eg AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY Proressors B. SILLIMAN anp B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND JAMES D.. DANA. SECOND SERIES. VOL. III.—MAY, 1847. Mo. Bot.Garden 1908 NEW HAVEN: PRINTED YOR THE EDITORS BY B. L. HAMLER, © Printer to Yale College. Sold by H. Day, New Haven.—Littie & Brown, and W. H.S. Jorpan, Boston.—C Francis & Co. and Witry & Putnam, New York —Carey & Hart, Philadelphia . Hickman , Baltimore, Md.—W 11 wd eS m, London.—HE ECTOR BossaNcE & & Co, aris.—NESTLER & MELLE, Fianiio CONTENTS OF VOLUME III. NUMBER VII. Page Arr. I. On Zodphytes, No. Ill; by James D. Dana 1 If. On the Induction of Atmo ospheric Electricity on "the Wires of the Electrical Telegraph; by Prof. Josepa Henry, 25 Ill. A New Mineral from the Azores ; by J. E. TESCHEMACHER, 32 IV. On the Delta and “Allavial Deposits of the Mississippi, and other points in the Geology of North pase aenere in the years 1845, 1846; by C. Lyett, V. Hybridity in Animals, considered in patenbobe to the iuasationt f we Unity of the Human Sees by penne ge Morton, M.D. 39 VI. Solita, of a Meihetnetival Problem by 0. Roo . - 50 VII. On the North American Species of Tso’tes and Marsi ilea; by - iti Conicnn niga by Dr. G. Ene GELMANN, . io a ‘ Professor of Chemistry, &c., at the U. S. Military Academy, 380 XI. On the noe Meads igi of Riksta: by, J. E. eae MA- ae Te XII. On the existence of eertain Lunbiisotting Depeésite, in ithe: vicin- — ity of the pies beni ay cpisanaad with ite a eule ‘* by L.A. L - 90 y I. XIII. On the Origin of Continetits ; iy San Jam oh Dana, - 94 XIV. Description of two New Species oe ‘Shells by Winuiam Cask, Cleveland, Ohio, - - 101 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Physics and Chemistry.—Gun-Cotton, 102.—On the Compounds of Phosphorus nd Nitrogen, by C. GerwArpr, 10: —Esperimentl Researches on the Nutri- iy e Power of green and dry Fodder i, ey M. BousstnGautt: On the progressive heat : M Q S Pp ° ac } - bs | al &* oO > = £ = & iw od a ‘ip - < ~ — i ml io) 3 is B ? “ i~ = 5 2. ' Condition, by Dr. Scorrszy, 114.—On some Results of the Magnetic gg tions made at General Sir T. M. sey oe s Observatory, Makerstoun, by J. Broun, 115.—New Metal, Ilmenium, 1 . Ge eology.—Crystallized ——— of Lead, at > New York, ha ove Oe eansive; a new ore of Uranium, by Joun L. LeContez, At: iv CONTENTS. M. by ¥e L. “8 Con NTE, M.D., 11 7 On the Mississippi Delta, by C. Lyetx, 118.— On the Origin = the Coal of Silesia, by Prof. Goprert: Remarks on the St. Louis Limeston . Excermann, M.D., 119.—Cause of the absence of An- cient Marine Pornasiobs from certain regions, by Cuartes Darwin, 120. Botany and Zoology.—Hillocks of om cat, bed of Be Falkland Islands, 121.— On the Vertebrate Structure of the Pro f. OWEN, e Remarks o the Me pee cola. y NGEL By — cs gaged at Sierra Leone: Tracks of Alligators: Wings of Locuste : Har anus, a new genus of fossil Postuniarins, Astronom my ee “ Shooting Stars, August 10, 1846, 125.—Ancient re- turns of Halley’s Comet, 126. —Prof. Peirce’s Catalogue of Comets, 127.—Le Verrier’s Planet, 1 Ne ew Comets Miscellaneous Intelligence. SER Institution, 132.—British Association, 133.—On boring for ote Wells, AUVELLE, 135 Cee scussion on the Potato Disease, “tr! he Educational Statistics of Oxford, 137.—Mo as tion of Dr. Whew ell’s fe ometer, for measuring t te Velocity of the Wind by Dr. Rosixson: On the Ethnological Distribution of Round and Elo ngated ja, Prof. Rerzivs: On the Deviation of Falling Bodies from. the Perpendicular, by Prof. OrrstEp, 138.—Met measuring ht of louds, by Dr. Waewext: Gauss’s Magnetic Constants: Hydrodynamics: Re- fraction and Diffraction of Waves of Sound, 140.—Weather: North Pole : Dust = 3 a on ‘a 0 onument to Artesian Well in the Gand Duchy of Luxemberg, 142. _ —Native Gold in : South Australia, 143. Obituary.—T. Mowticettr: M. Armé, 143.—Isatan Luxens, 144. Bibliography.—First Principles of Chemistry, for the use of Colleges and Schools, by Bensamin 8 ere aN M.A.: Second Annual Report on the Geolo Press: Tove hosibs ch fir F Freunde der G a Astronomical Observations made . Nig aval RS ot Wash- ‘agi y Lieut, J. M. Gruriss, U. 8. N., 149.—Astronomical Observations made d las the Sx Bp at the National ai Washington, under AURY, the direction of List of Works, 150. NUMBER VIII, Avs, XV. A general Review of the Gecleay of lecsatan by g ee M. On Zoonh VERNEUIL, - 153 hytes, No. IV; by Tames D. Dana A, = - - 160 XVII. Review of the New York Geological Reports, - Best 164 CONTENTS, Vv XVIII. Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey, M.D., 171 XIX. Th Wor acite, a new Ore of Uranium ; by Tous L. Ls . XX. Geol Results bE the Ban's Contraction i in consequence of Coo ing; by James D, Dan 176 XXI. Notes on the Herbaria, Genta and Botanists at Ups ay nceeaael &c., gathered feeen en baer of a distin- botanist during a continental to - 1 XXII. Ghesryatinil on the Rocky Mountains pe Oregoii? hh Re er pee he Dapering ses ions of ape J. - Fre XXIil. Hybrid in » Animals iombiaoewl| in teletenive to the nie f the Human moore 3; by — ORGE Monrer! M. XXIV. ert of a Meteorological Journal: fot the vine 1846, kept at Marietta, Ohio; by 8. P. Hivprers, M.D., - 212 XXV. On the Analysis of the Oat; by Prof. Jonn Pitkin N ORTON, 222 XXVI. eat a on the uses s of the Mounds of the West, with attempt at their Classification; by E.G. Squier, —- XXVII. Description of a Fossil Maxillary Bone of a Palasotheriom, from n hite River; by Hiram A. Pro .D., 248 XXVIII. Obsefraitoa upon the se dye eh “Electrchy i in Bands of Leather; by Joun M. Barcx 2 XXIX, ire of a Magnet on its own Axis click the ‘tise curial Conductors, and also without — rae pi nas. G. Pace, M.D., ap SCIENTIFIC ve FREESE . arg 22 mon ag of the Acids tn a boiling point b hela: ° Centi share ade, by Dr. Jos. vrs wn Ao on Solution of Ox aa in fused Litharge, soit the eee attendant on™ ‘Litharg e on a large scale, by et. Le Branc: On - thpihion of Silver, by Gay Lussac’s Process, whet Mercury is present, by M. A. Lrvot: ethod of estimating Lead, M. — OMONTE, 255.— On the Solubility of Alumina in Ammoniate Water, by F. Matacurt and ilide, by Aue. pte and J. Detsos: On the Growth of Bone in the Hog, , 259. luorine, by M. cents 260.— ilica: Nitrification: Phosphate of - sme - rganic Beings, 261.—On Elliptic Polarization, by Mr. Dat E262. —On cases of Elliptic Polariaation of Light by Reflexion, by Prof, foes ace ai and ae —Analysis of the American Mineral Nemalite, by Prof. Corne clamation respecting the Identity of Pinite, _ Chlorophyll, wall an yon, by Wixuiam Jory Hexwoop, F.RS., F.G.S., 269.— ical Society of bie 271.—Volcanic Dust of "Hecla, | by Dr. Trainu, 272.— oleano in the Red Sea: Probable Submarine Wilecno’ Coal on the Rocky Mountains, discovered by Capt. Fremont, by James Haut, vi CONTENTS. test and Zoology. —The Characters of some New Genera and Specs of Com- te from by Asa Gray, M.D., 274.—Helix annulata: Ornithichnites: es tocnardl ingen plalus: by ’ Srurcupury : "Physiological Remarks on the Statics of Fishes, by Joun Mouurr, 276. Astronomy.—On the Attempts to pn the ee get of a Star on the Moon, du- ring an Occultation, b by Prof. WELL Seng oe Observations made under the — sy no : ast RY, dasa U. 8: Navy, during the year 1845, os Observatory, Washington, 278.—Memoria sopra i colori delle Stel del Catalogs di Baily, osservati dal P. Beneditto Sestini della campagnia di i Stelle del Catalogo di Baily dal polo boreali fino a 30° di Decl. Aus- trale contrasse egnate secondo i loro diversi colori osservati nella specola del Col- 0, 281 —Sixth Comet of 1846: Hind’s Comet: LeVerrier, 282.— M. Ga Miscellaneous Intelligence —Effects of the Earth’s Rotation upon Falling Bodies and upon the Atmosphere, by W. C. Repriexp, 283.— eaitliad onian Institution, 284. Foot rints and Indian Sculpture, 286.— ecla:. Cultivation of Cerea Grains in Cold Climates, by A. T. Kuprrer, 288.—On Womuaranes Analytical ea ter, by Prof. Forcunammer, 289 | nu- facture of Great Britain, by M R. Porter, 291.—On Plate Glass mam England in a, contrasted with what it was 1827, b H e- the es and Mining Industry of Belgium, by vt ALPY, Esq., 293.—On the Fairy-rings ag Pastures, by Pro £2. T. Way, 294.—Gun-Cotton, 295.—Lines of Electric Telegraph in the ted States and Canada: The New cael Gar- den at Cambridge, Eng. : Ray Society, swe gang the Durati tion of Life in the Mem- bers of the fears Sheer es a fo unded on the Obituary Lists of hg Annual age by Dr. G On the See of Children, by Mr. WiccLeswortH, — Monument ‘atk the late Tuomas the Medical Siadatines of Socomivenks, by Rozerr Per vey ; Repor rof. A. HE, 300.—Light Houses; ; Repo rt of the Sec- retary of the Lp eow ids on the Improvements in the Light Hou aiden and Col- lateral Aids to ation, embracing a Report from Lieut. a ieut. Ricaarp Bacue, esl of Li Abert, from Bent’s Fort to St. Louis, in 1845, 3 hloris Boreali-Ameri- cana, Asa Gray : Nomenclator Zoologicus, continens N Sys- tematica Generum Animalium, tam viventium qu illum, ete., Auctor Aecassiz, 302.— ge zur Pflanzenkunde des Russischen Reiches; heraus- n von der Kaiserl. Acad. der Wissenscha —Report on the Trees and Shrubs re. naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, by G M ERsON: Botanical Magazine, for a 1847 : merge on Algebra, con- taining the latest Im varie nts, by Cuartes W. Hack ey, 8. anic eo he he Literary Worl 8 a Gazette for abate Readers and Publishers List of wa. Sil. NUMBER IX. Page. Arr. XXX. On the Relations which exist between the Phenom- ena of Erratic Blocks in Northern tachaad and the Eleva- tions of Scandinavia; by M. Dzsor 313 XXXI. On the Analysis of the Oat ; by Prof. "Kote Pisxax Noxrox, 318 XXXII. On Free Electricity ; = Roserr Hare, oo D, 334 XXXIII. On Zodphytes, No. v; by James D. Dan : 337 XXXIV. Notices of Koordistan.—Hot Sulphur eee: Mines of Lead—Sulphur and Orpiment—Rock Salt and Sain eee hive, &c., derived chiefly from the let- of Rev. A. H. Waicur, M.D., of the Mission of the CONTENTS. vil a B.C.F.M., at Oroomiah, Persia ; rcp £4 gs by mo ces RP. HvBBaR rp, M.D., 347 XXXV. "Cabbagranhy by Pro of. C. Diver , MD., XXXVI. On a New Metal, Ses om: contained in the Bavarian Tantalite ; by Prof. XXXVII. Termination of the Paleeotols Périod, iu’ fisisteinne. ment of the Mesozoic; by D. D. OwEn ,M. re Pre faa: (Gelatine Se a a some of i its Products of composition ; by E. N. XXXIX. Origin of ne: Grand Culling: patios: of the Earth by AN XL. yd on the ‘Alge of the United States m Prof. J. W, XLI. ey few Heche on the silica Classification ; ty Sir Rop- x Impey Murcutson, G.C.St -R.S., &c., XLIl. Hydrate of Nickel, a New Mineral by Prof. B. Sti. LIMA XLII. On Cupétiaien with the Blowpipe’ by Wn. W. Maruze, 409 XLIV. On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient of a Function of any number of Variables ; by Prof. A. D. Stan.ey, 415 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. sein and Physics —On the presence of Fluorine in Asiehenie, by Gro C. Scuarrrer, 422.—Arseniate of Magnesia and Ammonia, end its pplication: by M. Levon: On the Acids of Tobacco, by M. E. Gourit osphorus, by M. Ev. Desarys: On Coffee, sage part,) by M. Paven, 423.— Determination of Nitrogen in Grsais Bodies, at orce Kemp, M.D.: On the Preparation of Caustic Baryta, by Dr. E. Riece t. Nitrogen n not a Constit- m Density of Pure Water, 427.— n a new and practical ‘ices “of er Foliaie Be pe tg of the the 90 ‘Eat in which Potassium forms the positive element, OHN graphic Self- oe Meteorological ond Ssgnelical ‘Taarameeals by Fran- cis Ronaxps, Esq., , &e., 428. ekg feo Geology.—Buratite, a new Mineral, by M. Devesse: Groppite, a weg ale a Re ARSESA : Herschelite : Aspasiolite, a new Mineral, Sak: 429.—Castor and Pollux, two new Minerals, by Breirnaurt Wales, by Dantet Saarpz, 430.—On the Salt and Salt Lakes of ig 2a by H. Fourner: Volcani © Peak of the Island of Fogo, Cape Verds, by C 432. a Nokes of an asus of apparent Drift Furrows dependent on Structure, by C. B. Apams, 43: Zooloey.—On the Range of the Beaver in the United Lise wes by 8. B. Bucxrey: On thes situation of the ro en Sense in the terrestrial tribe of the Gasteropo- ei Mollusca, by Josera Lerpy, M.D., 434.—Description of a new species of “Fie Pyranga roseo-gularis, a new species from Yucatan, by Dr. Casort, 436. Py orhy tole Gouldii, a new Echinus Pathe the Millstone Grit ore meorga by M. Bovvé, 437. Vill CONTENTS. Meteorology.—Meteorological Dees votes at Wiaiolis on Kauai, one of the Hawa- se aca by Rev. Epwarp Jounson, 437.—O n the pent ‘of Rain and Snow 3 Louis, f for the years 1837 to 1846, inclusive, by Dr. G. Encexmany, 438. Dieta rological Society in Finland : Auroral Belt , 440. Astronomy.—The new Planet Neptune, 441.—New Comet: Expected return of - the Sones of 1556, 443.—Parallax of a Fixed Star in Ursa Major: Planetary Nebulous Masses near the Sun, 444. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—Relative Level of Lake Ontario, by C. Rewer Inha- lation of E Ether in Surgery, 444—On the Nile, by Dr. Ct. Br Wa- ter raised by Waves t rough Valved Tubes: aiene ire ee ra 149.-—D Dilata- tion of Ice : — a Degree of a dae and: Sad ndorf’s Si- oy ame Coal Fires: Pa afis rie emy of Sciences : ‘Society of f Naturalist a Trieste: New Appointments to Professorships in Harvard a ale: Devia Ry a a Falling y: Corrections, 451.--Obituary.-Dr. ‘Aig Binney, 451 ac Boty de St. Vincent , 452. Biblio ography.—Eulogy es he enaat'g f LL.D., 452.—Botany of the Northern States: Paleont pry hale w York: Lyceum of Natural History of New York : Boston Journal of Natural ears, 454. List of works, 455. Index, 457. ERRATA. Page 55, over figures, for helt, read twice.—P, 96, dele first foot note—P. 103, 13 lines from bottom , for read 275.—In part of the edition, p. 11 ines from ottom, for ‘ clearer,’ pes es —P. 117, 2 lines from top, for “ Its specific gravity,” read The specific Sand 3 of this aa —P. 139, 21 and 22 li top, for 395 and mak aan 95 and 147 Dog mee from top, for Concor ard.—P.148, 2 Hees op, for Bal aldnidier. + read B erlandier —P. } 149, wh ‘line from b vagy de nd p- 150 21 —. from top, for vmising, re ad persevering. —P, 299, 12 lines from bottom, a am read Transylvania. —P. 301, 23 lines from bctiota. for catoptric, eyo. i, p. 427, under Electric excitement of paper, for stone, read stove. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Arr. L—On Zoiphytes, No. 111; by James D. Dana.* 26. In our preceding chapter on Zodphytes we briefly noticed the characteristics of the Hydroidea, one of the two grand di- visions of these animals. A digestive cavity, a mouth, and a cir- cle of fleshy arms or tentacles around the mouth, were mentioned as the sum-total of many of these simple organisms. Fixed in general to some support, they eat, and grow, and bud out their young as plants their flowers and leaves. i Thus they form the fine feathery fronds and moss-like tufts so common among these lower polyps, and whose branchlets are made up of minute flower animals in place of leaflets, exquisite in beauty and arrangement. They have delicate horny or membranous coralla when any at all, and take little part in the formation of reefs. Order If. ActrnorpEa. The next order to which we now pass, comprises all the ordi- nary coral zoéphytes, the branching and foliate Madrepores, the massive Astreeas and Meandrinas, the slender sea fan, and also the common Actinia. Among them are flowers of all hues and sizes. The Actinie may well be called the Asters, Carnations, and * Abstract of the Exploring Expedition — on Zoophytes by the writer; continued from vol. ii of this Journal; see p- for No. I, and p. 187 for No. IL a-Anemone is the common name. Seconp Senres, Vol. Ill, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 1 2 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. in diameter, embellished with green or purple blossoms which stud t face like gems; while other hemispheres of Mean- drina appear as if enveloped in a network of flowering vines. 27. It is impossible in any figures or sketches to convey an idea of the combined effect, where the various species are grow- ing together. The resemblance in form to flowers* may how- ever be appreciated from a few figures. In the following an Ac- tinia is represented in its different conditions, expanded and closed. Fig. 12. The similarity to an Aster is at once apparent, yet with this dif- ference, that there is an opening at the center of the disk for taking food. ‘The animal is fleshy throughout, and expands by taking in water and injecting itself and its tentacles, which be- ing tubular organs, receive thus some degree of rigidity ; it con- tracts by expelling the water again, drawing in thus the disk and rolling its border over the tentacl The water passes out partly through the mouth, often in part through a puncture at the tips of the tentacles, and in some species through pores in the sides of the animal.t The next figures represent coral animals, resembling, as is seen, In every essential particular, the Actinia above, and differing internally in nothing except the power 0 secreting lime. Fig. 13 as well as 14 are both of the size of life, and the latter shows the average size of the polyps through the large genus Astrea. The former is a single animal from a large hemispherical group (a Mussa) consisting of fifty or sixty such polyps; and when alive, the whole forms a magnificent * The gorgeous character of many Actinias may be iater t ed figures on the first five Mates of the atlas to ienaty be Wane Ce ee ah aed te Favy ae ul pencil of Mr. J. Drayton, one of the artists of the i. é animals of one or more species of near! 18 0 ; zoophytes are figured and colored on the other plates of t aches a heel ar at ot be soeny, for delivery, for some months. : iis ast peculiarity has been supposed to belong only to tubercul ies ; tm fipden Sad seas ig it the genus Cribring But r. V yihaek bameend : pores existed in the A. marginata of the Boston h i rfectly smooth and semi-transpetent skin. a eee J.D. Dana on Zoophytes. 3 Ai of animal flowers. The latter is from a small specimen of ga: were its disks and tentacles of some bright shades of ell and the small hemisphere enlarged to a diameter of twelve rie 13. oe it would then give some idea of the domes of the coral reef, ich we have made allusion above. Fig. 38 ona following pe is another variety. Figures 15 and 16 represent a Madre- Fig. 16. pora and a Dendrophyllia, of natural size; and they bear out the remark that a branch is literally a spike of flowers. Figure 17 also sustains our comparison of the Alcyonia to clumps of 4 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. pinks, although but a single branch, and without the delicate tinting which characterizes these flow- er-animals. In the an- Fig, 18. nexed figure (18,) a : 1 ubipora ) is represented enlarged. & A large cluster, as it ap- pears in the water in full expansion, is close- ly like a bunch of lilac blossoms, both in of color and in the size of the polyp ects = flowers. 28. All these animals have the same general structure, and dif- fer from the Hydroidea in the internal septa, possessed of geni- tal functions, which divide the visceral cavity into radiate com- partments, ($ 11.) They sometimes have a coriaceous or leathery exterior ; and instead of living in coral, the coral is contained in them. figure 13, the existence of coral is no more apparent externally, than in the fleshy Actinia. The tentacles are very various in number and size; they are sometimes long for pre- hension, and at others are nearly or quite rudimentary, being fitted only to aid in aeration. ow the stom- , onged inward has a free communication with the visceral cavity, being closed below only by muscles under the control of the animal. The septa in this = are much less numerous than in 1 the * : Ran | the Actiniw, but are cerrect in representing the general arrangement. ‘ J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 5 The food, which consists of small crustacea and any thing that falls in their way, is acted upon by the gastric juices in the stomach, and the insoluble portions ejected by the mouth. The chyloid fluids formed by the digestive process then pass be- low into the visceral cavity, and are distributed throughout it to be absorbed and assimilated by the interior surface and through the pores or cavities connected with it. ‘The water which is re- ‘ceived on expansion has the same course, and contributes along with the exterior waters to aeration ; and thus aeration and assim- ilation go on together without any special organs for these func- tions. Excrementitious matter is probably ejected along with this water.* 30. The septa have been stated to have genital functions, Fig20- and this is their principal object. Part are ovarian and spermatic. ‘The spermatic are margined with an extremely delicate white cord-like or capillary organ, long and much / convoluted, (lower part of figure 26a ;) and the ovarian, &, (which appear in general to be the narrower of the septa, ) bear clusters of ova at the margin, (fig. 20. The spermatic nature of these white cords, was first Fig. 23. Fig. 24. a: == g ae and figures 24, a, b, c, the three kinds of spiculé with their fila- ments. The body of b is transparent; the filament is furnished * Hence the mouth is not the only a for the proper excrements, though it ejects the refuse indigestible matter from the stomach. t Phil. Trans. Abridg., xiii, 639, 1775. yd t Ann. des Sciences Nat., viii, (1837,) 282, from Wiegman's Archives, ii, 215, (1835.) See also Milne Edwards, Ann. des Sci. Nat., xii, (1840,) 196. ‘ § Jour. of Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., iv, 252. 6 J.D. Dana on Zoophytes. with short hairs, and has an obtuse extremity. The body of c appeared to be filled with granulous matter; the filament is en- larged, as in 6, but is naked, and terminates in a very delicately attenuated extremity. These several forms were seen again and again from various individuals, and lately the researches have been repeated with the same results. The spermatozoa were observed to have motion.* — These cords had been considered biliary vessels by some writ- ers and also as ovarian, before their spermatic character was as- certained. Their structure is finely figured by A. de Quatre- fagest but without distinguishing the different kinds of spiculi- form bodies or apparently appreciating their nature. 31. The clusters of ova lie in the visceral cavity, or its com- partments, and sometimes are found in the tentacles as detected. by Dalyell in frequent amputations of these organs, a fact easily understood since the compartments and tentacles communicate openly with one another. But according to the best authority, and observations in the Expedition by Mr. Couthouy, they leave the internal cavity through the stomach and mouth, sometimes as ova . fini animal as chippings from a potato to a potato-plant. And they have been put in boiling water without serious injury. re * These investigations were first published i ,” These stig $ were published in the Report on Zoo- hytes by the writer. They were made on the Acheimtesiaiiden oO esueur, which is common in the harbor of Boston. Dr. Wyman J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 7 33. The various species of Zoophytes having the above gen- eral characteristics, differ in the arrangement, number m0 char- acter of the tentacles, and the size of the stomach as with the whole visceral cavity. In some Zoanthide shi licistish is not over one-fifth the length of the internal cavity. Certain Actinize have part or all of the tentacles furnished with suctorial vesicles for clinging ; and in others they are minutely divided or lobed and look like the most delicate embroidery. In a few spe- cies ie emt there is a vesicular float contained in a cavity ase of the animal to fit it for a sea life, and through these pane ed zoophytes approach the Porpita among Acalephs. These are only family, generic, or trivial distinctions ; but on eis point, the Actinoidea are naturally divided into two Sub- 34. ‘A part of them have wniformly eight tentacles, and these are fringed with minute papilla, each papilla having a puncture at aper. ‘These are called the ALcyonarta ; they include the Al- cyonia, the Xeniz, (fig. 17,) Gorgoniz, and Tubipores, fig. 18 ; the cells of their coralla are distinguished when shioaiects by ing simple tubes without rays. In others, and here fall the Madrepores and most stony corals in addition to the Actiniw, the téntacles are without the papille of the Aleyonaria, and the number is six, twelve, or more. "These are the AcTINaRrA. The celis of their calcareous coralla are ra- the rays rarely becoming obsolete.* eat ~Intémially the Aleyonaria have om visceral lamella. aaéce species of Tubipora examined by the writer, six of them were spermatic and two ovarian. Milne Edwards ‘found that in a Ve- retillum six of the lamella were spermatic above and ovarian below, bearing analogy with a gynandrous plant 35. The Actinaria are farther subdivided into the ve Anti- pathacea, Madreporacea, Caryophyllacea, and Astreeace The Antipathacea ee six tentacles; they form a hoonyannié but no caleareous co The Madreporacea seve twelve tentacles; they form calea- reous coralla having the cells small, siz to twelve rayed, with the rays seldom obsolete. The. Caryophyllacea and Astr@acea have more than sielve tentacles, and the cells of their coralla have more than twelve rays. Their distinctive characters will be pointed out in the sequel. Secretion of the Corallum. 36. We have already insisted sufficiently on the fact that live coral is not a hive of polyps, as the words polypary and polypi- dom imply, but on the contrary is a result of animal secretion. * They are cheese | in peal Favosites. Yet certain ry species (Favistelle) in our American rocks have Ma distin Meg to the Sains character es “aléait ni tions b pointed eat by Ehrenberg in his oir on the corals of the Red Sea, Cabhand. der Konig. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Barina, 18¢ 8 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. The secretions producing it are of two kinds, either basal and epidermic or internal. ‘The former are either calcareous or horny, rarely siliceous ; and with the exception of the Antipathi, they are confined to the Alcyonaria. 'The latter are calcareous. — 37. Internal secretions.—These take place through the inner tissues of the polyps; and as the internal cavity of these animals is radiated with compartments, it is natural that the cells of their coralla should be radiated likewise. Each compartment in fact corresponds to a calcareous lamella, these lamelle being form- d between two fleshy lamelle. The existence of cells on the surface of a corallum is owing simply to the fact that the upper and central portions of the polyp do not secrete lime, while the sides and parts of the fleshy lamelle do; the consequence is that there is a surface concavity in the corallum, into which the disk of the polyp falls on contraction. There can be no such thing as a disappearance of the polyp in the cell, for the coral as we have said is wholly within the exterior. skin of the polyp; yet the tentacles and disk may disappear; and this they do also in the fleshy Actinia. Conceive of a fleshy Actinia secreting lime throughout the tissues of its sides, (excepting the exterior skin, ) and between its fleshy lamelle, and the reader will correctly com- prehend the relation of coral to the animal. careous se- cretions may thus form a solid structure penetrated by the animal tissues ; and when separated from the animal there will be cel- ules where the animal tissues remained ; and under a microscope a thin polished plate would show other animal fibres wholly en- closed in the coral. The animals represented in figures 12 and 13, differ in this single particular,—that in the latter this very process has taken place as described, and in the former ithas not, There are many corals without surface-depressions or cells, and in these there is no semblance even of a retreat of the polyp. _ The Madrepores, Astraas, Caryophyllias, and Cyathophylla are instances of this mode of coral secretion. 38. In the cells of most Caryophyllia, Dendrophyllie, é&e., three smaller calcareous lamella (the middle one broadest ) alter- nate with one larger lamella, This results from the arrange- Fig. 97, ‘ment of the fleshy lamella of the polyp, as shown in Hay ne eae | Will figure 19, and more correctly in the annexed figure, narrower intervals, thus corresponding exactly with the calca- exhibiting the position of these lamelle as seen broader in This arrangement of the fleshy lamellae may be seen in the external markings of many Actinie. This ex- J. D. Dana on Zoophyies. ‘9 corals. On this account the number of lamell (and correspond- ingly of tentacles) is usually some multiple of four, when the whole number exceeds twenty-four; and itis generally also a multiple of siz. Below this, the lamelle if over six are com- monly large and small alternately, or one alternates with two others that are alike ; and the number isa multiple of siz. ‘These are therefore all parts of one system. 'The Alcyonaria appear to belong to a different system, since they have eight equal tentacles and lamelle. saved The importance of number and size as a specific distine- tion is therefore obvious. In the species of a single genus or family, there is a relation admitting of limited variations, be- tween the diameter of the polyp and the number of its visceral lamella, and therefore of its calcareous lamelle when corallige- nous. As the number of tentacles and internal lamelle of a po- lyp increase as it enlarges, so it is with the lamelle of the coral- lum ; but the adult number is fixed. 40. In the Alcyonaria, the internal secretions are in dissemi- nated grains or spicule, and when a solid tube is formed, it pro- ceeds from the aggregation of these grains. The difference in the microscopic structure of these spicule and the coral of the Actinaria has been stated in this Journal, i, ii Ser., 284. ‘There are many species that are wholly fleshy, others in which the grains oophyte is therefore still flexible ; and others that are firm and solid from their numbers and union. In the still flexible ; and as they grow upward, the tube at the same rate axis, which is the result of basal secretions. The polyps have their bases inward, and of course an axis should result from their united secretions. This axis is very similar in nature to the horn , It is also calcareous at times as in the common red or noble coral of commerce ; for this material forms the axis of a zoophyte, and is covered, when alive, with a layer or crust of brilliant polyps. ‘This fact accounts for its being solid in texture without the cells of ordinary coral. concentric structure may sdmetimes be distinguished in these axes; andat times the centre (the first secretions of the younger or apical polyps of a branch) is open om ‘a some species the Se : conn Series, Vol. UL, No. 7.—Jan., 10 J.D. Dana on Zoophytes. whole axis is made up of spicule, or consists of a material resem- ing cork in texture. ji 42. In the Melitzas the polyps grow obliquely upward, and their bases are directed downward instead of inward. The foot secretions form a layer at base, of this cork-like material; upon ding takes place, and the new polyps begin another layer at base. Thus an alternation of the two kinds. is produced, and the . rence in them of fluorine and phosphoric acid, was first detected in the food of the po yps, and in the ccean’s waters which are constantly bringing new portions of these mineral materials over the coral reefs through the action of the waves and the great marine currents.t There is no foundation whatever, as far nie acid springs occur in the vicinity of growing corals; and farther, there is convincing evidence to the contrary. Moreov of a sulphate or carbonate, since the elaborations of life may de- Compose and recompose according to the nature of the animal functions. Reproduction by Buds.— The Compound Structure. 45. We have been considering in the preceding pages on the Ac- tinoidea, the characters of the simple polyp, its structure, repro- duction by ova, and its coral secretions. ‘The compound struc- ture exhibited by most coral-zoophytes, is a result of the addi- tional function of budding, and essentially in the same way as in the Hydroidea, By this simple means, all the various forms of zoophytes result. Many of the various shapes which these zoophytes assume, i known. ) common in collections. The hemispheres of brain-coral (Mean- drina), and also of star-coral (Astrea), are often met with, It is here, this Journal, i, ii Series, 189; ‘and also for some gedlosical deductions therefrom, ibid, ii, 88. ea fale ae eeatrence of fluorine ip sea-waier suggested by Mr. Silliman, asa result of bis investigations; and it has since een proved by actual analysis by Mr. G. Wilson of Edinburgh. (See this Journal, ii, ii Series, 115.) 1 z J. D. Dana on Zoophites. 11 very generally supposed that these are by far the most frequent, if not the only shapes presented ; but, on the contrary, the varie- ties are extremely numerous, as we have already intimated. no’ inapt designation for such species, Another foliated kind consists of leaves more crisped and of more delicate texture, irregularly clustered ;—/ettuce-coral would be a significant name. Each leaf has a surface covered with polyp-flowers, and was formed by the growth and secretion of these polyps. Clustered leaves of the acanthus and oak, are at once called to mind by other species ; a sprouting asparagus-bed by others. ‘The mush- room is here imitated in very many of its fantastic shapes, and other fungi, with mosses and lichens, add to the variety. Vases of Madrepores are common about the reefs of the Pa- cific. They stand on a cylindrical base, which is enveloped in flowers when alive, and consist of a network of branches and branchlets, spreading gracefully from a centre, covered above with crowded sprigs of tinted polyps. The vases in the collec- tions of the Expedition, at Washington, will bear out this de- ruder hillocks of Porites are sometimes twenty feet across. Be- sides 2 ceed from the budding process. 46. Buds grow from some part of the parent, generally ap- single Astrea dome, twelve feet in diameter,—each covering a square half inch,—we find it exceeding one hundred thousand ; and in a Porites, of the same dimensions, in which the animals are under a line in breadth, the number exceeds five and a half millions; there are here, consequently, five and a half millions of mouths and stomachs to a single zoophyte, a wing, an and au imperfect cellular or lacunal communication. There is hence every variety, as to number, among compound zoophytes, 12 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. down to the simple polyp, which never buds at all, and has, for its corallum, a simple calicle ;—it may be a tiny goblet, with a we have the two polyps dis- itself off to its young, and each goes of subdivision. They have at it separate, excepting the usual intercommunication by pores or Cur his has been called an instance of fissiparous genera- ach of the old polyp, and has its own Stomach, though one vis- ceral cavity contains the two. Milne Edwards has shown that the lateral budding of an Aleyonium commences in one of the isce elle, which we have described as the seat of reproduc- ‘@ lamella just under the disk; consequently, the distinction be- tween disk and lateral buds is rather in the position of the bud- ding centre than in the nature of the process of gemmation. J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 13 48. Both lateral and terminal budding may go on continuously, in the same manner as buds proceed from the creeping shoot of a plant. Avshoot or process continues elongating uninterrupt- edly, and at intervals gives out a young polyp; and in the same manner the margin of a growing folium may be constantly widen- ing and giving out young polyps as it widens. This process is called by Ehrenberg, gemmation by stolons. Thus, while in some zoophytes the buds are produced only after intervals of time, the young approaching its adult size before budding, in other cases the process of budding and growth proceed together, In the one case the growth of the young absorbs the nutriment for the time being, and in the other, the nutriment goes at the same time both to promote growth and gemmation. 49. Modes of Growth.—1. The polyps of a compound group may be united at base only, and each may grow out as a separate branch, as in figure 32. 2. They may be Fig. 32. calicles. Thus we explain many of the peculiarities of corals. When each polyp forms a separate branch, as 1n figure 32, the cophyte may be said to be segregate in growth; but when they are laterally coalesced as in the massive Astreas and the re- omes a separate branch. eae 50. 2. Polyps differ also essentially in the process of growth. 1. Some polyps on reaching the adult size cease farther growth. 2. Others continue endlessly their growth above, and after a h bel that life and * From axgoy top; and yevvaw, J increase, 14 / J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. indefinite increase; and as this prolate growth is connected with budding, it often produces large foliate zoophytes. 51. The process of consentaneous growth and death is one of the most important in the history of zoophytes, for upon it de- pend the size they attain and their great geological interest. An example of it is illustrated in figure 3 » representing a Caro- phylla, the whole of which is lifeless coral excepting the polyp tipping each branch. The bud after development continues elongating its branch, and when but a line long, it dies at base, and so the polyp continues dying as it grows above. It is evident consequently, the tissues dry up in thé old corallum a _ 52. In some Cyathophyllide this process of death goes on interruptedly, as explained by Ehrenberg. The tissues of the ' oes OO crease filling the cellules; the corallum consequently becomes covered with encircling ridges, or appears as if formed of a series of inverted cones. In some cases the genus Strombodes, the living portion becomes. retracted at intervals to the very centre, all the rest dying, and afterwards the animal grows again and spreads to its original diameter ; tion which often follows reproduction) cannot properly be sidered a generic distinction. In the Cyathophylla there are all Varieties, from the very roughly wrinkled species to those which are smooth. ‘There are also corals identical in structure with the Strombodes, which present nothing of it; and the same speci- The facts stated in the preceding volume, page 201, respecting J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 15 53. This retraction also takes place intermittedly at the base of the polyps in some species, giving rise to a transverse arrange- ment of septa, more or less regular, as shown in some Cyatho- phyllide, the Favosites and Pocillopore. 54. 3. Another peculiarity in the mode of growth is deserving of a few words. I refer to the ready coalescence of branches. Some foliaceous Madrepores are made up of coalesced branch- lets, none of which are free excepting those at apex; and in others the whole is a network of united branchlets. Simple con- tact leads to this growing together. It is a union of the animals, rmed. We may remark separately upon the instances of lateral or an- ferior budding, and terminal or superior. fe 56. A. Inferior Budding.—1. If a non-acrogenous polyp buds laterally at base, by a single creeping stolon, it will form a linear zoophyte ; but if the basal buds are given out in different direc- tions instead of a single line, the zoophyte will spread out in a broad plate, or else a net-work, according as the polyps coalesce laterally or not. The Xenide illustrate all these varieties; an they pass into one another by gradual shades. Should the pol grow together by their sides to their very summit, the thickness of the zoophyte will be equal to the height of the polyps; otherwise, there will be less thickness and the polyps will stand prominent when expanded. Both of these conditions are illustrated among the Zoanthide, and the gradations are so imperceptible that we see no propriety in retaining in this fam- ily this distinction as generic, though so adopted by former The following figure of a Gemmipora illustrates the form- ation of plates by lateral budding, without acrogenous growth. The fact that the budding is lateral is shown by the internal di- ee * The genus Palythoa should include therefore the Mammilifera of Lesucur ; see Report on Zoophytes, p. 423. a a 16 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. rection of the cells in the front broken margin. The growth at the outer margin is of the stoloniferous kind, or takes place by Fig. 33. _ Gemmipora. £ gradual extension and gemmation. Such forms are termed explanate or foliaceous. 57. A very different form results when budding takes place alternately from differ- ent sides of polyps growing a little obliquely. Thus in the annexed figures of Oculine, oe . the apical polyp gives out a bud, which fora. 2 while is the summit polyp, and this bud an- = other in the same manner, and that another, | and so on, and in such an alternating, or pro erly spiral order, (figure 35a,) that a cylindri- cal branch is the consequence. This mode of branching may be called cumulato-ra- mose. _ This mode of development may also be considered as closely allied to that of the i stolon, since growth and budding is continuous. Indeed there is no important distinction of the stolon, excepting the one allu- ded to in § 48. | pene _58. 2. In the above instances the polyps have been supposed not to have acrogenous growth, or to possess it only in avery ; limited degree. When they are acrogenous, the results are vari- ous according to the mode of budding. If each polypas it grows & goes on to bud, and all bud thus equally and indefinitely, only globular or hemispherical forms can result. This is exemplifie among the Porites: yet owing to slight irregularities or more rapid development in one part than another, the forms are usually irregularly glomerate rather than symmetrically globular. "When the polyps are not connate by their sides, (that is are segregate in growth, ) the same will still be the result, asshown in the Colum- hari, 'l'ubipore, and Caryophyllie.+ Figs. 34. * The Oculine are somewhat acrogenous, and thus the semi branches below becomes much greater than the height of a polyp t The Cladocorx of Ehrenberg. k gerea diameter of the J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 17 59. But if imstead of budding indefinitely, the older polyps after a while lose the power, the zoophyte may commence as a small hemisphere, but will soon lengthen upward without in- creasing in width ; the outer and older effete polyps ceasing to bud, begin the sides of a growing column. Budding will thus be confined to a summit cluster, of some specific size, (according to the species, ) and the older polyps will leave the cluster at the same rate as others are produced. 'The branching Porites, Sidero- pore, and Pocilloporee grow in this way through a budding ter which constitutes the apex of each branch. Such branches have an obtuse extremity, excepting in the Seriatoporae and some Gorgonize where the budding cluster is small. sed by Ehrenberg, is thus obvious. 61. When the buds form seriately only on two sides of a branch we may have a two-edged form, as in the Pterogorgia an- ceps. And if they spread laterally, as well as face in two diree- tions, they give rise to verti 62. If the buds are ; 1, or form more. rapidly one side of a cylindrical branch than another, the branches grow more or less horizontally; and thus the vase Madrepores are produced. 63.. Modes of branching as connected with lateral budding.— We have already alluded to the caliculato-ramose forms of zoo- es. There are other modes of branching which should be distinguished. 64. Patrio-ramose.—In the Madrepores, one of the non-bud- ding lateral polyps, after the branch is sufficiently lengthened be- yond it, begins to bud, and a new branchlet thus commences from this as its parent-polyp. The same is the case in the Dendro- phyllias, and it is the universal mode in these genera. — A may designate such zoophytes by the term patrio-ramose. + _— 65. Cumulato-ramose.—In the Gorgonias, in much the same manner, a budding cluster (of one or more polyps) begins on the side of a branch, at some specific interval below the apex, an this, by growing and budding, produces a branch. ‘The pinnules of the Gorgonia setosa form at regular intervals in this manner, and each commences four to six inches from the summit. At much greater intervals, one of the pinnules below begins to bud Sxconp Serizs, Vol. Ill, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 3 plates, as in some Millepore. ~*~ < 18 J. D. Dana on Zoophyies. near its base and give rise to branchlets, thus commencing to be- h lose the budding power, and the branch commences to fork or subdivide into two branches. This mode of branching ( furcato- ramose) characterizes the Porites, Sideropore, Pocillopore: and other speci . 67. If the polyps of a parent cluster rapidly elongate as in the Gorgonie the cluster does not widen, and such species cannot branch by furcation. 68. The position of branches as well as theifsize is determin- ed by the principles adduced. In Madrepores the angle which the polyps make with the axis of the stem is the angle with which the new branch begins, and this angle varies little there- fore in the same species. ‘The length or size of the polyps, and the breadth of a budding cluster, limits the diameters of branches. 69. In the horizontally growing Madrepores, the new branch- lets form on the outer or lower side of the branches, and after- wards become successively nearly or quite vertical. This mode of budding retains the zoophyte in a horizontal position. The warty prominences ona Pocillopora arise from the fact that certain small clusters of polyps of two or three in each, and regularly distributed, continue to bud for a while among those which from age are just leaving the terminal clusters. 70. B. Superior or Terminal Budding. In lateral budding, the prolate growth of polyps takes place by the extension of their inferior portions; while in terminal budding it proceeds from extension of the summits. The following figure of an Echinopora shows well this peculiarity, and it is still better understood on comparing it with the Gemmipora, figure 33 Shiety Echinopora. The margin grows by extension of the wpper parts of the poly: instead of the lower, and it is connected with terminal bdo The cells therefore are not united below to one another as in the Gemmipora. The new bud opens in the extending margin a . J. D. Dana on: Zoophytes. 19 short distance from the edge, and there the polyp is developed ; while in the Gemmipora the polyp cell opens at the very edge it- self, and is continuous through the lower extremity of its visceral cavity with that of preceding polyps. 71. The Echinopora referred to is an example of prolate growth without acrogenous. In the Astreeas, both modes are combined. The margin of an Astrea argus grows essentially like the Echinopora. But buds also mul- Fig. 37. ‘ tiply over the growing surface, as illus- : trated in the annexed figure. The growth, enlarging the surface, tends to enlarge the polyps and widen (in this species) the in- ¢ tervals between the disks. But this widening has its limits, determined by the normal size of the polyps, and when these limits begin to be exceeded, a new polyp buds out in the interval. An example of = this is shown near the middle of the an- a nexed figure. This process is constantly ASR ATEM going on, and by means of it the symmetry of form which be- longs to these hemispherical corals, is retained. 72. 'This prolate growth of the summits, instead of being con- fined to the parts exterior to the disks, belongs in many species to the disks themselves; and the consequence is that there is a tendency in these disks (and not in the intervals between them) to exceed their normal size. The result, namely site opening of a new polyp, has already been described in $ 47; a “6 takes place with the greatest regularity over the hemispherical treeas, 73. In figures 28 to 31 we have illustrated the formation o a new polyp, and its subsequent separation from the parent. Suppose that instead of separating as soon as formed, the disk in figure 29 should continue widening, till another and another mouth opened before the subdivision (illustrated in the figures,) should commence. This is no hypothetical case, or the M drinas are all examples of it and in this simple particular alone, they differ from the common Astreas. There are some Astraas in which two or three mouths, or even four, occasionally open in a single widening disk, and it is dificult to say whether they should be arranged with the Meandrinas or not. There are Me- andrinas in which the disk is prolonged indefinitely or subdivides only at long intervals. However great, therefore, the dissimilari- ty in the coralla of a Meandrina and an Astrea, their actual re- lations are extremely close. In some instances: there are simple and meandrine species in the same genus (Mussa), for the reason that no line of division can be laid down. 20 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 74. As an Echinopora is related to the Astrea argus, so the foliaceous Meruline are related to the Meandrine and those As- treeas that increase by disk buds. They are foliaceous Meandri- ne excepting a few species which are branching. The Monti- cularic differ from the Meandrine only in this; that the ridges of the latter are reduced in the former to isolated prominences, by a cross coalescence of the disk lines. The disk, instead of being prolonged, in a single line, is widened in two or three, and thus, this effect is produced. We have then a gradual passage from the Monticularia with a compound reticulate disk to the Astrea with a simple circular disk, and the differences depend upon the prolating disk subdividing or not, or its prolating in more lines than one. ‘There are some branching Merulinas so closely ap- proaching the Monticulariz, that it is difficult to decide upon the genus to which they should be referred. 75. If the disk should widen in every direction, instead of in particular lines, still another variety would result not yet men- tioned. The F'ungide are instances of this. The simple spe- cies (Fungiz) are polyps without margins to the disks ; and the compound species (e. g. Polyphyllize, Herpetolithi, Pavoniz, As- trea siderea of Lamarck, &c.) have no intervals between the stars or disks. Like the lamelle at the bottom of a trench in a Meandrina, the lamellae of the stars pass wninterruptedly from one centre (oririme) to another, and this is their characteristic. Yet there are species with concave cells, because the intervals between two polyp-mouths may be prominent, and not because the disks are not confluent. If the facts here stated appear to throw some difficulty in the way of seeerey, distinguishing the genera and species “//Rsifii» of zoaphytes by their coralla, we may say that no fault can be attributed to the author, for if any where, it per- tains to the zoophytes themselves. In this matter we take them as our teach- ers. A proper study of recent zo- ophytes, we feel assured, will set aside to a great extent the apparent difficulties. In another place the va- rious characteristics will be further. dwelt upon. 76. Modes of Branching.—The annexed figure (of a Caulastreea ) illus- trates. a common mode of branching the ramose species. It is a re- the mode of disk budding al- ready ibed (¢ 47.) On one branch two polyp-mouths already ex- sult of J. D, Dana on Zoophytes. ai ist in the enlarged disk; and at the extremity of the other, fur- cation has commenced. The subdivision is a consequence of the growth and budding ; and as it takes place at nearly uniform 7n- tervals, and depends on the fact that the polyps have normal lim- its of size, the resulting zoophytes are generally very regularly hemispherical in form; moreover the branches in all individuals of the same species are very nearly alike in size and in the in- tervals which separate them. 'These characters therefore afford important specific distinctions. 77. Other species branch by a succession of buds, nearly as in the Oculine. This is the case with the Meruline, and may seen in the branch-like processes over foliaceous species, as well as in the ramose species. 78. From the facts which have been presented, it appears that the distinction of swperior and inferior gemmation and growt therefore consists in the disks widening by growth in some species, and in others the parts just exterior to the disks,—a_peculiarity d it will be perceived that the subject receives increased in- terest from the illustrations it affords of corresponding facts in * Ehrenberg places the Astrea argus, a foliated Gemmipora and some other species in the same genus, to which he has applied Lamarck’s name, Explanaria. t Other distinguishing characters will be hereafter given. fore and growth in a single direction laterally from Coalescent only at bg ery way coalescent, 1eé base, Buddin laterally from % base in different directions ‘eve Gemmation | Growth inferior, Buds in simple or complex series, im 7 a Polyps a and bud- pute alternate in direction, and : ding in erect or ascend- us forming a spiral series, mt: & fe ng from 2 snaset and not limited in dire Gemmation superior ; polyps every way coalescent, - - aE Segregate, - 2 8 Polyps, < ge Unlimited by age, Aggregate, 9 Limited to the younger polyps, — - - - 10 | Buds not aa Limited to a single ieee polyp, which buds 211. in direc : laterally and indefinitely, Growth acrogenous, . rs: facing in two directions, and spreading laterally as well as upward, The ae of Z i, s takes place rn By means of terminal shoots atera Ps shoot roceeding ae a noua of i | polyps, assuming the par ming a parent-polyp, (patrio-ramos 4, By the fureation of a oiaddling cluster owing to ade enlargement, (fureato-ramose Branching species are farther modified by walpemak “ea nal polyp, ber eid ote — -budding, (Mussee, Caulastree.) , laminate, or even massive, according to the extent of the coalescence. i. “, Linear.—Zoanthe. pean —Aul {xplanate or tiacao uli with prominent "poly yps if the coalescence does not ex- d to the summits of the pol Ory ps- 4. so stems with polyps facing in certain de rections.—Many Sertulari oe stems, ori ps facing variously.— Oculine 6. Erect stems, asinmany Gorgonie. CBee from summit buds, periodical or no em — function, Gotals- dbname ) and the ie uline are at times somew acrogenous ) Explanate;: with the eked but a or oni chinopor cal, and oath ing of tubular or no eae he ches Tubipore, Musse, Caryophy! ; em, or he mispherical, oo reas, &c. ; Colderst. or subcylindrical stems, with un Bopohee. 46 —Many Po- es, Poci Coliaavioat: pws ae a parent-pol yp at apex.—-Madrepore, Dendrophylle. These become horizontal o He, ique, s are developed u hape. , 12. Vercdal, bigied some Millepore. G% ‘sahiydooy uo nung “Gf ‘¢ J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 23 We cite the following concluding remarks from the Report on Zoophytes, to which work reference may be made for fuller de- polyps changing to parent-polyps, and thus becoming the germs of eatiion which take ag See from the position of the budding-polyp ; the latter, branch generally by furcation at sum- mit, the size of the terminal cluster determining the diameter of, the branch, and indirectly occasioning the furcation. . ; In other species still, each polyp gives out its single polyp in succession, and the continued accumulation produces the rising 24 J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. from its attachment. Tens of thousands of polyps cover the: branches, like so many flowers, spreading their tinted petals in the genial sunshine, and quiet seas, but withdrawing when the clouds betoken a storm. ; “ Excelsior,” is the grave motto of the zoophyte. Ever up- ward, they continue growing and elongating, although death is at work below, with as rapid progress. A beautiful provision protects the branching coral-tree—often the work of ages—from being destroyed by the dissolving waters, when exposed, on the death and removal of the polyps. Certain minute incrusting co- rals—the Bryozoa and Sertularide, together with Nullipores— make the surface their resting place, as soon as it is laid bare, and go on spreading and covering the dead trunk, and so prevent the wearing action of the sea. 'The Madrepore may thus continue formed, and kept in constant increase. In this way the coral reef gradually nears the surface, and finally becomes the founda- tion of one of the fairest of * The sea-girt isles, That, like to rich and various gems, inlay The unadorned bosom of the deep ;” the coral polyps now yield place to the flowers and groves of the land, which fulfill their end in promoting the comfort and happiness of man. Note.—The figures illustrating this article represent the following species of orals. Fig. 13. Polyp of the Mussa cactus (D), natural size. Allied to the Caryophyl- lia carduus of Lamarck, (genus Lobop) ye of Blainville.) tyt Fig. @a purpurea (D), alive and expanded ; natural size, Fig. 15. Part of a branch of the Madrepora cribripora (D), alive and expanded; natural size. § Fig. 16. Part of a branch of the Dendrophyllia nigrescens (D), alive and ex- panded; natural size. _ Fig. 17. A lobe of the Xenia florida, probably the Actinantha florida of Lesson ; natural size. Fig. 18. A polyp of the Tubipora fimbriata (D), enlarged between three and four diameters. Fig. 32. Caryophyllia arbuscula. (Lesueur.) Fig. 34. Part of a branch of Oculina varicosa. (Lesueur.) Fig. 35. Part of a branch of Oculina pallens. ( Ehrenberg.) Fig. 38. A branch of the Caulastrea furcata. (D.) Prof. Henry on Electrical Induction, §c. 25 Art. I.—On the Induction of Atmospheric Electricity on the Wires of the Electrical Telegraph ; by Prof. Joseru Henry.* Tue action of the electricity of the atmosphere on the wires of the electrical telegraph, is at the present time a subject of much importance, both on account of its practical bearing, and the number of purely scientific questions which it involves. I have accordingly given due attention to the letter referred to me, and have succeeded in collecting a number of facts in reference to the action in question. Some of these are from the observations of different persons along the principal lines, and others from my own investigations during a thunder-storm on the 19th of June, when I was so fortunate as to be present in the office of the tel- egraph in Philadelphia, while a series of very interesting electri- -eal phenomena was exhibited. In connexion with the facts de- rived from these sources, I must ask the indulgence of the society in frequently referring, in the course of this communication, to the results of my previous investigations in dynamic electricity, accounts of which are to be found in the Proceedings and 'Trans- actions of this Institution. the 20th of May, the lightning struck the clevated part of the wire, which is supported on a high mast at the place where the telegraph crosses the Hackensack river. The fluid passed along the wire each way, from the point which received the discharge, for several miles, striking off at irregular intervals down the sup- porting poles. At each place where the discharge to a pole took - place, a number of sharp explosions were heard in succession, re- sembling the rapid reports of several rifles. « During another storm, the wire was struck in two places in Pennsylvania, on the pole escaped the discharge; and the same phenomenon was s served, though in a less marked degree, near the Hackensac river. In some instances the lightning has been seen coursing along the wire in a stream of light; and in another case 1t 1s ce- scribed as exploding from the wire at certain points, though “Ves Hap peds ee Be ao * Communieated by the author from the Proceedings of the American Philo: sophical Society, vol iv, p. 260.000 rconp Srrizs, Vol. ili, No, 7.—Jan., 1847. ‘ 26 Prof. Henry on Electrical Induction there were no bodies in the vicinity to attract it from the con- ductor. In discussing these, and other facts to be mentioned hereafter, we shall, for convenience, adopt the principles and language of the theory which refers the phenomena of electricity to the ac- tion of a fluid, of which the particles repel each other, and are attracted by the particles of other matter. Although it cannot be affirmed that this theory is an actual representation of the cause of the phenomena as they are produced in nature, yet it may be asserted that it is, in the present state of science, an ac- curate mode of expressing the laws of electrical action, so far as they have been made out; and that though there are a number of phenomena which have not as yet been referred to this theory, there are none which are proved to be directly at variance with it. That the wires of the telegraph should be frequently struck by a direct discharge of lightning, is not surprising, when we consider the great length of the conductor, and, consequently, the many points along the surface of the earth through which it must pass, peculiarly liable to receive the discharge from the heavens. Also, from the great length of the conductor, the more readily must the repulsive action of the free electricity of the cloud drive the natural electricity of the conductor to the farther end of the line, thus rendering more intense the negative condition of the nearer part of the wire, and, consequently, in- creasing the attraction of the metal for the free electricity of the cloud. It is not however, probable, that the attraction, whatever may be its intensity, of so small a quantity of matter as that of the wire of the telegraph, can of itself produce an electrical dis- charge from the heavens: although, if the discharge were started by some other cause, such as the attraction of a large mass of conducting matter in the vicinity, the attraction of the wire might be sufficient to change the direction of the descending bolt, and draw it in part or whole, to itself. It should also be recollect- ed, that on account of the perfect conduction, a discharge on any of the wire must affect every other part of the connected line, although it may be hundreds of miles in length. That the wire should give off a discharge to a number of poles in succession, is a fact I should have expected, from my previous researches on the lateral discharge of a conductor transmitting a current of free electricity. In a paper on this subject, presented to the British Association in 1837, [ showed that when electricity strikes a conductor explosively, it tends to give off sparks to all dies in the vicinity, however intimately the conductor may be connected with the earth. In an experiment in which sparks from a small machine were thrown on the upper part of a light- ning, rod, erected in accordance with the formula given by the French Institute, corresponding sparks could be drawn from every on the Wires of the Electric Telegraph. 27 It might at first be supposed that the redundant electricity of the conductor would exhaust itself in giving off the first spark, and that a second discharge could not take place ; but it should be observed, that the wave of free electricity, in its passage, is constantly attracted to the wire by the portion of the uncharged conductor which immediately precedes its position at any time ; and hence but a part of the whole redundant electricity is given off at one place ; the velocity of transmission of the wave as it same path in rapid succession, or of a continuous discharge which has an appreciable duration ; and hence the wire of the telegraph 18 capable of transmitting an immense quantity of the fluid thus distributed over a great length of the conductor, = The remarkable facts of the explosions of the electricity into the air, and of the poles being struck in interrupted succession, find a plausible explanation in another electrical principle which I have established, namely, in all cases of the disturbance of the equilibrium of the electrical plenum, which we must suppose to exist throughout all terrestrial space, the state of rest is attained by a series of diminishing oscillations. ‘Thus, in the discharge of a Leyden jar, I have shown that the phenomena exhibited can- not be explained by merely supposing the transfer of a quantity of fluid from the inner to the outer side of the jar; but in addi- tion to this we are obliged to admit the existence of several waves, backwards and forwards, until the equilibrium is attained. thus enhance the tendency of the fluid at these points to fly from the conductor. I do not say that the effects observed were actu- 28 Prof. Henry on Electrical Induction ally produced in this way; I merely wish to convey the idea that known principles of electrical. action might, under certain circumstances, lead us to anticipate such results. 2. The state of the wire may be disturbed by the conduction | of a current of electricity from one portion of space to another, Without the presence of a thunder-cloud ; and this will happen in case of a long line, when the electrical condition of the atmes- phere which surrounds the wire at one place is different from that at another. Now it is well known that a mere difference in ele- vation is attended with a change in the electrical state of the at- mosphere. A conductor, elevated by ig of a kite, gives sparks of positive electricity in a perfectly clear day; hence, if the line of the telegraph passes over an elevated mountain ridge, there will be continually, during clear weather, a current from the more elevated to the lower points of the conductor. | A-current may also be produced in along level line, by wpe precipitation of vapor in the form of fog at. one end, while the air remains clear at the other; or by the existence of a storm of rain or snow at any point along the line, while the other parts of the wire are not subjected to the same influence. Currents of sufficient power to set in motion the marking ma- chine of the telegraph have been observed, which must have been produced by some of these causes. In one case the ma- chine spontaneously began to operate without the aid of the bat- tery, while a snow storm was falling at one end of the line, and clear weather existed at the other. On another occasion, a con- tinued stream of electricity was observed to pass between two pune at a break in the wire, presenting the appearance of a gas- ght almost extinguished, A constant effect of this kind indi- cates a constant accession of electricity at one part of the wire, and a constant discharge at the other. 3. The natural electricity of the wire of the telegraph is liable to be disturbed by the ordinary electrical induction of a distant cloud. Suppose a thunder-cloud, driven by the wind in such a direction as to cross one end of the line of the telegraph at the elevation, say of a mile; during the whole time of the approach of the cloud to the point of its path directly above the wire, the repulsion of the redundant electricity with which it is charged would constantly drive more and more of the natural electricity of the wire to the farther end of the line, and would thus give rise to a current. When the cloud arrived at the point nearest to the wire, the current would cease for a moment; and as the re- pulsion gradually diminished by the receding of the cloud, the natural electricity of the wire would gradually return to its nor- mal state, giving rise to a current in an opposite direction. If the were driven by the wind parallel to the line of the tele- graph, a current would be produced towards each end of the a on the Wires of the Electric Telegraph. 29 wire, and these would constantly vary in intensity with the dif- ferent positions of the cloud. Although currents produced in this way may be too feeble to set in motion the marking appa- ratus, yet they may have sufficient power to influence the action of the current of the battery so as to interfere with the perfect operation of the machine. down into the well ; at every flash of lightning a series of cur- rents in alternate directions was produced in the wire. 39 I was also led, from these results, to infer that induced cur- 80 rents must traverse the line of a railroad, and this I found to be 30 Prof. Henry on Electrical Induction the case. Sparks were seen at the breaks in the continuity of the rail, with every flash of a distant thunder-cloud. Similar effects, but in a greater degree, must be produced on the wire of the telegraph, by every discharge in the heavens; and the phenomena which I witnessed on the 19th of June in storm at Washington, and another at Jersey City. The portion of the circuit of the telegraph which entered the building, and was connected with one pole of the galvanic battery, happened to pass within the distance of less than an inch of the wire which served to form the connexion of the other pole with the earth. Across this space, at an interval of every few minutes, a series of sparks in rapid succession was observed to pass; an when one of the storms arrived so near Philadelphia that the lightning could be seen, each series of sparks was found to be simultaneous with a flash in the heavens. Now we cannot sup- se, for a moment, that the wire was actually struck at the time each flash took place ; and indeed it was observed that the sparks were produced when the cloud and flash were at the distance of several miles to the east of the line of the wire. The inevitable | conclusion is, that all the exhibition of electrical phenomena wit- nessed during the afternoon, was purely the effect of induction, or the mere disturbance of the natural electricity of the wire at a distance, without any transfer of the fluid from the cloud to the us. . i bas _ The discharge between the two portions of the wire continued for more than an hour, when the effect became so powerful, that the superintendent, alarmed for the safety of the building, con- nected the long wire with the city gas pipes, and thus transmitted the current silently to the ground. I was surprised at the quan- tity and intensity of the current; it is well known, that to affect a common galvanometer with ordinary electricity, requires the discharge of a large battery ; but such was the quantity of the induced current exhibited on this occasion, that the needle of an ordinary vertical galvanometer, with a short wire, and apparently of little sensibility, was moved several degrees. The pungency of the spark was also, as might have been ex- pected, very great. When a small. break was made in the cir- uit, and the parts joined by the fore-finger and thumb, the dis- charge transmitted through the hand affected the whole arm up to the shoulder. I was informed by the superintendent, that on another ¢casion a spark passed over the surface of the spool of wire, surrounding the legs of the horse-shoe magnet at right an- on the Wires of the Electric Telegraph. 31 gles to the spires; and such. was its intensity and quantity, that all the wires across which it passed were melted at points in the same straight line as if they had been cut in two by a sharp knife. The effects of the powerful discharges from the clouds may be prevented in a great degree, by erecting at intervals along the ine, and aside of the supporting poles, a metallic wire, connected with the earth at the lower end, and terminating above at the distance of about half an inch from the wire of the telegraph. By this arrangement the insulation of the conductor will not be interfered with, while the greater portion of the charge will be drawn off. I think this precaution of great importance at places where the line crosses a river, and is supported on high poles. Also in the vicinity of the office of the telegraph, where a dis- charge, falling on the wire near the station, might send a current into the house of sufficient quantity to produce serious accidents. — The fate of Prof. Richman, of St. Petersburg, should be recol- lected, who was killed by a flash from a small wire, which entered his house from an elevated pole, while he was experi- the wire, would, in preference, be conducted down the nearest pole. It will, however, in all cases, be most prudent to keep at mind at this time for obviating the effect, but that of increasing the size of the battery, and diminishing the sensibility of the 32 A New Mineral from the Azores. magnet, so that, at least, the smaller induced currents may not be felt by the machine. It must be recollected, that the inductive influence takes place at a distance through all bodies, conductors and non-conductors ; and hence no coating that can be put upon the wire will prevent the formation of induced currents. I think it not improbable, since the earth has been made to act the part of the return conductor, that some means will be di covered for insulating the single wire beneath the surface of the earth ; the difiiculty in effecting this is by no means as great as that of insulating two wires, and preventing the current striking across from one to the other. A wire, buried in the earth, would pr , In most cases, from the effect of a direct discharge ; _ but the inductive influence would still be exerted, though per- haps in a less degree. he wires of the telegraph are too small and too few in num- ber to affect, as some have supposed, the electrical condition of the atmosphere, by equalizing the quantity of the fluid in differ- ent places, and thus producing a less changeable state of the weather. ‘The feeble currents of electricity which must be con- stantly passing along the wires of a long line, may, however, with proper study, be the means of discovering many interesting facts relative to the electrical state of the air over different regions. Arr. Ifl—A New Mineral from the Azores ; by J. EB. Trscur- MACHER. Iy examining a portion of a volcanic boulder from St. Michael’s, Azores, for specimens of Pyrrhite, I discovered several small crystals, apparently octahedrons, of a translucent slightly yellowish white color, which alone before the blowpipe were totally infusi- e; on farther examination they proved to be nearly pure colum- bate of lime. The following is a description of them. Form—a square prism terminated by four-sided pyramids. M one = 133-40 seapage “ ¢ == 123-15 ¢ by the reflecting goniometer. DZ M“M = 90 Nearly all the crystals are in the form of obtuse octahedrons, the vertical axis being shorter than the lateral; one or two were found with prisms about the height of the pyramids—these were measured.* The color is usually translucent to opake white, with a very faint greenish yellow tinge; one or two were however as clear as fine quartz ; these were probably pure columbate of lime. ” Specimens of this mineral, received through the kindness of Mr. Teschemacher, correspond entirely to the description above given.—J. D. D. A New Mineral from the Azores. 33 Fracture vitreous—no trace of cleavage. The largest crystal is only 14 lines at the base of the pyramid. With borax on the platina wire, the crystals in the hottest re- ducing flame dissolve with extreme slowness and difficulty ; the globule is quite transparent, sometimes exhibiting a very faint greenish tint. When the globule is saturated with the mineral, it becomes opake white by flaming. On the addition of peroxyd of iron to the globule, it gives the usual green color of a fer- becoming apparent ; this indicates a trace of uranium. The powdered mineral is decomposed on fusing with bisulphate of potash, and the addition of hydrochloric acid precipitates co- lumbic acid. On removing the acid liquor by the filter, and im- mersing in it a crystal of bisulphate of potash, flocculent crystals of sulphate of lime appear. qe The mineral, therefore, like Pyrochlore, is a columbate of lime, but as there can be no doubt that this latter is a regular octa combination of some of the other ingredients of Pyrochlore, or from this new mineral being columbic acid in a different state of saturation by lime, from that in Pyrochlore. Either of these cases is of much interest to the chemist and mineralogist, and I regret that the quantity found is so small as for the present to preclude regular chemical analyses of this beautiful though mi- croscopic mineral. It seems most probable, as far as we can judge from the examinations, that it is a case of dimorphism. Sede ‘The characters of Pyrrhite before the blowpipe were examined at the same time, and confirm my previous opinion of its titanic Composition. On the addition to its solution in the borax globule of a portion of peroxyd of iron, it gives the usual reddish brown glass indicative of titanium. ay” Es Iam indebted to my friend Dr. A. A. Hayes, for a careful ex- amination and confirmation of the blowpipe characters, as well as for the chemical reactions. : ere i reat a similarity in the occurrence of this crys- tallized columbate of lime in the volcanic boulders of the Azores, Econp Series, Vol. 11, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. ) 34 On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi. and that of Pyrochlore in the vein in granite at Chesterfield, that a comparison of the two seems worthy of notice ; premising, however, that I have examined too small a quanti ty 0 the St. . Michael’s rock, to arrive at any conclusions of consequence. Chesterfield, Massachusetts vein of granite in mica slate, lying wack in the direction of the slate, obliqu alk ae vein of the fi lowing c Albite--chiet ingredient; the fei eg ap- pearing mostly a n the cen- _tral part of the vein. Sa dasha ae ed, green, blue and black, es aiscys en in small ee Scent y very moder. Pyroc ot (eolumbate off ana igisinn ichael's, Azores. Contents of voteent ic boulders. Albite—chief co ituent. Tourmaline : Le soneecble quantity. Crystals sma Mica—a trace Columbate of lime, the anne described in this paper, gan, very small, but containing a aan ranium Titanium—Pyrrh sina very small. There is anothe ic rock frow this locality, in which Perch by Ryakolite, and the octa unt ti “ee — rrhite by a titanium mineral of a Damo ferent orm Columbite ‘extremely rare. Uraniom ‘jtanium—a trace sometimes in the Py- rochlore. Professor precy tle does ty ba the bearings of th leas and I have not eather the local Art. IV.—On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Missis- sippt, and other points in the Geology of arent America, ob- served in the years 1845, 1846; by C. Lyrun Tue delta of the Mississippi may be defined as athe part of the great alluvial plain which lies below, or to the south of the branching off of the highest arm of the river, called. the Atcha- falaya. "This delta is about 13,600 square mi miles in area, and ele- vated from a few inches to ten feet above the level of the sea. The greater part of it protrudes at the Gulf of Mexico beyond the general coast line. The level plain to the north, as far as Cape Girardeau in Missouri nbow the junction of the Ohio, is of the same character, including, according to Mr. Forshey, an area of about 16,000 square miles, and. is, sotenpcln gee larger than the delta. It is very variable in width i miles wide ; at Memphis 30; at the mouth of the White River 80, and contracting again farther south, at Grand Gulf, to 33 miles. ‘The delta and alluvial plain rise by so gradual a slope from the sea as to attain, at the junction of the Ohio, (a distance of 800 miles by the river,) an elevation of only two hun * Abstract of a discourse before the British Association, Sept. 14, 1846, from the Athenzum, for September 26. On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi. 35 feet above the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. Lyell first described. the low mud banks covered with reeds at the mouths of the Missis- sippi, and the pilot-station called the Balize ; then passed to the quantity of drift wocd choking up the bayous, or channels, in- terseeting the banks; and, lastly, enlarged on the long narrow promontory formed by the great river and its banks between New Orleans and the Balize. The advance of this singular tongue of natural position, three tiers bein occasionally seen one above the other, shows that the river in its wanderings has < pened a through ancient morasse ere trees once grew, and where al- s, wh luvial matter gradually accumulated. ‘The old deserted beds, also, of the river, with banks raised fifteen feet above the adjoin- ing low grounds, bear testimony to the frequent shifting of the the wealth and splendor of eight hundred or more me portion of it, situated in the States of Missoun and Arkansas, is now called “the sunk country.” _ It extends about seventy miles 36 On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi. north and south, and thirty east and west, and is for the most part submerged. Many dead trees are still standing erect in the swamps, a far greater number lie prostrate. Even on the dry ground in the vicinity, all the forest trees which are of prior date- to 1811, are leafless: they are supposed to have been killed by the loosening of their roots by the repeated shocks of 181 1, 12. Numerous rents are also observable in the ground where it opened in 1811; and many “sink holes,” or cavities, from ten to thirty yards wide and twenty feet or more in depth, now interrupt the general level of the plain, which were formed by the spouting out of large quantities of sand and mud during the earthquake. In attempting to compute the minimum of time required for the accumulation of the alluvial matter in the delta and valley of the Mississippi, Mr. Lyell referred to a series of experiments, made by Dr. Riddell, at New Orleans, showing that the mean annual pro- portion of sediment in the river was, to the water r273 Nn Weight, or about ;;'5; in volume. From the observations of the same of water, are deduced. In assuming 528 feet (or the tenth of a mile) as the probable thickness of the deposit of mud and sand -— ? timated as only equal to that of the delta, whereas it is, in fact, larger. If some deduction be made from the time here stated, in consequence of the effect of drift wood, which must have aided in filling up more rapidly the space above alluded to, a far more important allowance must be made, on the other hand, for the joss of matter, owing to the finer particles of mud not settling at the mouth of the river, but being Swept out far to sea, and years, must be insignificant, in a geological point of view, since the date, ) and which are from 50 to 250 feet in perpendicular height, Consist in great part of loam, containing land, fluviatile, and la- custrine shells of species still inhabiting the same country. ‘These fossil shells, oceurring in a deposit resembling the loess of the On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi. 37 sissippi, Alabama and Georgia, exhibits this superposition, as well M 3 2 1 a 2A 3 ‘ — t ——_ 7, rh . = Petey! shits oh 8 teres Se: = ats ea SRST SS q ! ye iy my . ar yy yg oe Saii=es5225523>>~ mein )/1181)/ Section (M to N) about 750 miles in length from west to east, from Lonisiana (on the west) through Jackson, Mississij pi, to Tuscaloosa,in Alabama, and thence, by Montgomery, to the Atlantic, near Dane, in Georgia. as that of the cretaceous strata on carboniferous rocks at Tusca- loosa. Mr. Lyell ascertained that.the huge fossil cetacean, named Zeuglodon, by Owen, is confined to the eocene deposits. In the Cretaceous strata, the remains of the mosasaurus, and other rep- tiles, occur without any cetacea. The coal-fields of Alabama were next alluded to; from which fossil plants have been procured, by Prof. Brumby and Mr. Lyell, of the genera Sphenopteris, Neuropteris, Calamites, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, Stigmaria, and others, most of them identical in species, as determined by Mr. C. Bunbury, with fossils of Northumberland. This fact is the more worthy of notice, because the coal of Tuscaloosa—situated in lat. 33° 1830, to explain the ancient geological changes of climate, by ~ “1. The alluvium of the Mississippi.—2. Post-pliocene loam and sand, with recent shells and bones of extinct mammalia; the shells in this deposit, on the borders of the valley of the Mississippi, are re and fresh-water species, those , ; : ns t Marien, of marine species.—3. ene formatic i ppeeOa strata 5. Carboniferous rocks.—6 ypogene or granite, gneiss, mica schist, d&c. to a. Louisiana.—A. Vicksburg, Mississippi.—B. Jackson.—C. Tuscaloosa, Alabama.—D. Montgomer ape a. Mississippi river,—b. Factuhehe hte river.—c. Flint river. 38 On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi. geographical revolutions in the position of land and sea. The lapse of ages, implied by the distinctness of the fossils of the eocene, cretaceous, carboniferous, and: other strata, is such, that, were we to endeavor to give an idea of it, we must estimate its duration, not by years, as in the case of the delta, but by such units as would be constituted by the interval between the be- ginning of the delta and our own times. “ It is now fifty years,” said Mr. Lyell, “since Playfair, after studying the rocks in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, in company with Dr. Hutton and Sir James Hall, was so struck with the evidence they afforded of the immensity of past time, that he observed, ‘ How much farther n may go, than imagination can venture to follow!’ These views were common to the most illustrious of his contemporaries ; and since that time have been adopted by all geologists, whether their minds have been formed by the literature of France, or of Germany, or of Italy, or Scandinavia, or England ;—all have arrived at the same conclusion respecting the great antiquity of the globe, and that, too, in opposition to their earlier prepos- sessions and to the popular belief of their age. It must be con- fessed that, while this unanimity is satisfactory as a remarkable test of truth, it is somewhat melancholy to reflect, that, at the end of half a century, when so many millions have passed through our schools and colleges since Playfair wrote that eloquent pas- sage, there is still so great a discordance between the opinions of scientific men and the great mass of the community. Had there been annual gatherings, such as this, where those who are enti- tled to speak with authority, address themselves to a numerous assembly, drawn from the higher classes of society, who, by their cultivation and influence, must direct the education and form the opini 1e many of humbler station, it is impossible that so undesirable and unsound a state of things should have now pre- vailed as that where there is one creed for the philosopher and another for the multitude. Had there been meetings like this, even for a quarter of a century, we should already have gained for geology the same victory that has been so triumphantly won by the astronomer. The earth’s antiquity, together with the history of successive races of organic bemgs, would have been ere this as cheerfully and universally acknowleged. as the earth’s motion, or the number, magnitude, and relative distances of the heavenly bodies. I am sure it would be superfluous if I were to declare, in an assembly like this, my deep conviction, which you —all of you—share, that the further we extend our researches into the wonders of creation in time and space, the more do we exalt, refine, and elevate our conceptions of the Divine Artificer of the Universe.”—Mr. Lyell concluded this discourse by an- nouneing his corroboration of the discovery, recently made by Dr. King, at Greensburg, thirty miles from Pittsburg, in Pennsyl- Hybridity in Animals. 39 vania, of the occurrence of fossil foot-prints of a large reptilian, in the middle of the ancient coal-measures. They project, in relief, from the lower surfaces of slabs of sandstone; and are also found impressed on the subjacent layers of fine unctuous clay. ‘This is the first well-established example of a vertebrated animal, more highly organized than fishes, being met with in a stratum of such high antiquity. Art. V.—Hypbridity in Animals, considered in reference to the question of the Unity of the Human Species; by Samvet Grorce Morron, M. D.* (Read before the Academy of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Nov. 4 and 11, 1846.) 7 Parr I. Introductory Remarks. Te facts connected with hybridity in the inferior classes of animals, have an important bearing on one of the most interesting hus hybridity the test of specific character. It follows, according to - i‘ aa ‘ i | € V a 7 species, the intermixture of these would go no further than to produce a sterile hybrid variety. But since all the races are ca- pable of producing, with each other, a progeny more or less fer- tile, it is inferred that they must all belong to one and the same species. This is the question at issue. It may, at first view, appear superfluous to go over the whole ground of inquiry ; but apart from its Ethnographic relations, it is my wish to call attention to a branch of science that has hith- erto been singularly neglected, and perhaps more so than any other. Having sought in vain for some collective exposition of its details, I was at length induced to examine them for myself; d in now giving them publicity, I respectfully solicit, from “In receiving this paper, we commit ourselves (as in other cases) to none of the opinions of the pon We may add, that we have no fear of discussion on any pointin science. Facts are the markings of a Divine hand around and within “us, and when studied in ail their bearings, they lead in the end to the establish- ment of Truth.—£ds. Re . t Dr. James Cowles Prichard, the first Ethnographer of this or any age, has, with great care and candor, collected many of the Howing examples of hybridity, al- oug! to my view, they conflict strongly with his main position.—See Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, yol. i. 40 Hybridity in Animals. ractical observers, any authenticated examples of an analogous ind, that may not be embraced in this memoir. We shall merely further premise that naturalists have differed as to the import of the word species, but we know of no better definition than that which is expressed by “separate origin and distinctness of race, evinced by the constant transmission of some characteristic peculiarity of organization.” The term race has been indefinitely and conveniently used in those instances in which it is difficult to decide whether an individual of any tribe of plants or animals, is a distinct species, or only a variety of some other species. Races are properly successions of individ- uals propagated from any given stock; and we agree with the learned. Dr. Prichard, from whom we cite these definitions, that when races can be proved to possess certain primordial distine- tions, which have been transmitted unbroken, they should be re- garded as true species.* Let us now proceed to examine the question before us, com- mencing with the larger mammiferous animals, and proceeding from these to birds, fishes, insects and plants. Equine Hybrids.—The common mule, the progeny of the ass and mare, has been familiar to man since the days of Homer . and it is equally well known that with this animal, the hybrid born, as a general rule, begins and terminates. But the result appears to depend much on temperature; for in the south of Spain, mules have often been observed to produce young; and M. de la Malle observes that this phenomenon is frequent in hot climates, in which their period of gestation is twelve months, ing the same as that of the mare. The same author quotes Be eS ae eee ee a . : ‘ nk. country they inhabit, and that collective identity of physical traits, mental and t meri one are destructive to the other; and subsequent investigations have confirmed me in these views. ee Crania Americana, p. 3; Crania /Egyptiaca, Pp. 37; and Dis- tinctive Characteristics of the Aboriginal Race of America, p. 36. Hybridity in Animats. 4 from Columella, the remark of Mago, a Carthagenian agricul- turalist, that in his country the fecundity of the mule was a fre- quent event, although it was regarded as a prodigy in Greece and e adds, that these mixed mules do not cross again with each _. but only with the primitive species that has given them b: The ane ancients gave the name ginnus to the offspring of the mule with the mare, which appears to have been a common ani- mal among the Romans, who called it also the Little mule, (par- yum mulum. Prevost and Dumas, repeating the experiments of Lieuenheck, assure us that the sterility of these mules in northern climates, depends on an absence of spermatic animalcules; but the latter must be present in hot countries, to explain the phenomena of reproduction. he Hinny, on the other hand, is the offspring of the horse and a female ass—Bardo ex equo et asind—an animal of a very refractory disposition, and little esteemed, either in ancient or modern times ; nor ~— I been able to obtain any facts in relation to its reproductivene in, when a sale derived from the cross “ between the she ass and the male onager, (Equus onager,) is allowed to couple with the mare, the offspring is more docile than either — and unites the beauty of form and gentle nce of the with the strength and swiftness of his grandsire ;’’} Soret the ancients preferred the anager the sonmstiasthe production of mules, and Mr. Gliddon informs ‘me this opinion is se paige in Egypt, at the present day. ‘The Baron Cuvier informs us that. he had seen the cross be tween the ass and zebra, and between the female zebra and horse.$ ~ The ass is not the proximate species of the genus Equus, when compared with the horse; but that place is held, as Cuvier re- marks, by the dziggetai of Ais »( ot; hemionus. ) And two dis- Eeceuhet naturalists, Mr. Be r. Gray, are even disposed to remove the ass to a separate ‘een Without passing Jue - A Hybridity in Animals. The phenomenon of productiveness has little or no limit among the true horses; whence it has been inferred that they all belong to one species; and that their various forms and colors are solely — owing to the diversified circumstances in which they have been placed. But the researches of Hamilton Smith, have not only given rise to much doubt on this subject, but have adduced a sur- prising array of facts in favor of the opposite opinion. We must refer to his learned and elaborate essay for the mass of evidence therein embodied ; merely observing, on the present occasion, that he separates the horses into five primitive stocks, ich appear to constitute “distinct, though osculating species, or at least races separated at so rem mote a a period, that they claim to have oe divided | from the earliest times of our present nasi He : sil that some of thiede fori yet exist in the wild state on the table-lands of Central Asia, and that all of them were so constituted as to be fusible into a common, speci ut ver variable stock, for the purposes of man; and he finall y ‘concludes, that if man had been ‘necessitated to cultivate the zebras of South Africa, instead of the horses of Asia, he would have succeeded in amalgamating the three or four known species into one nase mestic animal, little inferior to the horse itself. oF “It therefore becomes a reasonable supposition that: some some vari- eties of the horse now known to us, may be hybrid mixtures of proximate species ; more especially, since the facts collected by Hamilton Smith, De Azara, and De la Malle, show conclusively that all the domestic horses were reclaimed from an original wild state Bovine Hybrids.—In the argument in question, the ox tribe has always been referred to as one of the strongest evidences of the operation of local causes in producing varieties so breed. But the parent type or stock is a unknown to naturalists; and although it corresponds in steological erm with a fossil species (Bos urus) found aeckbeas Europe, it is extremely doubt- ful whether all the modifications now familiar to man are derived from this animal. ‘ An opinion has lately been started,” observes a learned zoologist, “that the haunched varieties of cattle, are derived from a different species ; apie which no eanen ee ob- # Nesural History of the Equide, p. 154. t Ibid, p 183. Fossil remains ‘of the horse, and Peg ae tecel the teeth, have oe of ey dies abundantly found in Europe and Asia, and in North and South America; (and especially near Neches, by Dr. Dickerson ;) showing be this ani- Hybridity in Animals. 43 jection can well be made, when it is considered that the Gayal (Bos gavecus) produces a mixed race with the domestic animal; and that the yak of Tartary, (Bos grunniens,) and. even the American bison, are equally reported to mix with that species, notwithstanding their anatomical differences, and that the times ‘of gestation are not similar.’* ‘The hybrid offspring of the buffalo and the common. breed of cattle, is now familiar in the western parts of the United States, particularly i in Missouri and Kentucky ; but I have not been in- formed whether they have ever bred away among themselves, or with either of the parent stocks. I have instituted 4 inquiries on this subject, the results of which I hope to add as a sequel to this memoir. In fact, it is now conceded that all the species of the genus Bos are similarly circumstanced +; whence we have no difficulty in supposing that among the ox tribe, as among various other classes of animals, hybridity has more or “09 modified their forms during: the oe lapse of thousan Bovine and Cervine Hybrid ?—The een sDaienes incidentally mentions in his memoirs, the following circumstance that occurred during his residence at the Bay de Croc, in Newfoundland : “The Carabon (Cervus Wapiti) the houses. night, one of them broke into our sheep-fold, — we had a cow, that became pregnant by him. She no doubt produced a_ mongrel ; but I lost the opportunity of aacnisttening: the fact, be- cause she was taken back to Brest.” [see no reason to question any part of "this statement, which ceases to astonish us when we regard. the nomena that are now fully authenticated, on among others the nie very remarkable one. and Ovine Hybrid.—In the urticke on hybridity, in Brande’s 1 Dictionary of vei and Science,$ it is mentioned, without doubt or reservation, that a mule has been obtained be- tween the bull and sheep; a statement that claims our entire credence, from the circumstance that the physiological part of of. work in which it is contained, is from the pen of Prof. Ones the Royal College of Surgeons “Cervine Hybrids has Pe example of this class that. { have a with in authors, is that between the Inc oe oe xine species, (Cervus axis,) withithe Porcine species, ing pete a the wll known imormediate stony sci ee Spotted eer, || fz So re res ay Cuvier, iv, p. 419 eee. + Rescarshen » p- 190. : py don’s Magazine of Nat! Hist., ix p- oil. Military. Surgery, &e., Dr. Hall’s trans., vol. i, p. 11. "ARO brid. || Hamilton whan, mene, 341. - aA HAybridity in Animals. Caprine Hybrids.—The goat called the wild egagrus, which is found in all the Alpine regions of Europe and Asia, appears in every instance to be a prolific hybrid between the domestic goat and the local wild one of the country it inhabits, although the latter animal may be the ibez’, the caucasica, or any other species.* mixed breed has also been obtained between the chamois (Antilope rupicapra) and the common goat.+ Ovine Hybrids.—It was until lately supposed by most. zoolo- gists, that the domestic sheep, and the Asiatic and American Ar- galt, were mere varieties of one species; but they are now known to be distinct, and are severally designated by the names of Ovis musmon, O. ammon and O. pygargus. 'The common sheep, called in the systems, O. aries, is generally classed as a variety of the first named species; but recent investigations render it more than probable that several wild species have commingled to form new and very interesting information has lately been afforded us ‘om quarter. “ For a very long time,” observes M. Chev- reul, ‘‘an extensive commerce has been carried on in Chili, in the skins of sheep with rather coarse wool, derived from across between the male of the common goat and the ewe, which was obtained as follows: a single goat was placed with six ewes, and male hy- brids were obtained with a hairy fleece, which was little esteemed for the particular purpose for which it was designed. But by coupling these male hybrids with ewes, the latter were fruitful, and their offspring bore a fine, soft fleece, which is highly valued in the manufacture of shabraqttes, called also pellians, in Chili. * Hamilton Smith, A:quide, p- 341. : Idem. Idem., p. 70.—Blyth, Proceedings of the Zoolog. Soc. of London, 1840. § Chevreul, Journal des Savants, Juin, 1846, p. 357. Bi || Journal des Savants, Juin, 1846, p. 357. Hybridity in Animals. A5 I have only to add, on the same authority, that Prof. Flourens, of Paris, has recently obtained a cross between the wild ram* (Ovis musmon ?) and the female of the common goat. Cervine and Ovine Hybrid.—Hellenius, quoted by Rudolphi, mentions the very interesting case of a Sardinian doe that refused ' the goat, but was crossed: by a ram. The young had the figure of the father, but in color more resembled the mother. These . hybrids were again crossed by a Finland ram, and after a few generations assumed the characters of the Finland breed of eep.t i Cameline Hybrids.—The two species of camel, C. bactrianus and C. dromedarius, produce with each other an intermediate off- spring, which is said to be fertile without limit. Buffon could not deny this proverbial fact ; and in order to obviate a difficulty that conflicted with a favorite opinion, he assumed that these animals ust be mere varieties of a single species. Modern science, however, has established, beyond question, the specific differences of the camel and the dromedary.{ Canine Hybrids.—If we could admit that all the dogs, with their varied external forms and peculiar instincts, have been de- rived from a single pair of these animals, we could have no diffi- culty, I conceive, in adopting so much of Lamarck’s theory as relates to the progressive transmutation of species, resulting from What he calls the force of external circumstances; and it is cu- nous to observe, that he especially adduces the canine race in support of his hypothesis. ‘In nature we seek in vain for mas- ufis, harriers, spaniels, greyhounds, and other races between Which the differences are so great that they would be readily ad- mitted as specific among wild animals; yet all these have sprung originally from a single race, at first approaching very near to a wolf; if, indeed, the wolf be not the true type which at some period or other was domesticated by man.” ‘He further maintains that the peculiar instincts and functions of animals, the dogs for example, have not resulted from a pre- vious and pre-adapted organization; but that these instincts, on the contrary, have developed by constant use those very organs of which they are the seat. The greyhound for example, has derived his long and slender legs, and his proverbial speed, from the mere habit of running with celerity in pursuing some animals and in escaping from others. ‘The mastiff again has becor large, strong and muscular, from habitually seizing and holding animals larger and stronger than himself. In fine, Lamarck ap- plies the same principle to all organized beings, which according “§ See Lye A6 Hybridity in Animals. to his doctrine have been developed by the mere force of circum- stances, a tendency to progressive advancement from the simplest to the most perfect forms. And here we may inquire, if educa- tion and domesticity can so vary not only the instincts but the very proportions of anatomical structure in dogs, do we not realize in the theory of Lamarck, a law of nature which would with equal readiness explain the unlimited transmutation of spe- cies into each other? és But is it proved that all the domestic dogs are really derived from a single species? Here again we appeal to one of the latest and best authorities on this question—Charles Hamilton Smith, whose laborious researches have led him to the following conclu- sions that the parents of our domestic dogs are derived from several distinct species, which were constituted with faculties to intermix, and thus to produce the interminable varieties familiar the smallest number, six; in the wild species they are always in pairs, and they never vary in a species. . “ 'T'o what other cause, then, can we ascribe the anomaly in domestic dogs, so justly as to an intermixture of species ?” : | én The dogs that have become wild in Paraguay, always hunt.in packs, thus resuming the wolf-like instinct of their progenitors, Will it be said that this is a newly developed instinct? or is it not rather an old one that new wants have reproduced, _* Natural History of the Dog, in Naturalist’s Library, vol i, p. 104, et passim. The Canis venatica of Burchell, connects the dog with the hyena almost without an interyal. { Ibid, ii, p. 79. Hypbridity in Animals. A7 It is therefore certain that dissimilar species of the dog. tribe are capable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring; and if it was the interest of man again to cultivate and extend these mixed species, there is every probability that the race would become unlimited. “Experiments show,” observes Mr. Lyell, “ that after repeated failures, the union of two recognized species may at last, under very favorable circumstances, give birth to a fertile progeny ; and such circumstances,” he adds, “the naturalist may conceive to have occurred again and again in the course of a great lapse of eg. * - ’ Every one who is in the least degree acquainted with the hatural history of dogs, knows that certain remarkable changes of color, and sometimes of form, take place in particular lo- calities. These changes are usually attributed solely to climate, food, training, and other exterior agents. I do not deny the modifying action of such agents in these and other cases ; but it is a reasonable subject of inquiry, whether there may not be something in these localities that favors an effort of nature to re- produce a primitive type? The localities to which we allude,+ do not operate equally on all varieties of the dog tribe; which we might suppose would be the case if all the canine breeds were ived from a single stock or species. It is important in connec- oe this subject, to observe that all the pure Indian dogs America are of one variety, with erect. ears, a wolfish aspect, and having a howl in place of a bark. Most naturalists - agree in considering it a reclaimed w A Say, regarded it as the canis latrans or howling wolf, in a state of domestication. It is remarkable, when unmixed, for the uDi- formity of its characters, which are the same in every locality over thousands of miles in extent.{ No varieties have arisen been taken when young, and successfully trained to deer hunting. The difficulty, however, with these animals was, that they de- voured the game, unless the sportsman was on the spot to pre- hap. 2. : ae : farat Hisar? Man, for an admirable exposition of eg. _+ Carver’s Travels in North America, p. 417. See also the plates of the mag- nificent Atlas of the Prince de Wied's Travels in this country. . 48 Hybridity in Animals. - vent them. 'T'o obviate this fault, these wolves were crossed by the common dog ; giving rise to amixed breed, that combined the keener instinct of the wolf with the greater docility of the dog. Should these hybrids reproduce among themselves, or with either of the parental sources, how completely will the history of these animals illustrate the origin of the dog tribe, its primitive domes- tication, the crosses between different ies, and the varieties that must have followed from such intermixture? I hope yet to be able to lay before the reader all the facts of this singular his- tory. : i African,* and the English pig, and finds that while they agree in the number of cervical vertebrae, (as indeed all quadrupeds do, ) there is a remarkable, difference in each of the other classes of these bones. _We have not space for details, except to observe that the dorsal vertebree vary from thirteen to fifteen, the lumbar - from four to six, and the caudal from thirteen to twenty. Now, as far as time and circumstances had allowed the experiment to proceed, these several animals bred freely with each other, and in the instance of the Chinese pig, the offspring is unquestionably fruitful. Mr. Eyton very justly remarks, that the above three pigs must be considered as distinct species, or osteological characters can. no longer be received as criteria of species; and Hamilton Smith has arrived at the conclusion, that» there were three if not _ original species, endued with powers of unlimited repro- uction. : ; rs ‘ Feline Hybrids.—These. animals, at least the domestic varie- ties, had long been regarded as of one species ; but modern re- searches have established that the blue or Chartreuse cat, origin- ally belonged to a distinct feline group; the Bengal cat of Pen- t. * The Sus ethiopicus has even been removed to a separate genus by Cuvier— eres. See P. Eliani in Ruppell, Atlas zu der Reise in Nord-Afrika, p.61. + Hamilton Smith, Equide, p. 339. Sania LElybridity in Animals. - 49 respond to the Felis maniculata* of Nubia, and not to the F'elis domestica. Where then is the race of cats once so abundant in ancient Kgypt? They have probably come down to us s0 blended with other species that their identity is lost. De Azara states, in the forests of Paraguay the Felis yagua~ rundi and the £'. eyra, both unite with the domestic eat; and he adds, that should these wild species become in time extirpated, and the mixed breed alone remain, the latter would be very natu- rally referred with all its varieties, to a single original species.t Mixed breeds have also been obtained between the black leop- ard and the African species, and between the lion and the tigress. The latter cross which is much the more remarkable, produced three cubs, which were doing well at the time the facts were published.{ We regret that no further particulars have come under our notice. Feline and Musteline Hybrid.—A most remarkable instance of hybridity between the cat and an animal of a totally distinct genus, is described in the following account, which is published in several of the best scientific periodicals, and appears to be well authenticated. ‘A domestic cat disappeared from a house in enza. After being absent some time, she returned; and within resembled the marten. Their claws were not retractile, as in the cat; and the snout was elongated, like that of the pine marten, (Mustela martes.) ‘The two others of the same litter more nearly resembled the cat ; as they had retractile claws and round heads. All of them had the black feet, tail and ears of the marten; and they killed birds and small animals more for the pleasure of des- troying them than for food. The proprietor endeavored to mul- tiply this race, and to prevent their intermixing with the domes- tic cats, in which he proved highly successful. In the space of a few years he reared more than a hundred of these animals. specimen presented to the Imperial Society of Natural History of Moscow, was of the third or fourth generation, and it retained all the characters of the first.”"¢— - : Professor Pallas has described and figured the Perrsa cat, Which has long been suspected for a hybrid, although very prolific. It may yet prove to be the animal we have just described. Lepine Hybrid.—Amoretti, quoted by Rudolphi, has published the history of a cross between the European or English rabbit, us cuniculus, and the hare, L. timidus.|| : ' . 448. 1827. : es Loudon's Mag. of Natural History, ix, p. 616. Griffith’s Cuvier, ii, p. 489. || Rudolphi, Beytrage zur Anthropologie, ete., p. 109. econp Serigs, Vol, UI, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 7 > Bot.Garde Igns the regular time, produced four young ones, two of which strongly - cd 50 Solution of a Mathematical Problem. Phocine Hybrid.—Finally, among mammiferous animals, remains to notice the singular fact discovered by the tiesdalek Steller, and mentioned by Rudolphi, that the sea-lion, Phoca ju- ta, 0 Behring’s island, produces young with the sea-bear, F ursina. “T have no doubt of this fact,” adds Prof. Rudolphi, “since Pallas speaks of Rudolphi with the — respect, and Telesius proved the accuracy of his observations.’ (To be continued.) Art. VIL.—Solution of a Mathematical Problem ; by O. Root. A straicut line whose length is (7) being so moved as alwa ays to terminate in the sides of a right angle, required the locus of its consecutive intersection. The sides of the right angle being taken as the axes of co- ordinates, the equation of the line oe length is given will be y=ar+b In this equation if we make r=0, we ‘ee y=b; when we make =0, we get r= —7 ‘These values of ry squared, give 2 b+ =r (2). This solved for (a) gives me (pa Bayt (3). The value of pe in i ofbdon (3), substituted in equation (1) waka gives I= (pF. ++6 (4). _ If we differentiate signin (4) allowing (8) only to vary, we dy it 3\2 shall get at spy EH= =0..b=r(1- Ey)? this value of (6) substituted in equation (4) gives y=r(1— or )} , or by reduction, Tp etaps 5), which is the equation of the required locus, and is the e hypocye- loid, the radius of whose base circle is (7) the then of the given line, and the radius of its generating circle } We can show that (5) 1s the equation of aie hypocycloid as follows Ih the general equation for cycloidal curves we have ri y=(r+r’) cos. 04+(r+r’) cos, eee | facr’ (6) @= (rr) sin. 0+-(r-er’) sin. ina Jo “Ibid. Leco citat.—Prichard’s Researches, i, p. 142. Solution of a Mathematical Problem. 51 - If in equation (6) we take the lower sign and make 7’= yz we shall get y= ir cos. 6+ 3rcos. 34=rcos. 30 ) (7); e=irsin. §+3rsin, 36=r7sin.36 § , hence from ( 7) y? =r? cos.20 gta consequently by adding, we get yi tot mrs, which is the same as equation (5). Also in Leroy’s Descriptive Geometry this is proved to be the equation of the hypocycloid. If we differentiate equation (7) we shall get dy = — 3rcos.*4sin. 6d0 : : eel oe dz = -+-3r sin.*6 cos. 644 Get Bs ; hence {(dy? +dz? )? =8rfsin. 6 cos. 0d0 = gr sin. ? 6= length ° the curve: taking the integral from 6=0 to 6=90°, it becomes 3 =57r. From equations (7) and (8) we get Sydz=3r*fsin.*9cos,46d6: taking the integral | ‘ 4 r2 from 9=0 to 6=90°, this becomes “sr for the area of the curve between the axes cry. : er Cor. 1. Equation (5) shows that our problem includes question 8, No. 11, Leybourn’s Math. Repository, which reads as follows: If from one of the angles of a rectangle a perpendicular be drawn to its diagonal, and from their intersection lines be drawn per- pendicular to the sides containing the opposite angle, then put- ting (P,p) for the last perpendiculars, and (D) for the poe Nai Cor. 2. Equation (5) is identical with the result obtained for a question I proposed in the Mathematical Miscellany for —_ in which it was required to find the locus of the points so situate within a right angle, that the straight line whose length is (r) - terminates in the sides of the right angle, shall be a minimum or each of the points. ery Cor. 3. acim (5) furnishes a solution to No, 12 a oo Cambridge Problems for 1803, which requires the length of - longest ladder that can be slided up a perpendicular wall ing horizontal plane, under an obstacle given in position—ry ses f ‘given as co-ordinate of the obstacle, aod (7) aga be: the tength 0 the ladder; hence we have r= y? +2*)? the length required. In Wright’s solutions of the Gmabridee Problems, this question is erroneously solved; his result will give r=(y+2)"* 52 On the North American Species of Isoétes and Marsilea. Arr. VIL—On the North American Species of Isoétes and Marsilea; by Prof. A. Brauy.—Communicated by Dr. G. ENGELMaANy. Dr. A. Bravn, since last spring Professor of Botany at the Univer- sity of Freiburg, Germany, has from time to time eémmunicated to me the results of his investigations on the cryptogamous plants of this country. His notes on Chare and Fiquiseta have been published in a former number of this Journal, (January, 1844.) am now enabled to offer some remarks of his on the above named genera of rhizocarpous plants. ‘Those on Marsilea have been furnished in manuscript; the paper on Isoétes was published in the “Flora, oder Bot. Zeitung,” No. 12, 1846.—G. FE. The species of Isoétes hitherto discovered in the United States, have been considered identical with the European I. lacustris, Liun., especially one found in Pennsylvania. But this, as well as two others obtained from North America, on careful examination yc the species examined by me may be distinguished by the uillerent size and surface of the spores. . Other characters are to be found in the shape of the rhizoma, and in the shape and sec- tion of the leaves. ‘These last can be well examined only in living plants; the shape of the rhizoma may also be seen in dried, found only under water (1. lacustris, I. Slaccida, I. a); others grow in shallow water, or on wet places which sometimes become quite dry (J. setacea, I. Engelmanni, I. riparia) ; others again grow on perfectly dry hills (I. Durieni, I. hystrix). I. se tacea of the South of Burope is also often found in dry places ; near Erejus it forms large patches of a beautiful green color at the foot of walls; and I have cultivated it in flower pots, which were kept moderately moist. _ I will here take occasion to remind travelers and collectors, who may meet with species of this genus. that all of them are very tenacious of life, much like bulbous On the North American Species of Isottes and Marsilea. 58 plants, and may in the same manner be obtained for botanical gardens. The specimens of J. sefacea cultivated by me, had been preserved in an herbarium near two years, when I had the pleasure to see them vegetate, soon after throwing them in water. I give the characters of both European Species, with the American, in order that they may be compared together. 1. Isoétes lacustris, Linn. Submersed ; rhizoma placenta-shaped, depressed, orbicular or irregular ; leaves tubular, semicylindrieal, above cylindrical, rigid, fragile, dark green ; spores large, covered with coarse farinaceous tubercles, uregularly roughened, scarcely reticulated. 2. I. Engelmanni, mihi, Emersed; rhizoma large, similar to the preceding ; leaves longer, more slender, soft, light yellowish-green ; sheaths elongated (longer than broad); sporangia longer, spores somewhat smaller, coarse, farinaceous, reticulated. 3. I. riparia, Engelm. MSS. Emersed, rhizoma small (orbicu- lar?); leaves slender, soft, yellowish green, sheaths short (broader than long); sporangia smaller, spores as large as in the foregoing one, very neatly and minutely farinaceous and reticulated. . I. setacea, Rosc. Emersed; rhizoma subglobose, regularly trilobed ; leaves subulate, somewhat triquetrous, soft, yellowish- teen ; spores as large as in the foregoing ones, minutely farina- ceous, not reticulated nor tuberculate. poe 5. I. flaccida, Shuttlew. Submersed ; rhizoma small ; leaves very long, slender, flaccid, yellowish-green ; spores very small, minutely pulverulent, not reticulated. aa Asa The first, Z. lacustris, has been found only in middle and northern Europe. — It is distinguished from all others by its thick- er, stiffer, dark green (when dry, blackish green) leaves, and large Spores, which are covered with an irregular granulation. The izoma sometimes measures one inch in diameter. The leaves - are mostly straight, and 6 to 8 inches long ; a variety with shorter leaves (2 to 3 inches long) which are recurved at the tip rarely occurs, probably in shallow water, as the leaves never rise above the surface. ~~ | . eke ak I. Engelmanni has been distyibuted by Dr. E. to many cor- respondents as J. lacustris var. microspora. Tt was afterwards distinguished by him as a species, and named J. microspora ; but as this name is not sufficiently characteristic, the spores being not much smaller than those of J. lacustris, and other species having of its discoverer. While J. lacustris inhabits, at least in the centre of Eur ; co) 54 On the North American Species of Isoétes and Marsilea. hilly country southwest of St. Louis,* in the warm climate of Missouri, with Cephalanthus, Lycopus angustifolius, several uscute, Sagittarie, Polygona, Leersie, etc. In winter and spring it is covered by water, but late in summer and in the fall the ground on which it grows is mostly dry, or nearly so. It forms thick tufts with many leaves, 9 to 12 inches long, of a bright yellowish green color. The rhizoma is also flat, depressed, and often one inch in diameter. The sheath or dilated base of the leaf, which bears the sporangia, is longer, and the sporangia themselves somewhat larger, than in any of the other species. — I. riparia has been described from specimens collected by Dr. Wm. Zantzinger on the banks of the Delaware below Philadel- phia. It grows there with Sagitlaria pusilla, Eriocaulon fla- tion specimens of the Isoétes found in Pennsylvania, on ‘“ ponds and shaded wet places,” mentioned by Darlington in his Flora Cestrica, nor any from New York, etc., and it is not known whether they are identical with J. riparia or not. I. setacea is common in the south of Europe (especially the south of France and Sardinia) and also in northern Africa, and is sufficiently well known. The tufts are always smaller than those [ 4. lacustris and I. Engelmanni, but larger than in J. riparia ; he leaves are still more narrow and slender than in the last spe- cies, and 8 to 12 inches long. " ida was discovered by Mr. Rugel in Lake Tamonia, Florida, and first distinguished and named by R. J. Shuttleworth, Esq. It has a small roundish rhizoma, and leaves 18 to 24 inches long, as slender as in J. setacea, but of thinner texture, and some- what transparent. ‘The sporangia are smaller, and the spores by far the smallest of all the species. Iam not now prepared to de- cide, what relation this species bears to J. longissima, Bory, from Lake Houbeira, in Algeria, or to an Isoétes from California, which Prof. Kunze considers as identical with J. longissima, but which more probably stands near the Florida species, or is identical with. it. Pn a le * The places where it has been collected by me as late as 1842, are now chan by cultivation, or the vegetation destroyed by hogs and ducks. | have not been ° nd it since, but doubt not that it still inhabits more secluded ponds in this remarkable region, where the strata of the carboniferous or mountain limestone offer in their numberless “ sink-holes” (originating undoubtedly from the caving in of the roof of caverns, and peculiar, in this neighborhood at feast, to this forma- tion) many localities of a similar description.—G. E. x On the Marsilee of North America. 55 Marsilee of North America. The North American Marsilee form a peculiar group, well distinguished from the species of the old world by the large pur- ple stomata of the capsule, which is always solitary at the base of the petiole, and by the two large conspicuous approximate teeth of the raphe. Marsilea uncinaia, A. Braun. (Fig. 1.) Fruit basilar and single; stipe erect, nearly twice the length of the capsule ; capsule hori- zontal, short oval or suborbicular, iderably p 1, truncate behind with along raphe which terminates in two approximate teeth, the upper one being the longest and uncinately recurved ; stomata of the capsule large, purple; pales appressed; 13 to 14 sori on each side in the capsule ; leaflets narrow at base, fan- shaped, entire, nearly naked. Marsilea mucronata, A. Braun, MSS. (Fig. 2.) Fruit basilar and single ; stipe ascending, hardly as long as the capsule ; capsule nearly horizontal or slightly ascending, somewhat obliquely oval, slightly compressed, rounded above, carinate below, truncate be- hind, with a shorter raphe, which terminates in two approximate teeth, the upper one being the longest and straight or slightly curved at the point; stomata of the capsule large and purple; palez appressed, indistinct ; 8-to 9 sori on each side of the cap- sule ; leaflets spathulate, entire, slightly hairy. : Marsilea vestita, Hook. and Grev. (Fig. 3.) Fruit basilar and single ; stipe erect, hardly as long as the capsule; capsule ascending, oval, somewhat compressed, with a short raphe which terminates in two approximate teeth, the lower one being short and blunt, the Upper one acute, a little larger, hardly curved ; palez long, dense and somewhat patulous ; 7 to 8 sori on each side in the capsule ; leaflets entire, covered with paleaceous hairs. (Stomata of the capsule not seen in the young specimen examined by me, but undoubtedly similar to those of the other two species, only more hidden by the palee. ) Fig. 2. Fig.1. Fig. 3. (Half the natural size.) Fig. 4. This last species was the first of the genus discovered in North America. It was collected by Douglas on the Columbia river, 56 On the Marsilee of North America. densely coated with long hairlike palee. The description of Hooker and Greville, mentions only one tooth on the fruit, but their figure shows both. Marsilea mucronata is nearly related to the Oregon species, but is sufficiently distinguished by the nakedness of the whole plant, and especially by the shape of the capsule. ‘The rhizoma is elongated, and has not the fascicled branches of the following ; the petioles are 2 to 3 inches long; and the spathulate or slightly fanshaped leaflets are 3 to 4 lines long. It was collected by Mr. Charles Geyer, in Nicollet’s Northwestern expedition, July 24th, 1839, in small exsiccated swamps near Devil’s Lake, in the Sioux territory, between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. It is men- tioned by Prof. Torrey in the Catalogue of Nicollet’s collections (appendix, p. 165) as M. vestita. In several European herbaria it is preserved under the name “ M. quadrifolia, Herb. Ward ;” from where derived is to me unknown. 9 M. uncinata was discovered by Dr. Engelmann, in July, 1835, on the margin of small swamps in the deep bottom woods on the Arkansas river, not far below Little Rock, with Azolla caro- liniana, etc., and was first described in “Flora, or Botanische Zeitung,” 1839, i, p. 300. It is a much larger plant than either of the others, nearly naked, with long petioles, (5 to 9 inches,) and fanshaped leaflets 6 to 10 lines long; the rhizoma prodnces many fascicled branchlets which are paleaceous at tip. The shape of the capsule and the large number of sori in it, readily distinguish it from the others—A. Br. Note.—I find a fourth species in the colléctions made by Mr. Lindheimer in Texas. (Fig. 4.) He met with it in January, 1845, in swampy soil on the lower Guadaloupe river, near its mouth in Matagorda Bay. It is widely distinct from the three others, in having long and branching stipes (10 to 14 lines long) bearing 3 to 5 capsules, three or four times as long as these, and at the base connected with the petiole ; capsule obliquely obovate, with a short raphe, lower tooth blunt, upper one very indistinct ; stomata not observed on the paleaceous capsule; rhizoma nearly naked, only the ends of the branches paleaceous ; petioles 4 to 9 inches long, hairy ; leaflets triangular or fanshaped, entire, more or less cove by fine paleaceous hairs, 7 to 12 lines long. It is not improbable that this is the Marsilea polycarpa, Hook. and Grev., found throughout South America, and lately discovered by Dr. Schiede in Mexico; but having seen no description of it, I am unable to give more than this suggestion, based merely on the name. on further comparison the Texan species should prove to be dis-. tinct, the name of M. macropoda would appear to be most ap- propriate. Sterile specimens of a Marsilea occurring in Drum mond’s Texan collections, belong probably to the same species as Lindheimer’s plant.—G. E. Review of the New York Gteological Reports. 57 Arr. VIII— Review of the New York Geological Reports. (Continued from Vol. i, Second Series, p- 70.) formed by the so-called : Marcellus Shale. (Lower: of F. 8 of Pennsylvania and ed in the region of the Utica slate. The lower division of the vision of the group. PRE : _ It is inferred, both from the extremely fine sediment of which the Marcellus shale is composed and the preservation of some of Sxconp Serizs, Vol. Ill, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 8 58 Review of the New York Geological Reports. the most delicate structures of its fossils, that it was accumulated during a period of great tranquillity. y reason of its soft and destructible nature, this black slate is seldom exposed to view, except in ravines and water-courses: nevertheless it has a wide range ; commencing near the Hudson river it runs nearly due west to Lake Erie and the west line of the state. ‘This rock and the Genesee slate have doubtless formed the impervious beds which hold up the waters, not only of that lake, but also of Lakes Huron and Michigan, since they show them- selves in many places bordering their shores. All that flat wet région of country interspersed with small lakes and ponds, lying in the vicinity of the Kankakee and the head waters of the Wa- bash, is also probably underlaid either by these schistose argilla- ceous beds themselves or the clay derived from their disinte- ration. “re the western part of New York the Marcellus shale is not over fifty feet thick: it thickens, however, to the eastward ; we are informed by Vanuxem that in his district it has been bored through a hundred feet in search of coal. - The best localities cited for examining this deposit, are, the ra- illage o d Sulphuret of iron occurs every where in connection with this formation ; and sulphate of barytes is not uncommon in the sep- taria. It contains no where valuable minerals. Owing to the presence of sulphuret of iron, the springs issuing from the black slate are often sulphuretted. By its decomposition a stiff, cold, clayey soil results; but for- ely in the state of New York it is mostly so covered with drift that it rarely gives character to the surface soil to any con- siderable extent. ; Fossils are not abundant in the Marcellus shales. Goneatites measuring sometimes one foot across, occur in the two upper limestone layers between the lower and upper shales. The forms figured in Vanuxem’s Report are given on the Op- posite page. The most characteristic fossils of this formation in the western part of the state are embraced in the following wood cut taken from Hall’s Report. The black slate of the Western states has usually been consid- ered the equivalent of the Marcellus shale; but so few fossils have hitherto been observed in that formation in Ohio, Indiana, linois, or Kentucky, and these are so obscure, that no satisfactory paleontological evidence has been adduced in support of this de- cision. Indeed some facts rather favor the idea of its being the Feview of the New York Geological Reports. 59 e2. a S z i om | Bio oe ae aa =e SS < he te Q a $ ss S SF bd = 8 3 § e a a : oS 3 © s os. 2 os a = = bi] aS 8. < 3 = @ a : = 23 = e 3 £ a % 2 ae 5 ; F ed S ¢9 3 fon) a Sa 4 nS 3 ri ES ode ff 5 =§ Sy ss & Pa = mi & Q ~ SS . ge $ asf = Bx fi : re uf ; =e e 3 gga ( representative of the Genesee slate. Our remarks on a. ject will be more appropriately introduced after treating of succeeding formation, denominated the Hamilton Group. (Part of F. 8 of Penn. and Virg.)—We are informed by Hall, that the line of separation between this and the upper olive shales of the Marcellus group is no where well marked, the change in lithological character being gradual, an even some of the fossils are continued from one into the other, so that the beds last described might be considered the inferior 60 Review of the New York Geological Reports. members, and those now under consideration, the upper beds of one and the same group ; indeed in Pennsylvania and Virginia all are included in Formation 8. The New York geologists have separated them only because some of the fossils are peculiar to the Marcellus shales, and some to the Hamilton beds. The various members embraced in the latter division, are :— Pyritiferous rock and third graywacke of Katon ; Ludlowville, Moscow, and. Skaneateles shales ; dark slaty fossiliferous shales ; compact calcareous blue shale; olive shales, shales near Apulia and Sherburne ; Cazenovia group, Encrinital limestone. Under these names have they been noticed in the Annual Reports. Dull, olive, bluish-gray, calcareous shale constitutes the prin- ciple mass. 'The mud from which it has been derived must have been equally fine with that of the previous group, indicating a * continuation of the tranquil condition of the oceanic currents. owards the east the upper part is more arenaceous, even a reg- ular sandstone. The range, extent, and bearings are south and nearly parallel with the preceding strata; indeed on the marl the same light blue tint designates all, from the base of the Marcellus shale to the Portage group, and embraces a belt of country from five to ten miles wide running nearly east and west through the middle of the state. : The Hamilton group is of great thickness. Vanuxem informs us that in no part is it less than three hundred feet, and it swells in some places to seven hundred feet; and Hall estimates it on the eastern limit of his district at not less than one thousand feet. The town of Hamilton, in Madison county, gives name to the group, and it is one of the best localities for examining its most i ant members. The bank of Cayuga and Seneca the ravines on the Genesee river near Avon, York, an eicester, the shores of Lake Erie at Kighteen-mile creek; the hills on both sides of Cherry Valley, Middlefield, Milford, Otsego, Brookfield, Cazenovia, Lafayette, Pompey, Owasco, are enume- rated by Vanuxem and Hall as points where its various members Mig ee Septaria of very curious and fantastic shapes are of frequent occurrence ; so wonderfully regular are some of them that they are usually taken for petrified: turtles. 'The nucleus is either a fossil body or a nodule of iron pyrites around which. the segre- gration has taken place. 31 wis ' Speaking of the general character of ‘the fossils of the Hamil- ton group, Hall has the following paragraph :— : “Organic remains abound throughout the group, but they vary somewhat in different parts. In the lower division, the most sare those of Orthis, Atrypa and Strophomena with some spiral univalves; while above this portion, great numbers Review of the New York Geological Reports. 61 of Avicula, Cypricardia, Nucula, and other similar forms abound, with fewer of genera Orthis, Delthyris, &c. In the next divis- ion Delthyris, Strophomena, and Atrypa abound, to the almost entire exclusion of the forms before mentioned. In the same situations with these we find numerous species of corals: Cya- thophylli, Favosites, and other forms, are abundant; while frag- ments of crinoidal columns are every where scattered through the mass, or spread evenly over the surface, and form thin layers by themselves “The contrast in the prevailing fossils of this group with those of the last is as great as in the lithological products of the two formations. We sometimes indeed meet with a species that oc- urs in the limestone below, but except in a few instances these recognitions are rare. Some of the more abundant corals are identical, but the great number of new forms renders them of ess importance, and in all instances they are too few in number to produce any doubt or difficulty in identification of strata. “Shells both of the Brachiopoda and Dimyaria have comtaate increased, and in many single localities from twenty to fifty spe- cies may be obtained.” In Vanuxem’s district, where the lithological character of the Hamilton group is more arenaceous, the foll owing are the pre- vailing forms, as given by that author. Vanuxem’s Report. (36.) iat 1. Head of Dipleura DeKayi. 2. Orthonota undulata, 3. Delthyris mu- ies re bl hat the head of the Clinton and Niagara Trimerus, but beat according to Vanuxem, not only in the form of the snout, but also in the + kay the eyes sae es ae full and ation ot in ond ape ura. Iti is @ Iso 62 Review of the New York Geological Reports. Those on the following plate have been selected by Vanuxem both as common and exclusive species of the group. Vanuxem's Report. 37.) ig. 1. Orthocera constrictum. 2. Cypricardites recurra. 3. Avicula flabella. 4. Orbicula grandis. The following are given by Hall as the prevailing forms in different parts of the group. Hall’s Report. (78.) oblonga. 5. N. lineata. 6. Tellina? ovata, 7. Nucula bellatula, . Modiol ellerophon patulus.. Microdon bellastriata, 3. Cucullea opima. 4. Nucula a truncata. 9 4 concentrica, ul: 8. Cypricardia Review of the New York Geological Reports. 63 The whole of the above seem to be American species except- ing fig. 5, which is believed to be identical with a species figured by Phillips. Fig. 9, Modiola concentrica is thought to resemble in some respects Modiola (?) semi-sulcata which occurs in the lower Ludlow rocks of the Silurian system. (See Silurian Re- searches, pl. 8, fig. 6.) 4 Hall’s Report. (79.) 2 zy — Fig. 1. Turbo lineatus. 2 and 3. Delthyris mucronata. 4. Atrypa prisca. A few of these fossils are identical with western species. The Atrypa prisca, as already remarked, is abundant in the water lime- stone and shale beds below the black slate, but we have not ob- served it either én or above that formation. At the Button-mould gradations from one extreme to the other, that they have been 64 Review of the New York Gieological Reports. 6. Calymene 5. Delthyris zigzag. rophomena inequistriata. Hall's Report. 4. St 7. Crypheus calliteles. 8. Loxonema nezilis. 3. A. concinna. ig- 1,2. Atrypa spinosa. Fi bufo. Review of the New York Geological Reports. 