare with this, the time of the star’s disappear- ance. This observation has been repeated a thousand times, and the result is, that the two intervals are almost identically the same. Fora _ long time it was considered doubtful whether there was any apprecia- ble difference ; but astronomers are now generally inclined to the opin- ion that there is a difference of a few seconds, This would indicate that the moon’s atmosphere does refract light ; but the effect is exceed- ingly small. The refraction produced by the earth’s atmosphere is More than a thousand times greater than that of the moon. The pres- Sure of the moon’s atmosphere would be balanced by a column of mer- cury one forty-fifth (1) part of an inch in height. The best French air-pumps are warranted to rarefy air to one twenty-fifth (4) part of aninch of mercury. * * If we use language with the utmost pre- cision, we must say the moon has an atmosphere; but to avoid being misunderstood, we should add, that it is more rare than any we can Produce with our best air-pumps. 2. On the Projection of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon just before its Occultation ; by Prof. Stevetty, (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1845, p. 5.)—This the Professor considered to be a result of diffraction. Sir Isaac Newton having observed the shadow of a hair placed in a strong _ beam of sunlight to be broader than the hair itself, was led to investi- gate the course of a ray as it passed by the edge of a body, like the edge of a knife placed across a hole in the. window-shutter, through r Which a sunbeam is admitted. Beyond a certain distance the rays pro- ceeded in their usual straight courses; at that distance they were bent towards the edge ; but the courses of the nearest rays were bent away - from the edge, so as to form curves conyex towards it. The undulato- ry theory enables us to trace these curves, and they are known to be of ‘the nature of the hyperbola, with asymptotic branches extending on- Wards from the diffracting edge. Prof. Stevelly conceived the dark | _ limb of the moon to be such a diffracting edge to the slender beam of _ light which reached us from a fixed star; and that as the curve was, at the last moment the light was allowed to pass, convex towards the ; Moon, the portion of the ray which last enters our eye before the star disappears, being the direction in which we should then see the star, if : : Produced backwards, would meet the moon om her dark surface. 8. The Central Sun of the Universe.—Prof. Madler of Dorpat has _ §0nounced that he has discovered the central sun about which our sun With its attendant planets performs its circuit. His conclusions are de- : ed from a comparison of catalogues of stars since the time of Brad- , “Srcoxp Sznres, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 56 ABA Scientific Intelligence. ley. The following summary may give some idea of the nature of his labors. 1. Of 15 stars in the group of the Pleiades, there is a great unifor- mity in the proper motions, and a general decrease of declination. 2. Of 12 other stars observed by Bradley within 5° of the Dlaingon = declinations have been generally decreasing since 1 . Of 35 stars observed by Bradley from 5° to 10° distant from the os the same remark is true. 4. Of 57 stars observed by Bradley from 10 to 15° distant. from the Pleiades, the declinations are generally decreasing. Out of 110 stars within 15° of the Pleiades, whose ‘Siclitanolan are given by Bradley, we find— motions towards the South ; 49 motions very slow and yet undetermined ; 1? towards the North. Madler explains these facts by ascribing to the solar system a motion nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. He also remarks that the proper motions of the stars increase with their distance from the Pleiades, the greatest proper motions known (5 to 6”) occurring at a distance of about 90°. Midler therefore concludes that the Pleiades constitute the central group of the system of fixed stars which compose the Milky Way, and that Alcyone is that particular star which is most pene the true central sun. Alcyone, known also as 7 Tauri, or 25 Tauri, is a double star of the third or fourth’ magnitude in A. R. 3h. 38m. ; Dec. 23° 39’ N. Madler estimates the distance of Aleyeiin from us to be such as light would require 537 years to traverse. The time of one revolution of the sun about Alcyone he estimates at 18 millions of years. The mass of all the bodies whose distance from the central sun is not greater than our own, he estimates at 117 million times that of our sun. Prof. Schumacher in giving place to this remarkable memoir in the Astronomische Nachrichten, intimates that he entertains some doubts respecting the conclusions—doubts which will probably be shared by many other astronomers. 4. Antares.—The announcement of the triplicity of the star Anta- res, at p. 280, was premature. It is probable that the appearance of the minute companion of a green color, is a result of prismatic dis- persion ; and that Antares is consequently a double star only. 5. The new Planet Astrea.—This newly discovered member of our _ System was followed at the principal European Observatories until it = too near the sun to be longer observed. The following are the ae 2 po So ee _ latest observations we have seen, and were made at the Berlin Obser- vatory by Professor Encke. eR May 12,| 9 57m 46-25 m.tjJA. R. 100° 44” 81” Dec. + 21° 36’ 0-2” ree. we Oo 41 VPRO ee OT 1G ae 25-2 =38,10 20 (272- .* | -© ©1608 59 -444°| * 21 30 562 82 (uy © 106. 10 Ba 21 25 16-0 The following elements obtained by Mr. Graham of Markree Ob- _ Servatory, from observations of Dec. 17, Jan. 20, and Feb. 17, accord temarkably well with those obtained by Professor Encke from the first two weeks’ observations. Epoch 1846. Jan. 1:0. Greenwich M. T. Z Mean longitude, . 94° 46/ 51:14” c Mean anomaly, ~ 819 29 32-32 Perihelion, ‘ . 1385 17 18-82 1 ee equinox, = .¥ jNode, .....~.-.-.. 141-16: 59-46. } 1846, Jan. 1-0. _ Inclination, r “ 5 19 59-06 Eccentricity, . .. 0°1936831 Semi-major axis, ; 2°593452 _ Mean motion, . ; 849/5508 _. Revolution, . . 1525°5 days. _ It is gratifying to learn that Mr. Hencke has received various honor- able testimonials for his discovery of this planet. The King of Den- mark awarded to him a gold medal with the inscription, Ingenio et Arti. _ The King of Prussia also awarded to him a gold medal; and conferred upon him the order of the Red Eagle, IV, with an annual pension of three hundred dollars. E. L. - 6. Biela’s Comet.—In our May No. we have given some information Tespecting the extraordinary phenomena of this body. It was attended by a companion like a secondary comet, which was very remarkable for its changes of magnitude and brilliancy. This companion was no- , ticed at Washington, Jan. 13, and this is the first notice of it we have Seen from any quarter of the world, except the observation at New Ha- Ven, Dec. 29, 1845. At Cambridge, Eng., the phenomenon was first - ‘Noticed Jan. 15th, though the first measurement of distance we have Seen was for Jan. 23. On the 15th of January also, M. Wichmann at Kénigsberg noticed a faint nebula near the comet; and on the 26th, Perceiving that the distance between the two bodies had changed, he commenced a series of measurements. At Naples the companion was first noticed Jan. 19; at Berlin, Jan. 27; at Geneva, Feb. 3; and at . Feb. 13, ~ The following observations give the differences of Right Ascension and Declination of the two bodies. They were all made at Wash- 436 Scientific Intelligence. ington with the igi baat of the last two, which were made at Cam- bridge, Eng. Diff. A. R. Diff. Dec. Diff. A.R | Diff. Dec. Jan. 13, | about 4-08 | 1’ or 2 Feb. 13, 8-68 4' 38" 14, | 4:0 *)) TTS" moO" . e. & 18, 46° 'T a7 18, | 99 aha 98 19, 43 | 1 48 21 | -EL7 5 -52 22, 53.) 1-57 224 | 191 6 4 23, ig} Saaee e4 26, | 14:8 6 48 24, se ae ae March 3, | 19-4 1°35 26, §5 1.2 19 ee 3 | 8 Il 8, SG- | 2 27 5, {22-5 8% Feb. 4, 62 | 3 10 8, | 25-1 8 28 » 65 713: Qi 10, | 26-6 8 52 9 Gh. P&B 14, + 32:7 9 10 11 TR sek 21,.| 42:9 8 44 32, 8:0 |4 29 _ 2b.