65 points of difference, and, if you please for your own convenience and for the sake of classification, to give provisional names to those apparently distinct ; but we feel convinced that just in pro- portion as the collection is extensive and the comparison of forms critically traced, the tendency of maturer reflection will be to cur- tail the number of species. We have been forcibly struck with this fact in our investigations into the specific character of those western paleozoic forms which occur, in certain localities, in such vast profusion. The diversity of outline which the D. mucronata assumes, seems to be caused by a variation in the lithological character of the sedimentary deposits, as appears from the following re- marks :—“ This very ornamental shell and its numerous varieties in form are very interesting. In the soft calcareous shales of western New York, it is shorter and more rotund; while in the sandy shales and shaly sandstones of the middle and eastern part of the state it is greatly extended and its extremities very acute.” Calymene bufo, fig. 6 of the preceding cut, is an abundant and well known fossil of the shale strata on the Falls of the Ohio. It occurs also in the limestone of Red Cedar and the Wapsenonox in the Du Buque district of Iowa. Hall remarks on fig. 4, Strophomena inequistriata of Conrad: “'There seems to me good reason for considering this form and S. mucronata of Conrad as identical, and that both are identical bag Orthis interstrialis.. (Phil. Paleozoic Fossils, plate 25, g. 103.)" ts a: “In the calcareous shales of the Hamilton group, its form is often better defined and more rotund, though the strie are less sharp ; while in the Chemung rocks, it is usually compressed, and very frequently the shell is partially or entirely removed.” Fig. 8, L i nexilis is believed to be the same as fig. 183, pl. 38, Phil. Paleozoic Fossils, and Terebra nexilis of Sowerby, fig. 17, pl. 54, volume v, Second Series, is given as a synonym. ae district. ; : heidi tam i+ The species of Delthyris considered by Hall as most character- isti in his Report, are embraced in the istic, and represented in ort, are em in the two wood-cuts on the following pages. _ At Charleston, Clark county, Indiana, an extension of the shell beds of the Falls of the Ohio contains a Delt/ aving a * macronota, fig. ‘ , : of the western fossil is not quite so narrow, the concentric Szconp Sznizs, Vol. III, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 9 66 Review of the New York Geological Reports. *s. . re ~ abt Tee ee | * Hall’s Report, p. 207. Fig. 1, a, 6, ¢, d. Delthyris granulifera. F not quite so numerous, and the beak of the fissured valve does not overhang the cardinal area. These differences are, probably, variations depending on age, geographical distribution and litho- ogical peculiarity, rather than essential specific distinctions. Both at t alls of the Ohio and the southern part of the Du Buque district of Iowa, these western rocks contain another Delthyris allied to the above, but, for the most part, having a narrower cardinal area; but a recent inspection of a number of individuals, induces us to believe that this Delthyris passes by Review of the New York Geological Reports. 67 almost imperceptible gradations into a species, with a wide cardinal area which cannot be distinguished from J. macronota. If we are not mistaken, this is the fossil described by Conrad under the name D. duplicata. It is an abundant fossil also in the Louis- ‘pysaduor siuhynag *% Biq - _ < Ee: ~$ = =] ae] a aS s : =< i: te 3 6 ~ 8 = 5 2 we : rf 3 a S ~ 7 ville water-limestone. We should not be surprised if more ex- tended observation might prove D. medialis, fig. 8 of the following wood-cut, to be only a modified form of the same. ‘The number of ribs, and laminw of growth, and width of cardinal area, are char- acters which certainly are liable to variation in the same species. Acuteness of the mesial fold, too, depends considerably upon age and condition. 68 Review of the New York Geological Reports. An elegant form of fucoid allied to that characterizing the Caudi-galli grit, appears in this group. It is known as the ec tain-shaped fucoid. Here also is the firstyevidence of terrestrial vegetation. Vanuxem gives the figure of a specimen found in his district, (p. 127,) and another on p. 161; they are not referred to any known plant. : ur- Fig. 8a, b, Delthyris medialis. 9. Young shell of the same species? 10a, b. Delthyris fimbriata. Hall’s Report, p. 208. PS Amongst the most numerous corals of the Hamilton group, - the following have been selected as presenting some of the most on forms. _ The shell and coralline beds of the Falls of the Ohio and its ity furnish examples of a coral like fig. 3, though for the most part, in glomerate masses. The fossil to which we have Review of the New York Geological Reports. 69 reference, has been usually regarded as the Cyathophyllum heli- anthoides of Goldfuss, which is also given as a synonym of the New York fossil. Like this Hamilton species the lamella of the western coral proceed from the centre, and no transverse lamin "606 “4 “s0doy 8,[@E ‘tapduis ‘9 "9 ‘snqoo4 g'g “G ‘snjsojsip “g 'b “Seproyjunyay sepoquo.ig g ‘og "% ‘wnnupuryhoa wnpyhydyshy -{ ‘84 are observable towards the axis, when ground down. ‘The lam- ella do not appear however to be denticulate, but neither the figure nor the description of Goldfuss denote this as a distinctive character of C. helianthoides. Following Lonsdale’s definition 70 Review of the New York Geological Reports. of Strombodes,* Hall supposes this fossil to belong to that genus: If the presence of transverse plates, like the septa of Nautilus, traversing the axis of turbinated corals, is to be regarded as char- acteristic of a true Cyathophyllum, then the coral in question may be entitled to rank as a separate genus, but looking to the original description by Schweigger of Strombodes,t we are en- tirely at a loss to conceive how corals analogous in structure to figs. 3; 4, 5, 6, can be placed in that genus. Here is the transla- tion of Schweigger’s description of Strombodes. A calcareous coral stem composed of lamellar, conical cells ly- . ing parallel and vertical beside one another, and connected by their expanded margins growing together in the same horizontal an second and third grows up out of the previous one to an equal height with the adjacent ones, their broad margins being in like manner connected together. Thus the coral appears to be made up of a series of connected, horizontal, vaulted partitions resting on pillars which permeate the mass. From the above it is evident that Strombodes is essentially composed of horizontally disposed, vaulted partitions, whilst these corals consist of vertical lamella. Now, we would inquire, why should the partial contortion of the vertical lamella around the axis of the coral constitute it a Strombodes? "Turning to the figure of S. pentagonus, pl. 21, fig. 2, a, b, of Goldfuss, and ex- amining the numerous specimens of fossil corals of a similar structure in our possession, we find the vaulted lamine of which they are made up, to dip into a pillar-like axis, but without the slightest convolution, and even if they did, still no analogy could exist between them and the vertically disposed, partially con- torted lamelliferous corals like the figures referred to. We find it difficult even to admit.a generic analogy between . Strombodes of Schweigger, and Lonsdale’s S. plicatum, fig. 4, a, b,c, pl. 16, bis, (C. plicatum of Gold. fig. 5, pl. 18,) composed of crimped, funnel-shaped Jaminz: ; the more especially if these, as _we are led to infer, are spirally contorted around the axis of the oral. . | The better to illustrate the above remarks, we subjoin two fig- ures of Strombodes, drawn from western Specimens in our collec-— tion. Fig. 1 seems to be of the same species as Goldfuss’s S. pentagonus, though the diameter across the margins of the arch- ed partitions is much greater, and their outline more irregularly, pentagonal. In fig. 2, which is doubtless a distinct species, the Review of the New York Geological Reports. 71 the naked eye these appear like strize or fine vertical lamellz ; no possessed “lamellz contorted spirally around the axis.” la shows the disposition of the arched layers dipping concentrically into the axis of growth, and producing, as Schweigger has de- seribed, a pillar-like axis permeating the mass. Fig. 1a. Fig. 1. - Cystiphyllum cylindricum, fig. 1. p. 69, is considered identi- cal with a Species which occurs in England in the Wenlock form- ation. It isa remarkable coincidence, that, in both countries, it is encrusted with Aulopora tubiformis. ‘The latter coral is found in the west also at Button-mould Knob, near Louisville. 72 Review of the New York Geological Reports. From the preceding comparison of fossils in the east and west; we discover that the rocks immediately below the black slate in the vicinity of the Falls of the Ohio, contain not only Onondaga limestone and corniferous fossils, but likewise some Hamilton fos- sils. ‘The latter fact rather favors the idea of our black slate be- ing the equivalent of the Genesee slate. The position of our Goneatites rather confirms the same. It is true those found are not identified with New York species; but the first appearance therefore, does not help us out of the difficulty. A specimen of pple oe em ae of the Hamilton group in the west. _ Inthe northwest the | of Red Cedar and Wapsinonox is probably its equivalent.* ; The fossiliferous shales of the preceding group terminate ab- thin seams of shale interposed which separate the calcareous part into wedge-form irregular lamine. This is the most southern * See Report [Senate] of a Geological Ex loration of at and Mlinoiss ligeae he 33. Pe ploration of part of Iowa, Wisconsin, Review of the New York Geological Reports. 73 very subordinate member of the New York system, and, for this reason, not represented on the chart by a separate color. village of Belona, Ontario county, afford opportunity for investi- gating the characters of the Tully limestone. No minerals of interest occur in it. In the fourth district fossils are rare in the Tully limestone, but in Vanuxem’s district they are more common. Some of the forms are here given :— Vanuxem’s Report, p. 163. gi Tul- ly limestone terminates all those : AY ‘\ i | i Fig. 4. Airypa affnis. much of their original form as to be readily recognized. This tock forms a strong line of demarcation, not only in this respect, but also as regards fossils ; very few forms which are known be- low continuing into the rocks above. The lithological character Srconp Seruss, Vol. III, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 10 74 J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. of the products above this rock are throughout more or less simi- lar, while they differ from those below ; and, with a single excep- tion, lithological character is a sufficient guide for distinguishing the different strata.” mgs tM “'This contrast of character is more marked towards the west- em extremity of the district than it is farther east ; and, finally, on its eastern extreme, there is a great similarity in the lithologi- cal features. This change is likewise attended with the occur- rence of some of the fossils of the lower group in the rocks of the higher, the nature of the two being very similar, although the Tully limestone is in its greatest force; while at the west, where it does not exist, no such mingling of the fossils is known.” “ At Ithaca, for example, where we are far above the Tully limestone, and where the rocks are well marked by an abundance of fossils peculiar to themselves, still we find the Microdon bella- striata, Modiola concentrica and some others, and I have detected the Calymene bufo and Dipleura Dekayi in the same associa- tion. Still farther east there is a greater mingling of species of the lower rocks with the upper, and a nearer approach constantly in materials of composition. 'These circumstances, in the east- ern portion of the state, render it difficult to point out the line of demarcation between the lower and higher rocks of this division.” “At the eastern extremity of the state, also, the Tully lime- stone does not exist, and, therefore, that guide to the line of di- vision between the lower and higher groups is wanting: ) The absence of this rock, and the similarity of lithological products, as well as the mingling of organic remains of the lower rocks, renders it impossible to make a distinction in groups with the same degree of satisfaction as further west.” D, BD. Ov as et ae baa "(Tobe continued.) Pa aeror 1 Z H nstinasnlinisiaaat Arr. IX.—Notice of New Fossil Footprints ; by Jaues Deane. SeveraL new species of footprints of birds, and one of quad- rupeds, have been discovered at Turner’s Falls, during the past year, and like all others obtained at this remarkable locality, foe are singularly distinct, and through their configuration, we are enabled to determine the class of animals by which they were made. ‘The impress of the tarsus and phalanges, and of the der- moid and unguinal appendages is true to life, and their perfection Supplies us with the means of connecting the extinct with living races of animals. eo _ The new examples, three in number, are very beautiful ; the ot 1s comparatively long and slender, toes slightly diverging, and the stride of great extent, which indicates that the birds were J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. 75 long legged, and also, in connection with the structure of the f they were waders. .This was unquestionably the character of the multitudes of birds whose tracks are found in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley. The step is comparatively long in all, and in many very much so. The foot of colossal individ- uals averages 14 inches in length, and the stride 48 inches in ex- tent, which gives the proportion of 1 to 34. But in some of the smaller varieties the proportion is vastly greater. Some individ- uals having a foot of 2 inches, and a stride of 22 inches, or 1 to ; and the proportion is even sometimes greater than_ this. that the superior surfaces of the strata upon which distinct im- pressions occur, are incrusted with a thin glazing, differing in character and often in color from the principal mass. ‘This crust is formed of finely comminuted materials, such as is deposited from turbid water, in a state of comparative rest. This phenomenon may always be observed after summer rains, where water is accumu- lated in pools and gradually dissipated by evaporation and ab- sorption ; or where streams have suddenly overflowed their banks, and have again quietly resumed a former level. A thin, shining, adhesive deposit results, but an interval of several days of sum- mer heat is necessary to harden the surface sufficiently to retain the accurate form of an animal’s foot..I have frequently seen upon the same surface of rock several rows of footprints, made by different birds; the impressions made by some individuals were deep and imperfect, having been made while the substance of the rock was yet soft; others were quite superficial, though perfect, being evidently imprinted when the hardening process was car- 76 J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. slab of sandstone, the upper limits of which, (a space of six inches in breadth, ) was glazed with sedimentary deposit, and was covered deeply worn away. The curious fact was illustrated, by finding that the space a, above the first line, fig. 1, Fig. 1. ‘ osed, and subsequently the large birds walked directly into the water.—|[Sas== Their imprints upon the space a, are quite | superficial, but in the space b, they are re-} J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. 77 The physical composition of the rock is presumptive evidence that its elements were accumulated in some large basin, through the agency of powerful streams. It is ina great degree composed of the debris of former rocks, of pebbles, great and small, precisely > similar to those rounded by diluvial action. Numerous remains of trees are found, both in the stratified and unstratified masses. In fact, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that these materials The new quadruped footprints add a fourth species to the cata- logue of this description of fossils derived from Turner’s Falls, which locality supplies all that are known in the Connecticut valley. It is probable that they all belong to the Batrachian di- Vision of vertebrated animals. The new species was discove by Mr. Marsh, and is now deposited in his magnificent collection of sandstone fossils. It differs specifically from those hitherto discovered, the footsteps being arranged in two parallel rows, widely separated, whereas, in one of the species, the first and lude to them now for the sake of comparison, and of grouping the whole. With one exception, these quadrupeds moved by walking, although it is probable they were adapted for swim- ming also. In one instance, however, progtessive motion was obviously accomplished by leaping, which, if this conjecture true, joins the animal to the tailless or ranal family of Batra- chians. These animals were all diminutive in comparison with their cotemporaries, the colossal birds, with whom they occupied common ground. | _ ‘The configuration of the footprints represented by fig. 2, and the relative distance in size between the posterior and anterior feet, assigns the animal, by which they were impressed, to the Salamandrian, or tailed family of Batrachian reptiles. Two species are found in considerable numbers, one having pachydae- 78 J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. tylous toes, and a short stride, and the other, leptodactylous toes, and comparatively great length of step. Of the stout toed species, there are several grades of size, the posterior foot varying from that of fig. 2, to 24 inches in length, with a stride of 10 inches. A Fig. 2. eur ; “Although the impressions of a single set of feet occur in the anomalous examples, shown by fig. 3, yet I do not doubt but they represent those of a quadruped. J have conjectured that they indicate animals included in the family Rana, and have given Fat) seegeries . > at wine ey A. a brief notice of them in Vol. xlix, page 80, of this Journal. No additional proofs have been discovered to confirm the opinion heretofore expressed ; but to accumulate probabilities, the above sketches of two individuals from distinct strata, accurately reduced from the originals to one sixth the natural size, are added. The general resemblance is seen to be very striking, and it is a curious circumstance, that in each example, A and B, those depressions posterior to the footprints, which I have supposed to have been produced by the folded limb of the animal, have the right one pro- Jecting farther backward than that of the opposite side. These oblong elliptical impressions are deep at the lower extremity, and dually b e superficial at the other, and the. papillose pro- cesses of the dermoid covering are apparent. he impressions; J. Deane on New Fossil Footprints. 79 A, are remarkably distinct, showing the articulations of the toes, which is not distinctly the fact in B. Unfortunately, for a clear comprehension of this assemblage of impressions, they have not been found to occur in consecutive series; they are solitary, but this may nevertheless happen from the fact that the animals were able to leap toa considerable distance. Those represented by the diagram, individually occupy a space of 13 by 10 inches, and taking the frog as the representative of the animal, its leaps must. have been truly wonderful. The impress of the posterior foot of a frog is nearly as much advanced in position as the former mem- bers; they occur upon the outer side, are superficial, and diverge considerably. ‘The impress of the anterior foot is deep and points directly inward, while that of the fossil foot is just the reverse, the toes radiating from the tarsus outward. If these views be probable, these impressions constitute the second order of quad- ruped footprints found at Turner’s Falls. : The third embraces those recently discovered, and differs essen- tially from the foregoing types; the feet are equal, divergent, fall : i mas & . jably distinguishe by the humber of joints of the several tces; the hind tce hav- ing uniformly fwo joints, the inner three, the middle four, the outer five.—Eps. 80 Prof. Bailey on the Ale@ of the United States. Arr. X.—Notes on the Alz@ of the United States 3 by TOW: Battey, Professor of Chemistry, é&c. at the U. S. Military _ Academy. ScarceLy any branch of natural history has been so much neglected in the United States as that which relates to the beau- tiful plants which are referred to the great group of Alge. With the exception of six or eight species from the neighborhood of New York city, which were sent by Dr. Torrey to the elder Agardh, and which are mentioned in the Systema Algarum, I am not aware of any published account of any of the marine Algze of the United States, prior to the following notice, which I find in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His- tory, Vol. I, p. 13. leata ; Dichloria viridis; Chorda filum ; Asperococcus echinatus; Punctaria latifolia; Delesseria sinuosa; Rhodomenia cristata ; , Chondrus crispus; Ptilota plumosa; Porphyra several species ; I can find no published notice of any of our fluviatile Alge, although they appear to have been studied with some care by the indefatigable Schweinitz. I have seen in the herbarium of . Lorrey, a number of specimens of the fluviatile Conferve of North Carolina, collected by Schweinitz, and with labels in his own hand-wriling, indicating that he considered many of the Species as new, and that he had assigned to them names of his own. If he ever published any notice of them, I cannot find it in the books to which I have access, It appears then, that scarcely more than twenty species of Algz have hitherto been accredited to our Flora. In this dearth of information, I am induced to hope that the results of my own study in this much neglected but most fascinating department of science, will be received with interest and indulgence. My attention was first turned to this study at the request of Dr. Torrey, who wished ‘me to prepare a notice of the Alge of New York, to be ineluded in his Report on the Botany of that State. He kindly placed the whole of his collection of foreign Alge in my hands, and it is by the study of his authentic speci- mens received directly from Agardh, Greville, Harvey, Mrs. Grif- fiths, &c., that I have been enabled to proceed with some confi- dence in the determination of our own species. _My inland position has, however, prevented me from having many opportunities for collecting our marine Alge. In fact, with Prof. Bailey on the Alge of the United States. 81 with a few other North American species. Where no other au- thority is given, it will be understood that the plant was found y myself growing at the locality mentioned. Where the name “of the collector is given followed by a (!), it is meant that authentic specimens from his locality have been examined by myself. In the classification and names of most of the species, I have followed the excellent Manual of British Alga, by the Hon. W. H. Harvey, and I must refer to that work for the synonyms of the marine species. Some of the freshwater genera and species are adopted from Ralf’s papers in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, or from Hassall’s British Freshwater Algee. For some of these, synonyms are given. | The principal localities will be referred to by the following abbreviations, viz. Newport, R. I. = the rocky sea-shore extend- ing south from the bathing beach at Newport ;* Narr. Pier = es quay in England, as a locality for fine Alge. My favorite spots along | are in the small coves about half a mile below “the Stairs,” where at low —— “the rocks aes, the sea-plants oo ee The shores in this i ood are covered at low tide with vast quantities of ealowenoes of the most beautiful of the Alge may be found; Seconp Seriss, Vol. II, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. Bt 82 Prof. Bailey on the Alge of the United States. the pier near Wakefield, R. I., on the west side of Narragansett Bay ; Seaconnet = shores of Seaconnet Point, R. L., from the pier eastwardly for about two miles; Ston. Ct. = Stonington, Conn. ; Prov. R. I. = Providence, R. L.; Stat. J. = Staten Island, N. Y., and W. Pi. = West Point, N. Y., and its vicinity for five miles around. Series I. MerLanosperMes. Sargassum vulgare, Ag. Seaconnet, Bristol Ferry, and Stone Bridge in Rhode Island. Specimens of this were found by Mr. Thurber and myself growing, attached to stones, below low wa- ter mark at Seaconnet Point, R.I. I afterwards found fine speci- mens at the other localities above mentioned. Harvey remarks, that it is “a native of the tropics,” and only occasionally drifted to the shores of England; hence the discovery of it, growing attached to rocks on the coast of Rhode Island is one of consid- erable interest. Sargassum bacciferum, Ag. Gulf weed. Floating in the Gulf Stream. My specimens were collected by Lieut. Knowlton, U.S. Army. Halidrys siliquosa, Lyngb. Newfoundland. Edinburgh En- cyclop. Fuci, p. 484. 4 Cystoseira ertcoides, Ag. Nootka Sound. Dr. Scouler; v. Sp. in herb. Tor. Fucus vesiculosus, Linn. 2 These two species of Fucus grow Fucus nodosus, Linn. everywhere on our coasts in vast Himanthalia lorea, Lyngb. Massachusetts. G. B. Emerson. _Alaria esculenta, Grev. Shores of Newfoundland, M. de Py- e. Massachusetts, G. B. Emerson. Agarum cribrosum. Massachusetts. G. B. Emerson; Rev. J, L. Russell! Shores near Newburyport, Mass. J. W, Bailey. Laminaria digitata, Lamour. Massachusetts. G. B. Emer- y na, Lam kelp, Sc. Very common on the shores of Rhode Island, Massa- chusetts and Connecticut. Fine specimens are often washed ashore at the bathing beach at Newport. but I must caution the fair Algologists who may visit this spot, (some of whom I hope may et rival in celebrity those distinguished English ladies, Mrs. Griffiths and Miss Hutchins,) that unless t ey are careful the tide may cut off their retreat from these rock bound bays, and leave them in a predicament from which no Edi Ochiltree could relieve them. Prof. Bailey on the Alg@ of the United States. 83 Desmarestia aculeata, Lamour. Mass. G. B. Emerson ; Nan- tasket Beach, Rev. J. L. Russel! Newport, not rare. ichloria viridis, Grev. Mass. G. B. Emerson. Padina pavonia, St. Domingo! It will doubtless be found on our southern coasts Punctaria latifolia, Grev. Mass. G. B. Emerson. Punctaria tenuissima, Grev. Narragansett Bay, and New- port on leaves of Zostera. ee Asperococcus echinatus, Grev. Mass. G. B. Emerson. Chorda lomentaria, Grev. Narragansett Pier; Seaconnet and Newport, not rare. Chorda filum, Lamour. Mass. G. B. Emerson. Common on shores of Rhode Island, and at Stonington, Conn., where I saw specimens from thirty to forty feet in length. Cladostephus verticillatus, Lyngb. , Both these species (or as Cladostephus spongiosus, Ag. I believe varieties of the same species) occur abundantly at Newport. Sphacelaria cirrhosa, Ag. Stonington, Conn. ; Seaconnet, R. 1. Evctocarpus siliculosus. Very common everywhere on out shores, and also in the Hudson River at West Point, sixty miles rom the ocean. Chordaria flagelliformis, Ag. Mass. G. B. Emerson. Very common on the shores of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Series II. RuoposperMez. wii ta eet Mesogloia muiltifida, Ag. Common, with the preceding plant. Halymenia furcellata, Ag. Newport. ~ nga Polyides rotundus, Grev. Newport and Seaconnet; Mass. Rev. J. L. Russel ! Delesseria sinuosa, Lamour. Mass. G. B. Emerson; Plym- outh, Mass. Rev. J. L. Russel; abundant near “the Stairs” at Newport. Delesseria Leprieurii, Montaigne. Shores of Hudson River at West Point, below low water mark. Specimens of this beau- tiful plant were sent by me to Montaigne, who pronounced them identical with the plant described by him from the coast of Cay- enne.* It is very abundant at West Point; but I could onl find a single specimen of it on the shores of the Hudson at Ho- boken, N. J., near the ocean. , ea Delesscria americana, Ag. “Ad litus Americe Septentrio- nalis.” Ag, Syst. Alg., p. 248. I have not seen any figure or authentic specimen of Agardhs plant; but I suspect it to be the same as a fine species with fronds twelve to eighteen inches long, which grows abundantly near Providence, R. L., in Narragansett Bay. TI also found a fragment of the same at Hoboken, N. J. Rhodomenia cristata, Grev. Mass. G. B. Emerson. * See Ann. Sci. Nat., 2d Series. Bot. tom. xiii, p. 196, pl. 5. 84 Prof. Bailey on the Alge of the United States. Rhodomenia palmata, Grev. “ Dulse.” Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell! Common on shores of Rhode Island and Connecticut. Plocamium coccineum, Lyngb. Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell! -- Laurencia dasyphylia? Lamour. A species of Laurencia occurs abundantly at Newport and at Seaconnet, which appears closely allied to L. nee gether and is perhaps only a variety of that species. Chylocladia pines se Hook. Common on shores of Rhode Island, from Providence to Newport and Seaconnet. Harvey re- marks that he has seen specimens from North America, agreeing in every particular with British ones. Gigartina purpurascens, renin 4 Stonington, Conn., Neate gansett rePier, Newport, and Seaconne Chondrus crispus, Lyngb. ‘This ctl which is the Gartioetn or Irish moss of caer shops, is abundant everywhere on the coasts of New England. At Newport, it is generally known by the name of “Curl” or “ Currel.” Chondrus etre hor, Grev. Newport and Narragansett Pier; Mass. Rev. ssell ! herococcus icoamieetten Ag. 9 angustissimus. New York. Ag. Syst. Alg. p. 216. Shores of Staten Island. Dr. Torrey! Spherococcus Beta Ag. New York Ag. Syst. Alg. p. sgt Ptilota plumosa, Ag. Mass. G.B. Emerson and Rev: J Russell ! Seaconnet, R. I. Particularly abundant and fine a “the Stairs,” at Newport. Poh, ysiphonia subtilissima, Montaigne. Hudson River, below low water mark, at West Point, sixty miles from the ocean. Specimens of this have been sent to Montaigne, and he nonnces them identical with those he has described from paca It is remarkable that it is accompanied, fri at West Point and Cayenne, by the Delesseria Lepricu eurti, Mon Polysiphonia violacea, Grev. Narragansett ‘Bay, R. i Staten Island, N. Y. mon Polysiphonia fastigiata, Grev. Common on Fuci, at Newport and Seaconnet ; Plymouth, Mass. Rev. J. L. Ru ssell ! Polysiphonia stricta 8. atropurpurea, Ag. New York. A Syst. Alg. p. 150. gaia le Seiad Pol, ysiphonia nigrescens, Grey. Newport. Polysiphonia Brodaii, Grev. Plymouth, Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell! Newport, R. L Besides the above, I have two or three species of Polysiphonia on pete Island, which I have not yet slintbeteriy dese ae pedicellata, Ag. “ Ad Noveboracum.” Ag, Syst: Alg. p- 211. Very beautiful : specimens occur in abundance near Prov- idence, R. L, also at Newport, R. I. Ihave seen a fragment of * See Am. Sci. Nat., 2d series, Bot. tom. 13, p- 196, pl. 5. Prof. Bailey on the Alege of the United States. 85 the same from New Haven, Conn., collected by Professor C. U. Shephard. ; Ceramium rubrum, Ag. Only too common, every where on our coasts. Ceramium diaphanum, Ag. Nearly as common as the pre- ceding. : Griffithsia ? An undetermined species occurs at Provi- dence and Newport. Callithamnion Turneri, Ag. Parasitic on Cladostephus, &c., at Newport. Callithamnion Rothii, Lyngb. On rocks under the Fuci, at New Callithamnion ? A delicately branched species, which I have been unable to determine, occurs plentifully near. the Tockwotton House, at Providence, R. L Lrentepohlia pulchella, Ag. Cascade at West Point ; parasitic on Lemania fluviatilis. g Series II]. Cuntorospermes. — Lemania fluviatilis, Ag. Cascade at West Point; Mountain Run, Culpepper Co., Va. ; and Falls in the Rappahannock River, above Fredericksbnrg, Va. ) sac: Lemania tortulosa, Ag. Foot of Crow’s Nest, West Point; Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell. | Thorea viridis, Bory. N. America. Ag. Syst. Alg. p. 56. Agardh suspects it to be an Oscillatoria adhering to some aquatic plant. Batrachospermum moniliforme, Ag. Salem, N. Ca, Schwein- itz. Abundant just below the dam of Reservoir Pond, near West Point. Batrachospermum Americanum, Schweinitz. Salem, N. Ca. Schweinitz! Common in small streams near West Point ; Hing- am, Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell. Draparnaldia plumosa, Ag. These species are all common _Draparnaldia glomerata, Ag. at West. Point, and I hay Draparnaldia tenuis, Ag. specimens of them also from chusetts, sent by Rev. J. L. Russell, and from Chautauque Co., N. Y., sent by M. 8. Petit, Esq. ¢ Bos Las Chetophora endiviefolia, Ag. Mass. Rev. J. L. Russell! (To be continued.) 86 On the Fossil Vegetation of America. Arr. XI1.—On the Fossil Vegetation of America; by J. E. "T'ESCHEMACHER. On the 17th June, 1846, Iread a paper before the Boston Natural History Society, on the fossil vegetation of America, which will probably be published in the forthcoming number of their Jour- nal, with plates. I propose the present communication as a continuation of that er.* ’ Having recently received, by the liberality of Dr. L. Feucht- wanger, a number of specimens from the coal mines of Carbon- dale, Pa., I will proceed to describe a portion of them, after offer- ing a few general observations. The well understood and authenticated alternation of growth in the American forests, of resinous and hard wood trees,+ must create surmises as to the probability of the existence of the same law during the growth of the successive forests which formed the successive layers of coal, a large portion of which were certainly of resinous woods. But we find no evidence or appearance of the same alternation taking place with the undergrowths of recent forests, particularly with the Fern and Equisetum tribes. The constituents of the Equisetacee are better known than those of the Filices; and silica, the chief inorganic ingredient of the former is usually in such quantity in most soils, particularly in those rom the recent disintegration of early crystalline rocks, that it would not be easily exhausted so as to render this alternation of growth necessary. Sigillarize, (which I consider as the stems of Filices, ) with leaves f Filices, and Calamites, (probably Equisetaceous plants,) are found in all coal deposits hitherto examined ; whether the highly resinous tribe exists in all, is yet to be ascertained. An important source of information is presented by the veg- etable remains existing in the coal itself, leaving out of consider- ation those in the shaly roofs, and clayey floors of the mines. The P. y ] ia anthracit ter many sp i s of these : what is termed charcoal is commonly found in seams and crevices in the coal, and in most of this, the vegetable tissues, although carbon- ized, are in perfect preservation. Ihave selected some specimens in which the indication of different kinds of wood is very clear ; Ing there to be white and piteh pine, maple, ash, beech, oak, walnut, &e., and says that Capt. Samuel Alden, who died there in 1780, aged 93, remembered t st white pine tree that appeared in the town, one eighth of which, in 1793, was covered with them. On the Fossil Vegetation of America. 77 amongst them is one Sigillaria of an undescribed species, a few impressions of leaves with forked veins, like Sphenophyllum, and several branches and stems unlike any I have seen fi d, also groups of vegetable tissue resembling nothing in the present vegetable existences. But I have not had time to bestow on these the study they appear to merit, and merely mention them now to draw towards them the attention of others. is The analyses of these so-called charcoals of various forms, compared with analyses of charcoal artificially prepared from recent resinous and non-resinous woods, and particularly from ar- borescent ferns, might prove very interesting ; indeed, we appear to be only just entering the threshold of the science of fossil vegetation. . : f’rom what I have hitherto observed, it seems altogether prob- able that intense and long continued pressure beneath water, has _ transformed the ancient forests into coal. : ‘ Coal Plants from Carbondale, Pa. CaLaMARIER. Calamites Suckowii, Brongn. The longest diameter of this specimen is 34 inches; it has been squeezed into a wedge-like form, and strie caused by the pressure are quite distinct on the thin edge of the wedge on the carbonized surface, indicating the pressure to have taken place subsequent tocarbonization. There has also been perpendicular pressure, as the vegetable is bent over at right angles to the upright stem. 4 i giro iis C. ramosus, Artis and Brongn. A very beautiful and distinct specimen. The nearly circular scar at the articulation of the branches is not so tumid as in the figure given by Brongniart, but the strie and their terminations are in exact accordance with it. | Calamitee ? gen. and spec.? (fig. 1.) Itis above the scar, and their rejunction below, have not at all the appearance of Calamites. Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, Brongn. En- }|\|| veloped in and surrounded by leaves of this fos- ||j|\j sil, are very fine and clear impressions of jointed |}/|/) stems, with attached side branches, exactly re- || iM) sembling the figure in Lind. and Hutt., vol. 1, } ||| tab. 19, 5 1, of Bechera grandis ; it 1s not pos- ible to doubt that ves belonged sible the lea to these stems and branches. - 88 On the Fossil Vegetation of America. Funtces. iy Neuropteris? spec. (fig. 2.) A large species; Fig. 2. (Nat-size.) leaves cordate, with an extraordinary difference in the size of the lobes, the lowest bemg the largest. My specimen of a frond has 14 leaves, the. ter- minating one acute and one lobed. Many of the leaves resemble those of the recent [soloma lanug- inosa, J. Smith, (Lindsea auctor.,) nor does the midrib in some of the leaves of Neuropteris, be- come indistinct sooner than that in this fern. The - elub-shaped termination of the veins of Isoloma does not exist in Neuropteris, although I have thought that I could observe a curving of the margin, with a slight appendage, as if it were pos- sible that there might be a resemblance to the marginal fructification of Isoloma. Neuropteris rotundifolia, Brongn. Specimen clear and distinct. Cyclopteris orbicularis, Brongn. ‘ Specimen _ Adiantites cyclopteris, Gopp. fine. Sphenopteris latifolia, Brongn. 2 My specimens \ - Aspidites latifolius, Gopp. ‘ agree in char- acter and appearance with Brongniart’s figures, but not at all with the figures of Lind. and Hutt., of this fossil. eris unita, Brongn. : Alethopteris, Gopp. 2? spec. Fig. 3. (Natural size.) Pecopteris, Brongn. f Fig. 3. Pe This specimen bears a greater re- DAN HN semblance to P. Serlii, Brongn., ‘to any other fossil, but the leaves are quite obtuse, or may even be called round. The ter- minating leaf, as well as some of the others, are lobed, and the veins are quite as perpendicular to the midrib asin Teniopteris Betrandi, Brongn. Hist. Veg. Fos., tab. 82, 5 1 SIcILLARIER. Sigillaria Seri, Brongn. Saullit, — do. Schlotheimii, do. ocuiata, 0. Syringodendron, Sternb. er Rhyltidolepis, Cotta. be ~ It seems to me almost impossible not to be convinced, by the arguments of Brongniart, that these are the stems of the abores- ich On the Fossil Vegetation of America. 89 cent ferns, whose leaves are scattered in such profusion around them, although I am aware that both Géppert and Lindley have withheld their full assent to this opinion. e specimen of S. oculata is surrounded by leaves calculated to remove a portion of the doubt on this subject. Fig. 4 is a representation of what I consider the upper and under side of the leaf. On the upper side, a and b, there is the impression of a fine channel along the midrib, caused by the protuberance of what may be termed the receptacles of the fructi- fication on each side of the midrib on the under side ; the depression in the slate, letter 6, caused by these protuberances, is very clear in the specimen. Fig. c represents the under part of the leaf; here the spaces corresponding to these protuberances are pitted, as repre- sented by the dotted part. ‘The space between these dots and the margin of the leaf, is perfectly smooth and even, and the sep- aration between them well defined. I consider this pitted part to be the impression of the fructification of a species of Blech- num. In order to make this clear, fig. 5 repre- Sets impressions in fine plaster of Paris, of leaves of the recent aborescent fern, Blechnum _ braziliense—a the under side, b the upper side. é It is difficult in figures to give every character of the resemblance, but I am sure it is too per- fect to be mistaken. he veins in this species of recent Blechnum are internal and hot very prominent, and the texture of the leaf is hard and coria- ceous ; in my first impressions in plaster, the veins were slightly exhibited, and there is no trace of them in the fossil ; but on the application of slight pressure to the recent leaves prior to taking off the impressions, it became as smooth as the fossil. It is true that in B. braziliense, the sori, though contiguous and confluent, are not single and continuous along each midrib as they appear in the fossil, but in Salpichlena volubilis, (J. Smith, ) the Blech- num volubile of Kaulfuss, and in others, this continuous linear character exists. I believe this to be the first fructification of a fossil fern re- sembling Blechnum that has been observed ; I would, therefore, name this Blechnites oculata, but I am in hopes that careful ob- servations of the coal deposits will ere long enable us to assign the foliage belonging to most of the stems, and then a revision of the nomenclature will become necessary. mK I regret that in my specimen neither end of a leaf is present ; but from the width, both of the leaf and the fructification, it is prob- able that it was a larger fern than B. braziliense. Szconp Series, Vol. 111, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 2 Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 90 Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. If the specimen of Sigillaria lepidodendrifolia figured by Brong- niart, Hist. Veg. Fos., tab. 161, were carefully examined, leaves like the above Aeuetibed would ‘probably be found. Among these specimens from Carbondale, are impressions of stems without any other marks than strie of different sizes, and others marked in various ways, with irregular protuberances and indentations. Several of these exactly resemble a stem figured by Goppert, (Syst. Fil. Fos., tab. 39, fig. 1, without remarks, ) and the outside bark of one of these being partially soa ay exhibits the impression of a beautiful Sigillaria, somewhat | e S. macro- discus, Brongn., on a very small and delicate idlen: Of these stems, and many other appearances from the fossil vegetation from this locality, it is quite impossible to give descrip- tions that would be at all intelligible without very well drawn figures. There are also several probably undescribed rgptinis dendra and Sigillariz. Arr. XII.—On the existence of certain Lacustrine Deposits, in the vicinity vi the Great Lae usually confounded with the “ Drift;” by I. A. Larnam _ OF all the subjects investigated by the geologist, none are more interesting or have attracted more attention within the last few years, than those relating to the diluvial, or drift and boulder for- mation ; and although much has been done to elucidate this 0 scure point in the history of the earth, pes a vast amount of facts and observations has been collected and recorded, we are still 5. 9 caged theory that will explain all the facts. One reason may be that no one theory can be found sufficient ; the ary sauiet be divided, and each portion may admit of a different explanation There is no doubt that much of what usually passes for drift in the region of the great lakes, must be attributed to a lacustrine origin of more recent date. ese deposits consist of nearly uniform layers of fine clay resting upon irregular beds of sand, gravel, boulders and hard-pan, constituting the true drift. The layers are from a quarter of an inch to three or four inches in thickness, and lie nearly horizontal—not conforming with the irregular layers of drift. The beds sometimes nishiti a thickness of fifteen or twenty feet. It is evident that these layers were deposited when the water was calm, and not subject to those vio- lent agitations that existed during the deposition of the drift. attentive examination of facts connected with the action of the waters of the present lakes, may throw some light upon this interesting subject. - Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. 91 The shore of Lake Michigan near this place, (Milwaukee, Wis- consin, ) consists of clay, sand, gravel and boulders, rising almost perpendicularly from fifty to one hundred feet. ‘The several lay- ers are usually arranged as follows: a, Hard-pan, or very tough blue clay with imbedded pebbles. b. Irregular beds of gravel, at some places fine, at others coarse, approaching boulders. ec. Very fine sand, free from pebbles or clay. Te P d. Fine reddish clay free from sand, pebbles, or boulders, having its base line nearly level. Along the line between a and 8, are numerous springs, usually of pure cold water, but occasionally impregnated with mineral substances. Some hold lime in solution in such quantities, as to cement the beds of gravel into a kind of pudding-stone, an incrust the moss, leaves, &c. over which they pass, affordin many fine and beautiful specimens. On the canal, half a mile above the city, is achalybeate spring issuing from a bed of gravel colored with the iron deposited by the water, Every storm-wind dashes the waves against the base of this steep bank, carrying away the light materials of which it is com- posed, and causing the higher portions to slide down as repre- sented in figure 1; an operation which is materially assisted by the springs above alluded to. This process is in some places quite rapid, and has been in operation for a great length of time. Many very interesting facts might be mentioned to illustrate this, and a few years of direct observation are suflicient to convince the most skeptical. ; A road laid out nine years ago on the bank of the lake, is now so near the margin that it would be impossible for a wagon to pass along it in the tracks then made, without falling down the slope. (See fig. 1,r.) Walking along the sandy beach of the lake, we often find the clay has slid down upon it, so that it 1s ne- cessary to clamber over the avalanche or wade around it in the waters of the lake. ‘These slides, under favorable circumstances, are very extensive, carrying down with them the forest trees without disturbing their erect position. At other times, trees throw wn towards the bank, presenting their roots to the ‘water. At Southport, thirty-five miles south from Milwaukee, 92 Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. the bend of a stream has been car- Fic. 2 : g. 2. ried away, so that its valley pre- sents three openings to the lake, C d as represented in figure 2, where on ty, eNO ak the dotted lines represent the an- (Sy cient state of things and the black fy ines the modern. Similar in- --—! tm stances may be observed at other ; places along the shore of the @ Ancient coast.—b. Present coast. ot —d. lake. ite River. The prevailing storm-winds here are from the northeast, stri- king the coast obliquely and carrying the gravel and sand acted upon by the waves in a southerly direction, or towards the head of the lake. The progress of the pebbles along the shore is slow, each storm carrying them but a small distance ; yet the constant action of the waves through a long period of time, has been suffi- cient to accumulate vast fields of sand around the southern ex- tremity of the lake. When a solid pier is built into the lake, this motion of the sand and pebbles causes a rapid accumulation on the north side of it. At Chicago, during five years, the accumu- lation of sand extended no less than seven hundred and twenty feet along the pier. As soon as the sand reaches the end of the pier, a bar is formed across the mouth of the harbor, rendering another “appropriation” necessary to extend the pier further into the lake. How far it will be necessary to extend the pier before the difficulty will cease, is not easily determined. It will be when the direction of the shore north of the pier is at right angles with the direction of the prevailing storms. Figure 3 represents the shore at this place in the different years from 1834 to 1839, 1s copied from an official report of the Topographical Bureau at Washington. Since 1839, no reports have been made. Fig. 3. @. The original shore.—b. Shore in 1835.—c. Shore in 1836,—d. Shore in 1837. —¢, Shore in 1838.—f, Shore in 1839.—G. North pier. ao Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. 93 The immediate effect of these storms, as above stated, is to carry away the base of the steep bank along the shore, moving the sand and pebbles by successive steps towards the south. But the finer materials—the soft clays—are suspended in the water of the lake, causing it to be muddy for a great distance from the land. The quantity of matter suspended in the water, and the distance it is carried out, will of course vary according to the force and direction of the storm, the configuration of the coast, the material of the bank acted upon, &c. When the storm abates, the agitation of the water ceases, and the suspended matter is thrown down in the form of a thin deposit of mud, on the bottom of the lake. If it falls in water so deep as to be beyond the influ- ence of the surface waves, it must remain as a permanent deposit. Another storm produces another layer, and should it come froma different direction, there may be a slight difference in the nature of the material deposited. By this process, continued through a succession of years, a large amount of fine sediment will be ac- cumulated in the bottom of the lake. The analogy between de- extremity of Lake Erie. In passing over the railroad westward om Detroit, no boulders, or other indications of drift, are found on the surface until we pass the ancient lake beach at Ypsilanti, beyond which they begin to appear in great numbers. t of that beach was evidently once the bottom of a lake. Some of the most interesting deposits of this'kind are found Within the limits of the city of Milwaukee; and it is from them that the material is taken for the manufacture of the much cele- brated cream-colored brick, of this city. Such is the richness 94 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. and beauty of these brick, that they are becoming an article of export. Strangers, upon landing here, are surprised that all the brick houses are painted of the same color; and their surprise is not abated when informed that they are not painted at all—the color being that of the bricks themselves.* o fossils of any kind have yet been discovered in these lake deposits. Cylindrical concretions, of an interesting kind, are often found investing the fibres of roots that have penetrated small opening through the centre. On breaking across one of these concretions, it is seen to have a concentric structure, as if made of concentric cylinders. Their form is usually cylindrical, tapering at each end. ‘They are much harder than the surround- ing mass of clay. Arr. XII.—On the Origin of Continents ; by James D. Dana. gions of eruption. Hence it was inferred that contraction must have taken place to the greatest extent over the parts now oceanic, just as any cooling sphere becomes depressed on the side which cools last. This was shown to correspond with the actual his- tory of our globe, inasmuch as an increasing depth in the ocean cavity would necessarily leave more and more land above water in successive epochs, as accords with observations. It was ob- served that the hypothesis was farther borne out by facts: for while it appears that the land has, on the whole, been increasing in extent, even through the tertiary era and subsequent to it, the ocean’s bottom has actually subsided several thousand feet within a late period, as shown by the coral islands scattered over the wide Pacific.{ large extent, too cold for corals, proves nothing against the hypothesis. On the ance of some points of land by submergence. All existing Atlantic islands are of igneous origin except the Falklands, to the east of Tierra del Fuego. J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. 95 By reference, therefore, to the principle of unequal contraction, and to those subordinate causes of change of level usually ap- pealed to by Geologists, ( though treated of commonly as primary n order to understand the bearing of the facts, we should bring to mind the effects of contraction. 'The more prominent are as follows :— 1. Depressions, provided the contraction be unequal in different ts. 2. Apparent elevations, as a consequence of the depressions ; that is, elevations as compared with the lowest level, or with a y of water occupying the depressions. * We may here mention one or two facts in corroboration of the general theory, that the more igneous portions of the globe have contracted most and thereby be- bm or example, we the continent of ca reduced toa narrow strip of land, just where the great American tract | from east to a on of igneous action, not yet entirely extinct; that is, about the South America are nearly disjoined by a broad arm of the ocean. This single Instance is the only one, through the continent of America, of voleanic eruptions east of the great western chain of mountains. : a in, the East Indies, another region of perpetual fires, in the earth’s history, constitute a cluster of islands separating from Asia the large non-voleanic olland, properly a part of a southeastern extension of the continent. Moreover, i 0 as Jand, without fires, exist in the midst of the group, Borneo being one example, equalling in extent half the United States, east of the Mississippi. The Indian Ocean, at the same time, bears evidence in its coral islands of a much more ex- tensive subsidence. Se e this Journal, ii, ii ser., 355. While thus mentioning the name of M. C. Pré- vost, we should remember that the theory of contraction, as a cause of the earth’s features, dates as far back as Leibnitz, many of whose speculations in science are partial application of the principle to the Appalachians. aa : e writer does not claim to have presented any new principle, except it may be the special cause assigned for the oceanic depressions ; and whether this holds true, remains for the future to determine. 96 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. 3. Fissure A. Bjection of igneous matter, at times, through fissures.* 5. Upheaval along a line of fissure, the surface adjoining being more or less raise 6. Upliftings and foldings from lateral pressure.—An are of the exterior surface being greater than any corresponding arc below the surface, a depression of the hardened exterior, produced by the cooling beneath, would in some instances cause lateral dis- placements. 7. An unequal rate of subsidence over given areas in different periods.—Contraction tends to occasion a strain upon the cooled and unyielding exterior, accompanied generally by a consequent diminished rate of subsidence, or a cessation of it. This strain increases till it results i in fractures ; and following this crisis, sub- within or without the area; and at the time of fissuring, there might be other upheavals. It follows, hence, that— a. There would be prolonged intermissions in the subsidence of given areas; and this must have been the fact throughout the history of the § There reat fae been oscillations in the land as com- pared with a water level, the water at times rising gradually over land that, during a previous period, had emerged; and the reverse. c. There might be in the same epoch, under such circumstan- ces, an unequal retreat of the ocean from the coasts of different oe ntinents, or a rise in one place and a retreat in others: for the ges by contraction are supposed to have been every where in ous t the same time, and throughout different in character and extent. d. Changes of level may _ some cases have been gradual, and in other cases parorysmal ; for the opening of large fissures would often be of the latter iti bi In an elliptical area of contraction, there will be two sys- of fissures at right angles with one another, as follows from ring cdlénilating of Win. Hopkins, Esq.t But if the area is bounded on one side by a region participating but little in the ee the effects would be most decided on the borders of such a gion ; and they would consist in extensive fissures ranging sidng * Prévost argnes that all oepsem of igneous matter have arisen from the col- Japsing of the surface upon the fluid of ve interior, which is thereby pressed out. This is a pro cable effect of — contraction going on, though it seems to be ex- © include with it all the eruptions of volcanoes. t Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vii, 22. J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. 97 the area, and an attending swelling of the surface, or else a rising of the strata into folds by lateral pressure.* The effects of lateral pressure might in many parts be local or of very limited extent. A contracting : area might be made up of sev- eral separate areas of Peres oe not acting together upon any particular line. Even supposing a whole quarter of our globe to exert laterally all the force possible, by a uniform contraction con- tinued till the surface was depressed eight miles in depth, the whole effect would be equivalent to a lateral dislocation of only twelve miles. And in this calculation, we make no allowance for upliftings over the contracting area, which would diminish the action; nor for a diminution of breadth in the surface of the area, which diminution must be going on if the surface is losing heat. In the remarks which follow relating to this point, Amer- ica, therefore, is not instanced as an example of what must every where have happened, but of what has here happened. The foregoing are the obvious effects of contraction. A Prince Rupert’s drop (a drop of unannealed glass) may be referred to for farther illustration. The exterior, owing to its Ries first, is under oe papas and each particle (or section ) in the surface, presses laterally upon its neighbor like a stone of an arch upon the one adjciniog, ; and hence the effect of a simple scratch in causing it to break to pieces, explosively. The earth, had it cooled uniformly over the whole exterior, (and were it made of a uniform homogeneous material,) would have been in the same circumstances, the whole crust being under immense tension, yet every where balanced, and therefore not apparent; but Popling unequally, the same actual amount of force has been exerted, yet at different periods, producing, in different parts and in different periods, fractures, de epressions and upliftings. We comprehend the effects described more clearly if we re- member, as we Pues the common statement, that the niga * With regard to the foldi = strata by lateral pressure, the theory was first nted by Sir James Sane Ory s. Ro mf Pee Edinb., vii, 85,) and the injection of granite, coupled with the. amin of pe land, ine suggested by him as a source of the pressure in the instances he m n vat A on re a on this subject, says, in his work on eivinane) published jn 1825, * ‘Phere is ! son to conclude that in most og a be; sniongi * ata, particu ularly ed pre were only aay indurated, have bee wrted ont bent ssf ie ce saa paar to give the appearance of heqieh aherations oF a what is in reality but the replication selaphowas ct In Beche applies the theory to the structure of a the Ae (Gee , (Geol. i Resarehen, » Aut Sir James Hall to pion ae i t besides the lateral se ukey general followed s a phy at to thi result. “But since the soft Strata are inelastic, and moreover, in t li "ik mgd re clude that there is sufficient vertical stared ieee ieee foreign Flas A small hand model a het dion in thi eas, a a chil model of a br to t Rocks se, Vol. ‘ir 1 No? Tote 13 Jeeps 98 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. mountains of the earth are about equal in comparative altitude to the thickness of the cracked varnish on a twelve inch globe. We remark, again, that we exclude none of those causes of elevation usually recognized, which facts show to have been in operation, though allowing them only a subordinate place. From these explanations, we proceed to the application of them. If the reader will place before him a good map of North Amer- ica, he will perceive at once the effects which have been alluded to exhibited on a grand scale, on both sides of the continent. On the Atlantic side, the Appalachians, from Maine to Georgia, con- sist of rock strata, which have been variously folded up into ridges, as has been made out with great beauty and fullness by Professors W. B. and H. D. Rogers.* These folds are in several series, but are nearly uniform or parallel in position. As should be expected from the nature of the cause, the plications are more frequent and abrupt on the side of the chain nearest the ocean, and gradually die out westward just beyond the limits of the Appalachians. As another result of proximity to the contract- ing area, the rocks on the eastern side have been most altered by the very contraction which occasioned the depression ; an between lies a vast plain, scarcely affected at all by these changes, the great central area of the continent. ‘This view is farther sus- * Trans. of the Assoc. of Amer. Geol. and Nat., 1840. ] : , al is Journal, xliii, 177; xliv, 359. pare AS ames REN ler _ | See the section of the region between the mouth of the Kansas and Fort Van- couver, by Captain Fremont, in the Report of his Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1842, and to Oregon and North California in 1843, 1844. Printed by order of the Senate of the United States, Washington, 1845. J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. 99 tained by finding that the effects of fire are most apparent on the ocean side of the mountains, precisely as about the Appalachians, yet to a more remarkable extent.* Indeed, there are no remains of volcanoes, or their ejections, to the east of the summit; while to the west, the country of Oregon is in many parts buried beneath basaltic or other volcanic rocks, and several existing voleanic cones have been described. Still farther, we observe a second, a third, and even a fourth parallel range of heights from the summit of the mountains to the coast; and the third (the Cascade range) rivals the Rocky Mountains in the height of some of its wy peaks. Vast fissures were opened to the fires below, as action. + Here, then, are the natural effects of proximity to a region of contraction—the Pacific—in which the remains 0 ig- _e action every where abound. s been well established that the Appalachian folds or pleation were made since the coal period, for the coal beds nelosed in the folds;{ and the rising of the Rocky chain ee sth subsequent to that era. The effect of contraction in pro- ducing these elevations, was therefore comparatively little felt in the very earliest ages, when the surface of the depressed (or ig- neous) portion was itself somewhat yielding, but subsequen uently, When it had become stiffened to a considerable depth by saalinen appears hence to be a perfect eoneyectanae= ween meee and the causes adduced. ter; for the irruption is in general an effect of a very different action, as has been urged by a This ond be as true of ' * The same is the general schinaatiee of the Andes. In an account of the geo! of Chile, M. I, Don Saget says, speaking of the Andes in abe fatitude of ee * En regardant A coté de l'Ouest, on voit un yer sement comple let terrain soulevé: des fuilles et déchirements, des e sepealantn pic tions t és etinterrompues. En portant a cann la vue du cote de pote est, on ait. des pentes douces, des bancs de rochers presque horizontaux et ee interrompos.” ave i Ss out announce que le principal mouvement ui — aasion es Andes te ac va du cété viel U Ouest, ee eR ap cote Seer et: 7, iments ha! marquent Je rivage actuel ie ‘TOcea ean grate le Cap ee Rlosin: av Mont s Rocheuses, continue a se soulever d'une maniere ogee et — reepti lee ve mugissement des bruits souterra ee a 3, Bad. lio, nytivly trembie- ments $9, Jerre sheet. — Annales des Mines, iv ser.,1 anites ma have been the: Cath products ; but ie’ existing voleanic | moun- tains “hats bas on and trachytes r their surface rocks. + Ww. Be 522, H. D. Rogers, Acad Assoc. Amer. Geol. and Nat., 1840-1842, 100 J. D. Dana on the Origin of Continents. era. The dip of the new red sandstone accompanying them is probably another effect. ‘The Ozark mountains, forming a line parallel with the Appalachians, beyond the Mississippi, may be referred to the same system of changes. The economical advantages belonging to the features of North America that have thus originated, are most remarkable, and this view of their origin gives them increased interest. The Silurian rocks indicate that before the coal period the region was comparatively level, and lay. mostly beneath the sea. As it emerged it was still dripping with water, so that, under a climate peculiarly genial, coal vegetation might have grown luxuriantly. But had it continued thus flat to a later period, it would have had but small streams, and probably, for want of a mountain barrier to intercept the drying Pacific winds, the desert regions of the west would have traversed the land, as Sahara has spread over Africa. As if to prevent these results, and give a vastness scarcely equalled to its resources, the land was raised into mountains on either coast, those of the west, where the barrier was most needed, ascending even to the regions of perpetual snows. The whole interior is now enclosed by the Rocky Mountains on the one side and the Appalachians on the other, and a thousand streams are set in motion over the wide land from either bound, all to contribute to a common trunk, the great highway of the country. ‘Thus the largest possible extent of intercommunicating inland waters has been secured; and for the same reason a great rt have been made to flow so nearly on a plain as to afford navi- gation almost from one end of the territory to the other, and extend their fertilizing influence over the whole surface. A similar result has been produced on the narrow ocean side of the main chains by been compelled to flow far north and south between these ranges, and fertilize an extended country before the sea was reached. Thus the noble Columbia, with its wide spread tributaries, was made for Oregon ; and in the same manner were formed the Wil- lammet, the Sacramento, and the Joachim, which run in long - courses between the Cascade and Coast ranges of heights. Thus on the Atlantic side, we have the Shenandoah and other head waters to the Potomac, and at the north, a Hudson, Connecticut and Merrimack flowing in parallel lines. _Note.—In connection with this article, it should have been ear- lier mentioned that the theory of “ secular refrigeration” has been presented with much force, in many points of view, by W. W. Mather, in this Journal, vol. xlix. p. 284, (1845), and the foldings of the Appalachians are attributed by him to this cause, ! Description of two New Species of Shelis. 101 Art. XIV.—Description of two New Species of Shells ; by Wi- Liam Case, Cleveland, Ohio. Helix annulata— figs. 1, 2,3.) Shell minute, much depressed —umbilicus showing all the volutions ; aperture simple and some- Fig. 2. Fig. 1. what oval ; whorls four, banded by thin, sharp and parallel ribs, inclining slightly forward ; intercostal space marked with waved lines, running parallel with the whorls; nearly transparent ; diameter about one line. This minute but beautiful shell was found by Captain B. A. Stanard, in the region about Lake Superior, and I have heard of its being observed in other places, but so far as I can learn, it is undescribed. It differs from any description of the pulchella I have yet met with, in having uniformly an oval aperture simple lip. The H. minuta of Say, I believe never has the par- allel ribs, and is supplied with a lip. Planorbis multivolvis—(figs. 4, 5.) Shell about five-eighths of an inch in diameter ; whorls seven, | @ about half of the last whorl overlapping the prece- @& ding one, sometimes the last whorl suddenly dis- \& torted and expanded for the last half of its length ; ight side concave, left side slightly accuminate — Fig. 5. and considerably carinate; throat campanulate ; aperture opening towards the left, but projecting on ff both sides beyond the preceding whorl. This shell, also, I obtained from Captain Stanard, fo who found it in the northern part of Michigan. It ca is very distinct from any Planorbis I have met with, or have been able to find any description of. I have named it from its strong characteristic—a greater number of whorls than usual in the genus, natin Fig. 4. Note.—The Helix here described approaches the pulchella, (minuta of Say,) a ribbed variety of which is called H. costata ; yet it appears to be a distinct species. The Planorbis is most nearly allied to the P. campanulatus.— G. 102 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Puysics anp CHEMIsTRY. 1. Gun-Cotton.—It was announced last summer by Prof. Schénbein of Basle, that he had discovered a method of producing a substance from vegetable fibre, more explosive and powerful than gunpowder, and much interest was excited at the late meeting of the British Asso- ciation, by an exhibition of its wonderful effects. It has since been not as ye identical with the Xyloidine of Braconnot and Pelouze. The suggestion thrown out eight years ago by M. Pelouze, regarding its possible appli- cation in artillery, seems to have escaped attention, and to have been l Pe carded, and it is fit for use. As thus repared, it retains the appear- ance and fibre of common cotton, but is harsher and more wool-like to the touch. It inflames at a temperature of about and, as is Jate- ly asserted,t it sometimes happens that it is spontaneously inflamed at 212° F. The greatest caution is therefore required in the preparation, to avoid its accidental combustion.+ _ * Comptes Rendus, Oct. 15, 1838. L'Institut, No. 670, p. 367. _ iit may not be amiss to mention in this place, that the writer and his assist were burned by the accidental combustion of about 1200 grains of gun cotton, which they were drying over a hot-air flue where the temperature was probably very little above ¢ #°. At the instant when they considered the mass as dr , it took fire and was dissipated in a large volume of brilliant yellow flame, without * — Physics and Chemistry. 103 - It burns witha voluminous yellow flame, very brilliant and rapid, pro- duces no smoke or odor, and leaves little or no residue. If well prepared, the products of its combustion are only gaseous. It burns so much more rapidly than gunpowder, that the latter is not inflamed by it; and not the least inconvenience is felt by burning a flock of it on the naked hand. It detonates with some difficulty when struck with the hammer on an anvil, and only in the part receiving the blow, the remainder be- ing scattered about. Wetting does not injure it, if it is again carefully dried. Its 2 aa eure is much greater than that of gunpowder, and bee n variously s — different experimenters as from fours to an ‘ie board of wood ; and wit ac arge of from 4 to 8 grains, sive experiments on the power of cotton-powder which to our know- ledge have been made in this country.t His trials were made at the ce mills of Mr. O. M. Whipple, near. Lowell, with porruetion or proof-mortar, carrying a 24 pound iron ball, at an el of 45°. The projectile force of the gun-cotton was greatest when it was 4 Toohey packed in the chamber of the eprouvette, leaving the greater portion at the breech, on which the ball rested. ** 'wo balls were used differing a little in their windage. Four qualities of gun-cotton were used ; the first was immersed 25 minutes in the mixed nitric and sulphuric acids. .No. 2, the same immersed, after drying, in fresh acids for 25 minutes more. No. 8, dipped 25 minutes, and then a new portion of fresh acids added, and the dip continued for the same time longer. No. 4, called ‘ blasting cotton,’ dipped 35 minutes. Two discharges of Mr. Whipple’s best rifle powder FF F F, were first made, each one ounce. No. 1 threw the ball 288 yards. No. 2 threw it 272 yards. Average 2814 yards. The chamber was then soe and charged with e un-cotton. discharges. ny one foyt ie ated EMARKS. 1 eT 7 ie, ae in ‘hander that not Il No. full, 2 3 4 100 uae na hata rammed, and small wad over cotton, ball No.1. ae 3 3 175 Loose, and a little for a bed for the ball, ball No. 4 2 3 272 As in 3d shot, but more bed, ball : No. 2 Chars e as in 4th, ball No. Jeboried f AGNe Ty} a 453 | oF ark the ground on falling. oh aiaeg: | 2 100 Charge as in 4th, ball No. 2. 7 ve 1 567 Charge as in 4th, ball No.1 8 4 4 50 Charge ramm mmed hard home, ball LAU = Sree Se Se ee elon smoke or odor, and with so little noise as not to gel the vA ct lh those in chery Sonu othe ~ ot ee ai noite pounaente of this gas detected in all ent. Later experiments have emasiner us the cotton- isk is bs ti lower tha times fi No 670, p36. pid + Lowell Daily Conrier, Dec. 8. 104 Scientific Intelligence. ° No. 1. This charge was about one hour after the 7th, during which pe- riod it had been carried, wrapped tight in paper, in my hand, while searching for the ball of the 7th shot. It may have absorbed moisture. It appears from the 4th, 5th and 7th shots, that the distance projected increases faster than the quantity.” Dr. Dana also tried the gun-cotton in blasting rocks, in the line of a new canal now excavating in Lowell. The first trial was on a ledge of argillo-micaceous slate, very hard and tough. The portion selected was imperfectly stratified in an almost vertical direction, with a perpendicu- lar face about 9 feet high. Two holes each 13 inches diameter, were drilled into this rock_51 and 6 feet from the face, 12 feet asunder, and p- *Gun-cotton (No. 4 above) was enclosed in car- tridges of cotton cloth, 1} inches diameter, and respectively 2 feet 10 inches, and 5 feet long, holding 9 and 11 ounces. The holes were fill- ed with dry sand over the cartridges, (5 feet over one, and 6 over the other,) which were then fired by an attached fuse. The explosions oc- curred within a few seconds of each other, with a sharp but not loud | very little smoke. The result was highly satisfactory to the nd contractors under whose inspection the experiment was tried. The mass of rock moved was 25x5xX9 feet — 1125 cubic feet, or about 90 tons weight, moved by 20 ounces of gun-cotton ! after the method proposed, and successfully employed by Mr. A. A. aden Roxbury, which is substantially the same as that already ribed. _ Some experiments on the cotton-powder in mining have been made in Cornwall by Prof. Schénbein and Mr. R. Taylor,* and with the most satisfactory results. It was found practicable to enter immediately after explosion into a narrow adit 600 or 700 fathoms from day, where it would not have been possible to have entered under three quarters of an hour, if a like amount of common powder had been burnt there. _ The action of nitric acid in producinga highly inflammable substance is by no means confined to cotton. M. Pelouze, in 1838, observed that common unsized paper, after similar treatment in strong nitric acid, Ce. gd ulose, starch, or clean cotton fibre, may be expressed by the formula C,. F 10 Pr0* yloidine may then be considered as cellulose, in which a part of the hydrogen is replaced by nitrous acid. Substitutions of this sort have eatin * Chemical Gazette, London, Nov. 1, 1846, Physics and Chemistry. 105 been fully established by the late researches of Laurent, Hoffman and Muspratt, which have shown that the elements of nitrous acid may, like chlorine and bromine, replace the hydrogen in many organic compounds, Inconformity to this view, the formula of veylondlas will beC,, H, 2NO, 10> in which the elements of two equivalents of nitrous acid are sub- stituted for two of hydrogen in cellulose. @ arrangement of its elements is such as to produce in its com- bustion an immense volume of permanent gases and elastic vapor, on whose instantaneous oeaihabaln thes rn of the gun-cotton depends. In the production of the gun-cotton by the process described, two equiv- alents of hydrogen from the vegetable fibre react with two of nitric acid to form two of water and two of nitrous acid; the latter enter into the constitution of gun cotton, while the te formed remains in bir acid mixture, and so far dilutes it as soon to render it unfit for Hence the necessity of changing the noe rae In dilute nitric att the xyloidine dissolves, forming oxalic acid. When, in its preparation, the gun-cotton is seen to become gelatioous and Sentnaneeee itis a the Bons unds 0 ps he and Nitrogen; by C. Grr- HAR RDT, iaiecsoins Rendus, 1846.)—Two compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen have been supposed to exist, the one PNg, the other a hy- drate PN,4+HO. This composition being vara to the views of Laurent and Gerhardt, the latter undertook the reéxamination of the ct. He found that the so-called phosphuret and its hydrate were noe of three substances named s. him phosphamide, biphosphamide osp: P hosphamide, —When ammoniacal gas is made to pass over chlorid of phosphorus contained in a long tube, the chlorid becomes heated and gives off much sal-ammoniac. ‘The produet (a white powder) treated with water, dissolves in part only; the insoluble residue is impure phosphamide, which is purified by boiling for several hours in a dilute solution of potash, then in weak nitric acid and lastly in water; dried at 212° its formula is PH, This substance heated i in a metallic bath loses not a trace of water ; above 390° it gives off pure ammonia and isconverted into biphospha mide. The formation of phosphamide is pr as by the following form- ula: PH 30,+2(NH, )—6(HO)=PH,N,0,. Bipho. osphamide is formed: when dry ‘phosphamide i is heated, all the hydrogen goes off as ammonia, and there is le NO,. Mois! tened with water and heated, this substance gives phosphoric acid pies ammo- nia. Melted with caustic potash, this as well as the former orms phos- phate and gives off ammonia. This is remarkable as ab: the first amide not containing hydrogen, and on this account Gerhardt says it “ must sare puzzle the advocates of radicals and the dualistic theory.” Phospham.—The product of the action of ammonia upon the per- trogen, PNas ‘5 it is Tower a na and minute precautions are wenden as “produce , PHN,. The presence of _—— was aiden: by Dpkiebinasd and PWatler to be accidental. There is, however, 1:5 per cent. of hydrogen in this wan Fused pees Srconp Reiss Vol. ILI, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 106 Scientific Intelligence. converts it into ordinary phosphate ; moistened and quickly raised to a red vee * disengages much ammonia and is converted into metaphos- mee G. C. ScHAEFFER. eedietaicad Researches on the Nutritive Power of green and dry Fodder ; by M. Boussineautt, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., July, 1846, and Comptes Rendus, Apr., 1846.)—It is generally thought that there is more nourishment in green fodder than in the dry hay derived from an equal weight of the fresh grass. The experiments of Bous- singault show that this is not true. A heifer was weighed, and fed for ten days on green fodder, each day a quantity equal in weight to that consumed was put aside to dry. The animal was again weighed and fed for ten days on the dry fodder, then weighed again. The experietiGnt was tried three times, and each time the animal weighed a little more afier pga on the dry fodder than after the green. The difference was no h to prove that the dry food was the more nutritious, oug dlitwagh ‘the a ong proved beyond a doubt, that it was not in- ferior in sara to the G. C.S. eabacunies development of Vegetable eae in Wheat ; by M. Bovwiitereu, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., » 1846.)— —M. Matthieu de Dombasle has endeavored. “ overturn nar Geenetion opinion that plants exhaust the soil only during the formation of the seed; he asserts that a plant at the time of flowering, contains all the elements required to bring it to maturity. he experiments made by Boussingault to i this question, were carefully conducted. An equal number of plants drawn the 19th of May, the 9th of June when in flower, and the eth August at harvest, furnished the data. The plants were not only dried ‘and wiped, but submitted to organic analysis. he results ‘when calculated for a hectare, were as follows: The assimilation of dry vegetable matter, from the time of sowing to May 19th, was 6°8 kil. per day ; from May 19th to June 9th, 32-9 kil. per day ; and from eg 7th to Aug. 15th, 36°3 kil. per day. Thus the most ra rapid growth was before the time of flowering, but still the crop had nearly doubled in weight from the time of flowering to the harvest. The increase of organic matter was nearly in the same proportion. Gi Ci Bae 5. Memoir on Coffee; by M. Payen, (Comptes Rendus, May and July, 1846. Pit knowledge of this important substance, is as yet but scanty. Caffeine, legumine, oleic acid and palmitic acid, are almost the only neater, the existence of which has been satisfactorily proved ; and the small quantity of these, shows how little of the active matter in coffee is really known to us. The researches of Payen, not yet concluded, are highly interesting, and have ee 8 to light a new and very singular compound, presently to be described The first part of the memoir consists of certain estimates of the amount of nutritious and soluble matter contained in the raw coffee and in that which has been more or less roaste ~ Martinique coffee gave 40 per cent. soluble matter; 11-5 hygroscopic water, and 45°5 insoluble matter. The ease with which the soluble matter is removed, depends upon the fact, observed under the micro- scope, that the hard substance of the grain is traversed by irregular cavities opening into each other and containing the soluble matter. Physics and Chemistry. 107 Coffee roasted only until it becomes slightly red, preserves the maxi- mum of weight and of aroma, but gives out less coloring matter. In this state, 100 parts are found to have lost 15, while vols. have in- creased to 130. Roasted to a chesnut color, as is commonly done, the loss is 20 per cent., while the increase in volume is from 100 to 153. This swelling of the grain depends upon the property which the nitro- genous matter deposited within the tissue has, of puffing up remarka- bly when heated. If the heat is continued until a dark brown color is produced and the grain becomes covered with a sort of glaze, the loss is 25 per cent., while the original quantity of nitrogen, 2°45 per cent., is reduced to 1-77, being a loss of one fourth. The loss of soluble matter was found to be proportionate to the loss in weight, but in order to obtain results of practical value, instead of exhausting the coffee, the usual domestic process was tried. One litre of water (nearly 1 qt.) was filtered through 100 grammes (1500 grains) of each kind, and there was obtained of soluble matter from the brown cotlee 16:15; from the chestnut, 19-00, and from the red, 25:00. The difference in the aroma being nearly the same, the lower degree of roasting will produce not only the best and most nutritious beverage, but one free from the harsh and bitier flavor caused by action of too high heat upon the nitrogenous matter. The nature of the substances dissolved, renders this beverage not only agreeable but nutritious, compared with tea (the coffee being 100 . to one litre of water, the tea 20 gram. to one litre); the former contains three times the quantity of solid matter and double the nitrogen, of the latter. With an equal bulk of milk, and the usual amount of sugar, this drink contains six times the solid, and three times the nitro- genous matter that broth does. ; By The partial substitution of succory for coffee, was proved to be with- out real advantage, as the latter substance contains a much smaller amount of nutriment and little or no aroma, but more coloring matter. ew double salt and acid of coffee. Direct extraction of caffeine.— The new compound discovered by Payen, appears to have escaped no- tice, by reason of its remarkable disposition to change. In fact this has- tening this action, a very delicate test was obtained for the new sub- stance, and at last after much trouble, the means for its separation were tedbss S53 ate, — The process adopted affords caffeine as well as the new gerne Coffee is reduced to powder, exhausted with ether, pe eaieya SYApo- rated to dryness, and the fatty residue well wasbed with boiling water. The washings evaporated, leave a yellowish brown substance, which, treated with absolute alcohol, gives om evaporation, Crys oer feine—the usual washing with cold, and erystallization a tos ampamaai furnish it perfectly pure. i Having obtained the equivalent of this substance, Payen was able to control the analysis, which is different from that hitherto received. His formula is C,, H,. N, Og. 108 Scientific Intelligence. coffee. The alteration of the double salt, by ammonia, when carried to com- pletion, or the moderate action of heat, permits the separation of the roginate of lead may be obtained pure, and by decomposition by sul- phuretted hydrogen the acid is easily obtained and purified. The for- one equivalent of oxygen. The further investigation of these substan: ces will undoubtedly lead to some striking analogies. G, C..38, 6. Researches on Blood ; by M. Dumas, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., a saturated solution of sulphate of soda. On filtration, the liquid pass- es clean and colorless, while the globules remain upon the filter. The Moreover the attempt to wash the globules by a new quantity of the solution was not successful, and without this washing they retain a no- in the arterial condition, the saline solution containing them passed col- orless through the filter, and left them upon it; on the contrary, as ‘foon as the globules have assumed the violet tint of venous blood, the liquid passes colored. : Physics and Chemistry. 109 It is only necessary then to pass a continuous and rapid current of air through the solution upon the filter, to maintain the globules in the proper condition. The blood as soon as drawn is defibrinated, mixed in the saline solution, and thrown upon a large filter. tube in the point drawn out introduces the current of air, which also keeps the globules suspended—if they adhere to the filter they are no longer aér- ated e solution is renewed as fast as it filters off. In this way the globules are obtained perfectly free from serum. ‘The process should be conducted as expeditiously as possible. Thus the globules of the blood seem to possess vitality, as they can resist the solvent action of sulphate of soda as long as their life con- tinues, but yield to this action readily when they have fallen into asphyx- ia from privation of air. hosphate of soda and salts of organic acids are among those which st preserve the power of aération in the blood corpuscles. On the moniac, prevent the aération of the globules even in oxygen. Salts of potash seem to have less of the preservative effect, than salts of soda. Dumas asks if there is any relation between these effects and the sup- posed liability to scurvy from the immoderate use of salt meat, or the poisonous effects of ammoniacal salts. It appears from these experiments that even in the midst of a supply of air or oxygen, asphyxia may result simply from the introduction of salts which modify the action of oxygen upon the globules. Sev- eral curious points are suggested as subjects for experiment. ; _In conclusion, an analysis of the carefully purified blood globules is given—the results are, for those taken from the blood of a woman, car- 17:2; oxygen, 20°6—showing that bon, 55:1 ; hydrogen, 7:1; nitrogen, Oo. 8. 7. New Saccharimetric Process; by M. Eve. Peticor, (Comptes Rendus, June, 1846. )—Peligot’s method of estimating the quantity and kind of sugar, either solid or dissolved, or in vegetable juices, is unlike all others hitherto proposed. It is founded on the property the sugars possess of forming definite compounds with alkaline bases, and also upon the rapid conversion of grape sugar into acids by the action of alkalies, poured a second time into the filter, in order that the whole quantity of lime that the sugar can take up should be immediately dissolved. of tincture of litmus are added, and the liquid is neutralized exactly by @ normal solution of sulphuric acid. This solution should contain per litre, 21 grammes of pure monohydrate of sulphuric acid—one litre sat- urates the lime dissolved by 50 grammes of sugar. Simple inspection etermines the quantity of the lime, and even of the sugar, if the di- vision has been made for the purpose. 110 Scientific Intelligence. For sugars suspected to contain grape sugar, and also for molasses and inferior sugar, the process is conducted as before ; and next an equal quantity of the solution is heated in the water bath to 212°. If nothing dissolved in cooling. If glucose is present, the liquid becomes deep brown and smells of burned sugar. A second alcalimetric trial gives only the quantity of cane sugar which siitcuiaes; the whole of the glucose having been converted into acid, which neutralizes the lime in part. When liquids are operated upon, it is convenient to have them of the density 1-05, or about that of cane or beet juice. They filter better than when denser, and dissolve the lime more rapidly than when more di- lute. ‘The quantity of lime used should be equal in weight to the sugar supposed to be in solution. G. C.8. 8. Rapid Method of estimating Copper, by means of a Colorimeter ; by M. Jacquetarin, (Comptes ne June, 1846.)—A given quantity of pure copper, (0°5 grammes,) is diss Ived in nitric acid, an excess 0 ammonia is added, with pure water, to make the volume. of llitre. 5 cub. eco of this liquid are put into a glass tube, which is her- metically sealed. The color undergoes no change for many months. The solution is then made up to a determined volume by the addition of water, the color being kept darker than that of the normal solution. 5 cub. cent. of this liquid are placed in a tube, of the same diameter and internal thickness as those of the former. Water is then added until the tints are alike. The volume of water being known by a simple pro- portion, we can ascertain the quantity of copper in the assay solution and in the assay itself. The tints are best observed by placing the tubes against a sheet of white paper, and by looking through a small hole covered with a blue glass. The use of one eye only is necessary to success. M. Cassaseca produced a paper on a similar process, at the same meeting of the Academy of Sciences ris. G. C. <0" 9. he Mole animenas the Voltaic Arc; by M. Rive, (Comptes Rendus, April, 1846.)—The experiments of the ube were made with a Grove battery of ogee irs. The influence ef the experiments one pole had the form of a point, the other of a a plate and the distance was accurately measured by a screw The maximum length of the are between a point and plate. wath from two to six millimetres. In case both were of the same substance, the length of the are, when the point was in connection with the posi- tive, and the plate with the negative pole, was twice as great as when — the order was changed. The ‘distance was greatest with silver, iron and charcoal, least with platinum. Between different metals, that which formed the positive pole, as a point, determined the length of the we The plate at the negative pole was however not without influence. The intensity as measured by a galvanometer was found to aeenea were separated, until the luminous are disappeared. The minimum deviation was the same, whatever the nature of the su! | ee 1 Physics and Chemistry. 111 e length Do the particles of the substance are separated. The condition of the . matter during its transport, whether liquid, solid, or gaseous, could not be determined. The appearance of the deposit, in some instances, in- dicated that the matter had been in a liquid or gaseous state. The well known difference of temperature at the two poles was ex- amined under various circumstances. M. de la Rive considers that the higher temperature of the positive pole and the separation of mat- ter from that one alone, shows that the substance undergoes vibrations or mechanical actions, not communicated to the matter in connexion with the negative pole. very curious experiment seems to prove that this supposition is correct. If the poles are formed of two pointed, soft iron rods, the flame may be drawn out to a length of six millimetres. If the rods are then mag- of an electro-magnet,) the are immediately disappears, and does not the are reappears, but totally different in character. The arc can now only be drawn out to one-third its former length, and consists of snap- . de la Rive concludes with a still more curious experiment. The ti . be greatly in- creased, when one of the irons is replaced by another metal, or still better by a point of coke or hard charcoal. The sound then becomes reate : Positive pole, than : commonly thought to take place. With a battery of the same size as that used in the foregoing experiments, that deposit, in a Short time, covered the sides of the glass vessels used to such an amount, that-the light was greatly diminished. The purity of the car- bon had nothing to do with this effect, which was produced when either gas-carbon, coke or charcoal was used. | C. 8. 10. On Electro-Physiology ; by Prof. Marrevect.—(Proceed. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 26, 1846.) —Prof. Matteucci submitted to the \ 112 Scientific Intelligence. that it is a necessary consequence of the chemical processes of nutri- tion. Prof. Matteucci particularly wished to prove that the develop- e musc — which circulate either in the muscular mass, or in the nerves. It is . only by a particular arrangement of the experiment that we succeed in obtaining a muscular current. Further, all experiments contradict the opinion of an electrical current existing in the nerves. M. Matteucci proved that the current said to be proper to the frog, is, on the con- trary, a general phenomenon which exists in all the muscles that have tendinous extremities unequally distributed, and that this current sup- d to be peculiar to the frog, is only a particular instance of mus- cular current. In the second place, the Professor laid before the Section his last re- searches ‘ On Electrical Fishes.—He showed that the laws of the elec- trical shock of these animals, are a necessary consequence of the de- velopment of electricity which is produced in each cell of the electri- cal organ under the influence of the nervous power. _ In the third place, Prof. Matteucci showed the relation which exists between the Electrical Curfent and Nervous Power. He proved that muscular contraction is always produced by a phenomenon analogous to the electrical spark, and that the electrical current does but modify the nervous excitability. On these facts, Prof. Matteucci establishes a | powers. 11. Notices of the Progress of Experiments on the Influence of Light . T, (Proc. of Brit. Assoc., Sept., 1846, from the Atheneum, Sept. 19.)—The experiments described in former communications to the Association, had all been confirmed by ra was such that seeds germinated at a depth below the soil, under the in- fluence of concentrated actinic force, acting on the surface, at which they would not have germinated under the natural conditions. The leaves being developed, the action of the luminous rays then became necessary to effect the decomposition of carbonic acid and the deposi- tion of woody fibre within the plant. Under the joint influence of light and actinism the plant arrived at maturity, and then the calorific, of heat-producing rays were brought more fully into aetion to produce t ripening of fruit and the development of seed. ume. 12. On the Results of an extensive series of Magnetic Investigation, including most of the known varieties of Steel; by W. Perris, (Proe. Brit. Assoc., from the Athen., Sept. 26, 1846.) — - Process of manufacture to produce permanent magnets, having the ity capacity conjointly secured.—1. The original iron should be the purest soft iron, charcoal made (not coke); the Swedish, Physics and Chemistry. 113 from the Dunnamore mine, is better than any other. 2. Converted— with pure charcoal ; it should be carbonized lightly, and the process to be stopped when the bars, of the usual thickness, are “‘ scarcely steel rn yet so that it will harden with certainty, without an undue heat. 3. Sorted—with attention to homogeneous conversion, &c., ac- cording to the ordinary rules. 4. Melted—the pot kept covered, and not longer than necessary im fusion. 5, Cast—into a large ingot,’so as to allow of its bein ng es — es singly, before it becomes ‘re- duced to the requisite thinn 6. Rolled—while hot from casting, to save a second heating ; it should not nor doubled over, nor sheared and fagotted ; the rolling should be conducted at as low a temperature as convenient, as it thereby acquires a harder, closer texture, and finer n cutting into shape, the substance (if large or of varied form) should not be strained, as by boring with “ we ore or straight- oO 2 5 J 2 o s 5 QD cf o = Q 5 9 3 ® 3 a ° Lai | ° Lod 3 a oe n ° S Q =] = S it =) provided it be so prepared as to preserve a homogeneous and white ap- pearance of fracture when hardened, which is not so easily managed as with that of lower carbonization ; but if it be again carbonized more than usual, (as razor steel, or above that,) it rather improves ; and again an increase deteriorates it as in cast iron, and a further increase again soem saa it. In short, in the scale of carbonization there is a ession of con ntinually decreasin ng) serge ven of advantage. — of grain is affected by many savannas clbotmistuanesp which must be considered and nitcaret for in judging of it; andthe most important fact is the difference between ‘the appearance in thes hard and soft States ; for in the general properties, whether optical, mechanical, or magn netical, their omders in any set of samples, is reversed in the hard State, independently of the absolate change in each property. The Steels should be examined by breaking with a single bend at a file notch, iene 3 with a chisel, bending back, &c., change the appearance.) Am pe of 6 or 10 lineal power is better than any other power for comin it.’ The general properties, without going into deiailed description, should be as follows, the terms being comparative with other samples of less — = not at ni with the hard or —_ states ces “ e steel : + ha tia a soft sta Ina hard pia vi pee! 2 is Sion appearance seething Uniform white. dl Rather a large grain ;co ompared with rar A ‘smaller grain. ‘than itv was hate ne zor steel, (or finer if much rolled.) before. Rounded Rather i alaee in ‘Ron se elie aca aren, ns indi- ~ grain, u ndedecrystalli- © ee aks y vidually, distinct, ma oa Seta Close eerie ly close." texture, without eave. Di trict Psa h for Britie, hard. erably before. magnet- Ditto. ae duce a rt agi more freely Retains magnetism well and sound tty, _ steels. - Seconp Serizs, Vol. It, No. 7. San. ‘ 1847. Pa 114 Scientific Intelligence. a 3 2 o ~ - = © or a ° = a 5 2 °° S a = is) ~ na Ss 3 | 3 = is 3 > ® th 5 na aad hitherto been found very difficult—we may say impossible nets, prepared by these means only, differ generally in magnetic power were competent to receive. The Rev. Doctor exhibited this experi ment; and by simply passing a horse-shoe magnet thus armed with an interposed piece of sheet iron, once over each face of twelve previously a Physics and Chemistry. 115 the autumnal equinox: the mean range being under 1’ 2’. From the -observations for 1843, Mr. Broun has concluded that there is a maxi- mum of westerly declination when the sun and moon are in opposition, and a minimum when they are in conjunction ; that there is a maximum of westerly declination when the moon has its greatest north, and also when it has its greatest south declination, minima occurring when it Crosses the equator. In the diurnal period, the double maximum and minimum have been found to exist in each month of the year. In the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,’ Mr. Broun has giv- €n certain results relating to the horizontal and vertical components of the earth’s magnetic force ; but these results were obtained in scale di- visions corrected for temperature by his method. In order to reduce obtained by the new method, the following results have been deduced. 2d. Magnetic Dip.—The dip is a minimum when the sun and moon are in conjunction, and a maximum when they are in opposition. In mean diurnal period for the year, me y= Phe principal maximum occurs at 10> 10™ a, m. _ minimum = * S 40 rae A secondary maximum “ 2 O 4. mM 3 iT mi 24 : intmu + 5 40 a.™M. Makerstoun mean time being always used. These periods vary to Some extent throughout the year, the principal minimum occurring at 6 4. mu. in winter; the two minima being nearly equal to the equinoxes, * 116 Scientific Intelligence. hour after that passage; a secondary minimum about three hours after it; and a secondary maximum about eight hours after it. 3d. Total Force of the Earth’s Magnetism.—A minimum occurs when the sun and moon are in opposition, equal maxima near the quadratures, and a secondary minimum at the time of conjunction. n the mean diurnal period for the year, The principal maximum occurs at 54 40™ p, mu, | minimu 0 a.m. A secondary maximum ‘“ 7 10-4. M. bear he . ‘ that passage. Curves were exhibited illustrating these results, and also the diurnal motion of a magnetic needle freely suspended in the direc- tion of the magnetic force. From the latter some curious results have been deduced, which will be found elsewhere. It will be enough to mention, at present, that in the mean for the year, the motion from 6 4. M. till 6 P.M. is very trifling; between midnight and 6 A. wm, the needle is almost stationary, nearly the whole motion occurring between 6 A. M., noon, and 6 P.M poses to call yttro-ilmenite, because it is found to contain no tantalic or colambic acid, but in its place the oxyd of the new metal.* Ilmenic acid | seeninpat se siete the characters of columbic acid, but is distinguished y many peculiarities. Bri i ic aci columbic acid ; it becomes very y ened with hydrochloric acid, acquires a blue color by the contact of zine; it expels by fusion with carbonate of soda a much greater proportion of carbonic acid. From niobie acid it. is distinguished by the absolute in- solubility of its hydrate in concentrated hydrochloric acid, and that it does not color the bead of the blowpipe, . + att A characteristic reaction of ilmenic acid is that a solution of ilmenate of soda with hydrochloric acid, produces with nutgalls or ferrocyanid of tassium, brown precipitates much deeper than the hydrate of iron. either columbic nor niobie acid gives precipitates of so deep a color. Moreover the atomic number of ilmenium is much less than that of colum- bium or niobium. If we assume for ilmenic acid two equivalents of oxy- gen, the atomic number of ilmenium will be 62-4, (753 = I.) _ = __ The metal is obtained by igniting the ammoniacal chlorid of ilmenium in an atmosphere of ammonia. It forms a porous mass, or small co- herent flakes, with a soot-black color, like the carbon from burnt sugar. It does not decompose water; and is unattacked by strong nitric or by- * ee ete cite esl r ae ei Mineralogy and Geology. 117 drochlorie acids, and even by aqua-regia. Heated in air it takes fire and burns, leaving white ilmenic acid. ‘The specific c gravity of this acid is 4°10 to 4°20. Its sulphates, chlorid, and several of its salts have been dindied and described by M. Hermann . Hermann’s researches on columbium, niobium, and the new metal imeninm, seem to warrant the conclusion that the formula RQ, is the proper expression for the oxyds or acids of a iarge class of metals, which are usually placed in distinct groups. .Thus we may put together ura= nium, moly cent koneninie titanium, tin, vo fl ) niobi- um, pelopium m, and ilmenium. Farther study i is required before we can determine the order in bic these should be grouped among themselves, But titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, niobium and ilmenium are assim- ilated by the fact that their acids all produce a blue color with zinc and hydrochloric acid, which Dr. Wollaston described as characteristic of co- columbic acid, was from Haddam, the rety hid ose has shown to be quite rich in niobic acid. Wollaston undoubtedly obtained the niobic acid in his trials, since the pure columbic acid has not this reaction. Il. MineraLtocy anp GEoLoGy. 1. Crystallized. Carbonate of Lead, at Rossie, New York; by G. Hapie EY, (communicated for this Toukaal )—Small crystals, an uhh of an inch or less in length, are occasionally sneaked thickly over the surface of the galena of Rossie, which, when this is the case, is deeply roughened or corroded. ‘The crystals are aaa prenin terminating in four brilliant planes, two of which meet on an angle of 117° nearly, and the other two at an angle of 88°. The Satine. as we the blowpipe characters afierwards obtained, evince that the mineral j is car ponte of lead. Mus attention was ‘drawn to these crystals by Mr. 2. On Coracite, a new ore Uranium; by Joun L. LeConre, M. D., (from an article apa snwed for this erat ‘heh will appear in our next number, nest ef ineral is from the north shore of Lake Superior, where it occurs in a vein two inches wide, near the junction of _ trap and syenite. It is allied to Pitehblend, from which it appear. (from @ quantitative analysis) to differ in the substitution of alumina for the Sesquioxyd of uranium. It occurs massive without cleavage, and has a cats peer: an uneven sencbatel fracture, and a gray streak. H=45, =43 3. Plumbo-resinite and Ct Sulphato-carbonate of. Soar in Missouri; by Me LeConte oD a (communicated for this nal. ) of the Missouri black cobalt. It has a ies lustre, and sometimes ap- pears pire over the botryoidal cobalt ore but is almost transparent off. when sc sc A cimens from the Mine’ La Motte, fnave detected a green ‘mineral, abe ing in color from pale apple green to dark verdigris green, and having a radiated structure consisting of acicular crystals loosely ag- gregated. I have not yet seen perfect crystals, but from some trials have determined it to be the rare ne et sulphato-carbonate of lead. It oc- curs with the bisa of cobalt. * 118 Scientific Intelligence. 4. On the Mississippi Delta; by C..LyE.t, (in a letter to the edi- tors.)*—In a previous letter, | mentioned.to you that the report of my discourse on the delta of the Mississippi; which appeared in the Ath- eneum Journal, Sept. 26th, 1846, although corrected by me, was no ered to the British Association at Southampton. It failed to embrace even the heads of many of the arguments and data, which I adduced, and as | find that it has not been so understood by all, I am desirous of supplying one or two of the most obvious omissions. In my conjectural estimate of the probable thickness of the alluvial deposit, | alluded not only to the ascertained depth of the Gulf of Mexico, between the southern point of Florida and the Balize, but also to some borings, feet deep, made to the northward of New Orleans, near Lake Pont- chartrain, in which the engineers say they failed to reach the bottom of the Mississippi mud. In regard to the depth of the alluvium, above the head of the delta, [ remarked in my lecture, that the river, in its wan- derings over the alluvial plain, had every where cut out deep channels from 60 to 250 feet deep, and that the excavations thus made had been filled again, with the exception of certain bayous and crescent-shaped lakes, which remain as monuments of some of the former positions oc- part of the large basin, or receptacle of sediment, even if we sup- pose it to have been originally very shallow, which I know no reason for presuming. I have lately received a letter from Dr. Carpenter of New Orleans, from which I am happy to Jearn that my friend, Dr. Riddell, is repeat- ing his experiments on the quantity of earthy matter held in suspension in the waters of the Mississippi. It appears from the observations already made, that after duly allowing for the greater clearness of the nably the od, which the Mississippi has taken to accumulate its allu’ The new result will still differ remarkably from that obtained by Mr. Horner, in his measurement of the quantity of earthy matter in the Rhine at Bonn, which in volume was +¢4y¢ 37 but it contrasts still more strikingly in an opposite way, from the conclusions of Mr. Everest, in regard to the Ganges, where the proportion of solid matter, duri even months of the year, (a period in which nearly the total annual discharge of water takes place,) was found to be x3, in weight, dr git in bulk.t But in this case, we have to bear in mind not only the great height of the Himalaya Mountains, but also how much nearer the - 5 London, Nov. 6, 1846, and intended as an addition to the article on p- 34. + Edin. New Phil. Jour., Jan., 1835. iis eee - $ Jour. of Asiatic Soc., No. 6, p. 238, June, 1832. See also Mr. Prinsep, Glean- ings in Science, Vol. iii, p. 185. Also Principles of Geology, Book UM. Mineralogy and Geology. 119 course of the Ganges lies to the Equator than the Mississippi, and con- sequently the enormous quantity of rain which falls in the hydrograph- ical basin of the Indian river. We must also attend not only to the number of inches which descend annually, but also to the extraordinary quantity which sometimes pours down ina single day in Bengal. If some of your numerous correspondents would ascertain the annual amount of rain in different parts of the valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries, and would publish the same in your Journal, together with all the facts hitherto known on the subject, they would render an ae- ceptable service, not merely to the meteorologist. 5. On the Origin of the Coal of Silesia, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from the Athenzeum, Sept. 19, 1846.)—Prof. Gérrert, in his elaborate essay, endeavored to show from the number and condition of the coal fossils, and the character of the strata, that the material was tranquilly depos- line. Its stratification is nearly horizontal, having in this neighbor a slight inclination to the north or northeast. Its whole thickness may between two and three hundred feet. The coal-bearing strata overlie It; below, directly upon the limestone sandy, and above 4 unctuous clay or shale, the whole about forty feet thick On this shale rests a coa of three to five feet, the only workable one in this ighbor , covered by ten or fifteen feet of a blue or brown limestone, the uppermost palwozo- 1c stratum in our region. The clay near our coal stratum is nearly des- titute of vegetable fossils. — _ The St. Louis limestone forms the uppermost bed of the carboniferous or mountain limestone on the Mississippi. It is divided from the lower beds by a sandstone formation and another thin seam of coal, which here out mica; it forms thick banks, and may be seen in perpendicular cliffs forty-five to fifty miles below St. Louis, near Prairie du Rocher in Illinois, where its strata show a southerly dip. In its upper part, or rather between it and the St. Louis limestone, occurs the lowest bed of coal. | It may be seen in Prairie du Long, 40 miles southeast of St. Louis, in Illinois, where a small stream, the Richland creek, which higher up, near Belleville, has denuded the workable upper coal bed and the overlying limestone, expo- > 120 Scientific Intelugence. ses after cutting through the St. Louis limestone, this seam of one to two feet thickness; it then enters the sandstone, w ich here is not as thick as at Prairie du Rocher, and at last exposes the lower carboniferous lime- ably near a thousand feet thick, at least where the Mississippi cuts through it from twenty to sixty miles vis. This lower carboniferous limestone se color, often bituminous, and mostly erystal- oO! banks of the peti yer white oolite near St. Geneviéve, which is worked there and is frequently sent down the river, are in the lower part of this . Only the lower carboniferous ‘limestone contains the beauti- Owen is therefore the lower part of the carboniferous limestone of east- ern meee and southern Illinois, and our St. Louis limestone is its up- per par Dr. HK ing, who has seen this formation in the southwestern parts of Missouri, thinks that on the Osage river, this lower limestone formation ] strat it] times not far above and — from the lead-bearing .magnesian strata, are in this same lowest coal bed. 7. Cause of a S o > 8 = =} a quarries near the river bank. I have for years examined all the quarries ina ferent plates are so closely connected that they cannot be any longer dis- tinguished. At the upper end the aree majores run out quite narrow, and the aree ambulacrorum are wider ; the plates are all small there, and in many specimens distinctly separated. I could see nothing of the oral near the upperend. They have, as Drs. Norwood a remarked, two vertical rows of larger hexagonal plates in the middle, which constitute a prominent vertical ridge, on the summit of ag they interlock, forming a serrated suture. The other plates of the aree am- dulacrorum are much smaller, of more irregular shape a Ble but always, like all the other plates, e more or less hexagonal. All the plates of the aree ambulacrorum are ened by two holes, side by side, and all of them—not only those of the two larger central rows—very de- cidedly near the outer angle, or that angle farthest poe: the central ridge. These holes are placed irregularly; and generally I can only distinguish an inner vertical row of double pores, (those of the he tine ba and an outer one, next tothe are majores ; all the other pairs of pores are distributed more ‘irregularly over the surface, and it is with difficulty that I can make out something like four or five rows on each side of t middle ridge, which dwindle down to two or three rows towards the ends. vertical diameter, and very little less in the transverse. No trace of a stem has been found near per 4 ippopotamus at Sierra Leone.— ompson, Esq., letter to J. E, Gray, Esq., mentions the existerice of a small (a tamus at Sierra Leone, w ich, as Mr. Gray states, is a fact of peculiar interest, since a new species from Liberia, of corresponding size, has been described by Dr. S. G. Morton. (See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., eb., 1844, and this Jouthalj xlvii, 406.) 5. Tracks of Alligators; (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. )—Dr. clone oat aa fossil Pachyderms; (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. ‘Philad. se 1846. —Richard Ow en, Esq., haa. instituted the genus Harlanus for the species called Sus americanus by Harlan. _ It is de- scribed as approaching most nearly the tapiroid Pachyderms. The spe- ba is named by Mr. Owen, Harlanus americanus. IV. Astronomy. 1. Observations on Shooting Stars, August 10, 1846.—During the nights of August 8-9th and 9-10th, 1846, tbe aay at this place was over- cast. The sky remained cloudy on the evening of the 10th, but never- theless, the observers (Messrs. L. W. Hart, J. H. Lane, W. Manl. Smith, an myself) sat up, in the hope of sere "favorable ehaakad during the night. Not long before midnight.the clouds passed off. Ta ing our — in the open air, we ee hed from OF a. m. to 2 a.m. of the Ith, and observed shooting stars — ~ NEB. - eB 5. We BN. WwW. Aug. AM, Ob a, poet ar'e. 6128 an & pag 6 =14 1 ausihied A. M. ‘Sica 9g 5 —32 * An account of the St. Louis rocks, by Dr: Engelmann, will be found on p. 120, 126 Scientific Intelligence. The piaeesormon! for further observation seemed so small, and the presence of rei n was so embarrassing, that we retired at the end of the second hou The evening “of the 11th was: beautifully clear. Mr. Francis Bradley and myself observed from 9" to P. M., and saw in me hour forty-one different shooting stars, viz..18 in the N. 'W. and 23 in The id not rise until about half an hour after nine, a of course in- grave but bess Many of these meteors were brilliant, and in their di- rection and gen character were similar to those heretofore observed at this BRL :: is — worthy of mention, that the Aurora Bo- realis (which had not been seen here with certainty since the 14th of June previous,) was visible « on the st of the 1Jth and 12th. These comes were slight ; the streamers few in number, not reaching an altitude e than 4°. Pies chee trataone of the morning of the 11th, (even supposing that the moon-light obscured half of the meteors, ) sore! to oe but a slight recurrence of the exhibition usual at this period. e results of the evening of the 1ith seem however to jutity the inference that the display did not fail this year; and perhaps, in favorable circumstances, we might have seen the meteors nearly as abundant as on former piiecreatien; vurnal states that on the morning of November ee meteors were usually numerous. A communication signed B., in “ The New 3” of Jacksonville, Florida, (of Nov. 13, 1846,) alleges A on the morning of Oct. 20th, 1846, numerous shooting stars were seen and explosions heard. As no numbers e given in either case, it is not easy to decide how re- markable these athe really were. E. C. H. New Haven, Conn. 2. Ancient returns of Halley’s Comet.—In a paper read May 8, 1843, to the French Academy of Sciences, ( Comptes Rendus, xvi 1003 ) M. Laverer announced that amo mong the notices o of comets, extracted by M. Edouard Biot, from Chinese then (and communicated to the Bureau des Longitudes, ) were observation n 1456, and also in 1378, of a body which was undoubtedly the comet of "Halley Laugier gives the following elements for ‘i378, which very well repre- sent the Chinese observations. Perihelion ape A. D. 1378, Nov. 8°77. dist Inclination, ie 56 Longitude of ascending node, 47 : © ae eahelion art Equin. of 1378 “Motion, Rawapiatie He adds the following table of the comet’s revolutions. 1456 - - 77°58 years. fon 1 * 1531 . - i) Peete 1531 “ 1607 - - 7615“ ~ 1607“ 1682 . - 7491.“ 1682 “17 - : 76:49“ 1759 “ 1835 - - 7663 “ Astronomy. 127 _In a communication made July 27, 1846, (Com. Ren., xxiii, 183,) Lau- gier announces as a result of further investigations among Biot’s extracts, the discovery of three earlier returns of this comet, viz: (1.) A. D. olutions of 77°25 years. (3.) A. D. 4 1378, twelve revolutions of 77°25 years. In addition to the usually ized perturbing causes, which may have operated in producing this i et. On , (Boston, pp. 352, 12mo,—the 18th No. of a series well known as furnishing, together with much other important matter, the most reliable statistics of our country,) comprises a very valuable catalogue, by Prof. Peirce of Harvard University, of the comets whose orbits have been com- puted. The catalogue by Rev. Mr. Hussey, intended to include every comet, whether the elements of its orbit were known or unknown, (Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag., vols. ii, iv, vii) appears not to have been con- tinued later than the year 1744. The catalogue by Olbers and Schu- macher, (republished from Schumacher’s Astronomische Ab ungen, in the Quar. Jour. Sci. Lit. and Arts of Roy. Inst., Lond. vols. 16, 17, 20,) ended with May, 1825. Since that time, the investigations of as- have determined the elements of several comets previously en- . To collect and arrange these, adding all those discovered up to the present time, was a work much needed, and Prof. Peirce has rendered His catalogue comprises I, a chronological arrangement of the ele- of the new orbit, and into the first, second, third or fourth subdivision of the table as the inclination may be in the first, second, third ot fourth i idges the labor of deter- mining whether any newly-discovered comet is identical. with any of Prof. Peirce’s catalogue contains five comets whose elements have not i ted from ancient obser- f Ti vations, with such precision as they may warrant, viz: B. C. 137, 69, 12, A T 128 Scientific Intelligence. The longitudes of the perihelion and node are not reduced to 1850, but belong to the mean equinox of their respective years Perih. “| |Long. asc. gaat {Date of Perit p pas. ae he keda erih, |. iael. dist: Boy 7 ‘Gonipatiee stir and inte time. — A.D. 770.June 66. | 899 a o loos | R. Aimnd. iDec. 1845. 962. Dec. 30°16, | 350 35'|/ 268 3/179 33'/0°5518 | R. |Hi Jan. 1846. H. 1378.Nov. 8°76 47 17 |299 31/17 5605835 |R. |Laugier, (May 1843, 1468.Oct. 7-41 61 15/356 3/44 19 (0°85328|R. ‘Laugier. Jan. 1846. siege 24-47, | 288 58 40 [51 = 0-7376 | D. longi pes 1846, Sept. 3°662.) 132. 50°! ae 37 45 038598 | R. . 1846. 1668. Feb. 28:8.. | 357 17° 2 135 58 '0°004786) R. Hed: “Apr. 18 1843. Prof. Peirce’s catalogue contains 174 comets, reckoning that of April, 1556, as identical with that of July, 1264, and that of Aug. 13, 1770, a he with that of October, 1585; and omitting in the enumeration a of May 14, 1846, (discovered too recently for asihecter we have, Nake to the middle of 1846, 184 different ebineth whose elements are de- mined with more or less ce rtainty. The whole number of which we ay any record i is about 600. 4. Le Verrier’s Planet.—In our last number (vol. ii, p. 439) was an- nounced the Risberg of the planet aac: Uranus, in "accordance with the predictions of Le Verrier. This discovery must be considered one of the most remarkable naga in the annals of science, and elevates Le Verrier to the first rank among astronomers. Of its history, we have room at present only for the following brief sketch. Omitting to cite various notices which indicate that for several years past there has been among ttronomers a growing suspicion of the exist- ence of some unknown body in our system, by which the motions of co Ap is disturbed, we may quote lle following as one evidence. he Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci., "igen re Sept. 1, 1845,) xxi, 524, is 7 revhoka from the preface to New Tables oF ‘Uranus, by “ered Bouvard, communicated to the Academy, in viwhich, after speaking of the impractibility of reconciling, by any existing theory, the computed and the observed places of this planet, he adds: ‘“‘the discordances between the observations and the theory induce me to believe that there is much probability in the idea proposed by my uncle, (Alexis Bouvard, whose tables of Uranus, &c. oer printed in 1821,) as to the existence of another shanti disturbing Uranus. ‘This opinion, moreover, is further strength- ened by the analogy wtih appears in the periodicity of these discordances, — Re which Saturn would present if we should suppose Uranus un- si an session of Nov. 10, 1845, (Comp. — xxi, 1050,) Mons. U. . Le Verrier presented his First Memoir on. the Theory | of Uranus. Having alluded to the discrepancies heteaen he observed and computed places, he says, ‘‘in the course of the last year, M. Arago roped to me that the importance of this question made it the duty of every astron omer to do his best to clear it up. I abandoned at once, in order to vestigate Uranus, the researches on comets which I had undertaken, and of which several portions have already been communicated. Such is the * This may be the same as Prof. Peirce’s No. 23; yet the orbits differ widely. Asironomy. ~ 129 origin of the work which I have the honor to day to present to the Acad- emy.” He proceeds to state in general his investigations of all the known perturbing causes operating on Uranus, and his. determination of the actual amount of departure of Uranus from the places assigned by the, theory. -In his second communication to the Academy, (at the session of June 1, 1846,) Le Verrier presents a history of the observations upon Uranus, and of the mode in which the tables of its motions have been constructed, and the errors which they involve; and a sketch of various hypoth- eses proposed to account for the inequalities of the motions of the planet. ce of an unknown planet disturbing Uranus, more plausible? After showing where this new planet cannot be situated, he arrives at this question—“ Is situated in the Ecliptic, at a mean distance double that of Uranus? And if so, where is this planet actually situated ? What are the elements of the orbit which it traverses?” As one result of a rigorous discussion of this question, he gives, as a first approximation, this momentous conclusion, that in assigning to the planet a heliocentric longitude of 325° for Jan. 1, 1847, there cannot be an error of 10°. This assigned place he then promises to bring within narrower limits, by new computations. In re- capitulating the labors required by his undertaking, he adds—‘‘ The ex- istence of a planet hitherto unknown being thus established beyond a doubt, I have reversed the problem hitherto proposed in computing per- bations i been obliged to set out from the inequalities observed in Uranus, in order » deduce the elements of the disturbing body, to give the place of this planet in the heavens, and to show that its action perfectly accounts for | the apparent inequalities of Uranus.” i nga This remarkable prediction of the position of a planet hitherto entirely unknown, uttered with calm confidence by the mathematician in his t, seems received with faint faith even by the astronomical ob- stranger would have presented a plain disc, and would thus have instant- ly disclosed its true character. Or if, with a smaller instrument, its place had been carefully measured, the observation of the next morning would have shown its proper motion. |. oki ne Bag : On the Bist of August, 1846, Le Verrier, with implicit reliance on the truth of his computation, presents to the Academy, a memoir On THE PLANGT WHICH CAUSES THE ANOMALIES IN THE MOVEMENT OF Uranus,” with a determination of its mass, its orbit and its actual position, (Comp. Ren., xxiii, 428.) In this paper he gives the elements at which he had arrived, as follows : vbitcite tas hace MER - Semi-axis major of the orbit, . |. 36154 Period of sidereal zevolutionys i Jee Rees Ex ici 010761 Long. of perihelion, QR4° 45! M. Eqx. 1847'°0 ‘Mean long. Jan. 1, 1847, 318 47 3300 J SS. Sxcoxp Senies, Vol. III, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 17 w 2 © = pwd : & E 130 Scientific Intelligence. From which he derives the es position of the nate: ue 1, 1847. True heliocentric longitu Distance from the Sun, 86 ns and remarks that the planet was in opposition August 19th previous, and from 207 to 233 sidereal years. The brilliancy of the planet ought to be eter at opposition he action of whe new planet, with elements as above determined. re- conciles with theory, within owe narrow limits, the observations of Ura- nus, both | modern and ancien aes) +h ast tne 1nait ference of astronomical ps de for it appears hardly renibie that search could then have been made in the place pointed out by Le Verrier, with- out immediate success. On the 5th of October, (Comp. Ren., xxiii, 657,) Le Verrier ie the fifth and last part of his researches, ‘in which he gives his reasons for concluding tke the plane of the orbit of wie new planet is sclinad at least 4° o the plane of the orbit of Uran In a postscript, he adds, that on the Isth of September, he seieanh wilenids to M. Galle of Ber- lin, asking his aid in discovering the planet, and that this astronomer dis- covered the body on the ek day on which the letter reached him. Its observed place Sept. 23, 12°0™ 14°, Berlin m. t., was R. A. 328° 19! 16” and S. dec. 13° 24’ 8-2; only 52’ from the pias assigned by Le Verrier. M. Galle was furnished with the Berlin Aca ademy Sihhane of the 21st hour, (by Bremiker,) then just published, yet other astronomers could with very little labor have made for themselves from fie star-cata- logues, charts abundantly sufficient for the detection of an such brilliancy. The whole history of the affair evinces pe distrust or apathy on the part of the astronomical observers, and undoubting confi- dence on the part of the mathematician,—confidence which the event has most fully justified. The annals of science show that a discovery has often been made about the same time in different countries, and by persons unconscious of each other’s labors. The present case offers another instance of this nature. on the Lond. Edin. and Dub. Phil. Mag., Vol. xxix, No. 197, Suppl. , Dec., 1846, G. B. Airy, Esq., the Astronomer Royal, has Sublishod n numerous letters and other documents, (most of which had ale pg appeared in the London Atheneum of Oct. 3, 17,31, and Nov. 1846,) proving that age 4 C. Adams, of St. John’s College, Cam- bridge, undertook, as lon as 1843, an investigation of the anoma- nus. Asa a ean of his labors, he left, on one of the last ries of October, 1845, at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, a paper which the fbllowing i is an ex nibases — * According to my pT ra the observed irregularities in the mo- tion of Uranus may be accounted for by supposing the existence of an exterior mai the mass and orbi t of which are as Mean dies) motion in in 365 1° 30"9 Mean longitude, Oct. 1, 1845, - . - - 5 Coe nara i © secwggmes® - : - - - ~~ 315° 55! Excentric . . . . - 01610 Mass, : : . : - 0-000 Astronomy: 131 If the English astronomers had now searched the wom 42% es but a few degrees on each side of the point here ni we Adams tributed to a want of confidence in the ue Or if Mr. Adams’s note had then been printed, he would have secured the glory which is now, according to the recognized rule, due to M. Le Verrier. So easily The coincidence between the position for the planet assigned in Le Verrier’s paper of June 1, 1946, and that which Mr. Adams had given, was so remarkable, that Pr rof. Challis u ndertook to search for the body, vatory, one of the largest wet sa in the wor He commenced his sweeps July 29, 1846, and between this date walk the time of the arrival of the news of the discovery at Berlin, he actually secured two rva- eee: of ~ planet, but without recognizing them until then. These places P. D. 1846, Aug., 44 ie 36" 25 Qyh 580 14°70 102 57 322 12 3 26 21 57 26°13 103 2 O2 pare a letter to Mr. Airy, dated Sept. 2, 1846, Mr. Adams gave results mewhat different from those communicated in October, 1845; the dif faceons being due to the assumption of a mean distance about one-thirtieth less. “He suggested, moreover, that “ by still farther diminishing the dis- tance, the agreement between the theory and the late observations migh be rendered si and the eccentricity reduced at the same time to a very small quantit The new planet has doubtless been seen at all the observatories in this country, and may be easily detected by a good spy-glass. In the Sidereal Messenger, Vol. i, No. 6, Prof. Mitchel, the director of the Cincinnati . . x 4 upon the body with the large refractor. —— received, Oct. 28th, the news of the discovery, he directed the telescope, soon after 6 r. M., to the re- gion of the heavens occupied by the planet, — his place at the finder, with a disc round, clear, and beaut as that of i cigs eye was now placed to the eye piece of the great refractor an unspeakable pleasure, I found a penta disc, so well defined, —_ with- Measure the diameter of the disc, six measures be ing made by his er ant, and six by himself; the mean of the whole aie 2 523. is somewhat less than the result given by Schumacher. The real ineaasied of the planet tin poohahly more than 40,000 miles. 132 Scientific Intelligence. The name of the new planet seems not yet quite determined. The tee ta se ee of Janus, Oceanus, Neptunus, Atlas, &c. have ropose rrier, to ‘whom the right of imposing the name poe artes belongs, has sdehegated this right to M. Arago. The latter declares that it ought to bear the name of its illustrious discoverer, and denominates it Le Verrier. It seems unwise thus to depart from the re- ceived system of nomenclature; as Uranus and the five small planets must then change their ‘ideo: and it is also quite possible that the names of future discoverers may be either unpleasantly short or immoderately long, or otherwise unsuited for this celestial use. 5. New ets.—A — was idobdorda (Com. Ren., Oct. 5, 1846) i in Ursa Maier, by De Vico at Rome, about 8 p. m., Sept. 23, 1846. Its R. A. and N. decl. were. dindlnisbice Its approximate place, ees 23, 10> 11™ 29%, iy R. A. 23" 65 less than tau Urse majoris, and oeebe ation 7 telescopic pues was detected (Lond. Atheneum, Oct. 24, 1846) in be constellation Coma Berenices, by Mr. J. R. Hind d, London, about 4 4.m., Oct. 19, 1846. It was a a faint nebulosity, 2’ or 3 j in diameter, with a central bright spot. Daily motion, in R. A. about 3™ 12% increasing; dec]. diminishing 12’. The following are two positions obtained by com- parison with Beta Leonis. Oct. 18, 16°15" 11', Grm.t. 1159491 14 59 22 17_ 2 23 11 59 575 14 59 8 It is supposed to be a different body from that discovered by De Vico, Sept. 23. V. Miscecnangeous INTELLIGENCE. 1, Smithsonian Institution.—As this Institution is now taking on a definite form, under the law of Congress approve 10, be desirable to give an outline of its leading features, and to designate the valuable objects which we trust will be accomplished under it. It wil at James Smithson, Esq., of London, gave his whole property to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an ye for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men. The sum of mone. paid into the United States Treasury under this bill, was $515.1 169, which has been on interest at 6 en cent. since Septem mber Ist, 1838, yielding, on the Ist of ae 1847, the a sum of $242, 1129. are, for their respective terms 0 ‘office, constituted an a a Intelligence. 133 of Congress, two of whom shall be members of the National Institute, in the city of Washington, and resident in the said city, and four others, in- habitants of States, and no two of them in the same No. (vol. ii, p. 440 ) we gave om a of these officers as chosen according to law, last ’ September. The Board of sath have power to elect one of their own number as “ Chaneellor,? « suitable person” as Secretary, and three of their own body as an eon Committee. It 1s provided that the Board shall at once cause to be erected, out of the Pr carer interest of the pene a suitable building of sufficient size, and with proper rooms or halls fo nt, upon a liberal perm of ob- jects in all devartinanis of natural history, a chemical laboratory, a library, @ gallery of art, and the necessary lecture rooms. All objects of art, an come of the foundation, which will be over $50,000. Of this sum the Regents are authorized to appropriate not exceeding an average of ,000 annually, for the gradual ct on of a library, composed o valuable works pertaining to all departme of human knowledge. To in this most important work, the bill erie that the owner of ever) Congress Sueh, in brief, is an taind of this sotehaciols which as yet is unde- veloped in its details, but contains the germ of usefulness and honor for Board of Regents. He has been chosen from a conviction of his une- qualled merits for the office, although more than one hundred applications r the post were before the Board. rof. Henry’s election to this important office, ras at once command the sconbiarion of all scientific men in the success and permanent value of this noble i: ea Under his eaiien we have a sufficient and diffiision of knowledge among cnet lek signally accomplished. We regard the organization of this Institution (aside from the testa mentary obligations which re sted upon sneemhae see" act highly honorable to vernment, as well. as, to-the disting gentlemen whose in- telligence and untiring energy have planned and eon through Con- 2. British Association.—The meetin of, the British Association in September | last, from. Amey Oth to the 16th, is said to have exceeded in interest any that had precede ed it. Besides a large number of the dis- tinguished men of science of Britain, there were many present from 134 ' Miscellaneous Intelligence. the continent; among whom are seproep Messrs. Agassiz, CErsted, Rerihduateniet Svanberg, H. $y Beharibsin Matteucci, Koninck, von Middendorf, and Wartmann. ~The e proceedings of the Association Cambridge meeting, and the rest from dividends on stock, sale of the volumes of reports, and other items. Among the payments, we ob- serve that 3,300 dollars were given on account ‘of grants to aid in scien- tific researches, in various departments, 2,500 dollars to an assistant secretary, accountant, &c. for 18 months; and 1,000 dollars, for the expenses of the meeting at ip ntenetears in connection with sundry disbursements for advertisin ~The annual address, déliveted by Sir R. I. Murchison, the President elect, presents a lucid review of the investigations in science promoted the Association, and spirited sketches of the recent labors of some of the th See men present at the meeting. Of Agassiz, he says: “ Switzerland has again.given to us that great master in paleeontology, who wae put arms into the hands of British geologists, with which they have conquered vast regions, and who, now on his road to new glories in America, brings to us his report on the fossil fishes of the basin of London, which will, he assures me, exceed in size all that he : ons written on ichthyolites.” Of Pr ue von Middendorf: ** Amon sources of just pride and gratification, no one has afforded me — oes than to welcome hither the undaunted Siberian explorer, Prof. von Middendorf. Deeply impressed as ]|.am with the estimation in which science is held by the sti ruler of the empire of Russia, I cannot but hope that the presence of this traveler, so singularly dis- tinguished for his enterprising saipica may meet with a friend in every Englishman who is. acquainted with the arduous nature of his travels. To traverse Siberia from south to north and from west to east—to reac by land neh extreme northern headland of 'Taimyr—to teach us, for the first time, that even to the latitude 72° north, trees with stems extend hemmclent’ in that meridian—that crops of rye, more abundant than in his native Livonia, grow beyond Yakutsk, on the surface of that frozen subsoil, the intensity and measure of c oldii in which, he has determi by thermometric experiments—to explain, through their language and physical form, the origin of tribes now far removed from their parent stock—to explore the far eastern regions of the Sea of Ohkotsk and of the Shantar Isles—to define the remotest northeastern boundary be- tween China and Russia—and, finally, to enrich St. Petersburgh with the natural productions, both fossil and recent, of all these wild and untrodden lands, are the ‘exploits for which the ‘Royal Geographical iety of London has, at its last meeting, conferred its Gold Victoria Medal on this most successful explorer. Prof. v. Middendorf now visits us to converse with our naturalists most able to assist him, and to in-_ Spect our museums, in which, by comparison, he can best determine eee ‘of specific characters before he completes the description of is accumulations ; and I trust that during his stay in Englan nd Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135 he will be treated with as much true hospitality as I have myself re- ceived at the hands of his kind countrymen.” After speaking of the labors of CErsted and Faraday in one and the same field, he proceeds as follows, honorably noticing one of the first sent at the boring of an artesian well at Rivesaltes; the water was found, and spouted up abundantly. ‘They proceeded to the tubing, and to my friend, M. Bassal, who was with me—‘ This is a remarkable fact, posed of a hollow boring rod, formed of wrought iron tubes screwed end to end; the lower end of the hollow rod is armed with a perfora- bular rod, in order to form around it an annular space through which the water and the excavated material may rise up. The upper end ot jumpe boring tube, offer nothing particular. When the boring tube is to be worked, the pump must be: first put in motion. — Through the interior of the tube a column of water is sent: down to the bottom of the bore- holes, which water, rising in the annular space between the exterior of the hollow boring rod and the sides of the bore-hole, creates an ascend- ing current which carries up the triturated soil: the boring tube is then worked like an ordinary boring rod; and as the material is acted upon 136 Miscellaneous Inielligence. water, there is no longer any occasion to draw up the boring tube to clear them away, making a very great saving of time. Another im- structions) through the strata to be penetrated, thus getting rid at once of nine-tenths of the difficulties of boring.” : - Sir John Guest asked Mr. Vignolles to explain the system of percus- sion boring, for the information of those gentlemen present who might acquainted with it. Mr. Vignolles said, instead of boring with augers or rods, there was a heavy weight suspended by a rope and pul- ley; and fixed to the bottom of the weight was a tool of the crown form, viz. a circular tool of iron, indentated at the bottom. There was no description of rock on which he had tried it that this tool did not penetrate with facility. The prejudice of English workmen, however, had hitherto prevented its introduction into this country ; but he had no doubt it would make its way, particularly if it could be combined with Fauvelle’s system. 45 4, Discussion on the Potato Disease, (Brit. Assoc., from the Athe- num, Sept. 19.)}—Mr. W. Hogan read a paper ‘t On Potatoes raised the same process with success. e proceeding consisted in growing the seeds first in a hot-bed, and then transplanting. He considered this ay.—Dr. Crook attributed the attack in the year 1845 to “cold.” The cold burst the vessels; and then came the disease. eated-the doctrine that the disease arose from fungi; and he (Dr. Buck+ land) believed so too. There was, in fact, a fungiferous: miasm e€X!st ing, which, like cholera, attacked not all, but those who were predispo- . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 187 the fungi would appear on it.—Mr. E. Soy believed that the disease depended on chemical changes, not on the attack of a fungus.—Mr. Busu had examined the diseased potatoes under the microscope, and in the early stages had always failed to discover the slightest indication of the existence of a fungus. the disease advances, first one fungus appears, and then another,—and at last animal life. This was the pro- gress of all vegetable decay. The disease always commences on the outside of the potato, and proceeds to the centre. He had also found he disease constantly attended with the development of crystals of ox- alate of lime.—Prof. BaLrour stated that some fungi attacked living and healthy structures,—others only diseased ones. ‘The fungus of the po- tato was a Botrytis; which he believed attacked healthy structures.— Mr. A. Srricxnanp said, in reference to Dr. Buckland’s recommendation to mow down the potatoes, that when his neighbors mowed down their potatoes he dug his up. They had lost nearly all theirs, whilst he had saved nearly all his.—Dr. LanxesTEx remarked on the want of evidence to support the theories of either cause or remedies that had been brought forward. Cold and heat had been said to act, by destroying the tissues of the potato; but no destroyed tissues had been n to exist. Debility had also been supposed to exist ; but no proof was giv- en of the existence of debility : and the Dean of Westminster himself had admitted that he had seen the healthiest potatoes destroyed in three ays. Positive observation was evidently opposed to the fungus theory. not been more successful than letting them alone ; and it ought now to be known, that this meeting had done nothing more valuable than to show the insufficiency of all theories and remedies hitherto advanced. 5. On the Educational Statistics of Oxford, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., — from the Atheneum, Sept. 19, 1846.)—Mr. Heywoop described a ; fits : attention to the results of the examination ealled the ‘* Great Go,” with which a theological examination is connected at Oxford, including not merely the historical books of the Bible, but also,an accurate know. ledge of the thirty-nine articles and of the texts usually quoted in proof of their several propositions. Some criterion of the working of the pass, while 126 are rejected. ‘Thus New Senuss. Vol. Ill, No. 7.—Jan., 1847. 138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. and ethical works, looking rather to the difficulties of grammar and phil- than to their ethical value. Science is the technical term at Ox- ford for moral —, and each separate treatise is called a science ; —thus asi student who has read Aristotle’s Ethics and Rhetoric, a Dia- ood’s object was to call attention to the neglect of the retinal and physical sciences, and to the great proportion of persons rejected or plucked at the final examination, and contended that these evils were avoided by the system pursued at Cambridge. 6. Modification of Dr. Whewell’s Anemometer, for measuring the Velocity of the Wind; by Dr. Rosrnson, (Brit. Assoc,, from the Ath- enzum, Sept. 19, 1846.)—Dr. Robinson explained to the section ver- bally the nature of the various anemometers hitherto employed to meas- ure the force of the wind, and distinguished Whewell’s from them, as a measure merely of comparative rate. The fault of it was, that the instrument gave no absolute measure of velocity in miles per hour, and that it reduced the rates to no standard, and therefore the observations made at one observatory were not capable of comparison with those at another. He had applied an observation of Mr. Edgeworth, who was a family ene of his own, to the construction of such an addition as would render Whewell’s anemometer more perfect in this respect. He deciad on a vertical axis three or four arms, carrying a ical cups at their extremities. ‘These cups opposed much less resi tance to air acting on the concave sides than on their convexities, wo ‘in such ratio that uniform revolution was produced at the rate of one- third of the ity of the wind. From this measure, which would -be the same for all sizes of the instrument, and at all places, the mean — of te wind during a given period ‘could always be obtained in miles per He concluded by reading some of the determinations of his own crm at the observatory at Armagh. 7. On the se a a l Distribution of Round and Elongated Cra: nia; by Prof. Rerzius, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from the Athenzeum, Sept. 19.)— —On this pa ra lengthened discussion arose on the degree to which physical peculiarities of races may become modified by climate, education, progress of civilization, and the effect of dwelling with high- erraces. Mr. Lyell gave it as the result of his recent observations in the Southern States of America, that the negro race is much altered does exist, the result is ever to retain and 68-8 the higher devel- opments on the white races » 8. On the Deviation of Falling Bodies from the Perpendicular j by Prof. Sacthats (Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 26, 1846.)—I shall give a short history of these experiments, as far as this can be done by memory, without any assistance of books. The first ah gee of merit were made, | think in 1793, by Prof. Guglielmini. He m bodies fall from a height of 231 feet. As the earth rotates from ion to east, each point in or upon her describes an arc proportioned to its distance from the axis; and, therefore, the falling body has, from the beginning of the fall, a greater tendency towards the east than the point of the surface which lies perpendicularly below it. Thus, it must strike a point lying somewhat east of the perpendicular. Sull, the odiffer- ence is so small, that great heights are necessary for giving mts a de- viation of some ‘tenth parts of an inch. The experiments of Gugliel-. mini gave indeed such a deviation ; but.at the same time, they gave a deviation to the south, which was not in accordance with the mathe- matical calculations. "Laplace objected to these experiments, on the ground that the author had not verified his perpendicular, until some months afierwards. In the beginning of this century, Dr, Benzenberg undertook new experiments, froma. height of about feet. The book in which he describes his oe contains, in an appendix, researches and illustrations upon the subject from Gauss and Olbers 5 to which several. abstract Is 4 older arenes are added. The paper these experiments have considerable ee among themselves, and that their mean, therefore, cannot be of et value. In some other experiments made afterwards in a deep pit, Dr. ob- tained only the easterly qefanen i but they seem not to deserve more confidence. Greater faith is o be p laced in the experiments tried by et Reich in a pit of 504 feet, at Freiberg. Here the easterly devi ious reasons and suggestions with abi a repeating the obser- vations Sir J. Herscuet said, that from a conversation with M. Oersted he had been inclined to think that the deviation of falling bodies towards, the south in these northern latitudes—which was an. observed | act, al~ the mere oh constant, in ond is iecdonedie proportion to Sree fed e is the ‘result ; and total. deviation, pe Aa towards be aia ke be in the proportion of the height from which the body descended, since it is easy to see that its entire course would be rectilinear. This fact, therefore, which could readily be determined by well conducted observations, would be a decisive test 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of the soundness of the opinion ; and this was the chief object which M. Oersted had in view. From quent conversation, how- ever, with Mr. Grove, he was inclined to be more doubtful of this explanation. Mr. Grove said, that inasmuch as a falling body was moving between electrical currents, placed both north and south of its line of fall, in his opinion the effect of the one would counterbalance that of the other, so as together to produce no effect.—M. Oersted said the point of the lake where reflection takes place, and is, therefore, lake, it is easily shown by trigonometry that the height of the cloud above the level of the lake is 11. Hydrodynamics, (Proc. of Brit. Assoc., in Atheneum, Sept. 19, p. 963.)—An elaborate report on fluid motion, waves and tides, dis- charge of gases through small orifices, sound, simultaneous oscillations of fluids and solids, and other points in Hydrodynamics, was read be- fore the British Association, by G. B. Stoxes. Under the head of waves, the researches of Mr. Green, Prof. Kelland, and Mr. Airy were Brit. Assoc., : d, from the the Atheneum, Sept. 19, 1846.)—Mr. Wangan concluded Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 as waves of sound were reflected echoes, so he conceived they must suffer refraction; though the observing of this was attended with ou imental difficulties ; but that these waves were diffracted, he conceived no one could doubt who would attend to the varying sound of a cascade, as you approached it round a bending course, it being at first hidden from sight by interposed rocks, banks or other obstacles: 3. Weather—M. Araco ina recent memoir, (Jameso n’s Edinb. Jour., xli, 2,) announces and supports the opinion t that “ whatever the e pr of the sc sciences, never will observers who are trustworthy te careful of their reputation, venture to foretell the state of the weather.” In a pre- vious memoir he had shown that the influence of the moon and of comets is not nant and that predictions ef*the tS apapel cannot therefore be nch of astronomy properly so ca 14, Nort Pala —Capt. Parry and Sir Joie Barrow urge the impor- tance and Srectioubility (Jameson’s Jour., xl, 295) of reaching the North Pole. The plan proposed by Capt. Parry i is to leave the ship at Hakluyt’s Headland (where a previous winter had been spent) in the month of April, when the ice would present a hard, unbroken surface. It is sup- 15. Dust on: Vesselside, This pebodiedl is most Geomeinn ai the Cape Verds, and it is shown by Mr. Darwin, ( Pro- cee | o. 5, p. 27,) to be derived from the African coast bre found sixty-seven ippiviavot infusoria in by this traveler and Lieut. James, ‘hey were with one exception of nown species, and all but two were of freshwater origin. Tt was re- marked that among them were African species, but no characteristic Af ee forms. steamer hae in which the statement is made that Cape} Robeees was the first who ever crossed the Atlantic in a steam ship. A reference to Vol. XXXVili, p. 155 of this Journal, will show the error of this asser- tion. e steam ship Savannah, ‘Capt. Moses Rogers of Savannah, Ga., in 1819 successfully crossed and recrossed the Atlantic, using steam eam du- ring the greater part of her voyage. It was nearly twenty years after Un saben that Capt. Roberts made his first voyage in a steam ship to the nited Sta Our asidviion was called to the assage alluded to, in the Gentle- man’s Magazine, by a letter from William ei Esq., of New York, author of “The Social History of Great Brit 17. o ah Meteorites; (L’Institut, No. 666, Oct 7.)—A fall of me- teorites took place, on the 8th of May last, on both banks of the river Po- tenza, in aly, to the northeast of the village of Monte-Milone, eight miles from Mac A cages! if A. M. there was a violent report heard, 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. which was followed after three minutes by a fall of stones, one of which was dug out immediately after from a hole 66 centimeters in depth. It weighed about a pound. A great number of pieces fell, and the greater part in the bed of the river. The largest obtained weighed six pounds, The exterior is a black crust; within the color is grayish white. oe. texture is semi-crystalline, and it presents small metallic points. Som trials indicated the presence of magnetic pyrites, nickel and cobalt, but no It resembles, it. is stated, the meteorite which fell the 16th of Sept., near oe, rdhausen, of which a complete analysis has been given by 13, 6 aaa a in the New Red Sandstone of Storeton, near Liverpool; by Joun Cunnineuam, (Jour. Geol. Soc., No. 8, p. 410.)—Mr. Cunning- ham has detected small footprints in the "Store ton sandstone, which from their form he refers to the order Grallw of birds, The tracks were ten inches apart, and as far as in view were right and left successively. 19. Explosive Paper,—M. Pelouze mentions a discovery by which it is easy to ascertain whether the paper has been well prepared. If the Bape dissolves in ether it is perfect; if not it has been badly prepared. - Gun-Cotton, (Atheneum, No. 996.)—Gun-cotton has been rejected Pes military purposes by the British Board of Ordnance, on account of its exploding at a much lower temperature than gunpowder, and also its pro- ducing moisture within a gun, rof. Schonbein has lately stated that his Gun-cotton is not identical with the Xyloidine of Braconnot and Pelouze. The latter is soluble in The Bavarian Government have made Gun-cotton, like camp government monopo awdust has lately ben aaiete which has the same properties as. Faso though less effec 21. Raikoays in Italy, be hs )—The net of railway in Italy which the Pope seems disposed to grant, will embrace six principal lines; fort Civita Vecchia to the frontier of Tuscany; Bologna to Ferrara; Forli to Ravenna. There is talk also of in rea ‘lines ion Civita Vec- chia to Ancona, and from Ancona to 22. The opening of the Bighth patos of Ita talian Savans took place on the 13th of September. The rince of Canino brought a message su jects of the Roman States engaged in ‘them. The meeting was less fully attended than the former one at Naples. . A monument to Columbus is now erecting at Genoa, in the pei of the Piazza del Acqua Verde. In the four angles of the basement there are to be emblematic Bynes, representing Science, Piety, Pru- dence, and Constancy, and on th e sides bas-reliefs, expressing incidents in the history of the Genoese sae: Above there will hee a group repre- senting Columbus in the act of discovering Americ The design is by Michele Canzio, and the execution of the paaciaat: group by Barto- lino.—A then. 24, ¢ pmepresont depth of the Artesian well in the Duchy of Luxem- burg is feet, or 984 feet greater than that of iene my near Paris. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 It is said that this immense work has been undertaken for the purpose of reaching a large stratum of common salt. 25. Native gold is reputed to have been found in South Australia in a shaft undertaken for the discovery of copper ore.—Athen. OsITvaRY. 26. T. Monticelli, (from the Address by T. Horner Esq. before the Geol. Soc. London, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., No. 6, p. 146.) —THeopore Monricetu1 of Naples, the Foreign Member whom we have lost, was born in 1759, in the celebrated city of Brundusium, the modern Brin- disi. He was educated in the Benedictine College at Rome, in which Chiaramonte, afterwards Pius VII, was then professor, and where he made so much progress in his mathematical: studies as to be able, while m; a to be employed with others in the re-establishment of the University ademy of Sciences of Naples, of which latter body he was eruption of that year, which he dedicated to Sir Humphry Davy, with whom he was intimately acquainted; and Davy, during his residence at Naples some years afterwards, studied the structure and phzenomena of Vesuvius under his guidance. Some years afterwards Monticelli > and in 1825, in conjunction with Covelli, his ‘ Prodromo della att vorite Pozzuoli, and in the month of October, when a few friends bad assembled to celebrate his 87th birthday, he was seized at dinner with apoplexy, which terminated his life. ; bel. 27. M. Aimé.—The French papers mention the death of M, Aimé, a young scientific gentleman of distinction, and director of the Observatory hile proceeding to Medeah to establish an observatory at at Algiers, .1 144 Bibliography. that place, he had the misfortune to fall into a ravine, breaking his leg and several of his ribs. He died a few days afterwards, in the $3d_ year of his age.—Athen. 28. Mr. Isaiah Lukens, an eminent philosophical artist, died at Phil- adelphia, his place of residence, Noy. 13th, 1846, aged 69 yea He was, at the time of his death, Vice President of the Franklin Tnstitute, a post which he had held for many years. His death is a serious loss to the solentihie arts in this country. VIL. oth setae eg A. First Principles of Chemistry, a. ro use of Colleges and Schools; by Bensamin Sittman, Jun., M. A., sor of Science applied to the ane in Yale phe 492 pp., au 0, “with more than 200 illustra- The object of this work is spent indicated by its title. It bi — out of the exigencies of instruction, and has been received as the Text Book in the Public Lectures at Yale College. : “It has been a leading object in its compositio t to anticipate the student’s acquirements, but to carry him forward, the wey step, in a series of consecutive propositions. To aid him as much as possible in applying the knowledge already acquired, the paragraphs have been numbered and constant reference has been made throughout the work to previous sec- tions, wherever the subject could be illustrated by so doing. ues- tions at the foot of each page are designed to aid those whose experience in teaching ie tan may not be sufficient to enable them at all times to determine what is most important for the pupil to know.” 2. Second Annual "Report on the Geology of Sin by Prof. C. B, Apams. 8vo, pp. 267. Burlington, 1846.—This survey has been pros- ecuted with great activity during the past year, by its energetic head. The amount of detail set forth in the present report, shows that no time has been misspent, and no means misappropriated in pocap reine ee ore object in view. There are many geological topics which the s of Vermont are peculiarly well suited to illustrate—of which none a gett conspicuous than the phenomena of drift and the effects of metamorphic action: while the resources of the State in its metallic. ores, marbles and — are calculated to excite great interest i of the ie tie Chemical Essays relating to Agriculture; by E. V. Horsro A. ML or analyses of grain and: vegetables, diedhipuishing the nitrogenous from the non-nitrogenous ingredients, for the purpose of estimating their separate value for nutrition. Also, on ammonia found in glaciers; and on the action and ingredients of manures. Boston ames Munroe & Co., 1846. pp. 68.— he principal research embrac ed in these important I- vestigations, relates to the value of different kinds of vegetable food, as based upon their per-centage of nitrogen. This subject was taken up at the suggestion of Baron Liebig, and has been prosecuted in his Labora- tory, where for two years past Prof. Horsford has aed as student. Some ‘Notice will be found of his results in Vol. i, p. 264, of this Journal. It is truly honorable to pot science of this country, to wee presented to the world such papers as by Mr. Horsford, and that by Mr. Norton on oats. ai Sl sbeudoat research among us has ‘been uncommon; : apse every thing of the Bibliography. 145 line of Mineral analysis, or of the proper physics of Chemistry, rather than in ee oe which these gentlemen have wed. he Analysis of the Oat; by Joun P. Norton, Professsor of Seivteteerst Chemistry, &c., in Yale College. This essay was prepared e~ ceived a speng va premium of fifty sovereigns, offered for the best essay 0 emical constitution of the great staple of Scotch agricual- tur ur isis n, orton, in the laboratory of the Agricul- . Mr. Norton com it through its successive stages of growth and development to maturity. The results are presented in thirty-nine tables, containing hundreds of accurate and minute analyses, giving the composition of the oat from m3 ifferent parts of the aes separately, viz. the leaf above and below, t stalk, the knots, the grain, &c., besides the organic constitution of i grain ; ; and thus lastatng interesting points in the constitution of the plant, and its relation to the soil. . Encyclopedia sora supplementary volume; by Hen Vernake. Vol. xiv, pp. 663. 8vo. Lea & Blanchard, Phil. 1847. The “Conversations Lexikon” has become a household book in all the intelligent families in America, and it is undoubtedly the best depository of be Sera historical, saageipiateal; and political information, of that kind dis scriminating readers require. There is in the prese oe she the ex olen osions of steam boilers, ioe in : ahich we find much information not elsewhere to be met with in a condensed form. The op ge sketches are confined, in case of Americans, to those who are dead, but many very entertaining and instructive biographies are given of living Europeans of eminence in science and letters. 6. Chemistry of the Four Seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and sa oM Bartholomew’s Hospital. Author of “ Reatiidoas: in Chath istry,” &c., &c. London. Philadelphia. Lea & Blanchard. 1846. 51.— The design of this little volume is good, the style pleasant and familiar, and the illustrations copious. The scope of the work is well e xpressed in the title, and the tendency of such books when well written and by com- petent hands, is favorable to the popularity and progress of science. ie Or, e; par M. Cuarves Gerwarnr, (tome will be gle aris. Fortin Masson, et Cie. 1846. _ ists ~ y =; 3 i) 5. 2 5 istry, and so thought Liebig parte: — ranted the “Traité de Saveas Soares, Vol. III, No. 7.—Jan. - 146 Bibliography. Chemie Organique” from the author’s manuscripts, although the Pro- fessor of Chemistry at Montpelier (Gerhardt) seems at present to be held in light esteem at Giessen. Geological Obie Bations on South America, being the third part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle, during the years 1832-1836; by Cuantes Darwin, M. A., F. R.S., F.G.S., Naturalist to the Expe- dition. 268 pp., 8vo, ‘with numerous plates. London, 1846.—This work, just from the - London press, is one of the most valuable contributions to m and fullness, and the work is sen ee as well for its illustrations of aed principley in geology, as for details respecting the structure of the regions of ae it treats. 9. The Trees of America; by D. J. Browne.—We are authorized {to announce that the pag of the — by Mr. mrs on the trees ‘of America, has been such as to warrant the a. ion of a second vol- work of any on the subject. 0. Eureka, or the Journal of the National Association of Inventors; published by W. H. Starr, New York.—This Journal, recently estab- lished, is a monthly quarto, devoted to the daavdriee! in science and: in- ventions in the arts; and as such, as well as for its own merits, it is enti- tled to the patronage of all friends of i improvement. 11. The London Geological Journal and Record of Discoveries in British and Foreign Polsintolegy 5 40 pp., 8vo, with 8 lithographic plates; 3s. 6d. London.—This is the title of a new Geological Journal, the first number of which, printed in an elegant style, made its appear- ance in September last is number contains several Paleontological articles of imterest, handsomely and more expensively illustrated than 1s iy enes rare Amer., Sept.—Under this title, Mr. Edward am shall be supplied to warrant the undertaking. Considerable labor has been devoted by him to this branch of botany ‘d uring the last eight years, and he has received some important collections from others interested in these plants. The object of this hie is to commend the proposed work to botanists, and especially to those at the south, and southwest, from whence scarcely any specimens of Lichenes have reached him. He hopes moreover, that enough may in _ ~~ be accomplished to enable him to prepare a Synopsis of our Lichenes and Byssacee, with full descriptions. Specimens sent should be pressed cation for the herbarium. If gath- ered dry, this can be done by slightly moistening i. E. L. Fiscueret C. A. Mever.—Of this work we have the first fasciculus, : “imperial folio, published in a style of imperial magnificence. @ a prefatory account of the palm house, now in the course of erection at St Petersburg Garden, which is 266 feet long, 80 feet broad, and 67 in Bibliography. 147 height. Besides this, the combined Jength of the other conservatories amounts to hardly less than 3750 feet. Of the ten ies illustrated in this fasciculus, the following are natives of California, and were raised from gyne, a arate section in the tribe Anthemidee. Lastly, with a fine illustration of Nemophila liniflora, F. and M., a new arrangement of that genus is i mong them a new one, NV. microcalyz, is proposed, ed on Ellisia micro- calyz, Hook., a little plant of Louisiana, AiaBan; ae Georgia, which has been supposed to be merely a form of NV. parvi A. Gr. NpLIcHER and Martius, Flora Bra Piliensis.—T he sixth part, published in July last, comprises the Solanacee and Cestrinee of Brazi by Dr. Sendtner of Munic h, pp. 227, fol., with nineteen plates, to which Prof. Von Martius has added an interesting excursus on the geographical distribution and the history and uses of. the Solanacee, especially of tobaceo, Of the six physognomic plates which this fasciculus contains, two are Pg to views from the summit of the Concorado, and a third is a fine illustration of a Brazilian forest, taken from some part o of the slope t ntain 15. Tranrverrer, Plantanin Imagines et Descriptiones Floram Rus- sicam Iilustrantes. Munich... Fase. 1-7, (1844-6,) pp. 54, tab. 1-35. 4to.—These are the earlier fasciculi of a work. designed to illustrate @ considerable number of plants of the vast flora of the Russian dominions, which have not yet been figured, at least in a sufficient manner. The plates, like the text, are in small quarto, and are neatly engraved on stone in the style which is so well executed at Munich. The work is dedic sis to the Prof. Trautvetter’s former preceptor, the accomplished Ledebou the author of the Flora Altaica, the splendid Jcones Pl. Fl. Ross. Tlustr. and othe Flora Rossica now in ress. ate oo of the plants that lave under this hame by fpolves lox Sibirica, "L. te rimula Sibi- rea, Jacq. t. : a serpylilifolia, Para, var. viscosa, fone t. 31 ane *. oilaan vr. _foliolosa, t. Br. @ preface which will be read with interest. appear, contrary to the opinion which has generally prevailed, that the species of Ferns often ave a very wide geographi and are found points of the earth’s surface the most remote from each other. — For example, the habitat of Cistopteris fragilis embraces North Europe, North America, West Indies, Mexico, Chili, Northern India, Abyssinia, cesta the Azores and the ra ‘of Good Hope ! A. Gr. 17. Plea Neeru ee Rares @ Amerique; par Stern. Moricann, fasc. 1-8, pp. 140, plates 1-84, 4to, Geneva, 1833-44. —The greater 148 Bibliography. part of the plants.illustrated by M. Moricand are from tropical America ; but there are several from Texas, selected from Balandier’s collections, viz., tab. 2, Trifolium Bejariense, Moric., which is the T’, macrocalyx of Hooker’s Icones, t- The former name must take precedence, as it was published several years earlier than the other. Tab. 25, Sida fili- formis (from Tampico) seems to be very nearly the same as 8. filicaulis, Torr. and Gr., but it has not a hisped stem. Tab. 26, Platanus Mexica- nus, from Mexico, needs to be compared with the California species. Tab. 44, Dalea agastachys, Moric., is Petalostemon obovatum, J'orr. and . Tab. 45, Dalea penicillata, Moric., is D. laxiflora, Pursh. Tab. 69, Berberis trifoliolata, Moric., is a species which was gathered by Drummond without flowers or fruit, and is mentioned in the Flora of North America, p. 662. . Gr. 18. Lepesour, Flora Rossica, fasc. 7; (Stuttgard, 1846.)—This fas- ciculus completes the second volume of the work. It contains the re- mainder of the Composite, and the Lobeliacee, Campanulacee, Vacci- nieg@, and Ericacee. A. Gr. 19. Symbole Caricologice of Derser.*—It has been the great effort of the author in his work on Carices, to exhibit the affinities or natural relations of the various species of the genus he has so faithfully studied. hile the result evinces great care and extended examination and com- European writers on this subject. It is due to some American authors at least to state, that he has given an erroneous view of their arrangement of the American species. For the sake of more ready access to he spe- the outline of their arrangement, and associated those ies which near- ly resembled each other according to these artificial characters ¢ was the plan adopted by myself. us C. Shorti w., upon which mosa, Dew., C. gracillima, Schw., and C: virescens, ub., because the his family, he, or the black-flowered, a distinction not wholly re- moved from the artificial. The reader of the Symbole Caricologice, will carry this explanation to the remarks on the affinities of C. glauces- cens, Ell., C. stenolepis, Torr., and C. Cherokeensis, Schw., and be satis- fied how utterly the distinguished Drejer has misapprehended those Amer- ican writers on Carices. In the opinion of Drejer, C. undulata, Kzc., is not a distinct species, and is unnecessarily separated from C. pailescens, L., in which he will be approved by some American botanists. He also * See this Journal, last volume, page 302. Bibliography. 149 20. Instruction in Chemical Analysis [Quantitative]; by Dr. C. Rem- cius Fresenius, edited by J. Lloyd Bullock. I. Churchill; London, 1846. 8vo, pp. 626.—This is essentially an elementary work, as onl the more commonly occurring substances are mentioned ; yet it will prove acceptable even to the proficient. The characteristic feature of the work is its minute and systematic ar- rangement, by which all repetition is avoided, and facility of reference is promoted. The portion of the work treating of “ Operations” and ** Re- 2 tains a series of well arranged “ Examples for Practice,” particularly use- to those who are deprived of the advantage o personal instruction. 21. Taschenbuch fiir Freunde der Geologie; von Kart Cisar v. Leon- Harv; Erster Jahrgang; mit einem Stahlstiche, einer Lithographie und mehreren Zw is wor to which this rapidly advancing science has arrived. It is literally, what for the Friends of Geology. ‘The volume before us—the first of a proposed series—contains essays on gold, silver, and the other metals; on fossils; the artificial formation of minerals; facts relating to the various rocks, and their economical uses; on caverns; coal deposits, mountains, meteoric stones, the sea, rivers, land, coral isl- ands, snow, ice, and various other topics, about which much valuable and . tory Washing ton; by Lieut. J. M. Gruiss, U.S. N., Washington, 1846, Svo, pp. xxv, and 671.—This volume contains the results of four years obser- vations with a transit instrument, which although unequal in power and focus are five vertical lines and one horizontal ; and the eye piece . moves in a slide so that it may be brought opposite each wire in suc- cession, 150 Bibliography. observed by Let. Gilliss with great fidelity and during the last two months of 1838 he obtained 24 Moon culminat tions. the gone 1839. * 80. »“ 1840 t4 a9 104. 4 “ se 1841 oe 66 113 “c “s six months of 1842 * ss 44 “ Making i in all 365 ‘ In connection with the moon, Lieut. Gilliss not only observed the prescribed stars of the Nautical "Almanac c, buta great many esr in various parts of the heavens, amounting in all to 1248. These have been reduced by Prof. Bradford under the direction of the Sotecurt of : . ‘ h ~ Catalogue. The observations of ihe same stars on different nights agree remarkably well with each other, almost as well as those made at Greenwich. This Catalogue must prove ewe ~_ and convyen- ient to shivee who have not access to larger collectio e cannot but admire the promising industry of "hiéat Gilliss, and we trust that so laudable a zeal for scientific observation may hereafter find full scope for its exercise. 3. Astronomical Observations made during the year 1845 at id National Observatory, Washington; under the direction of M Maovry, A. M., Lt. U.S. N., Superintendent. Vol.i. Published ie au- thority “of the Hon. Geo. Bancrort, Secretary of the Navy. Washington, 1846, 4to, pp. clvi, and 392, an d 13 plates.—We have received this volume too recently to give such an account of it as its importance de- mands. It evinces great industry and ability on the part of the Super- intendent and his associates, and does much credit to the scientific char- acter of our country. We hope to present a notice of the work in our next number. J. Cassenserry, M.D.: Description of certain fossil bones found near Evans- ville, la., with speculations concerning the animal of which they are the remains: 8 pp. 8vo.: Eransville, ABH orton the Season of 1846, with a table showing the flowering of fruit aa inp tables of late te spring and early fall frosts; published by request of the Middlesex Co. Agric. Soc.; 14 pp. 8vo. Middletown, ‘e Charts of the U. S. ‘Coed Survey, viz., ‘of New Bedford and Annapolis WwW Hewirtson: Colored illustrations of the Sig 5 . British were wiih de- one the eggs, nests, &c.; 2 vols. Svo, 4 - J. E. Gray.—Shells and other Invertebrata of the coast of Northumberland 152 Bibliography. ton; J. E. a y--Britich ee ade Meduse i E. Forbes. ~~ Geclegian’ acts July 14. ios ndix on the Dinornis; R. Owen.— Aug. 25. On the relation of the Edentata to Reptiles; E. Fry. November, No. 120. New or rare naked British mollusca ; Alder and Hancock, (with a plate.)—Notices of the birds a Corfu; Capt. Portlock —New Araneidea ; J. Blackwall.—Birds of C tay: Cid. levall.—Additions to the Fauna alam land; W. Thompson.—Male of Cheirotonus MacLeaii ; arry.—Develop- ment of the Chelonian e.—New shells from Davis Straits: 2. Hancock. —On the Insects of the Carinthian "Highlands; Nickerl.— ‘ociety. Six w species of birds 2; Spr heoshoy Australian and one, the Callipepla venusta, Cali- aca —Ent no me ae a eae of Curtis, and on nera of Carabide ; 0. West eaker, No. 0.121. from Si 3 H. Fa re —Development of vegetable cells; 4. He saree —New ~ operating force, as determined by the greater dislocations to the southeast, t y say (p. 517), “ the progressive rise of the whole belt towards the side which an- ciently lay near the shore of the Appalachian ocean, accords entirely with the be- lief that ander the now rent and dislocated margin of the chain there was av Prof. W. W. Mather, in his remarks on the secular agin ao the earth, (this Journal, xlix, 284,) accounts for the foldings and for the steeper northwest on the ground of “a paroxysmal elevation and the action of inertia, this Paroxysmal elevation, as he urges, arising from a change in the rapidity of the Poly 8 rotation consequent on an abrupt change of capes anally Nee . sy : : “ y : any time ome mo praauiita a ) He says, p. 299 clinapcgechonge x y tin Te a dale Sessa reference to the steeper northwest slopes, (p- oF a mountain mass one mile in height; it W this increased distance would be 3:1415+24 miles, or feet greater per hour than that which it had before its elevation. Inertia therefore would cause the mass at the top to press to the westward with a force pr oned to its the above mentioned velocity.” 184 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. and a half millions of pounds, or 750 tons ;—also from cohesion within the bed, and below. The force will travel slowly from A towards X, on account of the gravity, cohesion and partial compressibility of the mass: the first dislocation will hence take place towards A, and it will there- fore produce a bulging, as Bng, A at the same time advancing to B. (The distance Ag, for a specific direction of the force, will depend on the thickness, gravity and cohesion of the bed. ) The force continuing in action, part of it will be transmitted towards g and X, owing to the difficult flexibility of the bed ari- sing from cohesion and gravity: another part will cause B to ad- vance towards C, and tend to raise Bng to Cog. In the same manner, C og will tend to change to Dp g. But the action upon ¢ is increasing from two sources, viz :— 1. the propagation of the original force through the bed, which is enhanced as the elevation rises ;—2. a new force of vast amount proceeding from the gravity of the inclined bed pg. Owing to the last mentioned cause, in connection with the yielding nature of the material, pg sinks to p’ g, and Dp’ g becomes the actual position of the bed instead of Dpg. The sinking of p g, d the primal force together, (if the latter were not before sufii- cient,) would cause gw to rise to h ww. _ The force continuing, the position D p’g is changed succes- sively to Ep” h,F p’”i. The greatest propelling power is exerted y the gravitation of the inclined bed pg, when its angle of in- clination is between 45 and 60 degrees. Beyond 60° the action is increasingly downward, and the propelling part of the action becomes small. At 90° and beyond, the action is wholly down- ward, so that in this position, pg shortens only from the compres- sibility of the mass. Now, the action on gw is simply the prim force, nearly or quite the whole of which acts upon g X. Thus huw rises to ivw; and this again, continuing to rise, changes in form in the manner just illustrated. poet By this process, therefore, a series of folds would be produced each with the inclination steepest on the side farthest from A; and moreover, these folds would be necessarily most abrupt the nearer they are to A. In the above, the lateral force has been supposed to act directly upon the borders of an oceanic depression. When the contraction in progress produces fractures over the interior of a continent, tl continued contraction and increasing lateral pressure, still operat- ing upon the same yielding area, might produce plications parallel with the line of fracture, which would be most abrupt near it, diminish ~ “rs pirinate a fact illustrated in the Urals.* The pli- cations wo iffer in extent on the two sides of the line, provided the force or the material were different. yt * Geology of Russia and the Urals, R. I. Murchison, i, 462. Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 185 Il. Reasons why this action should not produce perfectly regu- lar and uniform folds.—Irregularities would proceed— 1. F'rom a variation in the thickness of the bed, in consequence of which there would be a difference in the gravity of the mass in different parts. 2. From a want of uniformity in the material or its state of induration, causing the cohesion to vary, and hence also the be equal along a given line. b _4 From any irregularity which there might be in the contrac- tion going on (for there should be some such contraction) beneath e area which is subjected to the lateral pressure. A fifth reason might be added, but it is of a general nature and will form the subject of another‘;communication. The four spe- cified are sufficient to set aside any objections to the view urged on the score of the irregularities which exist. Ill. Effects of gravity on the inclined strata*—When the beds become very much inclined, or dip at a large angle, the more sandy layers if not too much indurated, would settle bedily down- ward; the clayey layers would also settle, but owing to their co- hesion when moist, they would become: flexed or crimpled. Thus plications would be produced, from gravity alone ; a fact abundantly illustrated in the metamorphic rocks of New England and other countries; and it might happen that small plications should in the same manner be produced between non-plicated beds. V. Intruded igneous rocks occurring with plicated beds.—The occurrence of dikes or intruded masses of igneous rock in a pli- cated region, is no certain evidence that the intrusion was the cause of the plication, as the. two. effects, on the principles ex- plained, might be concomitant results of the same general operation. Sxeconp Serres, Vol. ILI, No. 8.—March, 1547. 24 186 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. VI. The folding of strata by subsidence of the plicated region can be only of small extent.—This subsidence may or may not be attended by a general contraction of the earth’s crust below ing, and the result could be accomplished only by fractures and openings. ‘The material moreover would be drawn off from the summits of the convexities, or very much thinned out in those parts; a supposition not warranted by facts to the extent required. in the explanation. The hypothesis moreover would not account for the greater steepness of the northwest slope. But if the material beneath may be supposed to have contracted correspondingly with the amount of plication, then folds might have been produced by the process. The hypothesis however has many weighty objections. It is at variance with the fact that this same region remained unplicated, at least in the parts oc- cupied by the coal formation, till after the coal epoch, although the contraction must have been more rapid during the preceding epochs of the earth’s cooling.* The non-plication of the Siluri- an rocks of the centre of our country, adds force to this objection. Why this long delay in the action of those violent forces suppo- sed to be imprisorfed beneath the earth’s crust ? Farther, a stiffened crust cannot be much folded by mere shrinkage, where the material is like that of the earth’s crust. The fact that the Silurian rocks of the interior are not plicated by contraction below them, is evidence of this. Instead of be- coming plicated, they have probably aided by lateral action in producing the elevations on the east or west, or the Ozark Moun- tains or other heights intermediate. " Moreover, the very close compacted folding illustrated in figs. 4 and 6, a result which only lateral pressure could effect. VII. Position of voleanoes.—The occurrence of volcanoes mostly in the neighborhood of the sea, is a necessary result of these principles. For we have already stated that fractures of the earth would be likely to take place near the limits between the contracting and non-contracting areas:+ here they would hav that depth and extent which is necessary in order that they should remain open as the seat of perpetual eruptions; for there is ne- cessarily a wide difference as regards extent between those fissures * The writer has offered as an explanation of this non-plication till after the coal epoch, the suggestion that the crust over the oceanic (or igneous) portions, had so far cooled by that time, that the pressure or strain arisin contraction was no longer relieved to the same extent as before by rents and upliftings over the ign ion. This lateral action was exerted long previously, but its est effects on the earth’s features date subsequently to the carboniferous epoc t This volume, page 96. Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 187 that only allow the material to escape and form dikes, and those great fractures from which an Etna, or a range of Chimborazos, has originated. We have remarked in another place,* and the fact is sufficiently important to be again repeated, that the absence of the sea is no reason for the absence of volcanoes from the in- terior of our continents; since this same freedom from voleanoes existed in the Silurian epoch, when these very continents were mostly under salt-water. VILL. Geological epochs.—This subject suggests a cause for the transitions marking geological epochs. The formation of the Appalachians was attended by rendings and emissions of heat on a vast scale, and the baking and crystallizing of the metamorphic rocks of the region, as well as the debituminizing of the mineral coal rendering it anthracite, are attributed by the Professors Ro- gers to this action. It is not a matter of surprise that there should have been an abrupt cessation with this event, of preéxisting forms of marine life. 'The period when the eflects of dislocation be- gan to be transferred from the oceanic areas to the continents, appears to have been the era of this catastrophe; and it was an era of similar changes in various parts of the globe. The previ- ond era in the geological history of this country. | We know not how widely the last catastrophe extended over * This Journal, ii Ser., ii, 353. ‘188 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. contraction in progress. Facts on record prove farther, that these grand catastrophes had their widest influence after the coal era, and became less and less general’as succeeding ages rolled on. IX. These principles give us some data for comparing the energy of forces in. past times in the earth’s history, with those ing, we may be considered as proceeding on an hypothetical basis. Yet in reasoning without reference to them, is the ground assum any the less hypothetical ? With those who believe in the former igneous fluidity of our globe, contraction is the grand and fun- damental agency to be first considered after the general principles of solidification. ae X. Tides and parorysmal movements beneath the crust of the globe.—In the course of this article we have not alluded to the effects of tidal and’ other motions in the heated interior of the globe, leaving it for those who can prove their occurrence to mod- ify thereby the explanations here offered. Several difficulties ve appeared to the writer to’ strengthen the opinion advocated by Lyell and Poisson, that the globe, before its crust had consol- idated, had become so stiffly viscid as not to admit of tides, a condition believed to be essential to the formation of a permanent crust. If there were daily tides, or a westerly movement, or if undulations were possible, sufficient to throw up the Appalach- ians, why, as we have asked before, were these mighty and resist- less agents nearly dormant in this part of the globe till after the coal era? Why did they not act violently upon the Silurian rocks of the west, before the period that originated the Appalach- ians? and why not also more decidedly at the time of this great catastrophe? These questions are, perhaps, in part answered by Prof. Mather, by the argument that there would be grand parox- ysmal effects attending contraction, causing at long intervals, a violent westerly movement beneath the crust. But, again, why if the cause of the mountain elevations isa westerly movement (that is a movement from the east) beneath the erust, why should we have mountains on the westside of the continent. while the wide interior is nearly flat? And why should idnéed western mountains have attained such an altitude? ‘Why should the areas of greatest igneous action be to the west of the summit on the Rocky Mountains, and to the east over the Appalachian re- ion; that is, on the oceanic side in each ease? These are among the objections to the hypothesis, that internal tides or undulations have been a prominent agent in geological dynamies since the be- ginning of the Silurian epoch ; and if the explanations of phenom- ena, offered in this article, are at all satisfactory, they contain @ still weightier argument against the view. Herbaria, Gardens and Botanists of Upsal, §c. 189 Arr. X XI.—WNotes on the Herbaria, Gardens and Botanists of Upsal, St. Petersburg, §c., gathered from the letters of a distinguished botanist during a continental tour.* Ar Upsal, I was fortunate enough to find both Prof. Wahlenberg, who has the care of the Museum of Natural History and Botanic Garden, and Professor Fries, at home. Both received me with every civility and attention, and I spent as much time with one or the other as my short stay would admit of my devoting to botany. he Museum was founded after the younger Linnzus’s death, when the loss to the country of Linnzus’s herbarium, made the government feel the want of a public establishment for the re- ception of national collections. The herbarium, placed in two spacious and well lighted rooms, consists chiefly of 'Thunberg’s herbarium, Afzelius’ African herbarium, and Wahlenberg’s pri- vate herbarium. Of these, Thunberg’s is by far the most valua- hames so as to render them quite illegible, and substituted others ; So that unless some botanist of correct judgment, and well ac- quainted with Cape plants, were to come and bestow some months on going through his herbarium, the puzzles of the Flora Capensis must remain tincleared. 'The specimens are generally small; but with a few exceptions tolerably satisfactory and well preserved. Afzelius’s Sierra Leone collection is a very fine one ; Wes Bhai Shin, 23 2 * Extracted from the London Journal of Botany for October, 1846. Ay We are informed by the writer ‘of these notes, that Dr. Lehman at Hamburg, has d time to finish the Plante Preissiane: at Copen agen, Prof Schouw, so i has been ill for the last year and min Dr. Liebmann, the adjunct professor, has lately returned from Mexico, With a collection of plants which he estimates at 0,000 species. e um (who lived many years in Greenland,) the present librarian at the Botanic Gar- Swartz, which belongs to the Academy of Sciences. It appears to be extensive and in good preservation. 190 Herbaria, Gardens and Botanists of Upsal, &c. one set is glued down, after the pattern of Thunberg’s, and the remainder, often many duplicates, are loose in sheets of a larger size. The specimens are generally good, and many of them ac- companied by fruits in a separate collection, but with references to the specimens. The living collection in the Botanical Garden, though not kept in such good order as could be wished, is tolerably rich. The Russian species, received through the Petersburg garden, flourish well here; other exotics are such as could be obtained through Booth, of Flottbeck, and some interesting plants are the ndants of those cultivated by Linneus, and thus constitute the only authentic specimens of such as he did not dry for his herbarium. We went with Prof. Fries to see the house in which Linnzus lived, and the garden where he cultivated his ‘ Hort. Upsal.’ plants, now no longer belonging to the family, but in which the buildings used by this great father of modern botany as green-houses and lecture-room, still exist; and a poplar tree, known to have been planted by his own hands, is shown with great reverence. Proud though we may be in England of pos- sessing his collections, it is impossible to be at Upsala, where so much is associated with his name, to see the respect paid to his memory, and the value attached to the few manuscripts or other remembrances of him which they have been able to amass, with- out feeling that this is the place where his library and herbarium ought to be, and that if they had been here the botanical world would long since have known what information can or cannot be derived from the specimens preserved ; and asa tribute to his ex- traordinary genius, such of his manuscripts as are really interest- ing or curious, (and they are not a few,) would have been given to the public, instead of lying unknown in the attics of our Lin- neean Society. Prof. Fries is devoting himself, with his usual zeal, to the in- vestigation of the Scandinavian Flora, (that of the Scandinavian Peninsula from Petersburg to the North sea,) and has been spe- cially studying Hieractum, Salix, and Carex. 'The general re- sult of his observations has lately appeared under the title of “Summa Plantarum Scandinavia,” being an enumeration of the flora of the country, with geographical indications of each species, and detailed characters for such as are not in Koch’s Synopsis, or are differently characterized by Fries. It appears to be a useful work, more especially asa kind of resumé of the conclusions drawn by Fries from a long and careful study of many difficult species.—({pp. 528-530. ) _ $t. Petersburg contains two great botanical collections, that of the Academy of Sciences, and that of the Botanical Garden. The herbarium of the Academy of Sciences is under the diree- 4 Herbaria, Gardens and Botanisis of Upsal, §c. 191 tion of Dr. Carl Anton Meyer, and under him, Dr. Ruprecht, but without at present any assistance for the mechanical part of the business. It is contained in two large rooms and a small one, ound which are arranged the cabinets with mahogany glazed doors—useful in enabling you to. see where the genera are, with- out opening the doors; but a luxury, the cost of which might have been better applied in the purchase of specimens, for whick the Academy is very short of funds. The specimens are loose, in double sheets of paper of a large size, and arranged in nat- ural orders, the genera separated by thin sheets of pasteboard, the species under each genus being placed alphabetically ; the whole loose on the shelves, not tied in bundles, a great advantage over the usual continental custom of having from one to a doz- zen strings to untie every time you would look at a specimen ; but still, if the herbarium were to be frequently consulted, hav- ing the disadvantage of not preserving the specimens so well as there is Marschall von Bieberstein’s Tauro-Caucasian herbarium, nearly complete with good specimens, and 'Trinius’s Grraminew, a most extensive series, remarkably rich in authentic specimens. Dr. Meyer, who lives at the Botanic Garden, and is intimate with Dr. Fischer, has not published any thing since the Monograph of Ephedra, which appeared two or three months ago; he is now investigating the Roses allied to R. cinnamomea. Dr. Ruprecht n at work on the Flora of Russia, and has completed the three last parts of the “ Contributions to the Flora of Russia,” go out on an expedition round the world. The herbarium of the otanic Garden, under the general direction of Dr. Fischer and — his assistants, Dr. Meyer and Avé-Lallemant, is under the especial care of. Mr. Meinshausen, a young man who accompanied Schrenk into Soongaria; there appeared to be also one or two young men at work as assistants. ‘I'he space allotted to it 1s small; the dif- ferent collections it consists of are, as yet, separate, and all tied Up in bundles, so that it is difficult to judge of its extent; but it must be considerable. It contains the herbarium of the late 192 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. Dr. Mertens, of Bremen, left by him in very good order, contain- ing about twenty-five thousand species, and especially rich in European plants; that of Schrader, of Gottingen, bulky, but of less value; that of Schumacher, of Copenhagen, containing, like other Danish herbaria, a great many of Rohr’s Cayenne plants, Thonning’s African ones, &c.; very rich sets of 'Turczaninow’s, Sowitz’s, and Schrenk’s plants, and those of other Russian col- lectors, besides miscellaneous collections. The library is also very good. What both herbaria are chiefly deficient in, appear to be Bast Indian, South American, (except Brazil and Guiana, ) and Antarctic plants. Dr. Fischer himself has been at work at Asira- j, and has prepared for the press a detailed monograph of the section of the T'ragacanthee ; and with Dr. Meyer, he is now publishing the first part of a folio work, under the title of “ Jar- in de Saint Pétersbourg,” to contain colored drawings and de- scriptions of interesting plants which have flowered here. ‘This has a short account and drawing of the new Palm house, in the state it had attained last season, and figures and descri tions of ten species, amongst which is a very handsome Brazilian Almeidea. Dr. Fischer possesses a private herbarium, arranged in large double sheets like that of the Academy of Sciences, and apparently containing a very considerable miscellaneous collec- tion in good order. I met here Prof. Trautvetter, of Kieff, who is at work on the plants brought by Middendorf from Northern and Arctic Russia; and as there are but few aids at Kieff, he came here to consult books and herbaria. The Flora gathered by Middendorf, is, in many respects, that of Melville Island, but more numerous in species.—({pp. 531-533.) . Arr. XXII.—Observations on the Rocky Motniains and Ore- gon; from the Reports of the Exploring Expeditions of Capt. J.C. Frémont.* Few travellers have encountered greater hardships, and none have exhibited more indomitable courage, or untiring zeal, than Captain F'rémont in his explorations about the Rocky Mountains, and among the heights, lakes and deserts of Oregon and Califor- nia. The first of the two Expeditions of which we have an ac- count in the volume above referred to, terminated at the summit of the Rocky Mountains, after an examination of the south pass. and to Oregon and North California in the years 1243, '44, Captain J. C. Fiemont, of the Topographical Ragan under the orders of Col. J, J. Abert, ‘of the Topographical Bureau. » 1845. it oe 94 pp. Svo, with plates and ‘ map, haba Rocky Mountains and Oregon. 193 —the lowest depression of the mountains and the present route to Oregon—and an ascent to the summit of Frémont’s peak in the Wind river chain, believed to be the highest elevation in the Rocky Mountain range. In the second, by a different route, he reached the same pass, and thence proceeded to the Great Salt lake and Fort Vancouver; he next went south just to the east of the Cascade range, over an unexplored region, to latitude 38° 44’, where he crossed the snowy heights, and finally after severe trials, arrived at San Francisco. From this place he went south, ascending the fine valley of the Joachim, and in latitude 343° turned northeast across the California semi-desert, to Utah lake. A complete circuit was thus made in eight months, which cost them 3500 miles of travelling; and during this time they were never out of sight of snow. _ Captain Frémont’s Journal is written in a graphic style, bear- ing evidence of literal accuracy in all its statements, and yet in many parts reading like a romance. With deep interest we fol- low the adventurous traveller threading his pathless way over lof- ty ridges, through dense forests, and up the icy heights, till at last he stands perched on a pinnacle of the Wind river moun- tains. Our readers may have. often perused the account, yet will find renewed interest in the following description of the last day we had many a rough and steep slippery place to cross before reaching the end. Th this Stabe the met taal shone ; snow lay along the bor- der of the small stream which flowed through it, and occasional icy Passages made the footing of the mules very insecure, and the rocks and ground were moist with the trickling waters in this spring of migh- ty rivérs. We soon had the satisfaction to find ourselves riding along the huge wall which forms the central summits of the chain. There at H Were three small lakes of a green color, each perhaps a thousand yards in diameter, and apparently very deep. These lay in a kind of Sreconp Series, Vol. III, No. 8.—March, 1847. 25 194 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. chasm ; and, according to the barometer, we had attained but a few hundred feet above the Island lake. The barometer here stood at ce] 20-450, attached thermometer 70°. with angular, sharp fragments of rock, three or four and eight or ten feet cube; and among these they had worked their way, leaping from one narrow point to another, rarely making a false step, and giving us no occasion to dismount. Having divested ourselves of every unne- cessary encumbrance, we commenced the ascent. This time, like ex- perienced travellers, we did not press ourselves, but climbed leisurely, sitting down so soon as we found breath beginning to fail. At inter- on a light thin pair, which I had brought for the purpose, as now the use of our toes became necessary toa further advance. I availed my- self of a sort of comb of the mountain, which stood against the wall like a buttress, and which the wind and the solar radiation, joined to the steepness of the smooth rock, had kept almost entirely free from snow. Up this 1 made my way rapidly. Our cautious method of advancing in the outset had spared my strength; and, with the exception of a slight disposition to headache, I felt no remains of yesterday’s illness. In a few minutes we reached a point where the buttress was overhang- ing, and there was no other way of surmounting the difficulty than by passing around one side of it, which was the face of a vertical preci- ice of several hundred feet. _.“ Putting hands and feet in the crevices between the blocks, I succeed- ed in getting over it, and, when I reached the top, found my compan- lons in a small valley below. Descending to them, we continued climb- ing, and in a short time reached the crest. I sprang upon the suminit, and another step would have precipitated me into an immense snow field five hundred feet below. To the edge of this field was a sheer icy precipice; and then, with a gradual fall, the field sloped off for about a mile, until it struck the foot of another lower ridge. I stood on a narrow crest, about three feet in width, with an inclination of about 20°, N. 51° E. As soon as I had gratified the first feelings of curiosi- ed before. During our morning’s ascent, we had met no sign of ani- mal life, except the small sparrow-like bird already mentioned. stillness the most profound and a terrible solitude forced themselves constantly on the mind as the great features of the place. Here, on he summit, where the stillness was absolute, unbroken by any sound, and the solitude complete, we thought ourselves beyond the region of Rocky Mountains and Oregon. 195 t was a strange place, the icy rock and the highest peak of the wers; and we country, where all animated nature seems at war; and, seizing him immediately, put him in at least a fit place—in the leaves of a large joined to the opinion of the oldest traders of the country, it is presum- ed that this is the highest peak of the Rocky Mountains. The day was had o ture, which was that of terrible convulsion. Parallel to its length, the ridge was split into chasms and fissures ; between which rose the thin lofty walls, terminated with slender minarets and columns, which is correctly represented in the view from the camp on Island lake. Ac+ cording to the barometer, the little crest of the wall on which we stood was three thousand five hundred and seventy feet above that place, and two thousand seven hundred and eighty above the little lakes at the bottom, immediately at our feet. Our camp at the Two Hills (an as- tronomical station) bore south 3° east, which, with a bearing afterward obtained from a fixed position, enabled us to locate t peak. The the least prolonged, expiring almost instantaneously. Having now made what observations our means afforded, we pr e had accomplished an object of laudable ambition, and beyond the strict order of our instructions. We had climbed the loftiest peak of the Rocky Mountains, and looked down upon the snow a thousand feet 196 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. below, and, standing where never human foot had stood before, felt the exultation of first explorers. It was about two o’clock when we left the summit; and when we reached the bottom, the sun had already sunk behind the wall, and the day was drawing to a close. It woul have been pleasant to have lingered here and on the summit longer ; ut we hurried away as rapidly as the ground would permit, for it was an object to regain our party as soon as possible, not knowing what ac- cident the next hour might bring forth. ** We reached our deposite of provisions at nightfall. Here was not the inn which awaits the tired traveller on his return from Mont Blane, or the orange groves of South America, with their refreshing juices and soft fragrant air; but we found our little cache of dried meat and coffee undisturbed. Though the moon was bright, the road was full of precipices, and the fatigue of the day had been great. We therefore abandoned the idea of rejoining our friends, and jay down on the rock, and, in spite of the cold, slept soundly.”—pp. 68, 69, 70 and 71. Other pages of general interest might be cited, but we pass to some points of geological importance, in the regions examined. It was before known that the slopes of the Rocky Mountains were very gradual in inclination; but the fact is brought out with greater definiteness and more distinctly to the eye, in the section presente y Lieut. Frémont, of which the following is a reduced copy. ne ? ra 7 BL es aye d h Fs & mh © Profile of the route from the mouth of the Kansas to the Pacific, by J. C. Fremont in 1843. Vertical scale to horizontal as 1 to 30. The intervals Sc iealalp the haris m d. South Pass. e. Dividingrange. f. Beer Sprin t : e. jf. BeerSprings. g. Great Salt Lake. h. Fort Hall. - Crossing of Snake River. &. Blue Sivebiaite: l. Fort Wallawalla. m. Dalles. m. Cascades. 0. Fort Vancouver. p- Mount St. Helen's. 109° 26’, was found to be 7,490 feet above the sea. ; Rocky Mountains and Oregon. 197 In the journey of Capt. Frémont south from Fort Vancouver into California, the party crossed the Cascade range (or, as it is called in that part, the Sierra Nevada) at a height of 9,338 feet, and “several peaks in view rose several thousand feet higher. Thus within 150 miles of the coast, and 500 from the sum- mits of the Rocky Mountains, there is a range of heights even exceeding this chain in elevation. This Cascade range extends north and south through Oregon into California, and contains several lofty voleanic cones, from 10 to 15,000 feet in altitude ; two of them, St. Helen’s and Mount Regnier, are stated by Captain Frémont to have been in action at the time of his visit; and he adds that “on the 23d of the preceding November, St. Helen’s had scattered its ashes like a light fall of snow over the Dalles of the Columbia.”’ On the ascent of the Rocky Mountains, specimens of the rocks and several interesting fossils were collected. As observed by belongs, extends at least to a height of 5,000 feet above the sea. On Smoky Hill river, in latitude 39° and longitude 98°, the rock was an impure limestone and abounded in shells of a species of Thoceramus. The height of the place was about 1,500 feet above the sea. Near Fort St. Vrain in latitude 105°, and at an altitude of 5,500 feet, a similar rock was observed, upon which Mr. Hall remarks that ‘two fragments of fossils still indicate the cretaceous period; but the absence of any perfect specimens must deter a positive opinion upon the precise age of the formation; yet one specimen from its form, markings and fibrous structure, I have re- erred to the genus Inoceramus.” “The whole formation,” as Mr. all adds respecting the seven degrees of longitude travelled over to the place just mentioned, “is probably, with some variations, an extension of that which prevails through Louisiana, Arkansas and Missouri.” Beyond St. Vrain’s Fort, the region towards the Wind river mountains changes to granitic. Yet sandstones and shales prevailed farther north, near Frémont’s pass and beyond, With some thin heds of coal, which Mr. Hall suggests may ae. belong to the oolitic period. In longitude 111° and latitude ALZ°, on Muddy river, the rock was a “ yellowish gray oolitic limestone, containing turbo and cerithium,” and not far distant fossil ferns were obtained, among which was one species resembling the Glossopteris Phillipsii, an oolitic fossil. Mr. Hall remarks, “this 198 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. species alone, with the general characters of the other species, and the absence of the large stems so common in the coal period, had led me to refer them to the oolitic period: I conceive however, that we have scarcely sufficient evidence to justify this reference.” At the Cascades on the Columbia, tertiary beds and fossils were met with, and the same rock occurs towards the mouth of the river. The Great Salt lake, called also Lake Timpanogos, and Lake outa, was examined in September, 1843, and this party was the first which had visited one of its islands. The elevation of the sur- face was ascertained to be 4,200 feet above the sea. ‘The rock here observed was a talcose rock or steatite. Standing on the summit of the island 800 feet high, to which they had passed in an India rubber boat, they had “an extended view of the lake, enclosed in a basin of rugged mountains, which sometimes left marshy flats and extensive bottoms between them and the shore, and in sulphate of lime 1-12. , The lateness of the season hurried our explorers from this re- gion before it could be thoroughly surveyed. There is a smaller lake to the south (Lake Utah) connected with the Great Salt Lake like Lake George with Champlain, which Captain Frémont visited on his return and found to consist of fresh water. Various thermal and mineral springs were met with on the different journeys, and efflorescent salts often abounded over the dry soil. One region of carbonated springs was met with on the Fontaine-qui-boutt river, in longitude 105° 23’. Another, the Beer springs, on Bear river, not far above the Great Salt Lake, is noticed as follows. “‘ Although somewhat disappointed in the expectations which various descriptions had led me to form of unusual beauty of situation and scenery, I found it altogether .a place of very greut interest; and @ traveller for the first time in a volcanic region remains in a constant €X- citement, and at every step is arrested by something remarkable and new. There is a confusion of interesting objects gathered together in @ small’ space. Around the place of encampment the Beer springs Rocky Mountains and Oregon. 199 were numerous; but, as far as we could ascertain, were entirely confi- ned to that locality in the bottom. In the bed of the river, in front, for a space of several hundred yards, they were very abundant; the ef- fervescing gas rising up and agitating the water in countless bubbling columns. In the vicinity around were numerous springs of an entirely different and equally marked mineral character. In a rather picturesque spot, about 1,300 yards below our encampment, and immediately on attained only at regular intervals, according to the action of the force below. ni years servation, that smelling the gas which issued from the orifice produced a sensation of giddiness and nausea. Mr. Preuss and myself repeated the green trees near, make this a picturesque Spot. “A short distance above the spring, and near the foot of the same pur, is a very remarkable yellow-colored rock, soft and friable, con- Sisting principally of carbonate of lime Se be of iron, of regular ‘etaiieg er ees cant Re Fog ee _* Carbonate of lime 92:55, carbonate of magnesia 0-42, oxyd of iron 1-05, silica, alumina, water and loss, 5-98 = 100-00. 200 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. shore between the Steamboat spring and our encampment, along which is dispersed the water from the hills, is composed entirely of strata of a cal- careous tufa containing the remains of moss a reed-like grasses, whic is probably the formation of springs. ‘The Beer or Soda springs, which have given name to this locality, are cn “th less highly flavored than the Boiling springs at the foot of Pike’s peak, which are of the same character. They are very numerous, and half hidden by tufts of grass, which we amused ra in arson = searching about for more highly coh pear tn sprin They a me of them deep, and of various sizes—sometimes i yards in ssladatesa, and kept in con- stant motion by palistane of nik ng gas. By analysis, one quart of the water contains as follows Grains. Sulphate of Rall : . ‘ ‘ 12°10 Sulphate of lim . : » : . 2°12 Carbonate of — > ‘ “ 3°86 Carbonate of magnesia, ‘ ‘ 4 ‘ 3°22 Chloride of calcium, . _ : : . 1:33 Chloride of wis cea : p ; ; 1-12 Chloride of sodiu ' P s 2°24 Vegetable extractive matter, ‘&e. . . ‘ 0-85 26°84” p. 136, 137 Travelling along, east of the Cascade range, many fine lakes were met with, and in latitude 40° 40’, another remarkable local- ity of hot springs. ‘“‘ This is the most extraordinary locality of hot springs we had met during the journey. The basin of the largest one has a circumference of several hundred feet ; but there is at one extremity a circular space of about fifteen feet in diameter, entirely occupied by the boiling wa- ter. It boils up at irregular intervals, and with much noise. ‘The wa- ae is oar and the spring deep; a pole eed aA feet long was rsed in the centre, but we had no means of forming a good idea of the ia danith: It was. surrounded on thé t margin with a border of rere grass, and om the shore the temperature of the water was 206°. e ha means of ascertaining that of the centre, where the heat was greatest ; ba by dispersing the water with a pole, the temperature at the margin was increased to 208°, and in the centre it was doubtless higher. By driving the pole towards the bottom, the water was made to boil up with increased force and noise. There are several other in- teresting places, where water and smoke or gas escape, but they would require a long description. The water is impregnated with common salt, but not so much so as to render it unfit for general cooking; and a mixture of snow made it pleasant to drink. “In the immediate neighborhood, the valley bottom is covered al- most exclusively with chenopodiaceous shrubs, of greater luxuriance, and larger growth, than we had seen in any preceding part of the ao Sieg —p. 215. lakes passed among the ridges of the Cascade range, were remarkable for their beauty and the singularity of their Rocky Mountains and Oregon. 201 situation. We close this notice with Captain Frémont’s remarks on Pyramid Lake, a short distance only from the Boiling springs just noticed. Ascending the mountain by a broad pass they reached the summit, beyond which— “A defile between the mountains descended rapidly about two thou- sand feet; and, filling up all the lower space, was a sheet of green water some twenty miles broad. It broke upon our eyes like the e one of them to obtain a better view. The waves were curling in the breeze, and their dark-green color showed it to be a body of deep wa- ter. Fora long time we sat enjoying the view, for we had become fa- tigued with mountains, and the free west of moving waves was ve- ry grateful. It was set like a gem in the mountains, which, from our position, seemed to enclose it date one At the western end it communicated with the line of basins we had left a few days since ; and on the opposite side it swept a vide eo se snowy mountains, the foot of the great Sierra. — Its position at first eremee us to believe it Mary’s lake, but the rugged mountains were so entirely discordant with de- Scriptions of its low rushy shores and opens ountry, that we concluded and oe on a little stream at the mouth of the defile, about a mile from the m argin of the water, to which we hurried down immediately. The water is so sli ghtly salt, that, at first, we thought it fresh, and would be pleasant to drink when no other could be had. The shore was rocky—a handsome beach, which reminded us of the sea. arge granite boulders that were scattered about the shore, I re- marked a coating of a calcareous substance, in some places a few inch- es and in others a foot in thickness. Near our camp, the hills, which were of primitive rock, were also covered with this substance, which Was in too great quantity on the mountains along the shore of the lake to have been deposited by water, sue has the appearance of having been Spread over the rocks in mass. eS next day, we followed again a broad Indian trail along the shore of the lake to the southward. Fora short space we had roont enough in the bottom ; but, after travelling a short distance, the water yin the foot of precipitous mountains, the peaks of which are about 3,000 feet ative the lake. The trail wonnd along the base of these prec early im- practicable for the howitzer. During a greater atk of the morning the lake was nearly hid by a snow storm, and the waves broke on the Stier eet The label attached to a specimen of this rock was lost; sg I append an anal- oa of abet which, from POOL, I andes to be shane Carbonate of fu me, ; 77-31 Carbonate of : : ‘ 5:25 on as magnesia, . 146) Alumina, ” . : : : : : 1:05 Sili tea, ‘ . . . 8-55 Organic matter, water, and loss, . . 6:24 100-00 Srconp Srnizs, Vol. III, No. 8.—March, 1847. 26 202 Rocky Mountains and Oregon. narrow beach in a long line of foaming surf, five or six feet high. The day was unpleasantly cold, the wind driving the snow sharp against our faces ; and, having advanced only about twelve miles, we encamped in a bottom formed by a ravine, covered with good grass, which was fresh and green. _ % We did not get the howitzer into camp, but were obliged to leave it on the rocks until morning.. We saw several flocks of sheep, but did not succeed in killing any. Ducks were riding on the waves, and sey- eral large fish were seen. The mountain sides were crusted with the calcareous cement previously mentioned. There were chenopodiace- ous and other shrubs along the beach; and, at the foot of the rocks, an abundance of Ephedra occidentalis, whose dark-green color makes them appear like evergreens among the shrubby growth of the lake. To- wards evening the snow began to fall heavily, and the country had a wintry appearance. ‘«‘ The next morning the snow was rapidly melting under a warm sun. Part of the morning was occupied in bringing up the gun; and, mak- ing only nine miles, we encamped on the shore, opposite a very re- markable rock in the lake, which had attracted our attention for many miles. It rose, according to our estimate, 600 feet above the water; and, from the point we viewed it, presented a pretty exact outline of the great pyramid of Cheops. The accompanying drawing presents it as we saw it. Like other rocks along the shore, it seemed to be in- crusted with calcareous cement. This striking feature suggested the name for the lake. ‘‘ The elevation of this lake above the sea is 4,890 feet, being nearly 700 feet higher than the Great Salt lake, from which it lies nearly west, and distant about eight degrees of longitude. The position and eleva- tion of this lake make it an object of geographical interest. . It is the nearest lake to the western rim, as the Great Salt lake is to the eastern rim, of the Great Basin which lies between the base of the y Mountains and the Sierra Nevada.”’—pp. 216, 217, 218. The work is illustrated by many fine views of scenery, besides five plates of fossils, and four of recent plants. ‘There was no retinue of science attached to the expedition, yet by perso exertion, in connection with his other arduous duties, Captain Frémont made valuable geological and botanical collections. Un- region, and about its loftiest heights, as well as upon the honored page of history. Hybridity in Animals. 208 Art. XXIl.—Hybridity in Animals, considered in reference to the question of the Unity of the Human Species; by Samvet EoRGE Morron, M. D. (Continued from p. 50, this volume.) Part I.—BIRDS. __ Gallinaceous Hybrids.—The variation of size, form and lumage, so remarkable among the different breeds of domestic owls, has been usually attributed to the action of physical agents on a single, original species. This supposition however, is now found to be untenable; for the best ornithologists, and_ those, too, who have no view to collateral gempralization, have succeed- ed in tracing this family of birds to, at least, ten different species. Without appealing to unnecessary details it is sufficient to ob- serve, that independently of certain admitted changes as the re- sult of domestication, these birds are in far greater degree modi- fied by the power possessed by their several species, (so far, at least, as the experiment has been extended,) of mingling with each other and producing a fertile hybrid progeny. Hence, in a great measure, those interminable varieties of exterior form, size and color now ever amiliar. . bil atl The Gallus ecaudatus (tail-less fowl) has been triumphantly quoted as an evidence of the power of climate and locality to produce changes, not only of plumage, but of anatomical conform- ation. 'This bird is deficient in the last dorsal vertebrae, and con- Alectors of ornithologists,—among which the very same in- Apres tomer ee ee ‘ * We have been at some pains to ascertain the specific names of the several original gallinaceous birds; yet without presuming that ornithologists have de- Scribed Il that exist, we append a list of such as are already known: Gallus twa; G. eneus; G. Anstrutheri; ye 3 G.morio; G. lanatus — which may, for the present, be regarded us apocryphal, I casure of examining five of these original species, contained in the the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. t Griffith's Cuvier, viii, pp. 19, 21, 173.—Temminck, as quoted in the same work. 204 Hybridity in Animals. termixture of species takes place, and consequent fertile offspring, as we have remarked in the several species of domestic fowls. All the Hoccos or Currasows (Crax) for example, which are derived from their native forests of Guiana, readily unite with each other, giving rise toa progeny that is reproductive without end. “It is probable,” observes a judicious ornithologist, “that if the in- tercourse were repeated in a variety of ways, it would be possi- ble to cultivate, by suitable care, many different races of these birds, whose descendants might be susceptible of multiplying, ad infinitum, and branching out into a number of singular varie- ties, under the superintendance of man.’’* In fact, the Dutch menageries have already obtained the pro- lific hybrids of three species} of this genus; and it has been ob- served that these mixed™birds have their plumage more varied, and far more agreeable to the eye, than the uniform livery of the adult individuals of the pure race. Here, then, we have a family of wild birds, recently reclaimed from their native forests, so as to leave no possible question of their origin and specific diversity ; and by intermixing these spe- cies in a state of domestication, we have passing under our eyes, as it were, the identical series of phenomena, those very same et which are so remarkable and so familiar in the common owl. Since I commenced writing this essay, I have met with two hybrid gallinaceous birds, between the common fow] and the Guinea fowl (Numida meleagris). They were bred in the state of Delaware, and possess, in a remarkable and unequivocal man- ner, the exterior characters and the habits of both parents. One of them looks more like the common fowl; the other, on the contrary, has a much stronger resemblance to the Guinea fowl. The sounds which they utter are intermediate, often analogous to those of the Guinea fowl, but occasionally having the cluck of the other nt. These birds are yet living, and their sex has not been positively determined, but the e characters ap- pear to predominate. Since they came under my notice, I have heard of three other examples of similar hybrids occurring in different parts of the United States; but no progeny has resulted from them. domestic fowl and turkey. White of Selbornel| gives a plate * Griffith's Cuvier, viii, p. 100. t Craz alector, C. rubra and C. globicera. ¢ Griffith's Cuvier, viii, p. 113. See Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for September, 1346. \ Naturalist’s Calendar, for 1795. Hybridity in Animals. 205 and description of a wild hybrid, between the pheasant and do- mestic fowl; and a bird of the same kind was preserved in the Leverian museum at Oxford. A similar example is again record- ed by Mr. Eyton, in his History of the rarer British Birds, in which five individuals were produced.* Further, the common ring-pheasant of England, is now as- certained to be a hybrid between the Phasianus colchicus and P. torquatus of China. This cross is very prolific, and is said to be will also unite. It appears, in fact, very possible to produce mon- grels from the major part of those Gallinze which are suscepti of cultivation.” Hybrids of the Fringillide.—The Finch family furnishes an- other example of an extensive amalgamation of species, and a re- markable series of prolific hybrids. Thus, according to Bech- stein, the Redpole (Fringilla linaria) will breed with the gold- inch, linnet and canary; while the cross between the latter the goldfinch is capable of reproduction. The Citril finch (F. citrinella) also, readily pairs with the ea- nary, and gives rise to a fertile offspring ; and, indeed, so remark- able is the fecundity of these hybrids, and the ease with which they reproduce with the goldfinch, bullfinch and greenfinch, that M. Veilliot, in order to account for a phenomenon that conflict- ed with the prevalent opinion of the sterility of all hybrids, as- Sumed that the F’. citrinella and F'. canaria were not distinct Species, but only two races that had sprung from the same stock ; that one having colonized in Europe and the other in the Ca- nary islands, their different characteristics were owing to a mere ference of locality.$ 2 On the other hand, those persons, — for pastime, have given the o * Proceedings of the Zoolog. Society of London, 1835. t Rennie, in Montagu’s Ornithological Dict., p. 424. ‘ t Griffith's Cuvier, viii, pp. 173, 175, 176.—Prichard. Researches, &c., i, p. 140. § Griffith's Cuvier, vii, p. 271. ’ 206 Hypbridity in Animals. blance in song and plumage, to the domestic canary, than to the — of Germany, the Venturon of Italy, or the Serin o "The celebrated ornithologist Bechstein, adds the following re- marks: “ We might almost conclude that the Venturon (F. cit- rinellady the Serin (F. serinus) and the Siskin (Carduelis spinus), are the wild originals of the cage-canary. I have seen a bird produced between the Siskin and Serin which perfectly resem- bled the variety called the green canary ;—I have, also, seen a mule from a grey female canary, whose true parentage could not be distinguished.” The Siskin, it will be observed, belongs to a different genus from the wild canary. The canary is now known to breed, not only with the three species just mentioned, but also, with the goldfinch, linnet, spar- row, chaflinch, bunting, greenfinch and bullfinch; and with sev- eral of them, it produces a fertile offspring. M. Veilliot once caught a mule bird, which he supposed to be the produce of a male greenfinch (F’. chloris) and a female gold- finch ; for it mingled the size, color and song of both these spe- cies. This bird did not appear to have resulted from the domes- tication of the parents, for it remained emcee wild, yet was brought to couple with a female canary.* A yet more remote alliance, that between a canary and a night- ingale, produced an egg that could not be hatched. ‘This fact con joined with others to which we have adverted, illustrates the remark of Prof. Temminck, that the occurence of prolific off- spring between een species of birds, is an evidence of the tween them; and that when the reverse takes pose (infertile ils it proves the disparity between the species thus brought together. - Hybrids of the Anatide.—The cross between the Anser cyg- noides and the common tame goose of Europe, is proverbially fre- quent, and the offspring has proved prolific.t Mr. Eyton and Mr. Blyth have recorded examples of this kind, and M. onan has seen the progeny extended through seven generation The Anser canadensis is often taken in the United States and reduced to the domestic state, in which it crosses with our com- mon goose, producing a hybrid offspring, which, however, ap- to be sterile. The swan (Cygnus olor) has crossed with the common Euro- pean goose, but I am not aware that the hybridity has been no- ticed beyond the first offspring. This fact is quoted by Dr. Prich- ard, from M. Frederick Cuvier. ariffith’s Cuvier, vii, p. 259. t aoe s Magazine, ix, p.511. Temminck, Manuel d'Ornithologie, i, p. 109. “eye , Monograph of Anatide. ¢ Journal des avans, June, 1846. Hybridity in Animals. 207 Mr. Charles Waterton, the celebrated traveller, has published a.very interesting account of a hybrid between the female Cana- da goose, and the wild Bernacle gander (Anser bernicla).* _. This fact occured at Mr. Waterton’s seat at Walton Hall, England. “These hybrids,” he observes, ‘‘are elegantly shaped, but: are not so large as the mother, nor so small as the father, their plum- age partaking in color with that of both parents. ‘The white on their front is only half as much as is seen on the front of the er, while their necks are brown in lieu of the coal-black color which appears on the neck of the goose. ‘Their breasts, too, are of a dusky color, while the breast of the bernacle is black, a that of the Canadian, white; and throughout the whole of the remaining plumage there may be seen an altered and modified coloring, not to be traced in that of the parent birds.” t remains to notice some instances of hybridity among differ- ent species of ducks; thus a cross has been obtained between the. Anas fuligula of Europe, and the European teal (Anas querque- dula).t “Selby mentions a male wigeon (Mareca penelope) breeding with a female pintail (Anas acuta), notwithstanding the fact of females of his own species being kept on the same piece of water.” Other crosses have taken place between the pintail and the common mallard (Anas boschas) ;$ and in the wild state, between the latter and the dusky duck (A. obscura), of which, my friend Mr. William Gambel, has seen a specimen in the pos- session of Mr. J. G. Bell, of New York, near which city it was shot. A much more frequent hybrid occurs between the mallard and muscovy duck (A. moschata). Mr. William R. Clapp informs me that he saw, at Rye Pond, has been obtained between the throstle (Turdus musicus) and the black-bird (Merula vulgaris) of Great Britain.1 * Bernicla brenta. ! Essays on Nat. History, p. 118, 2d edition. het ¢ Prichard. Researches, é&c., i, p. 140, from M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire. § Loudon’s Magazine, ix, p. 615. Haris | Manuel d’ Ornithologie, i, p. 254. { Loudon’s Magazine, ix, p. 615. % 208 Hypbridity in Animals. Hysrip Rertites, Fisnes, Motiusca ann Insects. Among reptiles, I have found but a single authenticated ex- ample, that of a cross between the European frog and toad, which are generically distinct. (Bufo and Rana. )* Among fishes, specific hybrids have been obtained by means 8 artificial wapeagentinn between Cyprinus carpio, and C. caras- s, and between the former species and C. gibellio.t “ Defay caioneies a hybrid between the barbus and ale and Blech a similar production intermediate between Cyprinus blicco and C. Pi My friend Mr. 8. 8. Haldeman, well known for his many and accurate contributions to various branches of natural science, has kindly furnished me with the following note in relation to some American freshwater Mollusca, in connexion with the present quiry. “ Whilst I deem Unio radiatus and U. siliquoideus distinct species, there isa certain variety, apparently of the latter, although almost precisely intermediate, which induces me to believe it may possibly be a hybrid. I have never, however, seen any thing waters of the United States, although I have had many opportu- nities for observation. “In their proper localities no species can be more readily sepa~ rated than Paludina decisa and P. ponderosa ; yet intermediate individuals occur which it is extremely difficult if not impossible to give an undoubted place with either. This difficulty has sometimes almost induced me to regard the two as one species ; but when I found that the best developed specimens of P. decisa never take the form of P. ponderosa where the latter is not found, as in ~— waters east of the Alleghanies, I could not safely unite Perhaps hybridity may be the cause of the aahonity where the two species occur in the same locality.” In Entomology, Mr. Haworth has published some highly inter- esting facts relating to hybrid productions, and particularly in respect to the genus Coccinella. Fabricius had noticed and pub- lished some of these facts; but Dr. Prichard remarks, that they “do not afford an unequivocal example of the union of different species, since, according to the opinion of Iliger, accidental varie- ties of the Coccinella have been frequently mistaken for distinct kinds.”§ Yet on the other hand, Mr. Haworth asserts that he has often seen, in coiti, several different species of this genus; and he adds the following observations : hat they mix sexually with each other, when their proper mates cannot be found, is well known; and I have even had * Brande’s Dict. of Science, fe. er Prag ie: t Ibid. ¢ Prichard. Researches, &c., i, p-1 § Ut supra Hybridity in Animals and Plants. 209 i } ‘ pustulata, which, but for an accident, would) have been reared. Yet such junctions cannot destroy the distinctions of the primi- tive species, although it may give birth occasionally to hybrid broods; not barren, but capable of generating, for a while, others like themselves. Such, in all probability, are Coccinella annu- lata and C. fasciata. If these two had never existed, no Ento- mologist would have conceived that all the insects of this section . bipunctata, were of the same species! Wherefore it fol- lows that they are not.” t “ Practical entomologists well know that similar unions happen in other genera, but more especially in Cicada ; and from them arise occasionally a set of hybrid varieties, which still do not overturn the primitive distinctions of the original species whence they sprung; however difficult they may sometimes render the task of discriminating amongst such a set of mongrel productions. “It is even probable that two species of distinct sections may occasionally generate a race very different from both parents, yet resembling both, and not barren, as is usually the case with mules, but capable of procreating. And such a brood some hold to be a new and distinct species in the scale of nature—brought to ight by her own operations, and in the very same way that she has occasionally multiplied, and still continues to increase, the stupendous members of the vegetable kingdom.”* | larve produced from the union of C. tripunctata,and C:q¢ I~ Hysrip Priants. Dr. Prichard, as the result of extensive inquiry, informs us that the number of hybrid plants in the wild or uncultivated state, is about forty ; that a few of these have reproduced, but that the greater of them are sterile.t On the other hand, it is asserted by Shiek, that a multitude of plants produce specifical hybrids ia state of nature. There are innumerable instances, as every one knows, of crosses obtained from plants of different species of the same genera, even when brought from the most distant parts of the world, as the experiments of Kolrenter, Sagaret and Herbert abundantly testify. y- t only are these hybrids fertile, but in some instances their reproductiveness exceeds that of the parent plants, by multiplying hot only from the seed, but from roots, shoots and suckers. The intermixture is not confined. to particular species, but even the most dissimilar can be crossed. We think it unnecessary to give examples when the facts are available to every one ; and there- fore in respect to the blending of species among plants, the reader a Cl la Sl * Transy of the Entomological Soc. of London, i, pp- 267, 201. 1 Researches, &c., i, p. 139. t Brande’s Dict. of Science, Art. Hybrid. SEconp Serizs, Vol. Ill, No. 8,—March, 1847. vad » 210 Remarks on Hybridity. is particularly “peer <4 the admirable essays of the Rev. Mr. Herbert, and M. 8 e may remark, Samak that so abundant are these hybrids, that Mr. Herbert, in order to avoid the difficulty they present to a favorite theory, declares it as his opinion, that botanical species are only a higher and more permanent class of varieties, which should be discarded from the — leaving the genera to de- ‘ fine the individuality of kind; or, in other words, to designate those anent characteristics, wie have hitherto, in his opin- ion, been erroneously attributed to species. t But i in the treatise of M. Sagaret, various instances are given of hybrid plants derived from the mixture of different genera; thus realizing, in this department of nature, the same facts that we have seen to occur in the several sections of the zoological series. We will offer a single example,—the cross horse- radish (Cochlearia raphanus) and the cabbage ; the former bear- ing a short pod, or szdicula, the latter a long pod or szliqua. Remarks. While we admit that hybrids, as a general law, are contrary to nature, we are also compelled to concede that this law has very many exceptions. “It is manifest,” says Dr. Prichard, “ that there is some principle in nature which prevents the intermixture of confusion. By what method is this confusion prevented? ‘The fact seems to be, that the tribes of wild animals are preserved dis- tinct, not only by the sterility of mules, but that such animals are never, in the state of nature, brought into existence. The separation of distinct species is. sufficiently provided for by the natural repugnance between individuals of different kinds. This is, indeed, overcome in the state of domestication, in which the fa propensities cease, in a great measure, to direct their ac- tions.’ But we have seen that mules are not always sterile, and also that hybrids are really produced in a state of nature, wholly in- dependent of the influence of cultivation ; facts which, indeed, are admitted and illustrated by Dr. Prichard in his later ‘writings. That domestication evolves the faculty of hybridity there can be no question; and we would ap ly the principle to various classes of animals. It will materially assist in explaining so great a vari- ety in some animals, by pointing, as De Azara and Hamilton Smith | * Herbert. Amaryllidacee. sate _ agaret. Annales des Sciences Nat. T. viii. Awary dasa ez, p. 19. $ Researches into the Physical dtactnay of Mankind, i, p. 97. Second Edition. Remarks on Hybridity. 211 have suggested, to certain primitive species, which were endowed with the capacity for reproducing among themselves, especially under the influence of domestic culture. We have shown that this fact is unquestionable among some quadrupeds and some birds, of which the hybrid varieties have been cultivated for the uses of man. of Could we trace back the origin and history of various other Species, we should, in all probability, arrive at the very same re- sult; for it appears to be a law of nature, that the faculty pos sessed by different species of animals of producing fertile hybrid offspring, is in proportion to their aptitude for domesticity. ow, since man possesses this aptitude in the highest. degree, being as Blumenbach expresses it, the most domestic of animals, it would be nothing singular if he possessed the power of fertile hybridity, even if the human family should prove to embrace several distinct species; because, as we have fully shown, this ge is not unfrequent among animals, whose specific, come by centuries of proximity, and, above all other means, by the moral : “See the travels of Hawkins, Browne, Burkhardt, Caillet, &c., for abundant : € . evidence of this fac I must here be permitted to offer a single additional remark. It is obvious. that While c ion produces obvious changes in some animals, its influence has had little or no effec on others; for example, ass, the rat, he mouse, one quadrupeds, and the peacock and guinea fowl ¢ we n licated from immemorial time, in all latitudes, under every Fe, d Variety of circumstances. Am ild birds and q' SA hie ienbcheg some under very remarkabl ges in astate of nature, as some spe io of Uirrel, fo. the wpa oh , , beer ar aaa rs set draining inferential conclusions from n 212 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio, for 1846. Conclusion. ced ch latent power of hybridity exists in many animals in the wild state, in which state, also, hybrids are sometimes produced. 2. Hybridity oceurs not only among diflerent species, but among different genera ; and the sentitet have been prolific in — cases . Domestication does not: cause this faculty, but merely evolves itae es 4. The capacity for fertile hybridity, ceteribus paribus, exists in pees in proportion to their aptitude for domesticity and cul- tivation. 5. Since various different species of animals are capable of producing together a prolific _— offspring, hybridity ceases to be a test of specific affiliatio 6. Consequently, the mere fact that the several races of man- kind produce with each other, a more or less fertile progeny» constitutes, in itself, no proof of the unity of the human species. Arr. XXIV.— Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, for the year 1846, kept at Marietia, Ohio, Lat. 39° 25’ N., nee ng. 4° 28! W. of Washington City; by 8. P. Hitprern, ti D. JHEPMOMETED: a BAROMETER. _ | é Es ° MONTHS. g _| .| 8) 8%! Prevailing winds. : fei ele\= = eS gp ab = = § e Sto 8 }o1s 3 EB jog = |e\ele (Oo! Se January, > 33+( 13) 18 » (Qe £98 208 0 February, - 9 Sh: 14) 14 0) 28-95 0-95 March, - - (43% 13) 17) 14 20-70 29-00 0-74 April, = ~ I must here express my very great obligations to Mr. Fromberg, A. Of the Quantity of Ash yielded by the several parts of the Unripe Plant. As soon as the plants were received, portions of the several parts were weighed for the purpose of determining the water, and dried at a temperature not exceeding 212° Fahrenheit, until their weight became constant. At least three separate portions of each part were taken to provide for accidents, and to secure at least two concurring determinations. : - While the above were drying, others were weighed from which to determine the ash. The burning was always effected in plati- num vessels over argand gas-burners, and at a dull red heat. The first specimens of the young plant arrived on the 4th of June, and the succession at weekly intervals was uninterrupted until the cutting of the crop on the 3d of September. The oats 224 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. were of the potato variety, and though retarded by the unusually wet season, were uniformly strong and healthy, the sample prov-— ing one of uncommon excellence. ‘The plants on the 4th of June were from four to six inches in height, consisting merely of one leaf, and the commencement of the stalk. These two parts, there- fore, are first to be considered, as to the quantity of ash which they yie ield. 1. Of the Leaf—The following Table exhibits the proportions in the leaf at successive stages of its ee th—1. Of Water. 2. ard haces 3. Of Ash calculated dry. iat TABLE ' ofits, 4 + 18; 2 a ee Per cent. of Water, 80 51182-7¢ 76 82°02178-53| 80-2676 21. -53|77 61 77:00 00 76° 18) 79-93|70-63)24° o460 Per cent. of Ash, | 2-16 1°86] 1 63} 2°35) 2-24) 281} 3-06] 385) 3-78) 3.75) 6:14) 4°25} 6-49)15:78 Do.caleulated dry, 10-83110°791 9 07;10-95} 11-35! 12-201 12°61!16-45)16 44] 16:05120:47'21 -14\22-13 20°90 During the whole growth of the plant the diminution in the quantity of water in the leaf was not great, being only about 10 rent. from the 4th of June to the 27th of August. So late as the 20th of August it was nearly as high as at first. When the plant becomes ripe, however, the leaf at once withers, and this ac- peek for the great decrease of water between the 27th of Au- gust and the 3d of September. This decrease in the water gives a great apparent increase of ash in the undried leaf. When cal- cuiated dry, in the third line, there appears an actual decrease from the two preceding weeks. ‘There may have been some change in the circulation at the last, by which a portion of the inorganic materials ro carried back into the stalk, 2. Of the Stalk,—The per-centages of water, of ash, and of ash caleul ated pays were determined as in the leaf. Taser IT. ' ~ “August t.| 30. | 6 1 13. | 20. | 27. “ gre 75 66/69 80|76-27\71-57)717 2°01) 2°00} 15S] 2°19 745) 7-63] ‘Geel Ge 6:66] 7°71] | 835 sald Me Bi SA ae 1-40 10. 4 9-83) } 2 : 7} Percent.of Water. Per cent. of Ash, Do.caleulated dry, 11! 1-28) 140 1°63 Tily P 4 aa 23. 83°66|82-05180 oalta 7°33, 7:80 a 7-99 The decrease of water during the growth of this part is con- siderably more than in the leaf. The quantity of ash in the undried straw (second ae increases toward the end, as in undried leaf. This, in both cases, is owing to the gradual dis- appearance of the water ; a we see, in the third ig that the actual per-centage of ash in the dried stalk is less on the 3d of September than it was on the 4th of June. In the earlier grow th of ne stalk, the dried stem or solid part, though less in quantity, actually contains a larger per-centage of ash than is afterwards necessary to its perfect maturity. As the stalk is the stem of the plant, through it must pass the inorganic materials necessary, for the building up of all the other parts. How wise the provision, Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 225 which enables it to furnish an abundance of these materials at the time when they are most needed! Between the 6th and the 27th of August, the demand upon the straw was very great; at this riod the grain was most rapidly attaining its full size; the leaf also between the 13th and the 20th of August, increased its per- centage of ash from 16 to 21. When these parts have attained their full size, and approach maturity, the ash in the stalk begins to accumulate again, as is seen in the last two weeks. This is at the same time that the decrease in the leaf, mentioned above, takes place. _ From the very large per-centage of water in the stalk on the 3d.of September, when the oats were cut, it is evident that there must be an immense diminution during the drying of harvest, as Ihave seldom found’ more than 13 or 14 per cent. of water in straw taken from a well-made stack. This will appear in a sub- solid masses. ‘'T'o ascertain if the quantity of ash in the knots of oats varied greatly from that in the whole straw, these trials were made, Taste III. July 23. July 30. | Aug. 6. jAug. 13.) Aug. 20.) Aug. 27.) Sept. 3. re 2 i Per cent. of Water, . . | 76:05 | 75-54 | 74-82 | 75-29. | 75°38 | 73°55 | 70-65 Percent. of Ash,. . .| 240] 2 263 | 280} 2 < 3-14 Do. calculated dry,; ... }10-02.| 9-60 | 10-44,1 10-48 | 11-79 | 11-27 110-7 ‘The variation in the per-centage of water in this table is not large. The ash is, in accordance with Professor Johnston’s ng. . : _ 4. Of the Quantity of Ash in the Chaff—The determina- ons of ash and water in this part of the plant c on the 16th of July. Imust here mention, that by the chaff I mean the outer covering which envelopes the oat during its growth; becoming looser as it ripens, and finally falling off du- Per-centage of ash and water exhibited as before. Seconp Serigs, Vol. III, No. 8—March, 1847. 29 226 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. Tape IV. July 16. jJuly 23. jJuly 30. | Aug. 6. {Aug. 13. |Aug. 20.|Aug. 27.| Sept. 3.| Per cent. of yecagi 55:01 | 56°95 | 50-49 | 45-04 nee a so 08 | 40-44 | 21-96 Per cent. of 2: 392 |} 6-08 |..7-83 1:20 | 13:38. | 21-43 Do. calculated as 6:00 | 9-11 | 12:28 | 13-75 18 68 1. 07 | 22:46 © 27-47 The quantity of oe given by the above table is much less, while that of ash is much greater, than in any other part of ee unri lant. The éxttaordinary quantity of 27 per cent., given in the third line, is very remarkable. It is to be obaeeltaly however, that in no other specimen of chaff have I found so high a per-centage. The crop, as I have before stated, was unusually vigorous, and grown on a deep rich loam, where every thing it required seems to have been in abundance, and the per-centage of ash in every part is uncommonly large. It will be noticed that the meh of ash is more steadily progressive than in any of the ae 5. Of t the Quantity of Ash in the Oat.—It is necessary for me 3 here to explain, that, in speaking of the Oat, I always mean the seed and husk together. By the Grain, I mean the seed divested of its husk. This distinction will prevent confusion. The oats did not become sufficiently developed for separation from the stalk until the 2d of July. The same treatment was pursued as with the other parts, and the following table exhibits the results Tasce V. | july July July aly (98 July Aug. Ang. Aug-( ah aR 4 Per cent. of Wy atet, ‘ = 84 % 56 o = 63° ne 206 6 “4A 5s a 49-76 & rae 30°74 Per cent. of A : “94| 1-02) 1 1:33} 1-60) 1 1-87] 1-83} 1-96). 2-53) Do. calculated om i 4:91) 4:36 3 38) 3-62} 4-22) 4-31] 407] 364) 351) 365 Diiring the growth of this part of the plant, the per-centage of water steadily decreased to considerably less than one-half of 0 original quantity. As in the stalk, this has caused an apparent increase of ash (second line), but when calculated dry (third line , there is an actual decrease. This diminution of ash occurs only in these two parts of the plant. [have already given a probable explanation of the cause in the stalk, and think that one equally simple may be given as to the oat itself, Eve noticed its growth, knows that the husk, being necessary for the protection of the grain, is formed first, and attains nearly its full size while the grain is yet scarcely visible, A subsequent. table will show that the husk contains about three times as much as the grain. During the first growth of the oat, this husk, re- quiring an abundance of inorganic materials, is to be form we accordingly find such a proportion of these materials present, as are not found at any subsequent period. When the husk is formed the grain enlarges, and as it gradually becomes three- Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 227 fourths of the oat, the per-centage of ash, taking the two to- gether, of course diminishes. By reference to Table II, it will be seen, that on the 2d of July, just when the oat began to show it- self, a sudden decrease took place in the ash of the stalk. The per-centage of water in the oats when the crop was cut, on the 3d of September, was more than twice as much as I have found in those taken from the granary or stack-yard. Heretofore I have only spoken of the quantity of ash yielded by the several parts of the plant; I now would direct attention " the composition of this ash, which will constitute the second vision. B. Of the Quality of the Ash from the several parts above mentioned. This series of analysis by Mr. Fromberg, has already involved avery great amount of labor, and is not yet by any means finish- , extending only over seven weeks of the fourteen, in which the determinations of the quantity of ash were made. They ex- tend to the 16th of July; and, so far as they go, present a com- plete view of the curious and interesting changes which take place during the development of the various parts of the plant. As before, I will place the leaf first. 1. Composition of Ash from the Leaf of Unripe Oats at dif- Jerent periods of growth. - ar Taste VI. a “7 June 4. June 11.) June 18.) June 25.{ July 2. duly 9. [duly 16) Powsh and soda, . . | 2460 | 23°51 | 26-21 | 26:10 18-78 | 16-09 | 1835 | Chlotid of sodium, . | 16.34 | 13:54 | 11-30 | 7:56 | 7-92] 4-09 0:30 | ime, . .. . . | 444-724), 733 | 674] 691) 593) 5-13) Magnesia, . . . 5.33| 311 | 347 | 306 | 239] 235) 1-63 Oxyd of iron, * * | 0961 | 0-52 | 0:72 | 0-99 | 040) 034 | 0-55 Sulphuric acid, 9. ‘| 11.74 | 1285 | 10-59 | 7-88 | 9'50| 6-45 | 13-05 Phosphoric acid, . , | 16.16 | 10-57 | 1012 | 876 | 692) G44| 291 » , 2 2 7 14658 | 28-54 | 30-31 | 36:50 | 47°62 | 58-28 | 58-22 99-80 | 99-88 (100-05 | 99°59 \100-14 | 99-97 1100.14 The oxyd of iron seems to have fluctuated in its proportions less than any of the other substances. 228 2. Of the Composition of Ash from the Stalks of the Unripe Plant. “4 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. Taste VII. June 4. June 11.|June 18 June 25.) July 2.{ Joly 9 [Joly 16. Potash and soda, —. 24-94 | 21-45 | 26-49 "86 | 36 30°16 | 42:43 Shlorid of sodium, 32:66 | 34-65 | 24-94 | 24-57 | 11-62 | 17-82. | 4-46 Lime,” . es 2-40 | 4:22 |) 3:74 | 2-42] 2-64 ‘60 | 4:32 Magnesia, . 0-88 | 3-20} 2:20 | 258] 2:17 | 2-27 1-47 Oxyd of iron, . —« 0-39 | 0-30} 0:-40.| 0:58 |. 0-88 |. 0-68 |. 0-62 Sulphuric acid, 8 6:15.) 7-82 | 851 | 4-87 "98 | 9-09 | 7-84 horic acid,” . 16-15 | 13-96 | 12-55 | 7-81} 2-21 °| 5-57 | 6-31 Silica. ye 16°29 | 14-32 | 20-41 | 28-08 | 36- 32:39 | 34-85 ! 99-86 | 99-92 | 99.24 | 99-77 | 99-40 | 99-52 1100-33" The decrease in the very remarkable, from 324 to quantity of chlorid of sodium is here also r cent. The phosphoric acid continued without much variation until the 25th of June, when the oat itself began to form; by the 2d of July the oats had shot up from the stalk and become visible; in that week a marked and sudden decrease took place in the phosphoric acid. In the two succeeding weeks it began again to increase. No very great changes seem to have taken place in the other constituents, ex- cepting the gradual increase of silica. The composition of the stalk on the 16th of July differs very greatly from that of a ma- ture stalk, as will afterwards be seen. It was then still green and vigorous, growing rapidly, and serving as a canal for the convey- ance of a great portion of their food to the other parts of the plant. ‘The inorganic ingredients, therefore, might be expected: to vary, as we see them, with the fluctuations of temperature more or less favorable to vegetable growth. 3. Composition of Ash from the whole Oat, at different periods of iis growth. . Tasce VIII. ee ' July? | July July 16. | Potash and soda, ey eB AEP 32-92 31-31 31:37 | Chiorid of sodium, se. uy 10-37 8:10 0-61» Lime, .. -» ‘ a : ‘ ‘ 2-70 _ 5-40 6°76 | Magnesia, . 3-44 4:52 9-94 | Oxyd of iron 039 2) ‘35 Sulphuric acid, . 10°35 12:78 . 16-42 Phosphoric acid 14-02 20-09 15-19 Silica 24-40 17-05 26-05 98-59 99°46 99-69 During these three weeks the cat attained nearly its full length, but was yet quite green, and the grain scarcely begun to form in the interior of the husk. The above table, therefore, only enables us to compare the earliest part of its growth with the latest as afterwards given. The diminution of chlorine is, how- ever, to be noticed as very great in the short space of three weeks. Ithink the large quantity of sulphuric acid present at this time would have diminished, as I have seldom found so much in the ash of the ripe oat. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 229: 4. Comparative View of the Composition of the Ash from the Leaf, Stalk, Oat, Knots, and Chaff, on the 16th of July. — Tasre IX. Leaf. | Stalk. | Knots. Chait. | Oat. Potash and soda, .. 18-35 42-43 | ~ 30-2 15°39 31:37 Chiorid of sodium, . 0:30 4-46 0-60 2-01 “61 ime, SH Re 5:13 4:12 4-75 4-58 ‘76 Magnesia, “sige td 1-63 1:47 4:51 3:10 2:94 Oxyd of iron, 2 0-55 0-62 1-02 1:50 35 Sulphuric acid, . . 13-05 7:84 27-94 9-90 16:42 Phosphoric acid, . 2-91 6:31 9-03 7 26 15°19 lica, es erp eal easigic 68-22 34: 13-23 5638 | 26:05 10014 | 100-33 1700-29" | 100-12 | 99-69 On the 16th of July the plant was in the midst of its most rap- id growth, and just half-way between the time when it appeared above ground in June, and when it was cut on the 3d of Septem- r. In a subsequent table will be found a comparison of the ash from these parts of the plant when fully matured. 5. Organic Constituents of the Unripe Plant.—In connexion with the first chapter of my subject, I have hitherto said nothing of the organic constituents of the unripe plant. Mr. Fromberg has determined the nitrogen in the unripe oat at six periods of its growth, and also when it had become fully ripe. The follow- ing table gives his results. Tasre X. j July | July 16. | 30. Per centage of nitrogen in undried oat, 0-51) 0-51 Do. do. in dried oat, 1-71) 135 Do. do. of protein com: ' nds in on- dried oak Bee ’ puis 3.24| 3- Do. of do. in dried oat, . (10-75) 8-50 Il. Or roe Rive Pwanr. ‘It now remains to consider the plant in a state of maturity, both as to its inorganic and its organic constituents. ‘To the in- organic part I shall first direct attention, and here, as in the first chapter, I shall take up different portions of the plant in suc- cession. — . on. 1. Of the Ash yielded by the Straw.—tIt has been shown by Bowe Johnston,* that hie ash from the straw of all the corn * See his Elements, p. 44. 230 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. crops varies in quantity at different heights of the same stalk. To ascertain the nature and extent - — Cemyng 3 in the straw I considered a point of importa it I first direct- ed my attention. Each straw was divided ‘into io equal parts, the bottom, the middle, and the top. ‘These were separately burned in the same manner, and with the same precautions as have already been described under the unripe plant, each burn- ing helt repeated until two or more trials were found to ree.* The following table gives a comparative view of the per-cent- e of ash in these three parts, from five different samples of straw of the localities stated over each column. 'The ash is cal- culated dry, and the average per-centage of water given in the upper line. Taste XI. Hopete Ho: Potato, s g Aeeate Ki iw hiss eee dusmak n, z te pa Kitwhise, berlan Edinburgh.) “periand. Fife. Average of wate 11-21 10-11 9-36 10-99 9:19 . Per cent. of piss 2 in top ead 4:95 5:44 8-25 9-23 10-01 Do. do. in middle straw 611 4-23 6-53 7-41 9-01 Do. do. in bottom straw, 5°33 5°86 719 9-76 7:30 The above table ‘establishes two facts: 1. That there is a even when the samples are of the same variety of oat, as is seen in the Hopeton oats above. Thus far the results of Professor Johnston are confirmed. There is not, however, a regular grada- tion in the quantity of ash, from the top downwards. In only one case, that of the Sandy vats, is this gradation to be obse It may be that, if I had taken but one straw at a time, and aceurate- ly divided it, the result would have been different, I am inclined to doubt this, however ; for the straw of the oat crop is w known to be more irregular in quantity than that of any other corn crop: and table twelve shows that the average quantity of its ash is equally variable: this variation gu ae probably ex- tend to different parts of the same stalk. n if the averages of the above parts are taken, we still find a great t difference in me amount of ash. * The straw of the ripe oat generally burns with h difficulty, if the heat be’ sd great it fuses, enveloping ina kind o glass some of the carbonaceous matter; it is then almost impossible to burn it white. I have feat been obliged to burn sam les ee more than twenty-four hours. The addition of peroxyd of nail X\ Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 231 The following table illustrates this. Average per-centage of Ash in Six Samples of Oat Strav. Tasxe XII. No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, No. 6, Hopeton. | Hopeton. Dun. Sandy. | Potato. Potato. Average per cent. of ash. | 5°46 5-02 | 7°29 Yd) 8.76 8-65 We see here a range of a little more than 4 from the lowest to the highest per-centage. If there were 3000 lbs. of straw upon an acre, the difference between the weights of inorganic matter carried off by the two crops, Nos. 2 and 5, would amount to about 128 Ibs. per acre. ‘Though they do not exactly agree, yet there is a much nearer approach to agreement in the two samples of Hopeton oats, and in the two samples of Potato oats, seeming to indicate that the average quantities of ash are more nearly alike in the same variety. This is very singular if true, but needs further proof. If the average of the above six trials can be con- sidered as a standard, the usual per-centage of ash in oat straw is now sufficiently distinct, I come to an inquiry of much importance ; quality at different heights of the same stalk. Dividing the straw into three par each part separately, the results are as follows. have always divided them into three portions. 1. That which was soluble in water; 2. That which was soluble in acid; 3. That which remained insoluble. It each division was subject to analyses separately. ; I. The watery solution.—T his was first. evaporated to dryness, heated to drive off nic matter, and weighed. To the dry mass water was then added, and asmall portion always refused to re-dissolve. is was, in several instances, analyzed, and found to be chiefly soluble silica. In my later analyses this was added to the acid solution, to save time. To the re-dissolved part of the watery solution— cies Nitrate of silver was added to throw down the chlorine, the liquid bein ‘previously acidulated by nitric acid. e precipitate was collected, burned a weighed, with the usual precautions. hase ial H ss of silver having been thrown down by hydrochloric acid, and removed by filtration, nitrate of baryta was added to obtain the sulphuric acid. This precipitate was allowed to stand ‘at Jeast twelve bours before filtration. = B. After removing the excess af baryta from the soluttop, by; sulphuric acid, hydrosulpburet of ammonia was added, to. throw, down the manganese, The phosphoric acid was determined by the method of Berthier, well known to analvtical oh - pri AE pale 1 , 1 1 if ploy ; and there is no iron in the solution. _ 4. The solution was next evaporated to dryness, and the sulphate of potash and soda weighed together, then re-dissolved, and the potash obtained by the bi-chlorid of platinum, e precipitate, collected and weighed in the usual manner, was an 232 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. Composition of Ash from Oat Straw at three different heights. Hopeton Oat from Mr. Harbottle, Hexham, Northumberland. Tasre XII. | Top Straw. |Middle Straw. Bottom Straw. Sulphuric acid, : 18-45 16-10 Chlo ne of sodium, (common salt, ) , 38:55 303 15- Potash and soda, 21-80 40:17 Phos we hates * lime, magnesia and i iron, 2-8 3-03 ‘78 ime, . 7-02 1-23 06 Magnesia, 2 Bz 2-91 2-07 Oxyd we iron, i 3 -40 61 OW hee Hiei. S fei 8S 13 734. | 5-03 feats silica, a Sean ee eee 43-3 33-14 12-29 f BBO9 98-33 98-47 An reference to the above analyses, I wish to direct attention to several points. 1. To the great difference in the proportion of salts soluble in water. Part of these are grouped together in the top straw analy- ses; with the addition of the soluble silica, their amount is 42 - calculated as sulphate ; this, subtracted from the united weight of the on plat as culate above, gave the loss as sulphate of soda, from which the soda was cal- culat Il. acid solution.—1. Ammonia was added to throw down the oe The precipitate was sa sa mixture of phosphates of lime, ma ape esia and iro! It was fused with carbonate of soda, the phosphor ne of these has been highly recommended ; it is that oft throwing down the phos- horic acid as a phosphate he the per oxyd of iron, from a soluti tion in acetic acid. he precipitate obtained is ary to analyze it Fonte erg ane the whole process is so uncertain, that afier many trials T abandoned it. 2. me was thrown down by oxalate of ammonia, and collected afier stand- ing at least twelve hours. s I found, in almost every instance, potash and soda in this — of the acid solution, it became necessary to determine the magnesia in some other than the usual way, by phosphate of soda. The solution was therefore ovepiraied nearly to dryness, mixed with a little peroxyd of mercury, and rather strongly heated. The chlorids of pota sicisint and sodium decompose with great difficulty, and pe of magnesia with ease; the fabeit was therefore by heating baateral ti to magnesia ia, and se separa rated by pica one. with oor Ades "The solution, containing 1, The insoluble ¢ portion. —1. This was fused with five times its et ci of car- bonate of soda, ca obta ined in the ory way. e phosphates were Rab) soap = ammonia, and, after weighing, were analyzed with the te ame s of the acid solution. he lime w “e - faces as ial by oxalate ofammontfa, and the magnesia by phosphate e of 4. Potash and so reed A small quantity of loaea na soda i is often present even in the reese part of the ash, and I have, therefore, in many cases been obliged e shinee i is an outline of a coinplete analysis, a the methods I — enerally pret sappeding all the substances mentioned to be pr Of co ir pi ce or absence was Sealy. Cheqeet ained by a qualitative ped hao and Shdlyeis a me a he quantity I considered proper for analy~ sis was from grai Prof. Norion on the Analysis of the Oat. 233 cent., in the middle straw it is 55 per cent., in the bottom straw 77 percent. ‘The increase of these soluble salts, therefore, is very great as we proceed downwards, i proportion being nearly twice as great at the bottom as at the top. To the abundance of sulphuric acid and the total absence of phosphoric acid in the watery solution. 3. That as the salts soluble in water increase from. the top ea the silica increases from the bottom upwards. ‘This o-be am invariable law. . The quantity of ash, as I have so varies, being sometimes greater in one part and sometimes in another; but whichever part this may be, whether the top or the bottom has most ash, in every case that I have examined, the top has the most silica, and the bottom the most salts ‘soluble in Water Having thus shown that i Ma parts of the same straw vary, I proceed to prove, in the second place, that the same parts vary in different straws. In order to make my results bear upon as many questions as possible, I have selected two samples of the same variety of oats grown on two widely different soils. No. 1, was from a light rather sandy loam, of good quality. No. 2, was om a poor mossy soil, where the great spe “h is to make the straw stand. cone giving the Miers: a Ash nh Straw of two specimens of Hi ab ee p Bey lool p No.& ) No.t. | No.2 | Nol. [ No® Top | Top | Middle | Middle | Bottom | Bottom. Straw. | Straw. Straw. | Straw. | Straw. ra Salts soluble in water, chiefly ; eo and chlor ids, 41-96 |. 71°70 | 55-22 | 84-03 | 77-46 | 90-26 Phosphates lige magnesia , andiron, ‘ 2:94 |. 077] 303). 151] 078) 221 Lime or magnesia, We 0 11-29 | 14:34] 9-70} 873] 9-16]. 2-65 Silica SiBebde 43-75 | 13:18 | 32-05 5:72 | 12:55 4-86 99-94 | 99-99 }100-00 | 99-99 | 99°95 | 99-98 - On comparison of the above analyses, it is first to be noticed, that there is an extraordinary difference in the per-centage of salts soluble in water, in each part of the two samples. .. The top straw and middle straw. of No. 2, each contain about 30 pens cent. mpre than the corresponding portions of No. £. 2. That this difference is equally great as ‘regards the silica. 3. That the lime and magnesia also in both instances are great- est in the top straw is table may be considered a very excellent pero a of the extent to which the soil modifies the composition No. 1, is a fair example of a healthy straw. No. 2, being the same y variety of oat, has been. grown where its wants were not fully ‘supplied. - tera ‘said that on the — from which Srconp Senies, Vol. 11, No. 8.—March, 1847. 234 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. extraordinary quantity. Before leaving for the present the subject of the straw, I may mention, that I have, so far as my time permitted, turned my at- tention to the disease called the smut in oats, and have several analyses of ash from the smutted straw. I regret much that they are not in a sufficiently advanced state for publication. So far as they go, they indicate a derangement in the circulation of the plant, especially in the top straw. The following comparison will show that in quantity the ash does not materially differ from that of the healthy straw. Taste XV. | Top straw. |Middle straw. 5. Bottom straw. Y17 | Ash from healthy straw, . —. ‘ Ash from smutted straw, : ‘ : 6-52 6:10 7:78 ar La eae 2. Of the ash yielded by the leaf—This part of the plant, though it withers away, and seems of little consequence when the corn is ripe, is yet of vital importance during its growth, and therefore demands our attentive consideration. It yields more ash than the straw, in some cases fully twice as much ; and this ash, like that of the straw, varies in quantity with the soil, the manure, and the variety of oat. The following table gives the per-centage of ash and of water, in six samples of leaf. The ash, as usual, is calculated dry. Taste XVI. : se csiiaengigaaeslie rai | jHopeton Oats.) Dun j Sandy] Potato Onts. {Mean of | No. 1. No: 2, | Oats. tate. No, |. | No. 2. trials. Of Water,. ~. . . .« | 908} 9:57 | 10-11) 10-95] 10-33) 11-02) 10-14 OfFAsh, . . . . + | 719} 844 | 10-29} 14-79! 14-59} 20-90| 12:70 . In this table the differences are much greater than those which appeared in the straw. The leaf from the potato oat No. 2, has Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 235 nearly three times the per-centage of ash yielded by that from the Hopeton oat No. 1. The potato oat leaf came from an extraor- dinary crop on a rich loam; the Hopeton oat leaf from a very inferior straw on a poor soil. In separating the leaf from the stalk, I took the whole leaf from the knot to which the bottom is attached, thus including the part which wraps around the stalk. It occurred to me that there might be a difference in the quan- tity of ash yielded by this latter part, compared with that portion of the leaf which projects from the stalk. I accordingly separated the leaf of a Sandy oat into two parts, and separately determined the ash with the following result. Taste XVII. | jAsh calculated dry. Aah from top of the leaf en ek ok | )" do, from bottom, . a ‘ : : : : 13-66 This difference in the quantity of these two ashes, is what we should have been led to expect from the previous determinations of ash in the straw, where it was in a majority of cases most abundant at the top. _ There are fewer disturbing causes in the circulation of the leaf than in that of the straw, and we may perhaps rely with more straw. The following extended analysis is of the ash from what may be considered a fair specimen of a healthy leaf, neither ex- cessively luxuriant, nor at all stinted in its growth. It is from the same Hopeton oat of which the straw ash analyses were given in Table XII. Composition of Ash from the Leaf of Hopeton Oats, from Mr. . Harbottle, Hexham, Northumberland. Tasre XVIII. _Rer-contage.. Sulphuric acid, . z ; , 14-50 Chlorid of sodium, (common salt,) . 229 eee, Gee ee } 14-89 a a eo ke See oe Phosphates of lime, magnesia, and iron, . ore ime Meee oe ee 5M Magnesia, § = Soluble silica, ease arate 45-75 epg Ne 5 ig ere age og 2 a SA OG, gk Se 99°30 The watery solution contained about 37 per cent. of this ash, and from the above amount of sulphuric acid, it is quite plain that about 30 per cent. were sulphates. The soluble and insoluble silica together constitute more than half of the ash. 236 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the. Oat. The leaf acts a most important part in the economy of the plant; the organic food which is derived from the atmosphere is absorbed through the pores of the leaf. In order to perform this function, it must spread out a broad expanded surface, which will come in contact with as much as possible of the surrounding air. ‘This leaf, so extended and yet so thin, requires a degree of stiffness that it may stand forth from the stalk, and wave in the breeze, rather than hang helplessly down as if withered. For this pur- om: a strong framework must be furnished. In Table XVI, the rage per-centage of ash from six samples of leaf, is 123, and of this fully one half is silica. It is, I think; not unnatural to con- clude that this large quantity of ash, so. great a part of which is silica, is conveyed to the leaf for the purpose to which I have al- luded. When the plant is uncommonly vigorous, and the leaf expands to an unusual aaa this framework (see Table XVI) may amount to even 20 per cent. have now to show that the ash of the leaf varies in quality as well as quantity, and for this end give the three following analyses. Composition of Ash li hres aaenples of the Oat Leafs. opeton Oats = fonts Pile l, Light loam. 2. New moss. |Gra i Salts soluble in 2 Bee An fe: ids, 36°77 56°5 perepbates of lime, magnesia andi iron, 7°23 3-66 magnes 10-24 1:33 Silica, . 2 : : 2 ' 45-75 38-5 99-99 99-99 The general composition of the ash from the leaf does not greatly differ from that of some samples of top straw. 'T'o the insolu- ble silica in the lower line of the above, must be added, in each case, or 5 per cent. of soluble silica included in the watery solution. Haale found that the top and bottom of the leaf yielded dif- ferent quantities, I was desirous of further ascertaining if the quality differed also. The following table giv es analyses of the ash from the two a Taste XX. ‘ Ash from |. Ash from Top of leaf. |Bottom of leaf. Salis soluble in east chiefly pe ieee and —- 4326. \7. 4828 - Phosphates of lime, magnesia and iron, : 0:85 1:15 ime and ieggeeaie. ‘ ; es 4 os 3-76 2:78 ilica, ‘ i = 4 * ey aeeting ae 52:13 47:79 100-00 00-00 | The differences of composition in these two ashes are of the same eharacter as those which have been noticed in the straw. Though not so striking as those differences, they show that the rule as to the preponderance of silica at’the —s _ of solu- ble salts at the bottom, holds true in both these parts of the plant. (To be continued.) On the Mounds of the West. 237 Arr. XX VI.— Observations on the uses of the Mounds of the West, with an attempt at their Classification ; by E.G. eee, : Chillicothe, Ohio. T'He monuments. of ave Mississippi valley, are divisible into two grand classes, viz.. the Enclosures, familiarly known. as ‘Forts,’ and the see 18 or Mounds ;* together they constitute a swale system of remains, and are the work of the same people. The enclosures, from their magnitude and other obvious rea- sons, have attracted, by far, the largest share of attention; and the character of some of them, with their walls and ditches and guarded ways, is manifest, and may be regarded as settled. Of the mounds, however, little has been. hitherto said. or known.