-| 463 8 23 27, | 47-4 7 54 The following observations show the changes of ek niga which the two bodies experienced. Jan. 18th, the companion was first seen at Washington, but too faint for accurate measurement. It was estimated to have one eighth the magnitude and one fourth the intensity of Biela, or the main body. From this time, the companion increased rapidly both in magnitude and brilliancy. On the 12th of February the companion appeared the brightest, and on the 16th, the companion was estimated to be equal to Biela as to magnitude, but to have one third more intensity of light. On the 18th of February, Biela-exceeded his companion at least two- fold both in magnitude and intensity of light. From this time the com- panion rapidly declined ; and on the 3d of March it was estimated at one sixth of Biela. March 10th, the companion was estimated at one twentieth the brightness of Biela, and at Berlin it was pronounced too faint to be observed, although Biela was followed till April 24th. The companion was last seen at Washington, March 2ist, and at neers Ene.; March 27th, but “excessively faint.” The following notices of the physical appearances of these two bodies, as observed at Washington, will throw some light upon the na ture of their connection with each other. Jan. 14th, were noticed glimpses of a tail to each body ; Biela’s tit extending N. E., and his companion’s nearly parallel with it. Jan. 18. ‘Tail of Biela only a few minutes of arc long, extend- | ing towards N. E., lancet like. Tail of companion not so long, but “Rearly parallel. Nuclei decidedly condensed towards the centre, but oc ta,” 3 not resolvable in into points of light except perhaps Biela’s by glimpses- Astronomy. A437 ~ Jan. 23. Companion: has the appearance of two tails, one nearly parallel to Biela’s, the other reaching over to his nucleus or rather just to the south’of it. ; ; Jan. 28. Biela exhibited a pointed nucleus; caught glimpses of a point of condensed light in nucleus of companion. ‘ Feb. 4. A decided stellar nucleus to each comet, appearing like a. sharp point of light. Tails reaching almost across the field and nearly Feb. 11. The nucleus of companion decidedly stellar; that of Biela ditfused, and by no means as bright. Feb. 12. Glimpses of two nuclei in Biela ; tail full one third across the field. Tail of companion nearly parallel with Biela’s. Catch glimpses of another tail extending towards Biela just above a straight line between the two, and in a sort of arch. Appearance of two tails to Biela, second going off in a direction opposite from companion. Feb. 21. Ragged condensation of light in nucleus of Biela. Both tails parallel, extending across the field. Feb. 22. A band of nebulous matter, a little arched, joins the two. Appearance of a double nucleus about Biela. Has three tails radiating at angles of 120° to each other. The tail of Biela extends three times the field, say 45’. Feb. 26. Biela has a tripod tail—the one extending opposite to the companion very distinct. Confused appearance about the nucleus of Biela as though there were several nuclei. -~ March 5. Companion has no apparent nucleus ; is exceedingly faint, and without any mark of condensation. March 8. One of Biela’s tails points directly east—the other re mains as it was. ~ March 10. No stellar nucleus to either comet. No tail to Biela by the moonlight. , “March 14. Appearance of cometary fragments about Biela. Counted five of them in this position $%. . : * ee Goiap ante is fs very diffused mass of exceedingly faint nebulous matter. No appearance of fragments about Biela. pe “March 21. Companion very faint, muddy ; a shining point in a dim Patch of light about its nucleus. _ March 30, Saw the two tails to % could n n. ' : : | . pase deo ciise observations it probably will not be doubted that these two bodies had some connection with each other; that the one which we have called Biela was the main body ; and that the compan- ion was formed of matter which proceeded from Biela. The question ‘ Biela as formerly. Companion £ 438 Scientific Intelligence. then arises, how did the companion become detached from Biela. Was it by an internal explosion? Admitting the possibility of an explosion by which a cometary body might be torn into fragments, the rapid in- crease of size and brilliancy of the companion compared with Biela, from Jan. 13th to Feb. 16th, seems hardly explicable except upon the supposition of a continued transfer of matter from one body to the oth- er for an entire month. It seems then most natural to suppose that the cause of this continued transfer was the same as that of the first for- mation of the companion. If this formation appears mysterious, we have at least observed phenomena in the case of other comets which possibly may have some analogy with this. Halley’s comet at its last return was observed to emit streams of fiery matter, which presented the appearance of sectors of extreme brilliancy. The matter thus emitted from the head diffused itself in the direction opposite the sun, and formed the tail of the comet. ‘The attraction of these particles of matter for each other was scarcely, if at all, appreciable. Suppose however the existence of a feeble attraction among these particles. A few of these collecting together would form a nucleus to which other neighboring particles would be attracted, and thus the particles emitted rom the head would form a second nebulous body not unlike the com- panion of Biela. According to the rate of separation when first ob- served, these two bodies must have been together about the Ist of Jan- uary. At this time then we may suppose Biela’s comet to have com- menced emitting particles from its head, which uniting by feeble attrac- tion formed a small nebulous body. Perhaps when the repulsive force began to operate, it may have been for a time resisted by an envelop partaking somewhat of the character of a solid body; and when this resistance yielded, a considerable portion of the main body may have been at once detached by a sort of explosion. A fragment thus de- tached might attract to itself at least a portion of the stream of parti- cles-which continued to be emitted from the main body. Thus the companion increased at the expense of Biela until the 16th of Februa- ry, which was soon after its perihelion passage. At this time the dis- tance of the companion was such that it could no longer attract to it- self the matter repelled from Biela. It therefore ceased to grow, and indeed appeared to decline in brilliancy, perhaps from the loss of mat- ter which it emits in the same manner as Biela; although we have an example in the case of Encke’s comet of a body which habitually be- comes much less conspicuous after than before perihelion passage. 3 On the whole it must be admitted that the phenomena of comets are toge ner anomalous. The comets of Halley, Encke and Biela, a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 7. Fourth Comet of 1846.—The observations mentioned under this title (p. 138) appear to be memoranda referring to Biela’s Comet. The Comet discovered March 8, 1846, by Brorsen is identical with that discovered by de Vico, Feb. 20, 1846, and by Mr. *Geo. P. Bond, 7 4“ - 26. E 8. Fifth Comet of 1846.—This Comet, whose peribelion passage etourred June 4-5, (see p. 138,) was first detected by Brorsen, on the night of April 30, 1846. 9. Hind’s Comet.—A telescopic comet was discovered between the Camelopard and Cassiopeia, by Mr. J. R. Hind at Mr. Bishop’s Obser- vatory, Regent’s Park, London, July 29, 1846, 11h. 10m., Pp. m. Its approximate place was, July 29, 12h. 6m, 6s.,Gr. m.t. A. R. 3h. 15m. 35:2s.—N. Decl. 60° 37’ 2’. The R. A. was diminishing and N. oe increasing. Mr. Hind gives the Sellars elements » Ps Pass,, - 1846, May 14 11425 Gr. m. t. i, Long. of Perihelion, > . 102° 43’ 56”) , j Soe Ase. Node, 164 18 10 2 AA SS Ae a Inclination, ‘ +0 HOO: Ra ct E Log. Perih. dist., 0.0628684 eS Motion, . retrograde. 