— The popular opinion, based, in a great degree, upon the well as- certained purposes of the barrows and tumuli occurring in cer- tain parts of Europe and Asia, is, that they are simple monu- ments, marking the last resting place of some great chief or dis- tinguished individual, among the tribes of the builders. Some have supposed them to be the cemeteries, in which were save ited the dead of a tribe or a village, for a certain peri that the size of the mound is an indication of the cmahende in- humed! Others that they mark the sites of great battles, and contain the bones of the slain. On all hands the opinion has been entertained, that they were devoted to sepulture alone. This received orien is not, however, sustained by the investiga- tions set on foot by the writer and his associate, Dr. E. vis, of Chillicothe, Ohio. Nearly one hundred and fifty mounds, em- racing those. of every size and description, within enclosures and out of them, in groups and isolated, have been carefully exca- vated under their personal supervision, and every fact of import- ance respecting them carefully noted. The conclusion, to which these observations have led, is, that the mounds were construct- ed for several grand and dissimilar purposes, or rather, that they are of different classes ;—the conditions upon which the classifi- a is founded being t three in number cones ppombions structt ose which stand ist Phos or in oot A more or less re- mote from the enclosures, W which are not stratified, which con- tain human remains, and wash} were the burial places and mon- uments of the dead. e' term Mound is , in this paper, ina puree el sense as synonymous with tumulus and in Res to embankment, ra 238 On the Mounds of the West. 3d. Those which contain neither altars nor human remains, and which were places of observation or the sites of structures. These classes are broadly marked in the aggregate; but, in some instances, they seem to run into each other. Mounds of this mixed character, as well as those which, under our present con- dition of knowledge oe them, do not seem to indicate any clear purpose, have been denominated anomalous. Of one hun- ed mounds excavated,, fay were altar or sacrificial mounds, twenty sepulchral, and twenty either places of observation or anom- alous in their character. Such however, is not the proportion in which they occur. Trom the fact that the mounds of sacrifice, are most sonciaesneys and most productive in relics, the largest number excavated were of that class. In the Scioto valley the mounds are distributed, between the three classes specified, in very nearly equal proportions; the mounds of observation and the anomalous mounds constituting, together, about one third of the whole number. Mounds of Sacrifice—The general characteristics of this ola of mounds are,— Ist. That they occur only within, or in the immediate vicinity of, enclosures, or sacred places 2d. That they are actatifed. 3d. That they contain symmetrical altars of burned clay or stone, on which are deposited various remains, which, in all cases, have been more or less subjected to the action of fire. Of the whole number of mounds of this class, which were ex- amined, four only were found to be exterior to the walls of en- closures; and these were but a few rods distant from the ramparts. e fact of stratification, in these mounds, is one of great in- terest and importance. The feature has heretofore been remark- ed but not dsc ea ior pyre £ accuracy, and has consetquelnty pena g so fat as whenved: is not horizontal, but always con- to the convex outline of the mound. € the strat Resto produced by the action of water, where the lay- ers run into each other, but is defined with the utmost distinct ness, and always terminates upon reaching the level of the sur- — earth. ‘That it is artificial will, however, need no a ment to prove, after an examination of one of the mounds in which the feature occurs ; for, it would be difficult to explain, by what singular combination of “igneous and aqueous” action, ~* Some of the mounds, on the lower Mississippi, be er oad ex- hibiting alternate Jayers, from base to summit. msl fe from gen al structures here referred to, and we + ge ion ess, yprmennsaiery for a dif- ferent pur Prof. Forshey has de sevibea pie which had layers of — bricks, at intervals, throughout its entire height. On the Mounds of the West. 239 stratified mounds were always raised over symmetrical monu- ments of burned clay or of stone. The altars, or basins, found in these mounds, are almost inva- riably of burned clay, though one or two of stone have been dis- covered. They are symmetrical, but not of uniform size, and shape. Some are er others ee and others square, or parallelograms. Some are small, measuring barely two feet across, while others are fifty feet long by twelve and fifteen wide. The usual dimensions are: from five to eight feet. All appear to have been modelled of fine clay, brought to the spot froma distance, and rest upon ro original surface of the earth. In a few instances, a layer or small elevation of sand had been laid down, upon which the bdtas was formed. The elevation of the degree or continuance of heat, de it is manifest aaah in some cases, the heat was inten On the other hand, a number of these altars have been actibed which are very slightly burned, and such, it is a remarkable fact, are destitute of remains. The characteristics of this class of mounds will be best explain- ed, by reference to the accompanying illustrations. It sho be remarked however, that no two are alike in all their dpi _ rig: i. bee reece The SE a section a9 ee here given,* occurs in “Mound City, * a name given to a group of twenty-sir mounds, * Horizontal scale of section fifteen feet, and the vertical siz feet, to the inch. 240 On’the Mounds of the West: embraced in one enclosure, on the banks of the Scioto river, three miles above the town of Chillicothe. It is seven feet high by fifty-five feet base. A shaft, five feet square, was sunk from its apex, with the following results :-— ist. Occurred a layer of coarse gravel and pebbles, which ap- peared to have been taken from deep pits, surrounding the enclo- sure, or from the bank of the river. ‘This layer was one foot i in thickness. 2d. Beneath ‘tis layer of gravel and pebbles, to the depth of two feet, the earth was homogeneous, though slightly mottled, as if taken up and deposited in small loads, from different locali- ties. In one place appeared a deposit of dark colored, surface loam, and by its side, or covering it, there was a mass of the clayey soil of greater depth. ‘The outlines of these various de- posits could be distinctly traced. 3d. Below this deposit of earth, occurred a thin and even lays er of fine sand, a little oyer an inch j in thickness. » Ath. A deposit of earth, as above, eighteen inches in depth. 5th. Another stratum of sand, somewhat thinner than the one above mentioned. 6th. Another deposit of earth, one foot thi¢k, beneath which sa 7th. A third stratum of sand, below which was— 8th. Still another layer of earth, a few inches in hickees which rested on— 9th. An altar, or basin, of burned clay. This altar was perfectly round. Its form and dimensions are best shown by the supplementary plan, and section A. F F, 1 is the altar, measuring from ¢ to d, nine feet ; from a to e, five feet ; height from 6 to e, twenty inches ; dip of curve ar e, nine inch- es. ‘The sides ca, ed, slope regularly, at a given angle. ‘The body of the altar is burned throughout, though in greater degree within the basin, where it was so hard as to resist the blows of a heavy hatchet, the instrument rebounding as if struck upon a rock. The basin, or hollow of the altar, was filled even full with fine dry ashes, intermixed with which’ were some fragments of pottery, of an excellent finish and elegant model, ornamented with tasteful carvings on the exterior. One of the vases, taken in fragments from this mound, has been very nearly restored. The sketch B, presents its outlines, and the character of its orna- ments. Its height i is Six, its greatest diameter eight, inches. The —— is hardly distinguishable from that composing the potte- the ancient Peruvians, and in respect of finish, it is fully aal to the best Peruvian specimens. A few convex i as much = ane the bosses used upon harnesses, were also On the Mounds of the West. 241 the class. It will be seen, by the section, that, at a point about three feet below the surface of the mound, a human skeleton was found. It was placed a little to the left of the centre, with the head to the east, and was so much decayed as to render it impossible to extract a single bone entire. Above the skeleton, as shown in the section, the earth and outer layer of gravel and pebbles, were broken up and intermixed. Thus while, on one side of the shaft, the strata were clearly marked, on the other they were confused. And, as this was the first mound of the class excavated, it was supposed, from this cireumstance, that it had previously been open- ed, by some explorer, and it had been decided to abandon it when the skeleton was discovered. Afterwards the matter came to be fully understood. No relics were found with this skeleton. It is a fact well known, that the modern Indians, though pos- sessing no knowledge of the origin or objects of the mounds, were accustomed to regard them with some degree of veneration. It is also known, that they sometimes buried their dead in them, in accordance with the almost invariable custom which leads them to select elevated points, and the brows of hills, as their cemete- ries. That their remains should be found in the mounds, is fore a matter of no surprise. 'They are never discovered at any great depth, not often more than eighteen inches or three feet below the surface. Their position varies in almost every case ;—most are extended at length, others have a sitting posture, _ and others still seem to have been rudely thrust into their shallow graves, without care or arrangement. Rude implements of bone and stone, and coarse vessels of pottery, such as are known to crosses, gun | skeletons in the mounds, yet it is not to be concluded that the monnd builders were Catholics, or used fire-arms, or understood Seconp Serixs, Vol. III, No. 8.—March, 1847. vt 242 On the Mounds of the West. French. Sucha conclusion would, nevertheless, be quite as well warranted, as some which have been deduced from the absolute identity of certain relies, taken from the mounds, with articles _ known to be common among the existing tribes of Indians. ‘The fact of remains occurring in the mounds, is in itself, hardly pre- sumptive evidence that they pertained to the builders. The con- ditions attending them can alone determine their true character. As a general rule, to which there are few exceptions, the only au- thentic and undoubted remains of the mound builders, are found directly beneath the apex of the mound, on a level with the original surface of the earth; and it may be safely assumed, that whatever deposits occur near the exterior surface are of a date subsequent to their erection. In the class of mounds now under consideration, we have da- ta which will admit of no doubt, whereby to judge of the origin, as well as the relative periods, of the various deposits found in them. If the stratification already mentioned as characterizing id to protect the form of the mound, and which purpose it admira- bly subserves, is entirely wanting. 'The number and relative position of the sand strata are variable; in some of the larger mounds, there are as many as six of them, in no case less than one, most usually two or three. In one case which fell under our observation, and in another, of which we have an account from the person who discovered it, the altar was of stone. This altar was elevated two and one feet above the original surface of the earth, and was five feet long by four broad. It was a simple elevation of earth packed hard, and was faced, on every side and on top, with slabs of stone of regular form, and nearly uniform thickness. They were laid evenly, and, as a mason would say, “with close joints,” and though uncut by any instrument, the edges were straight smooth. The stone is “the Waverly sandstone,” underlying the coal series, thin strata of which cap every hill. ‘This stone breaks readily, with a rectangular fracture, and hence the regularity of On the Mounds of the West. 243 the slabs is not so much a matter of surprise. This altar bears the marks of fire, and fragments of the mound builders’ orna- ments were found on and around it. What had originally been deposited there was probably removed by the modern Indians, who had opened the mound and buried one of their dead on the altar. Mounds of this class are most fruitful in relics of the builders. On the altars have been found, though much injured and broken up by the action of fire, instruments and ornaments of silver, copper, stone and ivory ; beads of silver, copper, pearls and shell ; spear and arrow-heads of flint, quartz, garnet and obsidian ; fos- sil teeth of the shark; teeth of the alligator; marine shells; ga- lena; sculptures of the human head, and of numerous animals ; pottery of various kinds, and a large number of interesting arti- cles, some of which evince great skill in art. No description of these can be given here. . _ Mounds of Sepulture-—The mounds of sepulture stand apart from the enclosures, and, in their average dimensions, greatly ex- ceed those of the first class. The celebrated mound at Grave creek was of this class. They lack the gravel and sand strata, which characterize those already described, and are destitute of “altars.” They invariably cover a skeleton, (sometimes more than one, as at Grave creek, ) which, at the time of its interment, was enclo- Sed ina rude framework of timber, or enveloped in or coarse matting, the traces, in some instances the very casts of which, re- main. The structure of one mound of this class, will serve to exhibit their peculiarities. : heii Fig. 2. The mound, of which the above is a section,* stands on the third “bottom” or terrace of the Scioto river, six miles below the * Horizontal scale thirty feet, and vertical fifteen feet, to the inch. 244 On the Mounds of the West. town of Chillicothe. There are no enclosures nearer than a mile, though there are three or four other mounds, of smaller size, on the same terrace, within a few hundred yards. The mound is twenty-two feet high, by ninety feet base. The principal exca- vation was made, (as represented by the dotted lines in the sec- tion,) from the west side, commencing at about one-third of the height of the mound from the top. At ten feet below the sur- face, occurred a layer of charcoal, (a,) not far from ten feet square, and from two to six inches in thickness, slightly inclined from the horizontal, and lying mostly to the left of the centre of the mound. The coal was coarse and clear, and seemed to have been formed by the sudden covering up of the wood, while burning, inasmuch as the trunks and branches retained their form, though plete the list of articles found with this skeleton. The foot of the skeleton was nearly in the centre of the mound. A drift beyond it developed nothing new, nor was a corresponding layer of char- coal found, on the opposite side of the mound. _ It is clear there- fore, that the tumulus was raised over this single skeleton. In ne case of a mound of this class, opened at Gallipolis, on the Ohio river, the chamber enclosing the skeleton was found just below the original surface,—a fact which can always be detected On the Mounds of the West. 245 earth beneath it. 143 The layer of charcoal is not uniformly found in mounds of this class, though it is a feature of frequent occurrence. It would seem to indicate that sacrifices were made for the dead, or that funeral rites of some kind were celebrated. The fire, in every case, was kept burning for a very brief space, as is shown by the lack of ashes, and the slight traces of its action left on the adja- cent earth. That it was suddenly heaped over, is also proved by the facts already presented. Bracelets of copper and silver; beads of bone, ivory and shell ; mica plates and ornaments; stone instruments of various kinds, some of which are identical with those found in mounds of the first class, etc. etc., are found with the skeletons. In every in- stance falling within our observation, the skeleton has been so much decayed, that any attempt to restore the skull, or indeed any por- tion of it, was hopeless. Considering that the earth around these skeletons is wonderfully compact and dry, and that the conditions for their preservation were exceedingly favorable, while, in fact, they are so much decayed, we may form some estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows and cromlechs of the ancient Britons, entire and well preserved skeletons are found, alt having an undoubted antiquity of 1500 years. In some of the sepulchral mounds, as has already been stated, the agus, if we so please to term it, was omitted by the build- ers, the dead body having been simply enveloped in bark or mat- by a strongly marked line, and the uniform drab color of the h it tain, or distinguished individual, among the builders. It is common to find two or three, sometimes four or five, sepulchral mounds, ina group. In such cases, it is always to be remarked, that one ’ * 246 On the Mounds of the West. of the group is much the largest, twice or three times the dimen- sions of any of the others, and that the smaller ones are arranged around its base, generally joining it, thus evincing an intended dependence and close connection between them. Plans of three Fig. 3 groups of this description are giv- en in the annexed figures. May we not conclude that such a group is the tomb of a family—the prin- cipal mound covering the head of the same, the smaller ones e Grave creek mound, it is possi- ble that, instead of building a new mound, an additional cham- r was constructed upon the Sere sins be Ge) summit of the one already rai- sed—a single mound being thus made to occupy the place of a er oup. _ Mounds of Observation.—On the tobe of the hills and on the jutting points of the table lands, bordering the vallies in which the earthworks of the West are found, mounds occur in consider- able numbers. The most elevated and commanding positions are frequently crowned with them, suggesting at once the same use to which the cairns of the Celts were applied—that of signal or alarm posts. Ona high hill, opposite Chillicothe, 600 feet in height, the loftiest in the whole region, one of these mounds is aced. A fire built upon it would be visible for a distance of fifteen or twenty miles up and down the river, as well as for @ number of miles up the valley of Paint creek,—a broad and fer- tile valley, abounding in ancient monuments. Between Chilli- cothe and Columbus, a distance of 45 miles, there are about twenty mounds, so placed that, it is believed, if the country were cleared of forests, signals by fire could be transmitted, along the whole line, in a few minutes. Our examination of this descrip- tion of mounds, from a variety of causes, has been comparative- ly limited. So far as our personal observation goes, they contain none of the remains found in the two classes of mounds, just described ; and, although there are traces of fire around most of them, the marks are not sufficiently strong to justify fully, the inferences that they were Jookouts and fires used as the signals. Indeed, it is certain that, in some cases, they contain human re- mains, undoubtedly those of the mound builders. It is possible that a portion were devoted to sepulture, another portion to obser- vation, or that some answered a double purpose. ‘This isa point which remains to be settled, by more extended observation. On the Mounds of the West. 247 There is another description of mounds which should properly be here mentioned. 'Their purposes admit of no doubt. They consist of pyramidal structures, or “elevated squares,’ and are found almost invariably within enclosures. They are sometimes of large dimensions. 'Those at Marietta are fair examples of the class, and No. 1, Fig. 4, exhibits their structure and dimensions. Fig. 4. 225.ft- ae measuring 160 feet in length, 601 k ber of the skel- he altar occupied one centre of the ellipse, the 7 ba en “ Mound eeding three feet in 248 An American Species of Paleotherium. square, was observed with the bones, leading to the conclusion that they were taken up from the altars, in the adjacent larger mounds, and afterwards finally deposited here. General Observations. —Whether these classes are maintained throughout the West, is a question which a systematic examina- tion, carried on over a wide field, alone can determine. In al- hearths. Art. XXVII.—Description of a Fossil Maxillary Bone of a Paleotherium, from near White River; by Hiram A. Prout, M. D. _ Te Paleotherial bone here described, was sent to me some- time ago by a friend residing at one of the trading posts of the St. Louis Fur Company, on the Missouri River. From informa- tion since obtained from him, I learn that it was discovered in or Great Bend of the Missouri River. The Incceramus appears correspond precisely with that figured by Professor Hall, in Fré- mont’s Expedition: it has however both valves, and may posst- bly be a distinct species. rf This fossil bone is a fragment of the inferior maxillary of the left side, consisting of the posterior part of the bone, together with the last three molar teeth. ‘The ramus is much fractured and presents an irregular surface; yet the general direction of its outline may be made out. The length of this fragment is An American Species of Paleotherium. 249 fifteen inches, its depth from the highest point of the ramus (a) to the lowest (6), is nine and a half inches: it narrows regularly forward so as to measure only three and a half inches rom the lower surface of the bone at (d), to the alveolar process of the antepenultimate tooth at (c). The inner surface of the Fig. 1. One-fourth the natural size. ; bone is more uniform, being marked merely by depressions for the attachment of muscles. The alveolar portion is here very prominent and well rounded, the teeth being planted more than an inch from a vertical line which is tangential to the inner surface of the bone. It is covered in places with a concretionary matter The last molar tooth has the three lobes of the Palmotieny 4 as shown in fig. 2. The inner surface is nearly smooth a long to the anterior lobe, the same to the middle, and 1} inches to the posterior. In an upper view, the two larger lobes have a deltoid form, with the sides somewhat convex, and a rounded outer angle. The thickness through from the outer to the op- posite side, is 13 inches. ‘The enamel of the inner side folds over the surface, covering nearly a semicircular space, an leav- ing between it and the edge of the posterior enamel, a sub-cres- cent-shaped space (deltoido-lunate ) of dentine, somewhat concave, which is nearly seven-eighths of an inch broad at its widest part. Econp Serizs, Vol. II], No, 8.—March, 1847. 32 250 Electricity in Bands of Leather. These crescent-shaped areas of the two lobes are connected by a continuous tract of dentine, nearly 14 lines wide at the narrowest part; and the same tract continues from the middle lobe to the Fig. 2. hit i Four-fifths the natural size. posterior; upon the latter it does not widen over the interior, as the reflexed inner enamel covers the whole of the crown, except ing a narrow space adjoining the posterior enamel. ‘The romi- nent points of the crown betwéen the lobes project about half an inch; and probably much more in the perfect tooth. The fifth and sixth molars (first and second true molars) resemble the one described, (except that they want the third lobe, ) and the dentine area on the crown of each lobe is much larger. The sixth is 34 inches from front to posterior side. The posterior lobe is 2, inches from the outer to the inner surface, and 1% inches long in the line of the jaw. 'The whole distance on the jaw occupied by the three teeth is eleven inches. In the largest Palaeotherium, hitherto described, the P. magnum, the same teeth occupy a space scarcely one-third that of the Missouri animal. - St. Louis, Dee. 10, 1846. Ant. XXVIIL—Observations upon the Development of Elec tricity in Bands of Leather ; by Joun M. BarcuEe.DER. Havine had an opportunity to examine the electrical condition of the bands of a cotton mill, and finding them very highly ex — many interesting facts were brought out, which I here ‘The mill is situated on the sea-coast of Maine, where the cli- mate is very moist and consequently less favorable for the devel- | Electricity in Bands of Leather. 251 opment of electricity than the dry and elevated lands of the in- terior of the country. There are several hundred bands in a mill, all of which are electrically excited in a greater or less degree ; those which turn upon wooden drums or pullies, whereby the are partially insulated, become very highly charged, the intensity of the excitement being much increased by the crossing of the band, the transmission of power, and a high velocity. The one which was used for making most of the experiments detailed below, is about thirty-five feet in length, nie inches wide, and moves sixteen hundred feet per minute, passing around two wooden drums, which revolve upon an iron shaft one hun- dred and eighty times per minute, and in clear weather a spark may be taken on the knuckle held below the band at a distance of one foot and five inches.+ Owing to the imperfect conduct- ing power of the leather, this discharge is local; were it to take place from all parts of the excited surface at the same instant, it would be unsafe to discharge it in thismanner. On presenting the end of the finger the striking distance is found to be three feet ; the point of a black lead pencil shows a distinct brush when held in the hand four feet from the band, and a steel point becomes luminous at the distance of seven feet. When the bands are in this condition, the first processes of the cotton manufacture are attended with serious inconvenience; the fine filaments of the cotton repel each other, causing a great deal of waste, and in several instances the “drawing,” as it is termed, has been lifted from the machine toa band four feet distant from it. These dif- ficulties are now partially removed by extending a conductor of Wire to an iron steam pipe which passes through the rooms, and by emitting jets of steam near those bands that are most highly. charged. It is probable that the finest kinds of yarn can never be profitably manufactured in this country, the moist climate of England being much more favorable for this branch of the trade. Let a piece of leather about two feet in length, with one edge slightly curved, be presented to the band, and a succession of Substance of the same conducting power is held nearer to the excited band; for instance, if a piece of leather be bent like a horse-shoe, and the extremities be brought towards the band in nettles Cr Mr. Bowdoin, that a portable electrical * Dr. Franklin suggested to his friend, Shodex aesderne, culled atid pro- ‘ ; oe might be constructed by making the ey perly mounted. ‘ 4 ‘ : Bty Vol. x&xvii, p. 197, of this Journal, a band is mentioned which gives a spark of two inches inlength, Wane ae Sa 3 152 Revolution of a Magnet without Visible Support. such a manner that a pencil of light may be seen passing to one extremity, and then the leather be so inclined that the distance from the other extremity to the band is but half the distance of that receiving the electricity, the jet still continues to flow in its first direction in preference to taking the shorter path offered by the opposite end. There is evidently a tendency in the fluid to follow in the direction first commenced. For the pu of ascertaining whether metallic particles would become luminous in an atmosphere highly charged with electricity, very minute particles of metallic dust were projected. against the belt, but I was unable to detect any light either during their ascent or descent. The passage of a jet of steam through the same atmosphere was not attended with light. Let two imperfect conductors be placed at equal distances from the band, their points directed towards it and separated a few inches from each other, then if air be blown violently from a glass tube upon one of the jets, it will disappear; the other now conveying a larger quantity of the fluid becomes brighter; let the tube be directed to this and it is extinguished, the light ap- pearing again upon the first, thus changing from one to the other as rapidly as the tube can be moved. It hence appears probable, that the flickering of the Auroral columns may, to a certain extent, be attributable to the motion of the air. es Arr. X XIX.—Revolution of a Magnet on its own Axis without the use of Mercurial Conductors, and also without Visible Support ; by Cuas. G. Pace, M. D., Prof. Chem., Columbian College, Washington, D, C. Tue rotation of a magnet upon its own axis is among the most interesting of all the phenomena connected with the reciprocal ac- tion of magnets and currents, and various ingenious improvements have been made upon the original device of Ampére for its illus- tration. 'The use of mercurial conductors—a feature common to them all—is objectionable for several reasons. ‘T'o dispense with the mercurial cells, and substitute for them solid conductors, seem- ed to require some other changes in the arrangement, by which greater magnetic power should be employed, than can be impart- ed to bars of steel of the dimensions usually adopted. The fric- tion of a platinum wire attached to the magnet in the usual man- ner, and revolving in a circular cell of mercury, though very triv- ial in itself, operates considerably to retard the motion of the rs sade for the reason that the point of resistance is very far from e centre of motion. By the substitution of solid connexions +. - Revolution of a Magnet without Visible Support. 253 for the mercurial, the resistance is brought much nearer to the cen- tre of motion, and amounts perhaps to very little more than under the old plan. In order to obtain a powerful magnet for this pur- pose, I make an arrangement similar to that shown in the accom- panying figure, which repre- 3 sents a vertical section through the centre of the apparatus. a, a, are two helices of insu- lated wire, secured to the posts EMI b, b, is about ten inches long and one inch diameter, and =: delicately supported upon steel "a= pivots. The helices through 7 which the bar passes, have a SS central opening sufficient to sane == == feo allow a space of about one- sixteenth of an inch between them and the surface of the bar. Near the centre of the thin ferule of silver with = which the conductor ¢, also : of silver, is in contact by slight pressure. ‘This conductor is in connexion with the binding screw cup P. The upper helix has one of its ends connected with the bearing of the upper pivot, its other with the upper end of the lower helix; and the lower end of the latter is connected with the cup N. The course of the current 1s seen by the arrows, and the whole appears very simple and easy of construction, The bar ‘of soft iron and other parts of the instrument may be much smaller than the dimensions above given, but I have preferred for my own use the very large size as better for “class illustration.” The helices being connected with twelve or more pairs of Grove’s battery, the bar of soft iron becomes powerfully magnetic, and by the action of the cur- rent passing through its upper half, revolves with astonishing rapidity. By substituting for the current through the upper half of the magnet, one of much greater quantity from an independent single pair of plates, the effect is greatly increased and exhibits the Most rapid rotation I have ever witnessed. But the most interest- ing feature in connection with this instrument, is, that during the rapid motion the bar is without visible support, the upper and lower bearings serving only as guides to keep it in place. By imspection of the figure it will be seen that the magnetic bar projects farther below the lower helix, than it does above the bo) co Pp = a ”a fer) (3) < ,@ 4 = oly -S Q M4 = 254 Scientific Intelligence. upper. When this is the case, the ‘action of the current in the helices raises the bar from off its rest below, the pivot being however retained within the socket to keep the bar in place. Play enough should be given in the socket above, to allow the bar to rise. ‘The friction being thus very much diminished, the extra friction of the solid, over the mercurial connexions, is more than compensated. Washington, D. C., Jan. 25, 1847. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. On a Common Origin of the Acids (CH)nO, with a boiling point below 300° Cesiarads i ; by Dr. Jos. Reprensacuer, (Phil. Ma ag. omposed of a hydro-carbon, which isa multiple of CH, and four equivalents of oxygen. To this group of homologous acids belong the acetic, valerianic, and the volatile acids of butter, in which 2 is always some multiple of 2. This increase in the value of the factor is at- tended with a regular increase in the boiling point of the acid. cording to the late researches of Kopp and Fehling, it equals 20° C. when the value of nm is augmente It is probable that all these acids inay be produced from bodies like aldehyde of the formula (CH)nO,, by a simple process of oxydations : This has been already established with regard to the acetic, metacetonic, butyric, valerianic, and enanthylic acids. r. Redtenbacher has examined the volatile acids which result from the action of nitric upon oleic aci oleic acid was boiled in a retort with an excess of strong nitric acid till all oily matter eas ea Wa- ter was then added and the mixture distilled. The product collected in the receiver consisted of a stratum of the oily acids and a watery solution the more soluble ones. The oily portion was neutralized by baryta and the different salts separated by crystallization. The aqueous solution contained acetic, metacetonic, and butyric acids, and an examination of the baryta salts showed that not less than nine acids had been formed, of the type (CH)nO, ; the value of the factor being nogenue by 2 from 4 to 20, and the boiling point rising from 120° C, to 280° C. They were the acetic, pepe Poles valerianic, ai gee caprylic, pelargonic, and ca e metacetonic acid is obtained by the action of potash on ates, yer by the oxy dation of metacetone (an aldehyde) ; the butyric, caproic, caprylic, and capric, are known as s the volatile acids of butter, and the pelargonic acid is so named from its supposed identity with a fatty acid, discovered by Pless in the rose gera- nium, Pelargoniun roseum This origin . the volatile fatty acids gives a key to the mode of their for nature. The experiments of the author and others Chemistry and Physics. 255 upon the fat of fowls, geese, snakes, badgers, hares, and particularly that of man, show that small portions of these acids, principally the caprylic, caproic, and valerianic, are always present. caprylic acid, when much diluted with air, resembles closely that of the health quantity is stated to be about 14 cub. in. per pound. At Poullaouen, where the experiments were made, about 20,000 Ibs. of argentiferous lead are operated upon ata time. The abstricks or black litharge, containing sulphur, are drawn off first. At the end of sixteen to twenty hours they are succeeded by the marketable litharge. The pure article is received in a conical iron pot of thirty quarts capacity. It immediately solidifies at the surface and becomes yellow or greenish yellow in color. ter a time the mass cracks in every direction, metimes with a sort of explosion, and becomes a friable, crystalline, reddish litharge, which, after preparation, is sold. e yellow crust _ retaining its color and cohesion, is set aside and revived. _ If the vessels are too small the whole mass retains the yellow color and does not ex- foliate. The red litharge did not give off oxygen by heating, and yet when suddenly cooled assumed the yellow form. Operated upon by nitric acid, no peroxyd was formed, showing the absence of minium. This is another case of dimorphism, resembling that of sugar, arsenious acid, iodid of mercury, &c. G. C. ScHaEFFER. 3. On the Estimation of Silver, by Gay Lussac’s Process, when Mer- cury is present; by M. A. Levon, (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Apr. 1846.)—The assay of silver by Gay Lussac’s method has become uni- ersal. One single exception to the perfection of the process has re- mained, viz., the presence of mercury, and this is not of common oc- currence. . Levol has conquered this difficulty by the following ess :— The assay, as usual, is dissolved in 5 cub. centimeters of nitric acid of 32° Baumé ; ‘it is then supersaturated with 25 cub. cent. of caustic Gay Lussac (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., June, 1846) has verified the accuracy of Levol’s process, and proposed to shorten it by adding monia. Acetate of soda answers equally well. ‘The nitric acid should be completely saturated by the soda of the acetate. G. C.8. 4. A new Method of estimating Lead ; by M. FLoREs DomonrTE, (Comptes Rendus, May, 1846.)—This is similar to that of Pe- louze for copper. The lead is thrown ian and redissolved by caustic 256 Scientific Intelligence. apinhs and then precipitated by a standard solution of sulphuret of so- diu The mode of agente: is precisely the same as with copper, st this letieval, ii Ser., vol. ii, p. 259,) with this difference, that as the equivalent of lead is higher Rd that of copper, the solution of sul- phuret of sodium should be diluted with. three parts of water. This method gives results within one per cent. ; and sometimes much nearer. Tin, antimony and arsenic, do not interfere with the suerne and it is not necessary to filter from the insoluble oxyds. Iron, = , and cobalt, although not often met with in the assay, are said not affect the result. Zine precipitates after the lead, and by the hist in BB of the ceils in fact assists in determining the total absence of When copper is present it is first determined by the method of Pe- louze ; a like per-centage of copper is then added to one gramme of pure lead and the analysis of the — shows how many divisions are to be subtracted on account of the copper Bismuth interferes with the estimation of the lead, but from its high G. G, Be e Solubility of Alumina in Ammoniated Water; by F. iets and J. Durocuer, (Ann. de Chim, ovaat Phys., Aug., 1846, and mp- Rend., May, 1846.)—This research is intended to establish j— That if ammonia is employed to precipitate alumina in the absence of ence salts, a very considerable proportion may remain in the solution That sk quantity of ammoniacal salt, necessary for the commie precipitation of the alumina, increases with the volume of the solution; That even in the absence of salts of ammonia, the alumina may be entirely precipitated from the solutions, irrespective of their volume or of the quantity of ammonia contained in them, provided a sufficient time be allowed to elapse between the precipitation and filtration, the air ar = 4 carefully excluded ; the most suitable reagent for the complete ej RES of alu- mina, without reference to the volume of the soluti the absence of ‘salts, or the length of time, is the sulph at of ammonium. _ The authors seem to undervalue the precautions given by Rose, Fre- senius, and others, for undoubtedly accurate results have been obtained by these methods: neither do they assign any determined rate of sol- ubility to alumina, which of course is impossible, as spontaneous separa tion takes place. Still, however, these researches are of value, as nese show the liability to error and the amount of error possible. It is worthy of remark that the spontaneously precipitated alumina is is no longer gelatinous, but granular and Jess soluble in acids. G.C.S. _ 6, Action of Perchlorid of Phasphowel = ow Substances ; by Ave. Canours, (Comptes Rendus, eriseree 6.)—The perchlorid has no effect upon carbo-hydrogens, such as benzine and retinaphtha, but the hydrate of phenyle and anisol (differing from the former by the ad- ition of two equivalents of oxygen) are sear attacked, and form new compounds. The alcohols are known to produce chlorid, when treated with ee of phosphorus—by nt elimination of O2 with- ent, and by the substitution of Cl for H. The action upon Chemistry and Physics. Q57 bodies containing O,, such as benzoic acid, would become interesting, as we should reproduce the compounds of the benzoyle series. periment confirmed this conjecture. Benzoic acid was violently attacked by the perchlorid, with the formation of a substance in every respect identical with the chlorid of benzoyle formed from oil of bitter almonds. Cinnamic and cuminic acids, in like manner, for true chlorids of cinnamyle and of cumyle, which were decom slowly by water, rapidly by an et ba solution, and which formed The acid of the acetic series did es afford analogous results. The rien upon a volatile acid containing Os» was found to be the sic acid gave chlorid of anisyle by the loss of O, and the sub- stitution sa Cl for H. The substance obtained was perfectly pure, re- ormed anisic acid under the influence of alkalies, and gave anisamide with ammonia. These results are highly curious, for as M. Cahours remarks, the ac- tion of amalgam of pot assium, discovered by Melsens, in restoring a chlorine compound to its primitive, renders us able to return from ben- zoic acid to oil of fee eee cinnamic acid to oil of cinna- e€ metamorphoses are in a contrary direction to those hitherto possible, the ssi var of phosphorus becomes one of our most oat stn leading to the formation of many new and interesti G. C. 8. Te On the iafometi of Hippuric acid into Benzoic aci cid and by carbonate of lead or soda set one after the sbblorits had been sepa- ne — the solution, a crystalline substance with a sweet taste, and containing nitrogen. This, M. Dessaignes found to be sugar of gel- atine. In fact C, ,H,NO, woh ,H,O,=C,H,NO,, and if we add to this one and a half equivalents of water, we obtain half an equivalent of sugar of gelatine, according to Mulder and Boussingault. essaignes, however, thinks that to this residue we must add two equivalents of water, and that the true formula of gelatine sugar is C,H, NO,. This conjecture is verified by the analysis of Laurent, given on next page. The action of nitric, sulphuric and oxalic ~ is attended witha similar Ie of the hippuric acid. Finally, potash or in excess ces the same effect. Hippuric aed therefore resembles the acid ansided: for when —— with acids or alkalies, the elements of water are adde d, and it is transformed into an acid and a base contain- ing i" which:4 in this case replaces ammon mmonia. The attempt to mbine benzoic acid and sugar of gelatine and thus to reproduce hip- an ch ~ not successful. G. C.S. 8 nds. -~Pelouze having obtained a crystalline sub- by the - action. a moist chlorine on the oil of bitter almonds, Laurent found on analysis that it had. “the composition of benzoic acid, Szconp Sertns, Vol. lil, N No. 8.—March, 258 Scientific Intelligence. but was distinguished by forming | ide under the action of ammonia. In attempting to form this substance, Laurent obtained only benzoate of hydruret of benzoyle. This latter gave C. 76-20, H. 5°45, answer- Dessaignes. Sugar of gelatine is, therefore, isomeric with the carbon- ate of methyle or urethylane. G.C. 8. 10. On the’ Amides; from a letter of Matacuri, (Comptes Rendus, May, 1846.)—With a view to the study of these compounds, Malaguti has prepared large quantities, and has added several amides to the list of those already known. He says, there is no difficulty in preparing them and in discovering new ones. When we have an acid, we have generally an ether, and when we have an ether we have an amide. The difficulty consists in the preparation of very pure acids. A preliminary investigation of the action of heat upon these com- pounds, leads to some interesting results which we cannot, however, give in detail. The mode furnished is to examine the action of beat upon the salt of ammonia, and to separate these results from those pro- duced by the heating of the amide; in this way the decomposition pe- culiar to the latter, is supposed to be shown. Fi Cathe 11. Asparamide.—When pulverized asparamide is acted upon by an ~ As other amides form saline compounds with metals, Laurent remarks i ide, he does 12. On the Formation of Chloro-cyanilide and Fluo-silicanilide > by Avec. Lavrent and J. Detsos.—(Comptes Rendus, Apr., 1 .) The action of ammonia upon acids forming amides and of the remark- able base aniline forming analogous compounds, anilides, has led Lau- rent and Gerhardt to the investigation of the combinations of these bodies with the fluorids and chlorids. and fluo-hydrate of aniline in the other. By analogy it is very probable that the corresponding combinations of ammonia are in reality mixtures of amides and salts of ammonium. ~ 0.8 13. On the Growth of Bone in the Hog; by M. BovssiNGavLty (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., Apr., 1846.)—This curious investigation Chemistry and Physics. 259 is in part a sequel to that of the development of fat in animals, and based upon facts determined during that investigation. The ashes of the skeleton of a pig just littered weighed 20-73 grammes, containing 84 per cent. phos. lime and 11 p.c. phos. mag. A hog at eight months, fed in the usual manner, gave 1353 grms. ; phos. lime 91:3 p. c., phos. mag. 3-6 p.c. A third, the same weight as the last when killed, was fed for ninety-three days on potatoes, and gave grams. of bone ashes, containing phos. lime 92°4 p.c., phos. mag. 3’8 p.c. Thus during assimilated in that time, and when the quantity of lime in the excre- ment, which was also analyzed, was taken into account, the deficienc was still greater. f The analysis of the water taken with the potatoes (the exact quantity used being known) showed that the deficiency of lime was suppli from the water, and that the two sources together had furnished no more lime than the hog had used. Without the water then, the animal would have suffered and afier a time have died. The author insists upon the great importance of the saline contents of spring water, both as furnishing the required salts to stock, and final- ly adding to the value of the manure. That the quantity of the salts is not unworthy of notice, is shown by a computation of the-inorganic matter taken in the drink of the cattle at Bechelhoun; in one year this amounts to 876 kilogrammes, about 1800 lbs. The artesian well at Grenelle brings to the surface in each year 59,860 kilogrammes or about 134,700 Ibs. of solid matter, nearly all of which is wore rapidly made, is destroyed in twenty four hours or less, it becoming changed into a deliquescent acid, as determined by Pelouze eight years since. lag ue Pyroxyline does not dissolve even in an excess of nitric acid; it re- mains in it for days without alteration, or even loss of weight. Xyloidine leaves a considerable residue of carbon when inflamed or detonated. pie : Pyroxyline leaves no residue, and comports itself very differently as is well known. ct Ayloidine may be analyzed like other organic matters by means of oxyd of copper, with the single precaution of augmenting a little the Proportion of this oxyd. yroxyline in the same circumstances, explodes and breaks the ves- sel, even when one hundredth the quantity is . 260 Scientific Intelligence. Five milligrammes of 2yloidine heated in a tube full of mercury are decomposed without danger, while the same quantity of pyroryline pro- duces a violent detonation e hundred parts of dry starch, dissolved in concentrated nitric acid precipitated by water immediately after the ss aoagmge of the starch, give for a maximum 128 to 130 parts of xyloidine. One hundred parts of cellulose spore or paper) in contact with mono-hydrated nitric acid, either a few minutes or several days, affords 168 to 170 parts of dry pyroryline yloidine as long since aeatesl: ron ” Pe louze, consists of one equiv- alent of starch in which one equivalent of nitric acid has replaced the elements of one of water _ Pyroxyline has been found by the same chemist to consist of cellulose, with the addition of two equivalents of mono-hydrated nitric acid and the removal of one equivalent of water, giving the formula C1?H°09, 2NO°, 2HO, or without hypothesis C'?H*10?1 According to the late investigations of T. Ransome, (Phil. Mag., Jan., 1847,) the composition of gun-cotton is expressed by the formula C12H802°N2 ; and it results from common cotton by the removal of two atoms of hydrogen, and the addition of two atoms of nitric acid. Explosion produces carbonic oxyd, water and nitrogen, and no nitrous acid. Messrs. Porrett and Teschemacher have shown that cyanogen also is produced. The editors of the Philosophical Magazine suggest, that Mr. Ransome’s results may be a consequence of combustion at a lower temperature than is required for the combination of nitrogen and carbon. Pelouze states that in France the cost of 170 kilogrammes of gun- cotton (exclusive of labor) will be 317 francs, (the cotton 200, the nitric acid 100, and the sulphuric acid 17 franes.) The gun-paper will be still cheaper ; made from paper pulp, the cost will srt he says, about 97 francs for 100 kilogrammes, excluding the cost of Unprepared cotton becomes vs a Shee sap ee a strong le tion of chlorate of potash; and the fo hen it has afforded fine red, green and wisn: lights. The com abut tion is rendered slow by the immersion in metallic salts, which is highly favorable for pyrotechnic This material is also valoable ‘for the manufacture of percussion caps, and bids fair to supplant other fulminating compounds for this purpose; on re rag of the safety and cheapness of its preparation. nic in Mineral Waters; (L’ Institut, No. 670, Nov. 45 1846. a has been found, by M. Valchner, in various mineral waters at Viesbade in Germany, and this has been confirmed by M. Figuier. The last mentioned chemist has ascertained that the arseni¢ is in the state of arsenous acid, and that the proportion is nearly 0 grammes for 100 litres of the water. He detected no arsenic in not ee of Passy. . On Fluorine; by M. Lovyer, ere No. 673, Nov. 25, 1848. )—M. Louyet ‘concludes from his searches that fluorine is @ colorless gas, possessing odor, having the ese er of bleaching vegetable Chemistry and Physies. 261 colors, decomposing water at the ordinary temperature in the light, at- tacking glass feebly if at all, acting upon almost all the metals but not attacking gold or platina, or at least, not except in the nascent state. His experiments on the equivalent of fluorine, fix it at 239-81. finds that it presents stronger analogies with oxygen and sulphur, than with chlorine, bromine, and iodine, and the allied bodies. 17. Silica, (L’ Institut, Dee. 2, 1846, No. 674.)—M. Kopp offers several reasons for considertng SiO? the formula of silica, instead of SiO’. They are based on the following considerations ;—1, the dens- ity and relation of volume of the compounds of silicium and bordn, as compared with chlorine and fluorine; 2, the density of the vapors of the silicic ethers; 3, analogies between silicic, titanic, and tantalic acids ; 4, simplicity of composition of the fluo-silicates; 5, the more simple formul for the most of the silicates; 6, the augmentation of the number of the simple and neutral silicates, adopting the formula SiO? ; 7, diminution of the great basicity of the silicates, which seems to have little relation with the comparative feebleness of the acids; 8,a new and much more general classification of the family of feldspars. 18. Nitrification, (L’Institut, Dec. 2, 1846, No 674.)—M. Dumas states that when a current of moist air containing ammonia is directed upon a solution of potash, the temperature being at 100° C., a quantity of nitrate of potash is formed through a change of the ammonia into nitric acid. He remarks that this experiment, which accords with the labors of M. Kuhlmann on nitrification, was s d to him by obser- vations which he had recently made upon the conversion of sulphu- retted hydrogen into sulphuric acid. ' 19. Phosphate of Lime in Organic Beings, (L’Institut, Dec. 2, 1846, No. 674.)—M. Dumas attributes the disaggregation eran ade sure in the soil, and the removal of the phosphate of lime by water, to two causes, the one of feeble intensity and acting rarely, the other of first de gests the use of carbonated waters for persons affected with calculi of phosphate of lime. | 262 Scientific Intelligence. will be remembered, is of this kind: first, that the metals (an tallic sulphurets, &c.) have no angle of complete polarization for com- mon light; and secondly, that a plane polarized ray becomes elliptical- ly polarized after reflexion from their surfaces, whereas it remains plane olarized after reflexion from glass and such like bodies. Endeavors have naturally been made to account for these phenomena on the prin- ciples of the undulatory theory ; and always, apparently, on the sup- position, that the laws of reflexion from transparent (uncrystallized) bodies were already rigorously given by Fresnel’s formule, but that a new and distinct theory was required for metallic reflexion. Thus as- spect. o not know that any writer, except Mr. Green, (in and harmony with the new result which I have now to state. It con- sists in this: that these same highly refractive substances resemble the metals also in a second respect—that they confer elliptic polarization on a plane polarized ray reflected from them. e following list of sub- stances, in which this property was observed, will be found to contain most of those at the top of Sir D. Brewster’s list of refractive indices :-— Indigo—which is remarkable for possessing the metallic lustre with- Artificial realgar. iamond—of which three specimens were tried. Sulphuret of zinc in transparent crystals. Glass of antimony—translucent. Sulphur—melted on a polished slip of zine foil. “ai Tungstate of lime—transparent. nis Carbonate of lead in crystals, clear and limpid:as glass. Hyacinth, or zircon—translucent. Arsenious acid. Garnet. ocrase. Helvine. Labrador hornblend. Chemistry and Physics. 263 Of which the last five possess the property in a very slight degree only. The test used in every case was the dislocation of the rings of a plate of calc spar; of which a very good specimen was used, capable of exhibiting eight or nine red rings: and all the experiments were made by candle-light, which is indispensable. It will secure greater confidence in these results to say, that all the specimens which I submit- ted to Prof. Poweli’s examination, in a different instrument, were found by him to produce the above effect; and from his published observa- tions several more cases may be quoted in confirmation of the general result: such are—chromate of lead, litharge, plumbago, and Indian ink. The natural conclusion from these facts appears to be, that in a perfect mathematical theory of reflexion, both cases should be embra- ced in one set of formule, of which some terms or coefficients should be insensibly small, except when the refractive index was very large ; that, strictly speaking, no substances completely polarize common light at any angle, but that the residue of unaltered light is too feeble to af- fect the eye, when the refractive index is below a certain limit ;-—-and that plane polarized light always becomes elliptically polarized, but that the virtual difference of paths of the two compact vibrations ~-parallel pencils which have traversed it. It is to be provided with a frame and screw, capable of compressing it in the middle. (A similar apparatus has already been employed by Brewster, Ling an ouillet, to show that glass under pressure sses double refraction.) We may now proceed to the experiment itself. Let us suppose, then, that the arrangements have been made in a darkened room for producing the interference of two pencils of light, which are to be polarized in 264 Scientific Intelligence. the same plane, by passing, for example, through the same tourmaline plate. This arrangement might, in fact, be that of Fresnel, in which a slender beam is reflected from. two glass plates very slightly inclined, provided that the light were incident at the polarizing angle of glass. pendicular to the length of the glass. Hence, if the vibrations of the two polarized pencils are really executed perpendicularly to the plane of polarization, or parallel to the length of the glass, (according to the arrangement above agreed upon,) they will be propagated with differ- ent velocities, and the fringes will be displaced parallel to the length of the glass, in a direction which might be inferred from some statements: of Sir D. Brewster, but which is quite unimportant to the present pur- ose. If, however, on the other hand, the vibrations be executed in the plane of polarization, or perpendicular to the length of the glass, the two rays will traverse the glass with almost, or quite, the same veloci- ties, and the fringes will either not be displaced at all, or to a far less amount than in the preceding case. By 21. On certain cases of Elliptic Polarization of Light by Reflexion; by Prof. PowEtt, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 19, No. 986.) —From the principle investigated by Fresnel, that polarized light chan- ges its plane, in reflexion, by a certain law dependent on the incidence (from transparent media) and the extension of a similar law to reflex- ion from a second surface, by Sir D. Brewster, (Phil. Trans. 1830, p- ' 148,) other formule were obtained by the last named philoso her to ex- i imself the conditions under which the effect may be sensible. There are, doubtless, many cases of thin plates in which elliptic polarization > Mineralogy and Geology. 265 is produced, as in the films formed on metallic plates by Nobili’s pro- cess, and by heat, as investigated by the author of this communication : or, again, as in mica which has become laminated, &c. But in these ases the modus operandi is well understood ;—in the former, from the enormously high refractive power, and in the latter from the crystalline struc In the case of China ink observed by the author, the ellip- ticity appears equally, whether it be in the form of a film or in a solid mass—though it is only seen in the purest emia In the numer- ower. may s theory proposed independently by M. f. Cauchy and by Mr. Tovey be not more easily applicable,—since it requires nothing but the very simple and admissible hypothesis, that the molecules of ether, for a minute depth within the surface, are unsymmetrically distributed. (See the au- thor’s treatise on the Undulatory Theory applied to Dispersion, ~ In various substances containing but a very small proportion of metal, ellipticity has been detected, in addition to those enumerated by the au- thor on a former occasion. Among these are Prussian blue, and the meteorite from the Cape of Good Hope, described in the Philosophical Transactions, 1839 and 1840 »—-which’contains only about 33 per cent. of protoxyd of iron, very small portions of oxyds of ee and chrome, and a trace of metallic iron, (see Phil. Trans. 1829, i, 8 Il. MineraLocy anp GEOLOGY. 1. Analysis of the American Mineral Nemalite ; by Prof. ConNnELL, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 26, No. 987 -)--This~ mineral bears a striking resemblance to asbestus, so tha t by the eye it can hardly be distinguished from it. It was first chemically examined by Mr. Nuttall, who ascertained that it differs entirely in constitution from asbestus, and concluded, from his experiments, that it consists essentially of mag- hesia and water, with a little oxyd of iron and lime. It was subse- ire, ries by Dr, Thomson, according to whom it also contains 123 per cent. of silica. The constituents found by the latter were— fagnchis} ‘ i s 3 . ; §1°721 Silica, - ‘ ; ; ‘ A . 12-568 Peroxyd of hat . ; : ‘ : 5874 Water, ; i : : ; 29-666 99-829 — bi result which I have obtained differs somewhat from both the pre- ing. According to each of the previous experimenters the mineral is soluble in acids without effervescence. But I have found that even per- g residue when diadslved: The amount of ee was determined 4 ascertainin the quantity of water collected by ignition in a tu German slane- wink seats and ve at one end fused chlorid of Szconp content Vol. HI, No. 8.—March, 34 266 _ Scientific Intelligence. calcium. The carbonic acid was estimated by the loss of weight on treating a portion of the mineral with dilute acid, in a little bottle con- nected with a tube containing chlorid of calcium. The solid constitu. ents were determined by ordinary methods. The result was—in 100 ss Magnesia, . , . ' . . . 57:86 Protoxyd of iron, 5 : . ; , 2°84 ili , ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 0:80 ter, ‘ ° : . , ' “ 27°96 Carbonic acid, . : 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ 10: 7 99°4 Considering the protoxyd of iron as replacing a little magnesia, the min- eral appears to be a combination of hydrate of magnesia and hydrated carbonate of magnesia. The formula | , 5 . HO+Meg0. CO,. HO 20. will nearly express its constitution, and gives— Magnesia, : : ‘ : : ' Water, 5 A ; : : : j 27:24 Carbonic acid, . : : : : : 11:09 100- The native hydrated carbonate of zinc (zinkbluthe) is a mineral of analogous constitution. ee 2. Reclamation respecting the Identity of Pinite, Chlorophylhite, and other Minerals, with the species Iolite ; by CHARLES . ter has overlooked an article by myself, published in 1841, Vol. xli, p- ee of this Journal, entitled “* On two decomposed varieties of Iolite.” f Dr. Jackson. Mr. Haidinger appears also to have been unacquainte with the fact that the 2d edition of my T'reatise on Mineralogy, (Ne Haven, 1844,) refers, (p. 141,) not only both of the above varieties to Iolite, but likewise the Gigantolite, the Fahlunite, the Esmarkite, and another species may be formed as much as when pseudomorphous specular iron is derived from magnetic iron.*—Eps. what he claims is simply to have first pointed out the relation between the above mentioned substances (chlorophyllite, pinite, &c..) and iolite anulogous tor that which is admitted to exist between Rensselaerite and pyroxene, or the greenish fii? 1 in -Mr. Ht 2 = Es . 3 5 3 & g 3 e & 6 35 mis: 3 7 me a 45 ‘ties, possessing a coordinate natural history value with iolite itsell, Mr. 5 by no means puts in a claim of priority as regards such labors.” Mineralogy and Geology. 267 3. Chiolite, anew mineral from Miask; by Fr. v. Wortu, (Ver- n mineral resembling cryolite. It occurs granular, with a shining lustre, and presenting a grayish, yellowish, or snow white color. The streak Specific gravity of the masses 2°6209 ; of the powder 2°770. The struc- ture of the massive pieces is imperfectly foliated, and the surface of foliation exhibits a lustre between greasy and vitreous. ‘The specimen examined by M. Worth, indicated that it was associated with lithia mica, massive fluor spar, and quartz. It melts easily in the flame of a candle, but at first decrepitates. Its transparency increases in water. According to the chemical analysis of A. new, it consists of aluminium 16°48, sodium 25°72, potassium 0:58, magnesium 0-76, yttri- um 1-04, fluorine 56-00 100°38, giving the formula 2Na Fl+ Al Fl,. Cryolite differs in containing, for the first term, 3Na Fl, and also in its higher specific gravity. The name chiolite is from the Greek word for snow. 4. On the alleged Coéwxistence of Man and the Megatherium; by C. Lyett, (addressed as a letter to the Editor of the Times, and publish- ed in the Times of Dec. 8, 1846.)—Sir: A considerable sensation ap- pears to have been caused in the minds of the scientific, and part of the unscientific public, by the announcement in many of the newspapers of the discovery in America of a fossil human bone associated with 1846,) a brief notice of the reported discovery, copied from an Amer- ican paper, and which the editor has inserted with a judicious caution roid animals. I visited Natchez in March last, on which occasion | was informed of the antiquity assigned to the human relic, and having examined carefully into the evidence, came to the conclusion that the proofs of the coéxistence of the human individual: with the megathe- _In order to explain its position, a few words on the geology er gion will be indispensable. . The broad, flat, alluvial plain of = ar ed fon will two hundr 268 Scientific Intelligence. thickness of rather more than two hundred feet. The whole deposit is of comparatively modern date, the upper sixty feet consisting of clayey m, containing shells of recent species, and the lower of sand and gravel without organic remains, except some wood and silicified corals washed out of older rocks. ‘The yellow loam at the top bears a singu- larly close resemblance to the fluviatile silt, or “ loess,” as it is termed, of the valley of the Rhine, between Cologne and Basle, and, like it, contains abundance of freshwater and land shells, of which I myself obtained more than twenty species, now in my cabinet in London. States. With these shells are found, at different depths, some in the loam, and some in the clay at, the bottom of the loam, the scattered bones and occasionally entire skeletons of the mastodon, megatherium, mylodon, casteroides, equus, bos, and other quadrupeds. If in any had lived in North America when the geographical configuration of the country was very different,—in other words before the valley of the Mississippi, or even sorne of the strata forming its boundary rocks, were in existence. Every deposit entering into the composition of the bluffs of the Mississippi valley must be older than the alluvial plain and delia of that river ; and we thus obtain, independently of any evidence or we must allow a sufficient series of years for the depositioa of all to and the formation of its alluvial deposits and delta? The yellow shelly loam or loess, before mentioned, extends for twelve miles inland or eastward from the river; and in consequence of its i rent and destructible nature, every streamlet flowing over it euts out for itself, in its way to the Mississippi, a deep gully or ravine. This denudation has of late years proceeded with accelerated speed, especially in the ”—ooOoO ee ae ae eres * 'This volume, p. 34. Mineralogy and Geology. 269 landslips caused. Colonel Wiley, a proprietor in this part of the state of Mississippi, and who well remembers the district before the year 1812, assured me that the Mammoth ravine although now seven miles long, and in some parts sixty feet deep, with its numerous ramifications, has been entirely formed since that year when the earthquake occur- - He has himself ploughed some of the land exactly over the spot where the ravine is now situated. It is however enough for our purpose to affirm that whatever be the e years been con- siderably enlarged and lengthened, its banks presenting everywhere precipices in which the loam, unsolidified as it is, retains its verticality, as is the case with its counterpart, the loess of the Rhine. Land shells are seen in great numbers at the depth of about thirty feet from the top, and the fossil bones of the mastodon, and other extinct quadrupeds, are usually picked up in the bed of the stream, after they have been washed out of the undermined cliffs, where, however, some few have also been observed in situ. Under these circumstances, as I was given to understand, the human pelvis was procured at the base of the cliff. Even if it had been dug out in the presence of a practical geologist, it would have been necessary for him to re than usually on his guard against deception, for landslides have detached large masses from the cliffs, and these may easily cover human bones paddepert 0 country, may have been undermined. It is not rare to find on shoals and on the shores of the islands in the Mississippi at low water, numer- ous bones of man mingled with those of extinct animals washed out of the bluffs. In these cases the human bones are as black as the quadru- pedal fossils, having been apparently stained with peaty matter, in the soil where they were buried; but no geologist has ever ventured on this evidence, to infer the contemporaneousness of man and the fossil Specimens thus accidentally associated. Afier Lhad made up my mind that the remote antiquity of the hu- man bone at Natchez was questionable, and that its occurrence in the ravine might be explained in the manner above suggested, | found that Colonel Wailes, a friend of Dr. Dickerson’s, who accom nied us In part of our excursion, and who has also made a fine collection of the fossils of this neighborhood, not only shared my doubts, but had made the same conjecture respecting the probable manner in which the fossil may have been conveyed to the spot where it was found. I have the lour to be, Sir, yours, &c., Cuantes LyeE.. ll, Harley street, Dec. 7. ces of the Su ition of certain Minerals in some of the Metalliferous Deposits of Cornwall and Devon; by Wittiam Jory F and Catta Preta Gold Mines, (from the L., E. & D. Phil. Mag., Nov., 1846, xxix, 359.)—The interesting communications of Messrs. Fox and Dana, induce me to present an abstract of observations on the superpo- 270 Scientific Intelligence. sition of certain minerals, made during my examination of the mines of Cornwall and Devon. To enumerate all need substances of which the lodes i ms that district and at present nestle not a very wok one: I have aaa tabula- ted the order in which the more abundant of them ur. nature of the (country) containing rock is refixed :—the first column denotes the mineral adjoining the (wall) side of the lode; the second, that which rests on that named in the os the third, the pai exces the saad and so on: the last column contains the names of the localities. The italic mas denotes the crystalline ; the Roman, the massive minerals. Mineral adjoining Mineral resting on that| Mineral resting on that Take! on math aes Localities. wall of lede. in first column. in second column. | third column. Containing rock—GranirTs. Quartz : Quariz i ‘ A att, : : : Numer Quartz ge Opal aes en ees: Whieal Cairns Quartz ‘ Quartz ee cedon ah ae edn-an-drea. Qui b Quartz 6. +. Araeniate if iron (ney Wheal Gorland. Quartz picts Quartz ee ee Wolfram , «> |St Michael’s Mount. uartz Say Wenn... te Eregh lore of copper . «+ |Wheal Unity. Quartz 4 é Quartz Pe : Uranite : ‘i Gunnis Lake. | Quartz ee eg Oxyd of tin ‘ Tungstate o lime Piss ab Wheal Friendship. Quartz eg Native copper. Red oryd of copper ne Wheal Gorland. Quartz binant | Malachite é ahh Nees wtpach Guunis Lake, Quartz ; quarts piteh : : . ... {East Wheal Crofty Amel thystine quar tz |\Q 3 a > G ny Pr. i Whe Bel " y g + . . . - ‘ Dart r, Felspar 7 * Phosphate of iron : ; “ A : Park-noweth. Pluet..4) 6 t Flu Quartz mn "i _ Wheal Gorland. Onyd tin «|, raat emacs wd 10 ae paki e Hn Seat uret o, of bismuth P P 3 re : Ralleswidden. Hem n ore ular iron ore Sel cee oe ee icicle Park-noweth. (Enea shreend iron ofel Prec eous ee ore |Black copper ore 4 [Whe a] Jewel. |Earthy brown iron ore! Red oryd of copper Y ss . . Wheal Gorland. Containing rock—GrEENSTONE. TZ oe < artz ne, Po eV hoes Edward. , See ; Arragonite . " ; < Levant, uartz Feet Quartz es yy vee ee of Wen oe Restorm WwartZ carat Quartz ; ‘ Walfra 3 ; Poldice. uartz eR Quartz sie Ars tate copper hei sia Wheal Unity. uartz ; mar reac Ar. sehiate A lead gage Wheal Unity uartz J - Chlorite : - Oxide of tin ‘ ‘ veal Vor. * uartz < ‘ Chlorite " ‘ epseprele of lead ; x Wheal Unity. vartz =. ss {Fluor a "1 lWheal Unity Wood. uartz Rees Arsenical pyrites Tater aioe pyrites er Pe 1 Unity Wood. aye SS : Earthy brown iron ore Presghaté of copper : ; Gunnis Lake. uartz ieee arth y brown iron ore Piteh-bleude : * J. |Wheal Edward.” uartz ‘ ‘i irthy brown ironore Uranite . i ; ‘ Wheal Edward. artz arthy brown iron ore Vitreous copper ore ey tallack. — a Carbonate of iron |Spa ose iron ore 4ivrk tallack, dartz ¢ Vitreous si iy ore (Arr. agonite . s ' Levant. ; wartz ob te) NChlorite ‘Copper pyrites . ‘Mineral piteh!Nort! Containing rock—FeLsPar porpuyry (Elvan). xyd of tin P Oxyd of tin P s Silicate of tin. “ue ieee eee Quartz ‘oe bed brown iron ore tas arbnat wy ! te 7, brown iron mgeablaese tea ‘ . a” me Cop r pyrites ee toe * Eurthy b rown iron ore C capper a Fy ee ee : Eee ve _ pied 2 Salle copper . Pe ee a rth copper ore ; seine : earthy acy ish ore Red ox She copper 5 EEL By : brown iron nore draeniate of of meet: ot an He eet ‘ Earthy brown iron ore|Crysocolla ‘ : ‘ 4 . Mineralogy and Geology. — Mineral adjoin-|Mineral resting on that Mineral resting on rea be: resting on Locatitiés:™ ing wall of lode. in first column. in second coluinn. |thatin 3d column. Containing rock—CLay-staTE. ; Quartz. Quartz pore Qua Serna |Wheal ee Quartz. Quariz . ‘ Gipper. pyri ites . Quartz J East Cri Quartz. Quartz ° ‘ Sulphate hed oe , : nited Mined Quartz . Quariz 4 ( Copper pyrites Copper pyrites |\United Hil Quartz Quartz aca jotim — of, an- wets engell Quartz. Chiorite ‘ xyd of titanium ae ibs Virtuous Lady. Quartz , Qua: : Blende Fluor . 7 \Polberrow, uartz , a ta Celestine . ‘ ‘| : ¢ Binner Downs, Quartz. a Galena s 2 ETA e Wheal Penrose, Quartz. es ‘pytites : Quartz jetink ey voit and om Quartz. Iron pyrites ‘ eR asiht FON ae jNum Quartz . Iron pyrites .. |Carbonate of i rOR Spathoiei iron ore, Virtuous | Lady. Quartz, ron pyrites : Phospha te of ir |Wheal =, Quartz. Iron pyrites , Sulphuret of sleen . ae jDolwath Quartz, Earthy brown iron ore Red oryd of copper i " (2 Wheal Charlotte. Quartz. Earthy browniron ore Carbonate of lead Fc Yes ad Pentire-glaze. Quartz Earthy brown ir ee. hate of lead sei ital Wheal Alfred. Quartz. Earthy brown iron ore Sulphate of of lead Pala a Mellanear. : ns Hematite iron ore Rava dat menguness 5 sneha Restormel. Quartz. Wood tin . . sa reste a ‘Polberrow. pierce Gryd of ti Los, SSH "<)> |Namerous. Quartz. Native itens eit ee hl gh BNO eet Herland, Quartz. son Ain . silver Fig tit laine patie it Wheal Brothers. Quartz. ‘ z E ‘Dolcoath. Qnartz , “pepe cami BES ee In umerous. Quartz, Vitreous copper ore Vitreous copper or ee ROar, Wheal Speed. Quartz, Vv pper ore ; “cau ef it , wy > Providence. Quartz. [2unthupfore oS. side Sneed Wheal Falmouth, danke é co rpyrites , . ‘ ; ; Mion a’ uartz . opper eee 1 leulphuretof bismuth}. 6. ‘owey Consols. — Qua, is Capper By YH ‘ = “ of . ae thic tao tens, JRowey Consol. Quartz”. Copper p wir i ‘ . Polberrow. — Quartz. Red ane o copper : pee. Sa eee eros. 4 Rart . Galena Galena % fe Quariz * Wheal Rose. ‘ Quartz. Blende ‘ Pearl-spar .. fea eS Union Mines. uar a 'ende ae Fluor . 4 wee Peet West Pink, Quartz. Galena abd os Blue le lead ¢ ae Wheal Ho wartz . Blende Sistee Blen 2 ere Union Quartz. , ineral pitch. GE te a South Tow: Quartz . war sry of lime Sree hile: inner Downs. siete ‘ Oxy in ‘ Te ls ina they ers “arate veh te ad Fes i. ag a Ci ws, g CANE MEOUELY: r 3 Copper pyritee ; $ § 3 é ‘ . Whieal Unity Wood. | 7 te ie al ae As the foregoing table is a first attempt at arranging thes facts, it will doubtless be found susceptible of many improven _ For the sat abstain from mentioning eeronces hoagh many are obvious eno Ceslagtead Society of France, (L’Institut, Der 2, 1846, No. 674.) —The Reunion Extraordinaire, at Alais, commenced on the 30th g August. On the first day a memoir was read by M. PAbbE Chamousse’ on the mineralogical and geological productions of Alais, and : eet? y M. J. Teissier, on the means of introducing water, into the village of a formation of Mount Hermitage, and the oP eet of the keuper and the coal formation near Provencal and elsewhere; they examined the latter beds from Rochebelle to the bridge of Tamaris, and ended by vis- iting the great iron founderies and for of the region, ‘The ist of of its extent, which exhibits extensive foldings and dislocations. NV Emelien Dumas s read, on this occasion, @ detailed memoir accompanied 272 Scientific Intelligence. with plates, on the coal basins of Bességes and Alais. M. J. de Malbos read a memoir on a fossil plant of the green sand, before found in other formations by MM. Faujas de Saint Fond and Dunoyer. 2nd of September was occupied by a continuation of the coal explo- rations. ‘The 3d was devoted to an examination of the lacustrine Hyppolyte-de-Caton, Euzet; a marly limestone, in the lower part con- tains menilites, fossil fish, insects and vegetables. 7. Volcanic Dust. of Hecla; by Dr. Trait, (Proce. Roy. Soc., Edinb., ii, 56, Dec. 1845.)—Dr. Traill read an account of dust falling from the atmosphere on the 2d and 3d of September last, in the islands of Orkney. _ This dust was observed by a gentleman in the island of Rousay, fall- ing from the air on the morning of the 2d. It was collected by another at Skaill, on the western shores of Pomona, on the morning of the 3d; and by two other gentlemen in Kirkwall on the same day. also to have fallen in several other parts of Orkney, probably over all the islands; and was observed also to reach the northern coasts of Caithness, within an area of which the radius cannot be less than 30 or miles. It covered, to the depth of from +4; to 2 inch, linen laid out to dry, glass frames in gardens, and the leaves of plants of every kind, with a and grinding between the teeth. It does not effervesce with acids, and consisted chiefly of silex, alumina, oxyd of iron, with a trace of lime. ‘ This dust bears much resemblance in composition and appearance to that which covered the decks and rigging of vessels in the West Indian seas, when the eruption of the Soufriére took place in St. Vincent, in 1812. Those who collected the dust in Orkney, state the probability that it proceeded from some eruption of Hecla, as the ashes of that volcano once before fell in Orkney ; and the wind for several days be- fore the 2d of September had blown strongly from the N. W. ‘he truth is, that such an occurrence has at least three times before calamitous which ever happened in Iceland. Thus, the volcanic ashes of that island have thrice before reached our northern islands ; and recent intelligence brought by Danish fishing vessels from Iceland announces, that, in the end of August, after being quiescent since 1766, Hecla has emitted a violent eruption from 1s flanks ; and there can be little doubt that the dust now exhibited is de- rived from that eruption. distance between Hecla and the Orkney Islands is about 550 miles. Volney and other writers assure us that the ashes of Etna are often carried to the plains of Egypt, or to double that distance ; Mineralogy and Geology. 273 the eruption of the Tomboro, as described by Raffles, in the. eastern ening appears to have exerted a no less astonishing projectile fore 8. Kolcano-in the Red Sea; (Athen., Nov. 28, No. 996.)—A des- patch has been received at Lloyd’s from the East India House, inclos- ing a copy of a letter from Lieut. Barker, of the Hon. East India pany’s steam-vessel ictoria, announcing that on the 14th of August last, smoke was observed to issue from the summit of Saddle Island, in lat. 15° 7! N., long. 42° 12’ E.. The weather, at the time, was very squally, with Hm and lightning. Saddle Island is one of a group ealled Zebayer Islands in the Red Sea; in the direct track of vessels proceeding up and down. They are all of volcanic origin, but there is neither record nor tradition of their aving been in active operation. Jibble Seer, in lat. 15° 32’ N., and long. 41° 55’ E., was observed to be smoking when visited by the officers of the Benares during the sur- vey of the Red Sea,—but never since. There is a tradition among the Arab pilots of its having been on fire some fifty years ago; and it bears among many of them the name of Jibble Dookban, or Hill of Smoke,— and has the appearance of having oe in active operation at a much later period than the Zebayer Islan robable Submarine Galati Aduicewtat Dec. 26, No. 1000.) —The shi ip Helena on her late passage from Batavia to Canton, when in latitude 16° N., long. 125° E., fell in with immense fields of floatin ng pumice stones, apparently not having been long erupted, many of whi were as large asa common bucket. The os meses to windward was the Ladrones, about 1000 miles distant. It seems impossible that they could have come from thence—nor could they va come from Luzon, res to leeward. 0. Coal on the Rocky Mownterins; disknvered by Capt. Frémont ; ro James Hain, (Frémont’s Expedition, p. 297.)—A few miles up Muddy Be (long. 1119, lat. 413$°,) Captain poem collected a beautiful series of imens of fossil ferns. The rock is an indura- ted clay, wholly destitute of carbonate of lime, and wets be termed a * fire cla These are probably, geologically as well as geograph- ically, higher than the oolite specimens, as the rocks at this place were observed to dip in the direction of N. 65° W. at an angle of twenty degrees. This would. show, conclusively, that the vegetable. remains Sccupy a higher position than the oolite. Associated with these vegeta- ble re Temains, were found several beds of coal, ae in thickess The section of strata at this — is as follows : — Sandstone, . ‘ i E o Hilger etsy, wcpeil Coal > . . . * ies Coal, Indurated clay, with vegetable remains, Clay, . Coal, Clay, - ° . . * , il ss Coal, > * me #43 * . * 0 1 3 ae 20 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 i ‘ Coa > fh ; ; 4 Szcoxp Sexizs, Vol. II, No. 8.—March, 1847. % 274 - Scientific Intelligence. stratum containing the fossil ferns is about twenty feet thick 5 and above it are two beds of coal, each about fifteen inches. These tion © oould:'i bebe of the same a are several specimens which I can a refer a the Glossopteris Phillippsii, = Preset te an oolitic fossil ; and this alone, with the general character of the species, and the absence of the large stems so common in val rs md riod, iad led me to er them to the oolitic aria _I conceive, — w- ological character of the mass is not reliable eviden Stull, viewed in whatever light we Lahr these fossil ferns must, * conceive, be re- gardéed-as mostly of new species, and in this respect form a very im- addition to die flora of the more modern geological periods. f SOD! f Ill. Borany anp Zoo oey. hi The Sineevnts afi some New Genera and Species of Composité from Texas ery ois (from the Proc. of the Amer. Acad. of Arts and a stare j » Genus LinpHEIMERA, — op — Pl. Lindh. ined, . (Secio- nidew-Melampodinee. Capitulum multiflorum monoicum; fl. radii 4-5 ligulatis, amine ad_axillas squamarum. invol. interiorum sitis ; fl. disci oy 20 tu losis,.. sterilibus.’ _Involucrum duplex, exterius e squa s 4-5. lax 3 linearibus foliaceis, interius totidem membranaceo- folinceis eer pla- nis disco longioribus.. Recapinaulun planum, paleis chartaceis ovariis oe par 4 sierilibus amplectentibus onustum, .binis exterioribus basi cujusque squam. inter. invol. ners persistentibus. Ligula ovales, breviler tubulate, involucrum uperantes : Sapolle: disci 4-5-dentata. _ Styli fl, ster. fili formes, indivisi, rhiapidh Achzenia radii ovalia, obcompres- so-plana, marginato-alata, intus subcarinata, carina apice in deniem parvum reflexum producta. alia: in pappum 2-dentatuin, extensis; disci abortivi.-—Herba erecta, scabro-hispida, forte biennis ; caule dichotomo 5 pedunculis subeymoso-paniculatis gracilibus monocephalis ; foliis imis alternis, ceteris oppositis sessilibus oblongo-ovatis basi dentatis, sum- mis oe aa 3 glandulis patelliformibus conspersis. Flores aurel. . Tex is cl a8, i a eximium, Berlandiers. et Engelmannice cogna- , diximus in honorem na acerrimi inventoris qui foram Texan am ee indagavit. Genus Barrat 4. Gray 5 Engeliss, PL. Lindh. ined. (Senecioni- fist Gitnnbbes-Euhelisnihor -) Capitulum multifloram heterogamum ; fl, nil Tigulatis (circ. neutris, disci tubulosis hermaphroditis. Involucrum imbricatum triseri- ale, squamis janceolntie apice | porta disco brewigsthie. Rec rien 2 Botany and Zoology. 275 culum convexum, paleis navicularibus persistent tibus achenia amplec tentibus. Corolla fere Helianthi.. Styli rami elongato-subulati, hivpidi. Acheenia compresso-plana, emarginato-obcordata, glabra, immarginata, ealva.—Herba valida perenni, strigosa, corymboso-ramosa ; foliis om- nibus. oppositis. deltoideo-ovatis vel subhastatis inciso- -dentatis tripliner- vils petiolatis, petiolis basi appendicibus foliaceis interpositis connatis 5 unculis solitaris.elongatis monocephalis lores radii et disci flavi. sr) 8 5 Ler} = ~ i] ig =. c n Ss a pet ° -§ 3.= 5 ® as mb i=] 5 OQ c = Qu. =. ° Ss BSB :PPEL proper to append here the characters of another unpub- lished. Helianthou genus, which is even more closely allied to Encelia (although well distinguished by its pappus), and is also snnlneone to Agarista Genus Gera, Torr. § Gray, Fl. N. Amer, ined. Capitulum multifiorum heterogamum ; fl. radii (circ, 15) ligulatis, neutris, disci tubulosis hermapbroditis. Involucrum Jaxe imbricatum 2-3 seriale, squamis lineari-lanceolatis herbaceis. Receptaculum planum, paleis hyalinis oblongis achenia semi-amplectentibus deciduis Onustum. Ligule cuneiformes, basi pilose: corolla disci) fauce dila- tat o-cylindrica: é tubo brevi villoso, 5-dentate. Styli rami in appendi- Pp rgines preesertim) villosissima. . Pappus bisquamellatus, squamellis €X marginibus achzenii ortis lineari-aristiformibus basi villosissimis co rollam adzequantibus.—Herba annua? hirsuto cana}; caulibus. basi aa ic Pedunculos paucos 1-2-cephalos gerentibus. | Involucrum ae aie sum, lace radiidiscique flav : ' nescens. sl api Arcache iste Nomen e yegacds ob ok tpg canum necnon comam achnii argenteam sumptum, ut contrarium generi Nour Agariste, DC, ss mythologice nympha erat venustissima Genus Acassizia, Gray §- Engelm., Pl. Lindh. ined. (non Chevets nec Spach. Capitulum globosum, eee radiatum 5 tiguiis foeminiis pune aa Involucrum disco brevius circa biseriale ;, squamis Oribus linea oblongis, seeing lebineieae vel obtusa iolingen peters te, intimis hina -acuminatis. Receptaculum globosum a ray valde dentatis fimbrilliferis. Ligule cuneaiz, fag 2 irregulares, tubuloso-difformes, vestigia staminum gerentes. Co- es disci Gaillardie, denuiven triangulari-lanceolati i ligularum lineares, subulato-apiculati; fl. disci, ad basin. meveysicis revissime nude clavato-obtuse penicellatt ! Ac cheenia turbinata, se ceo-villosissima. Pappus radii et disci conformis, e paleis Fania Ovatis uninerviis constans, nervo in aristam capillarem corollam ad- equantem longe pr ucto.—Herba biennis, acaulis; radice fusifor- pos pc varie 1% 2-pinnati idis, nune sinuatis lyratisve; scapo 1-2. ci toto. nudo lo. Capitulum _peoeatnaed Fak ‘tei iabvéélecien, | disci flavi et purpurei, radii rubescent 276 Scientific Intelligence. A. suavis—In campis Texanis prope Bexar et New Braunfels, Lindheimer.—Genus eximium Gaillardiz proximum, at ligulis fo miniis, receptaculo globoso vere alveolato, habitu styloque proprio diversum, diximus in honorem celeberrimi amicissimique Agassiz.— Agassizia, Chavan., est Galvesia, Domb. gassizia, Spach., est Sphee- rostigma, Ser., et Holostigma, Spach., subgenus merum CEnothere.* Helix annulata.—From examinations of specimens of the Helix described on page 101, of this volume, lately received from Mr. ‘Thomas R. Dutton, Dr. A. A. Gould has ascertained that it is only a young state of H. striatella. The note to page 101, was simply a remark based on the figures given by Mr. Case——Eps. 3. Ornithichnites—On page 79 of this volume, a statement made to by Prof. Agassiz is inserted, respecting the number of joints in the different toes of birds, and the bearing of this fact upon fossil footprints. The same relation was pointed out by Prof. Hiteheock in his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, 1841, ii, 525, and adduced to prove that some of the tracks were actually those of birds. It is recognized by Dr. Deane, in vol. xlv, p. 180, (1843,) of this Journal, and also sub- sequently illustrated by him in the Boston Journal of Natural History, . é We are informed by Pres. E. Hitchcock, that the quadruped track figured by Dr. Deane on page 79 of this volume, (last number,) and supposed to be new, is the Sauroidichnites palmatus of his Geological Report, or the Palamopus anomalus of his new nomenclature as given in the Proceedings of the Association of American Geologists and Nat- uralists. He lately examined the original specimen in the collection of Mr. Marsh, and immediately recognized it as belonging to the species just mentioned.—Ebs. 4. Plesiosaurus megacephalus; by S. Srutcusury, (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., No. 8, p. 411.)—This new species of Plesiosaurus was dis- tailed description, mentions the following among the distinguishing peculiarities. ar partly voluntary, partly instinctive. ‘These last are seen in a very remarka le manner in the eyes, and they are so constant, and so n the fish as long as it lives, that their absence suffices to characterize the death of the animal. LE aloe Me siibisieamadehsscalles en * The memoir of Prof. Gray, contains also descriptions of the new species Vernonia, meri, Ageratum Wrightii, Brickellia cylindracea, Keerlia bellidi- folia and Tetragonothecu. Texana. Astronomy. ~~ 277 The equilibrium of the body of a fish in the water is independent of the natatory bladder; this organ even interfere with it; as the fish lies in its horizontal position with the back upwards, it depends solely on the action of the , and principally on the vertical fins, its specific gravity. — By compressing the air which is contained in it, the fish descends in the water; and it rises again by relaxing the muscles which had served to compress the bladder. Moreover, the fish may remain at the bottom of the water, by the very fact of the pressure of ~~ column . water on the air contained in the bladder. y compressing more or less the posterior portion or the anterior portinen of sie bladder, the animal is able to render the anterior half or the posterior half of its body lighter at will; it can also take an o oblique position, which allows a movement of rising or of escending in the to favor this action. ‘The Cyprinoids and the Characi have two blad- ders, one before the other, communicating with one another by a narrow tube bes slightly so; and in proportion as the fish rises in the water, the ante rior bladder, which is the most elastic, must considerably increase in vol- ume, and thus keep the head of the animal up, W whilst the contrary must be the case when the fish descends.—Mitller’s Archiv, 1845, p. ¥ lV. Astronomy. 1. On the e Attempts to explain the Projection ofa a Star on the Moon, during an Occultation ; by Prof. Powexn, (Brit. A from the At hy Sept. 26, 1846.) —Some remarks having been i biougi forward at e last meeting, relative to the singular phenomenon above named, in which “ diffraction” was referred to as, at least, in a general sense, likely the question. “ Diffraction” has often been appealed to in cases apparently of the Swe class; but, in the more strict and limited sense of the term, it cannot apply, since both the conditions and the resulting phenomena appear essentially different. The phenomena properly ascr ribed to “dif fraction” exhibit fringes,—and suppose the edge of the intercepting iid to be within the area of the rays. But there are some effects comitant kind, which have been less attended to. One of the most re- markable of these is that deaaeed by Newton, (Opts book iii, part i, obs. » 6, 7,) in which the light admitted ace a pris mgroiat e ter of an inch in diameter, falling on the edge of an opaque body, es the phe- nomena since culled “ diffraction,” gave rise to long eke ry or “‘ trains of light darting into the shadow perpendicular to the edge, shown on a 278 Scientific Intelligence. it an eye lens of two inches focal length. The dark disk appeared with a trace of faint diffractive fringes round it ; and anumber of streaks or trains of ight converging from its edge to its centre, which there crossing gave rise to a bright round spot The e appearance ‘of, separate streaks is in this one riment, the edge is within the area of the rays, yet a part of the same phen omenon (viz., the line of light along the edge) is seen, even when the edge is beyond the rays, by the naked eye, or r with a telescope. pa s rays reflected from a very small globule of mercury,) and the rays re wholly intercepted by the disk at the distance of about two inches, so 2 ap both the luminous point and the disk may be seen at once in focus a small telescope about twelve feet distant, the luminous patch on the edge of the disk at the part nearest the luminous point appeared to ex- tend to a small distance inwards, and there the rays converging crossed, itl e experimental imitation of the case of the star. ‘I'he orifice is not an absolute point; Dis Mi it were, the patch of light on the disk might appear like a projec of its image. Another “explanation has been proposed of the plienamehon of projection ; on the principle that, owing to aberration, the star being seen out of its true place, a screen , placed in its true direction, as the 1 moon, would exhibit the star projected on its disk (Astron. Soc. Reports, vi, 246 ); and, taking into account the proper oe of the star, this will explain the appearance of the phenomenon in ne instance and not in another, on the supposition that those proper mo- fie are in opposite directions in the two instances. But this will not apply in the very instance to which reference has been made he the two stars 119 and 120 min »—which have pro ee motions both in the same direc- altogether, Sen has been lately suggested by Prof. Challis, on the of aberration. The whole snbjec erhaps, not yet ri explanation, since the first astronomers variance as to the if tru seem to point to some ocular cause. Hence, a farther accumulation of instances is much wanted : — gee ae which Prof. Powell we tae be thankful to receive, a to him, fo 2 Maury, Liew. U. S. Navy, during the year 1845, at the U. 5. Naval Observatory, ne Vol. i, pablished by authority of the Sec- retary of the Navy.—lIn the sini of this Journal for March, 1846, . 294, we gave a brief heechgtial of the Naval ee po Wash- ington, with a notice of each of the principal instruments. We con- cluded that notice with the remark, “ The publie are ciscintelé looking for the fruits of this noble establishment. May their reasonable expec: tations not be followed by disappointment.” We confess we had at > time some misgivings as to the fate of this enterprise. The project of a National Observatory had hitherto received so little favor at Wash- 7 Astronomy. 279 ington, that it seemed too much to expect that opposition would now entirely and forever cease. But thus far, opposition (if any has been entertained) seems to have remained quiet; and we are now presented with the first fruits of the Observatory, in a quarto volume of 550 ges. e could wish that the observations were printed from larger type, on thicker paper, and that the volume was furnished with a more 2100 observations were obtained, averaging about six per day. At Greenwich the average is about eight per day. As to amount of work, refore, our own ory compares well with Greenwich. Bu the twelve stars which were most frequently observed with the transit Instrument, and have compared the mean Right Ascensions deduced from them. These ma WASHINGTON. ti Lic Se © iNo. obs. | =xtreme diffe, Object. )No obs./Extreme diffs, « Andromede, | 38 : Polaris, i] % egas 40 24 | Spica, 32 47 Cassiopeia, | 86 54 {y Bootis, 31 28 Ceti, } 39 76 | Arcturus, 47 BD. 32 70 = {e Bootis, 22 36 49 «Cor. Borealis, | 30 22 33 85 fa Lyre 27 v7 33 54 ty Aquiler, 37 28 33 56 | {a Aquile, 47 38 5 Pegasi, 38 67 [3 Aquile, 28 34 « Piscis Australis,| 44 54 |¢ Pegasi, 33 27 & Pegasi, 3 33.“ Pegasi, 34 27 » The average difference between the extreme obser vations at Wash- ington is 08-54; at Greenwich, 0°30. We consider it highly credita- aa 280 Scientific Intelligence. ble to the Washington observers, that in the first year of their experi- ence, the results of their observations should accord nearly as well as those of the long practised observers of Greenwich. We have instituted a similar comparison with regard to the observa- tions with the Mural Circle. The following Table shows the difference between the greatest and least mean Declinations deduced from the twelve stars most frequently observed, excluding the reflected observa- tions ; and for comparison we have taken all the direct observations of the twelve stars most frequently observed at Greenwich in 1837, with the Troughton mural circle. WASHINGTON. i is GREENWICH. se! » . Object. |No. obs | Extreme diff’e. Object. No obs. Extreme diff’e.| Polaris, 135 ‘ Polaris, 45 4!sdd xc a Persei, 16 3° 96 Sirius, 58 7° "iQes « Urs Majoris, | 20 6: 76 {« Urse Majoris, | 14 2° .32 8 Urs Minoris, | 16 4° 79 |y Urs Majoris, 1 4 20 7 Draconis, 25 3° 37 |¢ Urse Majoris, | 20 4: 36 0 Urse Minoris, | 17 5: 02 | Urse Majoris. | 33 4: 40 oe Lyre, 48 6° 88 | Arcturus, 3° 84 yre, 21 2: Urse Minoris, | 18 3° 30. y Aquilz, 18 3° 11. {y Draconis, 1 3-75 61 Cygni, 19 4: 22 |8 Draconis, 14 4 67 « Piscis Australis,| 29 5° 50) |e Lyre, 13 3 75 7 Cephei, © | 44 | 8 99 (Ip Sagittarii, 14 3 73° ae ee, Nee ee ee $5. The mean of the differences at Washington is 4’-53; at Greenwich 4-18; and the number of observations at Washington is the largest: from which we see that the Washington mural observations accord quite as well as those of Greenwich, We conclude, then, that the Astron: expected in a foreign one. ; de, After the favorable opinion we have thus freely expressed respecting the Washington observations, perhaps we may be indulged in a few suggestions. We have remarked some deficiences which are excusable ® under the circumstances of the first volume, but which we hope may be remedied in future ones. We wish to see the observations of the sun, moon, and planets, fully reduced, and compared with the Nautical Almanac. The circumpolar stars «, 0, and 4, Ursa Minoris, and 51 Cephei, are omitted in the catalogue, p. 272, and in the reductions, p- 246, although they were repeatedly observed. We do not unders' Astronomy. 281 the cause of this omission. We think there are too many interrogation points (?) in the table of mean declinations, p. 262, while most of the observations to which they are attached accord very well with the gen- eral mean. midships of one V to the midships of the other—the eye-piece was a bar” oor landsmen are obliged either blindly to guess at the meaning or betake ourselves toa vocabulary. It may be thought hard if a naval officer in a nayal observatory cannot be allowed to speak his native dialect; but we would enquire whether this volume of Observations is addressed primarily to sailors. In con- clusion we must again express the high satisfaction we have derived from an examination of this yolume, and trust we may soon be favored with a copy of the observations for ; 3. Memoria sopra i colori delle Stelle del Catalogo di Baily, osser- vali dal P. Beneditto Sestini della compagnia di Gesu. Roma, 1845. t nderta the color of all of Baily’s stars, expecting that we may hereafter be able to detect changes in some of them. From the well known purity i 4 through the star, with seven vertical dashes, thus Bb 2 a fs a , three _ ©n each side of the star, and numbered from left to right. Number 1 - denotes fel. ‘nachos 8 orange, 3 yellow, 4 green, 5 blue, 6 indigo, 7 violet. The white stars have no mark affixed to them. The Catalogue Srconp Serizs, Vol. III, No. 8—March, 1847. 36 282 Scientific I; ntelligence. and Maps now published embrace all of Baily’s sre for half os northern hemisphere, from the 12th to the 24th hour of R. A. trust M. Sestini will be encouraged to complete the enste he has al and will give us the colors of the remaining stars of Baily’s Catalogue, and perhaps extend his plan so as to embrace a still wider vr 4, Sixth Comet of 1846, (Colla, in L’Institut, Nov. 846. )— A telescopic comet was discovered June 26, 1846, in prshin near the star 595 Mayer, by the German astronomer, M. Peters, at the Royal Observatory at Naples. It was followed by him (ill July 23, during which period he secured observations on nine different evenings. |. appears to have been observed nowhere else, except once at Rome. At the time of its discovery it was very faint, without sensible nucleus, and resembled nebula No. 19 of the 6th class of Herschel, from which it was about a degree distant. Its motion was svinhotise and increas- ing in R. A., and its appearance se = very dim. M. Peters compu- ted the following parabolic elemen » Perihelion pass. 1846, May 30, 12h. 56™ 35 m. t. Berl. ——e of se. ney 337° 20° 23"-2 \ M. Sti” Son 0. 258 44 47°6 Wetiation, 3 34.590 4k? nrc disk” eee a Mot dire _ M. Darien of Berlin, atten cnlovtaild two sets of parabolic elements. As neither of them well satisfied the observations, he computed the fol- lowing elliptic elements, which agree better with the observations. Epoch, ch, 1846, ey 21, 8) Berlin A, 3 6! 47-1 t 4 ; : . 242 56 38 a : , . . 239 49 51 ata. equin. 1846, ft ust hoy ‘ + 260 12 25.91 ob ; , j debe. Tao a . ‘ 9 49 10.34 3 “Tog. es 0-800762 8 Bid. Revolut 5804°3 days. woe Hind’s rors (Cc elles ih Estiidi, Nov. 11, 1846. \—The ui scopic comet discovered by: Mr. J. R. Hin at Enled; July 29, 164 (see ii Ser., vol. ii, p. 439,) had been detected two hours previous, by De Vico at the Observatory of Rome. It was observed Sones about a month. Various sets of the parabolic elements of its orbit been published, differing widely from each — and from the provisional elements furnished by Mr. Hind. > The elements by Funk, Powalsky, rid Oudemans, agree tolerably well. The following is the set computed by Oudemans. Perih. pass. July 28-502 m. t. Berlin. Lang. = sel deny : SPSS) se, node, . 3 . 2 YAR IO ahdation, ‘ ‘ i .) 64.42 8. a rih. dint. ‘ ‘ j : ee ograde. - 6. Le Verr a titiors have tee falling thick: aut Le Verrier wits his splendid discovery. He has been made an officer of the Le- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 283 gion of Honor by the King of France ; and besides, a chair has been established for him at the Faculty of Science at Paris, entitled Mathe- matical Astronomy or Celestial Mechanism, ust of him has also been ordered by royal authority for the College of Swint-Lé, and M. Pradier is appointed to execute it. From the King of Denmark, he has received the title of Commander of the Royal Order of the Dane- brog, and the Royal Society of London has conferred on him the Copley medal. “dF GatLi.—The cross of the Red Eagle has been conferred, by the King of Prussia, on the discoverer of Le Verrier’s planet. V. MiscetnaNneous INTELLIGENCE. 1. Effects of the Earth’s Rotation upon Falling Bodies and upon by W. C. Rep the Atmosphere ; 3 FIELD, (communicated for this Journal.) --From the remarks which were made On the Deviation of Falling center to the body. If then, the body have its distance from the sur- minish its latitude ; fora line drawn between it and the earth’s center, will intersect the surface nearer and nearer the equator, as the body pendicular belongs to falling bodies in the southern hemisphere. 284 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The increase of the rotary velocity and centrifugal force in proportion to the distance from the axis, I have been accustomed ‘to consider as one of the causes which may serve to account for the non-appearance, and, as I think, the non-existence of those great ascending currents sive plane of rotation in proceeding from the equator, becomes propor- tionally greater than the perpendicular elevation from the surface, in a ratio which increases with the increase of latitude. us the immediate influence of the earth’s rotation wn be such as favors the production of currents in the higher regions of the o from puints between west and north in ever latitudes, and ae: between west and south in the southern hemtsphere. relative conditions at different altitudes: as may be inferred from the contrary effect that is shown in the diminished aiecnads of the earth which results from the increased density towards its center, as has been proved by Clairaut.* According to these views, the greater expansion of the lower atmo- sphere which results from the increased t temperature of the intertropical latitudes, may have little influence in determining the actual courses 0: ce these views, : estimating the dynamics of the atmosphere. It seems pen that there are other peer Sp which serve to counteract or sed sol ' ts of the ocean has been referred, in a great measure, to the centrifugal force which is the result of the earth’s rotation.t Now, if this view be so enlarged as to include all the physical influences and conditions (other than geographical variations of temperature) that must necessarily pe? tain to the diurnal rotation and orbital progression of the planet, I can- not see that the calorific theory of Halley is necessary for explaining the Lads ttre eg om which are observed in our atmosphere. | 2. Smithsonian Institution.—The Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution held a session in Washington in the month of January, for the purpose of discussing plans for its mh “egteeot which should best pro- mote the designs of the testator, “ Jor the increase and diffusion 9% knowledge among men.” This clause in the will of Smithson, — indicates two entirely distinct objects, requiring two separate, t har- monious and confluent plans of conduct, for the full development rok the greatest good of which the Institution is capable. * Théorie dela Figure de la Terre ; Paris, 1 t Library of Useful Knowledge, Art. Phigeisdd canny p- 28. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 285 _ We understand that the Regents have decided to divide the available income of the fund, equally between the two recognized modes for increasing and diffusing knowledge, viz., by stimulating research, and by collections. The salary of the Secretary as head of the Institution, is to be equally assessed on the two divisions. Under the first head it is designed to publish Transactions, to be called Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, in which shall ap- pear those papers only, which are a positive addition to the great sum of human knowledge in whatever department. Original and important researches, whether undertaken on the suggestion and at the expense of the Institution, or the result of individual authorship,—elaborate me- moirs, the costliness of whose publication would be a bar to their ap- pearance at the charge of the author, or of scientific societies already jects of merely scientific interest. The best aid at the command of similar channels. It is proposed to make arrangements with e sien, the Artists Fund Society, and similar institutions, for t. ‘ ." ‘ he second great department embraces. objects of various interest and much importance. The custody and increase of all collections, in instruments, objects of art, antiquity and curious research, will all prop- - 286 Miscellaneous Intelligence. - The Secretary of the Institution, (Prof. Joseph Henry,) has been directed to continue his researches and to report his results ; to prepare a number of the Contributions for publication, and after communication with eminent scientific and literary men, to fix upon methods for executing the other plans ‘ for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” The organization also embraces the plan of setting apart certain eve- nings, for the purpose of enabling artists and inventors to exhibit and explain their instruments or works of art in the halls of the Institution, as in the Polytechnic Institution in London, to such as may attend the irées. ées, ~ The plans of Mr. James Renwick, Jr., of New York, for the build- ing, ‘were adopted with modifications, and it was agreed that: the tors of the will of Mr. Smithson, and are bound by every obligation faith- fully to discharge their trust, ‘the increase and diffusionof knowle ge General Post O at Washington cost over half a million of dollars, the Patent Office $750,000, and the Treasury Department still more. benefit of the whole American people only, but for “ mankind.” The wise councils of those who have so far succeeded in harmonizing con- flicting views, as to accomplish what we have already sketched, will have the hearty approval and codperation of all those who desire the permanent prosperity of the Institution. 8. Footprints and Indian Sculpture, (communicated by Rev. E. H: Davis, of Chillicothe.) —During a late excursion along the Ohio valley for the purpose. of examining some mural remains, our attention was directed by several persons to two sculptured rocks upon Guiandotte river, as something very remarkable. ‘Taking nothing for granted re- wed by hearsay, we determined to visit them; so we p edu the river about eighteen miles from its mouth, where we found the two rocks in question just below the falls. f Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 wrought by rude instruments. Some of the characters are like those upon the Dighton, Tiverton, and Portsmouth rocks, about which so much interest has been felt in the North of Europe. They are gener- ally outline figures of full size, cut into the rock from one half to one inch in depth and the same in breadth. They consist of the human form, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, dots and lines, with the tracks or foot« prints of animals and birds 3 It is to these footprints that I wish to direct your attention in particu- lar, as possessing some interest for the geologist, as well as the antiqua- rian. In many instances they are so well executed, and life-like, as to deceive the most experienced geologist; for example, the human foot- prints in the limestone near St. Louis, first figured and described by Mr. Schoolcraft,* which remained for many years a geological wonder, but were at last satisfactorily explained by Dr. Owen.t The Derry sandstone in Westmoreland County, Penn., with the supposed fossil footprints of birds and quadrupeds, described by Dr. King,t are of the same class of artificial tracks, and were correctly so considered by Mr. Lyell who examined them personally.§ | a see Sh WS AY oro LS Swiss The figure here given is a sketch of one.of the Guiandotte rocks, covered as you will perceive with a variety of these sculptured tracks, © Am. Jonr. of Sci., vol. v, p. 223. i The same, vol. xiii, p. 14. 1 The same, vol, sits. p- oe " -§ Second Series, vol. il, p. 25. 288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. as additional nese (if any should be needed) of the views of Ow r. Lyell; to which I will add but one or two observa- tions in conclusion. Ist. In nearly every instance where these footprints are found, they are in connection with well known Indian sculptured figures. is y occur at all angles with the plane of strata, on the sides and ends of blocks as well as the to 3d. Iron seams, as hard as steel, frequently occur in this sandstone ; and wherever a footprint is found over one of them it is a on either side, leaving the seam as too hard for the instrument. As yet I have never met with any footprints in the Western States, that have not 5 “4. Hecla es ease en by M. Descroiszaux, (Comptes Rendus, Oct. 26, and Nov 846.)—Mount Hecla is a very regular cone, with slopes of wees, eS to thirty degrees; covered with scoria an fragments. The height was determined by two observations at 1886°3, and 1396-8 metres, which is more than 160° metres less than Serther trigonometrical measurements. ‘The great current of 1845 flowed to the west-south-west ; the whole length is sixteen kilometers, (near ten miles,*) and greatest breadth two kilometers. It is found covering declivities of all angles, from 0° to 25°, and every where the surface consists of blocks, often of large size, accumulated with some regu- larity, and forming a broad band having the lateral slopes thirty-five to 7 degrees. Over the surface there are numerous fumeroles, about no salts were observed excepting sal-ammoniac. . Descloiseaux has collected conferve from the geysers, where the waters were at a temperature of 98° C. = 208° F. Experimenting on the great geyser, which is twenty-two metres in depth, this geologist found the rier: at one trial 121°°6 C., within six metres of the bottom; 121° C., within 9-5 metres; 109°-3? within 16-3 metres 5 and 95° ? itihin 19- 7 ideren: At encther trial, the tem- the bottom; 84°7 C., 19°55 metres above. Ina sift 122°°5 C., at bot- tom; and 103° C., at 13-5 metres above the botto 5. Cultivation of Cereal Grains in Cold Climates + by rs age (Acad. Sci. St. Petersburgh; L’Institut, No. 668, Oct. 1846. )--Aft speaking of the temperature of the earth in northern Russia, M. Kapil "* kilometre i is 3281 feet, or nearly five-eighths of an English mile, Miscellaneous Intelligence. ‘289 earth and the am latent heat taken up by the process. In th mines of St situated 470 feet (Paris) above the ci a Observatory of Nertc , 2,470 feet above the sea, and where mean temperature just amt the soil should therefore differ abouts 3° F. from that of Nertchinsk, it was found that to 175 feet (the depth pen- etrated) there was not a drop of water; all was frozen. In the mines of Vosdvigensk, not far from Nertchinsk, and about 2,708 feet above the sea, flowing water occurs at a depth of 300 feet, having a temperature of 35°°8 F. Toa depth of forty or fifty feet, the sides of the shafts were ot sere dry, and at this depth the mean temperature of 32° F., appears to be situated. This last point was not fully verified; but if true, it gives an increase of 3°8 F. in a de epth of 250 feet, which accords very nearly with observations elsewhere. In connection — this subject, the following wrote is given showing the increase of m n temperature, as we pass m the coast towards the interior of ates between the parallels of 50° and 60°. ; He in taciude. [Hong By Height in| Mean temp. temp. oss St. Petersburg, . | 5957 | 99-59 0 | * 378R.)° 65-8F. Moscow, .. 55-45 17 400 38-5 16 aS ae 55:48 48-48 150 35-0 | 75. Catherinenberg, . 56:50 5814 820 33:1 768 manslowsk, . . | 59-45 57:39 60 30-9 79-2 SOMME FE Eo 56-30 82-50 300 31-5 81-5 PhatinlD igiti: 53-20 81-07 400 315 82-9" Irkoutsk, 4. 5217 | 11-15 1300 31-5 79-9 Nertchinsk, is 51-18 117-01 2000 26-2 94:3 akoutsk, " 62-01 127-24 AFR | N07 6. On Comparative a Researches on Sea Water ; by Prof. Forcutammer, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from the Athen., Sep. 26.)— —In the Ocean between Europe wae America the greatest quantity of saline matter is found in the tropical region, far from any land ; in such places 000 parts of sea water contain 36°6 parts of salt. This quantity di- minishes in approaching the coast, on account of the masses of fresh Water which the rivers throw into the sea: it diminishes, likewise, in le westernmost part of the Gulf stream, where I only found it to be 35°9 in 1,000 paris of water. By the evaporation’ of the water of ~ warm current, its quantity of saline matter increases towards the eas and reaches, in N. lat. 39° 39’ and W. long. 55° 16’; its former height of 3 rom thence it decreases slowly towards the northeast: and Sea water, at a distance of from sixty to eighty miles from ‘the conte shores of Eng gland, contains only 35°7 parts of solid substances ; and the same quantity of salt is found all over the northeastern part Moet the Atlantic, as far to the north as Iceland, always at such a distance from the land that the influence of fresh water is avoided. numerous observations made on the shores of Iceland and the Faroe Islands, it is evident that the waters of the Gulf stream spread over this part of the Atlantic Ocean ; and thus we see. that the water hog tropical currents Szecoyp Serigs, Vol. I, No. 8.—March, 1847. 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. will keep its character even in high northern latitudes. In the longi- tude of Greenland, and more than one hundred miles to the south of the southernmost point of that large tract of land, sea water contains only 35-0 in 1,000 parts. In going from this point towards the north- west, it decreases constantly; and in Dover Straits, at a distance of about forty miles from the land, it only contains 32:5 parts of salt in 1,000 parts of sea water. ‘This character seems to remain in the cur- rent which runs parallel to the shores of North America; and at N. lat. 434°, and W. long. 464°, the sea water contained only 33°8 parts of salt... .'hus tropical and polar currents’ seem not only to be different in respect to their temperature, but also in the quantity of salt which they contain; and thence it follows, again, that while the quantity of water ied which rain and the rivers give back to the sea, the reverse takes place in the polar seas, where evaporation is very small and the condensation of vapor very great. ‘The circulation must on that account be such, that a part of the vapor which rises in tropical zones will be condensed in polar regions, and, in the form of polar currents, flow back again to warmer climates. Although my analyses are only made on water from direction towards the west, and thus be driven towards the eastern shores of the continents; while any tropical current flowing towa the north will, according to the same laws of rotation, take a direction towards the western shores of the continents. This is at present the case in the Atlantic Ocean; and its effects upon the shores of Lurope, which are surrounded by warm water from a branch of the tropical current, produce a mild and moist climate. The water of the different 10,000 to 1,193. In the German Ocean, according to ten analyses, it is 10,000 to 1,191. In Davis's Straits, according to the mean of five analyses, it is 10,000 to 1,220. In the Kattegat, according to the mean Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 of four analyses, 10,000 to 1,240.—Thus it appears’ that the propor- tion of sulphuric acid increases near the shores: a fact which evidently depends upon the rivers carrying sulphate of lime into the sea. The proportion between chlorine and lime in the Atlantic Ocean, according to the mean result of seventeen analyses, is 10,000 to 297; and in the sea between Faroe and Greenland, according to the mean of eighteen analyses, 10,000 to 300. Lime is rather rare in the sea around the West Indian Islands, where millions of coral animals constantly ab- sorb it, the proportion, according to five analyses, being 10,000 to 247 ; and it is rather copious in the Kattegat, where the numerous rivers of the Baltic carry a great quantity of it into the ocean. The proportio there is 10,000 to 371, according to four analyses. 7. On the Iron Manufacture of Great Britain; by Mr. G. R. Por- TER, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., ept. 26.) —Having called atten- tion to the enormous demand for iron consequent on the general and si- multaneous construction of railways in England, on the Continent, and in India, Mr. Porter said it was important to consider how that demand may be met, and also how, on the cessation of that demand, which must be amounted to no more than 61, ) tons ; of which 48,200 were made with coke of pit-coal, and 13,100 from charcoal: in the same year the amount raised in Scotland was 7,000 tons. In 1796, the quantity, ow- ne to Watt’s improvement of the steam engine, was nearly double, ing— England and Wales, : ; ; 108,993 tons. Scotland, zs ; é ans 16,086 “> Total «©. : é t 125,079" * Ten years later, viz. in 1806, when it was proposed to tax the produc- tion of iron, an inquiry was made, and the production was found to have more than doubled in this decennial period, being— England and Wales i : i 234,966 tons. Scotland . : : é ‘ : 23240: Total «. : é é 258,206 ** In 1823, this quantity had risen to 482,066 tons, and in 1830 it was further ingreased to 678,417 tons. But since 1830, in consequence © the introduction of the hot blast by Mr. Nelson, of Glasgow, rapid im- provements have been made, and a most imp saving of fuel ef- fected. The results were thus stated :-—In 1829, using coke and ewt. 1 quarter of coal. The saving in fuel is thus seen to amount to 72 per cent.; and in Scotland the production of iron has risen from 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 343,400 tons ; but in consequence of the commercial depression, this fell to.1, were for new lines, and the aggregate of extent about 1,200 miles, re- quiring a production of more than’ 500,000 tons of iron. The: price it commandec ; was 2/. 53, 6d. per ton; in March 1845, it rose to 5/.; and in May to months of this year, was 260,000 tons, or at the rate of 520,000. tons per annum ;-—the production having been doubled since 1840. It is the opinion of the iron-masters that since 1840, nearly all the increased fuction From this, c ned, perhaps,. with other causes, the amount of pro- duction in England for 1845 was only 917,500 tons, being 238,000 tons less than the production of 1840. From comparing several returns, it is clear that we have no reason to dread a failure of material,-some valuable and extensive fields of black-band ore havin been recently discovered in Wales ; but it seems not improbable that the aren oal erected, at Stanhope, for smelting this rider, and pig-iron of a strong ing works, near Walsingham. The difficulty then arises in the sup of la is hopeless to sti ! ail tis he person ready employed. ‘They are naturally ready enough to exact higher ratesiof wages when the demand for their labor becomes more urgent; . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 and foreign iron is now only imported for the manufacture of steel. ur exports, on the contrary, have so increased as to become an object of national importance.—- n 1827 we exported 92,313 tons, declared value, . . £1,215,561. In 1845 Mo ¢ SL QIB: 0.4 Siegen oh ad OD, SOB The increase of our exports appears to be contingent on a reduction of Price, and must, therefore, be materially affected by variations in the Cost of production. Should the new railways stimulate a much larger Production of iron, the quantity produced will greatly exceed the de- mand so soon as those railways are completed, and then prices will fall, perhaps to a lower point than has ever yet been witnessed. This will, probably, cause iron to be applied to many new purposes, and particu- larly to. the construction. of ships, fire-proof houses, and frame-work for exports to new settlements. All this, however, must be t work of time; and it seems but too probable that, in the meanwhile, our iron-masters will have to undergo a somewhat lengthened season of adversity, —for the enduring of which they are, in a measure, pre- pared, from former experience. 2 8. On Plate Glass. making in England in 1846, contrasted with what it was in 1827; by Mr. H. Howaxp, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 19, No. 986.)—The writer furnished carefully all the ma- terials for establishing this comparison. Amongst other results he sta- ted, that in 1827 plate glass was sold for about 12s. average per foot, to the extent of about 5,000 feet per week; in 1835, for from 8s. to 9s. Per foot, to the extent of about 7,000 feet ; in 1844, for from 6s. to 7s. Per foot reaching about 23,000 feet; and in 1846, for from 5s. to 6s., about 40.000 feet per week. ‘The sale is now about 45,000 feet weekly. He mentioned that, in 1829, a plate glass manufactory ceas- this extrao spite of the severity of excise restrictions, the author asks, what would be the probable demand if the price were uced to 4s, * r foot--which, free as the trade now is from excise interference, would yield an ample profit? 9. A Review of the Mines and Mining re of Belgium; by 294 Miscellaneous. Intelligence. country, Belgium ranked the second in Europe. The ratio of the coal district to the total area is ‘ Acres. ‘ Tons annually, Great Britain Jy, or 2,930,000 producing 34,000,000 Belgium sy, or 335,000 e 4,500,000 France zig, or 630,000 = 3,783,000 Germanic Union . ‘ ; 3,000,000 In 1838 the total number of coal-mines in Belgium was 307, with 470 pits in work and 172 in process of construction, employing 37,171 per- sons ; being an increase of 8,454, or 28 per cent. on the number em- oyed in 1829. ‘The increase of the quantity of coal raised was not accurately ascertained, but it appeared to be about 37 per cent. The average cost of production is 10s. 8d. per ton, and the average price 23s. 1d. for first quality, and 16s. 64d. for the second quality of coal ; the average rate of wages is ls. 6;%;d. per day. The establishments for preparing other mineral productions for market in 1838 were, for iron 221, copper 8, zinc 7, lead 2; the total number of furnaces was 139, of which 47 used coke and 92 charcoal. The total number accidents from 1821 to 1840 was 1,352, which occasioned severe injury to 882, and deaths to 1,710, making a total of 2,592 sufferers. hat these Fungi being favorable for the growth of grass, but injurious to their own subsequent development on the same spot;—was remarked and a little sulphate of lime. nother fungus might undoubtedly grow on the same spot again; but upon the death of the first, the ground be- comes occupied by a vigorous crop of grass rising like a phoenix on r the ashes of its predecessor. It would thus appear that the increase of these fairy-rings is due to the large quantity of phosphated alkali, mag- nesia, &c., secreted by these fungi; and, whilst they are extending themselves in search of the additional food which they require, they leave, on decaying, a most abundant crop of nutriment for the grass. 11, Gun-Cotton.—The results of the deflagration of gun-cotton have been determined as follows by Messrs. Porrett and TEscHe- MACHER, as stated by them ina paper read before the Chemical Society, on Dec. 6, (Pharm. Times, Dec. 19, 1846. 52°53 grains of gun-cotton gave 100 cubic inches of gas, constituted as follows : Relative volumes. Cubic inches. Grains. 2 14-286 Carbonic acid, 7157 yanogen, 1 7143 3°965 Nitric oxyd, 5 35°715 11-478 Carbonic oxyd, 5 35°715 10-714 itrogen, 1 7°:148—100 2°184—35:070 One hundred grains of the gun-cotton would consequently afford ‘590 grains of the mixed gases. The other ingredients obtained from the same quantity were, water 20 grains, carbon 5, and oxalic acid 8-125, Since the printing of the account of gun-cotton on page 259, we have received a notice of the session of the Academy of Sciences of Paris for January 4, (L’Institut, No. 679,) containing the later investiga- tions of M. Petovze. His analyses have been numerous, and constant in Pelouze states that the results of the detonation of pyroxyline may be Tepresented as follows :-— ‘ 46 volumes of carbonic oxyd, + = C? i 2 volumes of carbonic acid, ° ~— co 10 volumes of nitrogen, - . ; 34 volumes of vapor of water, - = 17HO besides the SHO in the combination. These numbers, he adds, may 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. be varied by many circumstances, of which pressure and temperature J. Mickie, Esq., of Camden, N. Y., has applied gun-cotton to the movement of machinery, and it is said with apparent success. The gun-cotton is ignited by electricity. } 12. Lines of Electric Telegraph in the United States and Canada.— From New York to Albany, via the towns on 150 miles. - the eastern side of the Hudson, a “ . Troy and Albany to Buffalo, . 5 350 ‘* Buffalo to Toronto, : 2 é ‘ ** New York to Philadelphia, . ; ‘ 88.4 ‘* Philadelphia to Baltimore, . ; ‘ 11g" ‘* Baltimore to Washington, . : ‘ 40 ‘* Philadelphia to Pittsburg, . . . Ori: vs ** New York to Boston, via New Haven, 998 « Hartford, Springfield and Worcester, } ‘** Boston to Portland, in Maine, : ‘ 105, * ‘** — Boston to Lowell, ; , ‘ ’ 26:. * ‘** Boston to Albany, ‘ ; : ‘ 200 * a ** Toronto to Montreal and Quebec, (con- 450 structing,) } gercen. Twenty men are actively engaged in deeply trenching and evelling about seven acres of the ground, intended for the immediate to deliver to those who want them. For the particulars of titles, terms, &c., see the prospectus in our November number and also in the present. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 15. On the Duration of Life in the Members of the several Profes- sions, founded on the Obituary Lists of the Annual Register; by Guy, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., from Athen., Sept. 26, No. 987. )\—The fol- lowing table exhibits the average of such as had attained or outlived the ages specified :— Z s os a to ‘ as Veas a} JE (2 le ite li & | ees eS |S 1eSleoSl 6/1 Ee be 23 g S ng z ra = SiUSe Gel Olen la tan Age s 3 5 a | BM rs Sm eel os fsjs6 ES <. [PPR La) Se be Ieee Se keTS lon = 2°13 |@ 1821 lt SS] leis | |e tz |e 5 Bet) * 7 fh Bee eae oS = an d upwards, se 6527, 67-63168: 81 B20 65 67-°70\64-42)66°49 62°78)68°11| (5S 7 68°4 9 7°31 163-86/65-96.67 ‘55:66 ee ashil ba 59 it 58977001 71 Barb-20190-237 Lele 68-21169°15 68°4 63: 51 71: 58, 72° 62'74-04/72- 78/72" 95'73-62'71-15 72:10,71°44 au tb 3 75°64'74-00 68-2 If w confine our attention to the Jast line of ee table, we shall see y- that of any i the other learned professions. The less rote dura- Ret at 51 and upwards :— Englis oy ote y, 2oG4| Arm 71-58 Cle 8 “5 _ - - 74: n Porcien Literature and Science, 71:44 Genury, 2 2.) 74-00! Fine Arts, 71-15 Medical men, : : 72.5 Painters, , . 70-96 Lawyer = ow sy) 72°78\Chem Navy * - 72.02 english iterator (according to Trade and Commere 32| Chambers), 69-14 English eaea and Science, 7210 0 Memior of bn Houses (males), 68 68- fe Arisfocracy 71-69 | Kings of nd, The ief isecsaiel which emails som vt on the Briess: the stata of the Annual Register which, 60 e thought, had ‘not the uniformity necessary to furnish data cuficienty precise for the con- Wed of tables On the Mortality of Children; by Mr. WicerrswortH, (Proc. Brit ‘Assoc » from the Athen., Sept. 19, 1846. )—It appeared that re- turns had been collected from 1987 families, in which the number of in one year diene to the Se tbe 4 ficnilios: Szconp Senizs, eng No. 8.— 38 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ge. | Males and Females. | Males. Females. 1 9-62 8°34 11:40. 2 16°88 17-01 16-75 3 32-38 31-00 33-63 4 47°14 49-32 45°25 5 65°51 67-21 63-94 6 90-38 108-85 15 7 95°83 83°21 112°48 8 143-14 120-52 174:80 9 187-80 124-53 153-56 10 281-63 369-67 228-80 11 155-93 160-16 152-00 12 196-05 193-20 199-70 13 279-38 356-20 231-37 14 195°88 271:16 154-82 15 153°70 165°33 144-18 16 200°14 123-63 480-67 : 17 171-67 176-57 167:37 18 190-25 158-43 242-00 19 162-15 166-67 158-28 20 158-00 101-67 | 327-00 21 121-43 138-67 / 108-50 Ist yea e : the 7th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and 21st years.—In females there is a general decrease to the Sth year, and an increase in the 9th, 11th, 14th, 15th, 17th, and 21st year.—A table of diseases was then exhib- ited, from which it appeared that more males than females died of nervous diseases and from external causes; but that more | than males die of epidemic disease, and diseases of the respiratory or gans.—These tables, from family returns, were then compared with similar tables constructed from the statistics of the Foundling Hospital, and were found to agree very closely in their results. - Monument of the late Tuomas Say.—lIt gives us great pleasure to announce, that Mr. Alexander Maclure, the yenerable and worthy brother of the late Mr. William Maclure, has ordered a neat and ap- propriate monument to the memory of Tuomas Say; a man whose Te- markable attainments in science, amiable heart, and elevated character, have associated his name with many delightful remembrances. he monument has been executed in Philadelphia by those excellent artists, John Struthers & Son, and is now on its way to New Harmony, in Indiana, where Say died and is buried, and where Mr. Maclure reside ides. Presuming that this testimonial to departed worth, will be regarded with interest by all who knew the subject of it, as well as by every lover of science, we subjoin an outline drawing of the monumenty (which is of white Italian marble,) with a copy of the inscriptions 08 the four sides of the shaft. Bibliography. 299 (1,) THOMAS SAY, The Naturalist : Born in Philadelphia, July 27, 1787; Died at New Harmony, October 10, 1834. (2.) One of the Founders t Academy of Natural Sciences f o Philadelphia, January 25, 1812. FEET. ey Votary of Nature even ie child, He sought her presence in the trackless wild ; To him the Shell, the Insect, and the Flower, saw in hera spirit all divine, ‘And vesmullipre like a pilgrim at her shrine, Pinas The Friend and Companion William Maclure ; Whose Surviving Brother Erected this Monument, A. D. 1846. A. M. VI. BrprioGRAPHY. 1, Chemical Examination of the Urinary Calculi in the Museum of the Medical Department of Pennsylvania University ; by Ropert Peter, M. D, , Lexington, Ky., 1846.—This research,embraced elgniyons spe- cimens, of which seventy-eight were from the human subject; t two vita hogs, and one from a jackass. The State of Kentucky ap there nish a remarkable number of calculi, pyine prone, ft tot revalent use of maize and bacon as articles h of whic in earthy phosphates, while the waters of the ae region ihe i y impregnated ren salts of lime. Dr. Peter estimates one case ol ca culi to 16-050 of the inhabitants of Lexington, while in Ireland (pauper Population) it is estimated by Dr. Yelloly as 1 in 875000 per annum. ecimens examined by r. Peter, are two of the very ig | Tare cystic wit weighing half and ee bariers of an ounce each, 300 Bibliography. The specimens were all sawn through the nucles by a fine saw and e cortex and interior separately examine f the 78 calculi, the composition of the nucleus was uric acid mainly in 32, urate of ammo- nia in 26, oxalate of lime in 7, phosphates in 7, foreign substances in 4, cystine 2. The bodies are composed of uric acid mainly in 34, urate of ammonia in 2, oxalate of lime in 16, mixed phosphates in 16, triple phosphates in 4, cystine in 2. The peculiarities presented by the Lexington collection, are a great deficiency in the proportion of pure uric acid in the nuclei, a great ex- cess in the proportion of nuclei containing urate of ammonia and the earthy phosphates found in their general composition, an excess in the proportion of the mulberry or oxalate of lime calculus. Only a very small proportion of the cases of calculi occurring in the vicinity of Lexington have been preserved. 2. Coast Survey: Report of Prof. A. D. Bacns, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey, showing the progress of that work for the ing activity from the reconnaissance forward, until all the objects of the maps. The style of these maps is in all respects admirable, as all __ The hydrographical party under Lt. Commanding Davis, made the Important discovery, during the past season, of an extensive shoal the eastern end of Nantucket lying directly in the track of communi- cation to and from Europe, and upon which, not improbably, the ill-fated “President” steamer stranded. This dangerous shoal has hitherto been quite unknown, except to the lost. aeRO ~ A melancholy interest is given to this Report by the loss of Lieuten- ant anding George M. Bache, and ten seamen from the survey- Bibliography. 301 ing brig Washington, on the 8th of September. They were washed overboard during a terrific hurricane, with nearly all on deck, while the brig was knocked on her beam ends, dismasted : all but the command- across it, between Barnegat and Cape Hatteras, determining with great exactness, its temperatures from the surface to great depths, (even in one case as deep as 1500 fathoms,) and investigating many other points of high scientific interest. We are left to deplore his loss as ene of the most experienced and scientific naval officers in the ser- vice. He had passed nine years in the duties of the coast survey, and his name appears on every chart they have published, save one. A medal has been ordered by the Treasury Department commemorative of his heroism and of the sad disaster which removed him with his ten companions, from the scene of his usefulness. He perished nobly, in the able and faithful discharge of his duty; and the execution, after his loss, of the last order he gave at the moment he was wash- ed off, insured the safety of the vessel, and of the surviving officers and crew ’ The present report is accompanied by nine maps illustrating the pro- gress of the work during the past season. 3. Light Houses: Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the Improvements in the Light House System and Collateral Aids to Navi- gation, embracing a Report from Lieut. Taornton A. Jenxins, U.S.N., and Lieut. Ricuarp Bacus, U. S. N. Washington, 1846. 8v Pp. 272, with a folio atlas of twenty-seven plates._-This Report embraces a full account of the light house systems of Europe, especially of England and France. ‘The system of catopteric lights devised by the elder Fresnel and continued by his brother, is now universal on the French coast. Lts. Jenkins and Bache enjoyed the best advantages for . : > . 75 pp., 8vo, with maps and sketches. Ordered to be printed by the United States Senate-—The Expedition of Lieut. Abert menced in the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 88°, and lon. 103° 30’, from acteristic incidents are told of these wild warriors of the mountains. any facts are also related regarding the natural history of the region. We gather from his pages that a soft brown sandstone, probably the 302 Bibliography. same observed to prevail so extensively farther north by Major Long, was the rock in the vicinity of Purgatory creek, and along the Ca. nadian in latitude 36°. The beds were nearly horizontal and highly ferruginous, and occasionally much intersected by seams of i The rock forms high bluffs, bounding the valley of the Purgatory ; numer- ing wildly over a succession of rocky ledges. The water of the re- gion was in standing pools, generally impregnated with common salt and other salts, rendering it nauseous and bitter to the taste. From latitude 361° to 36°, on the Canadian, there were bluffs of shale. Be- low this they passed to the soft brown sandstone again, and then toa ed sandstone of a bright red color, which, in longitude 103°, was over- laid by a limestone. Pools of salt waters were here met with; and brilliant display of crystals above. The plains were strewed with coarse agates. P 5 Chloris Boreali-Americana : Illustrations of new, rare, or other- wise interesting North American plants, selected chiefly from those re- cently brought into cultivation at the Botanic Garden of Harvard Uni- versity ; by Asa Gray, M. D., Fisher Professor of Natural History in Harvard University. Decade I. (From the Memoirs of the American propose at this time merely to call attention to the preface, publ : t year with the 9th and 10th fasciculi, and to express unqualified admiration of the manner in which a subject of interest to all naturalists; of nomenclature, is there treated: While botanists are enjoying the benefits of a sedulous adherence to the wholesome rules im by the father of natural history nomenclature, and of nearly unanimous agreement in the few changes. which the progress of science and the multiplication of its objects have rendered needful, the zoologists on the Bibliography. 303 other hand, who have too generally allowed every one to do that which was right in his own eyes, are reaping in consequence a plentiful har- vest of confusion. The difficulty of a reform increases with its neces- sity. It is much easier to state the evils than to relieve them; and the well-meant endeavors that have recently been made to this end are in ce great department of natural history, for which the Linnzan ca our nomenclature, Prof. Agassiz has very properly reproduced them, totidem verbis, from the Philosophia Botanica, adding now and then a short but pithy commentary. He then proceeds to examine the rules pro- by the Committee of the British Association, and shows that while . ecesso: . 18 generally thought that Linnzeus erred by adopting, not too many, but 0 few of the unobjectionable and well established generic names of his predece such as Tournefort, &c. Now when, in the natural Togress of the science, a Linnean genus is resolved into two or more Tournefortian ones, for instance, are the names of Tournefort to be tern ne te Tae Sel eee ee ae Ee ee ees ns _* §241. Nomina generica -Potrum Botanices, Greca vel Latina, si bona sint, Tetineri- debent, ut etiam usitatissima et officinalia.—Also vid. § 239. 304 Bibliography. excluded from use? In the aon 5 up of the Linnean genus Lonicera, had not the Diervilla and Xylosteum (and if the division were to-go farther, the Periclymenum and Caprifo lium) of Tournefort, as well as the Symphoricarpos of Dillenius, an indisputable right to restoration ? Indeed Linnzus was here plainly wrong in not adopting one of these “the names sanctioned by Linneus are to be held as 5 established above all others. Linneeus, for instance, received very few genera of Echin- odermata. Now-a-days this class numbers many, among which some of those founded by Klein, Link and soniye a anterior to Lin- nus, hold their place with the modern ones of arck, Miiller, &c. But no one now prefers that new names should ea made a uch genera, rather than that ar approved anterior ones should be brought into use again. I certainly see no cause why we may not po ‘ if the names of former authors when we divide the barn of Linnzus.’ We think those naturalists blameworthy who t. The third, fourth and fifth, of the British canons are accordant with of. intimates that their rule is a too absolute, an Bae contradictory to the Linnzean canon, § 244 omina Sovesiom quamdiu synonyma digna in promptu sunt, nova non effingend The tenth rule, viz. “ A name hand ae er which has before been roposed for some other genus in zoology or botany, or for some other species in the same genus, when still outhia for such genus or species,” is not as well worded as the equivalent Linnzean canon, § 217, ** Nomen genericum unum ee ad diversa designanda genera as- ce of almost half the generic names made in recent pea In our opinion, while the same names ought not to be given both in zool+ any, the time is passed when received names are to changed on this account. While writers in the different departments . of zoology sloney alan doubly employed the same name ‘in ten thou- sand instances,” we must see that cases of logists an botanists, occupying such widely separated fields, are inevitable, at least until as perfect lists of zoological names shall be compiled and kept up as is done in botany. Besides it is now utterly impossible for any single naturalist, or any joint committee of botanists and zoologists to deter- a change of the posterior ahenue us name in the other; hence practical wd ae of the Linnean rule w now create tenfold ore confusion than it can relieve. Each well founded change of the sort does no more than to obviate a possible i inconvenience, while every needless one, in a genus of numerous species, draws after it a load useless synomyms, which do not serve, like genuine synonyms, to tell the history of the genus and mark the progress of our knowledge. The > subject is forcibly wrote by Prof. Agassiz, in another section Bibliography. 305 S to generic names doubly or triply* employed in the several classes of the animal kingdom, (which, we are astonishe ture under the rule, must be left to monographers and future system- atisis. But let those upon whom the cacéethes nominandi is strong, obey our author’s advice, desist. fro proposing new names in mous genera in other classes, but leave that for their own respective monographers. It will be soon enough to give them new names, if are needed, when the validity of these several genera is well made out, Upon the 11th rule of the British Committee, namely, that “a name may be changed when it implies a false proposition which is likely to Propagate important errors,” Prof. Agassiz remarks that the less this liberty is used the better, lest it should lead to licentiousness. . The 12th rule ordains that “a name which has never been clearly ‘ned in some published work should be changed for the earliest by: which the object shall have been so defined.” This Jaw, our author mys very necessary, since dealers in natural objects have begun to arrogate the authorship of books collected from: cata- ves, and demand that authors shall receive their names for dividing Pecies. It is the same with names which remain unpublished in public or private collections, and to which the proprietors or curators sometimes lay ¢ im. But priority is to be conceded only to publication in a work Which is accessible to the learned throughout the world. Yet while we Strictly press the observance of this law in respect to the publication by att © Specimen of the carelessness of zoologists, the name Cuviera is employed := * genus not only in botany, (where it has priority and good taste in its favor,) but also among Medusw, Echinodermata, Crustacea and Mollusca. Szcoxp Series, Vol. III, No. 8.—Mareh, 1847, 39 306 Bibliography. less blameworthy are those who purposely pass by, instead of courte- ously adopting, appropriate names under which naturalists often distri- heir specimens in advance of publication. This felony is the more atrocious, because remediless, and to be prevented by no rule ex- to comment upon. The writer of the British Report has chosen to en- h names, by citing as an example of the kind, the “ Enaliolimnosaurus crocodilocephaloides of a German naturalist ;” for which he is strongly censured by our author, who declares that no naturalist has ever propo- sed this name. Surely, if any one is inclined ‘to cast stones into his neighbor’s garden,” as our author says, there is no lack of legitimate opportunity, nor necessity for fabricating hard names. The British Committee condemns the future employment of generic names which have been superseded by the rule of priority. But this is contrary to the canon, § 245— Nomen genericum unius_ generis, nisi supervacaneum, in aliud transferri non debet,” (and to obs. under § 244,) no less than to the practice of Linnzeus and of subsequent nat- uralists. For instance, Suururus of Plumier became a synonym © Piper, but this did not debar Linneus from the subsequent application f the name toa new genus, Sisyrinchium of Tournefort being in- cluded in Zris, Linneeus gave the name toa different genus ; nor did he hesitate to adopt the genus which Ellis had dedicated to Hales, on ac- count of an earlier Halesia of Browne, which had already sunk to @ nus? We should be careful, however, not to re-produce names which are likely ever to be resuscitated in their former relation. a The British Committee objects to the practice of giving to a genus the name which it bore as a species of a former genus. But, as Prof. Agassiz justly remarks, when a species, which proves to be the type of a new genus, has a good proper name already, it seems quite as ad- missible to take that name for the genus and make a new one for the species, as to coin a new generic name, since either way a new name must be introduced : indeed it is preferable, because such Linnéean spe- cies frequently are found to comprise several, hitherto confounded, no n i ramount claim to the specific name; e- g- CYP rinus Gobio, C. Leuciscus, C. Barbus, L. We go further, and main- Bibliography. 307 tain that proper specific names are, ceteribus paribus, always to be preferred for genera in these cases, not only because they are already familiar, but because they are most frequently old generic names which may claim under the law of priority. For example, Lonicera Diervil- la, L.= Diervilla, Tourn.; L. Symphoricarpos, L.—= Symphoricarpos, Dill.; Rhamnus Paliurus, L.=Paliurus, Dod.; R. Zizyphus, L.= Zizyphus, Dod.; Rubus Dalibarda, L.=Dalibarda, L.; and so of hundreds of proper specific names which have rightly resumed. their generic rank. The next proposition of the British Committee, namely, that specific es, even when substantive or borrowed from persons or places, the aid of typography. But, as Dr. Gould has already remarked, in this Journal, such persons would be misled by almost anything ; and their own cognomen with a small initial lette 0 onder tha the Committee of the American Association refused to reaffirm this tule, as applied to proper names from we are quite sure into adjective conformity, by writing “* Ranunculus flammulus,” instead of R. Flammula, “ Thymus serpyllus’’ in place of ‘Thymus Serpylium, and so on. ii Prof. Agassiz severely condemns the proposition to restrict the names of families to a uniform termination in ida, and their subdivisions to ne@, without considering whether the words in question will receive that particular suffix kindly. This is quite too straight-laced, and gives tise to many awkward forms, or “ Sesquipedalia verba Vel nocitura sono, guttur lesura loquentis,’’ that no possible multiplication difficulties, as this new practi 308 Bibliography. certain name, was therefore its discoverer, or even its first systematic deseriber. He affirms that Linnzeus would have expressly rejected “ Tyrannus crinitus, Linn. (sp.),” were the innovation proposed in his contemporary for making him seem to adopt it. The hardship is still greater when the question is not of the division of an old genus, but of mands the highest powers of the naturalist, will be less esteemed than portance that we should be able to thread our way back through en- tangled synonymy and mistaken references, to the original sources. Here our difficulties would be greatly multiplied, unless two sorts Synonyms are used. For who, as Mr. Agassiz says, can find out what Linneus has said of Muscieapa crinita, without a direct reference to the genus in which Linnaeus himself placed it? And when, as often happens, the Linnzean species is mistaken, so that the Tyrannus crini- tus, Linn. (sp.) according to Swainson, is not the T. crinitus, Linn. (sp-) 1av selves discarded it. Therefore I entreat and pray them, by all the in- terests of the science they wish to promote, to abandon their proposi- tion, and not to introduce a new schism into natural history, but to re- turn again to the system of Linnzeus, the most simple of all, and least liable to errors and Babylonish confusion in nomenclature.’ The Committee of the American Association more wisely ado ted hi with that of the genus, Prof. Agassiz thinks is of no consequence, unless Bibliography. 309 Besides it would often interfere with the rule of priority, which requires synonyms, when they exist, to be adopted for sectional names, But he strongly commends the rule, that the etymology of names should al- ways be stated by the proposer. Justly does Mr. Agassiz condemn the practice of those who change the authority of a genus, when they extend or narrow its bounds, We have received contain the following papers, by Dr. Ruprecht, viz: 1. Flores Samojedorum Cisuralensium, pp. 67, with six folio lithographic of the Ural mountains. They are particularly interesting for compar ‘son with the arctic and subarctic vegetation of our own continent. When the ampler collections of Middendorf, who has largely explored the country of the Siberian Samoieds, come to be published, and which may be said to be pretty well known. For the Linnzean Arenaria pe- Ploides, Ruprecht has restored the forgotten name of Ammadenia, con- nearly twenty years anterior to the uneuphoneous name of Honckenya of Ebrhart, Though it were to be wished, that Ehrhart had adopted this name, it is now too late to revive it.—2. Distributio Cryploga- Vascularium in Imperio Rossico, pp. 56. An interesting tract, It seems that the Siberian specimens of the Linnean Asplenium rhizo- Phyllum, belong to a new species of Camplosorus ; and also that Bo- vehi. nes consimiles.” Our author has also a good revision of Woodsia.— 3. In Historiam Stirpium Flore Petropolitane Diatribe (pp. 98) ; ® critical enumeration of the plants which grow around St. Petersburg ; with a historical and interesting geographico-botanical preface. Botry- chium simplex of Hitchcock, published in this Journal, or a plant ex- tremely near it, has been detected near St. Petersburg. A. Gr. 310 Bibliography. 8. Report on the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally in the Forests B. Emerson. Boston, 1846 sion that the work is a model for a popular, and yet truly scientific, treatise upon trees and shrubs. The volume is replete with the most valuable information, obtained by the protracted personal observation research of a genuine lover of trees and plants, carefully digested, and presented in a form which, for the end in view, leaves nothing to be desired. . Gr. 9. Botanical Magazine, for January, 1847.--Sir Wm. Hooker has devoted this number entirely to the illustration of the Victoria regia ral envelops. Sir Wm. Hooker has not been able to examine the fruit. e are curious to know whether the seeds have an arillus, like Nym- Perha and we may hope that Sir William may succeed in bringing the won- derful plant into flower. . GR. . realise on Algebra, containing the latest Improvements; s guage. The elementary principles are treated in a simple and easy style, and from these the student is conducted to the higher branches of riety of illustration and example; and from these, after a careful com- ison of many authors in each language, demonstrations have been selected and introduced verbatim when they seemed incapable of im- provement; but whenever the slightest alteration or amalgamation, or the entire remodeling of them, could give additional clearness OF ele- gance, the lime labor has not been spared.” For the convenience of * Bibliography. 311 the learner, a selection for a minimum course of Algebra, such as would ordinarily advisable, i is pointed out, and also a more extended c course, such as is requisite for the prosecution of the higher mathematies ; while the rest, the author states, may very well be reserved for refer- ence, as the student’ s own discovery of his wants in veo advanced stages of his mathematical Siu shall call it into requisitio rganic Remains.—Prof. Bronn of the Gavan of Heidelberg, any, has in the: thir a systematical and geological catalogue of all fossilized organic bodies. The vegetables and zoophytes fill thirteen sheets (feuilles d’impression) closely printed, and include nearly 6000 species. The MS. for the nomenclature belonging to this part has also gone to press, and it is expected that the whole will be finished in about Ei mag from Oct. 23d, 1846, the date of a letter from the author. The Literary World : a Gazeite for Authors, Readers cus ide lishers, ee York. No. I. Feb. 6, 1847. 24 pp. 4to. $8 pera —A new weckly Journal of superior character, recommending ienel 6 all, scientific as well as literary, for its early announcements, regis- rs, and reviews, of recent publications, reall and domestic, and for - book en from various houses of New York city and else wher P. Garp fetter before the American Agriculiural a ciation, Mare 4to, from the Transactions of the American Agricultural pcan ite D. shal .M.D., and J. G. Norwoop, M. ae esearches among the Pro- tozoic ry Cuibiaritlorces _ of Central Kentucky, made during og pad of ver, M.D.: The Chemical Principles of the ce of Crops, ce ree 29 p| PP: 1846. 2 pp. 8vo., with a lithographic plate of fossils eee ¥ Conaeas : European Agriculture and Rural Economy, rt Personal efile: rol. i, part viii. Boston, 12mo. London, ik © Guiprin: Cheinteis Recreations, new ed., 18mo. London, 1846. 7s. 6d. ~ ae LL: History of the Inductive Sciences, 2d ed. , 1846. 2U. 2s. neuer, F.L.8.: The Recent Bra phappeidey from the Gth and 7th th ut of i esa Conc chyliorum, w with 7 colored plates on, 1847. Naturalist’s ibaa People’s Edition, vol. xvi, Mammalia, Lions, Tigers, &c. 6. 4s. 6d. Wir leben in der Natur und mOssen sie kennen; freie Unierhaltungen ber vaterlindisehe —— und deren Diener mit Physiophilus; Erstes Bandchen Berlin, 14 346. 15s Akcanceto ale cnt: Lezioni di Geologia; 178 pp. 8vo, .Vaples, ——, Quadri Cristallogvaticl e Distribuzione Sistematica dei Mineral, 70 pp. 8vo, with "a plates. Naples, 184 we ET Jacquinot: Voyage au pole sud et dans l’Océanie, sur les corvettes |Astrolabe et ~agennd sous le -commandement de M. Dumont Durville. Zoologie. he - in Sater tp ‘ aité de Chine. N ri cr ‘1 vol. 12mo. Paris peltienrave: of the New Shells i ape Exploring Expedition Paes Chattes es, U.S. N., . Gould, Mo D.3 ued. (From the Proceedings of the Boston Soe ciety of Natural History. ) om sheet containing 4 species of Helix, 6 of Vitrina > 16 of Succinea, and 7 of Bulim a set Procerpincs of THE AMERICA nr hcrentt or Ants axp Sciences, August t, 1846.—p. 5. Moon culminations. observed at Cambridge Ghsetrasery, from Oct. 20, 1844, to June 14, 1846; W. C. Bond.—p. 14. Observations on the Transit of Mercury, May 8, 1845; W. C. Bond.—p. 17. Observations on the Com- els of SS and 1 Oi Bond. nite ea 19. ec ie on the Solar Eclipse of May, 1845; W. Cost —On the Sular Eclipse of April, 1846; W. C. Bond.— P. 21. ‘Rote on Meteors, mostly of August, 1845 and 1846; W. C. Bond.—p. 23, - 312 Bibliography. Gincersine on Phonotypy 3 Emerson.—p.- 39. On De Vico’s a a Commis Pr Pierce.—p. 44. Me teorological register hept at Bh Michael’s ; Hun t—p. 46, We el and species of Composite ; a Oh Gray. “(This seeiaa p. 274 PHiLosopnicaL toler far TIONS OF eh ¥. ¥. Soe. or Lonpon, 1846. Part 2.— On the Blood Corpuscle; 7’. W. Jones. ae a point connected with the dispute Keil and rae ate about the invention ‘of Fluxions; fis de organ. On heights; J. R. Chr istie.—Investigation of'an Extensive Class of Partial Differential uations of the 2nd order; G. W. Hearn.—On Spontaneous Nitrification me Se in.—On the Viscous Theory of Glacier Motion AEE I i 5 Packer the Sersguy Ganglia of the Uterus; R. Lee. —On the Nerves caw Uterus; T. S. Beck. TIL. Contributions to Terrestrial tore ie etism ; Lieut. Sabine.—Me- teorological Observations made on board the Bark ‘Pagoda, in » 1845, between 20° and 68° 8. Lat., and 0° and 120° E. py neat Lieut. H. Cler -Lospow Jouryat or Botany, for December — Memoir of the life of Dr. J R. Vogel.—Sur le genre Godoya et ses analogues; Dr, Pla nchon.—Botanical In- x A. Viquesnel.—Geo seers f the Mouhituiin between the route of the seWén viel that of St. Gothard ; Stwder—On the sella Mdaponiiiof Les Corbioren and La m NNALES DES Sciences NaTURELLES. July, 1846.—On the embrgcgeny C. the Gasteropodous ps Mnsct . Vogt.—On the successive development of the vegetable matter _ the culture of wheat ; Bous j —Note on the family of the Penexacee ; 4.d sieu.—N a e Hypopitys multiflora, Scop. ; P. ps r —Extract of a Mone oir on the nature and causes of the Potatoe diseas in 1845; P. Harting. —Thirteenth avers 1 ye? Cryptogamous plants recently discovered in France; J. B H. J. Desma gust. —On the smbiy dgebtt “of the Gasteropodous Molluscs wey yea C. e development of the tissues in the Batrachians; Kel r—On. the n no the piphoe te (Salpa); Krohn.—Hemipsilus, a new genus of Annelida; de Quatrefages: ' nth Botiog: on the ad be ee recently discovered in France; J. J es —O of the sap in the saat of cellules; a . A. Description of a new genus of plants near Cliftonia, and observations ee eg on : ? LENDUS ; ~ Oct, 12, n a meteor of March 21, 1846, and calcnlations of its distan c.; M. Petit—Human bones in Algiers in ancient nown origin rres.—On the composition of the salts of ant mony; M. Peligot. Oct. 19. Coane arison of observations on the new planet with the theory deduced from the perturbations of Uranus; Le Verrier. Oct, 26.— smart Seer bm combinations o ezpnid “a FOF OUEY. 5 Poeaiale.—On the id; Dumas. Lauren compressibility - “Tiguid and espec ne of mercury ; rset —On xyloidine 5 Pelouze. Nov soinndina * Hale —On the f gun-cotton 5 Merin. "Mex fs ae xyloidine and pyroxyline Pelou ze.—On gun-cotton; Rio- bert, Payen, ‘Seguier, Clerget, Combes and gi “wate the temperatur oak ne Geysers of Iceland ; Descloiseaux “og Bi _ Proceepixes (Bericut, &e.) 0 ym = Bria enna, Aug. 1846. —Deserip- tion on new genus of ete. x eee que; Peters —On the daily Arcuiy Fir Naturcrscuicnts, W po Ratkneel. No. 3, for 1846.—On t the structure and relations of the Po olygastric animaleules, &e, : C. Eckhard rapes : nt sei the Limneus stagnalis, ovatus and palustris ; 53h F. F. Karseh. ographical Botany of Tex xas; F. Lindheimer.—On the genus Oncodes} W. HM Erichson—Review of the Works on Physiological Botany for the bear 15 1845, (concluded); H. F. Link. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. XXX.—On the Relations which exist between the Phe- blocks of Northern Europe and the elevation of Scandinavia. These relations are the more important, as they admirably ex- plain some circumstances which are peculiar to the erratics of the north, and of which there is no example in Switzerland. These peculiarities are: 1, the occurrence of polished and grooved surfaces beneath the present level of the sea: 2, the existence of marine shells attached to the polished rocks at a height much above the present level of the sea: 3, the presence of marine Shells in the midst of the diluvium even at an elevation of eight hundred feet : 4, the osars, or ridges of boulders and stones which contain the shells of the Baltic. : se Among the phenomena which prove so fully the instability of the Scandinavian soil, there are some facts which indicate the ele- vation of the land, while others on the contrary attest its subsi- dence. Thus, we cannot have less equivocal proof of an eleva- hon of a country, than the occurrence at a great height and at a considerable distance from the coast, of shells now inhabiting the adjacent seas, and whose perfect state of preservation leaves ho doubt that they lived where they now occur: for had they _, * Communicated by the author, through Prof. Acassiz, for this Journal. Trans- lated from the French. Seconp Srrizs, Vol. III, No, 9.—May, 1847. 40 * 314 On the Glacier Phenomena been transported by a current or any other violent agent, they would have been broken or at least much worn. But should we refuse to admit the evidence which these shells offer, we cannot deny the proof afforded by the serpulas of Christiania and the barnacles of Uddevalla, whose shells still adhere to the rocks far above the sea. On the other hand, the fact that the strize and furrows are con- now. In fact, it is a point on which the partizans of different hypotheses are nearly agreed, that the phenomena of erratics took — 8 @ ° = re) re 2 a 5 = og © ou ° o S i=} [s-a Led <4 OQ o 2 fo) Lig | wa 3 =] is) ou = =] ° =) a far as the limits of the land: we learn from the observations of Mr. Martins, that even the glaciers of Spitzbergen do not project beneath the sea; for, as the temperature of the water is above that of the ice, it melts the glaciers by its contact, and a consid- erable space equal to the height of the tide, separates the glacier, from the water.* now see there. If these striae were exactly at the level of the sea, we might suppose that Scandinavia was then at the same elevation as at the present day. But we have seen numerous cases in that island in which the furrows are found under the sea, from which facts we must conclude according to the princi- ples laid down, that the land at that epoch was as much above its present height as the strie# are now below the waters. These results although opposed, are not as they may at first appear, contradictory ; and it is here that the observation of shells com- pletes the study of erratic phenomena properly so called, by showing us the chronological order of these events. In fact, the barnacles of Uddevalla and the serpulas of Christiania which are found, the former at the height of two hundred, and the latter of one hundred and seventy feet above the sea, prove: irresistibly that the coast has sunk in these places: the fact that these ani- mals are adhering to striated rocks, shows not less certainly that and Elevations of Scandinavia. 318 the rocks were dry before these animals were living there; whence I read this double conclusion: Ist, that the graving of the rocks was anterior to the epoch of the barnacles and serpulas, and 2d, that to receive these animals, the coasts of Uddevalla and Chris- tiania must have sunk as far at least as would be equivalent to the actual height of these fossils. at that time the Gulf of Bothnia was not separated from the if not decisive, in the destruc- tion of the great glaciers. It explains at the same time the colder pS tel crn Emin we Ret _ new deluge the boulders ie are at — rxposed should be covered with gravel, the geologists of future ages wou have much more tcoahia og seurtsintig the causes which have produced the , than we have at the present day, aided as we are by the preservation— frequently admirable—of the polishings, furrows, and fine strie. 316 - On the Glacier Phenomena character of the diluvial fauna; for a mass of ice so considera- ble could not be melted without materially chilling the waters which bathed it. The cold having slowly disappeared, the tem- perature would have been gradually elevated, and the fauna of the waters would take by degrees the more temperate character which distinguishes it at the present day. To this epoch of the invasion of Scandinavia by the waters of the sea, we should refer the arrangement in beds of the mud, sand, and gravel, which the great glacier has left in place in testimony of its ancient extent. The action of waves coming in upon this movable soil, has here overturned and heaped up the debris of marine life upon the shore, where the remains * are found mingled with scratched rocks and pebbles. if such is really the origin of these deposits, there is no reason for surprise The waves. or only occasionally, distinct beds in the properly glacial deposits. Those which are met with, ordinarily. occur in the neighborhoo of torrents.* After this epoch of immersion, even the proximate duration of which it is impossible at present to ascertain, the country of Scandinavia was again elevated. 'The shores bordering the high central regions, the plains of Sweden, and those of Finland, were successively raised from the bosom of the waters, bringing back with them to the surface the same mud, the same diluvial gravel, which had been deposited by the glaciers and which had under- gone no other change in the interval than that of being irregu- larly stratified and mingled with shells. The depressions of the soil alone remained covered with water, and formed the lakes of Sweden and Finland, as well as the Gulf of Bothnia. ‘The last, isolated from the ocean by the elevation of the intermediate land, has lost by degrees its saltness; and this explains the char- acter of its fauna, which is rather the fauna of brackish water than that of the sea. The interior lakes also were transfo completely into freshwater, and here and there may perhaps be found some indications of their ancient condition. It appears that certain fishes in particular have resisted these changes in the water, and according to researches of Scandinavian zoologists, especially of Mr. Esmark, the trout of Swedish lakes (Salmo * Voy. Rod Blanchet, Terrain erratique alluvien du Cassin du Léman. and Elevations of Scandinavia. 317 trutta, L..) is only a species of salmon, like the Salmo salar, L. But as the salmon of the coast does not ascend into the lakes, we are naturally led to the conclusion, that this fish has resisted the modifications that have occurred where it dwells. ‘The im- mersion of land does not take place alike in all parts; the beauti- ful observations of Messrs. Keilhau and Bravais, upon the ancient marks of the level of the Scandinavian sea, teach us that there it Was not uniform throughout. Finally, if it is true that the osars, which may be traced a long distance into the interior and whose mode of formation we have explained above, indicate successive sea shores, it follows that the Gulf of Bothnia was once much larger than at present. A large belt of coast now under cultiva- tion, was then under water, and only gradually became elevated. is successive retreat of the waters has taken place mostly during the present epoch, as undeniable traces of man* are found in the interior of the osars. It is probable that during this pe- riod of slow immersion, there lived in Scandinavia a primitive people, an entirely different race, as their osteology indicates, from that of recent Scandinavia, and whose skeletons are foun in the peat beds mingled indiscriminately with those of animals, some of which have completely disappeared from the surface of the earth, such as the Bos urus, and others which are no longer known in the same countries, as the reindeer.t Conclusion.—It follows from the preceding considerations, that whilst the upheavals of Scandinavia are of great importance in the study of erratic blocks, the latter furnish us in their turn with valuable hints as to the time and the geological bearing of these elevations. I have shown that the elevations are not con- fined to the historical epoch, but extend far back into the period of the diluvium. On the other hand we learn from the same examinations, that these elevations have not been continuous ; that on the contrary they were intermitting and in phe since i avi gravel taken from the Norwegian mountains, a long time must have been required, whose minimum of years would be thousands, 8 * See Lyell, upon the proofs of a gradual elevation of the soil in certain parts of weden. ‘ ‘ + I am indebted to the beautiful works of Messrs. Wilson and Eschricht for these etails, 318 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. The second period must have been at least as long, if we con- sider the time required for the existence, propagation, and death of an entire fauna, whose numerous remains are foun upon a land once submerged. sei Sips Finally, the third period comprehends the historical epoch, when the country was inhabited by the foreign race whose re- mains are discovered in the peat beds. It follows therefore, that the glacier epoch is not merely an accident in the history of our globe, but that it embraces a long period, the more important to the geologist, that it is the con- necting link between the antediluvial times and the historical era. Art. XXXI—On the Analysis of the Oat; by Prof. Joun Pirxin Norton, of Yale College. (Continued from p. 236, this volume.) 3. Of the Ash yielded by the Chaff.—The chaff forms a very small and seemingly unimportant part of the plant ; but it is in reality indispensable to its perfection, and a close examination shows that it is admirably adapted to its particular end. I, The quantity of ash which it yields is greater than that left by any other part, and as in the other “parts, this quantity varies with the soil and with the variety of oat. The following table exhibits the per-centage of ash and water, in seven specimens of chaff. Taste XXI. Hopeton Oats. Potato Oats./yean sandy | Duan of No. 1.|No. 2.|No. 3,| Oats. | Outs. No. 1,/No. 2./seven trials. Per-centage of water,. .._ |f0- 8110-65 10-58) 9-60/11-62)11-16'10-95! 10-69 Do. _ of ash, calculated dry,| 7-23)10-69 — It is singular that the per-centage of water in the thin, dry, light chaff, should be fully equal to that in the straw. The average of the above is nearly 17 per cent.; as this is higher than that of any other part, so no other exhibits so wide arange. ‘The chaff of Potato oat, No, 2, has nearly four times as much ash as that of Hopeton oat, No.1, This last-mentioned chaff is from the sample of oats I have hoticed before, as grown on a poor mossy soil. 2. The quality of the ash from the chaff also varies greatly in different samples, and its composition suggests some interesting inquiries. As before, I will give an extended analysis first. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 319 Composition of Ash from Chaff of Hopeton Oat, from Mr. Harbottle, Hexham, Northumberland. . Taste XXII. Per-centage, ulphuric acid, . ‘ ; E ied : : 5°32 Chlorid of sodium, (common salt,) . i ‘ ; 511 Potash, ? ; ; , ‘ . ; . 7:96 Soda, ; : . ; ; 2 ‘ é Phosphates of lime, magnesia, and iron, . 3 . 5-84 Lime, Sicily te tentinn week S Rsilig? 4-55 Magnesia, . : : ’ ; ‘ ; va as 1-84 Soluble silica, . ‘ ; i : : ‘ : aioe Insoluble siliea, . : A ‘ : ‘ Pgh ee 56-05 98-66 The quantity of silica in this ash amounts to nearly 70 per cent., being much greater than in any ash that I have before instanced. There is an extraordinary quantity of soluble silica in this chaff, and it may probably in this respect be considered an extreme case, for I have not found so much in any other sample.* The office of the chaff seems to be to protect the oat during the earlier stages of its growth. For this reason fully one-sixth of its weight is ash, and of this ash 70 per cent. is silica. While the husk is yet soft and green, the chaff has arrived nearly at matu- nity, and closely envelops the tender seed with its flinty covering. As the husk gradually hardens, the chaff unfolds, and at last leaves the grain entirely to this its ultimate protector. Composition of Ash from four specimens of Chaff. Tasre XXIII. Hopeton Oats. Potato Oats,|Dun Oats, | No.1. Light|No. 2 Pooi} Gravelly | Good Barley soil.| Moss. soil. loam. Salts soluble in water, chiefly sulphates Rene sega PEL Ae QF a 3502 | 34-12. 8 Phosphates of lime, magnesia and iron 4:29 Fe 3 Limeand magnesia, ... .. . | 4:03 | 714 | 7-01 | 4-44 es oath. 6°65 56 Bond 99-99 | 100-00 | 99-99 | 100-00 a aE SRN ey es to burn and weigh, before treating with acid, that portion of the watery solution which refused to redissolve after evaporation to dryness ; but latterly, fearing that be formed insoluble even in strong acid, ht added the acid to the undissolved portion before burning. 320 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. The soluble silica, here included in the salts soluble in water, is to be added to the insoluble silica. With this addition, the silica in the last sample amounts to about 80 per cent. The Hopeton chaff, No. 2, is from the same mossy land which I have noticed in all the other parts as deficient in silica. In the chaff and leaf, however, this deficiency is not so great as in the straw ; a subsequent table, No. 30, will show that the husk also has nearly its full proportion. 'This partiality, as it may be called, in the distribution of silica, I have noticed in several other analyses of the various parts. 'The leaf must have its framework to sus- tain it, while drawing food for the whole plant from the atmo- sphere ; the chaff must have a large quantity of silica to form an effective covering for the tender oat; and the husk also must.in its turn be fitted to protect the grain through all vicissitudes, until it is committed to the earth, and has commenced its growth. We find it actually the fact, that these parts are better supplied than the stalk, a part which can better perform its functions with a small supply than any other. Are we not then justified in sup- posing that some law exists by which those parts, where a par- ticular substance is most needed, are supplied, even to the de- privation of other parts which can ezist with a smaller quantity ? Nature thus does all in her power towards the complete perform- ance of her duties. She labors to perfect the leaf, the chaff, the husk, and through them finally the seed, upon which the future continuance of the species depends; if now the materials are ex- hausted, the straw must be weak and imperfect. Nature can do no more, the necessary substances are not within her reach, or she is prevented from obtaining them by the physical condition In the consideration of the quantity of the inorganic constituents of the husk and of the grain, I shall separate them as I have done the other parts of the plant. In the first place, draw attention to some points in which comparisons of the two parts are involved. 7 _ 1. [have thought it of some importance to ascertain the rela- tive proportions of husk and grain in different samples of oats, with the view of determining whether this might be an index of quality. The following table gives these proportions in nine samples of oats. Taste XXIV. Hopeton Oats. No. T. Outs. 76°28 23: Potato | Dun Oats. Oats. 76°30 \76-28 23-20 [23-66 Black. Tar- tary Oats. 72:38 27-62 Victoria Oats, 71:36 23°22 No. 2/No. 8 No.4 77-99 22-0 sais 76-4 23-42 Grain in 100 parts, 74-26 Husk in 100 parts, 25-55 77-39 22-61 Seal) be Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 321 An average of the above gives 75:54 as the usual proportion of grain, and 24-26 of husk. I am inclined to think that this sepa- - ration cannot be considered a certain indication as to quality, be- cause the above Victoria oat, which afforded the largest per- centage of husk, was sent as a sample of peculiar excellence, having yielded an extraordinary quantity of fine meal to the boll. The thinness of the skin, in this instance, was more than an equivalent.for the thickness of the husk. 2. Of the water in the oat at ordinary temperatures, the an- nexed table gives the per-centage in five of the ordinary varieties. Taste XXV. : |_No.1. 1 Per-centage of water, . - | 1302/1 No. 2. | 3. 3°59 | 11-02 The mean of the above gives about 12 Ibs. of water in 100, or about 5 lbs. in a bushel of oats, as they are when kept in a dry place at the ordinary temperature. This is probably somewhat low the true average, as my determinations were made upon oats that had been kept for some time in small parcels. I was next desirous to ascertain how much of this water was contained in the grain, and in the husk respectively, and accord- ingly made trials of each part separately. The following table contains my results. — Taste XXVI. No. 1. . 2 | No. 3. . 4. 0. 5, | No. 6. Per cent. of water in grain, | 13°17 | 13-66 | 11-06 | 11-27 | 11-56 | 12-10 Do. do. in husk, | 1255 | 13°33 | 10-19 | 10-09 | 11-52 111-09 1° —— The difference is not great. It is singular that the husk should contain so very nearly the same per-centage as the grain, a body we should suppose so much more suited to absorb and retain wa- ter. The chaff, as we have seen, presents an analogous case. The next inquiry relates to the quantity of ash, and is of & ‘much importance. I am now to show that in these two parts of the plant, the ash varies in quantity under different circumstances of growth, as we have found it to do in the parts already exam- ined. JI shall first give the husk and grain separately, and then the quantity yielded by the whole oat. Poe ‘The annexed table gives the per-centage of ash in the dry husk and grain of different varieties of oats, grown on unlike soils. Taste XXVII. opeton, | Potato, Dun, | Sandy, Mean of gery Par - Peed re eter Thin Good jGravelly! seven loam. moss. land. | ed moss. jgravel.| loam: thr ie Ash in grain 2-14 281 2-23 232) | 222) 211 161 0 Ash in Paw 6:47 | 527 | 649 | Til 16991 824 | 603 | 6-66 [Ashi in'bust, )6-47) | 6:27 bedos 1 Te FOO) Peet | OMS It appears from the mean of the above trials, that the husk contains three times as much ash as the grain. The variations of _ Sxconp Serigs, Vol. IJ, No. 9.—May, 1847. 41 . 822 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. h in the different samples of each are not so wide as in other parts of the plant, but there are no two even of the same variety alike.* The following table gives the per-centage of ash in the whole oat. TasLe XXVIII. Mean of eight trials, Per cent. of ash in whole : : : jy Satan ‘ | she cuictadiame ; [3-17 [3:32 |3:37 [3:25 |3-56 [2-58 [2-66 [3.65 | 319 é : No. 1.| No. 2.) No. 3.| No. 4.| No. 5.|No. 6.\No. 7.|No. 8 __ If we take the above mean as near the true one, the bushel of 40 lbs. contains nearly 14 lbs. of ash; a crop of 60 bushels, there- fore, carries off about 75 lbs. When the whole oat is burned, we find that the grain being in so much larger quantity, brings down the united per-centage of ash far below what is yielded by the husk alone. Having now completed these preliminary inquiries, I turn to the consideration of the composition of the ash from the husk and the grain. I shall now separate the two parts, and give the analysis of each in a distinct table. 1. Composition of the Ash from the Husk.—I have already shown that the ash of this part is three times greater in quantity than that of the grain, and that it constitutes about the third part of that which is taken from the land in the seed. In proceeding another step, and ascertaining its composition, I shall first direct attention to a table containing extended analyses of the ash from our specimens, grown in widely separated parts of the country, and of the two most common varieties, the Hopeton and the po- tato oats.t Taste XXIX. Hopeton Potato Oats, _ No.4, No, 2. No. 3. | Teri | Benno” |_ “ifr” | Ave. Sulbhtric.aghl, =i =o 1s 430 |. 961 | 5-01 4-90 Phosphoric acid, . x ‘ : 0-66 1:04 2.65 1-80 Chlorid of sodium, (common salt,) . 2°39 0-24 Chlorid of potassium, . . . : Pt He 2:37 0-40 Potash, PPR OM ee 3-93 | 5-55 5°30 Soda, . , ; ‘ ; ‘ 8-97 ime, ; i. 4-30) 195 | 431 2:03 Magnesia, . F RATS | 235 0-38 1-01 0-64 Peroxid of iron, : Ly ed 1-58 1-61 1:30 roxid of manganese, : - ) 0-92 0:86 0-72 pelublesilien, 96S. ee 4 46 2-01 1-61 Insoluble silica, - + | 6839 | 6839 | 71-82 80-11 _. 99°80 | 9883 | ORIN F.| 99:33 F. _ . The grain burns with exceeding difficulty. The abundance of alkaline salts Is SO great that it is almost impossible to prevent their melting, and enveloping the carbonaceous matter. ave, In some instances, been compelled, after cha 08 Me to dissolve out these phosphates, by boiling in successive portions of led water. The remaining ash then burns white. e alkaline solution is in added, and the whole evaporated to dryness. This method, with care, 18 perfectly accurate. t The analyses marked F, are from Mr. Fromberg. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 323 The very large per-centage of silica is one of the most striking features in this table. It amounts in every case to more than 70, and in Hopeton oats, No. 3, to more than 80 per cent, averaging considerably higher than in any other part of the plant. It is no doubt present in such quantity that the husk may be a proper covering to the grain. While the husk is yet green, the chaff, as I have stated, protects both it and the grain; but this is only un- til the husk arrives at maturity; it is then, by itself, admirably fitted to protect the grain, and the chaff is no longer necessary. In the salts soluble in water, sulphuric acid still predominates ; phosphoric acid is usually there also, but in minute quantities, and the phosphates in the acid solution seldom amount to more than 1 or 2 per cent. In two of these analyses there is no soda, neither is it found in the ash from the grain of the same oats. The two alkalies seem to fulfill the same purpose in the economy of the plant, and it appears to take one or both indifferently, as they are more or less abundant in the soil. _ The above table has shown that the ash of the husk varies in its composition, but I have prepared another in a condensed form, which exhibits the fact more distinctly. Composition of Ash from four samples of Oat Husk. Taste XXX. Hopeto 8. | Potato [Dun oats,| No. 1, Light/No. 2, Poor oats, Grav-| Good lsandy loam | moss. __|_elly soil. loam. . Salts soluble in water, chiefly sulphates 22-92 33-84 93-14 19-96 and chlorid. Phosphates of lime, ma nesia, and iron 1-84 462 | 110 249 Linen. tad thagiiipecrn «uke ain noble 154 | 518 | 328 no, eta 68:55 | 60-00 | 70:57 | 74-25_ 100-00 10000 | 9999" | 99-98 any part of the plant to which it belongs. Its demands, as mo imperative, seem to have been supplied first. sous No part of the plant has so small a portion of salts soluble in water as the husk. From the instance of the Dun oat above, they may even be below 20 per cent. in a perfectly healthy sam- ple, for this was inferior to none in general appearance and size. . Composition of the Ash from the Grain.—With this last part of the plant I shall follow the same plan as I have hitherto pursued, first giving extended analyses, and then directing atten- tion to the differences caused by variety of soil, manure, &c. 324 ‘Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. Taste XXXII. | Hopeton Oats. Potato Oats, | Northam. | Peete ce: | Ayrshire. | Ayrshire. Sulphuric acid, . ‘ ‘ ‘ j; PRN hE be syd Phosphoric acid, . : : : 49-19 38-48 46:26 50-44 Chlorid of sodium, (common salt,) 0-35 0-49 Chlorid of potassium, . P . ae rare 5°32 1-03, sh : 2 } 31-56 20-96 16:27 20-65 a Lime, 5-32 657 | 10-41 | 10-28 A 11-00 9-98 7:82 Peroxi ? 0°88 0-38 5:08 3°85 Peroxid of manganese, i ite ; 1:25 0:42 Soluble silica, it y ‘ : | 0-89 1:29 Insoluble silica, R 3 ‘ 0-98 2-31 3°70 -40 9786 98-85 | 98-27 F. |! 98-89 F. In every part of the plant hitherto, we have found sulphuric acid in the watery solution of the ash; in the grain it seems to give way to phosphoric acid. In only one of the above analyses is it present; the grain was froma poor crop, grown on an ex- hausted soil, and it is possible that the sulphuric acid may have been present only because it was impossible to obtain a full sup- ply of phosphoric acid. The large quantity of this acid is remarkable ; in nearly every case it constitutes almost or quite one-half of the ash. It is easy, therefore, to see how the addition of bones or guano should ben- efit the oat crop. Silica, heretofore so prominent an ingredient in the ash, is here very small in quantity. : The second sample of Hopeton oats was grown on what is called lime-sick land, but it will be perceived that the proportion of lime is not larger than in some of the other ashes. ‘This is in accordance with an opinion of Prof. Johnston, first suggested after an analysis of a lime-sick soil, that the defect does not con- sist in a superabundance of lime, but in a physical condition of the soil, produced originally by too large a dose of lime at once. The oats from this soil were very poor, the grain full sized but light. 'The quantity of chlorine is large compared with the oth- ers, as is that of the oxide of iron also, otherwise there are no very striking differences. The grain constitutes three-fourths of the weight of the oat, and furnishes a little more than one-half of the ash ; in which ash, if we consider 45 Ibs. of phosphoric acid the average, a crop of bushels will carry off about 68 lbs. of that acid, equivalent to about 300 Ibs. of bones. From the many analyses of grain that I have made, I will only select three, in addition to those which I have given. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 325 The three samples of oats to which the grain belonged were obtained through the kindness of my friend Mr. Simpson of 'Tea- wig, Beauly, Inverness. In accordance with my request, he se- lected specimens from the same neighborhood, grown on very unlike soils. 'They were of crop 1844. “No. 1. Sandy Oats.—Grown on a stiff clay soil, which was much baked by the early summer’s drought. ‘They were after grass sown with wheat laid down after a crop of turnips, manured with farm-yard dung and a small quantity of bones. Crop, four quarters per acre.” “No, 2. Hopeton Oats.—Grown on a poor sandy soil, which also suffered much from the drought. The oats were after two years’ grass, pastured, the grass sown down with barley, after a turnip crop (raised with bones), which was all eaten off on the ground by sheep. Produce, three quarters per acre.” “No. 3. Hopeton OQats—Grown on a deep rich vegetable mould, one of the best soils in that part of the country. Man- aged in the same manner as No. 1. Produce, eight quarters per re ’ I will first give the per-centage of ash obtained from the grain of these oats, and then its composition. Per-centage of Ash in Grain, from Mr. Simpson. Taste XXXII. | | Nol. | No 2 | No 3. | Ash calculated dry, . - - - | 280 | 148 | 248.1 The differences in this table are certainly very striking ; after the above account of the soils,:and amount of the crops, they scarcely need any explanation. The poorest crop has least ash. This isa very decisive proof of the absolute necessity of this small portion of inorganic matter to the grain. The scanty supply yielded by the soil of No. 2 seems to have made a difference of five quarters per acre in the crop. ; _ We will now consider the composition of these ashes, as given in the following table. Taste XXXIII. Phosphates of | Lime and magnesia Siliea, =. No Salts soluble in water, chiefly sulphates and chlorides, | x8 : Me ee The chief differences in these ashes are in the lime and magne- sia, and in the phosphates. It seems strange that the latter should be least in the ash of No. 3. This would perhaps be explained by some local cireumstances, with which I am not acquainted. 326 Prof. Norion on the Analysis of the Oat. 1. Comparative view of the quantity of Ash yielded by the dif- . Serent parts of the Plant. Calculated dry. . Taste XXXIV. Hopeton, North-| Hopeton, |Potato, North- Jun, Sandy, | Mean of | | umberland. Fife umberland. |Edinburgh,| Fife. | each part. Grain, ; 2: 181 2-1 67 | 200 Bwks exis 6:47 6-03 6-99 8:24 | 603 | 675 Chaff, 16:53 17-23 18:59 19-16 | 18:97 | 16:09 Leaf, 7) °* 7-19 14:59 10:29 | 15. 10-88 Top straw, . 4-95 5-44 9-22 825 |) 11-0L | 7-77 Middle straw, 611 5-23 7-41 653 | 9-01 | 6-66 Bottom straw, 5-33 5-18 9:76 710, | 730| 693 2. Comparative view of the Composition of Ash from each of the above parts in Hopeton Oats, from Mr. Harbottle, Hexham, iN orthumberland. Tarte XXXV. Grain.|Husk,|Chaff, Leaf. |Top straw [Middle straw, Bottom straw. | Sulphuric acid, sic Hak ten | Sk, 30) 16:33 13:45 13:29 Phosphoric acid, . |49-19} 1-04 Chlorid of sodium, . | 0-35) 0-24) 5-11, 2-291 3.13 3-03 15°36 hosphates of lime t magnesia, and iron, 7 +] 6) OOH GIS! 2:84 3-03 0-78 — } 31-56 10:26 7-96 14-89, 19-09 | 21-80 43:17 Lime, 5-32 1-95, 4-53 6-99] 7.99 7-23 6:06 Magnesia, . — . | 869) 0-38 1-84 255) 9.94 2-91 207 Peroxid of iron, : 0-88 1-58 0-24). , 0-30 1:40 O-6L Peroxid of manganese,| . . | 0.92 | Soluble silica, . | 0:89) 4-4611-99 5-90 5-13 7:34 5:03 Insoluble silica, ._|_0-9368 3956-0545-75, 4331 | 33-14 12:25 97°86 98°33 98-90 99-30) 99-99" | ~9e3s | 9835 _| Sprengel and Boussingault have published analyses of the grain of oats. Those of Sprengel are inserted in Prof, Johnston’s Lec- Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 327 tures, and those of Boussingault in his own works. As all the results hitherto presented in this paper are original, I merely refer to these without introducing them. I have now finished the course that I at first marked out for the inorganic division of this chapter. The plant has been divi- ed into seven parts, the top, middle, and bottom straws, the leaf, the chaff, the husk, and the grain. The leaf was again subdivi- ded into a bottom and top part. Of each of these nine parts it as been shown— 1. That it varies from every other, both in the quantity of its ash, and the composition of that ash. 2. That variations also exist between the ash from different specimens of the same rown on different soils. 3. That in these variations, although often very great, the di tinctive character of the part is always preserved ; the composi- tion of the ash from the husk, for instance, never being like that from the straw or leaf. 4. That the soil has a direct influence on the quality of the ash. 'This has been proved in several instances, and particular deficiencies pointed out. 5..That each part is furnished with an ash—in quantity and quality peculiarly adapted to the function which the part is de- signed to fulfill. The silica, for instance, is in the straw so distributed as most effectually to strengthen those parts which need its supporting power; in the leaf it sustains an extended surface.of pores in contact with the atmosphere ; in the chaff it forms an impervious coating for the husk, until that part has also received a supply which enables it to protect the grain, upon which the perpetua- tion of the species : Equally beautifiil are the facts which we discover respecting the alkaline sulphates and phosphates. We find little of the lat- ter in the whole length of the straw, in the leaf, or in the chaff. But when we arrive at the grain, the alkaline sulphates disappear, and the phosphates take their place; these have passed up the whole length of the stalk, avoiding the leaves and the chaff, and at last, by a law infinitely more unerring than any which human wisdom can devise, deposited themselves in the very place where phosphoric acid is most needed, in order that, as part of the food, it may build up the bones, the framework of the animal body. ese are only two of the many theoretical deductions that we have been enabled to draw during our gradual ascent. : But it is not only such theoretical and physiological questions that have been elucidated by these analyses; they indicate many man. composition of every part of the healthy plant being known, the eoniat for Siwinees healthy crop are obvious, The 328 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. inorganic part being entirely derived from the soil, to the soil must attention be directed in case of failure, and its deficiencies ascertained. With these results before him, any farmer may see that if his straw refuses to stand, the chief cause is probably a lack of soluble silica in the soil. In some of the alkaline silicates now manufactured for sale, he may find a ready means of reme- dying the defect. . The straw, it should be noticed, does not return to the soil all that the grain has taken from it, and thus even where all the straw is returned in the shape of manure with the greatest possi- ble care, the land may ultimately become exhausted of the mate- rials for the inorganic part of the grain, which is all carried away and sold. With these remarks I pass on to the second division. Il.— Of the Organic part of the Ripe Plant. Under this division will come more especially the nutritive properties of oats. In the consideration of the inorganic part, attention was chiefly drawn to questions connected with the cir- culation of the plant, and with the best means of supplying those deficiencies which are invariably found when an imperfect crop is produce _ These inorganic substances, especially the phosphates, are in- dispensable to our food, but they form a small part of the whole grain, only 2 Ibs. in 100. The remaining larger part merits our attentive consideration, particularly as it chiefly distinguishes the oat from other varieties of corn. I speak here of the grain alone: that being the most important part, for its nutritive properties, I have confined my attention chiefly to it. I have also been able to make the husk the subject afew researches. It would have been very interesting and useful to examine the straw also, but I was obliged reluctantly to conclude my observations, as the time for the delivery of this essay approached. The proximate principles*of the grain will first demand our attention, and it will be necessary, by way of preface, to give an account of the methods by which they were obtained. The quantity of grain taken for analysis was from 75 to 100 grains. quite clear. The starch then remained pure, it was collected on a weighed filter and dried at 212°, until it ceased to lose weight. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 329 2. 'To the solution drawn off from the starch, acetic acid was added, to throw down the casein or avenine. ‘This was allowed to settle, and the liquid drawn off by a syphon of small bore. The precipitate was now transferred to a weighed filter. It is necessary to stop the washing while the water is still acid, other- Wise a portion of the casein will be re-dissolved. It was now dried in the same way as the starch.* 3. The solution separated from the casein was evaporated to a very small bulk, and treated with strong alcohol to throw down the gum. After standing some hours the gum was collected on After this boiling with caustic potash the epidermis was collected, washed, dried, and weighed. : 5. 'To determine the oil, sugar, and glutin, a fresh portion of grain, about the same weight as before, was taken and boiled with successive portions of alcohol, until a drop left no trace on evap- oration. The solution was then carefully distilled to dryness in asmall retort. The mass was treated with successive por- tions of pure ether to dissolve the oil; and this ethereal solution was carefully evaporated to dryness in a small weighed capsule. * This substance has been called casein, because in many respects it resembles some of the kinds of casein found in other bodies; but as its exact composition has not yet been determined, I use for it the provisional name of 4venine proposed by Prof. Johnston. From the casein of milk, it differs in some important properties. Rochleder de- i ilk as soluble in weak acid, but precipitated by more acid and weak alkalies. Insoluble, when free from acid or alkali, in water. I have found the casein of oats to agree more nearly with the casein of beans, as described by Liebig. He says, “It is soluble in cold water, does not coagulate b ng, is precipitated by dilute acetic acid, and is not solu in an excess. The cantic of oiahe i Liable in pure water, being nearly all dissolved by the first water added to the bruised grain. Weak a i Soin ee etl itate, which an excess of acid does not seem to re-dissolve, as no precipitate fe f - from the liquid filtered and neutralized by carbonate of soda. Boiling pi gate oO the original solution did not coagulate the casein, but afier cooling, on the a > eae of acetic acid, the precipitate fell more quiekly than” efore. When this was filter- there w all quantity of al n present. > i lezumin of almonds, to which also this maio b gait ste m3 ot eaioue precipitate of legumin falls on casein see the additi i ‘edi all portion of it re-dissol ves in an excess. A polkas grt het Le ik neutralized by carbonate of soda a slight erga alls. re Seconp Serizs, Vol. II, No. 9.—May, 1847. 330 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. After weighing, it is safer to re-dissolve the oil, and evaporate again, as some of the sugar sometimes finds its way over with it. 6. The mass left in the retort is now treated with water to dis- solve the sugar; this solution is also evaporated to dryness in a small weighed capsule. It is an impure sugar, always containing more or less of the soluble salts of the inorganic part. 7. The substance originally dissolved by aleohol and finally left undissolved by water in the retort, was considered analogous to the glutin of wheat, and was accordingly set down as such in the analyses. It was collected, dried, and weighed, either in a cup or on a filter. Having now described the process employed, I will proceed to give the results obtained by it in four specimens of grain, the same four of which the full inorganic analysis of the ash was given. The soluble salts of the ash are in these analyses distributed to some extent among nearly all the substances. It is impossible to say how much water dissolves when the grain is unburned, and an indefinite quantity of this undetermined portion is thrown away in the solution from which the starch, é&c. are obtained. The quantities contained in the precipitates can only be deter- mined by burning them all. Ihave, in the following analyses, considered the greater part of the loss as alkaline salts, and have the sums up to 100. Proximate Composition of the Organic part, in four samples of the Grain of Oats. Calculated dry. Taste XXXVI. Hopeton Oats, jHopeton Oats, |Hopeton Oats, Potato Oats, | gad Northumberland. | Ayrshire. | Ayrshire. _|Northumberland. Starch, 90°24 64:80 , 65°60 Sugar, i 451 1-58 2-09 0-80 Gum, Pac 2-10 2-41 2-12 2:28 OB psdaisug eh sass 5-44 6-97 6-41 738 Casein, (avenine,) . 15-76 16:26 17:72 16:29 Albumen, 9. . 0-46 129 1-76 e17 Glutin;:. Gs ais 2-47 1-46 1-33 1-45 pidermis, ‘ ; 1-18 2:39 2.84 2:28 Alkaline salts and loss 2:84 1:84 0-94 1:75 100-00 100-00 F. | 100-00 F-. 100-00 In reference to the above table, we naturally turn our attention 1. To the Starch.—The four results are remarkably uniform. I am inclined to think, however, that the-starch may be stated a little too low in this table, for reasons which will afterwards ap- pear. As the table at present stands, the quantity of starch in the oat is nearest to that in , _ 2. The Sugar.—This, as I have said, is impure, and a little po a should be made from its weight, especially in Hopeton oat, No. 1. Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 331 3. The Gum.—The quantities of this substance are nearly alike in the four trials: wheat contains.a little more—about 3. or A per cent. 4. The Oil.—The quantities of oi] given above are large, but I think correct. The earlier analyses of oats only give from three to four-tenths of a per cent. of oil. Both Boussingault and In order to arrive at a more certain result as to the actual quan- ty of these nitrogenous compounds, I determined the nitrogen directly, by combustion in a number of specimens.* _ The annexed table gives the result of nine of these combus- tions. Each burning was repeated two or three times. Taste XXXVII. Hopeton Oats. | Potato Oats. percep olan pe ee en No. 1.|No. 2.) No. 3. No. 1./No. 2.|No. 1. No. 2.;No 3,|United States. Of nitrogen, . «| 219) 235] 2-25) 276, 282) 289] S51) 249 > Of protein compounds, |14-00)14-73!14-04)17-36|17-77 18:24'22-01115-66 18-86 _. This table shows a range of no less than 8 per cent. in the nitro- genous compounds. * The nitrogen was determined by combust tic soda and lime in the usual way. The me’ 332 Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. Nos. J and 2, from Mr. Vans Agnew, were the first crop, after This result is a most surprising one, and although I have repeated my trials, I feel that it needs still further confirmation. The crop being after old grass, the land must have been in good condition, and therefore would mature a crop even without the addition of guano, though that manure undoubtedly increased the yield upon the part to which it was applied. It is possible that on such a good soil with a healthy plant, the more slow growth and matur- ing of a less luxuriant crop than that to which guano was added, ve been more favorable to the largest possible amount of nitrogenous com ds; so that, while the seed was less in quantity, it should be richer in quality. The opinion somewhat evalent among farmers, that guano turnips or potatoes are less nutritious than others, seems to countenance this view. : The Potato oat, No. 2, was also from a very fine crop, as was = American imperial oat, which was remarkable for its weight. The three samples of Hopeton oats were all from rather inferior soils, and poor crops. t even if we take the lowest per-centage of protein com- pounds, they amount to 4 per cent. more than is stated to be the average quantity in wheat. 'The mean may, probably, be safely taken as 16 or 17 per cent. | . Before concluding the organic part of the grain, I wish to give some account of the organic part of the husk, and afterwards some determinations in which the two parts are united. I did not make a complete analysis of the proximate principles of the husk, but determined the oil and sugar only, by boiling in alcohol and ether, as described under the analysis of the grain. The following table gives the results in two samples of husks calculated dry :— Taste XXXVIII. | —Hlopeton Oats, Potato Oats, Park End, : n Hexham, Northumberland. Northumberland. OF oil) ).°< d . ‘ Of sugar and gum, . : Z 0-47 0-75 acne aera RRR eee ore et OR FE Om Ne Besides these substances, there was a considerable quantity of some nitrogenous compound left undissolved by water, some- Prof. Norton on the Analysis of the Oat. 333 The following table gives the nitrogen in the husk and grain separately, and afterwards in the whole oat of the same sample. The results calculated dry :— Taste XXXIX. | | Husk. Grain. — Whole Oats. OE vintromony jay: f5i a2 21 ge | 0:30 | 2:82 218 Of protein compounds, . . b68.054.¢10-77 13-72 A proximate analysis of Boussingault’s gives 13-7, as the amount of protein compounds in the whole oat, exactly coinciding with the above determination. We see, then, that even including the husk, the oat is superior to almost any other corn, in those ingre- dients which go directly to the production of muscle in the body. The strong muscular forms of the Scottish ploughmen have long been living witnesses to the good properties of their favorite and almost only food; and now that it has been shown what those properties really are, I feel sure that Dr. Johnson’s definition of oats— Food for men in Scotland, and for horses in England”— will be remembered only for its appropriate answer—“ And where will you find such men and such horses ?” ; In conclusion, I may be permitted to say, that the extent of this investigation, and the many points which I have been com- pelled to leave undetermined, or doubtful, after eighteen months of constant labor, must convince those who entertain ideas of the time and patience necessary for chemical researches of this kind, that they have erred in supposing the chemist able to do in a few days or weeks, what can only be effected by the labor and study of many successive years. ll ; 0 presenting my results to the Society, it is with a conscious- hess of their imperfections, and a feeling that it would have been most desirable to extend them much further in every direction. At the same time, I think that much new ground has been gone over, and that in many respects the bounds of our know- st with regard to the oat plant, have been considerably en- arge _ Thave endeavored to condense rather than extend my conclu- Sions and descriptions, which might have reached a very great length indeed, from the mass of tables and facts now presented, Laboratory of the Agricultural Chemistry Association, October, 1845. 334 Free Electricity. Arr. XX XII.—On Free Electricity ; by Rosert Hare, M. D., . Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. Practicauty there is a striking difference between the excite- ment of an electrified insulated conductor, the prime conductor of an electrical machine for instance, and the charge of a coated pane or Leyden jar. In the one case diruptive discharge is pro- ductive of a comparatively short thick spark, in the other of a spark distinguished by comparative length and tenuity. The discharge from the pane or jar is productive, for equal surfaces, of a much greater shock than could result from a spark ten times as long, from the conductor of the machine by which the electricity is generated. And yet if the intensity be inversely as the square of the striking distance, it must be a hundred times as great in the case of the conductor, as in that of the coated surfaces. Electricity, as it exists in the conductor, has been called free: as it exists about the coated e, has been called simulated or disguised. Yet Faraday has alleged “that the charge upon an insulated conductor in the middle of a room, has the same rela- tion to the walls of that room, as the charge upon the inner coat- ‘. ” tively long, and by its zigzag form represents lightning im minia- If, in the next place, a sufficiently large pane of glass being interposed, the disks be made to serve as a coating to the glass, the surfaces of the pane which they touch will become oppositely charged. If immediately after the charging is effected, both disks being insulated, the knuckle of the operator, or any other con- ducting bedy in communication with the earth, be approached to either disk, a spark will pass, and on contact, a certain portion of electricity will be discharged. This is what I would call free electricity : but on making a conducting communication between the disks acting as coatings, a much larger discharge of electricity will take place. This is what I would call neutralized or dissim- the square of twelve hundred inversely ; or in other words nearly asa million and a half to one. It follows that in the phenom- ena of discharges from a prime conductor the neutralizing or dis- simulating influence of the conducting superficies opposed to it must be too small to be regarded. . The allegation of Faraday, that no mode has been discovered by which to place the particles of a conductor in relation to one electricity, and not at the same time to the other, 1s verified, as r. Goodman has observed, when the friction between the rub- ber and glass takes place. The glass becomes positive to pre- cisely the same extent as the rubber becomes negative ; but when the vitreous surface thus excited moves away from the ru ber, the compensating electricity of the rubber being no longer at hand, that upon the glass cannot realize Faraday’s idea, except- Ing so far as it may be competent to act upon the walls, ceiling, and floor of the apartment, as electricity on the inner surface of a yden jar acts upon the outer surface. But in the case in point, the electric interposed is so enormously thick, compared with the 336 Free Electricity. glass in a Leyden jar, that very little of the inductive influence can avail to produce an opposite state tending to neutralize the electrical excitement “to an equal amount.” opinion, that on account of the distance of thunder clouds from the earth, the electricity which they may acquire is too remote from the terrestrial surface to induce in this an opposite electrical state, capable of neutralizing the electricity of the cloud beyond a minute proportion. There seems to be an obvious means of discrimination between free and neutralized electricity, in the fact, that the one is asso- ciated with the surface of a conductor, so as to accompany it - when moved, while the neutralized electricity is inseparable from the superficies of the electric, through the intervention of which it exists. It is well known that the coatings of a pane or jar may be removed without disturbing the charge which may have been imparted by their presence. Yet if removed after the pane is fully saturated, each coating will hold a charge which it will give out in a spark to any uninsulated body, without any reference to the other coating which may meanwhile be remote and insulated from all communication with it. The spark thus yielded has the characteristics of free electricity. Having served as a part of the conductor, with which it had communicated, the coating is sur- charged in proportion to its capacity, and gives up the redundan- cy on communicating with the earth, without any reference to the other coating. The spark thus given I conceive to have the characteristics of free electricity. the case of electric accumulations in the atmosphere, there can be no substitute for the service performed by glass in Leyden charges but that which air can render ; and it can hardly be con- ceived that while agitated, as it is during thunder gusts, a stratum of that fluid can perform the part of a glass pane. J. D. Dana on Zoophytes. 337 Arr. XXXIII.—On Zotphytes, No. V.; by James D. Dana. CLASSIFICATION OF ZoOPHYTES. General Remarks on Classification.—It has often been justly said, that there can be but one strictly natural classification in either of the organic kingdoms. Yet if we look upon any system presented in the usual order on paper, as correctly and completely the natural system, we greatly mistake nature; for the various affinities cannot be fully expressed on a plane surface. The lines are so many, and so interlaced, that to be understood, they must be conceived of as ramifying in space. The mind, proceeding properly to its work, determines first upon those qualities which are physiologically of the most fundamental importance : it fol- lows out the variations of structure under the grand divisions thus ascertained, fixing its attention successively upon qualities of a less and less general character ; it traces the species through the various modifications in these several particulars, marking out the lines of gradation in affinities, observing some, it may be, _ partly isolated and terminating abruptly, others graduating into way the network is finally completed to the mind’s eye. ~ When the relations are fully understood, we are ready to divide off into classes, orders, and the smaller subdivisions, cutting the threads here and there, as shall best exhibit the general character mek + oy 1 Se boivViig Ui pa} R 7 5 WY siete! gi Mase equivalent importance and character. The institution of these va- te } display like anatomical preparations; but to illustrate the system Secon Sznizs, Vol. UI, No. 9.—May, 1847. 43 338 J. D. Dana on Zoophyies. of nature in its oe and exhibit the myriad parts blended in one concordant w The modsonbitals ‘of structure in living beings evidently pro- ceed, to a great extent, from the nature of the world we inhabit, and the general laws and necessities of life. There are air, earth, and water, and these have their varieties of condition. Plants and animals offer other _— for living beings. ‘The same cu- cumstances may be. sai call for the variety of size which exists in nature, for aioerien there would be possible conditions for existence unoccupied. The general nature of life, and its modes of ——) a the primary systems of structure, being determined upon in infinite wisdom, we need attribute no other plan to creative aatt than that of the simple adaptation of life, as thus constituted, to the conditions the world affords. Circles typical number.* e see the’ oundless resources of ; nature’s Author displayed with greater force, the fewer the types from which an infinite variety might proceed ; “nt not in any lenstaay of the number of species constituting grou Among the organs upon which the range vaiecheroteert in the animal kingdom depends, the nervous system takes nece the precedence, for, as has been said with much propriety, this system is itself the species ; since upon its characters, In cop nection with the general laws of organic growth, depends ina very great degree the nature of the individual. Next to this, come those organs which are intimately connected with the sustaining rily, those adapted to the receiving and digesting of food; and next, or of parallel value with the last, the orn so the continuation of the species, The means © d the associated structure, constitute a characteristic papers Oe _..* Milne Edwards has well illustrated the ack! that seven is a n 1 number in rs the cephalic, thoracic and a arts, each consisting (ing pormally er _ segmner eee and arto talitig plac | Pe 2 oo. S S EP o . i) or o 4 in any branch of nature; tho soe the actual exhibition of them has been obscured in ways not unde rstood. We cannot disbelieve, therefore, that numerical _relations were involved in the plan of creation; yet, while admitting any hed regards t nature of organic structures, we do wo admit tha the number structures on any particular type, had reference imilar ra J. D. Dana on Zoiphytes. 339 connected with the causes just mentioned. Under the several grand divisions to which we are led by the above considerations, there are subordinate variations arising from the i 08 of life to minor differences in the conditions of existence around us :— food of whatever iin d, and in some peculiarities of the omuiies digestion ; certain. differences depending on the sexual relations, and the means of preserving and developing the young, varying with the modes of existence alluded to; modifications of the provis- caer ee neem against enemies. 'These minor differences exhibited in two ways: either particular organs retaining the am functions, undergo modifications in form and structure ; or with other modifications, they subserve the to rs diffe ent functions. When adaptations to different circumstances or pur- and the relations are analogical, when they depend on a simi- larity of function, a produced.* As the several families or classes of animals are exposed, in some respects more or less to the same they would naturally undergo, in many instances, either homo- or analogical modifications, occasioning that serial paral- lelism alluded to oh a preceding page. And again, as the ammals_ of the same os may be fitted to many aes circumstances in nature, other paralielisms should exist, of a w The order i in which the above sources of dhaiettions in the animal kingdom are —" may be in the main nearly that re «Ree PRC ton ET pital bone in Man, with the distinct bone called ¢ geet aye in a crocodile or bag phoma: ite its special homology is determined.’ —Phil, Mag., xxviii, iii ser., une, 846. We refer 1S te reader also to a Ay excellent Ae G'S, Ph “on — | Relations Jrganized Beings,” by H. E. Strickland, ee 354, in which the subject ‘ad affinities in organic boas is sea oP a clear 3 A he word alan Seni the re ceabtanen of the flower of the p pea toa pee oh or the shell Haliotis to an ear 5 oo it includes also resem- blane oe cidence of color; while em a. rgcaeher ie Mie 9 upon a ® similarity of function. 340 J. D. Dana on Z oophytes. organ may fail without requiring an entire separation of an indi- vidual from the group. o classify, requires therefore the widest possible range of knowledge of organic beings, and the nicest balancing of affini- ties: and we remark again that it consists rather in expressing the various chains of affinities or homologies direct and parallel, with their shadings and blendings, than in searching for certaim mv10- lable characteristics for distinguishing groups of species. Classification of Zoophytes.—In view of the foregoing prin- ciples, any classification of Zoophytes made out without refer- ence to the structure of the animals must necessarily be faulty. There have been several of this kind in the department of corals ; and as the subject has been little understood till within a few years past, their errors were to be expected. ‘They subserved, for the time, the purpose of systematizing the facts known, an al- forded a means of characterizing species: so far, they were good. But at the present day, to make out a classification based on the corals alone and the easiest method of distinguishing them, the species should be first studied, and afterwards such characters os down for the corals, as belong to the orders and families thus educed. j The first classification of Zoophytes in which the anna ceived attention, was offered by Blainville.* Lamarck had Af ott i Apoidea ~~ * Manuel d’Actinologie ou de Zoophytologie, par H. M.D. de Blainville. an pp. 8vo, with an atlas of 100 plates. Paris, 1834. (The printing began 1» a J. D. Dana on Zosphytes. 341 the way with a discriminating study of the corals. Blainville availed himself of the observations of Quoy and Gaymard, be- sides the few investigations of older authors, and with great acu- men, made out an arrangement, which in its general features was highly natural. He divided Zoophytes, including the Actinie, into the groups Zoantharia, Polypiaria, and Zoophytaria ; and. if we strike out from Polypiaria a few species that belong with the first division, and others that are ne Aner we have the ero Rateies equivalent in importance to Se een Blainville was the first anthor who actually introduced coral zoophytes fairly into the animal kingdom by his mode of describing and arranging them. He did not call the department a branch of zoology, and then describe corals as if they were porous, stellige- rous stones, which is even now in many instances the case.* Still he speaks of the cells as SO Ais the polyps, which is the reverse of the fact. . Ehrenberg in 1834,+ after a more thorough. peceonmnanes with coral animals obtained by investigations in the Red & ea, made some important improvements in the minor subdivisions ; bit his grand divisions were unfortunate. He separated in many cases the attached fromm the unattached species, and again, the iar from the compound, and thus broke up the natural assem which Blainville had made out. Even the natural group ret onaria, (Blainville’s Zoophytaria,) is subdivided by him, and the parts widely separated. His system, notwithstanding some anom- exhibits great reach of mind and searching investigation. He removed correctly the Bryozoa from other Zoophytes, and first suggested -_ relation. of the Millepores and F'avosites to the Madreporac He pointed out the true nature of coral se- cretions, and dentaibed the mode of reproduction by spontaneous subdivision, which had not before been noticed. The modes of growth were also to a considerable extent described by him, and important use made of them, though not always correctly, 1 in the pletion of Zoophytes. Milne ship asc whose acquaintance with Zoophytes had been extended by a personal examination of many species, an and by a thorough ait of the labors of others, besides a comprehensive ee tat Sains ex 23S lla ane nite i le Shi f corals, Soran ogee sy ma of a op a those charactor he _ i belong to Soles stated, such as the gene- growth, &c ; an neh Separately whatever, not already cited may re at mention vith respect to the co ' ay a KGnigl. 1. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Berlin, for 1882, pp. 225-438. 342 J. D. Dana on Zosphytes. knowledge of nature, proposed, in 1837, a brief outline of a classification, which as far as detailed, exceeded those preceding it, in philosophical character. The Hydroidea, (‘“ Sertulari- ens,”’) the Actinaria, (‘‘ Zoanthaires,”) and the Alcyonaria, (‘ Al- cyoniens,”’) are laid down as the d divisions, and without the striking violations of affinities which appear in Blainville’s order Polypiaria. We only observe that the Favosites are separat from the Madreporacea, with which group they were placed by Ehrenberg, and where they beyond doubt belong. These are the principal authors since Lamarck, who have un- dertaken a general arrangement of the class of Zoophytes. The “Stony Corals” have quite recently been arranged mostly from the corals alone by Mr. J. E. Gray, of London.* We may ex- press the belief, without entering into any criticisms on his clas- sification, that with a more extended study of the animals and their corals, he would not have separated the Millepore and He- liopore so widely from the Pocillopore ; the Stylastride from the Sz e;t ontipore from a part of Lamarck’s Po- rites; the Fungie from the Pavonie: nor united into a single group the Pavonia and many Astre@; nor the Fungiea, F'la- bella, and Meandrine :—in the last case giving an unreal impor- tance to the oblong shape of the Flabella, and implying a relation which is wholly without foundation between the oblong cell of the Meandrinz, Flabella, and Fungi, for in the first, the form arises from budding, in the second, it is the shape of the polyp’s disk, and in the third, the cell is only a depression at the of the disk, and the form has not even generic importance. Before giving a general view of the classification of Zoophytes, to which the writer has been led by the study of coral animals,t the importance of different characters as a basis of classification may be briefly considered. Owing to the simplicity of polyps, there are few organs oF functions to afford distinctive characters. They are as follows: he digestive system; II. The ovarian; IL]. The modes of budding and growth; IV. The tentacles “and general character of the exterior; V. The secretion of coral and its nature. - I. The Digestive System.—In this system the stomach varies (1) in length as compared with the internal or visceral cavity * An outline of an Arrangement of Stony Corals, by J. E. Gray, F. R. S., &e- Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ne 120, Feb. 1847 * t As it may be o o those interested in the department of Zoo- genus, have been y and East Indies, and these figures will appear along with others of different corals w animals were not obtained, in the forthcoming Atlas to accompany the ier - J. D. Dana on Zosphytes. 343 below, and (2) in the character of the parts below and around it. In the first particular, the difference is one of less general im- portance than has been allowed; the relative length in the Ac- tinie and most Actinoid corals, is between four-fifths and one- third ; in the Zoanthide it is between one-third and one-sixth ; in the Aleyonaria, between one-third and one-twentieth ; in the Hydroidea the stomach is sometimes much shorter in proportion than in many Alcyonaria, though often far longer. particular the difference is wide, the Actinoidea having the stomach suspended within the visceral cavity, and attached to the sides of the polyp by a radiating series of vertical fleshy lamella, which are wanting in the Hydroidea. The visceral cavity is a simple tube in the latter, and is radiated with vertical lamelle in the former: but these peculiarities are also connected with the modes of reproduction. We omit other less obvious points of difference IL. Ovarian System.—In this system, ranking in importance with the digestive, the absence of special organs with spermatic and ovarian functions, distinguishes the Hydroidea, and the ex- istence of such organs, the Actinoidea. No vase Ae can be of higher value, or more marked in its attending pecul Among the Actinoidea, there is a great variation in oar number of genital lamelle, and in the From the solutions of the alkaline tantalates the acid is entire” Jy precipitated, without the assistance of heat, by chlorid of ammonium, pelopi¢ acid less perfectly, and niobic acid still less. contained in the Bavarian Tantalite. 363 ~~ When the solutions of the alkaline tantalates are rendered acid with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, a pale yellow precipitate is produced in them by tincture of galls. An orange-yellow precip- itate is formed, under similar circumstances, in solutions of the pelopates, and a dark orange-red in those of the niobates. errocyanid of potassium produces in solutions of the tanta- lates of the alkalies, when they have been rendered slightly acid, a yellow precipitate ; in those of the pelopates, a brownish-red ; in those of the niobates, a red one. When the three acids are fused with bisulphate of potash, they dissolve in it. Niobie acid alone solidifies with it to a crystalline mass. Water removes sulphate of potash from the fused masses, and leaves compounds of sulphuric acid with the metallic acids, from which, however, the sulphuric acid can be removed by very long treatment with water. When hydrochloric or sulphuric acid is added to the solution of the niobate of potash or soda, and then a bar of zine immersed in it, the separated niobic acid soon assumes a very beautiful pure blue color. It gradually becomes dirtier, and finally brown. The blue color is produced, in the solutions of the alkaline pelo- pates, only on the addition of sulphuric acid; but not even then 18 a blue color produced in the alkaline tantalates, which, how- ever, takes place when the solution of the chlorid of tantalium in sulphuric acid is treated with water and zinc. os Tantalic acid yields before the blowpipe, with the fluxes, col- orless beads, even in the inner flame ; pelopic acid gives with the microcosmic salt in the outer flame a colorless, in the inner one a brown bead. Niobie acid colors the microcosmic salt in the in- her flame of a beautiful blue ; the bead can be easily blown col- orless in the outer flame. (=) oO = ro) — [=] 5 Q & 4 2. Ss oo I tas) = o 4 = I ° & (=) Lear) ov 7) & 8 Qu 77) 4 Qu > i) 5 » This tendency of the three acids to assume different isomeric Modifications is connected with the great variability which they 364 On a New Metal, Pelopium, &e. exhibit with respect to their specific gravity. My experiments on this subject have led me to the most unexpected results; al- though I have not terminated my investigations, I will neverthe- less communicate at present some of the most important. Some time ago I drew attention to the fact, that in the artifi- cially prepared titanic acid the specific gravity gradually increases by long-continued ignition, until it attains that of rutile. In the same way the modifications of titanic acid which occur in na- ture, anatase and Brookite, may be converted by continued igni- tion into rutile. I thought that the publication of these facts would have induced chemists to examine the specific gravity of other oxyds at different temperatures, since these changes have an important influence on the atomic volume. ‘This, however, has not happened, with the exception of a very interesting inves- tigation of Count Schafgotsch, on the specific gravity of silicic acid, in which he has shown that opal, before heating to redness, has so low a specific gravity, that it floats on oil of vitriol; but that the specific gravity is so increased by heating to redness, that it equals that of chemically prepared silicic acid (2°2), but which is still considerably lighter than quartz and rock-crystal (2°6). _ The changes which the three metallic acids under considera- tion experience by heating to redness are far more remarkable. When the hydrate of pelopic acid is deprived of its water by a gentle red heat over a spirit-lamp, just sufficient to produce the phenomenon of incandescence, and then exposed to a strong Te heat ina charcoal fire, its specific gravity is considerably increased, If we examine the ignited acid under the microscope, we see that it consists for the greater part, of amorphous granules, 10 which some small crystals are perceptible. The ignited acid was then exposed to the most intense, and at the same time continu- ous heat, that a platinum crucible is capable of bearing, that of the porcelain furnace of the Berlin Royal manufactory. The - acid was not melted by it, but was converted into a coarse sandy powder, which, examined under the microscope, consisted of perfect crystals. The specific gravity of the acid, however, was thereby considerably diminished; curious enough, it hi become still lower than that which the acid possessed after the hydrate had been exposed to a gentle heat over a spirit-lamp, in order to expel its water. On repeating this experiment, the specific gravity of the crys- tallized acid, which had been ignited in the porcelain furnace, was found to be constant, while by no other temperature co the acid be brought to a constant specific gravity. _ These experiments are in so far remarkable as they prove preé- cisely the contrary of what has hitherto been frequently admitted. Crystalline bodies, such as idocrase, epidote, and garnet, fuse at a high temperature, become amorphous, but of lower specific Termination of the Paleozoic Period, §c. 365 gravity. It is evident that what applies to these substances can- not be advanced as a general rule. Niobie acid has a far lower specific gravity than pelopic acid. It exhibits a similar behavior. The acid, exposed to the temper- ature of the porcelain furnace, appears under the microscope per- fectly crystalline. antalic acid behaves very different from the other two acids. It is the heaviest of all, and, by heating to redness in a charcoal fire, increases considerably in specific gravity, from 7-0 or 7:1 to 8-2. In the fire of the porcelain furnace it is likewise converted into a coarse powder, but which does not appear distinctly crys- talline under the microscope. Its specific gravity is thereby only slightly lessened. nall these experiments no alteration in the absolute weight was perceptible. . Arr. XXXVII.— Termination of the Paleozoic Period, and Commencement of the Mesozoic; by D. D. Owen, M. D. ~ Some of the most distinguished and experienced geologists seem, from their recent publications, disposed to include the Per- mian system, in the Paleozoic division of the fossiliferous strata, regarding it as the terminating group of that period. "Their argu- ments in support of this view, are— ) f The corals of this system are considered to have a palwozoic Sei dey 3 ed * The tables only show nine species. beak be table ae Pocrtalle aidan (Gorgonia antiqua, Goldf.) as common to ¢ Permian, Devonian and Silurian systems; and Fenestella dubia. +See note Sur les equivalents du system Permien, par M. de Verneuil, p. 8. 366 Termination of the Paleozoic Period, | analogous in structure to the Fenestella, Retepora and Gorgonia. But these reticulated corallines are by no means confined to the palzozoic strata. Six species of Retepora are given by Goldfuss, as occurring in the eretaceous system of Maestricht, and two species in particular, viz: R. fenestrata, Goldf., and &. vibieata, Goldf., are remarkably analogous in structure to forms occurring in the Silurian and Devonian rocks, whilst the genus Gorgonia is still living in the ocean. As yet but one single species has been established as common to the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian systems, viz: Chonetes sarcinulata, (O. striatella, Dal. L. lata, v. B.;) since the Sirifer hystericus is given in the tables as only prob- lematical in the Permian system, and but one, besides the pre- ceding, iscommon to the Permian and Devonian, viz: Terebra- tula concentrica. s The only other four species of brachiopods noted in the table above referred to, not peculiar to the Permian system, are—Lin- ula mytiloides, Productus Cancrini, Spirifer cristatus, Terebra- ossyi. These are given as common to the Permian and Carboniferous systems. It appears from the above, that the force of the argument in favor of placing the Permian system in the paleozoic period, proves chiefly an analogy between it and the Carboniferous sys- tem; for when we examine the evidence to show that the Devo- nian and Silurian systems belong to the same era, the proof Is feeble, resting on but two instances of specific identit Reflecting on the above, and other facts which are about to be enumerated, I have been led to differ from the writers alluded to, or at least to doubt the propriety of a classification which throws the Permian and Carboniferous systems into the paleeozoic pe- riod, high as the authority is from which the proposed classifica- tion emanated. fore proceeding to give the arguments in favor of a different arrangement, let us see what ought to be our most important guide in determining the great division of rocks. ese divisions are, in one sense, arbitrary. Geological eras cannot be considered as separated by abrupt transitions: W the series are complete, there is a blending of one system into the other; especially a gradual dying off of orders, genera and spe- cies of fossil forms, rendering it difficult, sometimes impossible, to w broad and well defined linés of separation. Still, taken as a whole, the best guides in defining their limits seem to be the evidence of a more or less complete change in the physical con- dition of our planet; the termination of one great class of phe- nomena and the beginning of another; the extinction of races an) the development, of new tribes; the proofs of the elevation and disruption of formations and the unconformability of s * and Commencement of the Mesozoic. 367 tion; the evidence of a change in the relative position of land and sea Let us consider, then, in the first place, what is the evidence of such phenomena about the termination of the Permian system mmencement of the Triassic. In every country where these systems exist, so far from there being any evidence of disturbance or unconformability about the termination of the one and the beginning of the other, there is so complete a blending of adjacent strata, that it is only since the geological examination of Russia, by Murchison, Verneuil and Keyserling, that the Permian beds have been distinguished from the variegated marls and sandstones of the trias; indeed, even ~ ~ day it is hardly decided where the dividing line ought to of a luxuriant tropical vegetation? Is it to be compared to the apparent coming in of a new order of terrestrial animals? If we except the small and rather insignificant genera of G'rij- Jithedes and Phillipsia, which occur in the limestone on which @ coal measures rest, does it not appear that the entire race of trilobites becomes extinct at the termination of the Devonian period. Just at the time when this remarkable family of crusta- ceans passes away, have we not the strongest proof of a most ex- tensive accession of dry land in the luxuriant and extra-tropical Vegetation of the carboniferous epoch. Before this period, with one or two rare examples, no trace of land plants has been dis- covered. If, during the Silurian and Devonian periods, a suita- ble climate had prevailed, capable of supporting a terrestrial vege- tation, and dry land had existed in a proper position, we shoul certainly, long ere this, have obtained marks of its presence. © In the Permian system, there have been discovered in Europe. at least twelve species of Sauroid reptiles, an order imals Which may be regarded as singularly characteristic of the meso- Zole period, and imprinting, more than any other race, a peculiar type to the mesozoic fauna. If the footmarks observed by Dr. King; in the coal measures of Pennsylvania, should prove, as at Present suggested, to be referable to some reptile, then the com- Mencement of air-breathing reptiles is just coeval with the grand Carboniferous flora T are certainly strong arguments in favor of placing, not only the Permian, but also the Carboniferous group in the meso- Zoic period, and terminating the paleeozoic division with the com- mencement of the coal measures. 4 368 Termination of the Paleozoic Period, §c. The previous remark with regard to the blending of adjacent strata, and the prevalence of some characteristics of one era in the the mesozoic strata. Only a single fossil fish is known common to the Permian and inferior systems, and that not lower than the Carboniferous ; i. @ Palaoniscus Freislebeni, which occurs both in the Permian and Carboniferous systems, but not in the Devonian and Silurian. But three Gasteropoda are cited as common to the Permian and inferior systems, and two of these are problematical ; i. e. Loro- nema Urii and L. rugifera ; the former, perhaps, common to the Permian and Devonian systems. ‘The third, the Pleurotomaria carinata, is given as common to the Permian and Carboniferous systems. Only one of the Monomyaria, i. e. Avicula antiqua, 1s common to the Permian and inferior systems, being found also in the Car- boniferous. All the species of Dimyaria are peculiar to the Permian. On the whole, therefore, very few even of the mollusca are common to the Permian, Devonian and Silurian; and when we recollect that this class of animals is capable of surviving very great VICIS- situdes, it cannot be considered extraordinary that a few may have escaped and outlived even a great change of temperature, or some sudden catastrophe. Fi boniferous group, whilst a similar want of conformity e pareille discordanté”) is very rare between the Permian and ‘Triassic. a 5 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, §c. 369 Arr. XXXVIIL.—Glycocoll (Gelatine Sugar) and some of its : Products of Decomposition ; by E. N. Horsrorn. (Read before the Albany Institute, September, 1846.*) _ As there are laws in physics, whose evolution, carefully traced, would constitute a general history of this department of science, so there are bodies in chemistry, whose career, if we may employ such an expression, accurately followed out, would acquaint us with the prominent periods through which this science has passed. The history of sulphuric acid, for example, may almost be said to be-the history of technical chemistry, as that of hydrosulphuric acid and ammonia is of analytical; or, as that of oxygen is of theoretical chemistry. in order to their being considered correct ; and finally, of a tiny raconhot,t in 1820, by treating isinglass with sulphuric acid, obtained a body of sweet taste, ready solubility in water, difficult solubility in alcohol, capable of uniting with nitric acid, and in s state of combination uniting with alkalies and alkaline earths; to which substance he gave the name of sugar of gela- une, (sucre de. gelatine. ) : Sati Boussingault,t to whom we are indebted for the first analysis of this body, gave it the formula C,,H,,N, 0,1, which, ex- pressed in equivalents, isC,,H,,3N,0... athe __ From this body he obtained a erystallizable compound, with the protoxyd of lead, which, upon analysis, yielded the formula C..H, oe O,+3PbO.. Three atoms of protoxyd of lead had taken the place of two atoms of water. * Published in Liebig and Wéhler's Annalen, 1046; and translated for this Journal the author. me t Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., T. xiii, p- 113. t L'Institut, No. 245. Phar. Cent. Blatt, No. 50, 1838. Secoxp Senies, Vol. Il, No. 9.—May, 1847. 47 370 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, If this be regarded neutral, Boussingault remarks, the body without water would be C, H,3NO,. The investigation undertaken at this period (1838) was re- sumed in 1840, ’41,* when, from the same chemist, a new for- mula, obviously based wpon a conscientious trust in the results of analysis, was produced. Meanwhile, Mulder} had obtained the same body with Leucin, by treating glue with caustic potash. His analysis led him to the formula C,H, N,0O,. With protoxyd of lead it lost two atoms of water. Its composition would then have been C,H, N, 0; +2HO, the two atoms of water being replaceable by two atoms of protoxyd of lead. This formula differs from that of Boussingault, chiefly in that it is about two-thirds as large. In that of Boussingault, an equal loss of water was, however, re- placed by three atoms of protoxyd of lead, instead of two. — With the gelatine-sugar-nitric acid, (acide-nitro-saccharique ; leim-zucker-salpetersaure,) Mulder obtained a compound with baryta, of unusual constitution, which he expressed by the fol- lowing formula— BaO, C, H, N, O,)+2(BaO, NO, ). His formula for gelatine-sugar-nitric acid, is C,H,,N,0,,=C,H, N, 0,42NO,4+2HO, while that of Boussingault, for this compound, was ,H,3N,0, ,=C, H,,;NO,+NO,+2HO. : _ These differ from each other in the relative and absolute quan- tities of hydrogen and oxygen, and yet not so widely but that the want of correspondence might be attributed to slight im- purity of substance. Boussingault analyzed a compound of this acid with oxyd of copper, of the following constitution :— C,H,,N,0,,+2Cu0= : C,H,,NO,,NO,)+(2 CuO, HO). At a temperature of 165°C., [329° F.] this compound lost 17-71 per cent. of water, leaving C, H,,;NO,NO, +2 CuO. Deducting the two atoms of oxide of copper, there remains 4 bod »4 NO. Fexa 4 In this condition of the question, as to the constitution of gly- cocoll, the investigation was resumed by Boussingault. He anal- yzed the body itself, and several most interesting compounds of it with oxyds of copper, lead and silver, nitric acid and nitrates of metallic oxyds. F'rom these he derived the formula C,,H,, N,0,,+3HO, * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 3d Ser., T. i, p. 257-270. t Nat. en Scheik, archief, 1838, p. 146, and some of its Products of Decomposition. 371 in which the three atoms of water were replaced with four atoms of metallic oxyd. _ The gelatine-sugar-nitric acid he found to be 1eH,, N,0,,,4NO,4+9 HO, and its compounds with bases to be ,,H,,N,0,,+4NO0,+4(8)MO+2aq. | This exceedingly complicated formula, and its high atomic weight, together with the fact that the several formule for gela- tine each other, are nevertheless but slight modifications from once, twice, three and four times the following formula, } led naturally to the conclusion that the differences might be attrib- uted partly to the impurity of the substances analyzed, and partly to the imperfect atomic weights at that time in use. Beyond the description and analysis of the body itself, and the few salts above enumerated, gelatine sugar had met with no de- tailed examinations. ‘These considerations gave occasion to the Investigation which follows. It is scarcely necessary to add to the statement of its having been conducted at Giessen, that the counsel and codperation there enjoyed, have united with the recol- lections of this labor, some of the most grateful memories of a life. Formula of Glycocoll. singault, no conclusion remained, but that the analyses they had recorded, and those we had made, were of different bodies. After the analyses of several compounds of this body with hydrochloric, ulphurie and nitric acids, oxyd of copper, nitrate of silver, and bisulphate of potash, the ‘conviction was established that its con- Stitution was C,H, NO,; to which in crystallized gelatine sugar, an atom of water is united.* Upon comparing the per-centages derived from this formula with the results of analysis in Boussingault’s last investigation, € differences will be seen to be scarcely greater than frequently ccur in a series of the best determinations. Ld Gees The body analyzed by Boussingault, was dried at 120° C., (248° F.] ‘That analyzed by us lost nothing in weight at 150° C., * For the anhyd h idopted the already proposed name Gry- i idapprpacud a tee hace ott s hope noticed by Dessaigne. attribute of sweetness it shares with AqO, Sg Og, oxide of glyceryle and ni- : 372 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocolt, [304° F.] When exposed upon a watch crystal to the heat of a lamp, with a metallic screen between, and at such distance that the escape of vapor is barely discernible, a part of the mass in contact with the glass becomes browned, while another portion melts and shoots into crystals. ‘These continue to form even after other portions have become charred. Rubbed together with ely pulverized hydrate of baryta, it becomes almost instantly fluid, the whole dissolving readily in water, from which, in pro- cess of time, crystals containing baryta and glycocoll deposit themselves. Here, in the act of combination, the water from one or both the ingredients was given up. ’ The above circumstances, and others yet to be noted, induced the opinion that at a certain temperature, a lower one longer con- tinued, an atom of water from one half of the hydrated glycocoll might be given up, and the remaining half take its place. This would give almost precisely the analytical results of both Mulder and Boussingault, and yield from the formula determined on by us, precisely the composition given by Mulder. 4 2(C,H, NO,, HO)}—HO=C,H,N,0;.... Below, follow the estimated per cent. constitution, according to the above formula, and the average of a series of analyses by Boussingault and Mulder. iM | | Estimate. | _ Bous. Mulder. 8 equiv. Carbon, apse rr S99 34:1 9. Hydrogen, i z 6-38 6-44 2 Nitrogen, As gs 19-85 9-90 7M * Oxygen, | - : 39-73 39°70 100-00 1 100-00 The effort to expel this half atom of water was unsuccessful, A temperature of 150° C. [302° F.] produced scarcely a percep tive diminution in weight. At 170° C. [338° F°.} it began to rown with the escape aseous products of decomposition. At 190° C. [374° F.] though portions had become quite ¢ ) others had merely melted and crystallized anew. The support which the analyses of Boussingault give to the formula C,H, NO,, HO, fee will justify the following juxtaposition of the estimated per cents. and the actual results. ‘ Glycocoll and Oxyd of Silver ; dried at 110° C. [230° F.] } Boussingault. orsfo : f bas Ci6H,5N40, ,+4Ag0. Ca Hy NOg+Ag0._ uiv. Estimate. quiv. a ech perbe “ ~~ 1s 4 == : drogen : 4 = 19 Nitro ; ‘ Pi 8- LL = a4 . “OW 5 Uxyge! . - ee ae Ox, Dicer: i ‘ | 6 re Tek ne. ¥ | 7 ol __ 108 and some of its Products of Decomposition. 373 Glycocoll and Oxyd of Copper ; dried at 120° C. [248° F.] | Boussingault. Horsford. | C,6H,,N,0, i+Cu0. C,H,NO,+Cu0. ap Equiv. Estimate. | Result. }Equiv. Estimate. ‘Carbon, . a Poe eee BO 19 | 23-57 4 = 24 22-6 Hydrogen, . opie eS 362 | 3-75 a4 3. Nitrogen, i == -/66 13:53. 4.6. is eee 13:24 Oxygen, ‘ ht ae | PA Oe a D ee 22:70 Ox. copper, . - 4 = 1538 38-37 | 37-60 1 ss SOT) oe 413-8 | 101-00 | 105-7 | 100-00 Glycocoll and Oxyd of Lead ; dried at 120°. [248° F.] Boussingault. Horsford. CioH,,N4O, rela Nf C,H,NO,+PbO. Estimate. | Result. Equiv. | Estimate, 16 ==" 96 13 5 A es 24 13-48 r P bye nd 2-13 Aves. oof 2:24 Nitrogen, : 4= 56 7-78 1 = 14 7-86 Oxygen, . | l= 88 12:57 | 1162 | 3 = 24 | 13:50 ead, ‘ : 4 == 4468 : 64:90 | 1 = 111-7) 62-92 701-8 | 100-00 | 100-00 177-7) 100-00 Glycocoll and Nitric Acid, dried in vacuo by ordinary a rom oussingault. Cre sNa OT os 6) €,H,NO,, HOT 0;.H a Estimate.| Result. quiv. ge timate. Carbon, aie 17-39 | 17 4= 4 17:39 Hydrogen, . | 24 =— 24 4:34 4 6 = 6 4:34 Nitrogen, . | 8 = 112 | 20-29| 20- 2= B 20-29 ox 2 (40 = 320 5798} 57:92 | 10 = 80 57-98 552 100:00 + 100-00 138. | 100-00... At 100° ©. [212° F.] this salt lost 9-18 per cent., and at 110° C. [230° or 4:5 per cent. more, with which it began to brown. 'This loss, 13°68 per cent., corresponds nearly with 13:77 per cent., the water in the salt. Its formula would then be C,H,NO,,NO a and Nitrate of Silver. orsford. (Ag, NOw)s. (05+ Ag0, NOg- Satan DHO-LAASO,NOz)- | CaHgNOg+Ag0, NOs : af rhs £0, Ea O-ETREO 2 ate, han Equiv. Estimate. Carbon, “6-0 | 00T | 009 | 8 H 17 = 17 1-78 ] dime 4 1-69. | Nitrogen, . | 8 = 112 | 1b75 | 1150] 2 = 2 | 187. Orveen, ot 83 mx O64 A? 27-8 8 = 64 | 2675 | silver,. | 4 = 464 48-68 48-70 1 = 116 | 4953 953 |" 100-00 | 100-00 236 | 1 Glycocoll and Nitrate of Potash. rd. — Seti nes ROT Yad Line iv eae tesnlt Equiv. Estimate, = 6) iT Mae ped 4 = 24 14 = 9.55 2-42 4. = = 112 16:50 * . 2 = = 780-6 27-95 97-49 1 = 6706 | 100-00 374 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll, Glycocoll and Nitrate of Copper. Boussingault. Horstord. C Ci¢H,;Ns,01,,+4NO,+8Cu0+49HO. | C,H,NOs, HO} caer NOs Equiv. Estimate. | Result. [— Equiv. | Estimate. Carbon, .\| 16= 9 | 11-02 11-04 4 = 24 11-02 Hydrogen, | 24 = 24 2:75 BE he oa Be 2:75 Nitrogen, S112 12-8 12-0 2 = 28 12:86 Oxygen, . | 40 = 320 36:79 37-45 i Ms lS, 36°79 x. copper, | 8 = 3176 | 3658 | 3654 , = 794 | 3658 ~ 8696 | 100-00 | 100-00 217-4 | 10000 If we review the estimates from the two systems of formule, and the results of analysis recorded above, it will be seen— 1st. That the analyses of the compounds with nitrate of silver, more nearly correspond with the estimates from Boussingault’s formul ula. 2d. That the analyses of the compounds with nitric acid, ni- trate of potash and nitrate of copper, are suited equally well to either formula. d 3d. That the analyses of the remaining compounds, viz: with the oxyds of silver, copper and lead, correspond more nearly with the simpler formula. As additional reasons for adopting the simpler formula, the fol- lowing, drawn from our investigation, may be recorded. th. The analyses give this constitution: as the average of four combustions for carbon and hydrogen, and two for nitrogen, will show, placed side by side with the estimates from the formu 4 . ; 4 Theory. Experiment. Carbon,1- + = equiv, = 24) 32-00. 3198 Hydrogen, PEO ELAS Dees! aT he me 67 6:87 Nitrogen, - - . ‘ | a ot 44 18-67 eo ygen, ee es ee 42:66 J 7} 100-00 | 100-00 | 5th. It forms a compound in which sulphuric acid replaces the atom of water : ,H,NO,, SO, se corresponding with Boussingault’s nitrate, dried at 110° ©. [230° F.]: C, H, NO,,NO,. eas 6th. It forms a compound with oxyd of copper, of this formula: : erage: 3, CuO, HO, which, at 100° C., [212° F.] loses an atom of water. : 7th. It forms a compound in which the atom of water 18 T@ placed by an atom of nitrate of silver : G, H,.NO,; Aga Ne 8th. It forms, when long digested with sulphuric acid, a. salt of this constitution : ; ; . C,H, NO,,S0, noe H, NO,SO, HO. §. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 375 The ammonia is taken from the hydrated glycocoll, which may be considered as fumarate of ammonia : ,H,NO,, HO=H, NO, C, HO,. 9th. It decomposes when subjected to the action of the gal- vanic battery ; an acid (fumaric?) and oxygen appearing at one pole, and an alkali (ammonia) and hydrogen appearing at the other. 10th. It may be derived from hippuric acid by treatment with a mineral acid, in which case a neutral salt of glycocoll is formed and benzoic acid set free: or by treatment with potash, in which case benzoate of potash is formed and glycocoll is set free. Hippuric acid, - - C,,H,NO, Benzoic acid, - voate - i, gdh ge Oy Glycocoll, sh de ae * 4 PNY; We may add also that the formule of Boussingault and Mul- der have not the advantage of so great simplicity. Preparation of Glycocoll. The recent brilliant discovery of Dessaigne,* that by boiling bipparic acid with sulphuric, hydrochloric or any of the stronger acids, this body separates into benzoic acid and a salt of glycocoll, tendered the preparation of the latter, in purity, a task of no dif- ficulty. It was, of course, necessary first of all to obtain a quan- tity of hippuric acid. ia This acid was prepared according to the method proposed by - Bensch,t by evaporating in a water bath, the morning urine of stall-fed horses, to from one-eighth to one-tenth of its vol- ume; adding hydrochloric acid till all effervescence ceased ;_ set- tng aside, in a cool place, for the perfect separation of the hip- puric acid; filtering through linen, and pressing; dissolving in freshly prepared solution of hydrate of lime, with addition of boiling water ; filtering, as before, and pressing ; heating the fil- trate to boiling, acidifying with solution of alum, cooling to 40°C. [104° F.), adding solution of bicarbonate of soda till no farther Precipitation takes place ; filtering and pressing ; and precipitation of the filtrate with hydrochloric acid. After washing, filteri and pressing the precipitate of hippuric acid, it was again di lve in boiling water, and blood coal added in the proportion of half an ounce to a pound of moist acid, again filtered at boiling heat through paper, and set aside to crystallize. By this method pris- Matic crystals are obtained of the most perfect whiteness, an inch In length, and from one to two lines in diameter. Se EE TS RS ae IY SE ie * Compt. Rend., xxi, p. 1224-1227. Liebig’s Annalen, Bd., lviii, 8. 322. * Liebig’s Annalen, Bd., lviii, S. 267. 376 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, From three to four ounces of hippuric acid were digested in a flask of one litre* capacity, over a spirit lamp, in four times their weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid, until entirely dissolved. A larger quantity is less manageable, and the subsequent treat- ment less expeditious. It is well to continue a gentle heat, with the addition of water half an hour after the solution is completed. niac, it is well to let the fluid stand a few hours. ‘The precipl- tate is then brought upon a filter and washed with absolute alco- sed till the filtrate no longer gives a precipitate with nitrate silver. Properties of Gilycocoll. Thus obtained, hydrate of glycocoll tastes sweet, though less so than cane sugar,—has neither acid nor alkaline reaction ; dis- solves in from 4-24 to 4:35 parts of water ; is more soluble in hot than in cold spirits of wine; is quite insoluble in ether, and scarcely less in absolute alcohol. When heated with a concentrated solution of caustic potash, in excess, it assumes, with the evolution of ammonia, a fine brik liant red color. If the heat be continued, the color gradually dis- appears. i Heated with hydrate of baryta or oxyd of lead, the same bril- liant color is produced. Hrs With sulphate of copper, a trace of glycocoll prevents the pre- cipitation by potash, and the solution assumes a characteristic blue color. Boiled with oxyd of copper or its hydrate, 4 Y" the tse blue solution, which, if concentrated, crystallizes 10 fine needles. So * <= 0-2201 English gallon. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 377 With nitrate of suboxyd of mercury, it gives a precipitate of metallic mercury. From a concentrated solution in diluted spirits of wine or in water, in process of time large prismatic crystals are formed, which apparently belong to the monoclinate system, of the combi- nation » P.OP.+P.2 Px». Prof. Kopp, to whom I am indebted for an examination of these crystals and of several others of salts of glycocoll, obtained from crystals prepared by Prof. v. Liebig, an admeasurement of the sharper angles of » P, (through which the orthodiagonal passes, ) giving 664°. The combustions for carbon and hydrogen were made with chromate of lead; those for nitrogen, according to the method of Varrentrapp and Will,— ; I. 0-6770 grm. gave 0-7940 carbonic acid and 0-4170 water. me 5576 os 06607 es ©, Me OSRT4A. IIL 0:-4670 “ “ 0:5455 ff HagitteO Gear IV. 0:4003 #6 “ 09-4686 &“ é “« 02478 ‘< . 01338 “ “ . 0-4100 platin-salammoniac. ee C1987: a. 56 AG ee # These determinations correspond in per cent. with - I. ae ul. Iv. v. vi. Carbon, 31:89 32:31. 31:1 31°92... ; Hydrogen, 6°34 6°92 685.687... .. Nitrogen, . . oe airy exarc hb Qt “+ 18:36 From these may be derived the formula, C ,HO as will be seen by comparing the estimated and average actual per cents. of the several elements. Theory. | Experiment. WRT ee 4 equiv. = 24 32-00 31-98 ees Bo ee DB 6-66 6:87 Wea ger aad 1366 | 1879 ; 4 * =32 4268 | 42:36 75 100-00 | (100-00. _ The atomic weight of glycocoll is, with the above constitu- fon, 66. . Giycocot, AND Hyprocnioric Act. Neutral Hydrochlorate of Gilycocoll. s Gl HCl HO. am ones is is the product of boiling hippuric acid with concen hydrochloric aia as already deacribed. If the filtrate, page 376, be carefully evaporated to syrup consistence, and suffered quietly to cool, the whole mass becomes filled with groups of long, flat prisms, perfectly transparent, and of the greatest brilliancy. ‘The mother liquor poured off, and the crystals washed with spirits of wine, gives the salt in the utmost purity. A second and thir Szconp Series, Vol. III, No. 9.—May, 1847. 48 378 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, portion of crystals may be obtained by concentrating the mother liquor and similar treatment. This salt slowly absorbs moisture from the air and deliquesces : over sulphuric acid, the crystals retain their form and constitution any length of time. It tastes sour, and slightly but positively stiptic ; reacts acid: dissolves readily in water ; in hot spirits of wine, and slightly in absolute alcohol. The substance dried over sulphuric acid, on combustion with chromate of lead, _ I. 02368 grm. gave 0-1833 carbonic acid and 0°1272 water. IT. .0:3218. “ § 02555 Ms Ht Si OTL ot IIL. 02853 “ “ 05698 platin-salammoniac. . IV. 1:5920 “ ‘ 20562 chlorid of silver. ¥.- 10008) .<. #12961 « tf VL. 1°5300 (<é 14 1:9300 a4 ce Expressed in per cents., the above determination correspond with I. IL. L I v. vI. Carbon, 21-11 . 21:28 ee Hydrogen, 5:96 5:95 ou ee . Nitrogen, ; 12°57 ettah geet ee. Chlorine, . . aes . .. $191. 31:99. .3P99 With these numbers, the following formula is in accordance; , O as the annexed comparison will ‘show, Theory. Experiment. % 4 equiv. = 24 21-46 21-20 a . 6 #s 5 3é we. 1 *" 4 12-5¢ 12:57 4 « = 32 98:53 |, 2640 15: eu ld 32:14 ec sapere 8 100-00 | 10000 Basic Hydrochlorate of G'lycocoll. prisms of 87° and 93°. They do not deliquesce like those of the neutral salt, upon exposure to the air, e salt has a pl sour, and at the same time sweet taste, reminding one of fine fresh pippins. The solution reddens litmus with chromate of lead. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 379 I. 0:3505 grm. gave 0:3550 carbonic acid and 0:1743 water. IL. 02758 “ “ 0-6729 platin-salammoniac. IIL 15050 “ “ 141-1940 chlorid of silver. These determinations expressed in per cents. : I. Ul. ii. Carbon, HY ZT 69 Ey : ® Hydrogen, 5°52 sg ; Nitrogen, gains 15°37 . Chlorine ee Fok 9°58 Correspond with the formula , H, NO,, HCI+C, H, NO,, HO, which, calculated, gives: . es A ns rn n, 8 equiv. = 48 27-0500) RT 59 Hydrogen, » 10. :==40 5-63 5-52 Nitrogen - z Q “== QR 15-78 15:37 xygett, BREE Fee 7 «© 56 31-59 31-94 Chlorine, oy =i +s = es ik ak 19-95 | «1958 Keb 1774 | Too | 100-00 Basie Hydrochlorate of Gilycocoll. | (b.) 2(GI, HO)+HCL. This salt was obtained by dissolving glycocoll in hydrochloric acid and leaving the solution to a quiet crystallization. The ex- act proportions of acid and base necessary to procuring it have not been determined. Indeed, it will appear obvious, after the ac- counts of the hydrochloric and sulphuric acid compounds, that the task of accurately fixing the temperature, concentration quantity of the several ingredients necessary to the formation of a given compound of acid, glycocoll and water, will be exceed- ingly difficult. Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following results: - 10290 grm. gave 0-9840 carbonic acid and 0-5580 water. I. 10890 “ ~ 06-8180 chlorid of silver. TIL 0.9760 «“« “ 07305 “c ‘“ IV. 0-97190 « “ (-7290 7) “ In per cents. expressed, 1. IL. 111. Iv. Carbon, 26-08 dee ae Hydrogen, oe lial pee pe Chlorine, 4853. 5 18-46 18-41 These numbers conduct to the formula, : ‘ rae aC, H, NO,, HO)+HCl, - ; aes estimated per cents. of which with the results of analysis are 4b perre =i "B06 02 Q « 93 be wisas —_ 4 a be we 189 1847 SRE ES aS 4 100-00 | 10000 ~~ 380 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, &§c. The rational constitution of this salt may be considered as one atom of hydrated glycocoll, united to one atom of hydrochlorate of hydrated glycocoll, thus, Gl, HO+Gl, HCl, HO. Basic Hydrochlorate of G'lycocoll. ; ; (c.) 3Gl, 2HCl, 2HO. This salt was prepared in the same manner as the last; a sim-#* ple solution of glycocoll in hydrochloric acid, set aside to crystal- ize. acid was, however, in excess. It was also prepared by passing dry hydrochloric acid gas over melted hydrate of glycocoll. For this purpose, a gramme and a half of substance was distributed along the bottom of a Liebig’s drying apparatus, and carefully heated with a spirit lamp; at the same time conducting over it hydrochloric acid gas. Ata tem- perature of between 150° C. and 170° C. [between 302° F. and 338° as determined in an oil bath, the glycocoll melts in the acid atmosphere. It was found better, however, to employ the simple lamp. With the latter the apparatus could be readily inclined or half inverted, to spread the molten substance over the interior of the tube, and thus facilitate absorption. - The absorption is attended with the escape of aqueous vapor. The process was continued until no further increase in weig was observed. At each interval the hydrochloric acid was thor- oughly removed by long continued passing of dry air through the tube before weighing. At the end of the absorption, the glycocoll usually became slightly green, owing doubtless to a trace of de- composition and separation of carbon. rom an analysis of crystals obtained by the first method, I. 1-2560 grm. of substance, gave 1-2520 grm. chlorid of silver. By the other method, II. 1-9727 grm. of hydrated glycocoll, increased in weight to 2°4580 grm. Precipitated with silver, this gave 2°3855 grm. chlo- rid of silver. The increase in weight was 24°60 per cent. The per centages of chlorine, I. 24:59; II. 24-23. hese numbers correspond to the formula, 3(C, H, NO,)+HCl+2HO0, which requires 24-51 per cent. of chlorine. Basic Hydrochlorate of Glycocoll. . id.) 3G Sel BO: 3 This salt is prepared precisely as the last mentioned, both by crystallization from the acid solution and by leading dry hydro- hloric acid gas over fused hydrate of glycocoll. 7 The notice of this salt would scarcely have been ventured up- on, had not a precisely corresponding compound with sulphuric acid been analyzed. It will contribute to show how multifarious may be the relations of a body, that combines as a salt, an a possesses both acid and basic properties. % Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 381 _ From crystals of the salt prepared as above mentioned, I. 1-2864 grm. gave 1-:3203 grm. chlorid of silver. — II. By leading dry hydrochloric acid gas over glycocoll in the manner already described, a compound was formed, of which, 1:1370 grm. gave 1:1845 grm. chlorid silver. In per cent. expressed, these determinations give, (C, H, NO,)+2HCl+HO, which requires 25-30 per cent. of chlorine. As the probable ra- tional constitution of the above salt the following is submitted, ; (Gl HCl+Gl, HO)+Gl HCL. Anhydrous Hydrochlorate of Gilycocoll. Having found a basic hydrochlorate, which might be regarded asa double salt of one atom of hydrate of glycocoll, with one atom of anhydrous hydrochlorate ef glycocoll : oA NOwy C, H, NO,, HCl, and especially having found as will be seen below, an anhydrous sulphate of glycocoll, it was natural to suppose that the anhydrous hydrochlorate might be obtained by itself, viz. C, H, NO,, HCl. To this end absolute alcohol was saturated with hydrochloric acid gas, and this added to a solution of glycocoll in hot spirits of : Upon evaporating the liquid, delicate prismatic crystals appeared which deliquesced with the greatest rapidity. ‘They even dissolved in absolute alcohol. This latter circumstance led to the supposition that the crystals might have been a double salt of hydrate of glyeocoll with hydrochlorate of oxide of ethyle. This supposition was further strengthened from an analysis of a sulphate of corresponding constitution soon to be noticed. (To be continued.) Arr, XXXIX.—Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth; by James D. Dana. 382 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. our view, and may be properly appealed to with reference to the earth’s features. The evidence has not been overlooked by the philosophers of the day, and is more or less fully discussed by umboldt, Malte Brun, L. A. Necker, Elie de Beaumont, Boué, and other geographers and geologists. Yet it has failed of fixing general attention. It is proposed to pass briefly in review the principal facts, and consider the causes to which the existing fea- tures of the earth are attributable. The remarks which follow will be hardly intelligible to the reader without a globe before him, or a Mercator’s chart of the world: and the latter, though the best kind of map for the pur- pose, is somewhat erroneous in consequence of the parallelism of the meridians. Trends of Coasts and other Features of Continents.—1. On the continent of America, the reader will observe the nearly straight coast line from the Gulf of Mexico along by Newfoundland and Greenland, a distance of 5000 miles; the near parallelism of this iles 1 length ; also with the line of Lakes Ontario and Erie, and the river St. Lawrence ; also with the coast on the northwest of Hudson’s Bay, and that by Prince Regent’s inlet. These parallelisms are too striking not to be at once obvious. 'They are instances of @ northeast and southwest trend; and the distance between these great parallel lines are respectively about 3000 miles, 250 miles, 1400, and 380 miles. _ Again: look at the west coast of the same continent, from Da~ rien to Russian America, and laying down a rule, mark the near parallelism of the course with the line of great lakes, from Ene through Michigan, Superior, Winnipeg, Slave and Bear, to the coast by the mouth of the Mackenzie ; also with the southwest side of Hudson Bay; with the coast on the west of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, and that also on the east. Here the uniformity is even more remarkable. These are instances of @ northwest and southeast trend. To one of the two lines corres- pond the greater part of all the grand features of the continent. The apparent exceptions will be hereafter considered. ‘The dis- ° tances separating these northwest lines average respectively 1000 miles, 350, 700, and 400 miles. ; Compare the sides of the Atlantic Ocean. 'The southeast coast of South America, from Magellan to St. Roque, is almost nent, by western Africa, Spain, and Norway or the Baltic ; and the break in the line made by the Atlantic, is partly filled by - belongs to the northwest system of trends, and extends by Guatemala and California northward; and if we cross the ocean, Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 383 we find the Cape Palmas coast of Africa, or rather the Kong mountains adjoining, and the Pyrenees between Spain and France, having the same trend as the northeast of South America. 3. In the eastern continent, the western coast of Europe and eastern of Africa have a striking parallelism, in which the north coast of Asia, from the Obo Gulf to the northeast cape, partakes ; and so also the east coast of Asia, the east coast of Hindostan, and also the island of Madagascar. These are northeast trends. Again, we observe that the Red Sea, Adriatic and British isles, the Persian Gulf, Western Hindostan, and the coast from Calcutta by Malacca, are nearly parallel lines, having the northwest trend. Whatever may be said of the exceptions and irregularities, there are evidently too many coincidences to be set aside as mere acci- dent ; and the two courses have accordingly been considered by Humboldt, the great geographical lines of the globe. We might pursue the same course with the mountains. But the general parallelism of the chains with the coast lines, is so obvious that we barely allude to them in this brief outline of the subject under discussion. 'The fact is plainly true with respect \ 7 New Holland, on one side, and nearly also with the coast of Cal- ifornia and Guatimala on the other ; and moreover, these lines are \* Comptes Rendus, May 12, 1845. Tchihatchef observes that the occidental chain runs x. w,and s. &., and the other or oriental, x. £. and s.w He mentions that a similar system exists in the Alps; but us the identity of direction is not ex- act, he considers the two systems diflerent. 384 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. distinctly both trends, and:they are so mentioned without allud- ing to any general law, by Darwin.t Beyond the American con- tinent, in the Atlantic, we find the Azores closely parallel with the Hawaiian line; and the same is illustrated in the Canaries, ac- cording to the position of the islands given by von Buch,{ and also in the Cape Verds. These lines are also parallel with north- east South America, and the Pyrenees. ‘Thus, not only over one ocean, but over both, the same system prevails, and alike also over the intermediate continents, the one corroborating the other. The system in truth belongs to the world. ‘To this conclusion fo Necker, Boué, and other geologists appear to have at- rived. | But if we survey the facts more minutely, may we not find vexatious doubt, if they cannot be blended with the : r ursue the subject still farther; and we believe that instead of proving that there are as many distinet systems in orography as there are mountain courses,$ It W GR The r ular lines of islands were observed by Flinders, as remarked by Fitton, (ibid., p- 132.) See Flinders’s Voyage, ii, 246. t Volcanic Islands, p. 115. ‘ Three great craters on Albemarle island, form & well marked line, extending n. w. by ny. and s. E. .; Narborough island and the great crater on the rectangular projection of Albemarle island, form a eseier arallel line. To the east, Hood’s island and the islands and rocks between It an ; 3 ‘ d, includes The other hese the principal craters appear to lie on the points where two sets of fissur each other.”’ . fs Ima t Les Iles Canaries, 369. The craters of Gran Canary, Teneriffe and sre ’ are in a northwest line, while a transverse trend is distinct in the several isla b ea. Essentially the theory of Elie de Beaumont, in which view he is supported ay many distinguished names in geology. Origin of the Grand Ontline Features of the Earth. 385 ar more in accordance with crt to refer even wide devia- tions of directions to one and the sa General character of the lines of ‘Mountains, Coasts, and Isl- ands.—A careful study of the courses of island groups, coasts and mountain chains, leads us to the following important re- sults :-— I. The ranges are made up of shorter consecutive and some- times parent lines, instead of being uninterrupted for long dis- tance. Il. "The ranges are more commonly curved, than straight or coincident with the course of a great cirele. Ill. The straight ranges are generally a in the con- stituent set but may consist of a series of curv vs d ranges may arise from a gentrdl curvature in the whole ; brut often proceed from the gna of the several con- secutive parts. ‘VY. The same range, owing to the mode of curving, may vary greatly in its course, in different portions. In these points we are stating mere- )} —__ —__- ——— — — ly the facts or results of observation, mee ie free from speculation. ‘The following - tiie may serve to illustrate the prop> yo ositions stated. pA TTT Ck vii sean igure 1, the entire range IS = Teer dis straight, as well as the parts. Perks weirs £53 In figures 2, 3, and 4, the parts are « Sr oa et straight and overlap, and thus form a ; range which is sometimes straight as *“—<__ a whole, but is more frequently — The direction of the whole range, ia ss shown by the dotted line, differs a —— = saada the direction of the subordinate lines. Figures 3 and 7 represent a common condition in which there are parallel lines in some parts of a range. In figure 5, the parts are curved; and» here, too, the coulis mange may be: straight or curved. : Fig. 6 represents a range made up of longitudinal parts: along With some transverse ; this is of common occurrence sip cnet oN _ The more thorough the examination © islands and of mountain _— the more distinealy. sil this me tem of things be apparent ; and instead of straight lines, or parts great circles, it will be found that the predominant courses in the earth’s features are curves. All these points might be abun- dantly illustrated by the groups of the Pacific islands; but we omit the details, as the subject ta be fully presented in the Re- port, by the writer, on the Geology of the Ocean. Suffice it to “ay, that in’ the Hawaiian range these pees are distinctly conp Serixs, Vol. II, No. 9.—May, 1847. 386 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. represented ; so also in the Samoan group, the Kingsmills, the Ladrones, and others. | The citation from Mr. , Fig. 7. Darwin, in the note top. / 384, exhibits both parallel ~? and transverse lines in the Galapagos ; and in the Ca- eels naries there are similar Teac / age 2c facts. The position of the Azores here given, well il- lustrates the subject. ‘The st ig _main parallel lines are too obvious to require partic- ular remark, and the trans- S verse are also apparent. A system of curves, on a grand scale, is seen along the east of Asia, resembling figure 5.. The reader, to appreciate the facts, should refer to his map, and the best and largest within reach. The first of these curves extends from Kamschatka south by the Kuriles to Yeso, and is 1500 miles long ; a second, from Yeso, or the island Sanghalian just north, along Niphon to its south- west extremity, 900 miles long; a third, from the southwest ex- tremity of Niphon, through Kiusiu and other islands, to Looe and Formosa, about 900 miles long; a fourth, from Formosa, by Luzon, Palawan and the western coast of Borneo, 2000 miles long. 'These curves are singularly alike in form and relative position. - TGetst: These coincidences are facts: accidental, that is, without 4 cause, no one will pretend. The Alaschka Archipelago, at the north, seems like a part of the same system; it forms a regular curve, 1600-miles long, between Kamschatka and Russian America. Uy Another corresponding system is apparent in the west coas of Azores or Western Islands. The Stanovoi and the Khingan mountains form three great curves of similar character, convex in the same direction; and the Altai range, farther in the interior, is parallel with the last. - When the particular islands in the curved lines south of I- schatka, are laid down with minute accuracy, there is reason t0 believe that each of the curves pointed out, will be found to be not a simpie curve line throughout, but a compound one, having some degree of blance either to figure 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 387 On a large recent map of the Pacific and East Indies, the range of the New Hebrides (K, fig. 8) and the nearly parallel New Cal- edonia, (M,) is observed to be continued in the Salomon islands New Ireland and Louisiade group, (1, G, H,) as before stated ; but the range, we remark farther, is becoming to the westward, gradually more east and west in direction, changing from N. 40° . to N.65° W. The range does not stop here: it is continued Fig. 8. p ‘ Group; M. New:Caledonia; N. Northeast Australia ; : 3 North New Zealand. a for another place, we observe only that this great range curves ine from N. 66° W. to N. 35° W. em from maps or descriptions. apie - In the valuable work on New South Wales, by Strzelecki, this intelligent and laborious traveller mentions and figures the succes- 888 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. sive curves, convex westward, which characterize the mountains of Eastern Australia, and without reference to any hypothesis, or to such a system of thingselsewhere. Profs. Rogers in their elab- orate papers on the Appalachians, mention that these mountains, in their course from Maine to Georgia, are made up of a series of great curves, which they describe separately and with detail. We shall allude, on a following page, to Dr. Percival’s interesting ob- servations on the trap ridges of New England, which sustain the same principles in all their detail. Sufficient has been brought forward to illustrate the general fact, that the great chains of mountains, as well as of islands, are interrupted ranges, consisting of overlapping lines, either straight or curved ; and that curves constitute an essential feature in the system. We have, there- fore, but a small part of the truth in the conclusion before stated, that there are two prevalent trends in the system of the earth. There is still another point to be observed before we are pre- pared to draw any conclusions from the facts. Namely :— VI. The approximately rectangular intersections of two sys- tems of trends wherever they occur together. The curving direction of the Java range has been pointed out in its course from Sumatra east. Looking again at the map, the reader will observe that the coast lines of the large islands north, are approximately north and south in direction ; but vary exactly with the Java curve. Celebes and Gilolo are north and south (ef, gh, fig. 8) like western Mindanao ; and correspondingly, the Java line in the meridian of Celebes, is east and west. \'The east coast of Borneo. varies a little to the east of north, and aline drawn along it (cd, fig. 8) would meet the Java range at right an- gles, or where this range inclines about as many degrees to the north of west. The west side of Borneo varies forty degrees to the east of north, (ab, fig. 8,) and at the same time the Java range, where the line of this side continued would meet it, has a like variation. to the north of west, not differing even a degree, thus making the intersection rectangular. Hence it would seem that the shape of Borneo. was connected in origin with the trend of the Java range; and not only this, the whole surface covered by the islands from Luzon to the Java range, has nearly the same shape as Borneo. get The successive curves on the east coast of Asia, are nearly at right angles with one another at their extremities. Thus Niphon stands nearly at right angles with the south extremity of the urile range; so Kiusiu, with the same extremity of the Japan range : and also Formosa with that of the Loochoo range. _ In New Zealand, the two systems, as shown by the outline of the group, are nearly at right angles. The 'Tonga range is nearly at right angles with the Samoa or Navigators, Passing by other cts in the central Pacific, the Galapagos present the same rect Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 389 angularity of the two systems. The line of active vents in Mexico and that of the great chain are at right angles, as stated by Humboldt, and the former is parallel with Cuba. The Cana- nes present the same facts as the Galapagos. We often find parts of a chain at right angles with the rest, as illustrated in figure 6. In the chain of lakes from Lake Erie to Bear, which has the northeast course, several of the lakes them- selves are oblong across this course. This is the case with the parts of Bear lake, with Slave lake, Athabasca, and the northwest shore of Superior; and the whole line is at right angles with the line of the St. Lawrence, Ontario, and Erie. Indeed such facts are closely connected with those first stated with regard to the allelism.t De la Beche mentions the same in Devon and some other parts of England, where north-northwest and a transverse direction are the common courses.