10. Le Verrier’s Planet. —The new planet, ihe existence M. Le Verrier demonstrated mathematically from the inequality in the motions of Uranus, was actually discovered by M. Galle of Berlin, Sept. 23d, 1846. This grand discovery is announced in a letter from Dr. Briin- now of the Royal Observatory at Berlin, dated Sept. 25th. He says, * the planet resembles a star of the Sth magnitude, but with a diameter of two or three seconds. Its motion is now retrograde, at the rate of four seconds of time daily. Below are two of its places :— Sept. 23, 124 0m 145-6 m.t. R. A. 328° 19' 16-0 S. Decl. 13°24’ 8-2 + 24,8 54 40-9 © 828.1814-3 «13 2429-7 “Mr. Hind at Mr. Bishop’s Observatory, Regent’s Park, London, ob- ’ served the new planet Sept. 30, notwithstanding the moonlight and hazy : sky, and with a power of 320 he saw the disc. Its place was Sept. 80, 8 16m gis Gr. mt. R.A. 21" 5am 4715, 8. Decl. 19° 27" : 20 —Lond. Atheneum, Oct. 3. VI. MisceLLANEouS INTELLIGENCE. 1.: Improvement in the construction of the Rails and Wheels of : Railroads _—Mr. C. H. Greenhow of London has published a pamphlet 3 in which he condemns flanged wheels, and recommends circular rails and concave tire as much better adapted to the ever varying circum- Stances of a long line—such as curves, loose chairs, sprung rails, &c. 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Manufacture of Gas for illumination, from Water.—M. Jobard has succeeded in giving to hydrogen a high illuminating power; the gas burns with a white and brilliant flame equal to thirty six candles of six to the pound. This gas was charged with carbon by passing it seca a cylinder containing about two quarts of oil of gas tar; but as the gas deposited its mechanically suspended carbon, M. Jobard caused hydrogen gas ob-: tained by the distillation (decomposition?) of water to take up hydro- carburets produced by the distillation of coal gas at the moment of for- mation : twice or thrice as much gas could be obtained as by the ordi- nary method, and the gas needed no purifying, especially when fish or other oils were employed. The combined gases contain carburets of hydrogen, 57; snitie of of carbon, 28 ; and free hydrogen, 15. One hundred and eleven feet of gas were produced from every pound of oil 3. Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.—The following persons constitute the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. The Vice President of the United States. The Chief Justice of the United States. The Mayor of the city of Washington. Messrs. Evans, Pennybacker, and Breese of the Senate. Messrs. R. D. Owen, W. J. Hough, H. W. Hilliard, of the House. R. Choate, Mass., G. Hawley, N. J., Richard Rush, Pa., William C. Preston, S. C., A. D. Bache, and J. G. Totten of Washington. Preparations are making to go on at once nth: ties erection of buildings, and the organization of the institution. 4. Wollaston Medal.—The Wollaston Medal has been presented pes the Geological Society of London to Mr Lonsdale, well known for his various contributions to Paleontology, and. peeniess in the difficult de- partment of fossil corals. 5. Geological Society of France ; (L’tnstitut, No. 655, July 2, 1846, p. 252.)—This society held its annual session at Alais (Gard), on the 30th of August, this place being selected on account of its great Geological interest, as it combines the richest coal beds of France, mines of iron and lead, the jurassic formation and the lower creta- ceous. : . : 6. Prof. Louis Agassiz.—This distinguished European naturalist ar- rived at Boston about the first of October. We learn with pleasure that he will spend several years among us, in order thoroughly to un- derstand our natural history. M. Desor, his companion in the glaciers of Switzerland, and Mr. Dinkel, the artist of his beautiful platens: are soon to join him in this country. =* Verneuil has left for Paris, but will again return after £ ee wee > Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 8. The Ray Society—We call attention to the prospectus of this a society, which will be found among our advertisements. 9. The Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, held its seventh annual session at New York, as previously announced, on the 2d of September and the week thereafter. We publish in the pre- sent number of this Journal, two papers which were read at this meet- ‘ing; and fenher notice of their doings will be shen on another occa- a 10. The British Association met at Southampton on the 10th of Sep- tember, under the direction of Sir Roderick [. Murchison. We under- _ Stand from a gentleman who has been present on several previous oc- casions, that this meeting was one of uncommonly high character. Their proceedings have reached us through | the kindness of Mr. Ly- éll, but too late for notice in this volume. 11. Museum of Economic Geology in Great Britan; (from the Anniv. Address by L. Horner, Esq., before the Geol. Soc. of London, - Quar. Jour. Geol, p. 152.)—In his Anniversary Address of 1840, Dr. Buckland adverted to the recent establishment, by the Government of that time, of the Museum of Economie Geology. It not only received encouragement from their successors, but has been placed by them ona _More enlarged and comprehensive plan. During the last year the Ge- ological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland mee been transferred from the direction of the Master General of the Ordnance to that of the Chief Commissioner of her Majesty’s Woods and Works; and that Survey and the Museum of Economic Geology are now united under one management. ‘The establishment is supported by an annual parlia- mentary grant, which in the last session amounted to 8850/., including the Museum of Economie Geology in Dublin; and large premises are about to be built by Government in a central part of the metropolis for the accommodation of the several departments, the extension of the Museum, and the accomplishment of other useful plans that are in con- templation. It isa reproach to former Governments that, the forma- tion of such an institution should have been left to recent times, in a country deriving so much wealth, importance and power from its min- eral treasures. When we consider the high qualifications of ‘he officers selected by the Government for carrying out this scheme, we may look forward with confidence to their rendering important services to geological sci- ence; as well as to mining interests, the arts and manufactures. Sir De Ja Beche is, as: you are aware, the Director-general ; and his indefatigable zeal and er ae and above all the judgment shown ons of the other officers, cannot be too ; Shiecatanes: Mr. ae Ramsay is ae of the Survey of Srcoxp Seams, Vol. 11, No. 6.—Nov., 1846. 442 Bibliography. Great Britain; Captain James, of the Royal Engineers, is Director of that of Ireland ; Professor Edward Forbes is Palzontologist, and Mr. Warrington Smyth, Mining Geologist for the United Kingdom ; and there is reason to believe that Dr. Hooker will be appointed to the de- partment of Botany.* Mr. John Phillips is engaged in the Survey of the North of England, and one laboratory of the Museum of Economic Geology is under the diréction of Mr. Richard Phillips, one of the foun- ders of this Society,‘and another under the direction of Dr. Lyon Play- fair. There are besides several able officers in different departments. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pai: _ 1. The Sidereal Messenger, a Monthly Journal, devoted to Astro- nomical Science. 4to. Monthly.. 8 pp. each, with engravings. Cin- cinnati, O. Price $3 a year.—Prof. O. M. Mitchel, the able and en- terprising. director of the Cincinnati Observatory, has undertaken a periodical work, whose title we have cited above. Its object, as stated in the prospectus, is ‘* to record in a plain and simple form, the results of the researches made with the great achromatic refractor of the ob- servatory,—to present the earliest astronofnical intelligence from all parts of the world,—to furnish to our countrymen, in their own lan- . guage, the most interesting articles from foreign astronomical journals, -—to excite an interest among the people in the elevating study of as- tronomy,—and to give a permanent support to the Institution under whose auspices the publication is made.” Four numbers are already issued, containing the articles named below, besides various other in- teresting notices. Account of the pe eter Ohbaasans. and the Great Refractor. Telescopic View of the Mo _ Account of Biela’s Double Comet. Maedler on the Central Sun - Loomis on the Physical Constitution of the paces 3 Phenomena observed during the Total 1 Eclipse of the Sun, July 7, 842. ~ Orbitual Motion of the Double Stars ~ Observations on Double Stars, made with the Cincinnati Refractor. from Eminent Foreign Astronomers This Journal, the first on our Contitient, devoted solely to astronomy, promises to be highly useful to the science of the country, and reflects great credit on the city of its — We trust it will be liberally sup- Ported. ; 2. The Trees of America, native and feroignn pictorially and botan- ically delineated, and scientifically and popularly described, etc., illus- Zi “aga engravings ; by D. J. Brownz, New York; k, 1846, & & Brothers. 