{ Phillips observes that in Yorkshire, fifty-five out of eighty-nine of the cleavage joints ob- served by him, were between northwest and north, and twenty- eight were at right angles with these ; only six were ous. The same facts have been remarked by other English geologists. Fitton has presented similar facts from Australia.¢ Mr. Darwin in his work on South America, gives various facts showing that the principle holds west. of the Andes, that the cleavage joints are in general parallel to the mountain range. It is also true of the United States, east of the Appalachians. We observe there- fore that the question with regard to the cause of this structure 1S Intimately connected with that of the origin of mountains. - This survey of the geological features of our globe leads to Several important conclusions. ies A. That the earth has a strongly marked physiognomy, or a sysiem in its grand outlines. a aut : B. That throughout this system, northwest and northeast lines are every where prevalent. ) Hie pie . C. That these strongly drawn lines are usually curved in- stead of. conforming to the direction of @ great circle; and Mebihai nage a: ic, ke aces adage ~-™ Bibliothéque Uniy., de.Genéve, xliii, 166. 1930. t Trans, Geol. Soc., London, ii ser., iii, 68. t Geol. Rep. on Cornwall, Devon, and W. Somerset, 8vo, London, 1839. § Sketch of the Geology of Australia, Phil. Mag., Ixviii, 135. 390 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. whether curved or straight, consist of a series of subordinate parts ; these parts having often a different direction from the line of the range. hat the lines, even when curving, cross or meet any transverse lines very nearly or quite at aright angle, the one dependent on the other or varying with it. Consequently— E. That the same grand chain may vary even sixty degrees or more in its course, and hence the trend of a ridge is no inde- pendent evidence of its age. Thus a northwest course may gradually change to an east and west, as in the great Java range from New Hebrides to Java, and thence become northwest again, i matra:—a west-northwest range may change to north- northwest, as in the great Pacific chain from the Society Islands to the northernmost of the Marshall group. A north-northeast range may change through northeast, to east and west ; and also a north and south range may go through the same changes, as shown along the east coast of Asia and elsewhere.* *Just west of New Guinea the east and west line is a little north of east in Timor. Consequently, while northeast and northwest lines are on the whole most common, there are other courses to be consid- ered, and all are so dependent that they evidently must have a common explanation. Causes of the Earth's Features. The direction of mountain chains is universally attributed . the courses of former fissures in the earth’s surface ; and as islan come under the same head, and coast lines are mostly dependent on the ranges of heights adjoining, the question before us is reduc to this :—What can have occasioned such ranges of fissures, with their several peculiarities ; their composite character, general uni- formity of direction, curves, irregularities, and usual rectangular intersections ? ‘ Peculiarities of Fissures.—Before proceeding farther, it is 1m- portant to understand the general character of fissures; and we present a case to the point from the map accompanying the elab- _* The same principle is recognized by the Professors Rogers, in view of the facts observed by themin the Appalachians. “rans. Assoc. Amer. Geol., 1840-42, p. 540. t Report, &c., by James G. Percival, 495 pp. 8vo., New Haven, 1842. Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 391 [. rte ‘f / ( We, / 0 7 4 A BY wer re le px a bs he dikes (courses of fissures) have the following character- ICS :— a 1. A general uniformity of direction. | 2. A situation in several parallel ranges. ve } 3. An interrupted character, and a frequent advancing or re~ ceding in the successive parts of a line, or an overlapping of the extremities, as in figures 1, 2, 4, 5, constituting what Dr. Perci- val has well designated “advancing,” “ receding” or “contin- , es. ued” seri 4. Curved lines; some simple, others composed of several Straight lines, and others of subordinate curves. - Various irregularities in the lines, and deviations from par- allelisms, although belonging to the same general system. 392 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. an prominent features of the earth. The coincidences confirm the view that the ranges of mountains and islands correspond to ranges of fissures, and also illustrate their subordinate peculiarities. The formation of many associated fissures, instead of a single rent, is the natural result from the general character of the mate- rial ruptured, and the manner in which the force must act. Causes of the general uniformity, and composite character of ranges.—The most important point with relation to the ranges, is their general uniformity over the globe. ‘I'hese great systems of parallelisms must have arisen from the ruptures taking place in certain directions rather than in others, and the cause lies either in the forces causing ruptures solely, or in them in connection with the nature or structure of the earth’s crust: and if the lat- ter, the structure must be coextensive with the world, as the facts have no narrower limits. The Fig. 10. geologists. | The nature of this structure, or the cause of this tendency to 2 The _* Bib. Univ. de Genéve, xliii, 1833, 180. pee t Geol. Report on Cornwall, Devon and W. Somerset. p. 281. ne abil t Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, xiv, p. 439, 1843, and ii Ser., i, pp- 353, 355. 1 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 393 of crystalline grains; though theie may be also other independent lines of fracture. here is abundant evidence of a uniformity of cleavage direction in the coke of the surface over large areas, as already explained. Such a cause would have acted more uni- formly at the first cooling of the surface, when from the previous free liquidity, the material was more uniform in character than at any time afterward : and even though the material were different in different parts, it matters little, since feldspar is common in almost every igneous rock, and is a frequent source of cleavage in two directions at right angles with. one another, independently of the foliation an ae mica and hornblend when either of these minerals are pre _M. Necker, in a article already alluded to, suggests that the trends of mountains, coast lines, and the strike of strata, we With magnetic curves. The same cause is appealed to by Boa: la Beche, on the ground that the electrical currents ats ersing the globe may influence the polar forces of crystallization. It has since been demonstrated by Mr. R. Hunt that the direction of crystallization is influenced by magnetism,t and R. W. Fox had before shown the action of elacineal forces in a dies, aia with lines on his chart. .'The exceptions are’ many and look insurmountable ; but they are to some extent remov: bya knowledge of other sources of influence. It should also be remembered that lines of magnetic intensity, as Brewster has shown, correspond. nearly with isothermal lines; and the two agencies, heat and magnetism, must therefore have acted in some degree ees at all periods.$ _ Hop his able “Researches on Physical Geologyy "i (1835, i the regularity of joints in rocks to the m leal action of an elevating force, and he establishes a perfect uni- * Treatise on Primary Geology, by H.S. Boase, M. D.; 8vo, Lonigms 1sd4,and mand EP Phil. Mag., and 26ut,,°, vile 4; x, 14. : i t Phil. Mag., Jan., 1846, p. 1; Amer. Jo sat: Sci, - Ser., ii, 116. $3 mes of the Polytechnic ‘Soriety of Comet e or 1837, pp- 20. 21 ae im- gin ¥ :_ Sans-avoir besoin de sapposer Mieke os ses alt : babies ent un cristal, it suffit de lui accorder ae n ggibnng tae intérieures — ec Lode de forces centrifuge et centripete. Ceci on en doit déduire necessairement les premieres me cupé Jes parties du spheroid les plus ace identées, a taines grandes chaines offrant encore Jes de ces formes réguliéres, us do-réguliéres et puisque ces s¢ries de montagnes constituent l’ossature des conti- hents, et déterminent leur figure, on “voit de nouveau combien la similitude des continents éclaire U’etude pour ains dirg eitallgrap aphique du noyau terrestre. Bull. la Soc. Geol. de France, i, ii Ser., 355. falar Camb. Phil. Soc., vii, l- D Serizs, Vol. Ill, No. 9.—May, 1647. 50 394 of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. formity between the facts and the necessary effects of this cause. Mr. Darwin adopting essentially the same view in his remarks on the parallel relation of the planes of cleavage in western South America to the axis of the Andes range, explains the uni- formity by supposing the mass to have been subjected to tension unequal in different planes, arising from the elevation of the mountains.* Mr. Sedgwick in his valuable memoir “On the Structure of Large Mineral Masses,” (1835,) also appeals to ten- sion as the cause supposes that this tension may arise from they must have been lines of equal cooling, and consequently lines of equal tension. This cause would then cooperate wi the electrical, and might aid in producing the general uniformity of trend, which could not proceed from contraction alone. Act- ing during the period of early cooling, its effects should therefore have been universal: and through subsequent ages, the cooling of e cause, liable to those modifications that isodynamic lines have undergone. But a perfect correspondence in the sur grand result for geology if the science should settle this debat point. ‘The coincidence of the magnetic curves with the trends w Ho + Trans. Geol , London, ii Ser., ii , March, dal movements in the fluids during incipient cooling migh — n, transverse to the line of motio nid a gradual change in the oblateness Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 395 mainly caused by tension consequent on a diminution of the earth’s oblateness. Whatever the origin, there can be no doubt of the fact, that a kind of cleavage structure, or, at least, a capability of fracturing most easily in two directions, was given the crust during its form- ation, and’that such a structure has influenced the direction of the lines of fissures that have since taken place. And while there is evidence of this structure, there is proof that the rupturing force often acted obliquely to the planes of easiest fracture, caus- ing deviations from straight lines in the long ranges. e next question is with reference to this rupturing force. Contraction is a known dynamical cause that must have begun with the beginning of refrigeration; and it is hence essential to consider how far it meets the various facts in view. In the the- ory of mountain ranges, by Elie de Beaumont, this agency is ap- - The effects of contraction have been illustrated elsewhere in this volume. A prime feature in the operation of cooling, infiu- encing all the results proceeding from it, depends on the tendency of heat to spread itself circularly, or to diminish circularly, around acentre. This cause gives a circular form to pools of lava, and they retain this form as they cool. 'The great crater areas of the moon, several hundred miles in diameter, illustrate it; and this size is no necessary limit to their extent. Ina cooling globe there would therefore be necessarily such vast circular or elliptical areas. Here then we perceive a cause modifying all the results of cooling ; and we observe that throughout all ages there must therefore have been some reference to such circular or elliptical areas in contraction ; and especially, to aggregations of such areas, which also would be more or less curvilinear in outline, and would act as a whole in the progressive subsidence. ; The force of tension in the crust from contraction beneath, ponded ; otherwise a series of rents should result having a direc- tion of range different from the direction of the line of structure. The peculiarities of fissures, which have been explained, the € receding,” or “advancing,” or “ continued” series of parallel courses, and the curved directions, are therefore necessary effects the cause appealed to. Curved as well as straight ranges, ht therefore to characterize the grand features of the globe. e important generalizations of Mr. Hopkins with regard to the direction of fractures and the necessary dependence of two 396 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. transverse son in an elliptical area under a state of tension, on nly remove any difficulty arismg from the existence of tw transverse systems and their rectangular intersections, but set ally require this result.* non-contraction or of comparative slow Pri = should modify the direction of the ranges of fissures formed in surrounding region where more rapid contraction is going on. Also, the mterference of two contracting areas would uce irregularities ; still wider effects would proceed from more ex- tended combinations, such as have produced the Scarpa eo sions and the continental areas. 'Thus the contine i were early free from firest have generally experienced aha allie along their borders; and fissures and mountain ranges, frequently several in parallel series, have been formed, whose main courses are a resultant between the direction of the planes of cleavage and the action of the force of tension arising a the sedtiacren going on over the oceanic areas.{ Causes certain irregularities in mountain ranges were mentioned on pot 185 of the last number of this Journal, and these discussions afford a more extended view of the action of these causes. The principles cegeormnsy in the paper just referred to, have here their full applica * positions of some — contracting areas pare eee ~The great Pacific range 0 - lands, from the Mars hall Isl- eth, has been de scribed as convex to the Hepes while the line of the Ha- waiian range, 2000 miles long, is neatly straight. May not this part of the ocean have been one of the large compound ¢ contract . ing areas, and a line from Pitcairn’? as in lat. 25° S., long. 130° W., to northern Japan the course of its pais? Using “the registers 0 of ae § * The mathematical deductions of Mr. Hopkins were made with Lege refer- ence to the elevation of the Wealden, thong ought out so as to be of ge neral pp! ays down the facts, that in “ districts where faults oun ti distinct systems are usually found, in each of which the faults approximate 1 paralleli th other; and t “the common direction x ays is approximately perpendicular to that of the other;’’ an establishes necessary dependence of these transverse systems by calculati mode of producing the tension required by fracture is different In the fore- going explanations, fi what is asst Mr. opkins; but it does not appear to alter the erpern results; and it is believed to set aside some objections urged wed e to the conclusions of Mr. Hopkins. See L. and E. oat |. Mag., and of i. 4, 171, 368, and x, 14. this Journal, ii, 132, and iii, 181. t Ibid, iii, 98, 181 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. 397 subsidence, so happily distinguished and brought forward by Mr. Darwin, the Coral Islands, we have evidence that an elliptical area with the same line for its axis was subsiding even as late as since the tertiary epoch. The very region therefore which bears evidence of having been the original great elliptical area of con- traction for the Pacific, on which the courses of the islands were in part dependent for ae direction, was also undergoing con- traction till within a lat riod ; and we know not that some parts about the Northern Eieaekiaeae athe nearest to the centre of -area—may not still be contracting as there is some evidence of it, which the writer will elsewhere present. e transverse line including New Zealand, the Kermadec and Tonga Islands, crossing the other systems nearly at right angles, would pass in its course northward the Samoan and Hawaiian Islands, and also some smaller groups intermediate. The position of a large area undergoing little contraction com- pared with the region around, is before us in New Holland, as is evident from the absence from this semi-continent of voleanoes or their remains. Such an area would occasion a tension acting to some extent circularly around it; and which might determine the courses of ranges in its vicinity. The ranges of islands from New Zealand by the New Hebrides to New Guinea and Java, is just such a concentric range, as the view would seem to require. Borneo is another vast region without volcanic traces over its in- terior, and may have influtnced the upward trend exemplified in Su umatra. However this may be, the cause brought forward— large isolated areas of comparatively slight contraction,—must ave had their influence in determining the direction of lines of tension or of forces causing ruptu Boué remarks that the trends i in the tropics in general ap- proach a parallelism with the equator, and he attributes the sup- posed fact to the centrifugal force of rotation. It holds true to a considerable extent. ‘There are however so many exceptions that we may perhaps doubt whether the fact is sufficiently een eral for so general a cause. The conclusions which appear to flow from the facts that have en presented, are as follows :— That the — direction and uniformity of the grand outline features of the globe may be in a great degree the simple effects of the earth’s cooling : this operation resulting in (1) solidifica- tion, and under the circumstances, whatever they were, an attend- ant jointed structure or courses of easiest fracture, in two direc- tions at right angles nearly with one another, both varying to- gether according to the rates of cooling in different parts ;—an 2 *) Oceasioning tension in the crust through the contraction going neath, with some relation to circular areas but especially to es compound areas, which tension caused ruptures conforming 398 Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth. yg or not to the lines of jointed structure according as the force of tension acted in accordance with this structure or obliquely to it. (3) The age of mountains cannot therefore be determined neces sarily by their courses; a different direction in a particular region in different ages is not improbable, since the same contracting area might exert its horizontal force in somewhat different directions at different epochs, or other such areas might codperate, and exert a modifying influence; and at the same time, an identity of di- rection for different ages was to have been expected. From the facts before us it may be inferred that the great vol- canie band which is drawn by von Buch in the East Indies, in the shape of the letter U, from Sumatra and Java around by the Philippines, gives an incorrect view of the volcanic system in that part of the world. Much the larger part of the Philippines consists of primary and secondary rocks instead of volcanic, and in Luzon, the southern volcanic portion corresponds nearly to the west-northwest trends of the Pacific. 'The voleanic line of Sumatra and Java, including also the islands farther east, belongs, as we have shown, to the system of the Pacific, to the north- westward courses which characterize nearly all the groups of that ocean ; and it is continued east by a volcanic line along North New Guinea to the New Hebrides. Although an erroneous impression may therefore be conveyed by the chart of von Buch, it presents properly the fact intended to be illustrated by its distinguished au- thor, that volcanoes prevail along the trick laid down. The band seems like a grand voleanic border to the Asiatic continent, stretch- ing from the vicinity of northern New Holland, (and we may say from New Zealand,) to Kamschatka; and it curves around into the great American range through the Alaschka Archipelago. It isa fact of no little interest that the Pacific Ocean should Notr.—On page 188, it is implied that Lyell and Poisson admitted the former fluidity of our globe ; whereas the writer simply intended to acknowledge that a globe while it was in a state of free liquidity. See Lyell’s Principles, ti, ee Tk is mentioned as having presented the argument subsequently ta " See this volume, pp. 96, 98, 181, 185, 186. f Ibid, pp- 94, 176. ag Prof. Bailey on the Alg@ of the United States. 399 Arr. XL.—WNotes on the Alg@ of the United States ; by J. W. Battery, Professor of Chemistry, &c., at the U. 8. Mhlitary Academy. (Continued from Vol. iii, Second Series, p. 80.) the continuation of the list of Alge hitherto found in the United States, I have thought it best to “adopt for the Confervee, the names employed by Harvey, in his Manual of British Alge ; for although the recent subdivisions of the old and heterogeneous genus Conferva, are doubtless necessary and proper, yet Algolo- gists do not seem agreed as to what names shall be generally adopted. The old and well known names will answer all my present purposes. List or Norra American ALG, (CONTINUED. ) Conferva alpina? Bory. Murdiner’s Creek, near Newburgh, . Y.; v. sp., in herb. Tor Se a ericetorum, Roth. Salem, N. Ca., Schweinitz ! Conferva floccosa, Ag. Salem, N. Ca., Schweinitz! Rhode Island, S. 'T. Olney. West Point, N. Y. "Com Conferva bombycina, Ag. Salem, N. Ca., Schwein Rhode Tan, S. T. Olney. Ponds near West Conferva rivularis, Linn. Common Bort Maine to Ouiscon- ja. " intone aerea, Dillw. Narragansett Pier, S. T. Olney ! Newport and Seaconnet Conferva (Elachista) fucicola, Velley. vot common on Fucus vesiculosus at Stonington, Newport, é RI ye fracta, Fl. Dan. West Point, N Y. Providence, Conferva glomerata, Linn. Lake Ontario, Pickering! eek of Niagara, and in Lakes Erie, Huron and Michi igan. Also Fourth Lake, near Madison, Ouisconsin. Conferva refracta, Ag. Eastport, Maine, Rev. J. L. Russell! Very common on shores of Rhode Island. I have not now at hand Schweinitz’s Renita of Conferve: from North Carolina and therefore can only present the following memoranda, which I made while examining them, some time since, in Dr. Torrey’s herbarium. I give in one column the names attached by Schwei- me and in the other the more modern names, where I have been to determine them from the often’ unsatisiactory examination of the dried specimens. Tm Conferea serpentinum, Sale Salem, N. Ca. = Conferea serpentinin Ag.? = Seber emp “ “ == Tyndaridea Se eradtens, flarv. 400 Prof. Bailey on the Alge@ of the United States. hweinitz’s labels. True name. Iraparnaldia glomerata, Ag. Sc Conferva mutabilis, Salem, N. Ca. a rnali. at BS = Fragillaria pectinalis, Lyngb- #6 lubrica, « ss = Oscillatoria, sp. ve vaginata, oy == Microcoleus repens, Harv- ay genuflexa, sis = Mougeotia genuflexa, Ag. “ jugalis, Ad 4 = Zygnema quininum, Ag. ns uitans, Schweinitz, Salem, N. €a. és amphibea, “ce ce “ce # setiformis, “eg ee «Not recognized. se varia, “ce “é os | gc semistrangulata, * ts sae, SY It appears from the above, that to Schweinitz is due the credit of being the first to collect and study any of our fluviatile Alge. Hydrodictyon utriculatum, Roth. This most interesting plant was found by Dr. Paul B. Goddard and myself, growing abun- dantly in a small pond at the foot of Broad street, in Philadelphia, also succeeded in sending living specimens to correspondents in London. | Mougeotia genuflera, Ag. Providence, R.1. West Point, N. Y. Detroit, Michigan. Fort Winnebago, Ouisconsin. Tyndaridea cruciata, Harv. Common in the Northern States. so in Virginia. = Tyndaridea pectinata, Harv. Common with the above. Zygnema nitidum, Ag. Waterville, Maine, to Culpepper Co., Virginia, and west to Ouisconsin. ygnema deciminum, Ag. Alabama, Dr. Gates! Very com- mon with the above. roa Zygnema quininum, Ag. Salem, N. Ca., Schweinitz! Com- mon with the above. 4 If the numerous forms described and figured by Hassall, are really distinct species, the list of our species of Zygnema and Tyndaridea might be greatly extended, as I recognize among his figures many forms which are common in the United States, and which appear to me to be merely varieties of the above mentioned very polymorphous species. Spheroplea crispa, Berk. West Point, N. Y. Vaucheria velutina. Shores of Hudson River, at West Point ; in fruit in September. Shores of Seakonk River, near Provr dence, R. I. Ocean House, Newport, R. I. ‘ Rivularia calcarea, Sm. Niagara Falls, on rocks wet with y: Prof. Bailey on the Alg@ of the United States. 401 Rivularia atra, Roth. Rocky sea shores, Rhode Island. Rocks near low water, in the Hudson River, at West Point. — Rivularia angulosa, Roth. Common on leaves of Vallisneria in the Hudson River. Occurs also in Rhode Island, and in the Fourth Lake, Ouisconsin. Stigonema atrovirens, Ag. Moist rocks at Indian Falls, Put- nam Co., N. Y. Stigonema mammilosum, Ag. Abundant in Round Pond, near West Point, covering submerged rocks, &c. Scytonema ocellatum, Harv. Warden’s Pond, R. I. Abun- dant at Niagara Falls, on rocks wet with spray. Scytonema contertum, Carm. Foot of Crow’s Nest, West oint. Tolypothriz distorta, Kitz. Warden’s Pond, R.I. Reservoir Pond, West Point. Fourth Lake, near Madison, Ouisconsin. Calothrix confervicola, Ag. Very abundant on marine Alge every where in Narragansett Bay, R. L. Calothrix scopulorum, Ag. Rocks at Newport and Seaconnet, __ Oscillatoria. The species of this genus are very difficult to identify by the descriptions, and it is even stated by Mayen, that mal cies undergo manifold changes during their growth. It is therefore with much hesitation that I present the following names. Oscillatoria tenuissima, Ag. Warm Springs of Washita, Dr. James! v. sp. in herb. Tor. ide Oscillatoria tenuis, Ag. Providence, R. I. West Point, N. - Culpepper Co., Va. Oscillatoria decorticans, Grev. On pumps, &c. Common every where. Oscillatoria muscorum, Ag. On mosses in the ravine on the Crow’s Nest, West Point. cillatoria nigra, Vauch. Common at West Point, N. Y. Oscillatoria Corium, Ag. Mill dams near West Point. ; All our species of Oscillatoria have a strong and peculiar swamp-like odor, which I have not seen alluded to by writers. Their extraordinary oscillations and radiations, so wel by Carmichael, (See Hooker's Brit. Flor., Vol. v, p. 372,) I have en witnessed, and I feel satisfied that it is impossible to ac- count for these motions by evolutions of gases, currents in the liquid, elasticity of filaments, and other mechanical causes, which : ve been suggested by some writers in explanation of the phe- omena, Microcoleus repens, Harv. Common in damp earth. West Point, N.Y. Providence, R. I. Hingham, Mass., Rev. J. L. Russell ! Seconp Series, Vol. III, No. 9.—May, 1847. 51 402 Prof. Bailey on the Alge@ of the United States. Porphyra vulgaris, Ag. Narragansett Pier, S. T. Olney. Seaconnet, R. I. Massachusetts, G. B. Emerson and Rey. J. L. Russell ! : Ulva latissima, Linn. Rhode Island. Common, Old Point Comfort, Va. Sullivan’s Island, 8. Ca. Ulva lactuca, Linn. Rhode Island. Ulva bullosa, Roth. Salem, N. Ca., Schweinitz. Newburgh, N.Y. Merismopedia punctata, Meyen. Round Pond, near West Point. A larger variety occurs in freshwater pools, near the Pa- vilion, at Rockaway, Long Island, Bangia fusco-purpurea, Lyngb. " Narragansett Pier, George Thurber! Newport and Seaconnet, R. I Enteromorpha intestinalis, Link. Hudson we: from New- burgh to New York city. Narragansett Common. Enteromorpha compressa, Link. Common with the above. Einteromorpha erecta, Hook. Newport and Seaconnet, R. I. Tetraspora gelatinosa, Desvy. Maine to Ouisconsin. Very common. Tetraspora gelatinosa, var? Sakonia, Bailey. Perhaps a variety of the above, but remarkable for the numerous perforations in s iPene West Point, N. Y. Chautauque Co., N. Y., M8 Peti al Palmela hyalina, Lyngb. Rhode Island to Ouisconsin. An wt tae flos-aque, Bory. Round Pond, West Point. Has- sall thinks that Bory’ s account of the ambulatory faculty, and vermiform motions of this curious organism, is “fanciful and overstrained.” I have, however, eens watched its active and extraordinary vermiform motio Protococcus nivalis, Ag. Red snow plant, forming red stains on gneiss rocks. Kosciusko’s garden, in early spring. Hammatococeus Greville: ? Ag. Common on summit of Crow’s Nest, West Point, N. Y. Nostoc foliaceum ? Ag. Wet ohenss near mill dams, &c- West Point, N. Y., and linea rivulets, near West Point. I have found it ae late in autumn. Since. the publication of the first part of this list, 1 have refer- red some of our plants about whose true names I was in doubt, to the practised eye of the eminent British Algologist, W. H. Har- vey, _— I have to thank him for much useful information with 0 them, which although not sent with a view to pu tion, we I think be presented now without impropriety. - Prof. Bailey on the Alg@ of the United States. 403 Laminaria ? trilaminata, Harvey, ms. A curious three wing- ed species, of which a fragment was found by Mr. Olne ey at Nar- ragansett Pier, and of which I also found imperfect cn ! at Stonington. Harvey remarks “it is new to me, and must be either a Laminaria or an Alaria, probably the former, bint” util perfect specimens are obtained we cannot decide.’ cen ge Jeniculaceus, Grev. Common at Newport and Seaconnet, Gracilaria, n.sp. This species of Gracilaria grows in vast quantities in Narragansett Bay, near Providence, R. I. Harvey remarks concerning it, “it is new to me, and as far as I can make out undescribed. Agardh’s Spherococcus subulatus from Canada, seems to come nearest to he It may be the same.’ Chrysimenia, n. sp. Abundant near Providence, R. I. Har- vey states, that “it is sllied to ©. clavellosa, but still more nearly to C. secunda, Hook. and Harv., (a native of New Zealand,) and it may be identical with it.” Spyridia filamentosa, Harv. A slender variety of this, is the plant which I mistook for an undescribed species of Griffithsia. It oceurs both at Providence and Newport. Sonia a abana corymbosum, Ag. Harvey thinks that the small Callithamnion common near Providence, is of this species, but he has not seen this fruit, which however I have studied myself on the recent plant, and ‘| find it to agree with the description of C. corymb osum. Polysiphonia Olneyi, Harv. us. This beautiful plant grows in Breat et near Providence, R. I., where it was first found y 8. T. Olney, Esq. of that city. I had confounded it with P. Ea to which Harvey remarks it is very near but not exact- y the same. Polysiphonia variegata, Ag. fide Harv. Common near Prov- idence, R. I. Rhodomela subfusca, Ag. Common at Newport and Seacon- net Point, R. I. Tet etraspora hag Bailey. Harvey says, “ this is certainly anew species. I have never seen any thing like it.” It isc mon Sireiainond the state of New York, and characterized by perforations of various sizes in all parts of the frond, so that dried on paper it has a reticulated appearance. To be continued.) 404. =R. I. Murchison on the Silurian Classification. Arr. XLIL—A few Remarks on the Silurian Classification ; by Str Ropertcx Impry Murcuison, G. C. St. S., F.R.S., Memb. Imp. Acad. Soc. of St. Petersburg, Cor. of the Roy. Inst. France. : Belgrave Square, March 3, 1847. TO THE EDITORS. _Gentlemen—I have sent to you, through your booksellers, a copy of my last memoir on the Silurian Rocks of Sweden, which may prove interesting to some of the American geologists on account of the distinctness which it establishes between the lower Silurian strata of the continent of Scandinavia and the isle of Oland, and the upper Silurian of the large island of Goth- land, which I have placed in detailed parallel with our Wenlock and Ludlow rocks of England. In calling your attention, and ? species of trilobites, the lowest fossiliferous beds resting on slaty grauwacke, without fossils, to which the author applies the term Cambrian : ; I call your notice to this last mentioned fact, (intending to visit Bohemia in company with M. de Verneuil, in the ensuing sum- mer, ) because I have, in the course of this winter, been compelled for the first time to defend my “Lower Silurian” against a new proposal of Professor Sedgwick, which almost amounts to the suppression of the term, and the substitution, in its place, of the word “Cambrian.” T'o this proposition I am entirely oppose The latter term was suggested a year after I gave my first gen- eral view of the upper and lower Silurian rocks (in 1835) as form- ing one natural system, and the word Cambrian was afterwards — oe Oa Oe * The MS. did not enable us to ascertain this name. R.I. Murchison on the Silurian Classification. 405 applied to the masses lying beneath the “ Lower Silurian,” which might be found to be characterized by a distinct group of organic remains. Subsequent researches, however, in various parts of Europe and America, have shown that no typical fossils can be detected in any of the lower strata differing from those by which I characterized the lower Silurian, and hence, on the principle of “strata identified by fossils,” I have for some years past main- tained, in all my publications, that the base line of the Silurian rocks so descended as to embrace the earliest clear traces of or- ganic life. The government geologists of Britain, under Sir Henry De la Beche, have pointed out, that throughout South Wales, the very strata which I had described as “ Lower Silurian,” fold over and over, and occupy large tracts, to which I had, in my first work, erroneously applied the word “Cambrian ;” and now these same surveyors, particularly Mr. Ramsay and that able paleontologist, Professor Edward Forbes, assure me, that through- out orth Wales, from Bala to Snowden, the rocks which had hoped might be typified by other or “Cambrian” fossils, are charged with the same lower Silurian forms, and often with the very same species which are described by me as occurring in my Carodoc sandstone or Llandeilo Flags. They further confirm my original views of classification, in stating that these North Welsh strata, whether lower or upper Silurian, are so linked together, that they form one natural system; there being found many more species common to the upper and lower division than I ae able to detect, when I completed the Silurian system, in 1839, | Now, whilst my memoir on Gothland demonstrates the identity of its upper Silurian functions with those of Britain, the labors of our government geologists are daily opening out new features of comparison between the ‘“ Lower Silurian” of Russia and Scan- dinayia, as described by de Verneuil, Keyserling and myself, and the North and South Welsh strata. Thus the Cystidea, those earliest forms of Crinoids, with which I was unacquainted when the Silurian system was published, and which occur in myriads in the lower Silurian limestone around the Baltic, have been found pretty abundantly near Bala, Harefordwest, é&c.; and among them is the very species, Echino-spherites ( Spheronites ) aurantium, which abounds in Russia and Sweden. It follows, therefore, that the terms which I was the first to propose must be adhered to, particularly as I have myself applied them to very large regions of Europe, on fair inductive evidence, and that North American geologists have honored me by doing the same im their country. ; a gain, whilst no zoologist has attempted to define any distinct types of life of earlier date than the lower Silurian, so 1s it im- possible (at least in any region which I have seen) to separate 406 R&R. JI. Murchison on the Silurian Classification. that group physically from the upper Silurian, by any line of general dislocation. If the lower Silurian rocks in America were unconformable to the upper, then it might be contended by those geologists who look rather to great physical phenomena than to organic life, that the Cambrian was one epoch and the Silurian another. But such is not the fact. In North Wales, as in other parts of Europe, the upper and lower Silurian fold over in con- formable masses, and the lines of dislocation in that broken and porphyritic region run at one place through parts of the upper, and in others in the inferior fossil beds. There are, it is true, certain tracts, particularly that of the Longmynd in Shropshire, described by me in the year 1835,* where certain lower Silurian strata abut against and repose unconformably on very ancient grauwacke, without fossils, and the same may be said of a limited tract of inferior grauwacke, near St. Davids. 'To such rocks, lying unconformably beneath strata charged with lower Silurian fossils, the term Cambrian may be applied, and in the process of research some few and, perchance, peculiar organisms may found in them. But I distinctly maintain that the so called Cambrian never having been characterized by any published fos- sils, cannot now be created into a system at the expense of the larger part of my well recognized and long established Silurian stem, the more so as I am supported by every naturalist who has studied the subject, in the opinion that the upper and lower Silurian constitute one natural series only. This view is every day strengthened by new discoveries. Only a few months ag®, I firmly believed, that as no remains of vertebrata had been detected in the lower Silurian rocks of any part of the world, there was a period when other classes of marine animals abounded in the seas, without being accompanied by fishes. But I now learn from Prof. E. Forbes, that the defence of an Onchus has been found in the lower Silurian rocks, near Bala; whilst it ap- pears that Professor Sedgwick and his companions detected last summer a similar fragment in true Llandeilo flags. It is therefore proved that the same genus Onchus, which Agassiz first descr! for me from the fish bed of the Ludlow rocks,+ is now found to range down into the lower Silurian; and as rare portions of icb- thyolites have also been found in the intermediate strata of Wen- lock shale, &c., I willingly correct a generalization which 1 at tempted, in declaring my belief that the lower Silurian was 42 invertebrate period. My eminent friend Agassiz, who is now making himself as beloved and admired in the United States, a8 in Eng and other countries he has visited, has thus in the end been borne out by the new discoveries. For, whilst I reasoned Ln ERE Pr etc * Phil. Mag., June, 1835. t See Silurian System, page 256, et seg. Hydrate of Nickel, a New Mineral. 407 mainly on the fact that no remains of fishes had ever been found in lower Silurian rocks, among the countless myriads of other ma~ rine animals, and that I was also influenced in my views by the proofs afforded by geological enquiry of a progression in creation, assiz has proved right in his conjecture that with such asso- ciates, fishes would sooner or later be detected. In one respect, indeed, I rejoice in the discovery, as the occurrence of an Onchus in upper Ludlow rocks and in Llandeilo flags, unites with other paleontological evidences to bind all the Silurian rocks together in one natural system. In conclusion, I would observe that whilst it is impossible, for the reasons above cited, to admit that the Silurian system can be broken into two systems, I might convince you, by another method of reasoning, that the adoption of such a proposition would entirely destroy the very term Silurian, in reference to regions of the continent of Europe, to which it has been applied, such as arge parts of Russia, Scandinavia, &c., where the lower Silurian alone is developed. But I have already said more than enough, and will only add, that notwithstanding our recent animated dis- cussions, Professor Sedgwick and myself have still as warm a friendship for each other as ever, and however he may ultimately _ persist in calling certain rocks of North Wales “Cambrian,” (al- though they are loaded with true lower Silurian fossils, ) I must seize this opportunity of declaring that I consider this to be little more than a geographical distinction ; and further, I must express my belief that if he should produce a work upon the geological structure of the old and slaty tracts of Britain, upon which he en long occupied, it will be found to be in every way worthy of his deservedly“ high reputation, and will throw impor- tant new lights on those parts of geological science which his elo- quence and memoirs have already adorned. Arr. XLIL—Hydrate of Nickel, a New Mineral ; by Prof. ae B. Si ie SiLuiman, Jr. Tas mineral occurs incrusting the surface of chromie iron from Texas, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, and has been cir- culated among American mineralogists during the past year, un der the name of green oxyd of chrome. I found it, however, on analysis, to be a hydrous green oxyd of nickel nearly pure. "It is found in lustrous emerald green crusts, on the surface of some spe- cimens of the chrome iron from these mines; rarely in stalactites and columnar masses. It is often covered with a thin coating of carbonate of lime or magnesia which obscures its color. Alone it is quite transparent and of the most brilliant emerald green color. Hardness 3 or 3-25, being a little above cale spar. Gravity 3°0523, He 408 Hydrate of Nickel, a New Mineral. as taken in small fragments with the specific gravity bottle. Its lustre is highly vitreous and its fracture uneven and scaly. It is extremely brittle and is readily pulverized, giving a light yellowish green powder; it is very easily detached from the gangue on which it rests. Its pyrognostic character is perfectly decisive. Alone in a close tube it affords a copious yield of water, which is neutral to test paper; and it loses its fine color at a temperature but little above 212°; with a higher heat it becomes blackish ~ gray and is then quite unchanged by long continued heat. empyreumatic odor is also found in the tube when it is heated. It forms no bead with carbonate of soda in either flame of the blowpipe ; with borax, it readily fuses into a transparent bead, of a dark yellow or reddish color when hot, and nearly colorless when cold. In the reducing flame, with a larger quantity of the min- eral, the bead becomes gray and opake from the presence of nu- merous particles of finely divided metallic nickel which cannot, by long blowing be fused into a bead. On crushing this borax i e mortar under water, a gray powder appears, which is strongly attached by the magnet, and which burnishes under the pestle, showing the reddish white color of metallic nickel. With salt of phosphorus its behavior is precisely like the artificially prepared oxyd of nickel. An examination in the wet way detected only trifling traces of oxyd of iron and perhaps ~ alumina. It dissolves completely and with very slight heat in di- lute chlorohydric acid, and the few black particles which collect. on the bottom of the flask are minute flakes of chrome iron me- _ chanically entangled in the mineral. The solution has the fine grass green tint which belongs to the salts of nickel. Sulphuret- ted hydrogen produces no turbidness in the solution, and no traces of oxyd of chrome could be detected. Indeed the blowpipe de- cisively indicates the absence of this oxyd, since an exceedingly small trace would give the borax glass its characteristic green tint when cold. The beautiful green color of this mineral, as ound, led no doubt to the supposition that it was the native green oxyd of chrome, which seemed a plausible conjecture. Its water was determined by ignition of a weighed quantity of the mineral in a carefully counterpoised platinum crucible, cooling after ignition in a desiccator over sulphuric acid. It lost as the mean 0 trials 38-50 pr. ct. of water, which is rather more than two atoms. Its constitution will probably be correctly expressed by Ni2H. It will be remembered that the artificial hydrate of nickel prepared by precipitation with potash from the nitrate is Ni Hf or only one atom of water. The discovery of the composition of this mineral led me t amine the composition of several specimens of carbonate of ead or 0 ex- . nesia from the same mines, which have a green tint more On Cupellation with the Blowpige. 409 deep. I found in all of them the oxyd of nickel, in quantity pro- portioned to the depth of color of the specimen. In some of them, the green color seems to be an exterior coating and in others to penetrate the mass uniformly. These specimens: of carbonate of magnesia are not crystallized although they appear to be so, but are only a congeries of little spherical grains about tha Of an inch in diameter, which are cracked in radii from the centre. 'The same appearance, resembling aggregations of crystals, | [have observed in one specimen of the hydrate of nickel which led me at first to suppose that I had found it crystallized. The constitution of the chrome iron on which this new mineral is d, now becomes an interesting inquiry. I owe these and Many other interesting minerals from the same region, to Mr. L. W. Williams, of Westchester, Pa. . Norr.—Since these observations were made, I have seen a mention in the Pro- ceedings of the Boston Nat. Hist. Soc., Nov. 18, 1846, from Dr. Jackson, oF a mineral, as I learn from Dr. Jackson, is from the same mines as the 410 On Cupellation with the Blowpipe. When the cupellation is performed on mica, the oxydation is nearly as rapid as on the bone ash cupel, and the globule is kept partially immersed in the melted oxyd of lead, and thus the silver that would otherwise be lost in the litharge, is mostly taken up by the lead.* A little skill in the operator will enable him when the oxyd has accumulated to some extent around the globule of lead, to slide the melted globule by a slight inclination to another place, without losing it off from the mica. This obviates in a great degree the loss of time, that would otherwise arise from the necessity of cooling to detach the globule, put it in anew lace and heat it again to the proper temperature. When the cupellation globule is reduced to the size of a mustard seed, whether bone ash or mica be used for cupelling, it is well to re move it to a new very smooth cupel, or to a fresh piece of good mica, and then, when melted, make the globule slide by inclining the cupel, and by means of the blast, to fresh surfaces, until, final- ly, the globule of silver or gold remains pure, or as nearly so as cupellation will make it. No silver is lost in this way, except the extremely minute quantity carried off in the litharge, and that which is vaporized if the heat be too high. The method of cupellation on mica I consider more accurate than that on bone earth, and if the mica be of good quality, s0 as not to exfoliate at all by heat, or permit the litharge at the Pee s in weight may be seen on its surface by the naked eye. When _* This is the explanation of the well known fact that the eupellation of lead in the large way, always gives a larger yield of silver, than is indicated by cupellation . in the small way on bone ash cupels. On Cupellation with the Blowpipe. 411 lead entirely free from silver. The German granulated lead pre- pared. expressly for this purpose, contains a notable quantity of silver. Nitrate of lead and acetate of lead when reduced and cu- pelled yield silver; and I have precipitated lead with zine, reject- ing the half of the lead first precipitated, as being that likely to contain all the silver, and saving only that part precipitated last, and still found it to contain silver. As lead absolutely pure seems to be unattainable, I estimate the difference between the weights of peraninsion glo obules , obtained from the metal or ore, and from '* These weights are easily made by a little skill in manipulation. To make moderately smail weights I have used silver lace, which when yaa" pled is a 1s gees with flattened wire of silver of ep tenuity. I how many inches of this gave 1 grain of silver, and t y means of dividers anda sector Seale, cut off such lengths as would make met Tr With the sector scale, +45 and even zdy of an inch can be measured red and twenty inches in 9 th oft the lace, pate 2:2 grains bsileer: Twelve Inches = -22 ron, 1-2 in. = 0-022 grain, 0-12 in. = 0-0022 grain, &c., and generally, 120 in: 2 2-2sgrs. 3: 2 length required : y the weight required. If y = oho grain, ‘iin 120 in. : 22: ‘rove . © = gl¥y inch, which is vautiy off on the oa aig scale. Having ie length cut off, moisten it with borax wa- terand melt o he borax water enables the silver to coalesce without rating Fite? aah globules, as it Id do, i w fe) moistened and rolled up into a little pellet. T is so small in quantity, where the is moistened with borax water, that it does not dissolve any sensible quantity of silver. By rolling the moistened thread into a little pellet, I can easily make all hp water coalesce into a single globule when the thread is ten to twenty i th. nt still smaller weights I use fine plated copper wire, and cu That ased is from an epau pit of ue ch by ne analysis, I found 1800 ee #8 length gave 16 grains of silve er, inches in length for 1 grain of silver. 135 hes then Would give a ae sei » 1:35 inches = rou grain eins, eres 0-135 aherg of si This is no mapa PR accurate, as little of os oe . se. d A ay tesa method; enclosing a wire, with a hole drilled to let 412 On Cupellation with the Blowpipe. (2.) IL use also the principle of Harkort’s scale,* in measuring the diameters of minute cupellation globules, but applied somewhat differently. In most of the boxes of French mathematical draw- ing instruments, a brass sector scale is found, which when closed, shuts so as to leave, if well made, a junction that is a mere line to the eye. From the centre of motion, a line is drawn on each’ arm of the scale six inches in length, divided into two hundred ual parts, and when the scale is completely closed, the two hundreth equal part at the end of one of these lines, is exactly one inch from the two hundreth equal part at the end of the other e. If we wish to measure the diameter of cupellation globules, less than ;'; inch in diameter, (and most blowpipe globules are smaller, ) measure one inch between the points of the dividers, and set their points in the equal parts marked 195; (for ;'; inch=z$, and 200 —5=195.) The arms of the sector scale between the points marked 200 are then ,’, inch apart, and approach each other to the centre of motion, where their distance = 0. In this way the scale may be set to any fraction less or greater than an inch that may be desired. The cupellation globule is laid between the diverging arms of the scale, and slidden along by a pin or other convenient instrument, until the globule fails in between the arms of the scale. The width of the opening between the arms at this point, gives the diameter of the globule. Suppose the scale set to measure globules between ,', inch and 0, and the globule falls in opposite the equal parts marked 45. The diame- ter. of the globule. is then 5: of jy =y¢deerg4y inch. ceca A globule of silver of 53, inch in diameter weighs about 0-00006 grain. This weight is about + more than the actual weight of a cupellation globule of that diameter, because the above is calculated for a sphere of silver, and the cupellation glob- ules are always more or less flattened on the lower side, unless they are extremely minute. A globule of silver ;¢, inch diam- eter, if a sphere, would weigh 0-298665 grains; but owing to the flattening of the cupellation globule, the actual weight of one of that diameter is only 0:18 grains, or about 2 less. I do not gene erally permit myself to estimate the weights of cwpellation glob- ules by their diameters when greater than ;', inch diameter, consequence of the rapid variation in the law of the relative weights to the diameters, and globules above that. size can as correctly appreciated by a good balance. ‘The eye can gener- ally unaided by a magnifier see a globule of silver of ;s’ss inch diameter, which weighs about ;,552,553 grain, and this can be san ine ans cseea * Vide Whitney’s edition of Berzelius on the Blowpipe, p. 104. Px - tA similar method of mensuration will be found in the Appendix to Muspratt § translation of Plattner’s work on the blowpipe, by Prof. O, Brawe.—Lds. On Cupellation with the Blowpipe. 413 meastired with considerable accuracy by means of a micrometer microscope. ‘This degree of accuracy is sufficient for all practical purposes, for if ten grains of lead only gave ;,534,575 grain of sil- ver, 3124 tons would be required to produce one oz. of silver. If ten grains of lead or rather alloy cupelled yield ;,';; grain of silver or ;53;55 Of its weight, it would contain only 31 oz. per ton, or if it yielded ;1, grain, it would be 32 ounces of silver per ton of lead or alloy. Means of estimation like those mentioned are sufficiently accu- tate for practical purposes, by using one grain weight of the alloy or one mixed with a suitable quantity of lead. Quantities of silver far more minute can be detected by suita- ble care in blowpipe cupellation. With a good microscope a globule of silver ;~,; inch diameter ought to be visible, which would weigh about +5.553.bs5.c07 Of a grain.* A metal that about one-sixth in those from ;', to ;4;, about one-seventh in The weights of spheres of gold or silver of any other diameters than those in the table, are easily calculated by the formula W= CDs. is a constant for the same metal, and represents the Weight of a sphere of the metal one inch in diameter. This weight ee ese ee Fe i ._” For 1 cubic inch of distilled water weighs 252 46 grains. If the specific grav- ity of silver be called 10-5, then 1 cubic inch of silver would weigh rains 0:5 the sp. gr. of silver = 2640:8 grains. Solids are proportional to the cubes of their like linear dimensions. An angle of 1’, the limit of the visual angle, at @ distance of 8 inches subtends soo von Of an inch, = inch. ».(linch) — * (ssta0)*® : : 26408 grains : t= y55z8 Se0-000-000. = STISTETOTS about one six thousandth Shee of a an or in a spheroid form, a globule of about one ten thousand millionth of a grain. Sinall globules may be rendered more distinct by pressure in an agate mortar, which not only gives them a greater area, but a much greater reflecting surface. ; 414 On Cupellation with the Blowpipe. for gold is 2577-667 grains, and for silver 1382-72248 grains.* represents any diameter whether a wh ole number or fraction, W the weight required. Logarithms are easily applied, and Log. W=log. C+3 log. D. save much labor. Table bie 3 the Weights of Spheres of Gold and Silver of ch. ed diameters, of fractions of an inc Diameters of plana Bho i of spheres sof Bs peel? Weights of spheres sqpene i; cale set) €xpressed in grains, ppperes A on sector expressed in grains. oo Teg Pind For gold. |For silver, Decimal) Vulgar ja iach | poy gold. | For silver. } a i 2577 667 1382 7224) ‘Co72-| Tee 29 (9) 0009808 0-0005261 zo ee Le 2 57766 |1-382722 0069 | 145 28 00008814 |0°:0004728 rz4 : alge 0-706 0067 | t£5 27 {00007951 |0°0004265 | Ze |. - 0°62931 |o-33757 | 0065.) zhe 26 —_|0-0007197 (0°0003860 | reg] - (0799677 |o-29866 | -0062 | rE0 25 jo-0006293 [00003375 o| gig | 200 032221 Jo-17284 | -oo60 | i¢¢ 24 {0'0005635 \0°0003022 gs 170 ©|0°16497 |0-0884 57) <4 23 -{0'0004978 |0-0002670 lo-o300} gy | 121 0069618 .0-037333 | -0055 | zd, | 22 |o-0004347 |o-0002331 250} zy | 100 0'040276 o-021605 | -o05a'| zgy | 21” Jo-o003758 oa002015 30 | 80 or1061 | ‘0050 | sade 20. {00003222 |o-0001728 166) gi | 666 bia sagitie oo64or5 "0047 | otg 19 |0:0002783 jo-o001493 seh! 6. e 59305) 0045. | sy 18 |o-0002355 |o-9001263 42|. zy 5g 207515 ended 0042, ote 17 jo'0001986 (o-0001065 0°0133) 745 | 53 |0°006110)\0-0032775} -o0f0 | ohy 16 |o-0001649 00000884 00125) gh | 50 |0°005034/0-0027006] -0037 | 5 = 15 |o-0001368 |0-0000734 OrolIg aed 48 0°004474 4 35 | ods 14 |o-0001113 |0°0000997 oort7| yt | 47 |0°004295\0-002251 | -o032 | =, 13 |0-00008g0 |o'0000477 O°OTIt| gg | 44 |0°003535\0-001896 | -0030 | giz 12 |o-0000682 0°0000374 00105} giz | 42 |0:003006\0-001612 | -0027 séz II }0°0000538 |0"000C oor0e| thy | 40 |0°002577/0:001382 | ‘0025 | phy | 10 — jo-oo004o2 | 0000315 00097/7h74| 39 |0°0023g3|0-001283 | 0020 | hq | 8 —_jo-0000206 jo-o000110 070095 és 38 }0°002226)0-001194 | ‘0016 séo 66 |0:0000119 0-0000064 0°0093\ 7574 37. |0°002075}o-001113 | 0014 rey 5-4 |0:0000075 jo-0000040 oro0gt| zto| 36 1936|0-001038 | -oo12 | gdp . /ex00000503}0"00000269 0°0088/yt74| 35-7 |o-oo18rojo- i} :00tt| ghey 000000353}0'00000189 0°0087| ¢tg | 35 |0°001694lo-o00909 | 0010 | zalrg 6:00000257|0/00000138 0°0083| +4y | 33:3 |0-:001491/0-000800 | -0008 tz00 0°000001 49|0"00000079; o zis 32 |0°001319)0-000707 | -0006 argh: 0 00000062 o-00000033) 0'0077| rz | 31 |o-001200J0'000644 | +0005 | zohyx ©°00000032|0"00000017 jo-0075; t35 | 30 95lo:000587 | 0-002 | yak, 0°000000160°00000008: Jackson C. H., Ohio, March 3d, 1847. * It has been shown in a Ree Re note, weigh 2640-8 grains. he sphere . 0-5036 — 1382-72248 grain and a sphere of the same weighs sphere, :: 1: » for she! dbdbataoat a hacia = $rRS= ‘diameter is unity, +; (aya met 5236. a he cub of the same diameter oni wei ineeey of old of one ger weigh a i i e nts of a cube : that of ao when the On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient, Sc. 415 Arr. XLIV.—On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient of a Function of any number of Variables; by A. D. Sranvey, Professor of Mathematics in Yale College. Waren a quantity is a function of a single variable, the varia- tions of its differential coefficients are, as is well known, easily determined. But the variations of differential coefficients of a function of éwo variables have not been ascertained without diffi- culty. Lagrange, the inventor of the Calculus of Variations, never obtained them by a method duly general. Poisson was the first to do this ; which however has since been done in a some- what simpler manner by Mr. Ostrogradsky. But for the general case in which we have any number of independent variables, or even for the third case in point of complexity, viz. that in which three variables are concerned, the variations in the differential co- efficients of a function have not been determined by either of these ciple in algebraic language, 6dV=ddV. (‘That this statement is inadmissible, we shall, at another time, attempt to show.) There is however-an article on the Method of Variations by Mr. Pagani, published in the fifteenth volume of Crelle’s Mathematical me 2 We use them in a manner considerably different from his. Ef the other method is essentially different, and is much more sim- Ple and concise. Still as the problem concerned is of funda- mental importance in the Calculus of Variations, it may not be oe to state the former as well as the latter method of so- ution, 416 On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient Let then u=f(z, ae Z, S&C. ), ans ae variation let this equation become u= se Ey &c. ):: o let du=u—u, dr=x—z, y=y - ened aaa ou —— “Oy, dz, &c. being functions of all the independent variables, 2, y, z,&c. These variations being assumed, our object is to determine the resulting variations in the differential coefficients of w; as for instance, the variation gre dz Mis du du. Now by reason. of the variations assumed, a> becomes 7 * ie x the variation of — = therefore, is — nade and if this be denoted dx dx dx du -, @u_du_du, by 5—, we have the equation 5—-=—-—““: but ice y <> we have the equatio i a a ; ae — du dow cites. dz dx dat dz’ how du _dudx du dy du dz dx dx dx dy de dz da + ©. — er dix dy d(y+dy) aby dz dz de de =" Ge de~ de de® de ae du diu dadir du diy du diz Hence, 6 le de Po da aa —&c. anid if ween. =&c. du du sider that ns ‘a don de’ “and* neglecting the infinitesimal 5>-, sub- nitty Sg d he 20D, 6 stitute dx 1° Fy bt and substitute also —- dy’ a é&c. for =- dy’ yet we obtain the equation ‘ du diu du dix du diy du ddz whe) Agen as ge ga. > 9, gs + a This is easily reducible to the following form, which will be found convenient for purposes of generalization ; ep oH Ou = 6 - _ de de ~ ie oni Ws gy 9 HO du du yd | t dede °C + Tedy Y* Gedz fagihyrester? pe - Qe i) a — a | - = a ° =) “= oe a i) i] oa Pe ed Lt . & i=] be | a > “ od +2 t= ° s wn — of a Function of any number of Variables. A17 i remeber sisal oy valley dg 8 iggy maple Ne d du du du (su 7 oS ag hone ™ tz —ke.); f du where w’ is put for 7. 19 dy du du 5 ‘ ae ae ; ow = x 4- ay dy+ mo z+&c. is the variation in the fune- tion w, that is due to the variations dz, Sy, dz, &c. independently of any change in the form of that function. And the excess of the whole variation 6u above this partial variation, may garded as the variation occasioned in the function by its change of form. Let this excess be denoted by Ju, and let a similar notation be used in other like cases. Then 4u'=~4—; that is, du dau naa? a Hence we readily derive the general equation 9 qitmtr&e.4, qitmtr&e. 4, (2) “deldy"dz’&e. da'dy"dz"&e. | Now for brevity, let D be put for the complex characteristic q’t™+r&e. daldy"dz"&c. } then since 4Du is only a substitute for the ex- Te dDu dDu. dDu pression sDu—-~7- or. = TdyOat da bis : du du ree du jt-8s : n proved,is equal to D.4u ot D(du—5, Sry oo is z+ e.) it follows that dz —éc. and, as has just du du du (3.) 'Du=D(du- 7, Gy by — 5. dz—&e.] dDu dDu dDu +e wha dy a dz ae which is the general formula required: for it exhibits the value of the variation of any differential coefficient of u, due to the Ssumed variations du, dz, dy, 9z, &c. in terms of those varia- tons ; in other words, it assigns for the dependent variation Du, in which 9 is separated from u by the characteristic D, an expres- sion in which none but the assumed variations occur, in which the characteristic 6 is found, only as émmediately preceding one or another of the variables u, x, y, 2; §¢- va re Ve have now to state a second method of obtaining the same result; the method to be preferred as the most simple and direct. _ We will begin by showing that when a function varies in con- Srconp Series, Vol. II, No. 9.—May, 1847. 53 418 On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient sequence of changes in the values of its variables and. in its form, the whole variation is equal to the variation due to the change in the form of the function, independently of any change in the variables, added to the variation which is due to the changes in the values of the variables independently of any change in the form of the function: a theorem which though seemingly ob- vious, is not however to be assumed without proof. Let u= F(z, y, z, &c.),and by variation let 2, y, z, &. become x, y, Zz, &c. while » becomes u+v, where u=Fx, J, 2, &c.) and v=f(x, y, z, &c.). Then the whole variation of u which we will denote by ou, isu+v-w. But if there were the same change as we have supposed in the form of the function, with- out any variation in 2, y, z, &c. the variation of wu would be fiz, y, z, &e.), which we may denote by v or 4u. And if there were no variation in the form of the function w, but the same variation as has been supposed in the values of z, y, 2, &¢- the , Serta of u would be u- wu, which we will denote by Tv. "hen du=4u+Tu+(v—v). But as vis the same function of X, y, 2, &c. that v is of 2, y, z, Se. (v— v) is an infinitesimal of the second order and may be neglected. We have then finally the equation (4.) ' du=dutlu; a result which verifies the theorem stated above. We now proceed to determine the variation of a differential coefficient of afunction. Let u be the function, and Du the differential coef- du'dy"dz" &e. . Then when uU varies qit™*" &e. tou-+v, Du varies to Diu+-v), where Dis put for 75 ay" ee And if 9Du be put for the variation of Du, 6Du=D(u+v)-—Du=Du+ Dv— Du. But Du is the same function of x, y, z, &c. that Du is of 2, y; 2 &c.: then agreeably to the notation already used, /Du may be put for Du- Du. And as Dy is the same function of x, y, z, &c. that Dv is of x, y, z, &c., Dv=Dv+rbv. Hence if the infinitesimal Dv, which is of the second order, be neg- lected, and if for v, its equivalent 4u be substituted, (5.) SDu=D4u+rDu: and if for 4 we substitute its equal du— ru, then (6.) 6Du=D(du—ru)+rDu. Now the meaning of r is such that if infinitesimals of the second order be neglected, ficient ; where D is put for aa du du du : (7.) ru=7, ont oy dead dz+&c. of a Function of ny mimber of Variables. 419 Therefore, du du du (8.) 1Du=D (du~7, ot = ay ty - 5 dz -&e.] dDu dDu d Du oo a OES dy ae wa Pp dz+ Ke. which is the same as the equation (3) before obtained. If Du be put for wu in the equation (4), then (g.} 6Du=1Du4+rDu; and if this be compared with the equation (5), it follows that (10. 4Du=D4u; which is of the same import with the above equation (2). The equation (8) may be presented in another simple form, that is worthy of notice, when J+n+m+&c. =1; as for example, when 7=1, and 0=m=n=«e. for then du d du du du Vide de tat oy a ye bz &e.) d?u ‘ d*u d?u a taeda © dedy YT ded 9? + or Py du du dudde duddy dudiz SEER 0 ee ey det AE Ee es Which is the same as the former equation (1). bape Mr, Delaunay, in a paper on the calculus of variations lately aerate and which has particular reference to the variations 0 Multiple Integrals, has thought it sufficient to vary the limits of Integration, and the form of the function which the dependent variable is of the independent variables, without assigning to the latter any variations; in which case no investigation is needed to determine the variation of a differential coefficient of the depen- dent variable ; for it is obvious at once, tha gitar &e.94 ar &c. Py “da'dy"dz" &ec. du'dy"dz" &e. \ Now With reference to the variation of a double definite inte- Sral, it is plain that if the integral be presented in the following A OF | — form, f. dx J. V, and be considered a substitute for such an — (2) Smpreilot:ts this, viz, WW one sy gay Wyn oy cHA z=4 ‘ dw dW dy where W is such a function of «and y, that F Ty ae U; and U such that “=v, then the method of Delaunay will suf- 420 On the Variation of a Differential Coefficient fice, and the variation of the integral may be exhibited with entire generality in the following manner, : "A (x) “A F(x) A 8 fu dy va fix fay OV+ | dz ( Var(x) —Vaf(a)) av f(x) aw f@) a y= Fix) y=fiz) ‘ . we) . af ts. y (12.) +34f 4, Vioa7 taf Vewei where 8V denotes the variation in the form of V considered as a function of x and y. But it may at times be necessary or con- venient to regard a double or other multiple definite integral as the sum of an infinite number of infinitesimal elements, or more correctl rhaps as the limit of this sum, and variations may need to be attributed to these infinitesimal elements severally rather than in the aggregate, in which cases, (as has been re- marked by Ampére in a paper on the Calculus of Variations ap- plied to mechanics, ) it is not sufficient to regard the variations of the independent variables as nothing, but general values m be or them as well as for the variations of the de- pendent variables. 'The method of Delaunay is therefore essen tially deficient in generality. By means of the formule already stated, it is easy to obtain the proper expression for the variation of any function of both de- pendent and independent variables. Let V be such a function, whose variation is to be determined ; let the independent variables be z, y, Z, &c., and let P be one of the dependent variables. Then as V is a function of z, y, z, &c., and of quantities which are functions of z, y, z, &c., it is virtually a function of these inde- tion in respect to all the variables, dependent and independent variables Then in the general equation 6V=aV-+1rV, 4V must be the sum of all the partial variations of V, that are analogous to the I dV : dV following, 75 4P; which sum may be denoted thus > 7p 4P. But P may be a differential coefficient of a function: we will m+n &e. 9p suppose it such, and put instead of it, Du, that is, inayrde &e- Then, dV dV 4AV=2 7p 4Du==7p Day sess D(su—Tu). of a Function of any number of Variables. 421 Therefore, dV du du du (13.) aontege D(tu— i fs nay rae ee dV dV . dV Eee Oa + oy Uy ie dz+Kce., av av" ev : where P= Du, and ——, dy? dz? &c., are complete or total difler- ential coefficients with respect to z, y, z, &c. One other theorem, which has not, we believe, been elsewhere stated, seems worthy of notice here t V be a function of several variables, £,Y, z, &c., either Yieiale or constant in its form with respect to them; then by virtue of the omni (1), we readily obtain the following, dV dV da I +dy 97 of. iy as Ps zy +k. w dV _ av dV dV Now seit dV asa uniform function a ry a qe &e dV 60 dV de, dy, dz, &c., viz., the function ie + Gy dy Sine es dz+&c., we have the equation, Ad il . ddV=dr oP le ig * Oe fs +&c. (15.) dV + ate ys iy Y ty +o ddz +&c., which one with the last gives the lowing dV daV—asy 4. Te (dde-ildz) +5, ™ (sdy- > g. 2 ss c~ 8 @ ; So 2S S | os: S 5 =) S a is ® = i=) I td a i) m™ 3 =) q rs 8 oy “it ogen not a Constituent of cot meget ; ErpMaNnNn and MarcHann, (quoted in Jour. de Pharm. et de Chim., ix, p. 470. )—Liebig has asserted, when speaking of the vegetable alkalies, that “ no reme ys devoid of nitrogen, possesses a poisonous action in a similar dose 3” > and adds that this consideration led to the re-examination of picrotoxine, y Mr. Francis, who ascertained that nitrogen did exist in it. This being contrary to the analysis of several distinguished ¢ chemists, Messrs. Erdmann and Marchand pre examined the subject with the greatest care. The test of M. Lassaigne, which, as is well known, is exceedingly delicate, failed to give any indication of ae pooeree nitrogen. The ordinary mode of combustion was then tried, gramme of em substance being burned onih time. Tad the pic j contained half of one per cent. of nitrogen, there would have been collected 4 cub. cent. of that gas. In two experiments, they © Chemistry and Physics. 425 ‘band ‘7 of a cub. cent., in two others, 4 and 5 cub. cent.; this gas, however, was not nitrogen, for it was inflammable. This result shows that caution should be exercised in the determination of nitrogen, and that both carbon and hydrogen may escape combustion and create a loss, falling of course mainly upon t n. G. C. 8. O pure protoxyd of nitrogen. For the sake of comparison, seeds were Plants of the cress were then introduced into the gas; on the third day they became yellow, and at the end of a week they drooped. _ Brought into the air, they resumed in a few days their green color and erect position. _ From these experiments, the author concludes that the protoxyd of nitrogen favors neither the germination of seeds, nor the vegetation of plants already forward, that the gas is not decomposed by the leaves, even under the direct rays of the sun, and that seeds do not lose their vitality by a short exposure to its influence. ~ oe These conclusions are true for the pure gas, but it by no means is to be inferred that the gas is altogether unfavorable to vegetation; we are persuaded that the contrary will be found true. In a similar manner, Braconnot, not long since, demonstrated that salt was injurious to vege- tation: plants coated with a tolerably strong solution of salt, withered and died; ergo, salt was injurious ! C8. 10. On the Volatile Oils of the Crucifere ; by F. PuEss, (Liebig’s Annalen, lviii, p. 86.) —The leaves and seeds of the aspt arvense yield, by distillation with water, a volatile oil, which, on examination, Proves to be a mixture of oil of mustard and oil of garlic. This oil dges not preéxist in the plant. ince, Let The leaves and seeds of Alliaria officinalis give a similar mixture of these two oils, although the oil of garlic is sometimes absent. » The oil of mustard alone is formed from the leaves of Iberis amara, and in very small quantity from the seeds of Capsella bursa-pastoris, (shepherd’s purse,) Raphanus raphanistrum, (charlock,) and. Sisym- oC sire, % a Z The same reaction is observed with the roots and seeds of the radish, and the seeds of the Brassica napus, Cochlearia draba and Cheiranthus annuus, (stock jilly.) sire ABLE My Jl. On the Oil of Monarda; by A. E. Anrrs, (Liebig’s Annalen, viii, - 41.)—This ‘oil, the product of the Monarda punctata, (horse- Mint,) was brought from the United States. It consists of a fluid oil andastearoptene. The former is a yellowish-red fluid, with the odor Srconp Serizs, Vol. Il], No. 9.—May, 1847. 54 426 Scientific Intelligence. thyme; it boils at 485° F. It is apparently a mixture, as the stearop- tene boils nearly at the same point. It is easily converted into a resin by contact with the air or any drying substances. The stearoptene forms fine crystals ; its boiling point is 428°. The formula is C,, H, O. (Gerhardt remarks that this is the formula for stearoptene of carraway oil.) This substance combines with hydro- chloric acid gas, but does not form a crystalline compound. G. C. S. 12. On the Substances contained in Achillea millefolium, ( Yarrow ;) by B. Zanon, (Liebig’s Annalen, lviii, p. 21.)—This plant possesses much reputation as a febrifuge, both in this country and in Europe. M. Zanon obtained from it a bitter extract, which he calls Achilleine, and a crystallized non-volatile acid, which formed salts with potash, soda, ammonia, lime and quinine. No analysis is given, so that we are unable to say whether the achilleic acid and the extract are new substances, or are already known. .C, 13. On the Formation of Caoutchouc from Drying Oils; by L. E. Jonas, (Archiv: de Pharm., xlvi, p. 159.)—Linseed oil, boiled for a long time, yields a brownish varnish ; this is to be boiled for a long time in water containing nitric acid, the loss by evaporation must be supplied and the acid not allowed to act too violently. At last a substance is obtained, which gradually solidifies ; this is to be washed to free it from acid: ‘This substance does not adhere to the fingers, is plastic, does not melt by itself, and when heated, strikingly resembles caoutchouc. It dissolves partially in ether and sulphuret of carbon ; entirely in oil of turpentine. Walnut and poppy oils furnish the same body, to which the name of oil-caoutchouc is given. : When linseed oil is boiled with half a part of sulphur, as soon as th temperature reaches a certain point, the whole is converted into a ge latinous mass, resembling oil-caoutchouc ; dilute nitric acid converts all the sulphur into sulphuric acid ; the residue has a brick-red color, which however is not elastic C. 8. 14, } thus formed is to be boiled with pure nitric acid sufficient to dissolve about nine-tenths of the metal; the resulting nitrate of mercury is to reduced to red oxyd by heat, and this is to be calcined ina porcelain retort to reduce it. By the action of the first portion of nitric acid the more oxydable metals are acted upon; the second portion of acid leaves the metals less oxydable than mercury in the undissolved portion. : As the mercury reduced by this process dissolves a notable quantity of oxyd, this last is to be separated by agitation with sulphuric acid 3 1t is afterwards to be washed with a very large quantity of water, dried in the receiver of the air-pump over sulphuric acid. Mercury thus purified was employed by M. Regnault in his third determination of its density. ode M. Millon states that when a saline solution, such as chlorid of cal- eium, hydrochlorate of ammonia, nitrate of potash, c., is added to Chemistry and Physics. A27 mercury in a bottle, the mercury is always divided into rounded glob- ules, which remain separated from each other for a long time; but what is very striking is, that the size of the globules, which varies enormously, is always connected with the nature of the aqueous solu- tion. Some solutions immediately cause extreme division in the mer- oxydation of the mercury. In trying some experiments, Mr. Swan of this city, was led to put crystals of sulphate of soda into the diluted sulphuric acid, when he found the a to be more uniform, and the More than a hundredth of a degree from the truth, that the maximum € result arrived at by Despretz, from a very extensive series of experiments with an apparatus similar to that employed by Hope, was ..* This stand - Hassler, in his elaborate investigations during the years 1830-1839, with ropeed re the weights and measures of the United States, after Previously determining, by a long series of experiment, 39°-83 to be the tem- 428 Scientific Intelligence. 39°-176, which agrees nearly with the above result. But other results show considerable discrepancy ; e. g., Hallstrom, 39°°38, Blagden and Gilpin, 39°, Hope, 39°'5, Deluc, 41°, Lefebvre Gineau, 40°, Dalton, 38°, Rumford, 38°8, Muncke, 38°°804, Stampfer, 38°°75 F. The mean of all these observations, is 399-24. f anew and practical form of Voltaic Battery of the highest powers, in which Potassium forms the positive element ; by Joun Goop- MAN, Esq. Communicated by S. Hunter Christie, Esq.. A-M., Sec. R.S., (Royal Soc., Jan. 11; Phil. Mag., Feb., 1847, xxx, 127.)—The author succeeded in constructing a voltaic arrangement of some power by fixi tery acted with energy on the galvanometer, and effected the decom- position of water. A series of twelve pairs of similar plates exhibited a sensible attraction of a slip of gold leaf. Thus it appears that the substance which possesses the highest chemical affinity manifests also the greatest power of electrical tension. 18. On Photographic Self-Registering Meteorological and Magneti- cal Instruments ; by Francis Ronarps, Esq., F.R.S., &c., (Royal Soe., Jan. 21; Phil. Mag., Feb., 1847, xxx, 127.)—The apparatus employed by the author at the Kew Observatory, and which he terms the Photo- Electrograph, is described by him in the following words :—* A rec- tangular box, about sixteen inches long and three square, constitutes the part usually called the body of a kind of lucernal microscope. A vol taic electrometer (properly insulated, and in communication with an atmospheric conductor) is suspended within the microscope, through an aperture in the upper side, and near to the object end. ‘That end itself is closed by a plane of glass, when daylight is used, and by condensing lenses, when a common Argand lamp is employed. In either case an abundance of light is thrown into the microscope. Between the elec- trometer and the ether, or eye-end of the microscope, fine achromatic lenses are placed, which have the double effect of condensing the light upon a little screen, situated at that eye-end, and of projecting a strong image of the electrometer, in deep oscuro, upon it. Through the sereen a very narrow slit, of proper curvature, is cut, (the chord of the are being ia a horizontal position,) and it is fitted into the back of a case, about two-and-a-half feet long, which case is fixed to the ¢ mig the microscope, at right angles with its axis, and vertically. Within the case is suspended a frame, provided with a rabbet, into which two plates of pure thin glass can be dropped, and brought into close contact by means of six little bolts and nuts. is frame can be removed at pleasure from a line, by which it is suspended, and the line, afier pass- ing through a small aperture (stopped with grease) cut through the upper end of the long case, is attached to a pulley (about four inches in diameter) fixed, with capacity of adjustment, on the hour arbor 0! @ good clock. Lastly, counterpoises, rollers, springs, and a straight ruler are employed for ensuring accurate rectilineal sliding of the frame when the clock is set in motion. Mineralogy and Geology. 429 “A piece of properly ae era photographic re is now placed between the two plates of gla the movable frame ; the frame is removed (in a box made vetrpaboty for excluding light) poy is sus- pended in the long case ; this is closed, so as to prevent the possibility of extraneous light entering with it; the clock is started, and the time of starting is n noted. * All that part of the paper which is made to pass over the slit in the screen, by the motion of the clock, becomes now therefore successively o lower parts of the pendulums of the electrometer are projected through the slit. ‘These small portions of course retain the light color of the paper; and form the long curved lines or bands, whose distances from each other, at any given part of the photograph, i. e. at - given time, indicate the electric tension of the atmosphere at that tim “ By certain additions to the instrument above dinevidied, the kind as well as the tension of electrical charge is capable of being —— and by the employment also of a horizontal thermometer, &c., it is sem to the purposes of a Thermograph as well as iabimenies graph and Magnetograph.” IL. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1, Buratite, a new Mineral; by M. Detesse, (Comptes aii Oct. 26.)—This mineral is a hydrous carbonate of zinc, copper and a, Withdbanisth, CO2 Buratite has been riot in the copper mines of Lotefskoi in the Al- tai mountains, at Chess sy near Lyons, at Temperino in Tuscany, a and at several ies localities, ite, a new Mineral; by L. Svanzerc, (Arsb. Berz., 1846, p. 240, at his mineral, from Gropptorps, constitutes a rose ‘red to and on sata gave, silica 45 008, alumina 22548, oxyd of iron me 4-548, magnesia 12: 283, ie 5227, soda 0:215, ots 110, med ite in posit io 3. Hersch, (Ann. de Ch. a de Phys., xiv, 97. psomegihhi Poa to sanenec or R°Si 2+3A1Si?+1 15H. The aig agrees very Closely with Thomson’s analysis of the variety Levyne 4. Aspasilt a new Mineral; by M. Se anpaxe. (Arsb. Berz 1846, p. 24 Segre ens occurs with iolite, quartz, feldspar ea mica at Krageré, in Norway. It resembles iolite in erystalline form, has a greenish aalay. the hardness of calc spar, and the specific gravity 430 Scientific Intelligence. 2 In composition it differs little from iolite, affording silica 50-90, alumina 32°38, magnesia 8:01, lime a trace, protoxyd of iron 2°34, water 6°73, manganese a trace. 5. Castor and Pollux, two new minerals; by Brerrnaver and Pratrner, (Pogg. Annal., Ixix.)—These minerals occur in granite on the Island of Elba. Castor has a vitreous lustre and rough surface, and is transparent and colorless, with two axes of double refraction and two cleavages inclined at an angle of 1283 or 129 degrees. Hardness, a little above adularia; specific gravity 2°3801—2-401. Fuses with difficulty before the blowpipe to a limpid colorless glass, coloring the exterior flame red. Composition according to Plattner, silica 78:012, alumina 18°856, peroxyd of iron with traces of manganese 1-613, lithia with traces of potash and soda 2-760 100-241. Pollux resembles castor in crystallographic and physical characters, except that there are only traces of cleavage, and it has the specific grav- ity 2°868 to 2°892. Heated ina tube, water is disengaged. Before the blowpipe the edges are rounded to a blebby enamel, and it colors the exterior flame reddish yellow. It contains 46-2 per cent. of silica, with 16°5 of potash, 10°47 of soda and 2°321 of water. There was a loss in 6. Pleochroism.—Haidinger has applied the term pleochroism to the property pertaining to many crystals, of presenting different colors in different directions. e terms dichroism and trichroism heretofore used are too limited in signification, as different colors are presented in some species in more directions than three. / 7. Russian Geology, (Proceedings of the Acad. Sci. of St. Peters- burg; L’Institut, No. 681, Jan. 20, 1847.)—M. HeLMERsEN has ready for publication an extended account of the geological observations which he has made in his different journeys through the departments of Livonia, Estonia, Pskov, St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Tver, Moscow, Toula, Kalouga and Orel; and in the summer of 1845, he made a tour h the facts there presented and give greater completeness to his description of the e. 8. On Slaty Cleavage in North Wales ; by BIL Suarpe, (Geol. Soc., March, 1844; Quart. Journal Geol. Soc., No. 7, p- 309,)—In the course of a valuable article on the geology of North Wales, Mr. Sharpe makes the following statements with regard to slaty cleavages. In North Wales, not only in the Cambrian but also in the Lower Silu- Mineralogy and Geology. 431 One law respecting slaty cleavage was announced in 1831 by Pro- fessor Sedgwick,* and is now well known: that law is, that the cleay- more constant and regular than the strike of the beds order to present, in a succinct form, the evidence from which the author has deduced this second law respecting slaty cleavage, the ob- servations he made, in various parts of North Wales, of the positions southeast, and the cleavage planes are nearly vertical. On the east side of the anticlinal, the beds dip southeast, and the cleavage dips northwest to 65°... On the eastern side of the Carnarvonshire synclinal, the beds dip northwest, as does also the cleavage, but at an angle whic geduelly diminishes as you recede from the Snowdon chain. Thus at @ Rhiw Brefder quarries the angle is 55° ; at the Diflwys quarries it Is 45°, and at Manodmawr 35°. Towards the northern extremity of the ‘N.E., as does also the strike of the cleavage. To the south of Tre- Madoc the beds change in strike from northeast to east, and the cleay- ge changes in strike from northeast to E.S.E. _ The parallelism in the strike of the planes of bedding and cleavage approaches to east; but it is subject to many local yariations; and in * Geol. Trans.. ii Ser.. vol. iii 68. ‘+t While the author was seiwinglble conclusion from his observations in Wales, nearly similar law was anno to the British Association at Cork by Professor i The cleavage planes of the slate rocks of 432 Scientific Intelligence. such cases the two planes vary in strike Lye ty The cleavage has a northerly dip at angles varying from 25° to 65° the Barmouth chain the strike of 3 i wa is somewhat irreg- ular; but its mean direction is north and south, and its dip is from east 60° to west 60°. In the district intersected by the great porphyritic eruption of Arenig, Arran Mowddy, &c., the planes of cleavage have lost their original bearings, and ape subject to pi eres irregularit both in respect to direction and dip; and the observation applies to the district . ower Silurian rocks extending along the Holyhead road betwee Bryn-y-ddinas and Cor rom the ecuenasians: that the aye ee of the planes of cleavage depends, not on the varying position the beds at each particular spot, but on their main position, the hot a infers that slaty cleavage cannot have arisen from any power analogous to that of crystalliza- tion; and from the almost mathematical regularity with which those planes are arranged, he concludes that they are not the effect of me- nin force or pressure exerted at the moving or upheaving of the "The author further concludes from his observations, that in those of bedding and cleavage meet at an angle of from 15° to 30°; and hence he infers, that in those cases where, at the time of cleavage, the beds were horizontal, such was also the angle at which the cleavage intersected the bedding (15° to 30°). The author further observed, - that in the quarries of North Waies which afford the slate of the best quality, the bedding and cleavage rarely meet at an angle less than 25°, and never less than 20°; and that whenever the angle is less than 20°, the slate is of inferior ronan An increase in the angle at which the planes meet has no injurious effect; for in many instances when the vars is of the best quality, the sh of intersection is 45° ons. sh war 9. On the Salt and Salt Lakes of Algeria ; by H. Fours (Ann. des Mines, 1846, ix, 541. )—The extended memoir of M. Fournel gives many piece details and important sedonienn, with seach = | salt deposits of Algeria. Salt lakes or marshes and streams appear to be innumerable; and besides these, banks and even mountains of salt are met with. The salt is associated with gypsum. The most impors imbedded in the cretaceous a The mines five leagues west The salt is coutke white and pure, and of good wales and the qua tity not less than 127 millions of cubic meters. There is a moun iain of salt near this lake. Lake ef Mélah, in the province of Oran, is a0- other of the same kind, but less extensive. 10. Volcanic Peak of the Island of Fogo, Cape Verds; by C. Devitte, (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, 1846, 2d ser., iii, 656.)—The Mineralogy and Geology. 433 peak of Fogo is 2790 meters in height. It stands in the centre of a basaltic crater, rising 1000 meters above its base. The enclosing walls exterid entire half way around so as to forma semi-circular crest. On the broken side there are numerous scoria cones thrown up at the eruptions of 1785 to 1799, when all that flank of the island was covered with lavas. tr. Deville gives many particulars with reference to the island, and presented to the Geological Society of France a topographical chart of it. 11. Notice of ah Example of apparent Drift Furrows dependent on Structure; by C. B. Apams, State Geologist of Vermont, &c. &c., (communicated for this Journal.)—The attention of geologists having been lately called to the question, whether the grooves and striz com- monly attributed to drift agency may not be due to structure,* it may not improper, in anticipation of the results of the survey of Vermont, to mention an example in which this is undoubtedly the case. Mr. Macin- tosh, the author of the article which is alluded to, and which was read before the Geological Society of London, particularly suggests that such may be the origin of the examples in the United States described by _ President Hitchcock, a suggestion, we will venture to add, which must We occasioned much surprise in those who are familiar with these effects of drift agency in the New England States, unless they also may have met with facts of the same nature with those which are the of this brief notice. ot far from the geographical centre of Vermont, in the town of _tt is proper to add that the examination of several hundred examples of tounded, smoothed, striated and furrowed rocks has brought to light only this case, in which structural grooves bear any resemblance to those which have resulted solely from an external mechanical force. i@ suggestion of Mr. Macintosh is therefore plainly incapable of 8eneral or even common application, although cases may occur in Loraine ee EE Ri 8e® this Journal, ii Ser., Vol. i, p. 2773 and Sir R. I. Murehison’s Geology of Bee and the Ural Mountains, Vol. i, p. 566. ECOND Serigs, Vol. Ill, No. 9.—May, 1847. 55 434 Scientific Intelligence. which it is worthy of careful attention. Indeed, President Hitchcock has himself* most scrupulously distinguished the drift furrows from those which are due to structure. Sir R. I. Murchison also remarks that “the greater number of the deviously parallel scratches on the worn surface of the hard crystalline rocks of the north, are, in our opinion, clearly mechanical, and cannot be connected with structural condition.” Il. Zoonoey. This was in Haywood County, a few miles from Waynesville, on the Big Pigeon River,—a wild, rough region, abounding in grand scenery and rarely visited by man, being little known even to the hunters. _ On the situation of the Olfactory Sense in the terrestrial tribe re the Gasteropodous Mollusca; by Joseru Leipy, M.D., (Proceed. ead. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Dec., 1846, iii, 136.)—While no ob- server of the habits of the terrestrial Gasteropoda doubts the existence of the sense of smell in them, but on the contrary, asserts positively that it does exist, the anatomist has not hitherto been able to point out its precise seat. vammerdam, in his Biblia Nature, speaks decidedly of the exist- t situation. Blumenbach remarks, under the head of Vermes, “ Several animals of this class appear to have the sense of smelling: as many land-snails (Helix pomatia, &c.’””) and afterwards adds, “But the or- gan of this sense is hitherto unknown; perhaps it may be the stigma thoracicum.” Cuvier, in his Mémoire sur la Limace et le Colimagon, afier remarking on the delicacy of this sense, thinks it probable It may reside “dans la peau toute entiére, quia beaucoup de texture d’une membrane pituitaire.” In investigating the anatomy of this tribe of Gasteropodous Mollusca, I detected an organ which appeared to have been entirely neglected, or has escaped the notice of those who have dissected these animals. It is a depression or cul-de-sac, having its orifice beneath the mouth, be- tween the inferior lip and the anterior extremity of the podal disk, and which in many species of different genera is elongated backwards intO podal disk within the visceral cavity. In Bulimus fasciatus it extends backwards as far as the tail, and is several times folded upon itsell ; 2 Glandina truncata it extends the length of the podal disk; in the var ous species of Helix it is found from a superficial depression to 4 sac the length of the podal disk ; in Succinea obliqua it is of considerable length; in Limax and Arion it is a superficial depression ; in an unde- * Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, p. 385- . Zoology. 435 termined species of ——_ hereafter to be described, I found it half an inch in length, tis composed of enn lamine ; a delicate lining mucous membrane and an atonal layer, having a whitish or reddish glandular appearance. A large nerve, on each side, from the subq@sophageal ganglia, is dis- tributed to its commencement, besides which it receives numerous smaller branches along its course from the same ganglia. Its arterial supply is derived from the cephalic branch of the aorta. his organ, from its situation, relative size to the degree of perfec- tion of she olfactory sense, as in the carnivorous Glandina TUDOR, &c., its structure, and nervous supply, I think, is the olfactory organ.* 3. Description of a new species of Anser; by Grorcr N. Law- white line wedse! the eye; neck and fore part of the ‘iinet ack; a white patch on the centre of the neck intermixed with black, uP gth 224 inches: pt extent 44; bill a littie higher than broad, measures along the ridge 1,3; inches ; from gape 12; lower —* 14; larsus 24; middle toe Py outer 1; inner 14; weight 3 poun Ihave taken the above description and figure from an adult “famele Procured at Egg Harbor, N. J., in January. Since then two others have been obtained at the same place, one of which I have in my pos- Session. On dissection it proves to be a male. It agrees in markings With the female, but is evidently a younger bird, aCe somewhat lighter in the color of its eo From this I infer they become darker by wculss tgs wa na ge Seg SS es a ly * Since writing the ab I have h dan opportunity, through the kindness of Mr. € assin, of i enig : ecim of Helix pomatia, from Europe, in which I find t in in question exist ing oe ree el- depression beneath the mouth, og ein backwards along the podal disk for the acs of three-fourths of shank , as the same species has minutely @ i iedbeacone omide “or sea bee as iaeak; Cuvier, and others, without e-sal any reference sae 7 em cul A36 Scientific Intelligence. I have learned from Mr. Phillip Brasher, who has passed much time at that place, that speaking to the gunners about them, they said they were well known there by the name of Black Brant, and one of them men- tioned that he once saw a flock of five or six together. From these facts it appears to be known to gunners, but has hereto- fore escaped the notice of ornithologists. With all my inquiries I have not been able to procure a specimen before this winter. I think ita good and well-marked species. white ; lower, white tipt with ash, and very long: tarsi pale yellow, marked with black at their ends for two-thirds their length. Length Agassiz, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, Nov. 1846, p. 187.) —These spe cies differ from the European species, according to Prof. Agassiz, who consequently has named them anew, designating the Moose (Cervus al- ces) the C. lobatus ; the Carabou, (C. tarandus,) the C. hastalis ; the American Raven, C. lugubris. . Pyranga roseo-gularis, a new species from Yucatan; by Dr. Cazor, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dec. 2, 1846, p. 187.)—Male, top of head, outer edge of primaries and’secondaries, and surface of greater and lesser wing coverts, the tail and its upper coverts, bright brownish- red. Under side of tail and its under coverts, throat and flexures of wings, bright rose-color. Back and posterior part of cheeks dark brownish ash-color; anterior part of cheeks, breast, and belly, bright ash-colored. Twelve tail feathers. Bill strongly toothed, horn-color at top, lighter beneath. Legs and feet horn-colored. Total length 64 inches ; of bill 8 inch; along the ridge $; along the gape 7%5 of an inchs across at base 3 through from above down. ‘Tooth situated at $ inch Meteorology. 437 from point of bill. Tarsus rather more than ? inch in length. Tail 2¢ inches long. Wings from flexure 34 inches. 8. Pygorynchus Gouldii, a new Echinus from the Millstone Grit of Georgia; by M. Bovuvé, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Dec. 1846, p. 192.)—Above, conico-convex, a little more sloping posteriorly than anteriorly. Margin somewhat rounded, except near and under anus, where by an excavation or depression it becomes acute. Inferior surface sub-circular. Mouth situated about one-third of longitudinal diameter from the anterior margin. pex sub-central, a little anterior, but not so much so as the mouth. Ambulacra radiating at unequa angles, the interambulacral spaces dividing the three anterior from the two posterior, being wider than the rest. e pores of each diverge width, and where the double rows become single. On the margin they again ‘slightly dilate, and are readily traceable to their termination about the th, where they a re prominent. e anterior ambulacrum is much narrower than the rest. nus transverse, and situated at about IV. METEOROLOGY. 1. Meteorological Observations at Waioli,* on Kauai, one of the Haveaian Islands: from April 1st, 1845, to March 31st, 1846 ; WARD Jounson, Missionary of the A.B.C.F.M, —(Communicated. ) OE ade ree ere ek 2 eee ee eee its FAH. THER. | _ WINDS. _| | : WEATHER. ee a | ™ cy a < wk a 3 2 J oe el in oa | = : ao 2 ‘Months and S\elele ={3i4 ale 282 ate. 6} o | g - Ll Ss diciaies i) i] r= = jet et ss ps Hit 3 ax SPE Tele | & hes ld -2 1. didicies S28 ae} oor |S | gla ea¢ 4) 4\ pare 16 131 i ign Inclination ion. TG) 1045? 19°88 ieaie"Ss gs 7 epoch Jan 1847, no i unknown shed a pm orbit, Sept. 28, it 1 5 Wheat tenses kernal Vemectanetee oO unknown Radius veet = 29: . 30-00506 30-02596, Rae Ser. om, a mageT | Bires7g9 | 2164559 a dtnee en 21"-37881 21"-32600 4 "65357 ; . \Period in tropical on 1637-8250, 165"-97030 1667-38134 Srconp Serizs, Vol. Ill, sige 9.—May, flay, 1847. 56 442 Scientific Intelligence. “ Professor Peirce remarked, that the orbits given by Mr. Walker differ so widely from the predictions, that he has been induced to make planet Neptune is not the planet to which geometrical analysis had di- rected the telescope ; its orbit is not contained within the limits of space To 38:4, proceeds to the accurate examination of the three distances 39'1, d at two fundamental propositions, namely,—— _ “1st. That the mean distance of the planet cannot be less than 35, or more than 87:9. The corresponding limits of the time of sidereal revolution are about 207 and 233 years. “2d. * That there is only one region in which the disturbing planet can be placed, in order to account for the motions of Uranus; that the mean longitude of this planet must have been, on January Ist, 1800, between 243° and 252°.’ » Neither of these propositions is of itself necessarily opposed to the observations which have been made upon Neptune, but the two com- ined are decidedly inconsistent with observation. It is impossible to find an orbit, which, satisfying the observed distance and motion, 1s jmately subject to them. If, for instance, a mean longitude and time of revolution are adopted according with the first, the corresponding mean longitude in 1800 must have been at least 40° distant from the limits of the second proposition. And again, if the planet is assumed to have present observations cannot exceed 170 years, and must therefore be about 40 years less than the limits of the first pr ition. Neptun cannot, then, be the planet of M. LeVerrier’s theory, and cannot 8°" count for the observed perturbations of Uranus, under the form of the ion | tt Neptune will not ace count for the perturbations of Uranus, for its probable mean distance ~ _ Astronomy. — 443 of about 30 is so much less than the limits of the Po terage ee that no inference from them can be safely extended t portant change, indeed, in the character of the pertorbaons pred place near the distance 35°35; so that the continuous law by which tim planets were exactly as 2 to 5, ft ae ts of their mutual influence would be peculiar and complicated, and even a near approach to this ratio gives rise to those remarkable irregularities of motion which are exhibited in Jupiter and Saturn, and which are perplexed geome- ters usa they were traced to their origin by Laplace. This distance hen, is a complete barrier to any logical deduction, and the eg with regard to the outer space cannot be extended to the inte 2. “New Comet, (Proceed. Amer. Acad.)—A telescopic comet was discovered near the star 18 Andromede, on the evening of March 4, 1847, by Mr. Geo. P. Bond, at the Observatory in Cambridge , Mass. Its place March 44 gh 40m 095, was Re A. 232 35™ 50*5, and decl. + 50° I’ 46”, referred to mean equin:, 1, 1847. It was quite bright, and nearly. visible to the naked eye. On the 8th inst. it was visible to the ae as a star of the 5th or 6th magnitude. The elements of this comet ve been se () by Prof. Peirce from places of March 4, 5, 6, and (2) by Mr. Geo. P. Bond, from places of March 5, 12, 19, ‘the latter inhlang into account the small corrections. (1.) (2.) Per. pass. ‘ Mch. 31-907 Gr. m. s. t. Mch. 30-3369 0:04444 - dist. ‘ i ‘ ‘ P Long. of asc. node, 10° 1B) van oo brah BQ 06686" “perihelion, —- OG B66 wy eo 4 RU 16-88 Inclination, ‘ ‘i . oo oe : : - 48 ay 49 otion, * s . ‘ dire dire This comet is supposed to be dential with that pe ea Feb: 6, “ek in Cepheus, by Mr. J. R. Hind, at London - i a d Return ~ the Comet ina 1556. —We are indebted to John Ost of them rel: sobject s which have bana en cama for- Ward i bi this J Jour are we have not hitherto referred to the approach- n that the two were identical, and that its return t 1848, uent investigations which have settee this conclusion; and there n to look for the reappearance of ‘this comet 1 though it would not be surprising if this event should d happen even a year earlier or later than this date. ‘promises to relieve the world to a great 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4. ne une a Fived Star in Ursa Major, (Comp. Ren., Aug. 3 and Dec. 7, 1846.)-—A star of the 7th magnitude, No. 1830 of rio bridge’s rd or Catalogue, has according to Argelander a proper motion of seven seconds of arc per annum, se is greater than: that hitherto iieniaed in any other star. M. e, of Paris, by a course of careful observations on the positions of this star with reference toa star of 9-10th magnitude, (whose R, A. is about 30’ greater, and decli- nation about 40! ees g, on good grounds, that the parallax of the is nearly or quite insensible-—-has determined in a manner i. eee quite satisfactory, that the parallax of the. former (viz. 1830 meaneices e) is 1/06. The distance of this star from our sun is, therefore, about 195000 times the radius of the — s orbit wie space which a ee ey three years for light to travers 5. Planetary Nebulous Musses near the Sun.—lIt is well candin that in total eclipses of the sun, af have been often seen conical protuberan- ces of a red color, ——- from behind the disc of the moon. This phenomenon was very conspicuous in the total solar eclipse of July 8, 1842,* and M. Arago has collected many cases of the same kind a printed them in the Annuaire for 1846. M. Babinet has published a memoir on these phenomena,? in which he explains them by the suppo- » that there are very near theysun, planetary masses, revolving around that body with great rapidity. These incandescent, flame- vapory masses, having the form of circular trains more or less elongated, with the sun for their centre, cause the different appearances, which are moun any of these bodies is 5’, which would show that this one must revolve uae fey sun in about four hours, This hypothesis, Gihough wine eves supported by M. Babinet, is open to objection, and many more: observations will be needed before it can be considered as any he: more than plausible. ; VL MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. “. Relative. Lonel: of Lake Ontario; by C. Dewry.—In 1845, from June Ist.to December Bist, the water of this lake fell two feet and three inches Observations on the leve | have been continued through 1846, in June, 1 5, while it was about the. same levelasi Aas wit Through November, owing to the fall rains, it grad 'y rose, but at the end of 1846, it was the same as in December of ie nine year, at least two feet lower than in the summer of the year before _ The difference in the quantity of water that falls in snow a must account for the fall of the lake. The water r isebelow i level through all the great lakes to Lake Superior. 2. Inhalation of Ether in Surgery —This pone Sere * See Baily and Airy, Trans. Astr. Soc., Vol. 8 ek t Comptes Rendus, i eb. 16, 1246, pp. 231-286, dio Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 found much favor abroad, and we give - following from among the testimonials which have senbdindl én us. It is cited from the Athenzeum, - for Jan. 30, 1847, and credited by this en: to the Lancet, Jan. 16 and — 28, the Medical Gazette, Jan. 22, and Medical Times, Jan. 16 and 23. _ » The practicability and utility of the American discovery of the em- ployment of the vapor of ether in surgical operations is no longer a matier of doubt. Since our first notice of the subject, ae of op- erations have been performed in this country without pain. would point out, + Ae ton the very different nature of the evidence on Ti phantasies regard the state induced by the action of ether as analogous tothe mesmeric sleep. Surely, it must by this time be evident to all but prejudiced observers, that had there been a — of truth in the allegation of painless operation under the influence of mesmeric sleep, medical professors would most gladly have senile themselves of its services. ~ To return, however, to the ether. The inhalation of gases as a means of oan disesau:s is, it appears, not new in the medical pro- fession. It was carried toa great extent by Dr. Beddoes ; but has been comparatively intle employed in the recent practice of medicine and Sur. , n Mon practice in our chemical lecture-rooms to administer, by way of amusement to the —_ nitrous oxyd, or laughing gas, on account of its influence on the nervous system. It has also been known for a of time, that the vapor of ether, when rome: inte the system, Produces an meffect «n n the nervous apes s been stated to the —. of the body—occasioning an increase of their activity ; so that pe persons who have breathed it have a tendency to running, jumping, hing, la laughing, and other motions of the muscular system. The aq- Purpose o C praducing insensibility we are indebt ton and Jackson,* ‘of Boston, in the United States; and we Pelev we may, congratulate these gentlemen on having made the most im discovery which has been contributed to medicine since that of vaccina- ut also in the most tedious and iomeniep, and those enor the ets pmouns of danger from the shock given to icceea e orton, whose name is here mentioned, evinted his first information on Dr. Jackson, those from 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the nervous system. Mr. Lawrence gives an account of one which he characterizes as “one of the most painful surgical operations,’’—and which consisted in extirpating the eye-ball for the cure of -malignant di . This was performed with so little pain, that the patient, after recovering from the effects of the ether, did not even know that the operation had commenced. At the same time that the success of this application has been far greater than could have been anticipated, there have, however, been tain 24 cubic inches of ether; but the same quantity of air at 70° con- tains 49 cubic inches of the same. This demands attention: but the proper temperature of the room for the best success may be easily as- opposite nature. A fourth point demanding caution, arises peculiarly inflammable nature of etherous vapor. Should this agent be employed by careless persons during candle light, it may, from its highly inflammable nature, explode; and from the consequences of that explosion it does not appear evident that the person breathing the vapor would escape—although we have heard of no accident of this kind at present. . The effect of the vapor of ether upon the system seems to be the same as that of an overpowering quantity of alcohol; and asa proof nce re- immediately. In the numerous cases which have been repor appears to have had different effects upon the nervous system j— and this has probably been owing to the quantities of the vapor inha- led. ‘Thus, in several cases the effect has been to deprive the patients Miscellaneous Intelligence. 447 acter—forcing from the bystanders involuntary laughter, and convert- ing that which was to the poor fellow a most tragic event into a scene little short of a farce.” In other cases, consciousness is less evident, —but not wholly extinguished. One person during the extraction of a tooth imagined that he was contending with a wild beast—which he thought he had overcome when the tooth was extracted. Another, dur- ing the amputation of her leg, ‘‘ thought she had been in a dream; an that we had hurt her leg to see if she could bear the operation which Was to be performed the next day.” In the majority of cases, how- ever,—and these probably where the ether has been most adroitly ad- ministered,—there has been a total loss of consciousness; and the pa- ents on waking up from the slumber produced, have expressed their Surprise not only at the operation being over, but at the apparently short time which it has occupied. Thus, in the operation related by Mr. Lawrence, the patient ‘‘expressed a fear that he had not had enough of the ether to produce the desired effect. When told that the Operation had been performed, he said—‘ Operation! operation !-—-what operation ??—-and seemed quite puzzled.” This is, undoubtedly, the ng hung over the sources of the Nile, is, to a great extent, dissipated by the trouble which Dr. Beke has taken to clear up the ambiguities re 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 3 e —it being in fact nothing but the Abai of Abyssinia, alled by the Gon- gas Abbaya. Dr. Beke next discusses the subject of the Maleg—a river which was crossed by Fernandes, in 1613, on his way to Guarea 3 and shows that the route taken by the Jesuit missionary has been alto- gether misunderstood by Bruce. Leaving the Abai, the Doctor next takes up the Dedhesa; and enumerates its tributaries on both sides,— as he had done with the other great rivers, the Takazie and the Abai. Having thus exhausted the hydrographic basin of the Blue River, the course of the White River, enters into a comparison of the two great arms of the Nile—the White and Blue Rivers: and, after minutely examining the evidence, both ancient and modern, on the subject, concludes in these words: ** Thus, whether we consider the relative magnitude of the two rivers, the direction of their respective beds, or the volume their waters—whether we regard the opinions of the ancient geogre phers, or those of modern travellers, or of natives acquainted with both streams (for the evidence of such as only know one is of course inad- missable) the result is the same. In all and every of these points of view, the Bahr el Abiadh, or White River, is the principal stream-— and the Bahr el Azrek, the subordinate or affluent.” The author now took up the White River, or main stream of the Nile. Our knowledge of the upper course of this river has been ob- tained from the exploring expeditions ordered by the present ruler gypt. On its right bank it receives, in about the 9 parallel, @ large river called the Telfi or Sobat,—which Dr. Beke identifies eos" ieb and he then enters into a minute detail of the affluents © this river on both sides. Among these, it will be sufficient to allude to the Barovand Bako, which join it on the right side, and the various streams bearing the common name of Gibbi, which fall into it on the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4AQ left bank. ‘The Godjeb has been presumed to be the upper portion of the Jub or Gowind, which falls into the Indian Ocean near the line 5 Beke’s own information, to be untenable: indeed, M. D’Abbadie pos- itively considers it to be the head of the Nile. The second Egyptian expedition ascended the main stream of the Nile as far as 4° 42’ 42” N. —at which point our positive information ceases; but from the inform- _ation collected by M. d’Arnaud and M. Werne, who accompanied the expedition, Dr. Beke shows the existence of another great arm of the Nile, éalled the Shoa Berri; which, like the Abai and Godjeb, joins the main — from the 8.E., and exhibits the remarkable spiral course common to those rivers, ‘with many others of the Abyssinian plateau. As fegeite the main stream, Dr. Beke, from a comparison of various authorities, both ancient and modern, carries the Nile up to the country Mon o-Moéz sp we in fact, shows the great para of its old:taaps. In the name seus Moézi, Dr. Beke finds the citi of the which he slew to be an elevated table-land, isin an abrupt declivity towards the sea-coast, and a very gradual slope landwards down to the Nile, which skirts its base ; and the ridge of which has an elevation } 8,000 to 9,000 feet above the ocean, independent of isolated mountain masses which attain a height of from 11,000 to 15,000 feet 4. Water raised by Waves through Valved Tubes, (Athen. Ne. 1001. a feasible and obvious application of Harvey’s grand covery of the use of valves in raising the blood through ih veins, fies just been suggested by a correspondent of the Mechanics’ Magazine ; any. requisite purpos “The inventor proposes to test the practicability of this kind of WarersBit on Southsea Beac 5. Electric amen Fact v. Fancy, (Athen., No. 1001.)—A pas- ulous extravagance, yet more than realized in one of the most extra-, cay applications of modern science :—* Strada, in one of his pro- lusions, gives an account of a chimerical correspondence between two fiends by the help of a certain loadstone,—which had such virtue in it pom if touched by two several needles, when one of the needles so began to move, the other, though at ever so great a distance, moved at the same ~~ = in the same manner. He tells us that two friends, being each of. them possessed of these needles, made a k kind of dial-plate » inscribing it swish bs eereiity foot? letters—in the same manner as he day are marked upon the ordinary dial-plate. They bre fixed one of _ needles on each of _ plates in such a manner 450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. twenty-four letters. Upon their separating from one another into dis- tant countries, they agreed to withdraw themselves punctually into their closets at a certain hour of the day, and to converse with one another every letter that formed the words that he had occasion for—making a little pause at the end of every word or sentence, to avoid confusion. The friend, in the meanwhile, saw his own sympathetic needle, moving of itself to every letter which that of his correspondent pointed at. By this means, they talked together across a whole continent and conveyed their thoughts to one another, in an instant, over cities or mountains, seas or deserts.” for the linear dilatation of ice between 0 and 80° R. zt, which is more than double that obtained at Ratisbonne. It has also been found that between the temperatures stated, the dilatation is perfectly uniform. 9. Bear River Springs, Rocky Mountains, (Expl. Exped. of — 19 . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 451 feet, or about 500 feet lower than the Boiling springs which are of a similar nature at the foot of Pike’s peak on the Fontaine-qui-bouit. On the morning of the next day, (July 26,) the temperature of the large Beer spring was 56°, and that of the Steamboat spring 87°; and that of the steam hole, near it, 81°-5. Farther south on the great salt lake, about seven miles from Clear creek, ten or twelve hot saline springs were observed by Capt. Fremont, in one of which the thermometer stood at 186° and in another at 132°°5. 10. Chalk and Coal Fires, (Athen., No. 1001.)—The practical utility of chalk as an article of fuel has been tested within the last few weeks, according to a Salisbury paper, and with the most satisfactory results. Surrounded with coal, it gives a strong heat, and a clear at half the usual expense; so that to the poor, in the chalk districts, it must be an invaluable boon. 11. Paris Academy of Sciences.—The following vacancies occasion- ed by death have lately been filled: M. Fontanier, the French consul at Singapore; has been elected in place of Dubois-Aymé ; Panofka of Ber- lin, in place of Ideler; M. Faye, the Astronomer, in place of Damoiseau. 12. A Society of Naturalists has been formed at Trieste, with spe- cial reference to the zoology of the Adriatic. Count Odonel has been appointed President. 13. New Appointments to Professorships in Harvard and Yale.— Mr. E. N. Horsrorp has been elected to fill the chair of the Rumford Professorship of Science applied to the Arts, in Harvard University, and Prof. Jerrrres Wyman, M.D., has been chosen Hersey Professor Chemistry and of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, in Yale, and B. Stntiman, Jr., Professor of Chemistry applied to the Arts. : 14. Deviation of a Falling Body.—In the remarks on the deviation of a falling body to the south, in our last number, it was not considered that the deviation to be accounted for, is that south from a plumb line. f there assigned, viz. the earth’s rotation, makes the plumb itself deviate to the south of the line of the earth’s attraction, as muc as the falling body. Corrections._.We have been informed by Dr. Engelmann, that since the publication of his notice of the Melonites (p. 124), he has ascer- tained that Dr. Prout first directed Dr. Brown’s attention to the locality mentioned, and the latter discovered the fine slab now in possession of the Academy. In the figure of the Marsilee of North America, page 55, of this Volume, the body of the capsule of fig. 1, should have been represented as more connected with the stipe so as to make the raphe much longer. All the figures are twice not half the natural eis a On page 299, in the notice of Dr. Peter’s work on Urinary Calculi, “Pennsylvania” is inserted incorrectly for “ Transylvania.” In Volume i, of this series, page 427, under “ Electric Excitement of Paper,” the word stove should be substituted for stone. 15. Ostruary.—Dr. Amos Binney.—Science has been called upon to lament the loss of one of her most zealous and efficient votaries in \merica, Dr. Amos Binney of Boston. In New England especially his aid and influence were preéminent. 452 Bibliography. After concluding his college course at Brown University, he studied Medicine, but never entered upon its practice, his relations in life and his tastes leading him rather to mercantile pursuits, which he prosecu- ted successfully. e early manifested a love for natural science, and was one of the first who cultivated the branches of Mineralogy and Conchology among us. But his general researches extended over the whole field of Nat- ural History. He was one of the founders of the Boston Society of American Geologists and Naturalists,” at the coming meeting to be holden in Boston in September next. His loss will be felt with peculiar severity by his fellow laborers in common cause in Boston, where from his wealth, liberality and knowledge of human nature, his influence—always on the right side— was very great. ory de St. Vincent, a military officer of distinction, and also a name well known in science for his various contributions, has lately died in the 66th year of his age. VIL Bistiograpny. 1. Eulogy on John Pickering, LL.D., President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, delivered before the Academy, Oct. 28, 1846. pp. 106. Cambridge University Press.—Never was an elo- quent and glowing tribute of admiration and affection to the memory of a great and excellent man better deserved than in the present instance. It is a beautiful biographical eulogy, replete with interesting facts, Te- lating to the life and labors and achievements of a scholar who has not had his superior, if his equal, in this land; of a jurist and counsellor of a high order of talent and learning; of a patriot and philanthropist whose efforts and aspirations were indeed first for his country and next * Bibliography. 453 for his race—with a purity and perseverance never surpassed ; and finally, his moral and social character in all the relations of life pre- sents a noble example for the imitation of youth and age Judge White has presented his subject with the chastened elegance and dignity of style and composition which, as a scholar of a high order, he never fails to do when he appears as a writer. His fine classical eulogy upon the late Dr. Bowditch is still fresh in our recollection—and OR honor enough for the good old town of Salem, although she can present others of no small celebrity among both the living and the dead. The eulogium of Judge White upon the late Dr. Bowditch* called and warm with affectionate respect for the great man whom it com- memorates. Being the production of a townsman and cotemporary, It presents graphic sketches of his life and character both in the form- thing definite of his wonderful labors. They fill us with astonishment, hot to say with self-reproach, when we see how much was done a b with the ‘good of old,’ and to have enjoyed the society of their de- scendants—a rare privilege. You could therefore better judge, whether any new fact, or inferences growing out of investigation now In pro- gress in Egypt, and seemed to feel that a flood light would soon burst upon us from that quarter. I have for many years enjoyed a familiar intimacy with him, and the great advantage of knowing through im interesting details in connection with his prospects. A few weeks before his death, he placed in my hands papyr! from Thebes, which he Phe sid Rite 0: Res cade AEE .* Am. Jour., Vol. x . 386. P ; t The late Gol. ‘Timothy Pickering, a companion of Washington in the war of the Revolution and the first Secretary of State under the constitution during the administration of Washington, at Philadelphia 454 Bibliography. wished unrolled, as he considered, from the ancient language in which they were written, that they might be important.” We presume they were the papyri mentioned by Judge White, which proved to be an Egyptian deed of land in Thebes, duly signed, sealed and recorded in the Greek langua a glance whilst passing through the press, will prove an invaluable acquisition to all students of our indigenous plants. On the one hand, the language employed is so studiously simple and popular as to be almost divested of technicality ; whilst on the other, it is as rigidly ex- act and scientific as the more elaborate works of the well-known au- thor. It has the further great recommendation of being so compen- dious and portable, that it may be carried in the pocket, for reference in the fields. In schools and colleges, where “The Botanical Text- Book” of Prof. Gray is now becomin generally introduced, this Man- ual, its indispensable accompaniment, cannot fail to be appreciated alike by teachers and students; as the succinct descriptions of all the wild plants, upon the system and classification of the Text-Book, will at all times enable the learner practically to apply its scientific princi- ples for himself. 3. Paleontology of New York; by James Hatt.—The sheets of the first volume of Mr. Hall’s Report on the Paleontology of New York, have reached us at a late hour, and we have barely space to an- nounce the publication of this important work. It has been looked for with much interest, and we believe that its high character will fully satisfy the expectations that have been excited by the distinguished reputation of the author. ! Lyceum of Natural History of New York, Vol. iv, Nos. 8 and 9.—These numbers conclude the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. It is occupied with a continuation of the elaborate catalogue of Geodephagous Coleoptera of the United States, by M. John L. LeConte of New York. This cat- alogue is enriched with various annotations, and with detailed descrip- tions of species of the following genera :—Myas, Stomis, Isopleurus, Percosia, Celia, Amara, Trina, Acrodon, Bradytus, Curtonotus, Eu- ryderus, Geopinus (n. g.), Agnoderus, Cratacanthus, Piosoma (n. g-)s Amphasia, Spongopus (n. g.), Anisodactylus, Eurytrichus (n. g-), Se lenophorus, Pangus, Harpalus, Geobsenus, Gynandropus, Stenolophus, cupalpus, Aepus, Eraphius, Anophthalmus, and Lachnophorus. 5. Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. v, No. 3.— F. Atcer, Notices of New Localities of rare Minerals, and reasons for uniting several supposed distinct species: p. 297. . D. and W. B. Rocers, On two remarkable Trains of Boulders 11 Berkshire, Massachusetts: p. 310, with a plate. . : . P. Kirrtanp, M.D., Description of the Fishes of Lake Erie, the Ohio River, and their Tributaries : p. 330, with four plates. J. Lerpy, Anatomical description of the animal of the Littorina angulifera : p. 344, with figures. Asa Gray, Notice of a New Genus of Plants of the Order Santa- lace : p. 348. Bibliography. 455 N. M. Henrz,: Descriptions and Figures of the Araneides of the United States: p. 352, with two plates and numerous figures. J. E. TESCHEMACHER, On the Fossil Vegetation of America: p. 370, bas plates. J. Hatt, On. the Geological Position of the Cranium of the Casto- roides Obioensis, and J. — , M.D., Anatomical Description of the same : p. 385, with three A Bator, o r ptiialivca in sand from the Sahara Desert : p. 402, with figure C. T. Jackson, M.D., Chemical and Mineralogical Fragments: p. 405. . Forsyta, On the Habits of Salmo fontinalis: p. S. Cazor, Jr., M.D., Description of Pyranga roseo- ‘gularis : p. 415. guages, rain-regions, deserts, mountains, bi magnetic Sbenoniebd, 0 of vo role action, and plants and animals over the glo eo The Philosophical Wigdtne closes a detailed oho of this Atlas, a copy of which has not reac ed us, by g, “we feel bou vee in justice to the ode and our readers, to give it our warmest pocomaaianitie # R RcHIsoN: The ‘Silucian Rocks of Parts of Sweden; 48 pp. 8vo. Lon- R. Parrerson : Introduction to Zoology, for the use of schools. 12mo. Lon- J. Nicot: aa to the Geology of Scotland. Edinburgh, 1846. J.C. Prtcnarn: Physical History of Man, Vol. v, 8vo. London. 18s. cl. Cc. whos ELL: Princi les of Geo me ogy, 7th edit., 1 vol., 8vo. London, 1847. 18s. tures on Comparative Anatomy a and Phys siology ofthe Vertebrate Animals. Part I, Fishes ; being Vol. ii, of Hunterian Lectures G, ap ettg es der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie> 1. Bds. 1 Abth. 1846. Dr. .W. Henn men -Scuirrer: Systematische Bearbeitung der Schmetter- linge von Euro ext, Revision und Fee lement zu J. Habner’s Sammlung E Shme chietterige agschmetterlinge. Mit 75 illum. 1 ure mse Kopi ge Reger i 3 ‘s: IEB os oF Pace Ja apon nica—Pisces: elaborant C. J. Temminck et H. Schlegel. Decas xi, fol. fare duni-Batav. 1846. S84rzthl. Susemar: Vogel Euro 29 Lief. gr. Lex. 8. Da ey tits ee .J.3.¥. Tscuupt: Fauna Peruana, vili Lief. (Végel.) I 2 ¥. Dozy et J. H. Motkenpoer: i frondosi Aeokipelage nha Fasc. ii. . 4, B B Shr Peat: Lerezours and Srcretatn: Traité de Photographie, 5th edit., 8yo. ...- ROCEEDINGS oF THE ACADEMY oF NATURAL vebean or mig age hg pt} No. 6, Nov. and Dec., 1646.--Fossil pith Mote of the Connecticut one beeeroham, p- 119.—New genera and species of Insects, (Brachyco ving for its type the Copris carolina, Dridtiie fissicornis, ses ot pe n. g. allied to Prionus, Molorchus tenuipes, Enoplium venustum, nia, Ti. S+y Donaciade, Trogu s nubilipennis, Ibalia maculi ennis ) S. §. P- 124.—On the Cicada septendecim ; Miss Morris, p- —On the situation fue olfactory sense in the teiiskeial tribe of the Gasteropodous Molluses; J. Lei P- 136.—On an instinct y po sed by the Herons; J. Cassin OCEEDINGS OF THE N Soc. Nat ae i October, November, cember, te —Shells of the ee — eg) hea ould. —Centrarchus fasciatus a urus of My a with Thro J Shino of Cuvier ; a Agassi, p el ~*Shovel fish of Obio} Dr: 0 | Carabou, and a nap Raven, not idence with European pahine p-1 ea uae roseo-gularis; Dr. Cabot,§_p- 187.—Echinus from the millstone grit o Georgia, P ygorhynchus Gouldii; M. Bouré,|| p. 192. s Tod 436. ‘Tid, p. Lceetn p. 434. Thidyp. 151, 311. $ Ibid, p. id p. 436, 456 Bibliography. s anD Macazine or Natura Hisrory, Jan. 1847, No. 122.—Organi- zation of the Polygastric Infusoria; C. Eckhard.—Three new species of British Coleoptera; T. . Wollaston.—Birds of Caleutta ; C. J. Sundevall._ A new Brit- iW, vans. land Cry tocephalide ; W. W. Saunders ata Soc. or Epinsurecu. Dr. Bal- h ioine lora of ae British Is] an. 1847. No. 123.-Fo rmation of the Flints of the Upper Chalk ; “ Toulmin Smith.—British Rubi; C. C. Babington.—On a peculiar organ in the Ra . Rob- in.—An Ichthyolite from Sheppey; R. Owen nerseneepeant of the Lycopadiae cee; K. Mitller—Drafts for a Fauna Indica Blyth.— Habits of the Lim pet ob G. Roberts —Entomotog.Soc. New Holland Grp tocephalide ; W.W. Sau Two new Goliath Beetles, and some new Bun cer ide; J. O. Westwood. sit from Cape Palmas; oe e. Feb. 1847. No. 124.—New species of Gynautocera from N. India; E. Double- day.— Ornithology of the sales of coher? : Sir Wm. Jardine.—British Rubi; C€. C. Babington.—Birds of Calcutta; C. J. Sundevall.New species of Actias rome Andre : India; E — a rare Briteh Animals dE — s fora Fauna Indica; E. Blyth.—Development of the Lycopodiacez; K. tline of an Arrangement of Ston itele J. E. Gray.—Zoot. Soc. Miller. Birds from Malacea; Mr. Strickland —Three Australian Birds; Mr. Gould. —Muc- Roscop. Soc. n the Intimate Structure of Bone; Mr. Quekett. March, 1847. No. 125.—Reproduction of lost parts in the Articulata; G@. Ne port.—Notes on Buceinum un seer A. Hancock.—On a second form of fructific, cation in Pey squamaria; C.Mon —Ne cies of Atya; ew- t.—Birds of Calcu C. J. Sundevall.__New Lepidoptera; E. ay.— On the Irish species of Cephaloptera; F. —Drafts for a Fauna l 3 £ h.—Lin c. Notes on the Fauna of N Zealand and the Aucklands; 4 —On ions ai ture and Movements G. H. Loxpow Jouryat or Borany, for January, 1847. —Sur 3 genre Godoya, ete. 5 Dr. Planchon.—Botanical Information, viz: Thorea ramosissima, found in the vie ab Yona Bb otices of Lindley’s “‘ Orchidacee Lindeniane ;” ique le long des Cétes Septentr, de la Norvége ;” of Gardner, ‘*On the e structure an ence of Podostemacee ;” of C. H. Schultz, on Hypo- cheridew ; of Parlatore’s * Flora Palermitana” and “ Monogr. delle Fumariée ; of eee - hdenek PL Fi Flo re Germanice,’”’ continued by Putterlich and Endlicher, (a ‘asc. 24); gf Hib gd ake of S. American Plants,”’ part 1; of Gray lorie f Boreali-America Sullivant’ i i tions to the Bryology dad “He aticology of North America.”—Catalogue of Mr. eyers’ Upper Missouri and Oregon pileciics of Plants, up to Rhamaee vee sive.—Journal of the ange i to ae Niger; Dr. He el—continued.—“ Flore manie Spicilegium >. Did, ooker. ab ot 4 omptes Renpvus, rie Noes 23, —-Chisiiiteal Rr acitchiste on Dyeing; Che erent. —On the application of rd new Wehr’ te interpolation to the determination of of fuera and latitudes i ° Aatrooonicat formulas A. Cauchy.—On_ the isolation fav ihed and ig i of Fluorides; Louyet—On Gun-cotton ; Gaudin, For- A. Gllis Becker, Dumas.—Nov. 30. On the Potato Disease ; Pa on eiatadon of "Beet-su ar; Payen.— 7 tato and Beet Disease ; Gaudichaud.—On the Silicates; Laurent—On Fluorine a tand Colin —On Gun-cotton in blasting ; cor es and Flandin.—Explosion % un-cotton; Figuier and Powmaréde Application of Gun-cotton to Machinery > Riotte.—Dec. 14. On the maxima of effects of the poss of Gun-cotton ; Pay- different substances called Gun-cotton ; ; Gaudichaud.—On Metallic Polar- ization ; Jamin.—Dec. 21. On Hydrates; Fremy.—Qn pyroxyline; Vankercknog.- INDEX TO VOLUME III. A. Abert, Lieut. J. W. — from Bent’s Fort to St. Loni noticed, 301, nai of Sciences at Paris, vacancies — of Natural ae at emer: | ecocdings of, 151 —— — ore ty of ne and Sciences, Proll Achilleing i in the Achillea millefolium, 426. ~~ Arua get he ording benzoic, on deco hile cotliasin origin of certain, J. Redten- bacher, 254. — of ae B., Somer noticed, 1 —, furrows on rocks dependent on struc- ture, 433. Agassiz on pind Gute 302, Ba A got on the Geology of he Astronomical observations, J. M. Gilliss’s, noticed, 149. — memoir on colors of stars, by P. B. Ses- Ross noticed, 281. pris ark etong: remarks on the cause pond Borealis, Nov., 1846, E. C. Herrick, Aurora ] belt, April 7, 1847, 440. Australia, native gold i in, 143. m-|/Avenine, 329, 331. zores, new mineral from, 33. ee g5 B. binet - eens nebulous masses near oe su che, as DD aad by, on the coast survey, noticed, 300. helder, J. M., conprogeeen of electricity in ee of ates di 4 2 merica' . to rom European ies, 436. Agr, nadie of E.N. "Horsford’ s relating to, 144, "Netad « Alabama coal fields, =" the United Algebra, C. W. R piroagy A s treatise on, 310. Algeria, salt an salt wl , 432. reas ors, tra ‘ke of the Be “ie: Sevens of the ississippi, C. Lyell, C. Lyell, 37 States, S fi Altai, trend of, 333. Amina, solubility of, in ammoniated water, Amides, remarks on, 258. Beet water, solubility of alumina in, 2 sex de lane rd’s chem.-|| Beaver, range of, in memoir on the oat, 145, sacs esis from saves Binney, Ww. Bailey, 80, woken ates among, S. ‘Bola Bond, of the U. —_ s, 80, 399. ratonof pee c, E. Riegel, 424 COE: tr Bry oo en Nile, 447, ric, 257. "oh es Mar seas. 846, oe arietta, 1 ‘ FS. p id reth, 2 : Blood, researches im “Dumas, 1 Blo reeds. 94 on Soe rg whe 09, ours comet, 443. Bone, growthofin nthe hog, Boussingault, 258, Bory de St. Vincent, death of, 452. Botanic poten, ode ew, at Cambridge, England, Botanical works noticed. . J. Browne’s Trees of Anal ides, formation f Saimerics 146. two, ’ Analysis of the ont, J. P. "Norse 222, 318. “Fish ee pple Petropolitanum of estimat eran er, = = rtd | ste = Pas = nd eer and Martin’ 8 Flo- malite, cial gas: ra du Beantionkan: 147. wa tical researches on sea water, Forch-|\—— rautvetter, Plantarum Im- _ hati, dee vex: 141, yer pemometer, 1 modification of ee 1 em ——, Hooker’s Species Filicur, on the earth's contraction, 17 : Anser nigricans, a new species, G. N. Law-|—— i ee. “A —, Moricand's Plantes Néu- D. velles; 4 ren fluorine in, C. G. net 422, ein —, Ledebour's Flora Rossica, -¢ in of, J. D. Dana, 182, . drag » W. “an iD Roewee ante eee wrrores: Drejer’s Symbola Caricolo- 9. opinion of, ling the|} giea a,reather, om of Bins sebag bce dit gi dee See —. A. Gray's Chloris Boreali- Riate of magnesi Americana, Arsenic in minera waters: 2 iA: tt: Sel Botany of the Artesian wells, on boring for, Fa 135. [Northern Stet States, announced, 445. Any Wellin the Duchy of Luxembourg, 142. Beitriige zur Pflanzenkunde peo * ha tan, notices of, springs, mines,| des [deere 85 Bar onthe rhe hrubs re nssac setts, 3 Astronomicalc ie sire W, Hooker's Botanical Mag- Ghoubviiond M. F, Maury’s|— volume 3 noticed, 150, 278. azine, ie, 810° Szconp Sznizs, Vol. III, No, 9.—May, 1847. 58 458 aon of Texas, new ae in, A. Gray, 274. merican enecies INDEX. Coal fires aided rt chalk, 451. D. Bache's report on, no- Mars . Bra é a he prone ts tin — and elevations o lobe, 393. Scandinavia, Besitaven it on the nutritive power of dry and green | fodder, 106. hl ++ ars 2 characters of, 382, 385. Coffee and caffein ine, M. "Paye n, 106, 423. Colors of stars, Sestini’s memoir on, noticed, Columbate of lime, a new on from the s, J. E, Teschemac. ge in wheat, 106. ri o wth of bone i in the hog, 258. % eas American species a Tsoetes cot cutee a, 52. Brisbane's Observ rot results of magnetic observations at, 115. a —g Association at Southampton, in 1846,||——— —_—_, ro ie — — , disbursements of, 134. —-,notice of R. I. "Murchison’s ad- dress before, 134. Bronn’s work on organic remains, 311. owne, D. J., Trees of America, by, noticed, Buch, LL, von, voleanic band in the E. Indies, Buckley S. B., on the range of the beaver, Cabot on a new Pyran Cahours, Xe action = oe phos- phorus on organic substances, 25 Calculi, urinary, in the fe a i 2 Uni- ersity museum, work on, by R. Peter, no-||___ Cambrian system, objections to, R. I. Mur- Cocatcinane from drying oils, 426. arices, Drejer on, notic 8. Caricography, appendix continued, C. Dewey, Case, W., a new Helix and Planorbis, 101. Casein, 329, Cota; ey among, 48, 49, = merican species distinct from Chalk and ca fires from, 451. — analysis, notice of, C. R. Fresen- on, 149, Chemistry of B.S Silliman, Jr., male nye 144. —— of the Fou r Seasons, noticed ripe of C. Gerhardt, Bae "145. Chio ioli te, a new minera Chi “pte ber 258. Chlorophyllite, 266. Colutabive new metals i Columbus, monum conncaton Comet, —_— returns oe Ha illey’s, a ted return of that of ee ‘443. ; te 4 eainan 32. , sixth of 1846. et, ind’ s, 132, , discovered by G P. Bond, 443. Comets , Prof. Peirce’s aan of, noticed, er of, on record, 128. Constants, Gauss’s magnetic, 140. Continents, on the origin of, J. D. Dan ma, 94. coasts and features of, Contrae ting area in the Pacific, 396. (Contraction, a geological cause, J. D. Dana, 94, 176, 395. —, C. arg 95, 178. ay Jah Copper, xj, snethod of atatee: pate Coeuebie, a new mineral, J. L. Le Conte, 173. Corals, fossil, in Povee' York, 69, 71. ystiphyllum, D D. D. Owen, 71. ors rvus vs thee 36. Cretacsout | formations of Russia, 156. — ——on Rocky Mountains, 197. number in, 338. Cultivation o &c., in Russia, 288. Peoetiasion with the blowpipe, W. W. uerents atmospheric, remark on, W. ©. Redfield, 284. . Cyathophyllide, remark on, J. D. Dana, peared in we Pociten tt Appalachians and Rocky Cicada ‘eptendeci, observations on, S, P.||—, origin o Hildre enhiaine, A 99. ga OTR, eae . Harris, 218. ” of the trap dikes of New Eng- Classification, general remarks én, J.D. land, 99. of —— of the grand outline features cies. J. D. Dan the earth, 331. j —, — homology and logy in, 339. ||, g geological results of the earth s con- Cleavage joints in rd gh eral course and ring 176. origin of, 389, 393. —— — in North Wale mee Sarre. 430. Climate, we agen gata Clouds, method Whewell, 140, Coal.of Silesia, sigs =< of, Gé of ag ert iy 2h ‘Fremont, asuring of, use of cg of strata, 183. s, 186. cite ral tr here 1 dg —, aston of volca S. L., on fore 04. Darctis: ¢, ant sbi ine form- ations rom certain re: sm i t falling on et in the Atlantic, ——, Geological Observations on S. America, —, ~, anthracite, fluorine in, 422. noticed, 146. INDEX. ser EH; se and Indian sculpture, —— tran nsforgnations of hippuric acid, Detritus of Mississippi, “3398 18. Dewey, C., use ate of soda with a galvanic battery, for siogeapt. 4 427. 71, 35 number me variables, on the variation "ob, A.D.S PE sheerkiag of hon es of Dikes 390. sou of trap, in Sa “7 “: Percival, Dilatation of ice Dip, magnetic, at Maiernouy, 115. Dogs, hybrids am Dumas, on a rhertg =" on phosphate of lime in organic beings, —, 0n nitrification, 261. Dust falling - vessels in the Atlantic, 141. — of Hecla, 272. E. erties a —~ of, from geological evi- RGR sh of the outline features of, J. D. Eduee 5 Oke = tional statistics at Oxford ,England,137. ject ne telegraph, lines of, in United States, ——, fact v. fancy, 449. —— ihtisbenons of paper, 451. a ical current, relation of, to nervous er, 112, Electricity, free, R. Hi x e, 334, ——, atmospheric, Feb wat a of, on the tele- = h wires, J. Henr velo — in bands of leather, J. M. Blectrophysi siology, Matteucci, 111. of mountains and continents, J. ma, ire vr Ele, C. Prevost, 178. erations in 2 Scandinavia, eetg Bh = aH 313. B,, Re on on Trees and Shrubs — Massachusetts, noticed, 310. Endy Yyelopedia Ateatienntt Vol.14,noticed, 145. rowan Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, Engelmann, G ‘ North American species of Isoetes and iar se be —,on theS : ; s limestone, 119. a Melonites multipora, 124, 451. “—, Observations on rain and snow at St.) nd, iro n manufacture i in, 291. E > m rede glass making i in Ero : uss’s magnetic constants Fatie peer as elevations in heeikork rope, Ether, inhalation of, in surgery, 444. Eu Europe, bou ulde Desor, 313. 459 , arenes oe nel 4 round and elon- us, 1 aap a aciehaifie A Se noticed, 146. rg and elevations in Nor thern, T; Fy Fairy rings of pastures, 294. \\Fal ge islands, hillocks of Bolax glebaria Falling bodies, —— of, from a perpen- _ vm we sp d, note on Features of — earth, ain i J. D. Dana, Fin land, se tg, ou Society in ofa degree of meridian te 450. Fis _— me ‘Moyer’ s Sertum Petropolitanum, 46. Fish of existing lakes in Sweden, formerly salt water, Fi ag on agers ics of, J. Miiller, Floral calendar “for 1846, at pattie: Ohio, S. P. Hildreth, 212. Flao-ilie cani lide, formation of, 258. Fluor —— Louyet, anthracite, G. ao ‘Sch aeffer, 422, Folding of stra ay os ma 97, a Rogers, 182, 183. BB. 2 : VWs —_— Footprints fos nfs J. Deane, near Liver: =r England, 142. recent we alligators 125, ——, measu < 7 % _——, rem ‘ and ow eeulpture, EH. Davis,286. = geological re rts, Fossil pn eo of America, 86, LEASE em bone, in ‘the Wes Fremon JC e Rocky Mountaine, ie er geology, or oe hot sscags: coal, &c., 92 Cason range, Oregon, and hot s ee " lin the Rocky Mountains, 273. Preiebia.: C. R., work by, on chemical anal- ysis, noticed, 14 Fucoides graphica, 169 Furro rocks dependent on structure, C. : oe Gallé, di — Pests oe 129. i ia conferred on, 283. ae use of pee of soda loranie # Gelatir ne, epee oa al onan py 257. ateem — . Laurent, 253. .N. A Geographical f features of the globe, ollie of, J. logy of Vermont, notice of C, B, Adams's acter annual report on, 144. onhar fe noticed, 149, eneral review of, 153, Fremont, 460 INDEX. Geology of Rocky Meenas J.W. Abert,301.|| Herrick,E.C., Auroral belt of April, 1847, 440. , limits 0 period i Geological Report of New Monks reviewed, 57 mations, ¢ - “ absence from some kc oe s, C. tore an Ciapeeitiene in S. Prooue by C. ert nanan 1 nal, London, paticed, 146. — of F nee, 2 results of t D. Dana, nia ibnitz’s views on, 176. Ms ’Prevost’s views on, 95, 178 ibid, W. W. Mather. , 100, 177, —— epochs, cause of, 187, forces of fo stad ge ae rey of, 188. hardt, C., compound snlteogen n, 1 , Précis de Chimie Organique, no- Hw ns i ‘nuance “af light n, D. D. — | Hippur s of phosphorus and||—— ae su g h, S. P., meteorological Journa 1 for 6, at Marietta, Ohio, —-, floral calendar, migration ‘of birds, &c., den 1846, 214. observations on the seventeen year ~ Joust, in 1846, 216. ippopotamus at eed Leone, ric seh, transformation Hs p> ben- zoic acid and sugar of aan 257. tion, J.|| Hooker, Species Filicum, on the mm of joints in Hoind Be Chemical Essays relating to a pr bby, no oticed, 144. ——, on Glycocoll and its compountn’ = Hot Ene APTN. Roc - Moun — 198, 450, ade ra pe mes in Koore distan, 349, ces of a 347. m the growth 0. ea of Iceland, temperature of, at depths, id bed gusdrupeds, 39. e in ane water, mical so sh Glass, Glaie’ a of, in England, 293, Glutin of the oat, bet Song A and its compounds, E. N- Hors- Géppert, origin of coal of Silesia, 119. Gray, A., new es and species of Compo- site, from Tex O74 re, in a notice of Agas- Siz’s bg Zovlogicus, 302. Chloris Boreali- ie ericana of, notic-) : food of mastodon, 436. ——, Botany of the Northern States, by, soe announce Great Britain, i iron manufacture i in, 291. Gun-cotton, 102, 142, 259, 295. Gun-paper and gun-sawdust, we 260. Bichtey, ©2W; Vredao ‘ty, noticed, 310.” ., Alger, Hall. 3, Paleo Halley’ s Comet, ancient returns of, 126. Hare, R., on free Electricity, 334. tology of New York, notic- Harlanus americanus Harris, ~ observations on the seven- teen "year loe Hassler, ma ioe density of water used by, for taking sp. gravity, 427. ecla, volcanic dust of, ose be f geysers Helix pie nag W. cae olfactory se sen on Russie i Geslog gy, 430. induction of atmospheric elec- on the ibe lg ires, 25, ry of the Smithsonian 2, 101, 6. is tricit oo, ele: Tostitation, os i ition of minerals in meraliferous veins, 269, Herrick,E. pera Sane. ie Meeey ae fishes, and molluscs, 208. a panies Hybridity, § . G. Mort orton, 39, 20 Hydrod ynamics, memoirs on, ve before the British Association, 140. A. ‘Ice, dilatation of, 450. Iimenium, 116. Indian mounds and re ture and TT Phere: Si fie C. T., inhalation of ether produ- Jackson, Sin cing insensibility to pain, 110, Jacquelain, "meteorological 8 copper, 1 - Johnson, E., met on Islands, 4 _— n rocks, origin of, 393, Jou urna of Nat ural History of Boston, con- ten K. Koordistan, springs, salt, mines, &., of, 347. — deposits near the great lakes, J. A. Lapham, 90. Lake, Pycamid, Cascade range, N. Califor- Grea at Salt, or Timpanogos, Rocky ooting stars of ahs ,1846,125,] borealis of Nov., 1846, 126, ieee 198. bmatos erpet Wes i c. bq we Lapham, J. A. Prom ae i + ad ee rent, on prigecd of gelatine, fo: ilide, 258. Lauren ne NS ae tian ae od Pca 435, 436." Lead, carbonate of, at Rossie, N. Y¥., 117. in —, cupreou to-carbonate of, | Missouri, 117. INDEX. 461 Lead, — of ooticnnting eet Domonte, 255.) Metal, — Rag H. Rose, 357. —— mines of Koordis LeConte, i £., on Cora to te 117. —, plum bo-re ainite and preous eul:} phato-carbonate of lead in rey 117. Ledebour’s — Rossica, noticed, Legumin, 32 Leibnitz, odie from Protogeea of, 176, Leidy, J., w wings of Locuste, 125. —, olfactory ce in mollusca, 434, Leonhar rd’s Taschenbuch fiir Freunde der as of children, 297. apt , influence of, on the growth of plants, Lightnin Sap ‘effect on telegraph wires, 25. tah. houses, 7. A. Jenkins’s Report on, noticed, near of St. Louis elmann, 119. — y World, a mutch gazette, otice : xia Sesto of oxygen in fused, 255. Locust, s TW ee eS a Hildreth, 216. Locuste, as s of, J. Lei Lyceum’ of Natural ieaty a New York, Ui ge nae of, n the delta and alluvial deposits of the Mississippi, 34. wd elds of Alabam ——, remark on the —— of the ~ rag — > on the alleged coexistence of man w the Megatherium, 67, eo elf- bis. etn, m, H. Rose, 357. —, aren , 116. Metallic lustre, cause of, 264 oe eee ition of Talkies in, W. J. Hen 6. Meteorite, fall 1 of in Italy, 141 Meteorolog rago’s opinion as to predic- tions ptt: the weather, and the moon’s influen ological instruments, 4 oye at Sandwich Islands, E. Toh nso thin BF BE. Louis, G. Engelmann, ~ 438, ciety in Finland, 440. Midden dnd notice of, 134, Mississippi valley, St. Louis, rain and snow of, Eng. 4 photographie mann, ——, rye of detritus, delta, and allu- vial oC Lyell, 34, 118 Mi sake new, “from the Azores, J. E. Tes- chema ——, —-, he nl of nickel, B. Silliman, , 429; Buratite, 429; tee Aspasiolite at Rossie, 117; Cas tor Caibcnete of lea a ; Cupreous sulp ae ae i 117; Gropp, 429; Herschel- nell, ores of nite, ghlprophy ive, fend hee 266; Plu certain, in M. Magnes lem without visible support, age, Magnets, on best kinds of steel for, and mode ee in making, W. Petrie, 112. Magnetic oes on the mode of ek avveleg: ing, Saswesby I Saeed ations ¥ Makerstoun, results of, ts, Gauss i instruments, photographic self-register- Man, on the alleged. coexistence of, with the egatherium, C. Lyei =i istan, and views on differ- of, 250. . Root, 50. ,on ‘cupellation, "409. of 8 contraction, 100, 177, aE gy ones awary A 111. oo ges ion of ce me of the bila fron deport = Corn- wail’ in Devon, W. ae Mineral waters, arsen Mines and mining ba sod ire: Belgium, 293, of Koordistan, 353. Molecular phenomena of the voltaic arc, 110, oe , olfactory sense in, J. Leidy, 434. obituary of, 143. pevariaane to erent 1 142. omas Moon’s influence on I Ya weather, Arago, 141, — on the projection of a star on, Powell, hea American, a new species of, Moricand, Plantes Nouvelles,&c., of, oticed, 147, de tion to, 334, bow : : , Rocky, origin of, 98. ———., account of cc &c., 192, 273, 301. anne BEC Liat i say kg and N. Cali- "fornia with mandi of hot springs and lakes, Wind river, ascent of, J. C. Fremont, 462 Mountains, ee trend of, 333. Ural, geology of, 1 Murchison, R "3 —— ,, Geology of Russia by, noticed, 153. Natchez, hum: , 267, Necker on eae in the strike of strata, Nemalite, analysis of, Connell, 265. Neptune, new planet, 128, 441 ——, Prof. Pei te eirce’ 8 discussion of, 441 faury’s and S, —. . Walker's I . New York, geological reports, reviewed, 57, Nickel, hydrate of, native, B. Silliman, Jr., Nile, cake on oe river, C. T. Beke, 447. Niobium, H. Rose on, 357. Ni a a phosphoras, compounds of, 105. n organic bodies, determination of, not a constituent of picrotoxine, 424. , influence of ie of, on vegeta- Nitrific cation, Dumas, 2 Nomenclator Postagiets st Agassiz, and laws of nomenclature, A. Gray, 302. North wae Hy 2" of reachi ing proposed, 141. —, -, appointment to a professorship in Yale, 451. ‘ é Nutritive power of green and dry fodder, Boussingault, 106. O. on Siforian Classification,| nalysis of the oat, 145, 222,||p INDEX. sda Mies) of salen sin, 383, almost encircled by a volcanic iid : 7., revolution of a magnet without Pag ” by J. e, C.G vs sible support, 29 be logy of "New York, work on, Peleoiherial bone, in the West, H. A. Prout, Baleeozoi ic pe extent of D. D. Owen, 365, per, explosiv Parallax ofa fixed star in Ursa Major, 444. Paris of Sciences, vacancies in, filled, 451. Pastures, fairy rings ayen, on cotfee and peta e, 106, 423 Peirce, Prof., remarks on ratio? s : plan- lizot, z., new saccharimetric process, 109. Pelopium, H. Rose on, 357. ie ival, J. G., on trap dikes of Connecticut, Biri System, Me — — , relation 365, Pepsin: lake aac height of, above the sea, Peter, _ ‘Memoir by, on Urinary Calculi, bone: e, a We making magnet Phosp hate of | lien i in organic se: 261. hosphors and nitrogen, compounds of, C. ard, ——, action of perchlorid on organic sub- stances, A. Cahours, ey a fusion n of, E. Desains, 423. : Photographic self- ‘pegiatering meteorological and mai ia arisaingeig * 428. Pickering, J., eulogy on, by Judge White, Oat, J. P. Norton é on 145, 222, 318. et of T. M ticelli, 143. 1. Vine incent, 452. Planorbis pees a Washin ton, observations at, Plants, in nines of light on M. F. Maury, a eM. Gillis. Ocean, or origin in of depressions of a, 178, 181, —, Pac ific, why surrounded by hig [Pte ~ mountains ye the Atlantic, and i a vol- canic band, Oils, acaaig a the Crucifere, 425, utchoue from, 426. - r Oolite. of Roky Mountai ins, 197. Organic substance ——, determ ination of Sogn in, 424. Ornithichnites, se | Pleo Pon aang: on elliptic, refl action of perchlorid of ‘Pataet noticed, Picrotoxine contains no nitrogen, 424. Pinite, 266. Pla paanet de wih tor s, 128, 44 . Peirce’s ee on, Planetary Teac a bl masses near the sun, multivolvis, W. Case, 101. ap growth of, 441. 444. —, hy brid, S. G. Morton, 209. a. intingiats of snncent of nitrogen on, a e glass r pain in England, 293. - cephalus, 276. ge Dale, 262. , by reflexion, Powell, 264. Pota tassium, voltaic battery wi Potato disease, discussion on, Association, 136. i age aly , results of the earth’s contraction, my, siosaur ct 428. - the British eo 180 weet n volcanic action, 180. Proceliane Bovicoditis G. N. Lawrence, 436. ossil lmotheral bone, 248. 0. — of Soeer D. D.,re ag w of New York Geological |, ag ey: 7 164. —, review ft Geo ology of nea 38 155. ——, limits of Paleozo. : ge the vavtabince structure of the skull, 12: ai lesisiea Oxygen, alasien c of, in Phas litharge, 255. Prow 4 Eyeceuraciioe = o Bouvé, 4 s, 436. Prenciion: 259, 29 Railways in Italy, 142. wer nd snow, at St. Louis, @. Engelmann, 463 INDEX. pecific gravity, water at maximum de: Tested, id, We. e on the deviation of a falling a for taking, 427. ney body from a perpendicular, and ~ = Springs, Beer, cad thermal, Rocky Moun- cause of atmospheric — , with analysis of waters, a 450. tenbacher, J., commo n origin of. pret —_—, oy ascade range, alifornia, 200. acids, 254. a, oe neral, arsenic In, * Refraction of wav esa of sound, 1 ——, hot sulphur, i in Koordistan, 349. Retzius, on the e nological’ Seetrtbvidad of||——, saline, in Koordistan, 353. round and elongated crania, 138, S , E. G., mounds of the West, 237. Rive, de oueyyr E n, 11 ar phenomena of the vol- arc 10. a ne neva ae detritus and delta of, C. — Nile e, remarks 0 on, C. cs Beke, 447. Rocky bgrcveoan origin — —,0 ations oe " geology height, ina) &c., J. C. Fremont, 192, 273) — — a Fremont, 193. —— —,, section of, J. C. Frem — O., solution ofa teathoinatical ‘problem, Thon Rose, metal in Tantalite, 357. Russia, fevinw of geology of, 153. ——, cultivation of cereal grains in, 288. Ss. Salt ae 7 eee or Lake Tim- Koordistan, 353. > See cee ria, 432. Thomas j techutiien t to, 298. Sonicare on erratic blocks and elevations) > M. Desor, 313. — ptlinitive race of, 317. Eco on developing the magnetic con- serge coment analytical research- — , D., on slaty cleavage i in North Wales, ||——. Shells, Helix annulata and Planorbis multi- ‘trad Mec ak ae ; tars of August, "1846, E. C. Her- —— of November, 1846, E. C. Herrick, Siberia, cultivation of cere ins in, Siberian Explorations by Milionint, 13 134, Ste Psy of coal of, Géppert, 119. iliman , B., Jr. First Principles of Chemis- = of, noticed, 14. Se eee > by hyd sn of — native, 407. 5, Pon nted to a professorship in Yale, — 1 st. , remarks on, R. I. Mur- ann n, 404, Ine, timation of, when mercury is pres- Skulls, vertebrate structure of, R. Owen, 122. x) cleavage in North Wales, D. Sharpe, Soetsonian te, 132, 284, Natali at Trieste, 451. Ber tural History, contents of —, —, J. W. Abert, 301. —— ss ascent of Wind A chain, by J.||—— of deat St. Louis limestone, G. Engelman Stan n the variation of a differen- tial coeffic snk of a function of any number at feline ae icad Ss on ee of, by P. B. Sestini, Sutnies of i iron trade in Great Britain, 291. te glass making in England, 293. , in the severa profession 297. of nine s in Belgium, 293. hs among shildren Ds eet Steam Nav cae = os Pao 141. Strickland, H. £ f the wile analogy, homology and i toon he tructure, furrows dependent on, C. B. Ad- ams, ‘Sugar, E. Peligot s method of estimating the quantity, 1 —— of gelatine, fom eo acid, 257. A. Pe aan N. Hor. heed hot, in Koorisin, 347. Koordistan, —, Sulphur 9 ‘spring, Sun, planetary hace near, 444, ——— new metals i oe electric, ties ree in U. States, , fact v. fancy, 449. Tertiary ry of ee a ee oom E., new mineral from the 32. ce vegetation of America, 86. ’ | ps Tobac co, acids of, ae pil, 423. Tracks, see Footprin aig dene of New —— origin of, J. D. na, ef cival, 390. Trautvetter. ; Plata yer a &c., of, noticed, 1 Trieste, Soctes of iy gy 0 at, 451. Trilobites in Bes of Swedish ‘abu a salt water species, 316. 7 E., proposed work on Lichens, Parke, Koordistan, mines, springs, &c. of, U. United States yo survey, Report on, by A. D. Bache, n , 300, Ural mountains, eology © of, 158. sees 4 a new ore of, J. L. Le naeery. Calculi in the Transylvania Uni- versity museum, work on, by R. Peter, no- ticed, 299, 451. ¥, Varia differential coefficient of a —, —— ——, Proceedings of, 455. of a heaton of any number of variables, A. D. Stanley, 415. 464 etation, influence of protoxyd of nitro- gen on, Vermont, report on Geology of, C. B. Adams, noticed, Verneuil, E. de, review of Geology of Russia, Volatile oils of the Cruciferee, 425. Voleanic action, Prevost’s views on, 180. — dust of He ecla, nd nearly ening the the at 398. —— peak of Levees in the we bable submarine, i in China Sea, 273. ned cla haste on, Volcanoes, cause _—, Voltaic are, molecular phenomena of, de la Rive, 110. W. alker, S. C., nat atest respecting Le- Verrier's planet, — . gton, Observations at the NationalOb- tory, Was hington, noti 1 8. Weir, sea, analyti researches, Forch- —, maximu density of pure, 427. ~¥ wave: ede 49, = Wares 0 of sound, refraction and diffraction ° ——, sea, water raised by, through valved tubes, 449. Weather, on foretelling, and on the moon’s influence on, Ara, 5% 0, 141, Weights, sinnte, mode of making, 4 ute spheres of gold a ‘ee Wheat, development of vegetable matter in, Boussin ault, 106. — thod of measuring the heights of —, senianenny of, modified, of position of, J. D. Dana, ae INDEX. Winds, remark on cause of general, W. C. Redfield, 284. Wright, A. H., notices of Koordistan, 347. X. Xyloidine, 102, 259, 295. < Yale, J. P. Norton and B. Silliman, Jr, ap- pointed to professorships in, 451, Z. logy. Alligator, tracks of, 1 Animals, hybridi 5 6: 39, 203. talis, 436, ugubris, ophyllide, remarks Fic 14, jarlanus, new ge vig ha ix annulata, | potamus at Siera Leone, 125. a nie 125. Mastodon, Melonites saulsipoes, 124, sca, olfactory sense in, ty ek Shells oak sr Seal in New York, Trout of Swedish lakes a salt water spe- cies, 316, ti , J. D. Dana, |, Zoo ‘ue , Geographical distribution of, J. 138, —, refraction and diffrac tion of w es of) wad TD. 3 were Ea Dona, 160. —, —, classification of, 337 ADDITIONAL ERRATA, P. 370, 8 lines from bottom, after “ copper,” insert “and nitric acid.” P, 371, in note, for * Aq” ghee ormula, rea ad “Ag.” P. 376, 9 lines from bottom, for “ fine,’ ’ read “ fire.’ AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Arr. 1—On Terrestrial Magnetism; by Wrt1am A. Norton, oe of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Delaware ollege. eral philosophers ; and particularly by Captain Duperrey, and M. Kupffer of Kasan. The origir moirs Years 1822-1825, perrey 7 Magnetic observations in the vicinity of the equator, by which Stconp Series, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 1 2 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. he was enabled to trace the magnetic equator, with peculiar ac- curacy, through an extent of 247° of longitude. In his paper on the magnetic equator, subsequently published, he announced that he had discovered that “the points of this great circle, or those where the magnetic intensity is a minimum, are also the warmest points of each meridian,” and thus that “ the thermal and magnetic equator are connected, as Sir David Brewster had already proved to be the case with the thermal and magnetic les ;” also, “ that in comparing the isothermal and isodynamic lines, he had found a remarkable analogy in their curvatures and particularly in the direction of their concavities, and convexities.” M. Kupffer, in certain memoirs read before the Russian Academy about the year 1829, attempted to establish that terrestrial mag- netism resides at the surface of the globe, and thence inferred the existence of a connection between the magnetic and thermal phe- nomena of the earth : conceiving that the intensity of the earth’s magnetism would vary directly or inversely as the temperature, according as it was of the nature of permanent or induced mag- netism. Several conjectures have been formed as to the nature of the connection between the temperature and magnetism of the earth. Dr. Traill has expressed the opinion that “the disturbance of the equilibrium of the temperature of our planet, by the continual action of the sun’s rays on its intertropical regions, and by the polar ices, must convert the earth into a vast thermo-magnetic ap- paratus.” Christie has suggested that “ difference of temperature may be the primary cause of the polarity of the earth, though its influences may be modified by other circumstances.” (CErsted conceives that the sun, by producing evaporation, deoxydation, cc., as well as by increasing the temperature, is the exciting eause of electrical currents, which perpetually traversing the earth’s surface in a direction nearly parallel to the equator, give to the earth “a constant magnetic polarity.” Perhaps the more generally received theory of the present day concerning the phys- ical nature of the earth’s magnetism, is that it consists of thermo- electric currents circulating at or near the earth’s surface, In duced by the heat of the sun. Prof. Barlow, who adopts this view, conceives that only one link is wanting to complete the ex- planation of terrestrial magnetism, viz. the discovery of the me- tallic thermo-magnetic apparatus. Brewster remarks upon this, that “if it could be shown that the action of solar heat is cape ble of developing magnetism in particles such as those whieh are known to constitute our globe, the great difficulty would be re moved.” In seeking for the explanation of the connection between the i thermal phenomena of the earth, philosophers seem hitherto to have regarded the heat as only modifying in some m- Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 3 explicable manner the intensity of the magnetism of the terres- trial particles; or as bearing towards it the relation of cause an effect. But there is another view to be taken of the matter. We may regard the two principles of heat and magnetism as similar in their ultimate physical nature, as every where subsist- ing together, and that the causes which produce a variation of temperature at the surface of the earth, as we pass from one point light, heat and electricity, differing in time and intensity, and pos- sibly in some instances in direction, of vibration. Agreeably to needle, are subject to the action of the magnetic force of the earth, * is evident from the fact that the directive force of the needle is Proportional to its mass. Why it is that magnets alone are sensi- bly influenced by the impulsive actions of the ethereal pulses, I cannot now stop to consider. These theoretical views, I do not 4 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. it is the main design of the present article to exhibit, and apply, although suggested by these views, is not necessarily dependent upon them. ‘The quantitative results arrived at, simply establish the existence of the forces supposed and of the relations conceiv- ed to subsist between them and the temperature of the earth. Dif- ferent views may be entertained of the physical origin of these forces; or, we may rest upon the forces themselves as so many primary properties of matter. The mechanical theory of the magnetism of the earth, of which I propose to give an exposition, is based upon the follow- ing fundamental principles. ‘These were obtained inferentially from the physical theory of terrestrial magnetism which has been briefly explained: but for our present purpose, they may be re- garded as mere assumptions, to be tested by the conclusions and results to which they lead. 1. Every particle of matter at the earth’s surface, and to a cer- tain depth below the surface, is the centre of a magnetic force exerted tangentially to the circumference of every vertical circle that may be conceived to be tra- Fie. 1 ced around it. Thus, if A, fig. 1, re be a particle of the earth’s mass at or near the surface, P a particle of a magnetic needle, and BPC ing also in oblique planes, I do not - here consider. If there are such forces it appears from the results of the investigation that they may be disregarded in the present inquiry. According to the views which have been offered of the probable physical nature of magnetism, the tangential forces here supposed are due to the transversal vibrations of the eth waves of magnetism propagated from the point A, and originat by certain vibratory movements of the particle at A. . 2. The direction of this force will be different according @s It solicits the north or south end of the needle; and it is always such, that to the north of the acting particle the north end of t needle is urged downwards and the south end upwards, and and the south end in the direction Pm; and at P’ the north em will be solicited in the direction P/m’, and the south end in the Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 5 direction P’n’. This amounts to saying that the magnetic force of A in its action upon the north end of the needle is directed tangentially in the circle from right to left, as shown by the arrow, and in its action upon the south end of the needle is directed from left to right. Upon the undulatory theory of magnetism these differences of action are attributable to ethereal waves whose transversal forces of vibration lie in opposite directions, and to certain differences in the magnetic states of the two ends of the needle. 3. The intensity of the magnetic force of a particle of the earth, at a given distance, is assumed to be approximately propor- tional to its temperature, or amount of sensible heat. This as- sumption was made under the idea that the sun was the source, at the same time of waves of heat, light and magnetism, and that the molecular forces of vibration due to the different kinds of he points where the annual mean magnetic intensity of the par- ticles near the surface is the same, will, according to the present View, coincide with the isogeothermal lines, and very nearly there- Let ore with the isothermal lines. Fig. 2. then, AB, CD, EF, fig. 2, represent portions of three isogeothermal lines, ; 2 a regarded as parallel to each other, * : and GPH an are of a great circle ~ we g 2 5 09 o a 6 re 3 : E td o D If we take four points m, n, 7, s, sim- “ft j ; ‘ the north end of a magnetic needle Hae ee will be perpendicular to mP and directed obliquely downward. he magnetic : cles r, s, will be respectively perpendicular to 7P and sP and di- tected obliquely upward. Now it is evident that while one effect of the action of m will be to urge the north end of the needle to- ward ©, the particle » will have an equal tendency to urge it to- ward D. In like manner, the components of the forces of r and 8, which solicit the north end of the needle in the directions PC 6 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. and PD, destroy each other, 'The same may be shown with re- ard to the actions upon the south end of the needle. _ It follows, therefore, that the needle will place itself at right angles to CPD, the isogeothermal line passing through P the station of the nee- dle. This is a consequence from our theory which, like the formule soon to be investigated, is to be tested by making com- parisons with observations. Let us now deduce from the general principles which have been laid down, the horizontal and vertical components of the di- rective force of the needle. Fig. 3. Let ApB, fig. 3, represent a 8) pp great circle of the earth, an- swering to mPs, or nPr in fig. 2, Cp its radius, P the north i : end of a magnetic needle, and m n two particles of the earth situated at equal distances to the north and south of P. The action of m situated to the south of P, will be in the direction Pa perpendicular to mP, and that of n will have the direction Pd perpendicular to nP. The force Pa may be decomposed into two forces having the directions PC and PH; and the force Po may be decomposed into two having the di- rections PD and PH. 'The sum of the two horizontal components cess of decomposition to be gone through with for each pair of distance at which the molecular actions become insensible, by taking the sum of the individual forces along PC and PH, we shall have the entire effects of the are AB in these two directions. In the same manner we may obtain the effects of any are below AB and situated in the same plane; and thus the entire effect of all the matter situated in this plane which exerts any action upo? the needle. Since the curvature of the arc AB is very y and P is very near to it, it is only the particles situated quite nea to p that will have any material action in the horizontal direction For arcs below the earth’s surface the portion that furnishes the horizontal force will be greater as the depth increases, but W still, doubtless, be small in comparison with the more distant Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 7 parts which act nearly in the vertical direction upon the needle. as we have supposed, the principle of magnetism be analogous in its nature to light and heat, then it must be more or less ab- sorbed in its passage from the lower arcs to the surface; and there may be a gradual decrease in the extent of the are which exerts a sensible action upon the needle, as the depth of the are increases, until at the lower surface of the stratum of sensible ac- tion it becomes reduced to zero. ormulas for the horizontal Fig. 4. and vertical components of the : directive force suited to our pres- P ent enquiry, may be easily inves- tigated. Let AB, fig. 4, be an isogeothermal line, and GH an are of a great circle crossing this line perpendicularly and passing through P the station of the needle. ‘The magnetic intensity of the particles of AB is every where the same. ‘Take any particle mand designate the distance Pm, in a right line, by 7. Hither end of a needle at P will be solicited by a force perpendicular to Pm, and in the vertical plane through Pm. This force will be, for different isogeothermal lines, directly proportional to the mag- netic intensity of m, and therefore to its mean annual tempera- ture (¢); and will, for the same isogeothermal line, vary from one particle to another with the distance 7. Its expression will there- fore be of the form At. ¢*(r); Fig. 5. A an indeterminate lp being constant. Now, let mp, fig. Pate 5, represent the great cir- a’ lr A G m B m and lying either on the earth’s surface or beneath We shall have force ;: any portion Gan of it by z, and PG bi mentary portion of GB will have for * The letters o F, with and without accents, are used in these investigations to designate dicen functions, and are therefore to be read “a function of.” 8 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. =Atf(Vi?+27)dx. Integrating this between the limits 0 and k, we have, vertical action of GB=A?t.F(l,k). Whence, vertical action of AB=2A¢.F(/, xk). If & may be taken sensibly the same for different isogeothermal lines, this expression will become 2At.F(l). It is to be supposed, however, that the last particle of GB, which has a sensible action upon the needle at P, is at the same distance from this point whatever may be the distance of AB from it. The value of & will therefore be less, in propor- tion as the distance / is greater. Supposing the most remote par- ticle to be at B, and denoting its distance PB by d, k will be equal to Vd? —/*, and the above expression will become 2Af. F (1,/d? —/2), or 2At.F(2). It follows therefore that the entire action of any isogeothermal line AB in the vertical direction upon a needle at P, may be reduced to a single force, proportional to the temperature, and varying from one isogeothermal line to an- other, with the distance PG of this line from the station of the needle. 'The entire effect of any single lamina of matter will therefore be the same as if the action was confined to the parti- cles lying in the arc GPH; the effective force of each particle being proportional to its temperature, and also a certain function of its distance from the needle. This being understood, let Fig. 6. AB, fig. 6, represent an are " . crossing the parallel isogeother- eo mal lines at right angles, T’ 2 ? the mean annual temperature ° ; of the earth at p the station of the needle, ¢ and / the mean temperatures at the extreme the arc pA, and r the distance Pm. pm or y may be regarded as depending for its value upon Pm, Pp, and Cp; of which Pp and Cp are constant for the same are. Thus for any one arc, (repre- senting, according to what has been shown, a single lamina,) =9(r). If we regard the variation of temperature as uniform for the extent of the are AB iG) iy. ig, 9%, eh si “wit—T:ty:a..u=(t-T) lt ad a) a ‘ Whence, putting v= vertical force due to an element dy at ™% ymal line and taking the expression for the action of an isogeothe ’ and incorporating the 2 with the constant A, Thus, temperature at m=T'+(¢—T) Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 9 g(r) Keys (HoT) Pe) =AT..F(r)do(r)+A(t— 1) Pr da(r r Integrating, v=AT f F(rjde(r)+A(t =) f Ze (r)as(r) Integrating between the limits Pp and PA, to obtain the force due to the are pA, the two integrals will become two functions of Pp and PA. Now, for any supposed value of Pp, PA will be the same at every different place on the earth, and therefore the values of these integrals will be every where the same. If we denote them by M and N, we have v=ATM+A(¢ —-T)N=AM.T+AN(t—T). By the same process we obtain for the vertical force due to the are pB oe =AM.T+AN(¢'—T). Hence the expression for the effect of the whole arc, AB, is v—v'=AN(t—t’)=c(t-t’) . ; ‘ 1. If we consider the action of a second lamina, the value of c may be different, but ¢—¢/ will remain very nearly the same, except at considerable depths where the rate of variation of the temper- ature may be different, or the are AB may be diminished by the absorption of the ethereal waves in their passage to the surface. If we neglect these possible variations of ¢—¢, and add together _ the actions of the different lamine, we obtain for the actual ver- tical force do=A(T+(¢—7) V=C(i—?’) ; us (2.) in which C is the sum of the values of ¢ for the different lamin. we take account of the variations of t—?’, we shall have the actual force equal to the sum of a series of expressions of the form ¢(t — ¢’ ) in which both ¢ and ¢—? will be more or less dif- ferent. It would seem, however, that the changes in the value — of t-?’, from absorption or other causes, must be very slight. In fact if the absorption be always a certain fractional amount of the intensity, there will be no change of ¢—?’ from this cause. It will only be necessary to regard ¢ as varying. And if the ab- Sorption be always the same fractional amount whatever may be the intensity, ¢ and therefore C will have the same value at dif- erent places. The supposition made in the investigation of formula (2), that the variation of temperature is uniform for the extent of he are AB, is not strictly true. From the equator to the latitude 45°, and even beyond this, the rate of diminution of the tempe- rature for every degree of latitude continually increases. ‘The effect of this will be to make the vertical component somewhat gteater, except in the higher latitudes, than formula (2) would Srconp Serizs, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 2 10 Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. give it, (that is, supposing C to be détermined a priori. If C be determined from observations made at the point of maximum va- riation of temperature, the values of V given by equation (2) will be too small south of this point and too great north of it.) To obtain a formula for the horizontal component of the direc- tive force, we may proceed in the same manner as for the vertical component, except that we now multiply the force Pa, fig. 5, by the cosine of the angle aPH instead of aPC. We shall there- fore have for the entire action of the isogeothermal line AB, fig. 4, the expression A’t. F(Z). Hence, that of all the isogeother- mal lines, or of the whole acting surface, will be reduced to that of the single are which crosses these lines at right angles ; the mag- netic intensity of the different points of this arc being propor- tional to the temperature, and the effective forces upon the needle varying according to some function of the distance. Now, as in the present enquiry all the active particles lie quite near to P, their temperatures may be considered the same and equal to that of the earth at the station of the needle: or, if there is a sensible variation at the lower layers, Fig. 7. the augmentation towards the : ‘ south will be compensated for Ses Seen — by an equal diminution to- wards the north. Hence, de- signating the are pm, fig. 7, by y, and the distance Pm by r, the expression for the hori- zontal force due to this arc is Jdh= fav ; BY(r )dy=A'T [ F(r do(r). Integrating between the limits r= Pp and r=PA, and designating the value of the integral by P, we have H’=A’T’.P; 2H’=2A’P. T and thus finally the total horizontal fore B=OT Sg eed This is the expression for the entire effect of a single lamina. For different laminz C’ may be different; and beyond a certain depth 'T will increase. If the supposed absorption of the mag- netic emanations be a certain constant fractional amount of the magnetic intensity of the molecules, C’ will be every where the same. If we take the sum of all the equations (3) answerng to the different lamine, we shall have an equation of the same form for the horizontal component of the directive force, or the horizontal intensity at P. It is only by comparing the results furnished by this equation, with observations, that we can ascer tain with certainty whether T' is to be taken sensibly different from.the mean surface temperature, and whether C’ may be te garded as truly constant for all places. Prof. W. A. Norton on Terrestrial Magnetism. 11 through the same point. We have therefore only to seek for a formula which shall make known the direction of the isogeo- thermal line at a given place and place the needle at right angles to this line of direction. Such a formula may be derived from Brewster’s formula for the determination of the mean annua temperature of a place. is 1 T =(¢—1)(sin"d. sin"d’)+1 : ee where ¢ is the maximum equatorial temperature, t the minimum temperature at each of the two poles of maximum cold, and 0, 0 the distances of the place Fie. 8 from the two cold poles. Let i C, fig. 8, represent the north pole of the earth, A and A’ the two poles of greatest cold, B a given place, BL the direc- tion of the isogeothermal line through B. BA=d,and BA’=0’. For the isogeothermal _ line, since 'T’ is constant, dT =0. Hence, if we differentiate equation (4), and put the dif- ferential equal to zero, we shall ave a relation between dd and ds’, the variations of 6 and 9 in passing from the point B to its consecutive point r on the isogeothermal line. ‘Thus, putting —t=c, we have dT =e(nsin"~'d cos 6 sin"d’dd +n sin"~ "0" cos 0” sin"ddd"). Multiplying and dividing by sin-*t' 3 sin-"+ 10’, av’ e(n cos 5 sin 0’d5 +n cos & sin 6dd’) a gnc" t !. d. gin PAR 5 Hence, cos 6 sin 5’dd + cos 0 sin ddd’=0 ds sin 0 cos 0’ pedo gi atc ne tne ge 5. And, = —- Schkuhr established and figured his C. tenella, in the first part of his work on Carices, in 1802, (No. 15, t. Pp, f. 104,) upon a plant which he found in the herbarium of a friend, who was entirely ignorant of its source, or even whether he had collected it himself or received it from a correspondent. This friend, as he elsewhere states, was Hedwig. Schkuhr’s herbarium shows that he subsequently received the same species from Sweden, through Thunberg, ticketed “C. loliacea, Linn. In Nordlandia Norvegie rarius, per Nordlandiam Suecie copiose.” In the same work, Schkuhr also figured (t. E, f. 24) a plant of unte- corded origin, which he took for the C. gracilis of “ Bhrhart, Gram. [Phytophylac?] 78.” The specimen which Schkuhr fig- ured is not preserved in his herbarium; but in a paper fixed to the folio under this name, marked “‘ Saamen,” I found the very petigy- nium and achenium (2. e.) separately delineated in his figure. 1he perigynium is distinctly beaked, the staminate flowers are plainly depicted as occupying the summit of the spikelets, and the whole figure so nearly agrees with the smaller states of C. rosea, that I can scarcely doubt it was derived from that plant. In place of the specimen actually figured, the herbarium of Schkuhr contains one with a printed ticket, “C. gracilis, Ehrh.: Upsal,’” which 1s probably an authentic specimen from Ehrhart’s original collection, but which, as it certainly is not the plant which Schkuhr has depicted, I suppose to have been received at a later period, that the specimen which served for the figure in question was then discarded. On obtaining possession of this authentic specimen (aS I take it to be) of Ehrhart’s C. gracilis, Schkuhr could not ‘fail to perceive that it was precisely the same species with his ow? C. tenella, and with what had already been sent him from Swe- den under the name of ©. loliacea. Accordingly, in his Supple ment, (1806,) he united the two, (but without explaining the Se ea * Wild, Sp. Pl. 4, p. 237. Note on Carer loliacea. 21 mistake he had made in figuring as ©. gracilis, something differ- ent from the Ehrhartian plant;) and, following the cue which been given him by Swartz, Willdenow, and Thunberg, erro- neously referred them both to C. loliacea, Linn. Under that species, consequently, these two synonyms have been generally cited ever since, notwithstanding the discrepancy in the posi- tion of the staminate flowers, which in ©. gracilis, Hhrh., (C. te- nella, Schk.,) are correctly described by Schkuhr as at the apex ; while those of C. loliacea are rightly characterized by Wahlen- berg and Willdenow, and indeed by all succeeding writers, as oceupying the base of the spikelets: and the difference in the perigynia, é&c. of the two species is not less decisive. Yet even Wahlenberg has unguardedly adduced the synonym in his Flora Lapponica; where he has given a further and most excellent account of the genuine C. loliacea, particularly contrasting it with his own C. tenuiflora, which is indeed the nearest related species. He notices the “squame albicantes, omnium tenuissime,” and well describes the perigynia as follows: ‘Capsule in singula spicula 3 vel 4, ita obtuse ut apice fere rotundate, utrinque con- vexiuscule nervose, ob formam suai seminibus Lolii temulenti While the C. loliacea, Linn., is, so far as I am aware, re- stricted to the north of Europe, the ©. gracilis, Hhrh. has ap- parently a wider range and is much more abundant in the new wey; who, while he noted its resemblance to C. loliacea, Schk., (tenella, Schk.,) conceived it to be distinct by its termi- nal staminate flowers—a point in which it does indeed differ from the true C. loliacea, but not from the plant which Schkuhr hamely, Nylander and Mr. Tuckerman. As to the former, my information is indirect. Ruprecht, in his recent critical enumera- tion of the plants which grow around St. Petersburg, has a * Ca- acea, L.., utrasque exposuit cl. Nylander in Spite. Fl. Fenn., ii, No. 92 et 93.”+ I have rt acquaintance with the work of Nylander Nylander: ad oppidum Sardavale, F accord with the American C. disperma, and, so far as recollection Wahl. Fl. Lapp., p. 232.—In his Flora Suecica, he farther adds, that the erptules are a Fae or a half ise,” which is fully one-third longer than are of C. gracilis. " t In Historiam Stirp. Fl. Petropol. Diatribe, p. 84. 1849. 22 Description of three New Carices. and memoranda may be co one with the “C. gracilis, E’hrh., Upsal,” in Schkuhr’s herbariu Mr. 'Tuckerman, in his Shsiinaratin Caricum, (1843,) p. 19, rightly remarks, that the C. loliacea of Schkuhr is scarcely that of Wahlenberg and Fries; and he inclines to the opinion, that the specimen from which ‘Schkuhr figured his C. tenella, out of Hedwig’s herbarium, was received by Hedwig from Muhlen- berg, and therefore may directly represent the American plant. This is not unlikely; but Mr. Tuckerman does not appear to have been aware that this species is also a native of the north of Europe, and had been gathered at least as early as the year 1780. He justly remarks, also, that it is a credible that Schkuhr’s figures 24 and ‘104, can belong to the e€ species. I have already given what I believe to be the hogs of this incongruity. It would therefore appear that the synonymy of the two species in question should stand as follows : 1. ©. nontacea, Linn.; Wahl. ; Fil. Dan., t. 1403 ; Kunth, (excl. syn. C. tenella and ©. gracilis, Schk. >): not of Schk. Car: No. 14, f. 91, nor Suppl. No. 47, p. 18. 2. ©. cracitis, Ehrh.; not of Schk. Ca r., f. 24, nor of R. Br. C. tenella, Schk. Car. f. 104. ©. loliacea, Schk. Car. Suppl., p. 18; not of Linn., ete. C. disperma, Dewey; not of Kunze, Car., t: 33.* Arr. IV. — Description of Three New Carices, and a New Spe cies of Rhynchospora; by Joun Carey. Carex Grayi: spica mascula solitaria pedunculata; spicis feemineis 2 globosis densi- (25-30-) floris exserte pedunculatis stigmatibus 3; perigyniis deflexo-patentibus ovatis. ventricosis multi-nervosis rostratis ore bifidis squamam ovatam hyalinam_ mur cronatam triplo longioribus,—C, intumescens, var. P. iii A, Gray, in Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., iii, 236. Hab. Ad ripas fluminum “ Mohaw k” et ~ Wood-creek, ray, M.D Culm 3 feet high, robust, triquetrous, yes? and leafy. Leaves taller than the culm, 4-5 lines broad, rough on the margin. Sterile spike 14-2 inches long: fertile spikes globular, occasionally sin- gle, but generally 2, quite distinct and separate, 14 inch in diam- * The figure which Prof. Kunze has given as C. disperma, from specimen! ifr ered on the Black Mountain of North Ca the by Rugel, is an entirely di 6 vere namely, the C. rosea, var. radiata, Dewey, (C.n neglecta, Tuckerm., a ear it—a plant which I have “3 teed spires on the mountains of Caro “4 very far males oF the known a ose of the species for which this excellent t Carico gist has unaccountably Description of three New Carices. 23 eter. Perigynia crowded, deflexed, smooth and shining, 9 lines in length, 25-30 nerved, tapering into a long perfectly glabrous beak. Achenium obtusely triangular, minutely dotted under a lens, crowned with the long continuous style. r. Gray, who first detected this plant on the banks of the Mohawk at Utica, and described it as a variety of C. intumescens, Rudge, remarks, that it “is characterized by its larger and coarser habit, and by its globose, many-flowered pistillate spikes. It flowers a month later than the ordinary form of the species, and when young might readily be mistaken for C. lupulina.” ‘To this may be added, that C. intumescens, owing to the scarcely exserted peduncles, has the loose, few- (5-8-) flowered spikes closely approximate, so as to be almost indistinguishable ; and the perigynia are erect, much shorter, (6-7 lines long, ) slightly serrulate towards the apex of the beak, and only 15—20-nerved Though closely resembling C. intumescens, these constant char- acters and a marked difference in aspect, appear to entitle this plant to rank as a species.* Carex PLATYPHYLLA: spicis 4; mascula 1 erecta gracili pe- dunculata ; fomineis 3 erectis filiformibus laxe 3—4-floris incluse pedunculatis, suprema mascule approximata, caeteris remotis foli- oso-bracteatis ; bracteis spicas paulo superantibus ; stigmatibus 3 ; perigyniis triquetris ovalibus striatis brevissime rostellatis squa- mam ovatam hyalinam acutam vel mucronatam subeequantibus, ginee,) which may be characterized by the few-flowered, erect , 4 Since the foregoing description was in type, I have seen specimens from Co- umbus, Ohio, collected by Mr. Sullivant. — 24 Description of three New Carices. short peduncles nearly included within the small sheathing bracts, or the lower partly exserted; and by the triquetrous fruit ; nu- merous, leafless, diffuse, and at length prostrate culms; and broad radical leaves. In the varying forms of C. anceps, the perigynium is constantly more obtuse on the angles, and more obovate in outline ; and the bracts are always long and leafy, the upper ex- ceeding the culm. In ©. digitalis, Wil/d., and the closely allied on much-exserted, filiform, more or less pendulous peduncles. The perigynium of the present species, the smallest of the group here indicated, closely resembles that of C. digitalis. CAREX SYCHNOCEPHALA: spicis androgynis inferne masculis cre- bris arcte capitato-aggregatis folioso-bracteatis; stigmatibus 2; perigyniis compressis e basi ovato-lanceolata abrupte contracta subsessili longe sensimque rostratis apice bifidis margine scabris squamam. inam lanceolatam abrupte mucronatam paulo lon- gioribus.—C. cyperoides, Dew., in Am. Jour. of Sc. and Arts, in, 171, non LZ. Hab. In Nov. Ebor. Comitat. “ Jefferson,” ubi legerunt cl. I. B. Crawe, M.D., et cl. W. A. Wood, M.D. Culm about a foot high, leafy, smooth; spikes sessile, densely clustered, forming a compound capitate spike subtended by 3 long unequal foliaceous bracts much exceeding the spike. Perl gynium tapering from an abruptly contracted ovate base into a long and slender scabrous bifid beak, a little exceeding the lan- ceolate abruptly mucronate scale. Achenium ovate, com 1 crowned with the lengthened style. : is plant, which has a great resemblance to C. cyperoides, Linn., differs from that species in the nearly sessile perigymum, which tapers from a much wider and contracted (not attenuated) base into a shorter beak, of which the teeth are also shorter than in the European plant. The perigynia are more crowded on t rachis than in C. cyperoides, the spikes of which, owing to the greater length of the beaks, have a more comose appearance than in our plant. ‘The scale is shorter, abruptly nnn and not gradually tapering as in C. cyperoides; and the achemum 1S may here mention that, amongst the undetermined ee C. vulpina, Z., collected at, or near Columbus, Ohio, by Mr. _ i Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 25 Ruyncnospora Kwnieskerntt: culmo trigono gracili; spicis numerosis in glomerulis 4-6 distantibus aggregatis; nuce levi obovata substipitata setas 6 retrorsum hispidas eequante tuberculo triangulari subduplo longiore. ab. In pinetis Nov-Cesar., detexit cl. P. D. Knieskern, M.D. Culm 12-18 inches high, branching from the base, slender, nearly smooth: leaves short and narrow. Spikes small, seta- ceously bracteate, forming small distant clusters throughout the entire length of the culm, each subtended by a long foliaceous bract. Nut obovate, lenticular, attenuate at the base. ‘Tubercle compressed, broad at the base, about half the length of the nut. In its characters this species is closely allied to R. capillacea, Torr., from which, however, it is readily distinguished by the shorter and more numerous aggregated spikes, and the much smaller nut and short bristles. In general appearance it more nearly approaches to R. gracilenta, Gray, but the nut is quite different, and the bristles are not antrorsely hispid as in that spe- cies. I learn from Dr. Knieskern, that it grows exclusively on banks of iron ore in the Pine barrens of New Jersey. He distributed it, as new, under the name of R. Grayana, which name being preoccupied by Kunth for the R. Elliottii, Gr. Mon. Rhynch., 1 dedicate it to the discoverer. Arr. V.—Observations on the Whirlpool, and on the Rapids, below the Falls of Niagara; designed by illustrations to ac- count for the origin of both; by R. Bakewett, New Haven. Ox my return to England soon after visiting the Falls of Niag- ara in the year 1829, I published in Loudon’s Magazine a short Sive action of water, that the falls were once at Queenston. | ring the six days that I remained there, I made several sketches the falls and the surrounding scenery, little expecting at the time that I should ever see the cataract again. I returned to America to reside in the summer of 1830, and in the autumn of which I had made seventeen years before. After a lapse of so many years, I was sensibly impressed with the change, which had taken place, particularly in. the Canada fall. ‘The waters receded from the American side of the Horse-shoe fall towards the centre; parts of the precipice were bare which in 1827 were entirely hid by the descending flood. ‘The water which then Sxrconp Sertzs, Vol. 1V, No. 10.—July, 1847. 4 26 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. flowed over these projecting bare rocks, in descending, spread out into magnificent festoons. The beautiful feature which from the falling of masses of limestone rock from the middle of the cataract. That a constant change is in progress no one can doubt who carefully examines for himself as he wanders over this wonderful scene. I was particularly impressed with its magnificence while making a drawing of what is called the cave, situated half a mile below the ferry on the American side. This cave or ledge of bare rock, has just the appearance that the rocks over which the American falls are now precipitated, would present, if the waters were suddenly withdrawn. The same broken outline appears in both instances, giving evidence that in each case the most violent action had been in the centre. When the cataract was here, the space between the American fall and the commencement of the ‘cave’, was in all probability, an island, presenting a similar appearance to what the falls now have. There is still a small stream flowing down the precipice t surprised me much on my second visit, was the compara tive stillness in which the mighty work of discharging the surplus waters of so many inland seas down a precipice of one hundred and eighty feet was carried on. In father Hennepin’s curiously interesting description of this “vast and prodigious eadence of water,” he represents himself or his friends as being so overcome by the noise, that the hands were applied to the ears by way of dampers. ‘The marvel to me is, that they make so little noise. It cannot be denied, however, that the state of the atmosphere and direction of wind, have much to do in regulating the soun produced by the fall of this immense body of water. if After these preliminary remarks, I will now confine mysé more particularly to the object for which this communication oa Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 27 able to add any thing to the interest which will ever be felt by those who visit the falls, and its vicinity, my labor will not be altogether in vain. Fig. 1. A Birds-eye View, or Map of the Ravine from the Falls of Niagara to the Whirlpool. Canada.—U. United States.—The dotted lines represent the outline of he ancient valley, partly filled with dri —F. Ravine.—C. Whirlpool.—B. Sum- er-house.—D, E. Quartzose rock seen below the surface of the water. ee eed Having made several visits to the whirlpool, taking sketches from points which I thought most desirable, I found that each visit increased my admiration and wonder. A general idea of its situa- tion may be had by reference to the drawing, fig. 1, giving a birds- eye view of the country from the falls to the whirlpool, a distance of three miles. Perhaps I shall make myself better underst by giving a description of the ravine from A to B. width of the river at the ferry is about eleven hundred and forty feet. The height of the rocks, one hundred and eighty feet. the verge of the precipice, a little below the American falls, there is a path which leads directly to the Summer-house, B, Situated immediately above the whirlpool ; this path continues close to the edge of the precipice. About half a mile down, we come to the ‘cave’ before alluded to—a bare rock on which nothing grows—a place of deep interest to the traveller as he 28 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. at times into blue, with yellowish and greenish veins, the latter due to the foam which seems as if imbedded as it streams down in long wavy lines. This solid representation of water, gave an addi- tional novelty to the scene. About one mile from the falls the sides of the ravine gradually converge, diminishing of course the width of the river. Half a mile still lower,* following along by the edge of the precipice, the stream takes a gentle turn to the left. ‘The water on each side is seen to ripple ; then commences a chain of waves preceded by deep furrows, which converge to a point in the middle of the river, indicating not only the rapidity of the current, but also the upheaving of the waters, rising, as has been ascertained by measurement, eleven feet above the level at the sides; after this, it is broken into foam and spray, and dashing on with impetuous fury, pursues its wild career for about a mile, then rushes with the swiftness and violence of an ava- circl in gentle undulations, as if gathering strength for its last conflict not many feet below the surface of the water, contracting very considerably the space through which the waters apparently es- cape. ‘I'he curved line, DH, indicates this projection. ‘There was so ing impressively grand in the whole scene as contem- plated from this point. The drainage of four great lakes cover ing an area of about 135,000 square miles, escapes at the northern extremity of Lake Erie through a channel, (as stated by Mr. Allen, rom measurements by Mr. E. R. Blackwell,) seventeen hundred feet in width, thirty-two feet in depth, running at the rate of six miles an hour, equal to 22,440,000 cubit feet, weighing 701,250 tons, flowing every minute ;;—here the whole is confined to @ breadth not exceeding two hundred and twenty-five feet! the distance from rock to rock, as I was informed by the proprietor tee eee * I observed a steamboat intended to ply between a landing place, which ” been constructed at great expense down the precipice to the water's edge, at the with the current. It isto be hoped the project will forever abandoned. ra case of accident to the machinery, there is nothing to prevent the destruction of boat in the rapids. t Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. xlvi, p. 71. Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. of the grounds. The ques- tion naturally arises, how is it possible for this immense volume of water to escape efile, comparatively sluggish in the whirlpool. On referring to Mr. Lyell’s admirable work on America which I had with me, and examining the section of the strata from Niagara to the Mr. L. had ting rock under the water is un- through, and the resistless tor- rent has made itself a passage underneath this rock, on each side of the ravine, and it is by this excavation that the waters hardness of the rocks which Compose the Niagara group: d € communication before re- ‘sy ‘A ‘1 ‘seury penop om a pay Ao[[BA tak AIOA woy “9 ‘A ‘TSy ut uljsad QUOJsSeUl] JOU “yup yum d a Ajawianxe oucjspues esozyent ‘Z—Yup e[qery L10a—ouoispues Ajeys pay ‘g—'sayeys jo spoq yyos uo l=" ptey £q puv ‘p “By ut ay Aq poiuesoidos su Aajyea yesoie] deep oy1 01 snuTuJe} oY suLIOY YOIM food IY AA “MAT “SY Ul TT poyseur ‘ajeys jo peq yon ‘saary vind oy) fo apis vpou fo uonpag DQ 94) Uo DIDAIG 9Y1 % Bg “wojsuaangy 0} S7)Vq 9y} wos 30 =Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. ferred to, ‘there is great reason to believe that the erosive action of the water would have been very slow, and many generations might have passed without any sensible change; but the vast mass of waters breaking with inconceivable force on the softer shale which forms the base of the hard rock, the foundation is thus undermined, the harder rocks fall down for want of support,’ thus causing the various changes between turbulence and tranquillity which take place in the river in its course from the falls to the outlet at Queenston. Taking it for granted that the cataract was once at the pre- cipice at Queenston, it will be seen by reference to the section, fig. 2, that, owing to the inclination of the strata, the falls would be considerably higher than they are at present ; thus exposing to iew several beds of shale, limestones, and sandstones not found at the falls. The lowest (No. 1) is a very thick stratum of fria- ble shaly red sandstone, through which the river ploughs its way. ‘The river at Queenston, as we are informed by Mr. Allen, before referred to, is one hundred and sixty feet in depth. This depth is sufficient to entomb the huge fragments of the harder rocks, as they would gradually fall down by the erosive, under- mining process continually going on by the descending flood, without causiug any agitation of the surface. It will be seen from the dip of the strata, that as the falls retrograde, the hard quartzose rock would be at the base of the falls, and in time cease to be broken through by the cataract; as the retrocession ad- vanced, the waters would have to flow over this hard rock. The sents many more points of interest than on the American, pendently of the curiosity excited by Mr. Lyell’s discovery of a deep lateral valley filled with drift, which he traced from the whirlpool to St. David’s; Mr. Hall having first suggested the idea that it might ‘be connected with the opening at that place. Fig. 3. Sketch of the Whirlpool taken on the Canada side near the ravine which forms part of the lateral valley marked F G, on the map fig. 1. Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 33 practicable. On visiting the place last summer, it was not only very difficult but dangerous to descend, particularly so after rain. aving reached the base of the precipice and scrambled over rocks and through dense masses of roots, decayed branches and foliage of trees, for about the space of two hundred yards, the entanglement suddenly disappears, and a clear open space is left along the margin of the pool, on which it is a great pleasure to rest and admire the sublime scene. ‘The shore is uninterrupted for near two hundred yards; after which it is obstructed as be- fore, by huge fragments of rocks, &c. The foreground of the sketch, fig. 3, from A to B, represents this open space, which also indicates the extent of the base of the cliff of drift lying between the rocks F and G, in figs. 1 and 2. The cliff is less precipitous than the rocks which enclose it; its debris consists of sand with boulders of conglomerate or igneous rocks, and affords easy ac- cess to the water’s edge. At the northern extremity of the whirlpool, there is by far the most comprehensive view of the high perpendicular wall of rocks which encloses this deep, dark, circling pool. Here we are brought to the immediate confines of the whirling vortex. On its surface are seen the ruins of a forest, floating round, marking out to the eye the outline of that fatal circle. These yellow logs and trunks, grinding against each other, dip and rise, following on in ceaseless round until they waste away in this their winding sheet. Occasionally, some are thrown out and are borne along a circuitous route to the rapids which commence at the outlet of the whirlpool ; a few find a resting place on the beach, where they present many very grotesque forms, some resembling the boomareng of the New Hollander, others cimiters, rolling-pins, and the like. The sketch, fig. 3, was taken at the northern extremity near the gorge, marked F, fig. 1. In going up this narrow gorge, through which a small stream flows, I was very much interested M Noticing that the high perpendicular rocks which form part Niagara group on my left, presented the same wall-like ap- pearance as in the ravine through which the river flows, from the falls to Queenston. Fragments of limestone rock which once crowned the summit of the precipice, lay in confusion at its base. On my right rose the steep cliff of drift, H, with its motley group of boulders extending from F toG. As I was exploring this wil picturesque gorge, formed at the western extremity of the lateral valley by the descending rains washing away the sand Secon Sxriss, Vol. IV, No. 10. —July, 1847. 5 34 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. into the whirlpool, I was led to think that in all probability, there was atime when the cataract thundered through this channel, now nearly filled with drift, and its waters emptied into the lake or sea, through the opening at St. David’s. That this assertion may not appear altogether visionary, I would state that it is an ascertained fact, that this ancient valley extends from the whirl- ol to St. David’s, about six miles from Queenston, as was first suggested by Mr. Hall to Mr. Lyell, when the latter having called Mr. Hall’s attention to this bed of drift at the whirlpool. “ As- cending,” says Mr. Lyell, “the steep bank formed of these ma- terials, we soon reach the general level of the table land and pass over it for two miles before we begin to enter the depression, which deepening gradually, carries us down to St. David’s. This valley is entirely excavated in the boulder formation, and we may infer that the latter maintains its full depth between St. Da- vid’s and the whirlpool, from sections obtained in sinking a well in the intervening township of Stamford, where a great thickness of drift was passed through.”* It is perhaps worthy of remark that the direction of this valley from the falls to St. David’s, does not materially differ from a straight line. The width of this valley, at the whirlpool, (FG, fig. 1,) which is deserving of particular attention, Mr. Lyell gives at about one hundred and seventy yards. Now this width, whether more or less than one hundred and seventy yards, agrees so nearly with the width of the ravine at the entrance into the whirlpool, 1B, that it is difficult to resist the conclusion that they had. both one origin, but at periods of time immeasurably remote from each other. The continuous appearance now presented is accidental. sea. The width of the valley at St. David’s, which is about two miles, militates nothing against the assumption that the waters once rushed over the precipice at St. David’s. It is reasonable to and that in process of time the valley would contract, waters were concentrated and were brought to act with greater energy on a given point on the various strata of hard and soft rocks; this increased erosive action of the waters would go on until the cataract would finally assume a wall-like appearance as is now seen at the falls. This process appears to have gone * Lyell’s America, Vol. ii. Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. 35 is now seen on the sides of the declivity near Brock’s monument. The smooth, scooped out appearance in the solid limestone rock, as before alluded to, indicates that long before the waters were concentrated at the ravine at Queenston, they were for ages sweeping over the precipice on each side of the present opening. When the falls had retrograded as far as is represented by the dotted lines in fig. 4, their further progress was arrested by phys- ical changes constantly but slowly going on, according to Mr. Lyell, which have so materially changed the surface and condition Fig. 4. i The supposed situation of the Falls when near what is now called the Whirlpool. LAKE OR SEA The dotted lines mark the deep lateral valley filled with drift, for a considerable distance t Lake. owards the La 36 Whirlpool and Rapids below the Falls of Niagara. the whirlpool was formed. ; On the falls retreating from the whirlpool, it will be noticed, that the hard quartzose rock, 2, fig. 2, would form the base of the falls, and then an obstruction would be made to the free egress of the water; the hard rocks would then fall on this pave- ment, which would greatly increase the obstruction and give rise to the rapids, and this would continue as the falls receded, until by the indication of the strata, this hard rock would by degrees sink so low as to allow a depth sufficient for the waters to — without commotion. This will be evident by an inspection © fig. 2, the stratum, 3, being soft shale. The inclination of the strata and the soft character of the rocks through which the rivet flows at the falls, are the causes of that apparently miraculous 15° . . é . tely after the prised me more than the falls themselves. Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. 37 Art. VI—On certain Improvements in the Construction and Supply of the Hydro-orygen Blowpipe, by which Rhodium, Tridiu he Osmiuret of Iridium, also Platinum im the large way, have been fused ; by Ropert Hare, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. (Commu- nicated by the Author. ) posure of lime to the flame ; words were, “the eyes could not sustain the one, nor the most refractory substances resist the other.” ‘The intensity of the light was still more insisted upon by Silliman. — 38 Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. My experiments were also repeated by Mr. Rubens Peale, dur- ing many successive years, at the Philadelphia Museum, for the amusement of visitors. About the year 1813-14, it was ascertained, at the laboratory of Dr. Parrish, that a bladder being supplied with a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, in due proportion, and punctured by a pin, while subjected to compression, on igniting the resulting jet, the gas within the bladder did not explode. Of course a burning jet of flame thus created, was found competent to produce, while it lasted, the same effect as when otherwise generated by the same gaseous mixture. this might be made to burn without communicating ignition to the portion remaining in the receiver. fot. By means of an apparatus contrived agreeably to this idea, Dr. Clark of Cambridge, England, repeated the experiments, made many years before by Silliman and myself, without any other reference to ours, than such as was of a nature to do injustice. An exposition of the invalidity of Dr. Clark’s pretensions to or- ginality was made in Silliman’s Journal for 1820, vol. it, and in ation in light-houses, and in consequence, has been subsequently used as a substitute for the solar rays, in an instrument known as the hydro-oxygen microscope, which is a modification of that which has been called the solar microscope. ‘The name of Drummond light has consequently been given to a mode of illu- ation, which I originally produced as above stated. The instrument which was used by Professor Silliman and by Rubens Peale, was that above described as having two perfora- tions meeting in one. In this form it was, I believe, employed by Dr. Hope, of Edinburgh, and Dr. Thompson of Glasgows who both treated it as my contrivance, anteriorly to the publica tion of Dr. Clark’s memoir. The other form, consisting of two concentric pipes, Was P” “ ified by a Mr. Maun , with the view of producing 4 9 light for the microscope above alluded to. When I saw Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. 39 Maungham at the Adelaide gallery in 1836, he treated this instru- ment as mine, in another form. I was surprised afterwards to learn that he had obtained a premium for this modification from the British Society for the Encouragement of Arts, without any allusion to the original inventor. After my return from Europe in 1836, I was very much in want of a piece of platinum of a certain weight, while many more scraps than were adequate to form such a piece were in my possession. ‘This induced new efforts to extend the power of my blowpipe ; and after many experiments, I succeeded so as to fuse twenty-eight ounces of platinum into one mass. Although small lumps of platinum had been fused by many operators, with the hydro-oxygen blowpipe, as well as myself, it id not, up to the year 1837, been found sufficiently competent to enable artists to resort to this process. Iam informed by Mr. Saxton, that some efforts which were made while he was in Lon- on were so little successful, that the project was abandoned. ere was an impression that the metal was rendered less mal- leable when fused upon charcoal, as in the experiments alluded to. ‘This is contradicted by my experiments, agreeably to which fused platinum is as malleable as the best specimens obtained by the Wollaston process, and is less liable to flake. The celebrated Dr. Ure, on seeing the platinum in the form of wire, of leaf, and plate, said that there was no one in Europe who could fuse dro-oxygen blowpipe. An incorporation of two ingots was ef- procured ‘as much as ninety per cent. of malleable metal. The malleability is not inferior to that of the best specimens obtained i t % noniac. here 1s, bility to tarnish, arising, probably, from the presence of a minute palladium. 40 Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. Of the fusion of iridium and rhodium, I have already given an account in the Bulletin of the American Philosophical Society, which was subsequently embodied in an article in this Journal for October last, 1846.* It remains now to give an account of the apparatus employed in the fusion of platina on a large scale. Fig. 1 represents the association of fifteen jet pipes of platinum with one large pipe, B, D, at their upper ends, so that their bores communicate, by means of an appropriate brass casting, with that of the large pipe, the joints secured by hard solder. Their lower extremities are made to protrude about half an inch from a box, A, of cast brass, their junctures, with the appropriate per- forations severally made for them, being secured by silver solder. They come out obliquely in a line along one corner of the box, an interval of about a quarter of an inch alternating with each orifice. By means of flanges, the ‘brass box is secured to a conl- ical frustum of copper, fig. 2, so as to form the bottom thereof, while the pipe, extending above the copper case, is screwed to a hollow cylinder of brass, A, fig. 3, provided with two nozzles and gallows screws, g, 2, for the attachment of appropriate hol- low knobs, to which pipes are soldered, proceeding from the res- ervoirs of oxygen and hydrogen. Cocks are interposed by which to regulate the emission of the gases in due proportion. In connecting the pipes conveying the gases with the brass cylinder, A, fig. 3, care should be taken to attach that conveying oxygen to the upper nozzle, while the other, conveying hy: gen, should be attached to the lower nozzle ; since, by these means their great difference in density tends to promote ture, which, evidently, it must be advantageous to effect. The object of surrounding the jet pipes with water, by means of the copper box,t is to secure them against being heated to such a degree as to cause the flame to retrocede and burn within them, so as finally to explode within the cylinder, A, 8; &) fig. 3. It is preferable to add ice or snow to the water, in order to pre vent undue heat. Fig. 4 represents a movable platform, A, of cast iron, wholly supported upon the point of the iron lever, D, B, which 1s curv ed towards the extremity under the platform, so as to point up- wards, and to enter a small central conical cavity made for its eee t Since the engraving was made, I have preferred to use voice boxes, with : ower nozzle, @ PPS ie communicating with a head of cold water, the other being 5° rer ing the whole time that the operation is going on. acai sn UH As a support, a brick kaolih is used, having an oblong ellipsoidal depression ° the upper face for the reception of the metal to be fused. ae @ aa. -eT AEH STANTON UT 10. OTOL TVET —< 1 a <5 Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. Al feception. 'The lever is supported by a universal joint upon the fulerum, C, so that by means of a sliding weight at one end, the platform and its appurtenances are counterpoised at the other. The platform is kept in a horizontal position by the cannon ball, supported in a sort of iron stirrup terminating in a ring, in which the ball is placed. Upon the platform is situated an iron pan with a handle, holding the brick, on a cavity in which as already mentioned, the metal is supported. The apparatus being duly prepared, and connected with the supply pipes, the hydrogen 1s first allowed to escape, and then the oxygen, until the ignition has attained apparently a maximum. ‘The accomplishment of this object may, of course, require the adjustment of either cock several times, especially where there is any decline in the pres- sure either of the one or the other gas in its appropriate reservoir. By means of the handles of the lever and of the pan, the ope- rator is enabled to bring the metal into the position most favora- ble for the influence of the heat, while his hands and face are sufficiently remote to render the process supportable. In fusing any quantity, not being more than four ounces, the platform may be dispensed with, the handle of the pan being held in one hand of the operator, while by the other, the cocks may be adjusted. When the blowpipe of fifteen jets, or any larger, may be em- ployed, and the platform is necessarily resorted to, the cocks must be adjusted by an assistant. "ig. 5 represents a cask made of boiler iron, three-sixteenths of an inch thick, so as to resist an enormous pressure. ‘The joints by gas from the bell. This process being continued till the iron cask is sufficiently supplied with gas, » shut Whenever the gas is wanted for the supply of the blowpipe, it 1S only necessary to establish a communicati cock, B, and the upper gallows screw, fig. 3, of the cylinder, A, and to open the cock, F, so as to admit the water to press upon Szconp Serizs, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 6 A2 Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. the gas, the efflux being regulated by B, or preferable by a cock of the ordinary construction, one of which kind should be inter- posed at a convenient position between the valve-cock, B, an cylinder, A. T, represents a glass tube, which, by due communication with the interior, shews the height of the water, and consequently the quantity of gas in the vessel. , H, represents a gauging apparatus, consisting of a cast iron flask, of about a half a pint in content, and a glass tube of about a quarter of an inch in bore, which should be at least five feet in height. The tube is secured air-tight into the neck of the flask, so as to reach nearly to the bottom within. The flask is nearly full of mercury. Under these circumstances, when a. communica- tion is made, by a leaden pipe between the cavity of the flask and that of the reservoir, an equilibrium of presure resulting, the extent of the pressure is indicated by the rise of the mercury in the tube. In order to generate hydrogen for the supply of a reservoir like that represented by the preceding figure, I have employed the vessel represented by fig. 7. This vessel, by means of a suitable aperture, susceptible of being closed by a screw plug, is half fill- ed with diluted sulphuric acid. Being furnished with a tray of sheet coper, D, punctured like a coal sieve, and supported by a copper sliding rod, E, strips of zine are introduced in quantity equal to the capacity of the tray. ‘I'he sliding rod passes through a stufling-box, F’, at top of the reservoir, so that the operator may, by lowering or raising the tray, regulate or suspend the reaction between the zinc and its solvent, accordingly as the supply hydrogen is to be produced, suspended, increased, or diminished. e communication with the reservoir is open and regulated by means of a cock, P, furnished with a gallows screw, G, for the attachment of a leaden pipe, as above described, in the pre cess for supplying the reservoir with oxygen. ; Another apparatus for producing a supply of hydrogen, 18 Te? resented in fig. 6. It consists of two similar vessels of boiler iron, each capable of holding forty gallons. ‘They are lined in- ternally with copper, being situated upon a wooden frame, S° that of one and a half inches. of The upper vessel is surmounted by a globular copper vessel, about twelve inches in diameter, which, from its construction, renders it possible to introduce an additional supply of concen: trated acid, while the apparatus is in operation, without the pressure within the reservoir, by permitting the excess above the pressure of the atmosphere to escape. ‘This object 8 accom plished as follows :— S : A == = 8 =A = S| =A EEO 5 ETS EEE EEE EES CREE ; cs Hydro-oxygen Blowpipe. 43 The valve at the end of the rod, attached to the lever, L, being kept shut by the catch, M, the screw plug, H, removed, the acid is introduced through the aperture thus opened. In the next place, the plug being replaced, and the valve depressed by means of the lever and rod, so as no longer to close the opening, which it had occupied, the acid descends from the chamber into the cav- ity of the vessel beneath it. ‘The valve is of course restored to > the gas in the upper vessel bein sed td nearly half its previous bulk, the pressure will be nearly four atmospheres. It will, in fact, always be nearly double that which existed before the pipe, B, was closed. . In order that nearly the whole of the acid shall be expelled from the inferior vessel, the tray must be depressed till it touches the bottom of that vessel. The pressure being four atmospheres at commencement, as soon as, by means of a pipe attached to the valve-cock, N, an escape of gas is allowed, the acid is forced again upon the zine, and thus prevents a decline of pressure to any extent sufficient to interfere with the process. Pig iale Ms e gases may be used froma receiver in which they exist, in due proportion, safely by the following means:——~ Two safety tubes are to be made, not by Hemming’s process exactly, but as follows: ; es eoppet tube, silver soldered, of which the metal is about the eighth of an inch in thickness, is stuffed with the finest copper Wire, great care being taken to have the filaments straight and the acid and zinc, and finally suspend it altogether. Meanwhile ing conden *T have used for a gauge an instrament, like G, fig. 5, the tube being about two e feet in length, and sealed at the upper AA Fusion by the Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. parallel. The tube is then to be subjected to the wire-drawing apparatus, so as to compress the tube on its contents until the draught becomes so hard, as that it cannot be pushed farther without annealing. ‘The stuffed tube thus made is to be cut into segments, in lengths about equal to the diameter, by a fine saw. The surfaces of the sections are to be filed gently with a smooth file. By these means, they appear to the naked eye like the su- perficies of a solid metallic cylinder. Brass caps being fitted on these sections, they are to be interposed by soldering, at the dis- tance of a foot or more, into the pipe for supplying the jet. Un- der these circumstances, the posterior section becoming hot, may allow the flame to retrocede ; but the anterior section being be- yond the reach of any possible combustion, and remaining cold, will not allow of the retrocession ; and as soon as the flame passes the first section, the operator, being warned, will, of course, close the cock, and subject the posterior section to refrigeration before proceeding again. But this plan of operating may be rendered still more secut® by interposing a mercury bottle, or other suitable iron vessel, half full of oil of turpentine, between the reservoir and safety tubes, as in the arrangement of a Woulfe’s bottle. A leaden pipe pro- ceeding from the reservoir is, by a gallows screw, attached to an iron tube which descends into the bottle, so as that its orifice may be near the bottom. The leaden pipe communicating through the safety tubes with the jet-pipe, is attached to the ni of the bottle. Thus the gaseous mixture has to bubble through the oil of turpentine in order to proceed through the safety tubes to the jet-pipe. If, while this process is going on, the flame should, by retrocession, reach the cavity of the bottle, exploding in contact with the turpentine, a compound is formed, which 3s, per se, inexplosive from the excess of carbonaceous matter. Meanwhile the shock, acting on the surface of the oil, drives It into the bore of the iron tube, and thus, both by its chemical and mechanical influence, renders it utterly impossible that the flame should reach the cavity of the reservoir. Apparatus for the Fusion of Iridium or Rhodium or masses of - Platinum less than five ounces in weight. For the fusion of either Iridium or Rhodium or masses of Pla tinum not exceeding the weight of half an ounce, an instrume . with three jets has been employed, the bore of each Jet ae being such as not to admit a wire larger than the ;'; of an me" in diameter. The flame produced by these means was ss sufficient to envelope the mass to which it was applied. In fusing any lumps or congeries of platinum, not exceeding five ounces, an instrument has been used capable of giving sevem jets of gas, issuing of course, from as many pipes- Of thes? Fusion by the Hydro-orygen Blowpipe. 45 pipes, six protrude through the brass casting forming the bottom of the copper case constituting the refrigerator, so as to be equi- distant from each other upon a circumference of three-fourths of an inch in diameter, the seventh protruding from the centre. The bores of these jets are such as not to admit a wire larger than ;', of an inch in thickness. Those of the larger instru- ments represented by the accompanying engravings were such as to admit wires of ;',th of an inch in thickness. The jet-pipes may be made by the following process :—A thin ‘strip of sheet metal, somewhat wider than the length of the circumference required in the proposed pipe, after being roughly turned about a wire so as to form an imperfect tube, is drawn through several suitable holes in a steel plate, as in the wire- drawer’s process. Under this treatment the strip becomes con- verted into a hollow wire; the edges of the strip being brought into contact reciprocally, so as to leave only an almost impercep- tible crevice. Having drawn one strip of platina in this way, another strip sufficiently wide nearly to enclose it, is to be drawn over that first drawn, care being taken to have the crevices left at the meeting of the edges on contrary sides. ‘I'he compound hollow wire or tube thus fabricated, is finally to be drawn upon a steel wire of the diameter of the requisite bore. The following method of making jet-pipes, though more diffi- cult, is preferable; as there is less liability of the water of the refrigerator leaking into the bore. Select a very sound and malleable cylinder of platina, of about three-eighths of an inch in thickness, perforate it by drilling in a lathe, so that the perforation may be concentric with the axis. A drill between ;,th and }th of an inch in diameter may be employed. In the next place the cylinder may be elongated by the wire-drawing process, until the proper reduction of metallic thickness is effected, the diameter of the bore being prevented rom undergoing an undue diminution, by the timely introduc- ion of a steel wire. Of course, the metal must be annealed as often as it hardens, by drawing. For this purpose, a much higher temperature is necessary in the case of platinum, than in that of either copper, Silver, or gold. The annealing is best performed by the hydro-oxygen flame. If charcoal be used, the greatest care must be taken to have the fireplace clean. where great heat is to be resisted. No doubt, by employing pal- ium to solder the exterior juncture of the double drawn tubes above mentioned, they might answer as well nearly as when con- Structed of solid platinum. 46 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. Art. VIL.—Description of Two New Species of Fossil Foot- marks found in Massachusetts and Connecticut, or, of the Ani- mals that made them; by Rev. Evwarp Hrrcxcocx, President of Amherst College, and Professor of Natural Theology and Geology. I nave long wished to describe several new and peculiar fossil footmarks which have been brought to light in the sandstone of the Connecticut Valley in Massachusetts and Connecticut. But a constant pressure of more important duties, has delayed the work, not months merely, but years. I have determined, how- g et by my friend, Mr. James D. Dana, is the true one by which I have been surprised, however, to learn that some object to giving scientific names, either to these footmarks, or to the atl- mals that impressed them; because they think the characters by which they must be described too indefinite for distinguishing ies, or even genera. My reasons for a contrary opmon are briefly as follows. lose 1. The existence of these tracks demonstrates the existence of certain animals that made them during the triassic perio’ 2. The facts well known concerning organic remains, render 1t almost certain, that these animals have never been described, either in the living or fossil fauna of any country. 3. 4 who have seen a good collection of these tracks, will be satisfied that they were made by several species of animals. Now this convic- tion must result from some diversity of character, which we wit- ness in these footmarks. And if that diversity could produce such a conviction, it can be expressed in words; and thus the different species, at least many of them, be distinguished from one another. If they cannot thus be distinguished, then they must be regarded as only varieties of the same species. But no © parative anatomist will admit this to be possible. 4, Compara- tive anatomy teaches us that some of the surest and most ps stant characters by which animals are distinguished, are ssi Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. AT from their feet. This is eminently true of birds. ‘ Indeed,” says Duméril, “it is by the form and the length of the feet, and the disposition of the toes, that birds are divided into six orders,” &e. iving animals could to a great extent be divided cor- rectly into families, genera, and species, by their tracks. 6. If no Cuvier for saying, that sometimes even the whole skeleton is insufficient to distinguish species from species. “The differ- inappreciable from the skeleton. Even the genera cannot always be distinguished by osteological characters.”+ My conviction is, that not a few fossil animals have been described from characters much more uncertain than those derived from well preserved tracks. 7. We have the highest authority for naming animals from their tracks alone. This was done by Professor Kaup, in the case of the Chirotherium; and by Professor Owen, in the case of the F'estudo Duncani ; the only evidence of whose ex- istence is the tracks on the sandstone of Scotland.t 8. Conven- lence in writing or conversing about different kinds of these relics, demands that scientific names should be attached, either to the tracks or the animals that made them. In making attempts to describe them without names, I have sometimes been remind of the house that Jack built, in an old nursery story: Ex gr., “this is the dog that worried the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built.” Upon the whole, I cannot see why it is not as desirable, and as consonant to the laws of zoology and comparative anatomy, to derive the name of an extinct animal from its tracks, as from a ment of a skeleton. Admit that in most cases there may be he earth, according to the rules of nomenclature derived from - Zoology and comparative anatomy? ‘So far as the will justify distinctions, and no farther, do I contend for the present instance, I have So constructed the generic and specific names that they will hold good, though future researches should prove the animals to have been very different in nature from what we now suppose. Fur- PB oc: Saesc e * Elemens des Sciences Naturelles, Tome ii, p. 258, fourth edition. t emens Fossiles, Tome troisiéme, p- 524 third edition. $ Rep. of Brit. faces for Advancement of Science, for 1841, p. 160. 48 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. ten rods of his house, perhaps the largest and most extraordinary track yet brought to light in this valley. It is but an act of jus- tice, therefore, it seems to me, to affix his name to this most Te- markable species, which would have been destroyed by the quar- ryman had he not rescued it. The slab containing it, is, indeed, considerably mutilated, and only one very distinct track remains. But three others of the same animal are obvious, and enable me to give its characters with considerable confidence. This iter esting slab is about ten feet long, six or eight inches thick, and weighs more than half a ton. It is broken open lengthwise, as shown in the drawing, fig. 1: and some smaller fragments are broken off, some of which are lost. Mr. Moody having allowed me to deposit this slab in the Cabinet of Amherst College, I have brought the fragments together, and am gratified to 10 so much remaining. Besides the large tracks, several rows of smaller species are exhibited almost without any loss. Of the large tracks, four remain. The second (A, fig. 1,) is the most perfect, poe deficient in nothing but the extremities of the two middle toes, ant a confusion at the end of the shortest lateral toe.* So peculiar 18 the shape of this track, and so different its phalangeal impressions from those of the feet of any living animal with which I am ac” quainted, that I should hardly have dared to describe 1t ae single specimen, had I not found its essential features exhibiteé the other tracks. Some of these are badly broken, and esi indistinct, owing apparently to the peculiar state of the mud W ns they were made. Yet enough remains to identify them with ate most perfect one just described. It is clear, also, that they W 6 a k, * Pres. Hitchcock sent for this Journal an outline sketch of this remanent of full size, (twenty inches in length,) which from the magnitude of the plat quired for it, is not inserted. Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. Ag made by the right and Fig. 1. Reduced 18 diameters. left feet of the animal: ) and hence I was forced, contrary to my first im- attempting to trace its analogies to living ani- mals, however, I have r animal of the thirty or forty species that impres- structure, characters now this suggestion can be judged of better after de- Scribing the fcotmar under consideration. n the same slab with the large tracks, are those of two other species of thick toed bipeds ; one of which is the Brontozo- um Sillimanium, (Orni- thoidichnites Sillimani Species known to me. Szconp Srnies, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 7 50 Two New Species of Fossil F'ootmarks. Genus Bronrozoum, (fgort7s, a giant, and Zwov, an animal.) Foot tridactylous, pachydactylous, the toes making strong tu- bercle-like phalangeal impressions; having claws, which in the lateral toes proceed from the outer side, and in the middle toe from the inner side ; inner toe shortest: all of them directed for- ward. ‘Tubercular swellings or phalanges of the inner toe, two; of the middle toe, three; of the outer toe, four. The distal ex- tremity of the tarso-metatarsal bone double-headed ; yet rarely reaching the ground: the cushion beneath it, making an im- pression, which slopes upward posteriorly. Animals bipedal, gregarious. Five species known: one of them of great size,—with a foot eighteen inches long. Affinities —The number and position of the toes, and of the phalanges of the several toes, as well as the manner in which the steps succeeded one another, ally the animals to birds. The deficiency of the hind toe, and the great length of most of the steps, ally them to Gralle. The great thickness of the toes, and the great size of the feet in some instances, suggest a relation to the Struthionide. Fig. 2. Brontozoum parallelum. (Fig. 2, a and b.) Divarication of the lateral toes, 15° to 20°; do. of the é and middle toe, 5° to 6°; do. of the outer and middle toe, Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 51 15°. Length of the middle toe, 2 to 3 inches; do. of the inner toe, 15 to 2 inches; do. of the outer toe, 1:8 to 2°3 inches; do. of the inner toe, 0°65 to 08 inch; do. of the second and third, (supposed to make but one impression,) 0°6 to 0°8 inch; do. of the first of the middle toe, 0:64 to 0:8 inch; do. of the second phalanx, 0:53 to 0°8 inch; do. of third and fourth, 0-4 to 0°8 inch ; do. of the first of the outer toe, 0:4 to 0-54 inch; do. of the sec- ond, 0:3 to 0:4 inch; do. of the third, 0-26 to 0°35 inch; do. of the two last, 0-33 to 0-45 inch. Tracks in a right line, and the axis of the foot coincident with that line. Distinctive Characters.—The most striking characters by which the tracks of this animal are marked off from all others, are the hear approach to parallelism of the lateral toes, and the great length of the step compared with the size of the foot. This is particularly the fact in respect to the smaller of the outline tracks given on Fig. 2, a; for the animal by which this was made, h astride of two feet: nor is this confined to a single specimen ; so that the idea that the animal was running, is not probable, The great disparity between the step in the large specimen (fig. 2, b) and the small one (fig. 2, a), has led me to suspect that in the above description I may have embraced two species: but their Gill, and the latter from South Hadley. I am more disposed to this opinion, from the fact, that I find another row of tracks on the same slab from South Hadley, that contains fig. 2, a, running in the opposite direction, and about as large as fig. 2, b, yet exhib- iting a stride of 29 inches. See the two rows on #18. 1, a, a, a, 4, and b, b, b, b. ; gon The ratio between the length of the foot and the step in this Species, (taking the two examples on fig. 1 as our guide,) is Much greater than that of any other anu hose footmarks I have found. 'That ratio is 8 for the smaller track, and 8°3 for the er: that is, the step is eight times larger than the foot. Ap- plying the rule which I have suggested for ascertaining from these numbers the length of this bird’s leg,* we find it to be 39 * See Final Report by the writer on the Geology of Massachusetts, vol. ii, p. 522. 52 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. inches for the smaller animal, and 47 inches for the larger one; that is, from the hip joint to the ground. ‘This is rather more than the length of the leg of the Red Flamingo of this country, which I think also has a larger foot than the fossil bird. I now proceed to describe the large and extraordinary animal whose tracks occur.on the same slab with the B. parallelum, (fig. 1,) but whose affinities to any existing animal are far less obvious. For this remarkable animal I have selected the generic name of Oto- zoum, from that of Otus, one of the fabled praeadamic giants. The meaning of Otozoum is, an animal Otus, or giant. The description of the foot of this animal, as we learn it from its footmarks, will depend to a considerable extent upon the zoo- logical class to which we refer it. 'The protuberances exhibited on the footmark may be all the result of phalangeal impressions ; or a part of them may be produced by carpal or metacarpal, or 1 by the hind foot, by tarsal or metatarsal bones: or if the animal were a bird, by the distal extremity of its tarso-metatarsal bone. Can we then discover to what class of animals these tracks are to be referred ? In the first place, the proof seems quite strong that they must have been made by a biped. This evidence is shown on fig. 1; where it will be seen that the feet regularly alternate as those of a biped would do. But if made by a quadruped, there ought to be two rows, or at least two tracks, near to each other, separated by a longer interval from two others in close proximity: for im one or the other of these modes do most quadrupeds (except those that leap, and those that bring up the hind foot exactly into the place impressed by the fore foot) advance. Besides, the distance of the tracks to the right and left of the animal’s general course, is no greater than a biped so large would exhibit: whereas if It re a quadruped, that distance must have been much larger, and the axes of the feet would probably be more divaricate. When I saw that these tracks were four-toed, it occurred to me that they might have been made by the hind foot of the croco- dile. But their biped character forbids the supposition: and be- sides, the phalangeal impressions do not agree at all with the pha- langes of that animal, which are two in the inner toe of the ind foot, three in the second, and four in the third and fourth.* This latter reason, as well as the number of toes, affords strong evidence against the supposition that this animal was a bird. Some slight resemblance may be noticed between the accompanying drawing, fig. 2, and the feet of the Armadillos, as given in the Ossemens Fossiles, tome cinquiéme, Pl. XT, figs. 10 to 14; yet I doubt whether the resemblance is real. showing a drawing of this track to Professor Agassi? he made a suggestion as to the nature of the animal that im- oa) RE ean sat " Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, Tome cinquidme, p. 104. # Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 53 it, which I regard as very important. He at once exhib- ited to me a drawing of the foot of a recent Batrachian, the Aly- tis obstetricans, in a paper by Dr. Carl. Vogt, while the animal was in an embryo state. This drawing, which I have copied on fig. 3, shows the condition of the forefoot while yet ossification Fig. 3. * 54 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. was in an incipient state, or had not begun. The resemblance is certainly rather striking between this sketch and that on fig. 1: and it leads to the suspicion that some of the tubercular impres- sions of the track may have been made by the metacarpal bones. Such I suppose to be the character of a, a, a, a, fig. when these were fully ossified, it is easy to. conceive that they might have been anchylosed into the structure in fig. 1, A Professor Agassiz stated a principle of comparative anatomy, in conversation on this subject, which is highly important, viz. that the structure of adult fossil animals, that lived as early as the new red sandstone period, corresponds more nearly with the embry- onic structure of existing animals than with their adult develop- ment. ‘Taking this principle in connection with the above draw- ing of the embryo-frog’s foot, we are led to the éonclusion, that the animal which made these huge footmarks was probably a Ba- trachian. It may seem a strong objection to such a conclusion, that the animal was a biped: for what an anomalous being would a biped frog be, with feet twenty inches long! And yet there is one ge- nus of living biped Batrachians, including the Siren lacertina of Linnzus ; and its feet have four toes in one species, and three in another.* ‘True, these animals have an enormously long tail drag- ging behind. Yet it is not improbable, that in the new red sandstone period, their bodies may have been more like that of a bird: and such must have been essentially their form in order to have produced the row of tracks exhibited on fig. 1. That bi- Saurians existed in the new red sandstone period, we know from the case of the Rhyncosaurus: and the Pterodactyl proba- bly walked for the most part upon two legs. And it is quite as easy to admit the existence of biped Batrachians as biped Sauri- ans. ‘There is also reason to suppose, that some of these animals. : e been somewhat intermediate in their characters, and have exhibited, liké the Rhyncosaurus and Pterodactyl, a struc- ture now found only in several classes of animals. Genus Orozoum, (10s, the giant Otus, and Zwor.) Foot tetradactylous, pachydactylous ; toes all directed forward : the inner one shortest ; the second longer, and the third the long- est; the fourth but little shorter: all making distinct tubercle- like phalangeal impressions, the inner toes most so. Phalangeal impressions on mud, three by the inner toe, four by the second, and three by the two outer toes. 'T'wo bones of the metacarpus, articulated to the phalanges of the two outer toes, make a distinct impression. Cushion beneath the carpus arching downward, an sloping upward posteriorly. Animal bipedal. * Cuvier, Régne Animal, Tome ii, p. 120. Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 55 . Remarks.—It may be that what I have reckoned as the first phalangeal impression on the two inner toes was made by meta- Otozoum Moodii. (Fig. 1, A.) _ Divarication of the outer toes, 35°; do. of the inner and sec- ond toe, 15°; do. of the outer and third toe, 12°; do. of the two middle toes, 5°. Length of the inner toe, 8°5 inches; do. of the second toe, 10:25 inches; do. of the third toe, 8 inches; do. of the outer toe, 8-5 inches; do. of the foot, 20 inches; do. of the step, about three feet. Distance between the extremities of the outer toes, 13 inches. Width of the foot behind the phalanges and metacarpus, 5 inches; do. of the toes, from 2 to 3°25 inches. Length of the phalanges of the inner toe :—proximal phalanx, 3 inches; of the second, 2 inches; of the third, 3-4 inches (?) do. of the second toe :—proximal, 2-4 inches ; second, 2°5 inches ; of the third, 2-9 inches; do. of the fourth, 2°6 inches (?) ; do. of the proximal metacarpal bone of the third and fourth toes, 3°5 inch- es; of the second, 4 inches: of the first phalanx of the third toe, 2 inches; of the second, 2 inches; of the distal, 3°8 inches (?); do. of the outer toe :—proximal, 1-6 inch; of the second, 1:6 inch; of the distal, 5-4 inches (?) Divarication of the axes of the feet, 30°. Distance to the right and left of the middle of the heel, from the average line of direction along which the animal moved, 2:5 inches. Integuments of the bottom of the foot, ru- gose and irregular illose. Distinctive Thatch cok oat thick toes directed forward and is entire enough for description, I should have suspected some deception in both these characteristics ; but sufficient remains Situation and character of the Deposits containing these tracks.—The tracks above described are all in relief, and the tock is a very coarse gray sandstone, the grains being often as large as buckshot. Yet every thing is exhibited most distinctly. exhibited, and shown upon the drawing, fig. 1. The tracks appear to have been made upon a fine micaceous sand, which has little more coherence now than when the animals trod upon it. But the coarse material that was subsequently brought over this fine 56 Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. stratum, seems to have adapted itself to every irregularity, and now presents us with perfect casts of the original tracks, while the subjacent rock, which seems to have been a good moulding sand, does not hold together enough to show a single entire track. It seems that the rows of tracks at this locality were parallel to the edges of the water. They run nearly east and west, and in the direction of the strike of the strata; and in one or two — places upon the slab figured above, we can see where the water acted by gentle undulations upon the fine micaceous sand, an upon the coarse grit, partially wearing them both away, or inter- mixing them; and some of the large tracks look as if the san had been so wet that the impressions were partly filled up by the sand sliding into them. Only the second track exhibits the outlines of the parts entire. On that, the protuberances rise from one to two inches above the general surface. 'The extremities of this track have been broken off accidentally, except the inner one which is obscured by lying too near the edge of the water. It is obvious however how far it extended. As I have before mentioned, the second large track on fig. 1, forms the type by w at their extremities; and in ge , the sides converge rapidly on the last phalanx, so that if claws existed on the foot I think they did—they must have been short and blunt. Circumstances under which the tracks of these animals were made.—Have we any facts in this case indicating the cireum- stances under which these tracks were made and preserved? It is difficult, without a sketch of the topography of the region, to convey an adequate idea of their situation. The spot is on the south side of Mount Holyoke, which here runs nearly east west. It curves southerly, however, as it crosses the river, and on the west we have Mount Tom, as the continuation of Hol- yoke is called. On the east we have a primary range at Two New Species of Fossil Footmarks. 57 distance, against which the east end of Holyoke abuts, with only anatrow space between. It is obvious then, that this locality must have been the north shore of an estuary, opening southerly, and extending to what is now Long Island Sound. ‘That it was salt-water is evident from the occurrence of fucoids in the same basin, a few miles south. Now we know that the current through this estuary was either north or south, for the ripple marks have an east and west direction, and in size they correspond with those made by the waters of the Connecticut on the sand in the same region. ‘The direction of that stream also is south ; and some have thought that the floods of that stream may have brought in the sand which filled the tracks. But the locality m the animals trod. Indeed, it would be exposed to no current that I can conceive of, sufficiently powerful to move such coarse and the tides :—not the daily tides, but the spring tides. Sup- pose the animals walked along the shore during neap tide, an that no rain fell till the return of spring tide. By that time the mud might have become so indurated, that even such coarse ma- terials might have been brought in by moderate waves, without . erasing the impressions. It might be also that the river, which new chapters will yet be brought to light, when its stony leaves shall be still farther opened. Srcoxp Senizs, Vol. 1V, No. 10.—July, 1847- 8 58 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Giycocoll, Art. VII.—Glycocoll ( Gelatine Sugar) and some of its Pro- ducts of Decomposition ; by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp. (Continued from Vol. iii, p. 381.) Comprounps of glycocoll and sulphuric acid are even more re- markable than those with hydrochloric acid. As little success at- tended the effort to ascertain the precise conditions under which some of them are formed, as rewarded the labors with the com- pounds already described. Of these, two, the double sulphate of glycocoll and oxyd of ammonium, and the anhydrous sulphate of glycocoll, have especial interest, as they throw much light over the constitution and nature of this body Anhydrous Sulphate of Glycocoll. Gi, SO... ; By dissolving glycocoll in hot spirits of wine, cooling, adding sulphurie acid drop by drop, and setting aside in a quiet place, after a day or two there are formed beautiful elongated thin flat prisms with right angled terminal planes. From another portion the salt crystallized in the most delicate attenuated tables of the greatest brilliancy. It is soluble in water and hot diluted alcohol, and quite insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether. It tastes sour and reddens litmus paper, does not change upon exposure to the air, and loses no weight by 100° C. (212° F. 7 Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following results: I. 0°5147 grm. gave 0-4257 carbonic acid and 0-2509 water. TE 'O-3i34 “eee A Hs a5 PEGIOS TEE. O°ES SE OO 8 GL ZOO" SF ei IV. 03397 “ “ 07039 platin-salammoniac. V. 0:-4248 “ with chlorid of barium 0-4673 grm. sul- phate of baryta. In per cent. expressed agreeing with, I. Il. III. Iv. V. Carbon, 22°55 22-40 22°30 Hydrogen, Hat eae 7 ae he vs Nitrogen, gg hisn sib lhe dea isOe* Sulphuric acid,. . or chy Baie) Le Which give the formula 4 a NO;; SsO,, . as the comparison of estimated and analytical results shows. Theory. (Experiment rbon - - =. =. .|4- equiv, =.24 22-66 224% OTC eT ee 377 556 Nitrogen te, COO ele Oem 13:20 13:05 sulphur ae as Dae 8 ty ee aoe ae ulphuric aci - Le a ae By eg ; 106! —Too-00 | T0000 and some of its Products of Decomposition. 59 Repeated combustions did not enable us to lessen the per-cent- age of hydrogen. ‘The variation from the theory is, doubtless, to be attributed to the absorption in the chlorid of calcium tube, of asmall quantity of sulphurous acid, which escaped from the combustion tube. This explanation unfortunately occurred after repeated analyses had consumed the stock of salt. This constitution is remarkable in the field of organic chem- istry. On its borders we have a similar instance in anhydrous sulphate of ammonia, NH, +590,. Sulphate of Hydrate of Glycocoll. | 1,80,, HO. This salt was obtained from a solution similarly prepared to that which yielded the anhydrous salt, except that the solution was boiled with sulphuric acid, instead of the latter being added to the cold solution. It erystallizes m short prisms, reminding one of sulphate of copper, and the erystals, though small, are of ex- ceeding beauty and perfection of form. ‘They do not change upon exposure to the air. A single determination only was made, and that of the mitro- gen. The other determinations were not made, from want of substance, all subsequent efforts to form the salt having failed. By Varrentrapp and Will’s method :— _ 03367 grm. gave 0°2943 grm. platin-salammoniac. In per cent. expressed, Nitrogen 12°37. - This corresponds with the formula : j 4 Pee peer 2 3) HO, Which requires 12°17 per cent. of nitrogen. Basic Sulphate of Glycocoll. (a.) 3G1 HO, 280,, 2HO. _If to a solution of glyeocoll in diluted spirits of wine, sulphu- tic acid in excess be added, and set aside, in twenty-four hours long rectangular prismatic erystals form upon the bottom of the containing vessel. A very considerable excess of sulphuric acid did not change the constitution of the crystals. They taste and react acid, and like the salts already described suffer nothing from exposure to the air. iu Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following results : - 0-4199 : ():3528 carbonic acid and 0:2149 water. IL. 03944 ate ate 03219 ce “ “« 91974 “ II. 0:2399 « « py Varrentrapp and Will’s method, 0:5067 grm. platin-salammoniac. IV. 06866 grm. gave 0°4928 sulphate of baryta. ve 0-5808 « “« 04170 “ VI. 0-4532 « & (3225 “ " Vil. 0-4960 « ee Gggoo!*" =“ “3 60 Prof. EZ. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, in per cent. expressed the above determinations correspond ith wit E. ee | iV. v. Carbon, 22°91. 22°25... Hydrogen, G68 15:66: ames Caos Whtw oay ih Nitrogen, seater (RR Gott. ic eclitededdante Sulphuric acid, .. 24-62 24:62 2420 24-40 These numbers give the formula, 3(C, H, NO,, HO)+2(S0,, HO). The juxtaposition of the estimated per cents. and analytical results follows :-— | ‘Theory. Experiment. Carbon, - - Sp ue ke me QUAY, soe, 72 22-29 22:58 Hydrogen, See eek ieee! Pane an. a 1) 5-26 5°62 Nitrogen, ree ee ee oes, viee,. 42 13-00 13:31 xygen, + ae ees ee eee bP. 34-69 34:03 Sulphuric acid, - - - 2 ¢ = 24:76 24-46 cobs 3231 100-00 100-00 completely analyzed. They were prepared in small portions while seeking to obtain a neutral sulphate of hydrate of glyco-_ coll; and it was not until the capacity of this body to combine with others of such different nature, and in such varied propor- tions became fully apparent, that the existence of so complex and unusual compounds was believed. The crystallized salts were for the most part groups of elon- gated prisms. Basie Sudphate of Glycocoll. (b.) 3G1, 250,, HO. : The constitution of this salt differs from that of the preceding in the amount of water. As both of them were dried in the air over sulphuric acid, and suffered no change, this difference is attrib- utable doubtless to the degree of concentration, or difference of temperature. It will be observed that it corresponds precisely ~ with a basic hydrochlorate (d), whose constitution is given on page 380 of the last volume. With chlorid of barium, 0:2182 grm. of crystals, gave 0°1940 grm. sulphate of baryta. In per cent. sulphuric acid 27-74. This corresponds with the formula 3(C, H, NO,)+280,+HO, which requires 27-87 parts in 100. As the probable rational con- stitution of this salt the following is submitted : (Gl, 80,+Gl, HO)+Gl, SO,. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 61 Basic Sulphate of Glycocoll. ? (c.) 3(Gl, HO)2S0,, HO. A mixture of the salt (b) with the previously described one (a), doubtless gave the crystals for the following determination : 03076 grm. gave 0:2300 grm. sulphate of baryta, which gives in per cent. expressed, sulphuric acid 25-65 ; corresponding with the above formula. ‘The following is more rational. (Gl, SO,, HO+Gl, HO)+(Gl, HO+SO, HO). This requires 25-47 parts of sulphuric acid in 100. (d.) 2(Gl, HO)+S0,. Another salt gave by combustion with chromate of lead,— From 0-3039 grm., 0:2872 grm. carbonic acid, and 0°1680 gm. water; which expressed in per cent., give carbon 25°77, hydrogen 6:01. These numbers correspond with the formula aC, H, NO,, HO)+S0,, which requires carbon 25-26, and hydrogen 5:26. Gilycocoll and Sulphate of Oxyd of Ethyl. wicks Gl, HO, AeO, SO,. - The particular circumstances of the formation of this salt, be- yond those already given, viz. a solution in hot spirits of wine, or in water to which absolute alcohol was added, are not asce: d. With chlorid of barium, 0°6470 grm. gave 03036 grm. sul- phate of baryta; which in per cent. give of sulphuric acid 17°27. This quantity of acid corresponds with the formula Ceeare NO,, HO-+C, H, O, 8O,, Which requires 17-62 per cent. of sulphuric acid. Nitrate of Gilycocoll. Gl, HO+NO,, HO. b] or without water, as a base, united with hydrated nitric acid, or as a salt with nitrates of metallic oxyds. — Braconnot obtained this compound by direct combination of hitric acid with glycocoll prepared from isinglass. _ pemenane procured it directly from hippuric acid, employing nitric inste of hydrochloric acid for its decomposition. 62 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Giycocoll, We prepared it by dissolving glycocoll in strong nitric acid, and setting the solution over sulphuric acid to crystallize. Oc- casionally large tabular crystals, apparently belonging to the monoclinate system, are formed. Not unfrequently, however, the salt crystallizes in needles, especially if the fluid has been warmed. -'They do not deliquesce upon exposure to the air. They taste and react acid. They were dried over sulphuric acid. Combus- tion with chromate of lead gave the following results : I. 0-4509. grm. oo gave 02954 grm. carbonie acid, and 0:1963 grm. w Il. 0:4968 grm. aibeauke gave 0°3122 grm. carbonic ‘acid and 0 ihe grm. water. . Two analyses, scans to Varrentrapp and Will's method, gave Set a 10-04 per cent. and 10-64 per cent. of nitrogen. From this it is evident that this method cannot here be employ- ed :—a fact with regard to nitrates, to which attention has already been drawn by the chemists just mentioned. Failing in this, a determination was made by the quantitative method of Prof. v. Liebi €. proportions va carbonic acid to nitrogen in four tubes, were: 17:9, 14:7, 10:5, 24:11; or, together 65: 32=2: 1. In per cent. pehiagsn the above determinations give I. I. Carbon, - - - 17°86 NW foe B53 Hydrogen, OH: - 4:83 4:59 nae Nitrogen or 20:50 These comempenid with the formula NO, HO, } as will be seen by the annexed estimates and results of analysis. } | Bde _ Experiment. sab - - 17-49 eae somber Oxygen, - | Boussingault by drying the salt at 110° C. (230° F.) obtained as already noticed the anhydrous compound C, H, NO,, NO,- Oxalate of Glycocoll. Gl, O, HO. Ain ape solution of glycocoll with oxalic acid, evaporated upon a watch glass, crystallizes in rays reminding one of a cross section of. wvaiecisies If alcohol be added to a solution of glyco- coll in oxalic acid, the latter in excess, the solution becomes with the separation of oxalate of glycocoll. If added in small quantities and successively, it crystallizes with the beauty and some of its Products of Decomposition. 63 that characterizes all or nearly all the compounds of this body. Dessaigne obtained the salt directly from hippuric acid by em- ploying oxalic instead of a stronger acid, to effect the decomposi- tion. It does not alter upon exposure to the air. : - Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following :—0:3600 gm. gave 0:4227 grm. carbonic acid, which in per cent. express- ed, gives carbon 32:02, corresponding with the formula which requires 32°43 per cent, of carbon. ; Acetate of Glycocoll. " , HO, A, 2HO. This salt is readily prepared by dissolving glycocoll in acetic acid, and adding absolute alcohol drop by drop, till the solution becomes turbid, and then afterward at intervals, as the crystalli- zation proceeds. ‘The salt analyzed was prepared by adding ab- solute aleohol in excess to a concentrated solution of glycocoll in acetic acid, (the latter in excess,) by which the salt was thrown down. It was then redissolved by heat, and set aside to cool and crystallize, by which slender prismatic crystals of great beauty were obtained. . On combustion with chromate of lead, 02981 grm. gave 0:3644 grm. carbonic acid and 0-2031 grm. water, which in per cent. expressed correspond with carbon 33°33, hydrogen {Bins eRe formula . C, H, NO,, HO+C, H, O,+2H0, requires of carbon 33-33 per cent. and of hydrogen 6-94 per cent. Tartrate of Glycocoll. By dissolving glycocoll in tartaric acid and adding absolute al- cohol in excess to the solution, an oily appearing liquid separates and settles to the bottom. Repeated and protracted agitation With alcohol and ether effect nochange. This liquid dried upon a watch glass gave a gummy mass which was not further mves- ated. . tigated ale Palmatinate of Gilycocoll. rt ~ By dissolvin Imitinie acid and glycocoll in hot spirits 0: Wine, and ctidia aside to cool, the excess of acid rises to ‘the sur- dily layer, above, which with the whole mass becomes solid, : in silk and der dried in the air over sulphuric acid. Combustion with chromate we 58 Ilf. | Carbon, - 51°30 51:23 50°84 Hydrogen, - 9:45 AOS 9-44 \ 64 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Glycocoll, With these, no formula embracing palmitinic acid and glycocoll has been found. The formula C, Hi; NO,, CFs = O,+12HO, requires 51:31 per cent. of carbon and 11°16 per cent. hydrogen, which would correspond with the carbon, but not with the hydro- gen determinations. Gilycocoll and Bi-chlorid of Platinum. Gl, PtCl,, 2HO. When to a concentrated solution of glycocoll in water, a con- centrated solution of bi-chlorid of platinum is added, and then absolute alcohol drop by drop, the solution becomes turbid, and in a very short time, regular cherry-red crystals attach themselves to the sides of the vessel. Or if the concentrated aqueous solu- tion be evaporated over sulphuric acid, after a time, groups of prismatic crystals are formed. They become instantly covered with a bright colored crust upon exposure to the air, manifestly with the loss of water. -0°3679 grm. substance gave 0-0872 grm. platinum. In per cent. expressed =33-03, which corresponds with the for- mula 3 NO,, PtCl, +2HO, which requires 33-26 per cent. of platinum. Glycocoll and. Chlorid of Barium. i Gl, BaCl, s To obtain this salt, equivalents of crystallized chlorid of bari- um (=BaCl+2HO) and glycocoll were dissolved in the least quan- tity of hot water, and suffered to crystallize quietly in the cold. a few moments the salt crystallized in groups of short prisms of extreme beauty. None were sufficiently perfect to admit of measurement. They appeared to belong to the rhombic system, of the combination » P. Px. » P x. The addition of alcohol to the solution changed the form to that of slender flat needles. The salt is soluble in water, more so in hot than in cold, tast bitter, gives neither acid nor alkaline reaction, does not deliquesce or change upon exposure to the air. | se Dried over sulphuric acid, 0-6715 grm. substance gave 0°3833 grm. sulphate of baryta, =55-34 per cent. of chlorid of barium, giving the formula C, H, NO,, BaCl, 2HO, which requires 55°31 per cent. of chlorid of barium. Gilycocoll and Chlorid of Potassium. Gl, KCl. __This compound was prepared by dissolving glycocoll and chlo- rid of potassium in water, and evaporating over sulphuric acid. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 65 When the solution had become very concentrated, fine needle- formed crystals filled the whole mass. They deliquesce readily in the air. | A single combustion with chromate of lead, gave from 0:4992 gm., 03055 grm. carbonic acid = 16°58 per cent. of carbon. The formula C , H , NO,, KCl, requires 16-92 percent. of carbon. Gilycocoll and Chlorid of Sodium. _ A concentrated solution of glycocoll and chlorid of sodium m water, gave upon addition of absolute alcohol and standing a length of time, crystals containing both of the above mentioned mgredients. A quantitative examination was not made. Gilycocoll and Bi-chlorid of Tin. / _By dissolving glycocoll in the least quantity of water, and ad- aoa bi-chlorid of tin, after a time, crystals containing both in- tedients of the solution are formed. ‘They were not more par- ticularly examined. Gilycocoll and Hydrochlorate of Berberin. Gl, Ber, HCl. This salt is obtained by adding a hot solution of hydrochlorate of berberin in spirits of wine, to a concentrated solution, in ex- cess, of glycocoll in the same menstruum. + Upon cooling, the hole mass becomes solid, and consists of myriads of the most delicate needles, of a brilliant orange color and bitter taste. The salt may be washed with water, as glycocoll is therein readily sol- uble, while the salt of berberin is not. 3 The salt dried at 100° C. [212° Fah.] and burned with chro- Mate of lead, gave the following results: 0:1563 grm. substance gave 0°3485 grm. carbonic acid and 0-0826 grm. water, which expressed in per cent. give carbon 60:80, hydrogen 5:87. These correspond with the formula ? , H, NO,+C,, H,, NO,, HCl, Which, containing berberin with the constitution given by F'leit- mann,* requires 60-21 per cent. of carbon and 5-03 per cent. of hydrogen, Glycocoll and Potash. . PY dissolving glycocoll in diluted caustic potash and evapora- Ung to Syrup consistence over a water bath, crystals in the form ong delicate needles, containing the two ingredients, are form- res They may be rapidly washed with spirits of wine. ‘They deliquesee rapidly in the air, even over sulphuric acid. ‘Dissolved ‘0 Water, the salt gives a very strong alkaline reaction. It was ° turther examined. Dis ca) ee ae Sr * Liebig’s Annalen, Bd. lix, s. 166. orp Serres, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 9 66 Prof. E. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, Glycocoll and Hydrate of Baryta. It has already been mentioned, that glycocoll rubbed with pul- verized hydrate of baryta, in a mortar, becomes almost instanta- neously semifiuid. Upon diluting the solution, and setting aside, after a time crystals containing both baryta and glycocoll were deposited. The salt was not analyzed. Its composition, in al probability, corresponds with that of the oxyd of copper, silver and lead, noticed below, and there exist, doubtless, similar salts of strontia, lime and magnesia. Glycocoll and Oxyd of Copper. a solid mass of the most exquisite cerulean blue color. More carefully examined, it is found to consist of exceedingly delicate needles. The addition of absolute alcohol to the concentrated solution precipitates the whole salt ; to the diluted, less perfectly. At 100° C. [212° F.] 0:5443 grm., at the conclusion of seve days, had lost 0:0438 grm. =8-04 per cent. =one atom of water. _ With this loss the color passed through a light green toa shade in which a lavender or violet tint is discernible. he analysis was made with the substance dried in the air over sulphuric acid. - Combustion with chromate of lead gave the following fe sults :— ’ I. 02030 grm. of substance gave 0°1538 grm. carbonic acid and 0:0912 grm. water. II. 0:2373 germ. by the method of Varrentrapp and Will, gave st lies grm. platin-salammoniac. II. 0:1745 grm. gave 00592 grm. oxyd of copper. IV. 0:2871 grm. gave 0-0972 poe ne of caphe | Which expressed in per cent. give It Ill. IV . Carbon, 20°66 sits Hydrogen, 4:99 lvoe Nitrogen 12-65 Oxyd of ‘copper, 33-85 33-92 These give the formula C,H, NO,, CuO, HO, as will be seen by comparing the theoretical and analytical results. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 67 Theory. Experiment. arbon, - 4 equiv. 24 20:92 20-66 Hydrogen, oe ee 4:35 4-99 Nitrogen, Lo = 14 12:20 12-65 Oxygen, Se a? SI SO 27-92 27-81 Oxyd of copper, = - - PG. Cee 34-61 33-89 1147 100-00 100-00 With the loss of an atom of water, we have the salt , 3 u ] which it will be seen is ‘precisely the composition derived from Boussingault’s analysis of the salt dried at 120° C. = [248° F.] page 373. Gilycocoll and Protoxyd of Lead. 1, PbO, HO. This salt was prepared by dissolving with the aid of heat, prot- oxyd of lead (obtained from the peroxyd by long continued heat) in a concentrated aqueous solution of glycocoll, and the addition of alcohol till it began to be turbid. In a few hours it separated in prismatic crystals that slowly increased in size for several days, particularly with successive additions of absolute alcohol. The crystals remind one of cyanid of mercury. A single combustion with chromate of lead gave from 13967 grm. substance, 0°6182 grm. carbonic acid, equal to 12:07 per cent. of carbon, corresponding with the formula derived from Boussingault’s analysis with the addition of an atom of water, , H, NO,, PbO, HO, Which requires 12°83 per cent. of carbon. ussingault’s analysis was made from the salt, dried at 120° C., [248° F.,] leaving C, H, NO,, PbO. Gilycocoll and Oxyd of Silver. Gl, AgO, HO. Tf oxyd of silver be added to a solution of glycocoll, it readily dissolves with the application of heat. With the addition of alco- l the above compound crystallizes in wartform crystals, which ome dark upon exposure to light. eT” This salt a. not staged, as Boussingault’s analysis of it, dried at 110° C. [230° F.] as already noticed, gave the formula C | , H, NO,; AgO. There is scarcely a doubt that corresponding compounds of co- om] nickel, manganese and iron protoxyds with glycocoll, might th nearly equal facility be prepared. ~ These clkseonpiats menneile analogous to those of ammonia With copper and nickel oxyds, when the latter are dissolved in the ie alkali. 68 Prof. EZ. N. Horsford on Gilycocoll, Gilycocoll and Nitrate of Silver. Gl, AgO, NO,. If the filtrate from a chlorine determination of the hydrochlo- rate of glycocoll be evaporated to concentration, and set aside over sulphuric acid, in a little time tolerably regular crystals of the above salt may ‘be obtained. It may be procured by dissolving glycocoll in nitrate of silver : or by eget oxyd of silver in the solution of the nitrate of glycoc Upon melting, it explodes with violence. When exposed to moist air it eae aie though it remains unchanged over sul- phuric aci The salt dried over sulphuric acid, on combustion with chro- mate of lead :— I. 0-9300 grm. “i rr gave 0:3550 grm. carbonic acid and 0-1880 grm. wa IL. 0-7840 grm. of ‘the same gave 0:2950 grm. carbonic acid and 0°1560 grm. water. TI. 0-6469 grm. of the same gave 0-0258 grm. chlorid of silver. In per cent. ges qf. iil, Carbon, 10: u 10:26 Hydrogen, 224 221 Silver, 49: 83 giving the formula «day thas 20 Li, as the annexed estimates ait results of analysis will show: | henry. | Experiment. Carbon, - - Peer 10 16 10:18 Hydrogen, . - - 1-69 2 a 11-86 . xygen, 4 . . 26:76 Ak Ox. silver, Ree 49-53 a } Re TN Gilycocoll and Nitrate of Copper. Gl, HO, CuO, NO,, CuO, HO. This salt was analyzed by Boussingault, a nd may be consid- ered as a compound of hydrate of glycocoll mils nitrate of copper, united to cheat of oxyd of copper. 1, HO + CuO NO,) + CuO, HO. ouiiar and Nitrate of Potash. O, N This salt forms readily from a solution of glycocoll in nitrate potash, upon the addition of absolute alcohol. No quantitative analysis of it was made. 'The above formula is derived from t analyses on page 373. and some of its Products of Decomposition. 69 Gilycocoll and Bi-sulphate of Potash. Gl, 80,+Gl, KO, SO,,. By dissolving bi-sulphate of potash in water and adding a solution of glycocoll, throwing the whole down with alcohol, re- dissolving by heat and setting aside to cool and crystallize, the above salt is obtained in semi-opaque prismatic crystals. A single determination from the salt dried over sulphuric acid gave from 0°6873 grm. of substance 0°6200 grim. sulph. baryta. In per cent. giving sulphuric acid =30-94. The formula 4 4 NO,; 80,+C, H, NO,, KO, SO,, requires of sulphuric acid 30-83 per cent. Gilycocoll and Bi-chromaie of Potash. If glycocoll be dissolved in an aqueous solution of bi-chromate of potash, and absolute alcohol be added till the liquid becomes turbid, and the whole set aside, in a little time crystals will be ormed, These, even under the liquid, in a few days become decompo- sed, with the deposition of carbon. They were not further ex- mined. Gilycocoll and Urate of Ammonia. Gl, U, AmO, U. a ' When to a hot filtered solution of urate of ammonia, glycocoll is added, in a little time as the liquid cools, long semi-opaque needles shoot out from the sides of the vessel. 'The addition of alcohol after the first crystallization, causes the separation of a second portion. Upon dissolving in hot water equivalents of glycocoll and urate of ammonia, and cooling, a flocculent mass was thrown down, which the addition of alcohol increased, and which, when examined with the microscope, proved to consist of exceedingly minute prisms. | The salt dried over sulphuric acid and burned with chromate of lead, gave from 0-2926 grm. substance, 0°3463 grm. carbonic acid and 0-1144 grm. water, which equal carbon 32°46, hydrogen 4-40. The formula 3 alg H, NO,, 5 N, H, O,+NH, 9, C, N, H, O0,, requires carbon 32°30, hydrogen 4°61. se imilar flocculent precipitates were obtained from solutions glycocoll in both urates of potash and soda. . - Gilycocoll and Uric Acid. The importance of finding a compound of uric acid that would eadily dissolve in water, suggested the effort to combine it with glycocoll. 70 On the Potato Disease. Two atoms of glycocoll united to two of uric acid would equal three atoms of cyanate of glycocoll : wtie hs Oe tO eee, O0,=3(C, H, NO,, C, NO), a compound that may be presumed readily to dissolve in water. All effort to this end, however, proved unsuccessful. Uric acid remained unchanged in the most concentrated solution of glyco- coll, even with the long continued application of heat. Gilycocoll and Benzoic Acid. As these two bodies exist in combination in hippuric acid, it was to be presumed that a reunion might be effected. 'T’o this end, solutions of the two in spirits of wine were made and poured together. After a time the glycocoll on the one hand and the benzoic acid on the other crystallized out. The same result attended the effort to combine cinnamic acid, cane sugar and neutral phosphate of lime with glycocoll. Re : (To be continued.) Arr. [X.