1 vol. large eave 500.-—Fhie 3 is the work of a oe So oe E ay : a ee ; * Dr | NS, aa 5 ae ene ~~ Be taken place oa ass. _ &e., are given in full. Upon examination we > * ee person. truly fond of his subject, and who has evidently devoted no little attention to it. The wood-cuts are pretty good, the typography and paper are handsome, and the volume contains much well selected and some original popular matter. The author leaves us in much doubt as to the extent of the field he means to embrace. Though we find no Statement restricting the general title ‘‘ Trees of America,” we pre- ‘sume, on the whole, that those of the United States only are intended which may be termed par excellence American, in the same way that the continental title is applied to our citizens abroad. What is meant by the « foreign trees of America,” is not so clear, since Mr. Browne has omitted many of the common hardy exotics cultivated among us, while he has given such as the Pistachio-nut, the Paraguay Tea, the Prunus avium, of Europe, (which stands in his book under the name of “ The Wild Cherry tree,” to mislead the general reader,) the Laurus nobilis, or True Laurel, and lastly the Camphor-iree, which is surely “foreign” enough. On the other hand,the greater part of our Thorns, our wild Crab-trees, the Southern Prickley Ash, two of our Rhododendrons, and a large portion of our commonest taller shrubs are entirely unno- ticed ; not that shrubs do not fall within the range of the work; for the low Canadian Barberry, the Zscul tachy d the Ilex vomitoria, find the book closes ab- ruptly. with the Elm family ; the: Amentaceous and. Coniferous trees, that is, our principal forest trees, being left to the contingency of an- other “ supplementary volume,” to be published or not, as circum- Stances may warrant ;—which we suspect is not exactly according to the terms of subscription. We should not have remarked upon this, nor upon the singular notion of making the Oaks, Hickories and Pines play a supplementary part to Oranges, Almonds, Pomegranates, Myr- tles, Figs and Camphor-trees, in a work on the “ trees of this country more complete and extensive than had hitherto been published,” if there had been any indication upon the title-page or cover, or even an explicit statement in the preface, that this is only the first volume of a work on our trees, and in itself incomplete. This is “a trick of the trade,” for which perhaps the author himself is not directly responsible. That we do not consider Mr. Browne as high botanical authority will Not be surprising, when it is seen that he describes the Ohio Buckeye a$ a variety of the common Horse Chestnut, the Rhus glabra as a vari- _ &ty of the Rhus typhina, the Robinia hispida or Bristly Locust as a vatiety of the pseudacacia or common Locust-tree ; states his confi- dent belief that the Choke Cherry and the Wild Black Cherry ( Cerasus virginiana and C. serotina) are one and the same species ; confounds in the same way all our species of Ash under Fraziaus americana, and allour Elms, even the Wahoo, and Slippery Elm, under Ulmus amer- Aad Bibliography. icana. Some of these mistakes are copied from Loudon ; butan Amer- ican writer on the trees of his own country, who professes to exercise his own judgment on these points, should have corrected such obvious errors, instead of adding tothem. Some liberty is taken with the snes as well as the botany. A part of those beautiful lines— “ Wise with the lore of centuries, What tales, if there were tongues in trees, hose giant oaks could tell,’’— are “conveyed” to the Pittsfield Elm, without a sign to indicate the change. ‘The fruit of Crategus spathulata is said to- be of “ the small- ness of a grain of mustard-seed, (p. 274.) The venerable Hales is said to be the author of ** Vegetable Statistics”—instead of Vegetable Statics. Mr. Browne, following Michaux, says, “‘ The wood of Olea americana is excessively hard, and difficult to cut and split: hence the provincial name of Devil-wood,” (p. 382.) An insufficient reason, one would think, for the bestowal of such an ungracious cognomen. We have heard a better and more probable explanation,—viz. that the woed in burning snaps loudly, throwing the fragments explosively from the hearth. We should like to know our author’s authority for the fol- ' lowing curious statement respecting the Sassafras-tree. ‘The most / interesting historical recollection connected with this tree is, that it may be said to have led to the discovery of America; as it was its strong fragrance smelt by Columbus that encouraged him to persevere when his crew were in a state of mutiny, and enabled him to convince them that land was not far off,” (p. 417.) Acute olfactories the great navi- gator must have had, to snuff the fragrance of Sassafras groves in Florida, more than five hundred miles off! Besides, now-a-days, the flowers of Sassafras are almost scentless. With the greatest propriety does the author say that he “ feels called upon to acknowledge that he is particularly indebted to Mr. Loudon for a large share of his work, taken from the Arboretum Britannicum, and to Dr. Thaddeus W. Harris, for many valuable extracts from his Report on the Insects of Massachusetts injurious to vegetation.” From the latter copious ab- stracts of the highest interest have been very freely taken ; indeed no- where, beyond Dr. Harris’s own volume, will so large an amount of his invaluable researches be found embodied, as in Mr. Browne? s — R. 3. Outltacs of Siructhiral and Physiological Beinnyss by ARTHUR Henrrey, F. L. S., etc. With numerous illustrations: In three parts. Part I, Piemeniaey: Structures.. Part {1, Organs of Vegetation. pp- 106, 12mo. London, 1846. Van Voorst.—The third part, “ contain- the Organs of Reproduction and General Physiology,” is doubtless ie ty as ‘aa : in a late number of the Bibliothéque Universeile, of Geneva. eS hee ae ae ee lucid useful treatise. Its particular object, the author informs us, is to * the student in possession of the results of the numerous and important researches which have been published within the last few years in this department of science,” especially by the German observers, who are prosecuting their investigations in vegetable anatomy with such zeal and Success, researches which, scattered as they are through various jour- nals, or contained in voluminous works, and toa great extent locked up in a foreign and difficult language, are placed quite “beyond the reach of many who are interested in them, especially of those whose time is so valuable as that of medical students.” | This little work accordingly is very valuable as a summary of the most recent views and discoveries in vegetable structure, giving special prominence to the formation and metamorphosis of tissues, the phenomena of growth, &c. It is not a mere compilation, but a careful digest, evidently prepared by one who is thoroughly conversant with his subject ; the topics are admirably arranged, and the results succinctly and for the most part very clearly stated. Without waiting for the concluding part, therefore, we may unhesitatingly commend this little treatise to the general, and especially to the medical student. Compendious as it is, we know of no work in the English language which gives so much information upon vegetable _ anatomy. in such a small compass, or so well exhibits the present state _ of knowledge and opinion upon this class of topics. A. Gr. 4. Detessert, Icones Selecta Plantarum quas in Prodromo Syst. Nat. ew herb. Parisiensibus, presertim ex Lessertiano, descripsit, Aug. Pyr. DeCandolle, Vol. 5, 1846, (100 plates, folio.) —The fine illustra- ted work for which botanists are so greatly indebted to Baron Delessert, has just reached its fifth volume. The principal families here illustra- ted, are the Lobeliacee, Ericacew and Epacridew, Myrsinacee, Sapo- tacew, Styracacew, Apocynacee, and Asclepidacee. The following plants of our own country are figured, viz. Dipholis salicifolia, a Sapotaceous tree which we believe is found at Key West; Enslenia albida, without the fruit ; and Podostigma pubescens. Having recently noticed the interesting volites which M. Laségne has devoted to an account of the immense herbaria and almost complete botanical library of Baron Delessert, we may take this opportunity to state that Prof. Alph. DeCandolle has made it the subject of a very instructive review, A. Gr. 5. A Text Book on Chemistry, for the use of Schools and Colleges ; by Jonn Wittiam Draper, M. D. Harper & Brothers, 1846. 12mo, PP. 408.—This text book follows the same order of arrangement which r has been accustomed to adopt in his lectures. It is terse, and philosophical, and appears to be well adapted to the object ahs which it is published. 446 Bibliography. 6. Adulterations of various Substances used in Medicine and the Aris, with the means of detecting them; by Lewis C. Beck, M. D. New York, 8. S. & W. Wood, 1846. 12mo, pp. 332.—Following an alphabetical arrangement, Dr. Beck has presented in the present vol- ume much valuable information on all the common articles of com- merce and medicine which are known to be adulterated, as well as on many which are more rare. He has also pointed out the mode of de- tecting the adulterations by the application of proper chemical tests. The practical usefulness of this volume sufficiently recommends it. 7. Observations in Natural History, with an Introduction on Habits of Observing as connected with the wr of that Science, &c. &c.; by the Rev. Leonarp Jenyns, M. A., F. L. S., etc., Vicar of Swaff- ham Bulbeck. London, J. Van Voorst, 1846. 12mo. pp. 440.—This scrap book is made up in a diary form, of the notes of interesting facts in Natural History observed by the worthy vicar and collector during the past twenty years. They embrace a great variety of subjects, and are written in the same flowing easy style which made White’s Selborne one of the favorite companions of our’youthful days. The volume is introduced by a chapter on habits of observation, and the value of such habits is well enforced by the silent example of the Rev. Jenyns, whose intervals of parochial duty have been filled with the varied een which nature always awards to her votaries. This volume is closed b a calendar of periodic phenomena in natural history, with a chapter on the importance of such registers. 8. A Monograph on Fossil Crinoidea; by Tuos. Austin, Esq., F. G. S., and Tuos. Austin, Jr., Esq., A. B. J.—This work is now pub- liking in numbers, of which the first five have reached us through the attention of the authors. It is in quarto, each number being ilustrated . by two elaborate plates drawn from the best specimens and fully de- scribed. The work will be complete in about twenty parts, at 3s. 6d. each, and is published by subscription by J. Tennant, 149 Strand, Lon- 9. The Brain and its Physiology, &c.; by Dante. Nosie, member of the Royal College of Surgeons, London. J. Churchill, London, 1846. 8vo, pp. 450.—The object of this volume—which is ably writ- _ ten—is to support the doctrines of Gall and Spurzheim by anatomical and ae proofs. List OF.WORKS, Descriptiones Animalium, que in itinere ad maris Australis terras per annos wera! Collegit et delineavit, J. R. Foster, nunc demum editz impensis 2 Bero’ line, curante H. Lichtenstein. Pawar 1844, in 8y0, pp- 424, ‘familia ographia far m oaturalium _Tegni egetabilis auctore A. Sehnislgie- Fase. iv, 1846, gs ™ Ye Cea ae ee Re PE o iaee Be ia eee ae Brose a 2 Gray. “Birds of Calc Bibliography. 447 Voyage dans l'Inde, par Victor ies ima pendant les années 1828-32, publié sous les auspices de M. Guizot. Pa ‘Taylor’s Memoirs, part xvi, (nearly road) containing, Miller on the structure and characters of the Ganoids and on the classification of Fishes ee onthe Elastic Forces of Aqueous Vapor —Regnault's Hygrometrical s.—Ber- zelius on the Composition of Organic Subetences. —Fresnel on the colors produced in. Mpaiegedeons fluids by polarized light. ran M. Gaimard. Paris, The 40th livraison has penned The work will form 20 volumes in 8vo, and 7 folio atlases, containing 516 plate Nouvelles Annales des anes et des Sciences Geographiqse, redigées par M. Vivien de Saint-Martin; 5e serie, 2e année, 1846. Pari - Zweiter Supplement zu der Hand reg der dondueia Theils der Min- eralogie, by C. F. Rammelsberg. 8vo, B Grundriss der Chemie, by M. Wohler, Sth ed.in 8vo. Berlin. Naturgeschichte der ee by Prof. S. Kutorga, with an Atlas. St. Petersburg, 1839; in German, 144 pp. 8vo, and 4to atlas, Carlsruhe, 1841. Thesaurus Literature ressasite ompium sent G. A. Pritzel. Leipsic, An- nounced for 1847, by F. A. Brockhaus. ‘ SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. Awswars or tne Lycrom or Naturat History of New York, Si = Nos. 6,7. August, 1846.—p. st ee of anew 2S of Anser (A. with 8 plate; G. N. Lawr . A Descriptive pidclions of the Ge sdeidtasii Ealeoper, inhabiting the Ghied States east of the Rocky Mountains; with two plates; John L. Le Conte. In connection with the Catalogue there are descriptions of species of the following genera: Cicindela, Galerita, Cymindis, Calleida, Axinopalpus (nov. gen.), ius, Lebia, Coptodera, Thyreopterus, Brachinus, Dyschirius, Clivina, Pristo- dactyla, Rhedine (nov. gen.), Anchomenus, Agonum, Olisthopus, Pecilus, Ade~ losia, oe ereocerus, Argutor, Piesmus (nov. gen.), Lyperus, Feronia, Steropus, 4AND anp Macazixe or Natourat History, August, 1846, No. 117. No- tices of British HYpoeeess Fungi; ©. J. Berkeley and C. E. Broome.—Regular Ar- tals in certain organs of Plants; E. J. eckett —Remarks on of ) aa ad J: E. Stocks.—Ornitho) Ww. Jardine-—Zoologi- cal Society, March 24, 1846. New species of siielle; J. H. Jonas.—April 14. Twenty new Helicea, in the collection of H. ae os a= ala 9. mul 23. On the Dinorn Mobl.— sate ome A. White—New Mammalia E. Gray.—Two new Antelopes; J. i 8 ab-axial arrangement of carpels ; oott.—March 17. Siliceous armor 4. White—New genus of sain (Herpestes, Felis, Pteromys and Jacchus) ; E. Gray.— Pe ae Society, Feb. 17. agent T. 8. Ralph.—Cari ies noy., &c.; : 2 Sail Scouinld: ; Golding Bird. oy 21. Development of Starch and Chlo- 448 Bibliography. rophylle ; E. J. Quekett.— Zoological meciniys 14. Forty new species of Hal- itis, in the collection of H. Cuming; L. Reeve,—Fifty-four new species of Man-- gelia, in the collection of H. Cunahox’y jhe Reeve Awnares pes Sciences NaTURELLES, Pebowan 1846.—Zoology. On the res- piration in birds; NV. Guillot.—On the Capra padu and Equus bisulcus of Molina; MM. Gay and Paul Gervais.—On the typical differences, hitherto unknown, in reported on by .2. Brongniart and Dutrochet—On the development of the ovule and embryo in the Schizopetalon Walkeri ; M. Barnéoud.—Researches on Crus- tacea; Dr. Pfeiffer.—Revision of the genus Iris; E. Spach—On the Fungi of the Museum at Paris; J. H. Léveiil March.— Zoology. On the TPergines Edwardsii; 2. de Nordmann, (continued.) Note on the development of the Chelonia; H. Rathke—On the development o the Spermatozoids of the Ray and Torpedo; M. de Martino. —On the mechanism of the secretions ; 4. Lereboullet.—On the temperature of the Spatangus purpure- us, Trigla hirundo and Gadus eglefinus of the Northern Seas; Ch i On the testicles and spermatozoids of the Patelle; Lebert and Robin.— Botany the Fungi of the Paris Museum; J. H. Léveillé —On the composition and n structure of several organs of plants; Mirbel and Payen. —On the wPeepien of arsenic by healthy and living plants; 4. Targioni-Tozzetti i1.— Zoology. On the composition and structure of the envelop of the Tu- nicata; Levig sad Kalliker. —Report on the same ; Payen.—Researches on Zoo- phytes ; Dana.—On different species of fossil mammifera of the south of France ; . Gervais.—Botany. On the organization of the Myrodendron; J. D. Hooker.— On the temperature of 1846, and its influence on the flowering of plants; C. Mar- tius—Monograph of the genus Cardopatium ; E. Spach.—On the anatomical strue- ture of the Cuscuta and Cassytha; J. Decaisne.—On the Fungi of the Paris Mu- eallé. ‘PRocEEDINGS OF THE dt Ames DER iW ileneeteinrie zu Bertin—MAY, 1 On the decrepitation of sy oH. Rose.—On Dumasin; Heintz. —On the Spirifer water in capillary tubes, with investigations ; ; C. Brunner.—Microse a voleano of Quito, Ascension Island, in the aac: and Cyperoidea of Egypt, Arabia, Berlin, &c.; Ehrenberg. JULY. —On a new metal of Columbite; H. Rose.—On the electromotive force of the galvanic current; Poggendorf. ‘Arcuiy rirx Natureescuicnte, 1846, No. endix to Gurlt’s list of En- tozoa, arra arranged according to the animals they inbicbits Creplin—New or little known Annelida; E. Grabe.—Macrocolus genus near Jaculus; .4. Wagner- Flying mouse of Surinam ; F. Krauss pe ith on the Lutra lutreola; ». Ste- muszowa- kt.—On the Polish Siacents ibid.—Structure of the Ganoidea ; J. Maller.—Review of works and Memoirs in Phyniclogical Botany for — 5; H. "= os * INDEX TO VOLUME II. Abich, excursion of, to ire of sciences, at Paris, Jacobi elected a -epeatigr r of, 291. Acetic acid, preparation of, by the use of bi- chromate of potassa, W. B.and R. E. Rog ers, Acid, new, in tobacco, 112. —, bromo-boracic, 113. —, salicylic, — of i ag rk of Viburnum opulus, 411. —, compoun Is of. with ether, 412, || Adums, "C. ‘B. notice ofa small ornithichnite, African hat, new, E. Halowell, 273. . assiz, works of, noticed, 300. ——, arrival in U, Air of apartments, vitiated, how distributed, Alcohol, ineandescence of iron, cOpUET, &e., in the va apor 0! Sieh yce, preparation of, W. B, and RE. Ne og nas eof E. Eien on,298, ali, new organic,farfutoline,G. Faeyr anew? producti Alkaloid, anilene, 409. iio ue allyle ip aio. aes and it , 410, iple of, Taacerisened by eppens, gamation a iron and steel to prepare aa — “fire-gilding 26 American Kari: nes, Soa and ar- cheology of, . G. Mort “3 Som pas to anplarine mercury, Millon, 2 258. copper, Pelouze, 259. —. io « separate cobalt from. manganese, Ps. ese, 259, utile, ‘trimorphism of, Andalusites, ee from Brazil, 119. 1 Auilee, remarks Animalcules ; Thoughts on, by G.Mantell, no- ticed, Anacthiet in meteorites, C. U, Shepard, 381, oe 434. bntiots ’ solubility of gypsum, 114. Antimoniate of lead, native, 414. Apatite in limestone, source of, J. D. Dana, 88. est for man FER mig: Brookite and and apatoid in spin te 379. Aphides, F. Walker preparing a work on, Apus pon ope J. LeConte, 274. rago on cited, 335 rarat,- Mt, § excursion to, 291. | Archeioy of f ibe American Aborigines, S. G Arkansite, a new mineral, 250. |Arragonite and calc spar isomeric, 417. Arsenical and eget tachies, iodine for distin Artificia marble, 266. te for horn Pa preeaties ion of Pte i IS T. S. Hunt, grt western, Saeed observations n. the weather of, 77. Association tion of or eeu an turalists, me of me ting, 144, e of meeting of, 441. streea, he" sa planet, west Atoms views of Povgtes of D-Whabey, ion $37. s of, 144. Sinner oun Touthal of Science, 147. —, E. Austin, Z «, T, nical vet Foal Crinoidea, noticed 446, Auntie - Australia, rivers discovered in, 290, tia Oring IEIOROHE Mee ——, mines in South, 291. Amalie compounds, analysis of, R. Smith,|| Axi in a fossiliferous rock, 123, 112. a B acal salts in guano, 2 oe OE seed aeock pe cnt (struvite and! Balan reining Tampa Bay, 400. guan ae oP 268. Sanaa. rom, 284. Amoibite, a new mineral, 4 avclnetat eo tts Ear of the Cuba gale Amylaceous substances, Wiceatioa of, Mialhe, Analysis of com igs ef ammonia and of cyanogen, R. Smith, — of the glassy scoria of Ba —— of a to Loretta the bromine, 113. Peg € . | waters, B. Silliman,|| .on; 311. pays, oo esanaae of hypophosphite, M. a frost western Africa, new, E, Halowell, E., on the electric SPS of certain hodies, 235 Kilauea, 273. ee ree pe emPRnTONS a HE: Beer and 3 Miidler’s work on the moon cited, Szconp Sen, Vol. II, No. 6.—Nov., a: 58 450 Benzenberg, death of, 297 Benzoline obtained — hydrobenzamide, Bes. sel, F. W., death of, 1 Bibliography, a of ine works, 153, 302, - Biela’s Comet, observations on double nature of, "135. of double character, E. ~ Beans 437, 438. Bigelow, A., on ‘some sandstone rocks in aldwin Co.; Ala., — Bitter extracts, precipitated by charcoa poe an tion ing Blood, presence of carbonates in, R. F. Mar-|\Chladnite, a new mete chand, ——, cause of circulation of, J. W. Draper,|'C Bodenite, a new mineral, 4 iC — g, g Point affected by ch cohesion of'|C qui —eo Bolly. prepar b ee Wey eee eveeana comets, 37, 138,) Cidari ee, death of, 297. acid, com pounds of, with ether, 412, — ie vit — fonee a abe in limestone, W. C, Boro, bromid ey elecusiehy by the ar \Chin INDEX. I ole Ca em W.. > notice of elements of phys- ogy, by, 1 ae new ststnce fro from, Liebig, 112. Sedlesinde corals, of Hori ida e Chantonnite e, a new meteoric ai ineral, 381. Chara, influence of electric currents on cir- wabiiionr | in, Dutrochet, 133. arcoal, mineral precipitations by, 260. ‘Cheirotherial footprints in Pennsylvania, C. etl, \Chemis try, notice of Turner's, 148. na, mineral coal in, R. C. Taylor, 141. Chinese map, 293. | ; oric mineral, 381. Chlorophyllite, pseudomorph of iolite, 418. hondrodite in limestone, source of, J. D. Dana, 838. hrome ore in meteor hromic acid, preparato mer M. Bo ily, 261. s of foxydation of gelatine via. Cireulaion of the blood, cause of, J. W. Dra- [ok , test for Laie es a 11] ,Chima supposed variations in, 432. care Sd of Pennsylvania, footprints in, C. ye 12 Botan of Japan, and U. States, analogy ors iia —, cannel, fluor spar in, H. D. Rogers, 124. tween 135, ae of Trsealoss, Ala., C. Lyell and Botiger, igoandesesnes of iron, copper, &c., ee . F. Bun in the vapor of alcohol, 260. of prantkae: Md., ferns of, 427. —, emalgame mation of iron and steel to pre-|—— — formation af Ohio, Fusulina | in, be deter: ar for fire ing, 266. Pas 1g It, separation of, from manganese, 260, Breitha aige R "Coes : so of iui and its effect on the point upt, on nite ‘an roplumbite,|| of ebullition, 256 414, . Cipiegh Coins, Roman, discovered in France, 141. ete on loxoclace, 414, ‘Comet, first of 1846, 137 —~, oni , second of 1846, ay British Assoc cacao, meetin ing of, ——, third of 1846, 137. Brochantite and Krisu uvigite Menta 417, ||, fourth of 1846, 133, 439. ine in waters, dete n of, 113. © ||——, , fifth of 1846, 133, 230, 439. boracic acid, or bromid of! ron, 113. Li, tne . Brookite, anatase rutile, trimorphism of,|——. " Biela’ %, double nature of, as observed at 416. different pe aces, 4 Brorsen, third and fourth comets of 1846, 138.||—, id, remarks on, by E. Loomis, Browne, D. J., trees mnerica, noticed, 437, 438. ; 442, —, Hind’ 8, elements of, 439, Bucholzite of pee Penn., 418; Coes neord Meret History Society, 144. Buc on the Zeuglodon of Alaba-||Conrad, T’. A., tertia Warren Co., Miss., ma, i ae. Bunbury, C. T. F., coal plants of Tuscaloosa, ||——, of the Walnut Hills, Miss., 210. ‘Ala., 228. —, shells of amps b ——, coal plants of ocr Md., 427. Continents, o: He I wa: 352. || Copper, new mode of. catia Pelouze , 259. rea ines ce of, in the vapor of alco- -Calorific ig of the light moon 1, Bott loni, 256 ie ated hee —., ema cht a oxyd of, Wittstein, 262. Seve coal; bal Alnor spar i in, ——., vanadate of, native, 414, Carbon, t expired by man, £. ,| Cora, slid E. Flo rida, 43. _ Sch ig, 262. Cotton in India, 141, 360. rices Cunze’s work on, noticed, 301. _||Cretaceous formation Nac abl Romer, ’ noticed Crinoideas notice ae on, 406. Cry ite, F. Wo « Cry agnetism, 11 eine ran, relative quantities of land and ee, ee ae Pe ee ey gy a Wage cc eee eee Seg eer 4 , analysis of, R.S& “22 WD ys 451 from & St. Louis, ii ae ete e sidinad structure of the trunk of, ca a ing bdo Ss. G Marton, . D. Damour, jade allied to ream 267. Damour ite, in the U. Sta “t J. D., on Zoophy tes, 64, 187. ———, On the Ne Sad ate of fluor spar, apatite | and chond n limes ha ——, on the volciioas of they nm, 335. ——, on the fais canditian “Of the earth’s surface, 347. senate; erigit of ets feldspar centre of volcan- oribia of igneous rocks and _ their pe- s, E. Teschemacher, || few on the sap of sat o% — ge edie of” Pei rae oe |—— —onduction, C. G4. P egraph, importa for conveyis me- seooloaical vaallignstn eying me pra saleanins probable conduction * of, through moist air, 204. ag ner lion of, ay bursting of a bladder, Biccise viesgnene induction, law of, C. G. culiarities, 348, ee erystallization of syenites and granites, of a ae i arwin, > cite Falkland Islands, 124. Deaths, se Delain deones 6 Bblodt Plantarum of, no- DeVico's comets, 137. , facts relating to the Great Bees F., de tes | w Carices, 245. } Diatiagnetic eetien, Eee: of, M. Fara- Ze, es teeats telegraph, 118. | Elements of physiology, W. B. wc cary 2 Elevatio ag ontinents, how produced Dan C. Prévest on, 355. , anew mineral, T. S. Hunt, 30. ther, imiiferous Far raday’ s views on, 118. Ether, compoun et poe ¢ acid with, 412. ——, vitreous tl Erinesephy of ha jee Aborigines, S. = Etna, hee of W. S. v. Waltershausen’s work mn, 1573 Diamonds i in N. Carolina, 1 : of occurrence of, a Ural, Mur- FB panison, vie cid oe Binetia reap pean ee mds CD of Sodan ’ 0} ar On|/ Falkland the dark limb of the moon ust before its' Faraday, M., views of luminiferous ether,118. substances, Mialhe, oto stones, of the “a S. G. Mor- —, E. G. Squier, 216, 287. n a of li € point of ebullition, 256. Orbigny’s works, noticed, : F ree the Horticulturalist by, noti¢ed, ee. J.W., cause of the circulation of the blood, 276. ; mistry of, ping 445. ticed, 302. n the infinence of Scene on the ection of the Chara, 133. Dyslytite, new meteoric mineral, 380. uids, and its|| Flor Frostbu Piogildinn’ ‘amalgamation of iron and steel to prepare for, Bottger, 266. Fi scherite, a new -minveral, 415. ea, notice of D. H. Storer's lara East, ya of, and recent shells of ‘onrad, 36; of Tampa, 399. structure of Poh. Conrad, 49. Fluor-spar i source of, J. D. Da- na, 88. ——, solubility of, G. Wilson, 114. —— in cannel coal, H.D. Rogers, 124. ine in >in minerals, source ah, J. D. Dana, ol vl and anitaals, 2 Wilson, 11 li. sa =, early — of, as inferred from the ay the moon, 347. 5, oigin of es: tn 7255— of, 35 district of Cte “ ne AR Pe cose movement said to ac- robable nike in the ae Ul, 25. Rilo in western Pennsylvania, C. Lyell, 26. —— of birds, C. B. Adams, 215, Forest, fe hein colliery, “4 Form process for, W. B.and R. E. Rog oat rs ibe production of the alkali ownes, furfuroline ,407 ||France, on the supposed variations in the cli- m. ‘ urft \ 452 INDEX. Farfuroline, 6 new organic alkali, G, Fownes,||Hermann, on xylite, 413. ——,ons a ew 413. —, salts of, 407. Hind’s comet, 439. Fusion of ei and rhodium, R. Har Histor of P British fossil mammals and birds, a uret of —— more diceit by R. Owen, noticed, 148. than o fony otha ce, lare, 369.||Horn, substitute for, Fusutina, j in the coal ibenanen of Ohio, 293. || Horsford, = bie 3 quality of vege- G table weeny nees reckoned from the nitro- - en prese rites Agassii Horteultralis, by A, J. Downing, notice colowe clea, om po — conduc- tion Hurt, TS. , analysis Mig characters of Encel- Gardner ee on ae. preload structure of, Finan! a new mineral, 30 plan n ozone. Gas for j illumination, from water, 439. Gelatine, products of vig oxydation of, by chromic acid, Marcha Geological formations, Sacpesiee of palms in, — chart of Boud, 272 society of Pioncs: meeting of, in 1846, ef amelie —_— Geology of East Florida, T. A. — of the Slane iehnde, 198 F — of ., Ala., sandstone rocks, —, tertiary, Warren Co., Mississippi, 7. A.) Conrad. bea , 358, Gigan tolite, h of ioli te, 418. Gilding, fire, sma amation of iron and steel to prepare Glass, analyses "of, M. Peligot, 114. Glass of Dedham, Mass., 419, Granite Biase minerals, oii of J D. Gra; : teorites, 384, Guano, iain in, £. F. Teschemacher, 267. Geen; 268. ypsum, solubility of, 114. Haldat, M. de, on the appreciation of the force} of mene, 255. Haldeman, 8. S., description of Unio abacoi- des, 274. Halowell, E, niew bat from W. Afriea, 273. ~— R., on the fusion of iridium aa rhodi- rape preparation ium, 369. Fimiy of piri ot f iridium m, 369. ershausen’s work Ree JB. ws on, 404. Reet Whelpley's vi .» death of, 145. Heine, determination of broiine in waters, ||——_. Hable, ub ion of, 290. Hematite, |i ; of structural and si- a aesanips nove, 444, eee Pe —— —, +o the artificial formation of specular iron, abel —, Texa nd Lockport i iron, 370. Hunt, oe influence of magnetism on crystal- lization, 11 Hurricanes af ‘the American Seas and their eT to the Mecthert, so called, of the ulf of Mexico, W. C, Redfield, 162, 311. ——, practical een from the facts, W. C. Red, , Lake, of October, iol, W.C. Redfeld, Fydrarchos, identity with the Zeuglodon, aie amide, benzoline from, 408. eee acid, preparation of, Welliam- i Igneous rocks, origin of, and their relations, i = ee , 348. ence of i ipo, copper, &c., in the wiey “of alcoho India, cotton in, i. ian races, ethnography and archeology of, bea G. Mort ——, nelle Nea: S. G. Mort: and mounds, £. ‘6. Bekier, tacit of burial, 5. er ag * fornss of skulls, 3. mses ee stones, S. G. Mort ay web . Squier ier, 216,2 Or. used for, 2 eae pipestone oy the casunk Mf G. oe ey ie Squire Todine, for distinguishing between arsenic nd antimony, 111 Todoli ite, a new meteoric minera. Iron, manufacture of, i LS 95, w mode ~ ania determina- tion of; Marg Sake incandescence of, og in the vapor of alco- xe amalgarmation of, to prepare for fire- gilding, 266. of Texas and Lockport, B. Las weheies Silliman, Jr. and T. S. Hunt, 370. - isomerism, arragonite and cale spar an in- Scbeuras stance of, 417. “a _|/lsomorphism oe water with magnesia, &c-, Lg ae Oe ne ee J, Matec! Bal 2p 3 cre and minerals of Lake Malla, pe Ay + Superior. 1 18. i, elected Academ Damour, 267 a member of the French) 2 , 190. ‘ rorticose movement said to ompan y earthquak Mammal and pats a “ee on British. fossil, ater new test fon R. mols ei 259, ee ls 8, notice of. yns, L., observations in na ural history y; noticed, 446. Journal, the Naturalist, noticed, 1 — Quarterly, of Science, soticed, 147, of Health, noticed as. K. Soa’ a new mineral, 416 a e identical with Broc! hantite, 417. Kuna s supplement to Schkuhr’s Carices, no- Marri, 4 L. — Ontario, phenomena in, C. Dewey, 85, Superior, ores and minerals of, C. T. Jackson, 118, Land and water ee the earth, relative quan- tities of, S. di igaud, 289. Lassaigne,u a new species of Apus, 27 Leibnitz, two hundredth er the birth of, in Germany, uea, Hawaii, analysis of glassy scoria of,|| | the blood, 263. | Meteoric i ent of Texas, as Mantel, G. Yet ag on Animalcules, by, noticed, 1 _—— nt nic examination of chalk and flint, by, 149. ros soft bodies of Polythalamia, found fos- Martie artificial, 266. Marchand, R. F., presence of carbonates in —-, produc ts of — Eisen of gelatine > eae eae, werite, — “mode of determining iron “in piers sis, 257. Martinsite, a new mineral, Karsten, 169. Martius, Genera et Species Palmarum, notic- e Mastodon, wee ee seer ite figure and characters of, I Medal, cy sleet. nts to Mr. Lonsdale, 440 Melonites multipora, J. G. Norwood and.D.D. 225. Mercurial ‘rough, new, Louyet, 265. Mere ury, new mode of estimating, E. Mil- 258. B. Silliman, Jr., 370. of Lockport, B. Silliman, Jr., "374. oe ari C. U. Shepard, 377. . —, chemistry of, ——, physical J seh ae of, 390. of American, 390. Meteorological aD Prranin A. Smith, 72 at Na teheg, A. Tooley, 429. , cha seatae of, in | Western . Hen imber, J., petrified wood i in a Pexaa, 124. e, source ahs a ane an drodite in Lindley’s V egenble ‘Kingdom noticed, 152. ee Dt the le, Welleston suiea given nd 440. ee: , notice of a treatise on Algebra, Ys —, cause of the double character of Bio- la’s — et, 437, 438. oclas — new mineral, 4 i us ether, Faraday’ views on, sm ee cn fossil’ footprints in western — aperocg plants of Tuscaloosa, 228. M. Miadler, on the moon, chart of, 335. ——., views respecting the central sun of the uni sae mode of ascertaining the force of, 255. action, generality of, M. ftir Migtherd toad of amylaceous and saccha- rine substances, 264. Mica 3 meteorites, C. U. Shepard, 380 —, analyses of, Pos: ema 4\7. Milon Bnew estimating mercu- ||Minerais, notices of; Amoibite, 416; Anti- —— of lead, 414 5. Apepeaiy. Rutile trimor- ap , 416 win eane ale aaah to parent, 119; Apatite, origin i in lime- stone, 88; rkansite, new, from Arkan- sas, 249; ‘Arragon nite and cale eae isomer- we 417; fgets enenens: 18; Axin- a fossiliferous Bismuth iver’ eg” £¢ 415; Fluor spar in limestone, eeigin of #2 Gold at Ded- ham, Mass., 419; ret ne - Ural and Si- beri ia, 120; Gold wa of the See iecbores an ; Hematite in Gonmec: S$ pse morphs, Pin » DS INDEX. Natural History Society of Concoed,’s 144. (| Bpestnag the, a journal published’ in Ten- | Nuogen,.phosphare, preparation of, Bal- —, nourishing quality of vegetables reck- ite, Esmar et Chlorate, Fa ahlunit, molit ROSES 3 5 Ey mae ree oaen Ak ‘Sphenomite, new me- teori urotide, 418; St neene w- ite, sis Seravi vite, 268; Turg 415 415; Vanadate of aspen, 414: Xylte, 418. — of be Superior, C. T’. RT ow 118. o, £. F. Tesch —of the ‘Miask ea Ural, iMherehiin ae: 420) — eteori in, Heine, 1 por deom ak of the U. States, notice of Owen's oy. consign of igneous rocks, origin of, Missourium, i identical with the Mastodon, 131. id for, to Mr. Koch, 132. ond, nature of, J. D. Whel; ‘helpley, 401 Monthly Miscellany "and Journal of Health, en) CR , twilight o of, 4 G., }., ethnogra phy and archeology), of ag American borigines, 1. hin aihidaaiees of t the spacer 273, Rios rarat, Abich’s excursion 10, 29 gt ery on the elevation of, J. D. “Dias —, —, C. Prévost, Mowenite } identical aoe Harmotome, 417. era p Reenter "of bromine’ O 13. uence of diffraction on a star eclips-|—— oned from the amount of, present, 26 aoa i P., on the potato disease, 281. d,. J. G, fossil pehinodetas from St. oni a 225, ul rtiary, Tampa bay, 3 Nutritive quali of vegetables, as from the nitrogen present, 264. Ppicnary J. Pichinings 16 ". W. Bessel, is. 0, , obit wnat notice of, 409. ah 409. VM. Carpenter, 89. iced, 299. ip Jackson, 118. RA Hae re 1369, Osmiuret of iridium, fusion of, difficult, 369. ton ae » fossil nr oe from St. oo et by. on the mineral ands. oft ie v. ‘States 94, , R., fos mmals and birds by, no- ticed, 148. Orarkite, new min ral, 25 istory any nature of 103. oe laws of electric induction, 202. Selah oe a ction of galvanic een tend through moist air, 204. on electric induction. 406, Paleotherium from St. uis, 28 Palm, distribution of, in the alas for- mal é —, notice vg Martius, M., ioe Fores from the banana, ee Prof ibetesa! 8 ‘reply to a criti- vison, occurrence 0 onds, gold, s and other minerals in be Urals, 119, Muscis in the Glos Snake, W. M. Carpen- Muscuin — Economic Geology, Great Brit-| al Natural Hiory at Pais 21 || halls Parisiie, a new min P poet sanalysis of the agg ae scoria of 259. hye of est eet hed 1! 268. , 124. pa saat human sal- Pey. ssonel’s views and memoir on Zoophytes ailadetse Phacolite identical with Levyne, 417. mangan INDEX. 455 Physiology, vegetable, peo i of an elec- Pypernca e substances, nti 264. 133. Sa te, a new mineral, 415. _ ee current on the Cha eeysology, notice of Carpenian y Elements Sativa, h human, > aieitege nogen in, M. Pet- Picker ee J., obituary notice be . f, 144, eer ii nite, pseudomorph ed iolite, Belts, prec! reci satel S rd Pian charcoal, Wep-

| Waters, Sapien nation of bromine in, M. Heine pai eentins of several, B. Silliman, drs 2 —— and land on es earth, relative quantities 1 au Waves, force of, in the Atlantic and German 139 ans, | Nang rting power of, 140. Wilson, G., solubility “of fluor spar = oc- currence of fluorine in minera ants und animals, 1 n, T. B., dona tion of byte to the Acad- delphia, 296. gr A of Nat. pee sad While Fs on atoms and ray-vi- Wheipley, J. brations, 40 bggninaes mares course, cing &c. of, in hurri- e gree other norms W. Se . Rodel, 162, 31 Prete, 7 allied to, 267. * Trevelyan Wes boring power of snails,||___ wephem, an instance of, 416. mercurial, Louyet, 265. Tubes in sandstone, in Alabama, A. Bigelow,|| w, Turgite, a new mineral, 415. Terner’ 8 nit ome? = iy of, 148. Turtle, East Flori Twining, A. C., at a criticism on his demonstration ie to parallels, 69, U. lations, 130 of palms in geological Unio abacoides, S. S. Haldeman, 274. Ural, diamonds and iacolumite in, 110, ——, gold and platin: _ = Minerals of, 120. Urea in uri rt 110. _ Urine, quantity of urea in, Hentz, 110. eat, 401, ore ane olite, a dagyesd mineral, 268, Walesa ” Medal, give to Mr. Lonsdale, Wood, petrified, in Texas, 124, 359. Works, list of, 153, 302, 446. Xx. Xylite, a new mineral, 413. 2 meee remains of Alabama, S. B. Buck- marks on, with rarer of skull ‘apa 1 iso0t h, B. Silliman, Jr., Zinc, fe ‘of com pistes a "962. Zoophytes, J. D. Dan 187. —, Peyssonel’s merch on, where pre- rved, 65. Raceibieh ek flora of Japan and U. Tvaxorr: Amoibite, 416. hit toda? Mowehite and ‘Witaceae Brockei. - tite and Krisuvigite: Perowskite: Phacolite: Mica rragonite and Cale - ie 417. —Bucholzite of Chester, Pennsylvania: ‘Siltimanite: Bismuth Sil-” fie, On Tolite, by W. Harpixerr, 418.—Gold at Dedham, Mass., by J. H. Braxze: Gold washings of the Rhine by M. Dausrae: Obasrvetions upon some Sandstone Rocks in Baldwin Co., Ala, by Arremas Bicerow, 419,— Fossil! Forest in the Petia Collet near Wotewrbaastos n: Phyllite, 422, Zoology and Botany.—Report on Scientific. Nomenclature, 423—Aphides: Cari- cography : Fossil Ferns from Frostburg, Maryland, collected by scien yeh, by C.T.F. Bonsvry, Esq., 427 ee, oe bstra “ of a Meteorological Register kept in the city of Natchez, Lat. 31° 34’, Lon. 91° 21’ 42", for ten years, by Henry Tooxrr, Sen., 429.— “mae im the rete of France, 432. Astronomy.—Atmosphere of the Moon, 432.—On the caper of a Star on the Dark Limb of the Moon just before its Occultation, by Prof. Srzverry: The Central Sun of the Universe, 433.—Antares: The new Planet Astrea, 434.— . Biela’s Comet, 435.—Fourth Comet of 1846: Fifth Comet of 1846: Hind’s Comet: LeVerrier’s Planet, 439. Miscellaneous Intelligence—Improvement in the construction of the: Rails — Wheels of Railroads, 439.—Manufacture of Gas for illumination, from wa Board of Regents of the Bavchweniag saree: Wollaston Medal : pees eal Society of France : Prof. Lowis Agassiz: M. de Verneuil, 440—The Ray Society: Association of tenes Goakdgiat and Naturalists: a British ~ Association: Maseum of Economic ‘Geology ‘in Great Britain, Bibhiography.—The ‘Bidereal Seen lies a of America a J. Browne, 442.—Outlin esof S$ ny, by AntHur Heyrrey, F. L. . ,444.—Dexessert, Icones Selects ee quas in Prodromo Syst. Nat. ex herb. Parisiensibus, presertim ex Lessertiano, descripsit, Aug. Pyr, DeCan- dolle, Vol, 5, 1846: A Text Book on Chemistry, for the use of Schools and Col- leges, by Joun Wa. Draper, 445.—Adulterations of various Substances used in Medicine and the Arts, with the means of detecting them, by Lewis C. Brcx, : Observations in Natural History, by Rev. Leonanp Jenyns, M. A., . % S.: A Monograph on Fossil Actes by Twos. Austin, Esq., F..G, s., and Tos. Arvstix, Jr., E: : The Brain and its Physiology, &c., by Dasiet Nosre.—List of Works, unless Researches, 447. ie owe Ave 3 XXvVIIL. On the Sabbatic River; by W. M. Tuomson, XXIX. On Three several Hurricanes of the American Seas and ___ their relations to the Northers, so called, of the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Honduras, with Charts eiesirating the same ; ~ by W. C, Reprie.p,—(continued,) : XX. On the Volcanoes of the Moon ; by James D. Peles, XI. a of three varieties of Meteoric Iron ; by Prof, x ae Fusion of Iridium aid Rhodium; Prof R. fe M. D., 2 XXXIV. On the Sec ieoris ar of Texas ee Lockport - : Prof ‘B. Siriman, Jr., and T. S. Hunt, XV. Report on Meteorites ; by Prof. Gains ae siedacis _™M. 2 - XXVI. Culalages of Shells inbabiting aie Bay pa other ais of the Florida Coast; by T. A? Conran, VII. Description of New Species of Organic Remains from the Upper Eocene Limestone of eee =~ by T. A. Con- =; Po eee SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ;—Atoms and Ray Vibrations, 401.—On_.a simple method of protecting ghtning, Buildings with Metallic oan ‘By Prof. Heyry, 405.—Electric 5, by C. G. Pace, 406.—On the production of a new organic set y On t the relations of the Oil of Mustard, 409.—On “ule