—On the Potato Disease. Recherches sur la Nature et les Causes de la Maladie des Pommes de Terre, en 1845; par P. Harting, Professeur a l'Université d’Utrecht. Amsterdam, 1846. De Ziekten der Aardappelen in het Algemeen, door Prof. von Martius. Of de Aardappel Epidemie der Laatste Jaren. Berigten en Med- ae door het Genootschap voor Landbouw en Kruidkunde te trecht. ‘Tnx above are the titles of two of the most extended scien- tific investigations of this subject that have yet appeared. e work of Prof. Harting is particularly valuable, as containing a methodical and extensive series of microscopic observations which seem to have been made with much care and accuracy. It is il- lustrated by colored plates, showing the tissues, the cells, &c., of the potato in its healthy state, and proceeding through the com- mencement and various stages of disease. Prof. Harting is clearly of the opinion that the disease is not to be ascribed to a parasitic fungus; but that the fungus is an ef- fect only, as in the commencement it is never visible and ‘some- times is wholly absent during the whole progress of the malady. He has distinguished and figured no less than six varieties of these singular plants. The greater part of them belong to the genus Fusisporium of Link. One of them Fusisporium Solan 1s also described and figured by von Martius. Its characters are: ~ Floccis fertilibus erectis ramosissimis parce septatis, ramis pa- tentibus, sporidiis terminalibus arcuatis, 4-5 septatis, facile dee On the Potato Disease. 71 _ Another species Spicaria Solani, is thus described. Floccis albis, decumbentibus dense intertextis, ramulis fertili- bus vulgo quatuor erectis, sporidiis minimis ovalibus concoloribus. Some of these species are only found in the internal cavities caused by disease, others in cavities under the skin through which they eventually pierce and then expand to a very considerable comparative bulk. In one instance and one alone Prof. Harting has perceived the formation of a particular fungus within the sac of a perfect cell; ordinarily their commencement is on the edges of internal cavities among the remnants of destroyed cells. In this instance the potatoes were of a particular variety from the vicinity of Coblence. The fungus belonged to, the genus Oidi- um, (Link,) or Oospora, (Wallworth, ) and was named by Prof. H. Oidium violaceum. Its characters are: t Floccis ramosis violaceis, fertilibus in sporidia subglobosa sece- dentibus. It is therefore quite different from any of the others. Von Martius does not appear to have met with this, but he de- scribes several other distinct varieties. Payen mentions one of the same nature, but of an orange color. These fungi seem not to be capable of spreading by infection. A large number of experiments were made upon this point ; some of their sporules were placed in contact with freshly cut potatoes and allowed to remain in contact under favorable circumstance for many days; in no case was a fungus of the same species re- produced. This would appear to be conclusive, but von Martius and Payen, both obtained results of a different character. In any case we may conclude that it is not a very easy matter to Spread infection in this way. 1} Ae When the brown or black liquid matter, which appearing in the sacs of the cells, is the first visible proof of disease, 1s placed in contact with a freshly cut surface, the disease 1s readily com- at about the same time as the fungi. Ordinarily two species are observed, Glyciphagus fecularum and Tyrogliphus fecule. Later In the disease, a species of Rhabditis sometimes appears of the same class as those which are found in vinegar, &c. These are only some of the more common varieties which occur. Prof. Harting has made a partial chemical investigation of the re diseased alkaline, with an evolution of ammonia. As might 72 On the Potato Disease. entirely. The brown and black parts contain a greatly increased proportion of insoluble matter; the increase is chiefly owing to the deposition of brownish granular matter, in the cells. This matter is insoluble in water, in ether, in boiling alcohol, im acids or alkalies, and exhibits most of the properties of ulmin, result- ing from the composition of the substance contained in the cellu- lar liquids. e will here quote Prof. Harting’s words. ‘Cette matiére est le resultat des transmutations qu’ont subies Valbumine et la dextrine dissoutes dans le suc cellulaire, et de la fécule, que, apres s’étre transformée en dextrine, y contribue aussi. “Tl est trés-vraisemblable que c’est l’albumine, qui soit transfor- mée la premiére, puis la dextrine, enfin la fécule, qui résiste le plus long-temps, et dont l’alteration est encore peu visible méme aun état trés-avancé de la maladie. “'Tontes ces transformations chimiques, appartiennent a cette grande série de phénoménes, comprise sous le nom général de fermentation, et qu’on pourrait désigner ici plus particuliérement par le nom @’humification, or d’ulmification.” He thinks that we may observe the same things every year in apples, pears, &c. The same granular brown matter is shown the microscope in the cells, and by chemical analysis is proved to be idéntical with the brown matter of the potatoes. Prof. Harting, led on by these facts, sought to find in the tem- perature of the air and earth, the cause of this disease. He has collected a large number of observations upon this point. ‘The winter of 1844-1845 was long and rigorous, and the cold espe- cially severe during March. The equilibrium between the air and the surface of the earth, when a change took place, was thus disturbed, the earth becoming warm much more slowly than the air. The early planted potatoes then found the ground in an unfavorable state. The year 1845 is compared with the prece- ding years as far back as 1838. The month of March was ex- cessively cold as noticed above, the month of April was a little warmer than the mean of the preceding Aprils; May was very rainy, and the temperature below the minimum of preceding years. June, on the contrary, was very hot, above the former maximum, July was also very warm with much rain, so that the potatoes grew with much rapidity. The variations of the ba- rometer were not greater than ordinary, but the case was far otherwise as to the humidity of the air and the pressure of vapor. During the months of July and August, the relative humidity was above the maximum of the same months in preceding years} in those years also the pressure of vapor was less at two in the afternoon than at eight in the morning, but in 1845 this rule was rev: he malady in Holland ended in the month of July, and after the middle of that month the above differences were not more perceptible. The great heat of the air and excessive moisture caused a rapid developement of the plant, and of course On the Potato Disease. V3 an increased transpiration was necessary, but was always checked by the increased pressure of vapor in the middle of the day ;- this of course deranged the circulation and caused the liquids in the citculation to begin to ferment. This view is supported by the fact that in Holland the parts first attacked were the leaves and stalks, the parts more directly in contact with the air. In Scot- land and some parts of Prussia the disease made its appearance in September, for the most part; the temperature of the earth was then higher than that of the air, and accordingly the disease gen- erally attacked the tubers first. But when we acknowledge all of these extraordinary facts, we still are forced to look for some special predisposition to disease among the potatoes themselves. In what this special predisposition consists, it is not easy to say. t has not been the same in all species of potatoes, some have almost escaped while others of another kind in the same neigh- borhood have been almost utterly destroyed; it must reside in the plant itself, either in the structure of its tissues, or the chemical state of its juices. It has been noticed that the potatoes of late years have had a much greater tendency than usual to germinate. This indicates an unusual molecular movement in the juices, which under the influence of moisture and the atmo- sphere, in place of changing the starch into dextrine and dextrine into cellulose, ferments and causes the disease. Potatoes planted during the early morning have in some 1n- stances been almost entirely free from the malady, while those of the same variety planted in the afternoon, after lying in the sun sometime, were almost all destroyed. In this case, it seems possl- ble that the heat of the sun gave a movement to the juices and prepared the way for the subsequent attack. Von Martius describes two distinct kinds of disease, De Drooge kankerachtige Ziekte der Aardappelen, the dry canker disease of the potatoe, Gangrena tuberum Solani; and “ De schurftachtige Ziekte der Aardappelen,” the scabby disease of the potatoe, Por- te changes i matter. Shines ney SE only at long intervals of years, but the fact of their occurring at all, will be a warning hot to place their sole dependence on a single crop. Unhappy Ireland and the north of Scotland are mournful examples of this mistake. PLN: Utrecht, April 25, 1847. | Srconp Series, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 10 74 Report on Meteorites. Arr. X.—Report on Meteorites ; by Cuartes Upuam Sueparp, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical College of South Carolina, and in Amherst College, Mass. (Continued from Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 392.) CLASS II. Meratuic. Orver First. Malleable, homogeneous. Section 1st. Pure. 1. Walker county, Alabama.—This mass was described by Dr. Troost in Vol. xlix, p. 344, (1845.) Through the assistance of Dr. L. F. Sowett, of Athens, Ala., I am able to supply a few addi- tional details, concerning the occurrence of this unusually inter- esting specimen. . Sowell observes, that “the existence of this iron was made known to me in 1839 or ’40; and I was in treaty for it during two or three years, before being able to obtain possession of it. The original mass was irregularly oval, resem- bling the figure here sketched. we a, Oxf. Aig Oe v4 AGG “Tt was without any abrupt prominences or depressions, and mooth, black crust. It was found with the lar- . | , Report on Meteorites. 75 er end, the finder (Mr. Speaks) placed his foot to rest, while abroad on a hunting excursion. Its unusual appearance attracted. his attention, and led him to remove it to his house as something valuable. The mass was found remote from any settlement, in an uncultivated and rather unfrequented region. Its weight was one hundred and sixty-five pounds.” This iron does not afford by etching, the Widmannstattian fig- ures; although it exhibits glistening freckles, or angular spots of the size of fine-grained gunpowder, which are occasionally in- termingled with shining lines and fibres. Sp. gr.=7-265. It consists of iron 99°89, with traces of calcium, magnesium and aluminium, in the order, as to quantity, in which they are enumerated,—the calcium being most abundant 2. Scriba, (Oswego,) N. Y.—My description of this mass was published in Vol. xl, p. 366, (1841.) ‘To that account may now be added the statement of Mr. John G. Pendergast, communicated to me in a letter dated July 15, 1846. “I saw a mass of iron at Oswego in 1834, in the possession of Mr. Rathbun, (a black- smith,) which I judged to be meteoric. Mr. R. had obtained it on that day from his collier, who had been down to deliver a load of charcoal, and stated that he found it in the woods, some where in the vicinity of his coal-pit. The circumstance of its being found in the forest, together with its size and form, induced me at the time to believe it to be meteoric iron. The mass in all probability, was originally globular in form, but from having been highly ignited, and striking the earth (perhaps on a stone) with great force, a flattening in its shape was produced, like that which — would be occasioned in a round lump of putty, if thrown against aboard. I was fully satisfied that the form it possessed, could + ay it among undoubted meteoric irons. Its resemblance however, to the Walker county, Ala., iron, not only in composition, but in the generally smooth surface and black color of its crust, and still more, in the freckled figures developed upon 1ts polished sections ogy of the most marked kind between the two bodies. And as it seems unreasonable to ascribe the large drop-shaped mass of Alabama, either to a terrestrial or an artificial source, I feel authorized in claiming a meteoric origin for them both. 76 Repori on Meteorites. Section 2d. Attoyep. Sub-section, CLOSELY CRYSTALLINE. 3. Babb’s Mill, 10 miles north of Greenville, Green county, T'ennessee.—This mass was described by Dr. Troost in Vol. xlix, p. 342, (1845.) Judge Pecx has afforded me (under date of Dee. 14, 1845) some additional particulars, relating to the locality, from whence he had obtained a specimen, in its natural condition. His remarks are as follows: “Of the two masses found in Green coun- ty, the first, as well as I can recollect, weighed twelve or thirteen pounds ; the other which I have, weighs upwards of six pounds. The former was injured by having been heated and cut. It ex- hibited however, a crystalline structure, when small portions were torn or broken asunder, though the grains were very small. It I have ever seen. The second mass (of about six pounds) I was 1 a fortunate enough to obtain, just as it was found. Fig. 7. This specimen was in the most obliging manner transferred to me, in exchange, by Judge Peck; and with the exception of a few hundred grains taken from an angle, has been preserved pre- cisely in its original shape. It exhibits in the most perfect man- ner that peculiar moulding (consisting of somewhat irregular ba- sin-shaped depressions of various sizes, connected with blunt rounded angles and edges) which marks so many of these pro- ductions.* A wood-cut does but inadequately render these app Meena” * Having observed that this kind of surface occurs in masses of artificial iron, both cast and malleable, if it have been a long time exposed to the action of weath- er, (as in iron palings and posts, as well as in old cannon,) 1 cannot avoid attribu- ting the pitted, indented outside of the meteoric irons, in part, to terrestrial influ- \% Report on Meteorites. 77 yellowish, ochrey brown incrustation. Sp. gr. =7 gq i) co of a @ E ro) ak 5 r~) taking a very high polish, and exhibitin color rather whiter than that of steel. It shows no crystalline figures on being corroded with nitric acid; although on very close inspection, minute, whitish spots, (isolated and collected into patches,) may be seen here and there, scattered without order over the surface. When broken, it presents a fine granular tex- was probably too high, and that the compound might contain other ingredients. My own specimen affords me, iron 85:30, nicke] 14-70, with traces of calcium, magnesium and aluminium. 4. Claiborne, Alabama.—Vol. xxxiv, p. 332, (1838.) Vol. 5. Livingston county, Kentucky.—Vol. ii, 1i Ser., p- 357, (1846. ) 6. Dickson county, Tennessee.—Vol. xlix, p- 337, (1845.) R ei 218, (1824. ) Val xvi, p. 217, (1830.) Vol. xxvii, p. 382, (1835. ) Vol. xxxiii, p. 257, (1838.) Vol. xiii, p. 358, (1842.) Vol. u, i Ser., p. 372, (1846. es Ae 8. Burlington, Otsego county, N. Y¥.—This mass (originally 150 Ibs. in weight) was described by Prof. Srutman, Jr., in Vol. xlvi, p. 401, (1844.) It was ploughed up by a farmer, near the north line uses; until its weight was diminished to about a dozen pounds, when it fortunately fell into the hands of Prof. Hadley, of Geneva, N. Y., to whom I am indebted fora conical lump, (weighing nine pounds, ) which must have formed a somewhat pointed extremity of the original mass. From the base of this, a slice was taken, leaving a lump of five pounds of the annexed form. Its sides show for the most part, the natural crust of the iron; but where this is not the case, the surface has been cut and polished, or 1s coarsely crystalline with large tetrahedral and sub-hackley faces, occa- sioned by the breaking off of what were apparently oe prongs. Its polished faces show a very high lustre, with a color i isti alline proper angle, they discover very distinctly the same eryst Phacantene’ sc ieiahs tae still more distinctly brought out by the ac- ences, which have acted upon masses not enge homogeneous yee “4 cree sition or in densi For this reason perhaps, the Lockport iron, whic is very much charged with amygdaloidal kernels of magnetic iron pyrites, presents an un- commonly pitted and jagged surface. 7 78 Report on Meteorites. tion of acids. 'The etched surface is illustrated in the accompa- nying figure. 'The pattern is strikingly peculiar, as well as beau- tiful. The bright shining veins, which resist the action of the acid, are rarely nearer together than the ,';th or ;';th of an inch; i, ARSC ¥ Pi Lie tty : SS y i) a My AAW x \UB/ sg NAA) “A [pg P oe ON ee | /3/ Uist y Capon fs ty Wp and these in place of being continuous, are interrupted at frequent intervals. In their course also, they frequently exhibit little tri- angular enlargements, the sides of the triangles curving inwards. The surface included between the shining lines, and which forms at least ,°;ths of the whole, is every where finely freckled as if depending upon a granular texture, and even bears some analogy to what is familiarly known as crystallized tin, or Moiree met- allique. Its hardness is very tinusual, no iron with which I am ac- quainted offering on the whole, so much resistance to the opera- tion of slitting. Mr. Rockwell gives as its composition, iron 92-291, and nickel 8-146. My own result in a single analysis, 18 as follows: Iron, ; : ; ; . 95°200 Nickel, : A : : 2°125 . Insoluble, : . ; ; ‘500 Sulphur and loss, . : : 2:175 % Report on Meteorites. 79 Sub-section, COARSELY CRYSTALLINE. 9, De Kalb county, Tennessee.—Vol. xlix, p. 341, (1845. ) 10. Asheville, (Baird’s plantation, near French Broad River, sit miles north of Asheville,) Buncombe county, North Carolina. —Vol. xxxvi, p. 81, (1839,) and Die Meteoriten, von P. Partscn, Wien, 1843, s. 116. As this county has of late afforded two other localities of mete- oric iron, I have taken pains to ascertain as nearly as possible the exact position of each. The Hon. T. J. Clingman informs me, that this locality is six miles north of Asheville, on the estate of Col. Baird, who is of opinion that other fragments may there be found, as he has within two years observed small pieces of rusty iron in the same field from which Dr. Hardy’s mass was obtained. Farther experiments on the composition of this iron, enable me toadd to what was before made known, that it contains cobalt, magnesium and phosphorus; and that the nickel is sometimes present in a ratio as high as 5 p.c., while the silicon is consider- ably below 0-5 p.c., as formerly quoted. 11. Guildford county, North Carolina.—Vol. xl, p. 369, ( 1841,) and Die Meteoriten, von P. Parrscn,s. 114. 12. Carthage, Tennessee.—Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 356, (1846.) 13. Jackson county, Tennessee.—V ol. ii, ii Ser., p. 357, (1846. ) Orper Seconp. Malleable, heterogeneous. Section 1st. AmyGDALOIDAL.* et, agreed closely with that given by the father. He learn ; also from the young man, that the mass had the appearance 0 * The present mass having been discovered since the classification of the previous was made, it becomes necessary to create a new section for the reception of this rem: “ i : arkable variety. In some resp‘ Species from Siberia sad Atmessias It differs however, from them both, in the i t nie he completely empty. The term amygdaloidal therefore, is here applied, in analogy with its use in geology, for describing the vesicular traps. 80 Report on Meteorites. having been melted, one side being flattened, while from other parts of it, there were projections (“spurs”) as long as a man’s finger, which he could batter down with a stroke of the hammer. He said he obtained it a year before in Buncombe county, ina field, where he was of opinion that more of the same might be found. Mr. C. afterwards visited the neighborhood in which the specimen occurred ; and was there assured by a young man, that he had seen the piece that the Clarkes had described, and that he knew of another much larger piece, similar to it, at an old house on the Clarke farm, where the smaller had been found. On procuring the mass, (which weighed nearly twenty-seven pounds,) Mr. C. communicated to me the following particulars respecting it, which may perhaps be given in this place as gen- erally descriptive of its aspect. ‘It is rather flat on one side, as though it had been laid when semi-fluid on a somewhat plane surface, while its other sides are irregular, with cavities and va- rious inequalities. It has no appearance of ever having been ered, and externally looks like a cinder from a_black- smith’s fire.” (At first, from not having seen any vesicular me- teoric iron, Mr. C. was led to question its genuineness.) ‘‘ But it is too large, and much too heavy to be compared with cin- er. It has some malleability, though it may be broken if struck on its thinner projections and edges. Its knotted appearance, toughness and malleability, together with the peculiar form of the broad side, or bottom, and that of the large end, indicating that a greater than human force must have been applied to the mass, and evincing that it was cleft by an explosion from some large body, lead me on the whole, to rest in the inference, that it is of foreign origin.” Mr. C. likewise remarked, that its ex- ternal appearance would be well conceived of, if we supposed an ordinary mass of meteoric iron to be thrown into a forge-fire, and when thoroughly fused at its surface, suddenly to be withdrawn and cooled. Its shape may be judged of by the figure on the opposite page. As frequently happens with these productions, a general conception may best be obtained by likening them to some familiar objects: this specimen strikingly reminds one of the head of a reptile. As figured, it reposes on its flat and broad side, and the dark shadow at the left, is in the place of the nearly vertical section, supp to represent the junction of the animal’s head with its body. It measures eleven inches in length, by seven in breadth; and 1s four in thickness at the thicker end, while at the upper extremity of our figure, it is not above two and a half, and on the night and lower edge, it thins down to little above one inch. Its sut- face is rather tuberose and jagged, than pitted with regular de- pressions. Color various shades of brown to black, and some- what variegated (especially in the bottoms of the cavities) with Report on Meteorites. 81 an ash colored earthy matter. This last was undoubtedly de- rived from the circumstance, that the mass was for a considerable time employed as a support for fuel in the fireplace of a farmer’s kitchen. Upon the under side, there adheres over a few inches, Fig. 9. te jesteegs ge acrust of an earthy, black amygdaloid, scarcely distinguishable, i d in one spo nearly buried within the substance of the iron, a few grains of . dull, yellowish, gray olivine were noticed, similar to those foun grow smaller and more remote from one another. No deeper Section than one inch has yet been made in the mass; it is there- ore possible, that the central portions may be nearly compact. The fresh fracture has a color and lustre, intermediate between steel and magnetic iron-pyrites. Etched surfaces, excepting Where the structure is highly vesicular, exhibit the most delicate Widmannstattian figures, consisting of very minute and thickly Szconp Series, Vol. IV, No. 10.—July, 1947. il 82 ‘Report on Meteorites. interspersed triangular figures, distinct enough to be easily seen with the naked eye, but under a microscope exceedingly beau- tiful. They resemble somewhat in this respect, the Bitburg iron, to which it also approximates in the tuberose conformation of the exterior surface. Hardness about that of grey cast iron. Sp. gr. = 7°32. It is composed of iron, (with traces 98-19 of chromium and cobalt, ) ‘ ickel, ; ; : 2 ‘ : 0:25 Carbonaceous, insoluble matter and loss, 1:58 tt The yellowish, olivine-like grains consist of silicic acid, lime, magnesia, and oxyd of iron. Section 3d. AmyGpALo-PYRITIC. 15. Lockport, (Cambria,) New York.—Vol. xlviii, p. 388, (1845.) Vol. ii, i Ser; p. 374, (1846.) In addition to the nickel, copper, phosphorus and silicon, found in this iron by others, I have detected cobalt. Section 4th. Pyrrro-PLUMBAGINOUS. 16. Black Mountain, head of Swannanoah River, eastern line of Buncombe county, (fifteen miles east of Asheville,) N. C.— My first knowledge of this iron was derived from a remark, con- tained in a letter from Hon. T. J. Crixeman, dated Feb. 17, 1846, to the following effect: “Dr. Hardy informs me that he gave a very remarkable looking specimen of meteoric iron found in this county, (Buncombe,) to the late Col. Nicholson of Charleston, S. C., who died at Abbeville in that state, six or seven years ago.” Being in Charleston, I applied to the executors of Col. N. for infor- mation respecting that portion of his effects, which would be likely to include this specimen ; but my inquiries were without success. Previous to this date however, I had been informed by Prof. Tuomey, who was then the state geologist, that he had seen 4 specimen of malleable iron in the cabinet of Dr. Barratt of Abbe- ville, which led me to address a letter to this gentleman, relative to the subject, from whom I received the following note, dat , 1846, accompanied by the specimen itself, “I can fur- nish you with little that is definite concerning its history. The year Col. Nicholson, of Charleston, died, he had obtained it in Pendleton or Greenville District. It was given to him by some person, who had picked it up as a meteorite. Col. N. gave it 10 me, as I was the only person in this part of the country who pre- served such objects. I believe it to be meteoric in its origin, and as such it has had a place in my cabinet. To yourself and to Science, it is most cheerfully tendered.” Report on Meteorites. * 83 On communicating a description of the mass to Dr. Hardy, he replied, “I have no doubt that the specimen referred to is the same which I gave Col. Nicholson. It was found at the head of Swanannoah river, near the base of Black mountain, towards marked crossing lines. A somewhat similar structure is visible in the Cocke county iron. The mass contains several rounded and irregular nodules of plumbaginous matter, (from half to one inch in diameter, ) with which again (and often situated in the midst of the kernels) are found large pieces of foliated, magnetic iron-pyrites. In this tespect also, the present iron is closely related to the Cocke county iron. Its sp. gr. = 7-261 It consists of nickel (with traces of cobalt, ) . 2-52 Right. car ee oO oe ae Insoluble matter, sulphur and loss, : . 1-44 . 100-00 17. Cocke county, Cosby's Creek, Tennessee.—t"or our earliest notice of this truly wonderful locality of meteoric iron, we are indebted to Dr. Troost, (see Vol. xxxvi, P- 250, 1840, ) and for an additional aecount of its composition by myself, see Vol. xliii, p. 354, (1842.) The history of this locality is still far- ther illustrated by the following particulars, derived from two 84 Report on Meteorites. Dr. J. H. Kain of this city: “The large mass of meteoric iron found some years ago in Cocke county, (on a creek called Cosby’s,) fell into the hands of some persons who tried to break Dr. Troost. The original mass was one of rare character, and ought to have been preserved entire. Much of it was composed of large and perfect octahedral crystals. Its weight was about a ton. Another mass weighing one hundred and twelve pounds, was found near the locality of the larger one. This also was malleable, very white, and easily cut with a sharp instrument. It was picked up by a mountaineer, who supposing it to be sil- ver, asked fifteen hundred dollars for it. After retaining it for some years, he finally sold it to a friend of mine for a small sum, who transferred it to Dr. Troost.” : Extract from the letter of December, 1845, to myself: “The weight of the mass has been variously estimated; but I am cer tain it was never weighed, prior to its being broken up. It was probably about two thousand pounds. In figure, it was an ob- long, square block. I saw several very regular octahedral erys- tals that had been detached from the exterior angles of the mass. I had formerly supposed that the whole of it had been taken to Lary’s forge, in Sevier county, and the greater part of it there wrought into ‘gun-scalps;’ but very recently, I have been 1- formed, that part of it was taken to the forge of Peter Brown, 1D Green county, and there forged. I understand that a man by the name of McCoy, had a neat bar forged from it for making a gun- barrel, which, to use the expression of Brown’s son, ‘was a bright as silver.’ In the conversation, young Brown informed me that he thought a piece of the iron in its natural state still re- mained. On searching, it was found by a little girl of the family. It weighs rather more than a pound, and had been preserved by as a nut-cracker. “The great mass was found on a hill, or rather on an offset of an eminence, at about one hundred feet above the bed of Cosby’s creek. I was at the place after the mass was taken away. formation was a hard clay-slate, and very little impression Was left at the spot, except some stains of red oxyd of iron. MeCoy, * This specimen I owe to the kindness of Judge Pec. - Report on Meteorites. 85 who claimed to be the owner of the land, took me there, under the impression that I should be able to aid him in discovering a mine of pure iron near the spot, especially, as the mass of one hundred and twelve pounds was found in the same immediate vicinity. The search of course was to no purpose. ‘Tlie mass of one hundred and twelve pounds appeared to me to be identical in character with the fragments I have seen of that supposed to weigh a ton.” The sp. gr. of this iron, as given by Partsch, (Die Meteoriten, p. 151,) is 7:26. I have found that of the included magnetic iwon-pyrites, to be 4:454. Orpver T'uirv. Brittle. Section 1st. Pure. logical survey of North Carolina. It is spoken of by Prof. O., as urring in the vicinity of a bed of argillaceous iron ore. It is Color and lustre resembling those of mispickel. When etched, chloric acid, did not communicate any color to a bead of borax, which led to the suspicion that it was silicon. 19. Bedford county, Pennsylvania—This variety was de- scribed in Vol. xiv, p. 183, (1828,) as native iron, slightly arsen- letted. It closely resembles the Randolph county specimen, 1n structure, color, hardness and lustre. Its sp. gr. = 6-915. In the few grains at my command for its examination, I have been unsuccessful in verifying the existence of arsenic, or of detecting the presence of any other metal, besides iron, Suill, its greater analogy to the Randolph iron than to any other terrestrial pro- duction, either natural or artificial, induces me to retain 1t 1m the category of meteorites. Section 2d. ALLOYED. 20. Otsezo county, New York.—The precise locality of this Very curious iron cannot at present be given. It came into my Possession under the following circumstances. Two or three persons from Otsego county submitted a number of specimens to 86 Report on Meteorites. Dr. James R. Cuixton, practical chemist of New York, for deter- mination, stating that they had collected them in that region. Among the collection was the iron in question, which they de- seribed as having been picked up by them in the soil. They were of opinion, that it was some valuable metal ; and were only satisfied that it was iron, by being shown by Dr. C., that it ad- hered strongly to the magnet. Dr. C. was at once led to suspéct that it was a meteoric production, from the peculiarity of its shape; and induced the proprietors to exchange it for several specimens of silver ores, which they were desirous of procuring, to enable them to prosecute their mining researches with more intelligence. By paying Dr. C. the value of the specimens he had given for it, he very kindly transferred it into my hands. Its weight was 276 grs., and its figure almost spherical or drop- like, as represented in the margin. It was covered with a black Fig.10. coating, save on one side, where it had been partially polished. 'The application of a drop of dilute nitric acid to this side, brought into view the most beau- tiful, raised lines, closely compacted together, and crossing each other in every direction. Its hardness was too great to allow of its being sawn; it was therefore broken upon an anvil (within a closed ring of iron) by means of heavy blows with a sledge. Its structure within, 1s foliated, or foliated-columnar, the individuals radiating from the centre to the circumference. Its color when first broken, was @ hight steel-grey, with a faint yellowish or reddish tinge, some- what analogous to magnetic iron-pyrites. Interspersed through the mass, a close inspection discovers very minute, perfectly round globules of magnetic iron-pyrites, the number of which 1s much increased by the aid of the microscope. ‘These globules are easily detached, and leave behind cavities with smooth, sil- very colored walls. A polished surface of its interior, on being etched, exhibits a very exquisitely beautiful crystallization, con- sisting of innumerable, closely compacted, silvery lines, crossing each other in various directions, but rarely forming regular triat- gles, as in the malleable irons, (but more resembling the brittle irons of North Carolina and Pennsylvania,) more or less spotted : with black globules of pyrites. ing anxious to preserve as much as possible of this smallest of all the known meteoric iron-masses, I have contented mysé f with such inferences as a solution of less than twenty grains, eN- abled me to make respecting its composition. It dissolves with difficulty in nitro-hydrochloric acid, at the same time evolving sulphuretted hydrogen, leaving behind minutely divided carbon (plumbago) and a heavy whitish powder. This latter, fused with carbonate of soda on charcoal, gave what appeared to be metallic tin. The clear solution saturated with ammonia, afforded pet- Report on Meteorites. 87 oxyd of iron that corresponded to 94°57 per cent. of metallic iron; and the solution possessed an intensely azure blue color, which I ascertained to proceed chiefly from the presence of cop- per, though nickel and cobalt were also both detected in the liquid. This little meteorite, therefore, contains the following ele- ments :—iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, sulphur, carbon, tin? and possibly chromium. Notwithstanding this specimen comes from the same county with the Burlington iron, still its peculiar physical and chemical properties, leave no doubt of it having formed a totally indepen- dent body ; and for aught that yet appears, two hundred and sev- enty-six grains in weight constitutes the totality of the fall! Apprenpix To Cuass I. c. Franconia, New Hampshire —The following note from Roserr Gitmore, Esq. of Baltimore, leads me to believe that a mass of meteoric iron was obtained by this gentleman, ten or twelve years ago in New Hampshire. * It was supposed ; J. F. Dana (late Prof. of Chemistry in Dartmouth College) to be native iron. I purchased it at a village about twelve miles this side Baltimore Academy of Science, in whose kee v sight of, during the destruction of the building by fire. (To be continued.) 88 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. Arr. XI.—A General Review of the Geological Effects of the Earth’s Cooling from a state of Igneous Fusion; by James D. Dana. In former papers in this Journal,* the writer has endeavored to illustrate the origin of many of the earth’s features, by refer- ence to the necessary consequences of cooling from a state of ° igneous fusion. In conclusion, a summary of the results arrived at is here offered, in order to aid the reader in a cautious and comprehensive revision of the subject; for its bearing upon the history of our globe is so important and of so universal a charac- ter, that it cannot receive too close attention. If there has been * Vol. ii, ii Ser., p. 385, and iii, 94, 176.381, 1846, 1847. t In this branch of investigation, principles of the highest importance to science have already been deduced, with great ability, by W. Hopkin , FEBS. We alluded to his researches on the systems of fissures consequent on elevations, in the Jast volume of this Journal, pp. 395, ; and we mention here what escaped US , ; treating especially of aring of the amount of precession and nutation on the question of the fluidity amount of precession, cannot be less than one-fourth of the earth's radius;” also, that the mean inclination of the earth's axis to the place of the ecliptic, cam never have changed since solidification commenced. Tae . Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 89 It should be remarked, that in the engin. summary the causes alluded to are not presented ‘as only source of the effects enumerated, though a haat anit sufficient source. The causes have acted conjointly with the wide-spread agency of water, yet they may have been less dependent on the latter for many results, than has often been urged. We mention no authori- ties for any of the conclusions stated, as they are already given, as ar as known to the author, in the previous articles alluded to. General Review of the Consequences of the Earth’s Cooling. L. Solidification of the surface after the fluid material had lost its perfect fluidity. a. The e change inconceivably slow, and hence the rock formed hav- ing a coarsely crystalline texture :—the subsequent progress of solidifi- cation beneath the crust still more gradual, and sacesiore producing at result of a single immeasurably prolonged operation. . Hence, probably, a general uniformity in the crystalline structure, sufficient to give the crust t apparently two directions of easiest fractu whose mean courses are .b, W. and N.E. b. ; yet varying much, ee ae a SS A * We add here a reference to the Horm np on a io 9.7 by W. ingen 4 sth Sharpe, Esq., in the Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc 74-105. See also this ‘Journal, last volu ork p- aia p- 110, in nine ip See also on the effects of cooling, De la Beche’s Report on Cosmin evon et, 8vo, 4 ndon, 1839, 3, and elsewhere. W. Somers t Long sustained heat of a requisite and searcely varying temperature, | is the essential circumstance demanded for the distinct crystallization 0 of most oe from fusio It is well known that lava stream ming incrusted ov . ling. tt pass to the cold state too ‘rapidly or in a larly, for a coarse crystallization of all the several ingredi of ther eve ce peter the absolute necessity of the dom prod state ae YS. h mace Sete Where, that a granite-like structure = . om produce cept in its central mass of lavas wl finally cool, pe oat from ihe air ee thick beds of non-conducting r falas speci ti We remark farther, that a long- -continued BO cis bins ee te a condition of the greatest peg sngrent ed eae ; i ur condition which the or of nature has established mn ig i a structure, here the most complex compositions take place. And z en the ogy ete St Earent tn spenitic cases ie, nec at hi neg a aicat’ chen poallgorie will temperature are at hand, we ma ict t 2 jcaei” “Phe reason aC for this is obvious, if we consider that with difference se eoleg aa she difference of size, and difference gf Stra ae power both cohesive a m . + Well illustrated on the surface of the moon, as also are many of the points here ; mentioned, (ii, 335.) See Beer and adagiers cha rts. Sxconp Pans, Vol. IV, No, 10.—July, 1847. 12 90 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. e. As refrigeration went on, the centres of eruption becoming mostly extinct over large areas, and remaining still active over other areas of s II. Contraction, as a consequence of solidification, attended by a diminution of the earth’s oblateness. ous action therefore becoming in process of time more depressed than those areas that were early free (or mostly so) from such action, (ii, 352 ; iii, 181 d. Subsidence of the surface progressive ; or, if the arched crust re- sisted subsidence, a cessation, until the tension was such as to cause fractures, and then a more or less abrupt subsiding, (iii, 96.) r ; ual or abrupt, arising from the unequal progress of subsidence in dif- ferent parts, and also in early periods from extensive igneous action, (iii, 95, 181.) II. Fissures and displacements of the crust, owing to the contraction below it drawing it down into a smaller and smaller arc ; also, from a change in the earth’s oblateness. . . . . . u a. Fissures influenced in direction by the structure of the earth’s crust,—because of the existence of such a structure, and also because Pies, ph esas ei alate y * The boiling action in Kilauea, Hawaii, appears in general character, closel like that of boiling water. In the great lake, 1500 feet in diameter, there is ap ordinarily but the grum murmur of ebullition. A constant flow is see liquid, (well shown in the jets that move with the current,) from the hottest part, near the northeast side, towards the southwest part of the lake; and this hh: so remarkable that it was formerly accounted for by supposing that @ submarine stream of fire here came to the surface, and disappeared again afier being for 4 short distance visible. Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. 91 the tension causing fractures would be exerted with some reference to the structural lines, the tension and the structure being both a simulta- neous consequence of cooling, (iii, 894.) Direction of fissures modified by the relative positions of the large areas of unequal contraction, and whatever the actual course, frequently attended by transverse fractures, (iii, 395, 396. . As the force of tension acts tangentially in a great degree, (like the pressure of stone against stone in an arch, and that of the whole arch against the supporting or confining abutments,) the effects will ap- pear either over the subsiding area, or on its borders; and they will be confined to the latter position whenever the surface is strong enough to resist fracture, (iii, 96, 97, 181, 395.) i dighege _ d. The borders of large subsiding areas sooner or later experiencing deep fissurings and extensive upliftings through the tension or horizontal orce of the subsiding crust; these upliftings frequently in parallel se- ries, of successive formation, or constituting a series of immense paral- lel folds ; that side of the fold in general steepest which is most remote from the subsiding area, (iii, 98, 1 e. Fissures formed having the character of a series of linear rents either in interrupted lines or parallel ranges, instead of being single un- broken lines of great length, and this owing to the brittle nature and structure of the earth’s crust; ranges sometimes curved, either from or cause proceeding from an inequality of force along parallel lines of ten- sion over a subsiding area,* (iii, 185, . IV. Escape of heat and eruptions of melted matter from below through opened fissures. a. Igneous ejection of dikes an effect and not a cause of displace- ments, (iii, 99, 185. se b. Some points in the wider fissures continuing open as vents of erup- tion. The outlines of large contracting areas being liable from the cause just stated to deep fissurings, these therefore likely to abound most in volcanic vents, (iii, 98, 186.) c. Heat from many fissures giving origin to hot springs. n order not to be misunderstood, that in ac- i res, by the lateral ‘i + he igneous action alluded to, as producin 'y app bh ined in large earipeaind eres which subside as a whole. The great — r unequal amount in different transv nes, connect ha : rpchaganion char- 5 e acte asiest fracture, (iii, 18° :)—for these ¢ Jud a oh ie emtets . the subordinate curves 1 all ik and simi : sin the Rant Fatice ones ie topos egros, West M indanao and the Sooloo _ to North Borneo, and that by East Mindanao, Sangir and North Celebes,) as well as the curves in the mountains of Eastern Australia, (iii, 388.) 92 Geological Results of the Earth’s Contraction. d. Distribution of the heat attending submarine action, causing meta- morphic changes. V. Earthquakes, or a vibration of the earth’s crust, consequent on a rupture, internal or external, and causing vibrations of the sea besides other effects, (iii, 181.) VI. Epochs in geological history, (ii, 187.) VII. Courses of mountains and coast lines, and general form of continents, determined to a great extent by the general direction of the earth’s cleavage structure, and the position of the large areas of greatest contraction. Continents (or areas of comparatively slight contraction) often therefore present ranges of mountains near their borders, and these mountains are highest and abound most in volcanoes around the largest ocean, (the Pacific, iii, 398.) Thus the existence of such continental areas determined the existence of the mountains nature of the earth’s crust. They have had their laws of growth, involving consequent features, as much as organic structures. In this remark, we refer not, under the term continent, to the sur- faces of land bounded by the water line; for these, by slight sub- sidences, are greatly varied in form and size :—but to those ex- tended areas, which, were there no water, would stand raised far above the intermediate oceanic depressions. eanie action and | ;. pe of heat, goi the fractures attending the gradual folding and uplifting of strata while beneath the sea. Similar views, of earlier date, are offered by De la Beche, in his very able Report on Cornwall, Devon and W. Somerset, 8vo, 1839, The de-bitaminr zation of the anthracite coal of the Appalachians appears to be attributed Dy rof. Rogers essentially to this cause. (Trans. Assoc. Amer. Geol. and Nat-, 1840-1842, p. 473.) “ Gerhardi’s Organic Chemisiry. is Arr. XII—Review of the Organic Chemisiry of M. Cuartes GeRHARDT.* Tu1s book appeals with peculiar claims to the notice of all interested in the progress of chemical science. Organic chemis- try has made great progress during the last few years ; but until the publication of the Précis, with the exception of Liebig’s ex- cellent Traité de Chimie Organique, no systematic work embra- cing the results of the last decade had appeared. This is to be ascribed to the great difficulty of classifying the immense array of facts, and harmonizing the various conflicting theories—a task indispensable as a preparation for such a work and at the same time exceedingly delicate. Liebig in his Traité assumed as the basis of his system, the theory of compound radicals, and commences with the asser- tion, that “organic chemistry is the chemistry of compound radi- cals.” This was a most ingenious application of the electro- chemical philosophy of Berzelius to the investigation of this class of compounds, and was supported by so many analogies as to render it very probable; at the same time it admitted the appli- cation of the received nomenclature to these bodies. These rad- ieals are generally however purely hypothetical, and when we are able to isolate substances having the composition assigned to them, they are found to possess none of the properties which theory would require. Recent experiments have shown that mellon and mellonids have not the composition ascribed to them by Liebig, and that mellon cannot be regarded as a compound radical. Cyanogen and kakodyle must however be excepted, as compounds which comport themselves in many respects like ele- mentary bodies. Bs -'The progress of discovery has shown, that this hypothesis is but poorly adapted to form the basis of a system of classification, for the discovery of nearly every new body requires the assump- tion of an imaginary compound to explain its reactions 10 accord- ance with the theory of radicals; and so uncertain are the princi- ples which are to direct us in the application of this theory, that different chemists often assign very different rational formulas arrangement of the ele- ments in aleohol; each author seeking by his own to explain Dumas regards it as the bi-hy- us drate of olefiant gas; Liebig as the hydrated protoxyd of ethyle, Be cia eek oP a ee Cc Faculté des Sciences de Montpellier. 2 vols. Svo. Cie.) 1845.— We are indebted for this review and abstract o 94 Gerhardi’s Organic Chemistry. C,H,; Berzelius as the bin-oxyd of C,H,, and Zeise as a hy- druret of C,H,O,. The inconvenience of this system arises not only from the fact that the radicals are hypothetical, but that their very existence in the compounds is alternately claimed and denied, and the elements are arrangeé and re-arranged like the letters in an anagram, as the case may require. M. Liebig seems to have felt its deficiencies, for after describing in the first vol- ume of his Traité, a number of bodies as derivatives of compound radicals, in the succeeding portions of the work he returns to the old divisions of acids, alkalies, essential oils, etc. his mode of viewing organic compounds resulted from the idea of dualism in chemical compositions, which had found advo- cates in the great majority of chemists since the days of Lavoisier, and has been perpetuated by the received system of nomenclature. And although there have been at different times those who have seen the difficulties of the binary system, it is only within a few years that a different philosophy has gained partisans.* This new system is distinguished as that of the French school, and ranks among its adherents the most distinguished chemists of France. It rejects entirely the idea of a binary arrangement in the composition of bodies, and regards their atoms as constituting a system, in which one or more molecules may be exchanged for others without altering the chemical constitutiory or type of the arrangement. M. Gerhardt, who has been long known as one of the most distinguished chemists of France, has attempted the task of sys tematizing the great accumulation of facts which organic chem- istry presents, and framing a classification that shall embrace all among which is succinic acid, which exists in amber. 42 products are less complex in their constitution than the original substances ; sugar by the action of oxydizing agents yields, be- sides formic acid, carbonic acid gas and water, and wax whe converted into succinic acid, undergoes a similar decomposition. RAG atte torn * Mr. J. D. Whelpley attempted some years since, to show from the electro- chemical decomposition of the metallic salts of the mineral acids, that they must be ot as binary compounds of an acid with an oxyd, but as ternary phe binations of the metal, oxygen, and the other element. This principle was made by him the basis of a beautiful and ingenious classification of all saline compounds. Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. 95 We cannot retrace this process and bringing together the formic acid, carbonic acid and water, by a process of dexoydation re- produce the sugar. ‘These products were formed by a combus- tion in which a part of the carbon and hydrogen is converted into carbonic acid and water, and the power of reducing them belongs to the vegetable organism, where the chemical affini- ties are controlled and directed in a peculiar way by the vital orce. It is thus that in these operations, we commence with acomplex body and by a process in which its carbon and hy- drogen are gradually oxydized, reduce it to simpler and simpler ‘orms. There are however some exceptions to this law; a few s thetical processes are known by which we can unite the ele- ments of simpler compounds to form one more complex. ‘T'wo polymeric bodies are known which are formed by a grouping to- gether of several molecules of aldehyde; and many of the essen- tial oils undergo a similar change by action of sulphuric acid. The decomposition of organic substances by heat oflers some re- markable instances of this kind; in the dry distillation of wax C,,H.,O, we obtain paraffine, which is C, ,H, ,. In view of these relations, observes our author, ‘we may con- sider all organic substances as the result of the combustion of others more ridh in carbon and hydrogen, or reciprocally as the products of the reduction or complication of other bodies contain- ing less carbon and hydrogen.” “Tn considering from this point of view the whole of organic substances, we observe that they offer successive and alm - In the examination of organic substances, we observe that those which correspond in their chemical characteristics, present 4 similarity of relation in the proportions of their constituent elements. The alcohols, embracing wood-spirit, spirit of wine, 96 Gerhardi’s Organic Chemistry. potato-oil and ethal, are examples; their composition -is respec- tively CH,O,, C,H ,O, C,H,,O and C i If the single equivalent of oxygen which each of them con- product derived from any other body of the group. _ Substances like these having a likeness in characters depending upon a similarity of constitution are denominated homologues ; are to be'carefully distinguished from those which resemble each other merely in physical characters, and which are called analogues. For example, wood-spirit resembles acetone in being inflammable, odorous, very volatile, and soluble in water, while ethal is allied to stearine in being solid at ordinary temperatures, insoluble in water and having other properties common to t fatty bodies ; but their resemblances are only anal®gies, and when we examine wood-spirit and ethal in relation to their constitution and the products of their decomposition, we find that they are closely related to each other and are homologues. | In homologous bodies, the combustible elements, carbon and hydrogen vary exceedingly in their proportions, while the oxygen and azote are always atomically the same. ‘Two bodies there-. fore which contain the one 0, and the other O,, or one N and the other N,, cannot be homologues, while bodies containing C,, or ©; and H,, or H,,; may very well be so, as in the alco- hols already mentioned. M. Gerhardt has adopted some general formulas to express these relations; R, representing the carburets of hydrogen; RO, those bodies which like alcohol, contain one equivalent of oxygen; while other oxygenized compounds are designated as RO,, RO,, &c. Those containing nitrogen are and hydrogen must also be identical. Formic acid CH, 02; 2° tic acid C, H, O,, valerianic acid C, H,,O,, and ethalie acid C,,H,, O, are designated by the general formula RO,, and in 7 ern etey Gerhardt's Organic Chemistry. 97 each of them R represents a compound in which the carbon and hydrogen are in the proportion of 1:2. These bodies are homo- logues, and the relation of their elements is such that they may ev- idently be derived from each other by the abstraction of equal equivalents of carbonic acid CO, and water H,O. This is then the most simple ratio, and is selected as the term of com- parison. It is not however the most frequent; generally the hy- drogen is less than two, and when it exceeds it, the excess is seldom more than two equivalents. __. “When homologous bodies are decomposed into other homolo- gues, they lose or fix atomically the same quantities of carbonic acid, water, oxygen, &c.”’ This principle is illustrated by the group of alcohols so often referred to; when converted into hy- drocarbons, they give up one equivalent of water, and in the formation of acids they severally lose H, and fix O. From this it follows that a geometrical ratio between the elements of ho- mologous substances is not necessary ; bodies having the follow- ‘Ing proportions of C and H may be homologues: PEAR Fs C 1; 4= 1:( 242) 4g A= A; ( 8-4) 2% G= 231442 ; 8= 6:(12-4) 5:12= 5;(10+2) 8; 12= 8: (16-4) 16 ; 34=16.: (32+2) 16 ; 28=16 : (32-4) pee preceded by the sign plus (+), and when its proportion is form R+? O, ‘and the acids derived from them by the abstraction he acids, oxalic O, and suberic C,H,N, les of the form RN, O, ; benzene C,H, and cumene CO Hs are expressed by R-*, and so on. To determine whether two bod- les having the same amount of oxygen, can be homologues, we as- Sume a number of equivalents of hydrogen equal to twice that of the carbon, (this being the proportion of 1: 2,) and observe whether the excess or deficiency of hydrogen is the same in both ; and con- sequently whether they can be expressed by the same formula. Srconp Serizs, Vol. [V, No. 10.—July, 1847. 13 98 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. The salicylic acid C,H,O,, and the anisic C,H, 0,, are monobasic and contain three equivalents of oxygen; in the first, the deficiency of hydrogen is 14—6=8, and the second = 16— 8=8. Theseacid y then be represented by the formula R~*O,,. This proportion between the elements of a compound does not, however, necessarily imply a homology ; there are some ex- ceptions which depend in some way upon the peculiar grouping of the elements. Thus ordinary ether C, H, , O, is represented by the same general formula as alcohol R*? O, but the chemical characters of the two are entirely different and do not allow us to consider them homologues. It is then necessary to add as a con- dition of homology, a similarity of chemical characters, dependent upon a like arrangement of the molecules. Vol. i, pp. 29-35. This notation expresses in a beautiful and simple manner, the relations of homology which exist between different compounas. It is the peculiarity of this system that it is based upon the natu- ral affinities of bodies and not upon analogies; this is the only arrangement which will always be correct, because it is founded in the constitution of the substances themselves. The important relations which the combustible elements sus- tain, appear “to permit us to class homologous bodies according to their carbon,” and M. Gerhardt has accordingly constructed upon this basis a classification in which all organic substances are arranged in a tabular form. Those containing the same atomical proportion of carbon constitute a family which 1s de- signated by the number of equivalents of that substance. Each family is divided into the carburets of hydrogen and those con- taining oxygen and nitrogen, so that we have R, RO,, RN, &e. These divisions are found on the left of the table, while at the. top are marked at the head of their respective columns, the pro- portions of hydrogen. This will be better understood by a view of a part of the Ist and 2d families. Family.|Gen. formula. Rr2 R be \ C,H CoH “ wel wis olefant gas. O, | RO (a) aleohol. { cea ee (4) metl. ether. “a sgt RO C,H,0,, 7 acetic acid. Mee ( ms oxalic acid. R { CH,, marsh gas. 1 RO M,O;, CO, oxyd wood-spirit. ae ‘ of carbon. CH,0., CO,, car- ete oie ee ee { formicatida { bonic acid gas.! Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. _ 99 By this arrangement we are able at once to give a new substance a place, and to determine its relation to other series of compounds; those bodies which are homologues are always found in the same vertical column, and hence in looking over the table, we see at once in what families homologues of any particular form exist, and how these may be formed from other bodies of the same family. 'This may be illustrated by an extensive class of homol- ogous acids of the form RO,, which are here given with their families and formulas. 1. Formic, orn el te 2. Acetic H, O, | 12. Lauric, Oats, Oe 3. Metacetonic,C, H, O, | 138. Cocinic, O54 Os 4. Butyric, . HM, Of) 14° Mynsos,” C,H, ,U, 5. Valerianic, C, H,,O, | 15. 6. Caproic, C, H,, 90, | 16. Ethalic, Sr ie 7. Enanthylic, C, H,,0O, | 17. Margaric, C,,H,, O, 8. Caprylic, C, H,,O, | 18. Anamiritic, C,,H,,9, 9. Pelargonic, C, H,, 0, | 19. Stearic, G8, 0, 10. Capric es re oe The acids of the Ist, 2d, 5th, and 16th families are derived directly from aleohols of the formula R*+?0; and in the 2d we known in the other families ; but in butyral C, H, O, a wax C.. H__ O. we have bodies corresponding to aldehyde, and enanthole and menthol are probably the aldehydes of the 7th and ili icipate that future researches will he action of pot- ash upon spermaceti its corresponding aldehyde. We can thus obtain aldehydes from alcohols and discovered by Gottlieb ; the enanthylic or azoleic, a bibasic acid ; and the ~tenampei wrain Pree Behe wad i bag occupies the place for- 100 Gerhardt’s Organic Chemistry. In this series we observe a regular gradation from the volatile and soluble formic and acetic acids to the solid fatty acids at the other extremity of the scale. Those from the 4th to the 10th inelu- sive are oily and sparingly soluble, and present a regular increase of about 20° Centigrade in their boiling points; higher in the scale they are solid at the ordinary temperature, and the stearic and margaric cannot be distilled without decomposition. Red- tenbacher has recently shown that all the liquid acids of this group, with the exception of the formics, are produced in the oxydation of oleic acid by nitric acid.* Stearic acid by the ac- tion of the nitric loses two equivalents of carbon and four of hydrogen in the form of water and carbonie acid ; and yields the margaric ; which by a farther oxydation affords several of the volatile acids of the series. The other solid acids yield the same results, and are perhaps intermediate products in the oxydation of the margaric by nitric acid. By the action of nitric acid upon wax, we oxydize a portion of its carbon and hydrogen, and obtain a series of bodies lower in the scale ; among these are the succinic, pimelic, and suberic acids, which, as we have already seen, are homologues of the form R-*O0,. Spermaceti yields the same products as wax, but if we expose its homologue of the 2d family, aldehyde, to this process, it cannot yield succinic acid, which belongs to the Ath family, but we obtain instead its homologue in the 2d family, oxalic acid. . The results of science are continually demonstrating the unl- versality of the maxim of Linneus, Natura non facit saltum. which but one or two homologues are now known to be mem- bers of a complete series , The examples which we have given, will illustrate the features of this classification; which founded as it is upon the natural affinities of bodies and the numerical relations of their elements, must necessarily be permanent. set 'p (To be continued.) * This Journal, ii Ser., Vol. iii, No. 8. * Scientific Intelligence. 101 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. 1. Congelation of Mercury in three seconds, by virtue of the sphe- roidal state, in an incandescent crucible, (Letter from M. Faraday to Boutigny, Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., xix, May, 1847, p. ‘ producing congelation of mercury by virtue of the spheroidal state, I first heated a crucible to redness and maintained it at this temperature ; be advantageous :—2 oz. of solution of caustic ammonia of 0°95 spec. grav. are saturated .with sulphuretted hydrogen gas; the hydrosulphuret of the same solution of mixture is digested in the water-bath until the sulphur is seen to be no are in ieee namesakes. —_ essential difference between the relations the siaicloun of the sic and modern flying dragons. The wings the extinct pterddactyle were sustained by a thodihestion of | Botany and Zoology. 125 of the fore-arm or pectoral limb, which bones were long and slender, like those of the bat; and one of the fingers, answering to our little nger, was enormously elongated. The wings of the little Draco volans, the species which now flits about the trees of the Indian tropics, were supported by its ribs, which were liberated from an attachment to a sternum, and were much elongated and attenuated for that purpose. The wing of the pterodactyle was analogous to the wing of the Draco, inasmuch as it had a similar relation of subserviency to flight; but it was not homologous with it, inasmuch as it was composed of distinct parts. The true homologue of the wing of the pterodactyle was the foreleg of the little Draco volans. e recognition of the same part in different species, Prof. Owen called the ‘determination of a special homology; the recognition vertebrata, he called the ‘determination of its general homology.” Before entering upon the higher generalization involved in the con- sideration of the common or fundamental type, Prof. Owen gave many illustrations of the extent to which the determination of special homol- ogies had been carried, dwelling upon those which explained the nature and signification of the separate points of ossification at which some of the single cranial bones in anthropotomy began to be formed ; as in the continent. To account for the law of special homologies on the hy pothesis of the subserviency of the parts so determined to similar ends in different animals—to say that t they have to perform similar functions—involve man difficulties, and are opposed by numerous phenomena. Admitting that the multiplied * 126 Scientific Intelligence. points of ossification in the skull of the human fcetus facilitate, and were designed to facilitate, child-birth, yet something more than a final purpose lies beneath the fact, that all these points represent permanently distinct bones in the cold-blooded vertebrata. And again, the cranium d’Anatomie Comparée,’ that small degree of countenance to the ver- tebral theory of the skull which he had given by the admission of the three successive bony cinctures of the cranial cavity in the ‘ Régne Animal.’ Prof. Owen then briefly alluded to the researches which he had undertaken, with a view to obtain conviction as to the existence oF otherwise of one determinate plan or type of the skeletons of the ver- tebrata generally ; and stated, that after many years consideration tebrata ;’ and he proceeded to apply its characters to the four segments into which the cranial bones were naturally resolvable. The views of the lecturer were illustrated by diagrams of the disarticulated skulls of a fish, a bird, a marsupial quadruped, and the human feetus. — T common type was most closely adbered to in the fish, as belong: that lower class of vertebrata in which “ vegetative repetition”* mos prevailed, and the type was least obscured by modifications and combi- nations of parts for mutual subservience to special functions. bones of the skull were arranged into four segments or vertebra, 0° swering to the four primary divisions of the brain, and to the nerves | Se was The general principle of animal organizations, which Prof. Owen has term A the law of vegetative or irrelative repetition,” is explained in the first volume ©! his ‘ Hunterian Lectures,—on the Invertebrate Animals.’ . Botany and Zoology. 127 wards, because, like the vertebree of the tail, they lose their typical character as they recede from the common centre or trunk. - eral results of the Professor’s analysis may be thrown into the follow- ing tabular form :-— Primary Segments of the Skull-bones of the Endo-skeleton, VERTEBRE. OCCIPITAL. PARIETAL. FRONTAL. NASAL. ‘en Basioccipital. |Basisphenoid, |Presphenoid. _|Vomer. Neurapophyses. Exoccipital. Alisphenoid. | Orbitosphenoid.|Prefrontals. Wastin pines. Supraoccipital. |Parietal. Frontal. Nasal. Parapophyses, Paroccipital. Mastoid. Postfrontal. None, Pleurapophyses. Scapula Stylohyal. . |/Tympanic. Palatal. Hemapophyses. Coracoid. Ceratohyal. Articular. Maxillary. Hemal Spines. Episternum, Basihyal. Dentary. Premaxillary. Diverging appendage.\Fore-limb or fin. |Branchiostegals.|Operculum. Pterygoids &Zygoma. cephalon, or olfactory crura and ganglions. : The superior development of the cerebral hemispheres in the warm- blooded class, and their enormous expansion in m, occasions cor- responding development of the neural spines, not only of their proper t tebree, but the organ itself is intercalated between t ural arches of these segments and its ossified capsule; the petrosal projects into sphenoid and orbitosphenoid; but the gustatory organ is far removed from the neural arches or cranium proper, ve 4 : the vertebral elements are modified to form cavities for these organs of sense ; that lodging the eye being called the “ orbit,” that for the ear the ** otocrane. The divergence of the olfactory crura, and the absence of any union leads to an extension of ? Ives coalesce together there in batrachia, birds, and mammais. This extreme modification was to be expected ~~ 128 Scientific Intelligence. in a vertebra forming the anterior extremity of the series; and the typical condition of = prefrontals, so well shown in fishes and saurians, y the enormous development of the capsules organ of neo nes to thaws which become ossified and par- tally endian to the compress alesced prefrontals ; ole forming the composite bone called “ thmoid” in anthro- The vomer, or body of the nasal vertebra, has undergone potomy. an analogous modification to that which the terminal vertebra of the tail presents in birds ; whence its special name, seicnene to the like- ness to a ploughshare, in human anatomy. e spine, or nasal bone, is sometimes single, sometimes divided, like the frontal, the parietal and the supraoccipital bones. eir ‘special adaptive modifications have obtained for them special names. The hemal arches conmapedisg with the above neural arches re- tain most of their natural position and proportions, as might be expect- ed, in fish ; they are called the scapular, hyoid, mandibular, and maxillary pik 8 The LA, of i occipital vertebra is the eke: and is comm ee attac bya and tubercle to the cen- hyoidean arch resuming its normal connexions in many ma smal, Sa stylo-hyal element being directly aniculated to the mastoid: in the large petrosal capsule interven s, and contracts that anhyon with this know tang of the general Ses of the palatine, an insight was gained into its singular disposition in man, creeping up, as It were, afinity orbit, to touch the pars plana of the zthmoid ; this secret of the nasal vertebra, and therefore retaining, as such, more oF ess 0 its essential connexion with the centrum (vomer) and neurapophyses (zthmoid or prefrontal) of the nasal vertebra comet the mai series, . Botany and Zoology. 129 The tympano-mandibular and the ‘hyoidean arches had both been recognized as resembling ribs. A like homology of the scapula had ment from its natural or typical connexions in all the air-breathing vertebrata. The enunciation of these correspondences has sometimes been re- ceived by anatomists conversant with one particular modification of the general type, with as little favor as those of the “ cann ans. Prof. Owen adduced instances of the displacement of different ver- tebral elements to subserve special exigencies, as that of the neura- pophyses in the bird’s sacrum, and that of the ribs of the human tho- . P modification of precisely the same kind, and differed only in degree. In the crocodile every cervical as well as every dorsal vertebra had its ribs; and in the immature animal the same elements existed, as distinct € general homology of the locomotive members as developments of the diverging appendages of the inferior vertebral arches, was illus- trated, and the parallelism in the course of the modifications of all such appendages pointed out. As the scapular arch belongs to the skull, so iS appendages, the pectoral or anterior members, were essentially parts of the same division of the skeleton segments. : Asa corollary to the generalization that the vertebrate skeleton con- sisted of a series of essentially similar segments, was the power of tracing the corresponding parts from segment to segment in the same skeleton. The study of such “serial homologies” had been com- menced by the unfortunate Vicq. d’Azyr, in his memoir * on the paral- lelism of the fore and hind extremities ;’ and similar Telations could traced through the more important elements of the series of vertebra. Prof. Owen believed it to be an appreciation of some of these hornol- ogies that lay at the bottom of the epithets, “scapula of the head, sted merely in “pecial instead of a general name to express the serial homology rightly discerned, in some of the instances, by the acute German anatomists. Seconp Serizs, Vol. IV, No. 10.~July, 1847. 1 130, Scientific Intelligence. ? to a particularly and differently modified pleurapophysis, which equally required to have its own specific name. Professor Owen dwelt on the necessity of having clearly-defined terms for distinct ideas, in order to ensure the progress of science ; and alluded to the advancement of human anatomy by accurate de- terminations of the general type, of which man’s frame was a mod- made during my travels, and to we owe the most valuable re- searches on the history and statistics of Goyaz, says, in speaking of the lake of Padre Aranda, situated in this vast province, that it is inhab- ited by minhocées ; then he adds that these monsters—it is thus he ex- presses himself—dwell in the deepest parts of the lake, and have often drawn horses and horned cattle under the water. The industrious Pizarro, who is so well acquainted with all that relates to Brazil, men- tions nearly the same thing, and points out the lake Feia, which is like- wise situated in Goyaz, as also being inhabited by minhocées. I had already heard of these animals several times, and I considered them as fabulous, when the disappearance of horses, mules and cattle, in fording the rivers, was certified by so many persons, that it became impossible for me altogether to doubt it. was at the Rio dos Pilées, I also heard much of the minbo- cées; I was told that there were some in this river, and that at the pe- riod when the waters had risen, they bad often dragged in horses and mules whilst swimming across the river. The word minhocdo is an augmentative of minhoca, which in Portu- guese signifies earth-worm; and indeed they state that the monster In question absolutely resembles these worms, with this difference, that it has a visible mouth ; they also add, that it is black, short, and of enor- mous size ; that it does not rise to the surface of the water, but that it causes animals to disappear by seizing them by the belly. _ When, about twenty days after, having left the village and the river of Pilées, I was staying with the Governor of Meiapont, M. Joaquim Alvez de Oliveira, | asked him about these minhocées: he confirmed what I had already been told, mentioned several recent accidents caused by these animals, and assured me at the same time, from the report of several fishermen, that the minhocdo, notwithstanding its very round form, was a true fish provided with fins. _ Lat first thought that the minhocao might be the Gymnotus carapé, which according to Pohl is found in the Rio Vermelho, which is near to the Rio dos Pilées ; but it appears from the Austrian writer that this Botany and Zoology. - 131 species of fish bears the name of Terma termi in the country ; and moreover the effects produced by the Gymnoti are, according to Pohl, Brazil from those of the south ; the Rio dos Pilées belongs to the former, as does the Rio da Madeira. ‘The Lepidosiren paradowa of M. Natterer has actually the form of a worm, like the minhocéo. Both have fins ; but it is not astonishing that they have not always been rec- ognized in the minhocao, if, as in the Lepidosiren, they are in the ani- mal of the Rio dos Pilées reduced to simple rudiments. The teeth of the Lepidosiren,” says Bischoff, * are well-fitted for seizing and tearing its prey ; and to judge of them from their structure and from th cles of their jaw, they must move with considerable force.” These characters agree extremely well with those which we must of necessity admit in the minhocao, since it seizes very powerfully upon large ani- mals and drags them away to devour them. It is therefore pr that the minhocdo is an enormous species of Lepidosiren ; and we might, if this conjecture were changed into certainty, join this name to that of the minhocao to designate the animal of the lake Feia and of the Rio dos Pilées. Zoologists who travel over these distant countries will do well to sojourn on the borders of the lake Feia, of the lake Padre Aranda, or of the Rio dos Pildes, in order to ascertain the per- fect truth—to learn precisely what the minhocdo is; or whether, not- withstanding the testimony of so many persons, even of the most en- lightened men, its existence should be, which is not very likely, reject- ed as fabulous. ; f ay aie 4. Ear of the Limneus stagnalis, (Weigm. Archiv. ; L’Institut, March 10, 1847.) —According to observations by M. Frey, the auricular vesicle is visible in the Limnzus stagnalis soon after the rotary move- ments of the embryo have ceased and the animal has commenced to become coiled in the interior of its shell. There may then be easily observed in the interior part of the body, the rudiments of tentacles, the eyes with their pigment, and the tongue with its characteristic epi- thelium ; and on each side of the base of the tongue, the auditive ve- Sicles may be distinguished. These vesicles are spherical, with a sim- ple contour, and have a diameter of gy to =}; of a line (French). They appear at first to contain in the interior only a transparent liquid, and are then, like the eyes, without any connection wiih the central parts of the nervous system. soon one or two small corpuscles are formed in the liquid interior, whose form, size, and oscillatory move- 132 * Scientific Intelligence. of the vesicle. IV. Astronomy. 1. The Planet Neptune, and its Relations to the Perturbations of Uranus.—In the Boston Courier of April 30, 1847, Prof. Bensamin Peirce, of Harvard University, announces the following conclusions : “ The problem of the perturbations of Uranus admits of three solu- tions, which are decidedly different from each other, and from those of LeVerrier and Adams, and equally complete with theirs. The present lace of the theoretical planet, which might have caused the observed irregularities in the motions of Uranus, would, in two of them, be about one hundred and twenty degrees from that of Neptune, the one being behind and the other before this planet. If the above geometers had fallen upon either of these solutions, instead of that which was obtain- ed, Neptune would not have been discovered in consequence of geo- metrical prediction. The following are the approximate elements for the three solutions at the epoch of Jan. 1, 1847 :— ; Il. : Mean longitude, - - 319° 19 193" Long. of perihelion, - - 148 =. 219 188 . Eccentricity, ° ne ES oF 0°16 In each of them (the mass of the sun being unity) the mass is 0-0001187. The period of sidereal revolution is double that of Uranus. It will be observed that the mean distance in all these cases is the same with that sidual perturbation, but leave it full as great as it was previous to Galle’s Astronomy. 133 _ Mr. Walker’s important discovery of the identity of Neptune with a star observed by Lalande, May 10, 1795, (Vol. iii, ii Ser., p. 441,) seems now amply confirmed. An examination of the original obser- vations of Lalande, shows that he also observed the body two days previous, but as the two observations disagreed, the earlier was reject- ed, and the latter marked doubtful. The following communication on the subject, by Mr. Walker, appeared in the National Intelligencer, (Washington,) of June 4, 1847. Gentlemen,—In my letter of May 22d, announcing the confirmation of my discovery of the Lalande observation of Neptune, I remark that the elements can now be completed, and that the computation of Neptune’s perturbations would afford the means of obtaining the pure elliptic orbit round the sun from the perturbed orbit presented in ele- ments V. ‘i Perihelion point, ; : pier ge vie gO 14 82-90 Ascending node, ‘ ‘ : d . 129 51 13°53 Epoch, January 1, 1847, . : : 326 Ro oles Inclination, : : . -) 45-38.°10 Eccentricity, . : j : ‘ . 0005052917 Mean distance, « 3 ‘ . 80-°17775 Mean daily sidereal motion, ‘ ‘ . | BA 144 Period in tropical years, . : ‘ . 165y°7175 Elements VII. are derived entirely from the planet’s recent path for nine months. The test of their correctness is, that they should repre- 134 ' Scientific Intelligence. Comparison with Lalande’s Observations. Date, 1795. ln ee a os ¢ Nentune, Epiomatis Vil. Mean time, Paris. | RA. Tec. apr Dec. May 8th—11 10 57 pig on ae 89\South 11° 35! 4//-96)4+ 1417-1) 39-5 ay 10th—11 2 55 213 ‘16\South 11 34 oe pea 8+ 36 -4 Obse rved motion in two 4 be 591-3 Computed do. Elements VII, 185 -42 62 es iscrepancy, ' 6'-69| 317-06 - The small difference of three minutes of arc between theory and observation for 1795, may | be ascribed to the perturbations for that date, and for the fifty-two years’ interval, which have been neglected. bn 3 Lon period falls short by nearly a year of that which Profes- ree has pointed out as necessary, in order that the Laplacian Libration should take effect. It is quite possible that a more full dis- cussion of the perturbations may show the necessity of the Libration. The Airing doo of Venus is 0-007, the smallest before known; that of Neptune is 0-005. ai a that the orbit of nepsine approaches nearer to a perfect circle than that of any other planet. I regard this value of the eccentricity of Neptune as onclusively. aitlabes and with this view will te from LeVerrier’s communication made to the Institute of France on the 29th of March last on the occasion of announcing my discovery. M. LeVerrier remarks: ** We confine ourselves for the present to the remark that this small- ness of the eccentricity, which would result from the calculations of M. Walker, would be incompatible with the nature of the per rturba- tions of the planes of Herschel. But it may be that this smallness of prmorieigas is not a neeassary consequence of the representation of alande’s observation.” While | feel myself honored by the notice taken of my labors by the French astronomers, I think it just to express my full belief that when Says have bestowed on its present orbit the same pains as myself, they will agree with me that this smallness of eccentricity is an unavoidable consequence of the direct observations. fia we __ sat the moment that my views are correct, then LeVer- Neptune a mass of three-fourths of the amount predicted by Le Verrier, it will have the best possible effect in reducing the residual pertu tions of Uranus below their former value; but will nevertheless leave them on the average two-thirds as great as It is indeed remarkable that the two distinguished European astrono- mers, LeVerrier and Adams, should, by a wrong hypothesis, have been led to a right conclusion respecting the actual position of a planet Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135 then, but now believed to be such,) they would, according to Prof, S computations, have agreed in pointing the telescope in the Wrong direction, and Neptune might have been unknown for years to come. Yours, respectfully, Sears C, WALKER. Washington, June 1, 1847. V. MisceLLaneous INTELLIGENCE. Carnivorous as of herbivorous animals. second ingredient, which I have found in all kinds of flesh, is a crystalline body, which was discovered in broth by Chevreul, eleven years ago, and described by him under the name Creatine. It was The composition of the body is such that creatine may be regarded as a compound of the body, Glycocoll—so accurately studied by Mr. Horsford—and ammonia.* Note from Prof. Horsford.—One atom of creatine equals two atoms of glycocoll monia. * and one atom of am H, ,N,0,=2(C,H,NO3)+NH3. |. It contains also the elements of urea, glycocoll and wood-spirit. L gH, 1N30, aH «No Oet ae th De tsanied the urea __Liebig, by boiling creatine a length of time wi aryta, (doubles sf Pio drm B acid and ammonia ;—C, H, N,O0,-+-2HO=2C0, +2NH3,) 136 Miscellaneous Intelligence. A third ingredient which is never wanting in fresh meat is a positive organic base of constitution analogous to that of chinin, or perhaps more nearly to that of codein, which is found in opium. There are also in meat two nitrogenous acids ;—altogether, a variety of bodies existence in the living body could have been scarcely suspected. I have described these bodies and their chemical relations in a paper which is now in press, and will detail only a few results that may be practically applied. Th of motion, chemical action (decomposition or composition) is produ- ced, and I regard the latter as dependent upon an electrical stream. Mor as nother which has all the properties of an organic base, makes the action of medicines. appear no longer so dark and mysteri- ty) € most efficient of all medicines from the vegetable kingdom are organic bases. If you leach finely chopped meat with cold water, you procure a red fluid and a white residue. The latter is the actual muscular fibre, and the solution contains, beside the above named bodies, a considerable quantity of albumen that may be separated as coagulum by heating the uid to boiling, I have found that the residue (the muscular fibre) either for itself or boiled with water is tasteless, and that the water in which the fibre has been boiled derives no taste. The fibre, by boiling, becomes hard and altogether unpalatable. ll the ingredients having odor or taste, may of course, be abstract- ed with cold water. They are contained in the ffesh-fluid of slaugh- tered animals. You will not wonder, my most Respected Sir, if I now turn to re- ceipts for the kitchen. clean cloth. This broth, with the usual condiments—(broiled onions, vegetables, salt, etc.) added, will furnish a dish beyond the criticism of the most fastidious gourmand. 4——and contains the elements of the Lactamide of Pelouze, a product of the action of dry ammonia gas upon lactic acid,—C ,H ,0,-4-N He. it contains also the aetna of Glycocoll and wood- ‘it, as above intimated. C,;H,NO,=C,H,NO,+C,H,0. * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137 Longer boiling will not necessarily make the extract stronger. if the broth be slowly evaporated over a water bath, it will become rown, and assume a fine taste like broiled meat. If evaporated (by exceedingly gentle heat) to dryness, it yields a brown mass, of which, upon a jo urney, for example, half an ounce would convert a pound {pint) of water into the strongest broth. By boiling a piece of meat in the water, a separation of the solution from the insoluble ingredients takes place. The soluble ingredients go into the extract—the broth—the soup. Among these beside those bodies mentioned above, are the alkaline phosphates. The thoroughly — meat contains no alkaline phosphates. w as these salts are necessary for the formation of the blood, it is bisa that the fully boiled* meat, by the loss of them, loses its capacity to become either blood, or through blood to rete flesh: it loses its nutriment when eaten without the j juices—the ext In the extract the materials for the formation of albumen ome fibrin, are both wanting. Alone also, it is not nourishing. Both must be eaten together. The method of roasting is obviously the best ‘to make Jlesh most nutritious. But as the extract—the broth,—contains all the ingredients of the acid gastric juice, it “wi Perhaps e the best agent to aid the process of digestion in cases of d * Finally, | have found that the brine whieh forms in the salting of meat, contains all the ingredients of the flesh-fluid. composition of salted meat is essentially different from that pr fresh meat—inasmuc h as phosphoric acid, lactic acid, and the salts of these acids—together with creatine and creatinine are abstracted by being packed down in salt. The salted meat becomes eo reduced by this process to a mere supporter of respiration.t This may be a source of scrofula, where, by eating salt meat, the replacement of the wasted organism is but imperfect effected—where it loses its constitution without regain- ing it from ood. The aeeatare in the interior of a piece of meat to be boiled or roasted, rarely exceeds 100°C. (= 212° F.) The meat is on and palatable when it has been exposed to a temperature of 62° C. (144° F.), but it is in this condition, red like gp “ blood-red acest undone portions,—were subjected at the hig rat yi a lemperaies only of 60° ost 140° F.) At ag to 72° C (= 158 o 162° F.) all these meates the fibre. The — of old animals is deficient in albumen. If a piece of meat be put in cold water, and this heated to boiling, and boiled till it is * done,” it will become harder and have less taste, than if the same piece had been thrown into water already boil- ng. In the first case the matters grateful to the smell and taste, go * By this term it is intended to convey the idea of boiled till no further change occurs, or : isbie divi i ind . One serves in the formation of tissues ; t pty divides food into two kinds ‘Pb latter supiports ret Srconp Serres, Vol. LV, No. 10.—July, 1847. 18 138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. into the extract—the soup; in the second, the albumen of the meat coagulates from the surface inward, and envelopes the interior with a layer which is impermeable to water. In the latter case the soup will be indifferent, but the meat delicious. . Giessen, 24th March, 1847. ments on the inhalation of ether by animals, have been extensively . Floure and disturbs the -intellect; then upon the cerebellum atfecting the equilibrium of movement; next u i i guishes successively sensibility and the power of motion, and finally upon the medulla oblongata, when it.extinguishes life. In his late ex- periments, the action of ether has been pushed to the extinction of life e. ; _. M. Flourens, in order to compare the effects with those of asphyxia, subjected two dogs to the simplest kind of asphyxia produced by the gradual ‘consumption of the oxygen contained in a given volume of atmospheric air. When the asphyxia had reached the required point, e spinal marrow, exposed, showed no signs of feeling when cut or Jacerated, and only feeble muscular contractions on pinching the motor portion. M. Flourens hence infers that there is a marked analogy be- tween etherization and asphyxia. But in ordinary asphyxia, the nervous system loses its forces under the action of the black blood, the blood The matter of vegetable origin which he prefers, as being best suit- ed for the purposes of the invention, is cotton, as it comes into this country, freed from extraneous matters ; and it is stated to be desirable to operate on the clean fibres of the cotton in a dry state. The acids are—nitric acid of from 1:45 to 1-50 specific gravity, and sulphuric acid of 1-85 specific gravity. acids are mixed together in the proportion of one measure of nitric acid to three of sulphuric acid, in any suitable or convenient ves- sel not liable to be affected by the acids. A great degree of heat being generated by the mixture, it is left to cool until its temperature falls to 60° or 50° Fahr. The cotton is then immersed in it, and, so that it may become thoroughly impregnated or saturated with the acids, it is stirred witha rod of glass or other material not affected by the acids. ‘The cotton should be introduced in as open a state as practicable. The ‘acids are then poured or drawn off, and the cotton gently pressed by a presser of glazed earthen ware to press out the acids, after which it Is covered up in the vessel, and allowed to stand for about an hour. It is Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 of potash; and, lastly, dried in a room heated by hot air or steam to about 160° Fah. It is considered probable that the use of the solutions of carbonate of potash and nitrate of potash may be dispensed with, although actual experience does not warrant such an omission. The patentee remarks, that nitric acid may be employed alone in the manufacture of explosive compounds ; but that, as far as his experience goes, the article, when so manufactured, is not so good and far more costly. effect as eight parts by weight of the Tower-proof gunpowder. The is intended—so. that, when dried, it shall retain the required figure ; of an inferior specific gravity may be employed. The patentee having thus described the nature of the invention, and in what manner the same is to be performed, states, that he does not portions, and its coarse or fine graining; powder of the same grain will y Gun-cotton is uniform in strength, and fires quicker than the finest gunpowder. ; The rock is variable in texture, and Hable to be crossed by seams which, if they be slight, may destroy the correctness of the result with- Out being discovered by the operator. 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The difference in the action of the two agents, that of the powder below, to compare fairly the two explosives. The gun-cotton was prepared with the strongest acids of commerce ; sulphuric, sp. gr. 1°85; nitric, sp. gr. 1:49; time of immersion about lutions described by Prof. Schénbein, and dyed a light straw color. short, it was the article of commerce, prepared by Messrs. C. & F. Lennig of Philadelphia, who are patentees of gun-cotton for the United themselves is given. en the results were better than were expected , from the proposed charge of powder, they were marked superior. When less, moderate ; and when equal, good. The following extract from the tables is believed to be a fair sample of the whole. In every instance the writer was present during the charging, and discharging of the blasts, and all were made at least 500 feet below the surface. : Extract from Table of Experiments. é| ¢ Set erat Pe s| 2 | 2 fale 12 ELE ir Pa = S 3 Rock. 2\. “3 2. 3 . S Vitiation. es hee . $ Bo *s|Sals le 3 shoe 4|2|s8|ssleslaiai 2} 4 o| & els |2E/Seleeis|s} 2] 8 ell i vee Rett Save fl 0 a pe Bs 2%: aik'a 3 lnch.|Inch. Inch. |Inch.| Oz. | t 3} C. ; ge ys } 18 | 14 |paper| . . | 6 | 93) 1 |goodjnone jnone- ae: “ 16 | 13 | * |... 6 | 9}|1 |good|none jnone. 5\powd. ie eet ee es ee ine 9 ie considerable. 7 66 = 153] 13 |... | 51..]. |. |modjdense considerable. 8 C. ep 17| 1%]. .| 8] 6 |10/14/sup. jnone 9} C. jred ash coal, 45} 13]. .| 19} 16 1184) 24isup.|} “ 10} C. ss 14 |paper| 12 | 10 | 94) 14) “ ge 12| C. |white ash coal, 36 | 14 | “ | 10] 6110)1 |good| “ | “ 13] C. . 36113 |. | 14) 6 3g igmed| * | * June 7, 1847. 5. Pyroxyline, (Comptes Rendus, March 8, 1847.)—MM. FLores Domonte and Menarp, on submitting gun-cotton to alcoholized ether, obtained an incomplete solution; and on analysis the part dissolve gave the formula C,,H,O,+2NO,, (that of Xyloidine according to these authors,) and the insoluble, the formula C,,H,O,+3NQ,. ‘The Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 two udded together, make C,,H,,0,,-+-5NO,, Pelouze’s formula for pyroxyline.* With cane sugar, glucose, mannite, sugar of milk, dex- trine, and gum, analogous fulminating compounds have been formed by these chemists. ‘They have succeeded in crystallizing the nitric man- nite, and obtained for it the formula C,,0,H,-+-5NO,. 6. Process for Photographs upon paper ; by M. Buanquart-Evrarp, (Comptes Rendus, Jan., 1847.) —This process is in part a modification of the Calotype, and is, according to its author, susceptible of many variations. The principles upon which it depends, are, Ist, the thorough impregnation of the paper by the photographic agent, so that the image is formed within the paper; an , the perfection of surface given to a moist paper by placing it upon a glass, which, in the camera, is turned toward the lens, the image being formed on the wet surface of paper in contact with the glass s this process seems to be more simple than any other, and within the reach of persons of moderate skill, we give it somewhat in detail. For the first or negative proof, the very best letter paper is to be taken; cautions of not including air bubbles, &c. ter one minute the paper is removed, held up to drain by a corner, and then laid upon some im- permeable surface and allowed to dry slowly. ; Another solution is prepared of 25 parts iodid of potassium, 1 part bromid of potassium, and 560 parts distilled water. In this solution the paper is entirely immersed, with the silver side up, and suffered to remain from one and a half to two minutes, according to the tempera- ture; it is then carefully withdrawn, holding it by two corners, and placed in a large vessel full of pure water; it is next hung up to dry upon a string, being fastened by one corner. Paper thus prepared should be protected from the light and preserved in a pasteboard case, but not packed too closely. It will keep for months. The solutions kept in vessels covered by opaque paper may be used to exhaustion, : To take a proof, a smooth glass is made quite level upon a suitable support, and upon it are poured a few drops of a solution of 6 parts nitrate of silver, 11 parts crystallizable acetic acid, and 64 parts distilled water; (half of the water should be taken to dissolve the nitrate, and the remainder added about an hour after the acid has been mixed with . The paper is ar to be applied to this liquid on the glass, the nitrated side downwards, and smoothed by the hand until-there is a perfect con- * In Vol. iii, p. 295, there is an error arising from including with the formula of pyroxyline, the SHO, which is separated in the process of formation. 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. When taken from the camera the proof is to be placed upon a plate placed between. The paper for the positive proof should be very stout and as smooth as possible. Prepare a solution of 3 parts water saturated with com- mon salt and 10 pts. distilled water; upon this float the paper for two or irected. In this way a quantity may be prepared in a short time. The positive paper is to be preserved in the way directed for the other, but must not be kept more than one or two weeks, or it will lose its delicacy and become discolored. may now GX- amined by daylight, and the action of the hyposulphate watched. Gradually the lights become more brilliant, and the shades pass from a dirty red to a bistre and finally come to resemble those of an aquatint., When the desired tint is reached, the operation is stopped and the salt removed by soaking in water for five or six hours to a whole day. Several proofs can be immersed at the same time in the hyposulphate, and those which do not stand its action for two hours must be rejected. The operations although in appearance complicated, are in reality quite simple and of easy execution. .C.5. 7. Report on the Aurora Borealis.—Aurores Boréales, 1 vol., 8vo. Accompagné d’un Atlas de 12 planches in folio; par MM. Lorrin, Bravais, Lin.iend6k, et SrtsestROM.* see following notice of this great work is from M. Bravais. He re- marks :— - [have divided my general review of the subject into eight paragraphs. In the first, | examine the much controverted question, as to the nature -*This is one of a series of twenty-six volumes of large Svo, and seven folio atlases, published as the results of Voyages de la Commission Scientifique du Nord, en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au Spitzburg et aux Ferée, pendant les annees Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 of the dark segments ying generally below the peters lick or at their base. ‘This segment, according to some, is merely an effect of contrast ; according t to pretties it is something cionaciade (or real,) but in- dependent of the aurora, caused perhaps by the polar fogs; and others consider it the siamese source of the auroral light. I next show, that the light cannot be an effect = reflection, except “in rare cases, and actually exists where it is shes erv In the second paragraph I pass the forms and portions of arches, their movements, light, and apparent structure. According to Hans- teen, an auroral arch isa Juminous Ting situated in the upper regions of the atmosphere, sustained in all its parts a the same height, above the earth’s surface, and whose axis corresponds nearly with the mag- netic axis of the globe. Such a ring ought to appear more or less elevated above the horizon according to the position of the observer, and it ought to be seen to cut the plane of the magnetic meridian at right angles. ‘The hypothesis of ae which is altogether the most probable, has been made the basis of our investigations with a ig to the orientation, the height, and Yes amplitude of the arches. Tun stand by amplitude, the “angolar distance between the east and so alee measured on the ‘plane of the horizon and on the north sides of the zenith to — ss The amplitude increases quite regularly dur- ing this movement of the arc. It does not become one hundred a eighty degrees until the arch has passed the zenith to the southern part of the sky. It also results from our observations, that the curve of the arch i is very similar to that oF a small circle of the celestial sphere. This ing the horizon, this right line becomes a hy rbolic curve though searcely appreciable, and important only in a theoretical point of view, from its connection with the theory assume From the simultaneous variation of the heights and amplitudes, fener stars, The third paragraph is devoted to the rays of the aurora boredis. The rays (streamers) are columns of Fo pe suspended in the air; they undergo rapid movement or changes, and appear to converge towards the magento na where they thus form oer is called the corona. 18 La Reche rche commandée par M. Fabvre, Lieut. y fee : debe vie cf sate at Roi i SOUS la directi tion de M. Paul Gaim mard, Pres ord.” ce ident de la Commission Scientifique du_ .” They include Reports on / ‘tism, 2 vols. ; Eorenies l vo e ology, Min a = Metallurgy, and Chemistry, 2 vols.; any, Physical Ganrasby: Physiology, and Medicine, 2 vols.; Zoology, pee ; Runry of Scandinavia and its Lite ture, and History of the Voyage, 4 vols. a oo mn n oO i] S a] is o-*, a — f=] od 144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. With reference to the relation between the column and the arches, | have shown, in discussing our observations on partial corona, that even when the rays appear isolated and independent, they have a general arrangement in files or ranges, parallel to the direction of the arches. I have also shown a tendency in the arches to dissolve into columns 3; whence it is obvious that the simple ray is the result of an arrange- ment of the auroral light in lines parallel to the dipping needle. The arched form results from this, that if two rays exist simultaneously, they tend to place themselves so that their common place shall be per- pendicular to the magnetic meridian, as if the equilibrium of two rays were not stable except in this position. But how this condition of sta- bility is consistent with the idea that the rays have an electric nature and origin, is yet enveloped in mystery. The luminous currents, exhibited in the ranges of columns, passing either from the east to the west or the reverse, are not equally frequent in the different directions; the same remark applies to the modes of progression in the arches from the north to the south and from the south to the north. I state the facts on this subject without pretending to offer any explanation. "We have observed the extra-zenith corona so frequently, as to be able to affirm that the coronas may appear in all possible directions in relation to the observer, and that their connection with the magnetic zenith is a simple result of linear perspective. : In the fourth paragraph I have treated of the auroral sheets. They are allied to the rays, but differ in their flickering or palpitating light and also in appearing only at a later hour of the night. paragraph relates to the colors of the auroral light, which are less varied than generally supposed; for but three or four distinct shades were observed by us. In the sixth paragraph I consider the facts which may lead the ob- server to suppose that the aurora is situated but a small distance from though believing that their appearances are mostly deceptive, donot affirm that all observations of this kind hitherto made are ne- cessarily incorrect. I next treat of a resemblance, between the mean orientation of cirro-cumuli clouds in parallel bands optically convergent, a more precise determination. For such investigations, the base line should be about 100 kilometers long (60 miles), and in the direction of a terrestrial magnetic meridian. The last paragraph contains general remarks on the frequency of the phenomena, its duration, hour of appearance, its possible continu- ance during a succession of days. I show that the progressive move- ments of the arches are wholly independent of the motion of the earth, which sets aside any theory founded on the idea of the cosmical origin of the Aurora, and sustains the view that it belongs to our atmosphere Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 8. Hieroglyphical Mica Plates from the Mounds; by E. Geo. Squier, (in a letter to Prof. Silliman.)—You have probably observe a paragraph, going the rounds of the newspapers, credited to a journal published at Lower Sandusky in this state, to the effect that a number of inscribed plates of mica were recently discovered, in excavating an ancient mound near that place. ‘These plates are represented, in the account, as oval in shape, measuring seven by ten inches, and ‘ cover- ed with hieroglyphies of different and beautiful colors, betokening a more advanced and-entirely different state of the arts than has hereto- fore been discovered in the remains of the Indian tribes!” As this an- nouncement has created some degree of interest, and elicited some in- quiries, it will not be out of place to observe, that one of the plates has n'placed in our hands, through the kindness of a friend, residing at the point mentioned... The form of the plates and their size are cor- rectly represented, but the hieroglyphics are nothing more nor less than discolorations caused either by the infiltration of a mineral solution between the lamina, or by its presence at the period of crystallization, The material is very well known as graphic or hieroglyphic mica, a de- posit of which occurs upon the Schuylkill, not far above Philadelphia. Although the discoloration, following the planes of crystallization, falls, in places, into right lines, it seems utterly unaccountable that they were mistaken for the work of man!, This is another illustration of the very loose manner in which facts relating to our antiquities have been placed before the world :—a looseness, unfortunately, not entirely pecu- liar to newspaper statements. The plates are very pretty specimens o! the mineral, and are each perforated, near one of the ends, with a small hole. They were undoubtedly used for purposes of ornament. Mica is common in the mounds, sometimes cut into the form of scrolls and other ornamental plates. I have taken a bushel of the sheets froma single mound. : 9. Water-Power of Europe, (Mining Journal, April 10, 1847. )—A curious communication has been addressed to the Paris Academy of Sciences, from M. Daubrée, containing a calculation of the quantity of heat annually applied to the evaporation of the water on the surface of the globe, and of the dynamic force of the streams of continents. He ford, Conn., by P. W. Ellsworth, M.D.,;combined with those made at New Haven, show that the auroral bow or arch of April 7, 1847, was elevated not less than 100 miles, nor more than 120, above the earth’s A similar auroral bow or arch was seen at various places in England, on the 19th March, 1847. According to the mean of various observa- arch was visible here up to 114-30™. Pp. m Seconp Senizs, Vol. IV, No, 10.—July, 1847. 19 146 Bibliography. eg. 12. Science and the Arts at Harvard.—The Hon. Assotr Law- rence of Boston, has presented to the Corporation of Harvard Univer- sity, the sum of fifty thousand dollars, to be expended in establishing a school for the purpose of teaching the practical sciences, embracing Engineering, Mining in its extended sense, including Metallurgy, and the invention and manufacture of Machinery. One department Is already occupied by the Rumford Professor in that institution, Prof. E. N. Horsford. 13. Association of American Geologists and Naturalists.—The eighth annual meeting of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, will be held in Boston, commencing on the third Monday a of September, 1847, at 10, a. m., continuing for one week there- after. | Officers of the Association elected at the last meeting: = Chairman, Dr. Amos BINNEY.* Treasurer, Prof. B. Sttuiman, Jr. Secretary, Dr. J. Wyman. Standing Committee.—The President, Treasurer, and Secretary, ex officio. Dr. J. E, Hotproox. Prof. H. D. Rogers. Prof. B. Siz- LimaN. Pres. E, Hircucocx. Wii1am C. Reprievp, Esq. Larb- NER Vanuxem, Esq. L.C. Beck. Joun L. Haves. Local Committee. Hon. Narnan Aprieton. Dr. A. A. Goutp. Hon. Assotr Lawrence. . H. Storer Joun A. Lowest, Esq. Dr. S. Caszot, Jr Dr. Joun C. Warren. Dr. C. T. Jackson. Prof. A. Gray. Francis Acer, Esq. VI. Brsriocrapuy. 1. Elementary Geology; by Evwarp Hitcucocx, D.D., LL.D., President of Amherst College; eighth edition, revised, enlarged and adapted to the present advanced state of the science, with an introduc- tory notice by John Pye Smith, D.D., F.R.S., and F.G.S., &c. New York, 1847.—This work has long sustained its well deserved reputation. ‘ is * Since deceased. Bibliography. 147 It is in some respects peculiar; its structure is highly methodical ; the subjects are presented in distinct propositions, with definitions, princi- ples, proofs, remarks, inferences, descriptions, illustrations, causes, &c., all drawn out under distinct heads, and distinguished by larger and smaller type. If this construction presents a page more broken up than is agreeable to the eye, and less readable as a straight forward treatise, it presents important advantages, as a book for classical study and recitation. The pupil will know what to study and how to study, and the instructor what to enquire for. The unsolicited expressions of Pye Smith, of London, himself the author of an important work on the relation of geology to the Mosaic cosmogony, are to be regarded as decisive proofs of the approbation of those who are the best qualified to judge. The work bears throughout, the impress of a working, thinking man, of strong powers of observation and reasoning; of one whose impressions are obtained from nature quite as much as. from books; whose facts are correct, whose views are sound and tenable, and who is therefore a safe guide. 2. Dr. Mantell’s Geology of the Isle of Wight.—At the moment of closing the present number, we have received a copy of this new and beautiful work of Dr. Mantell, of which a fuller notice will be given ereafter. 3. Medical Botany, or descriptions of the more important Plants used in Medicine, with their history, properties, and mode of adminis- tration; by R. Ectesrerp Grirritn, M.D. iladelphia: Lea and Blanchard. 1847; pp. 704, 8vo. Illustrated by 338 wood-cuts.—The author of this volume is well known to be particularly qualified for this undertaking, by his botanical, as well as medical an pharmaceutical classification. ‘The officinal plants are introduced under their several Candolle, are thrown into groups after the manner of Lindley. The class of Sporogens is retained, as is sti!] done by the last named author, cuts. London: John Murray. 1847. in three and four duodecimo volumes, now appears in one thick 8vo of 810 pages, agreeably to a modern usage in scientific works of frequent reference. 148 Bibliography. It is ap named to say any thing of es excellence of a work, whose reputation has been long established an ich noone can read with- out both pleasure ‘and instruction. One of tie most striking peculiarities in this edition is seen in the more frequent reference to American facts with which the author’s two visits to this country and extensive travels in it have made him acquainted. 5. A Dictionary of Modern Gardening-; by Gro. Wm. Jounson. London. Edited by Wm. Lanpretu of Philadelphia. en & Blanchard. 1847. 1 vol. 12mo. pp. 635.—This is a useful compendium of all that description of information which is valuable to the modern gardener. tio! for the United States, by judicious additions and omissions. The vol- ume is abundantly tates with figures in the text. The articles, ‘apple,’ ‘pear,’ ‘cherry,’ ‘plum,’ ‘ peach,’ embrace a brief and judicious selection of those varieties of fruits which experience has shown to be a suited to the United States A Manual of Road Making, comprising the location, construc- dion, and improvement of Roads (co mmon, Macadam, paved, plank, etc.) and Rai “Wm. GILLESPIE, My C.E., Professor of Civil Suporte in Union College. New York : A. 8; Barnes & Co. 1 vol 12mo. pp. 336. 1847.—If the well established principles of road bull ing, which are so plainly set forth in Prof. Gillespie’s valuable work, and so well illustrated, could be once put into general use in this coun- try, every te wold bear testimony to the fact, that the author is a public benefac if Gacacheitentt of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Vol. ix, New Series, part iiii—p. 275. Description of New Fresh Water and Land Shells, with figures; by I. Lea.—p. 283. Observations made in the years 1838-1843, to determine the magnetic dip and in- tensity in the United States; by John Locke, M.D., Prof. Chem. and Pharm. in the Med. College of Ohio.—p. 329. Observations of the che wl dip made at several positions, chiefly on the southwestern and frontiers of a United States, and the 8 ge 1H t'two positions on the river Sabine, in 1840; by Maj. J. ah U. S. Corps of salheribeneh Engineers The following officers of this Society v were elected on fanteds last. | President—Nathaniel Chapman, M.D. Vice-Presidents—R. M. Patterson, M.D., Franklin Bache, M.D., A. Dallas pcre LL.D. : Secretaries—Hon. oh ~ Kane, Robley Dunglison, M.D., A. L. El- wyn, M.D., J. F oc te Three Years—Robert Hare, M.D., Wm. Hombel, gs, M. Vethake. Curators—E. Peale, J. P. Wetherill, John C. Cresson. - Treasurer—George ‘Ord, el Xe s_Brocgnorses OF THE Adanncc at Puitosopnicat Socrery.—Vol. iv, . 36 Gadrcn ember, 1846.—p, 279, Letter from Dr. Franklin to Dr. sek of ; 70 wn on each other so as to pro a reduction of tem caaniacwan 207, 7, Ree marks on the Corpuscular thebey ; Prof. wea i . P i a a’ Bibliography. 149 No. 37. Jan., Feb. and March, 1847. et 299, List of officers for the year.—p, 305, On the Cor pov wag et Dr. Meig —p. 311, A missing star in Lalande’s Chart shown proba e LeVerrier's vince and determining the position of this planet in 1795 YS on BEDINGS OF THE area y or Natorat Sciences or Paitaperrnia.— Vol. iii, No. 7, Jan. and Feb., 1847.—p. 143, Observation on fossil trees in the No- T maria. YT cou a Bete tmce any moe bat the areole are not to be mistaken. J have preserve e large pieces, as also some of the bark of the tree, which is appare nily an irrgatari fluted ‘Sigi Uaria."’"—p. 149, Description of new nsects ; S. S. Haldem hsia quadricollis, Chorea (n. gen.) pulsator, Eburia distincta, Evapholodés simplicicollis, Stenura? cyanea, Ploiaria maculata.—On the t t > . womey- Length 143 inches; arogans breadth 74 ivi height 53. It was evidently a i dou . Me acna, Microrhopala, Galeruca, Calomicrus, ionychis, hag? Riddon as Dis- onycha, Graptodera, Systena, Crepidodera, Psylliodes, Aphhon a, Thyamis, Dibo- lia, Cheetocnema, eroderma, Metac hroma, pmolpus ryptocep og Mona- chus, oye jd odcin zdon, Tritoma mary eiplex, x, Lycoperdina, stag aie a, Brachia- yperaspis, Exocho omus, Chilocor Seem us. This closes a deserip- tions of aid Melsheimer, which we ph ibeio it in Vol. ii, No. 2, (April, 1844,) of the ete 0. 8, art and April.—p. 185, On living hpbiiie te in 1 oma between tho 6 uinea fowl and the Turkey A. Say (56 ess and W, Kite.—p. 190, of the: cada septendecim; Mi Miss Morris.—p. 191, sg Fo of the dust of an- m Cua ba; JC —p. 200, Remarks on the birds observed in ae aan ‘Me Procrepines or tHE Boston Society or Natura History, atin 1847. —p. 193, Blind Crawfish of the Mammoth Cave, (Astacus oo us;) W. F. Channing.—Prof. Agassiz mentioned the fact ascertained Erichson, that ae Crawfishes of America have all one pair of gills less than sé of the “We world. —p- 195, Microscopic examinatio 5 aD. —p. Description vf seg Shells of the Exploring Expedition, ( ong species o of *Partule, of Pupa, of Balea, five of Achatinella, seven of Helicina, nine of Cyclos- junit, and fone’ of Truncatella; 4. a6 Goul at =p. 198, A new species of Manatus, from Cape Palmas, (M. nasutus “wR NN. AND: Sects, ample. N J. Walt new species of aint R. K. Greville — n| lcidites. and Oi: in ihe collection of Rev. F. W. Hope; F. Walker.—Birds of Caleutta; C. J. Sundevall—Development of the Lyco CeR 5 K. Maller.—On the Siliceous Bodies of the Chalk and other formations; J. S. Bowerbank.—A new species of Pe nella. Develnnaaae ea M. Du ‘ossé. 7 e- LOGICAL Poe den Pfeiffer on new land L. Reeve on new spe of Chama ; n two new she pins.—Rev. Dr. Flem- ing on the deRiNntivn- 6 of trees; Dr. our on Carex saxatilis and C. Grahami. ANNALES DES Scien = Maxeneiiele —Septe -—Forms of the Crania of the inhabitants of the No ais Retzius, Creplin.—On the ba pagan ye - ee ra J. Calder rieties ska cies and specie ober. na the Nemertide de Dutirefage—On species, &c.; Cherreul.— Development of leaves; C. E. de Mercklin.—On the genus Godoya and its ana- 1 ; oh on. Wkecad were the Nemertide ; de Quatrefages.—Pulmograde oe “| se British Sea ; E. Forbes.—Genera and species of Echinodermata; gas sor s Godova and its analogues; E. Planchon.—On the Develibment ota pa 150 Bibliography. embryo and anomalous corolla in the Ranunculacee and Violarie; F. M. Barne- oul: ibid, 4. Brongniart.—On the origin of roots; 4. Trécul. December —Agassiz’s Echinodermata continued.—Met tamorphosis of the Sca- thopses nigra; Dufour.—Origin of pags 2 Trécul.—Analecta Boliviana ; ei Re- eny.—Note on the Zamia a oectets de —Flora of Colombia; L. R. Tulasne. ~—On the duration of the faculty of riaione ne in grains of different Sanitions January, 1847.—Metamorphosis of the Subula euiges and Cassida maaannes Dufour.—On the petrifaction of shells in the Mediterranean; M. de Serres and L. : ae é ne aro rokn.—On tera ; Nicolet—Development of the ovule in the Avicenna; Ua riffith.—On the ze ° : oe . enpus Acap. Scr. Paris.—Dec. 28, 1846. thn ihe "Trilobites of the schist of Brittany; M. Rowault.—On the elasticity and cohesion of the principal tissues of the human Bode ; G. Wertheim.—Jan. 4, 1847.—On pyroxyline ; Pelouze Sa ips anatomical researches on the shell of pamper bapa! - —Jan. 11 e i they communicate to balls, &e.; Morin.—Provisional araciet ts of Leverrier’s planet; Valz.—Jan. 18.—Essay 0 n tidal eames and oe waves; vet —Jun. 25. —On pyroxyline, hypoazotic cotton xyloidine; Pay =~ Com ounds _ nalogou oxylin pos “a in respiration; Roux, Velpeau, Langier, Gerdy.—On the ree i au- —Feb. 1.—Effects of ether; Velpeau, ‘Magendie, Milne E tiered; ake ‘Lalle- d.—New system of aerial locomotion ; van Hencke.—F eb. 8.—Eflects of ether on animals ; —— series of sa 9 tet pelted Plessy. rao halation of ether; C Matin , Tav —Feb.15.—Memoir on a new mode of treating nitrates, and especially caltpetre; Pelouze.—Action of chlorated alkalies on polarized lis ght a mal economy; 4. Laurent.—Effects of ether; Serres, Ma- ex medulla gre beeng Flour ens, Magend —Connection between the difference in constitution of sulphuric and nitric stick and their different effects on the animal economy ; Balard—Baitibeiem of bodies; de Saint-Venant .—Influe nee of alka- comet of Feb. 6.—March 1.—On the decease of B. Delessert.—On the Artesian well near Calais:—On the movements of a system of molecules; Cauchy :—on some pro sapraes of complex factors ; | Cauchy. —March 8 —On the ‘Hipparitherium, nen genus of Soli Christol } rel. ie of ether for distinguishing ab shots vane sige so from real; ‘patos — Effects 0 of ether; Flourens, Joly, A , Mayor. —Pyro: xy- nada; Boussingault, Lewy.— sitions of different kinds of wood; Ch n- dier.—On the true nature of anhydrous fluohydric acid ; oa ouyet.—Compounds of cyanogen; Wurtz.—On terrestrial magnetism, or a new pri neiple of celestial “~ ies; Lion. Glaciers of the north and center of Europe; Durocher—Hin et.—March 22.—Polynom aia radicals; Cauchy. —Ether injected into the pe Flourens ie ESete of ether.—Hind’s comet— March 29.—Simple epee! eee currents formed of liquids; Becquerel—Polynomial radicals ; Cauchy. —Idemtity of Levertier' eta t with a star pia ed by Lalande.—Theory of dew ; Mellont. On the disease ; rig yen. —Mechanical proper ties of seer NE ot wood; cat Wer —Method of determin ning the n organic sub- mg gor fF pt for te ecuioeae the et of slootiseitg ‘Silber- erent rir Naturcescuicure, Berlin, 4th Heft, 1846.—On ——_ ies of Proteu oe vi a er.—On the contractile cells of the pi ryo o of Pla a4 A. ‘Kat liker rus agi i sp.; A. er.—Acanthocerus aadus, n. Sp- of ~~ Fam. Cladoc era; jak E. Shodler.—Notice of works and memoirs on mammalia and birds, for the year 1845; 4. Wagner. ie works and me Sa A APPENDIX. * Descriptions of Fossil Shells of the Co pedition under the command of Cuartes WixxeEs, U.S.N., obtained in Australia, from the lower layers of the coal formation in Illa- llections of the Exploring Ex- bak 1. Bellerophon undulatus.—Sparingly compressed, back of whorls rounded, surface smooth, having a series of distant plications crossing the back parallel with the lines of growth, (or nearly V shape with the angle rounded,) giving it an undulate outline, plicee most abrupt on pos- terior side, becoming obsolete laterally, aperture deltoido-lunate, a little dilated laterally.—Diameter of species 3 inch; thickness through the centre 3 of an inch; about four plications in a distance of half an inch. —Harper’s Hill 2. Bellerophon strictus.—Discoid, much compressed, smooth and without markings, aperture narrow compr -lunate, not dilated, the 1 bicular, spire very low; whorls three or four, much flattened, back somewhat truncate, surface without markings excepting strize of growth. —Diameter 44 inches.—Harper’s Hill. _ 4, Pleurotomaria tri-filata.—Shell rather short turreted ;_ whorls four, separated by a distinct suture, back tri-carinate, the middle carina largest, subacute ; aperture orbicular.—Large specimens are eight lines leurotomaria nuda.—Shell much depressed, whorls four or five, not projecting beyond base ; base oblong beak, length about twice greates gth inch; height 2 of an inch. On the specimen, which is a neatly pre- ile sin ‘and other fossils from Australia, ill t b ae ponatoiag asa iat Geological Report by “the wriler, “now ures, will appear in the Gover lar age of the deposits. ges: Id acknowledge the very essential aid from Prof. Agassiz in the study of many of the species. he has kindly received 152 Fossils from Australia. served cast, only a small portion of the original shell remains, from which it appears that ~~ beaydti was smooth, and marked only by faint lines of growth. cera pentagon and concentric. Two of the specimens are Ain of ils exte- rior, and the other is a calcareous petrifaction. As the last mentioned is quite solid, having the oblique cleavage of many calcareous fossils, (the spines of Echini, &c.) it is evident that the original was solid, an could not have been a Porpita, which one of the specimens somewhat resembles. And since, besides, there is no appearance of a mouth or any opening, or organs of motion, and the form varies very much, w may infer that the fossils were an internal secretion probably of some mollusk, and more allied to the cuttle-fish bone than any thing else we can suggest. The sot species here described has much the appear- ance of a Spatan 8. Pentadia boat us.—Form pentagonal or approximately twelve- sided, suborbicular, with five broad and rounded folds (one largest) radiating from the centre. ‘The concentric pentagonal markings have the five angles at the centres of the triangular sections; and at the cen- tres of four of the sides of the pentagon, a is a reéntering angle.— Diameter 2 inches; thickness 4 inch.—Jllawarra. _9. Pentadia reniformis.—Resembles a vie segment of the prece- ding, with a broad lateral wing-like prolongation, nearly as large as the segment. It is quite thin, and its sha ape is reniform, though somewhat arcuately flexed. ‘The specimen is undoubtedly a perfect peruse ect # inch; breadth 14 inch; thickness 1 line.—Jddawarr ; . Penta din trigona.—Shape triangular, slightly sib flexed. Pg is thicker than either of the prece ing, and has a rounded m margin. It resembles the last in its markings, having the same angle of inter- section (that of a pentagon) between two sets of parallel Hage Breadth 1 inch; thickness 4 inch.— Illawarra. ll. ta.— Quite small 7 broad ovate, acute at besik; ‘in not at all truncate; valves thin, very convex ; surface smooth with faint concentric lines of ag wth. 2. —Ditiensions; fort he beak to the opposite margin § of an inch; transverse line a fourth less.—Very near the L. lata of Murchison, (Sil. Rysiy pl. 8, fig. 11,) but not at all = squarish, ”__ Tlawa 12. Terebratula aovgindatle Ob lois ovate, attenuate above, thickest about the centre, valves about equally and regu larly convex, infec r margin arcuate, ventral valve very regularly ovate in outline; bea flexed close to apex of ventral valve; aperture round and rather es 3 line of junction of valves in side view almost straight, very slightly bent above, the cardinal edges being little concave ; surface smooth with a few concentric folds and some faint radiations.—Cardinal angle 82°; height 14 ssi breadth +47; H.; thickness #49; H. Near the T: haw tata.—Illawar 13. Terebratula elongata.—( Verneuil, Paleozoic Rocks of Russia, p- 63, pl. ix, fig. 9.)—Scarcely eters from this species as described and hesrod by Verneuil.—Tlawar Fossils from Australia. 153 not much inflexed.—Len oie of hinge line 1 aa depth of ¢ con- cavity below, over half an inch.—This species is very unlike the dra- chytherus in its = ee. beak and longer hinge line. It is near * the rugosus, but is much thicker and more convex above.—Jllawarra. 15. Solen {Siolspairtin ?) ial —Shell very slightly yA ay very regularly elliptical, with no trace of a beak, breadt little less than anterior margin slightly depressed, and perhaps two or three faint radi- ations from the hinge over the lateral surface (apparent in the cast of the under surface of the valve, but not of the upper); cast of the hinge phowing. 6 teeth aoe apparently perfect—Length 1-4 inches ; height 48, L.—Illaw 16. Shon (Salebaictine 2) Relemmartee —Shell flat except a slight bending over the postero-do rsal portion ; no beak, elliptical in outline with the inferior and dorsal margins straight, and the anterior and pos- terior extremities of equal breadth; breadth more res + If the ee surface smooth with some faint concentric undulations and lines growth, apparent especially near inferior margin ; no epalleat or a cular impressions visible—Length 12 inch; height 748, L.—Har- per’s Hill 17, Pholadomya undata.—Nearly or quite equivalve, oblong trans- verse, subelliptical ; beak projecting ie little ; thinning to an acute edge in front, prolonged and narrowing s mewhat behin ; sides flattened, posterior surface from the beak to she posterior angle obliquely trun- d exteriorly subcarinate ; cardi linear, circumscribed surface with a few irregular obsolescent longitudinal plice or undula- tions, smooth, crossed, especially below, by faint radiations.—Length 315 inches; height yo L; thickness ;85, L; distance of summit of beak from anterior margin 3%; L; apical angle 138°; pecans: of beak above cardinal margin pate E-eigith of an inch.—IJ/aw 18. Allorisma audax.—Transverse, very inoguilaiatacl "left sere largest, front very broad and flattened, and having a narrow area ad- joining the margin extending down from the beaks which is a a po ing a somewhat recurved, gaping ; beaks very large and prominent, incurved, i cdi lateral surface anterior to middle strongly flattened, or even concave ; surface unevenly plicate and having some faint radiations lat- erally and pombauely, plications large rounded and smooth, the alter- hate mostly becoming obsolete = middle of lateral surface. Length 43 inches; height °%; L; thickness 4% L; the beaks are much more prominent than in the A. curvatum, the posterior extremity much a the flank less inflated, and the front more abruptly trun- cate.—Illaw Srconp Slaie Vol. Iv, No. 10.—July, 1847. 20 154 Fossils from Austraha. Cuzoets, (nov. gen.)—Shell inequivalve, inequilateral, thick, trans- verse subovate, closed (or near ly so.) Beaks large, salient and incurve Posterior margin broadly rounded ‘and a little dilated? Ligament in- ternal. Hinge line flexed to one side at middle and passing beneath the lower of ib beaks. Valves thin. Surface marked unevenly with regular concentric stria of growth and without radiations.—This genus appears to be near the Ceromya of Agassiz; but of this we cannot be certain, as the palleal and muscular impressions are not visible. There is much external resemblance to the Avicula cuneiformis of Verneuil, (Russia, pl. xli.) The beaks are prominent and ineurved, but are not flexed at all forward; they project over or overhang the cardinal line, the summit being separated from it by an intervening space. The valves are quite thin, the thickness hg less than a line ina large species measuring seven inches in lengt 19. Cleobis grandis. —Thick, very convex, right valve ye ; front very abrupt; anterior soph about one-third the whole length ; inferior oO apical angle 105° —Idlawarra. 20. Cleobis gracilis. —Resembling C. grandis, but more projecting anteriorly ; anterior Rertion; about two- fifths the whole length.—Length es; height 72; L; thickness 7%% L; apical angle 126°.— Tr arra. Cleobis ? recta.—Subelliptical, somewhat compressed ; lateral at flattened; marked with concentric lines of growth; inferior peryin straight at middle, parallel with dorsal ; postoro: doesnot argin uch dilated. —Length 34 inches; height probably 485 o. L; thickness The straight lines of growth over the medio-lateral surface, aod straight medio- inferior margin give a peculiar character to this apeci es.—Jllawarr ‘a | Me —Transverse, very nearly equilateral, anes evenly sy delicately marked with deep concentric strice in of the valves crenulate within; large —_— muscular aes a little exc panies transverse and ‘suboval ; maller anterior excavate, ob- long; parnner rather faint; palleal i impression faint but distinctly with- out a sinus, and quite reaching. the anterior sey eke impression ; sur- face of cast wer —Length 2 inch; “height 2 8%, L; thickness 7% L; anterior part => of the whole length ; apical angle e 140°. The impres- sion of iwo divergent teeth is finely preserved.—I/lawarra. The following species have the entire palleal impression, two ante- rior a and one posterior muscular impressions, and the external ligament of Astarte. Yet the form is more transverse and smocullaseral than is characteristic of = genus, and the ligament is iy occupying the whole cardinal a The beak of an interior cast has the summit ob- liquely truncate, je the lateral surface just posterior vr middle is more or less flattened. The large muscular impressions are broad sub- st terior surface is concentrically striate. The valves at middle are quite ~ hardly 45 of an inch in the first of the following species, and ‘thicken below towards the margin, where the same species 1s Fossils from Australia. 155 half a line thick. Although we have not yet made out the teeth of = nen we propose to describe the species under the generic name Sl 23. Astartila intrepida.—Thick, somewhat me ess ay - Astertila ig ete ee transverse, len ate more than one smaller somewhat excavate, siamo nein Cast with antero- lateral surface es y a little flattened. —Lengt h 2,4 inches; height 74% L; —IJllawarra 25, date cytherea.—Thick, slightly longer than the height; in- ner surface smooth, zooenen impression rather faint; posterior muscular impression large and very distinct, sk slightly excavated, not inter- sected by a vertical fold; larger of the two anterior deeply excavate, e smaller anterior oblong sigmoid, but not excavate. Cast with antero- a Welt simply somewhat flattened. ye th of cast 11 inch; heigh oo Li ; thickness ;%8; L; apical angle 112°, Illawarra. artila _polata. —Rather thin, somewhat transverse ; surface face just anterior to posterior muscular impression, and a smaller one crossing this muscular impression. Cast with antero-lateral surface simply sae | slightly flattened.—Length 1 to 12 inch; height 7% thickness 35°; L; apical angle about 113°.—J//awarra, 27. Reson iili spell —Rather thin, slightly transverse ; surface mark- nevenly with concentric strie ; posterior muscular impression very distinct but hardly excavate, a fold in the inner surface of the valve just anterior to it; both of the anterior muscular impressions strongly exca- vate; the larger without vertical striae; the smaller placed obliquely so that the cast of it is a linear trenchant ridge ; palleal impression very distinct, somewhat plicatulate. Cast with summits of beaks quite thin, the lateral surface Ke flattened, and another flattened area a ame ing anterior muscular impression. oe pare 14 inch; height 49, L thickness 435 L; chineaane of cast 34% L; apical angle 1385°.— lawarra. 28. Astartila transversa.—Thick, transverse, length full a third greater than height; posterior muscular impression faint; crossed by a fold vertically, and another more distinct in the surface just anterior to 156 Fossils from Australia. the muscle; large anterior somewhat excavate, without vertical striz, small anterior obliquely excavate ; palleal impression not very distinct. Cast with antero-lateral surface of beak strongly flattened in two parallel planes, that adjoining the anterior muscular impression a little concave. —Length of cast 14 inch; height 448, L; thickness 75%, L; apical an- - impression and other characters distinguish it.—I/lawarra. Genus Carvinta, (Ag.)—Form of the species below-described, trans- leal impression entire, and not quite reaching to the anterior muscular al very thin; surface quite smooth with fe Leng ; height 4,3, L; thickness .2°; L; apical angle 125°. The cast resem- bles much Verneuil’s Solemya primava, pl. xix, Illawarra. 30. Cardinia cuneata.—Very inequilateral, length about twice the rom lateral surface by a strong carina, very long, extending — to posterior margin.—Length of cast 14 inch; height 7% L; thick- ness ;29; L; apical angle of cast 110°.—J/lawarra. enus Pyramus, (nov. gen.)—Equivalve, somewhat inequilateral, transverse, elliptical, with the front and posterior margins nearly alike, en- tirely closed ; beak somewhat prominent. Ligament external. Palleal impression entire, distant from the margin. Three muscular impressions to each valve, two anterior and one posterior; the larger anterior, sub- orbicular, smaller anterior, facing the same way with the larger, an situated just above iis upper angle; posterior faint. Surface mark with concentric lines o th. Cast of summit of beak a slender point. Shape nearly of Donacilla and Sanguinolaria, but it differs in t m its entire palleal impression, and has also two anterior muscular im- Fossils from Australia. 157 pressions which belong together, to each valve, as in Corbis. From the impression of the hinge of a left valve, there appear t 0 prom- inent teeth; it has a very oblique shallow sulcus, directed posteriorly from the centre of the hinge, and a slight excavation anterior to the centre. ‘‘he form is more transverse and the teeth less distinct than in Cordis. It has not the long lunate muscular impression of Lucina. 31. Pyramus eilipticus.—Oblong, length half greater than —- lower margin arcuate, sides evenly convex, surface strongly but evenly marked with regular concentric strie, posterior and large on rior muscular impressions rather indistinct, not excavate ; palleal im- pression eat and posterionly plicatulate. Cast of beak acute at apex.—Length 13 inch; height =4% L; thickness 444 L; apical angle 187°. Another specimen, probably same species, three inches long.— wehtag s Hill. Pyramus myiformis.—Oblong, length two- — greater than nr ig exterior smooth, with faint strie of grow lower margin nearly straight, lateral surface below somewhat Sasade muscular im- pressions distinct, posterior not excavate, large anterior a little so above, smaller anterior dee eply excavate, and the surface of attachment facing the same way with the larger; palleal impression faint. Cast having the beak terminate in a minute cylinder, and having the lateral sur- face, from the summit crbtiegnely downward and backward, depressed. —Length 2 inches; height 35 L; — about 7% L; apical an- gle 148° or 150°. The front and posterior margin are more road|. rounded than in the idee the lower margin straiter, the apical an- gle much larger.—ZJllawa 33. Nucula hempiastichs elongate, transverse, rather abruptly narrowing behind the summit, and diminis ing posteriorly ; ' posterior orsal margin much concave; anterior margin rounded ; cast strongly ness +49; or = eat os a muscle, about half greatest eight.—lawarra 34. Nu mee anterior part one- 35. Cyp ong transverse, third wel: ot narrowing rather abruptly from the beak posterior- ly, posterior surface (flank) broad and flat truncate, with a carinate ness 33, L; apical an le or. Wlawebr ear ae tog to ante, anterior part about 2 whole length; posterior rather rapidly narrowing but not abruptly; a s 158 : Fossils from Australia. ig 7 ? ) ed carina between the flank and lateral surface. Valves thick. Lateral surface strongly flattened at middle or even concave.—Resembles much Panopza and Pholadomya, especially Agassiz’s Arcomya; but differs in its entire palleal impression, its second anterior muscle, as well as 38. My height much less than half the length; flank in cast flattened and dis- muse ulcations ; palleal ous; lateral surface not flattened; surface nearly smooth with occa- sional faint lines of growth and no trace of radiations ; inferior margin arcuate.—Length 2# inches ; height .8,3, L; thickness 3% L; apical an- gle 124°.—Harper’s Hill. 40. Eurydesma globosa.—Thick, tumid, suborbicular, not transverse, very evenly convex; beaks contiguous; lateral surface every where convex; surface smooth with faint concentric lines of growth and no trace of radiations; inferior margin and lines of growth, regularly or- biculate.—Length and breadth 1,9, inch; thickness 74% L; apical an- gle 97°.—Harper’s Hill? Illawarra surface marked rather faintly with lines of growth, a little uneven. —Length 1} inch; height ~ L; apical angle about 132°— Illawarra. ; = rom: dsitialio. ae 159 43. Modiolopsis prerupia.—Elongate (lett about twice the great- est height), enlarging somewhat posteriorly, dorsal margin straight or very slightly arcuate, ay into the posterior margin; inferior ex- cavaie anterior to m ; front abruptly truncate ; latera! surface ex- cavate from the beak ponenseely downward, also an oblique depression adjoining anterior muscular impression ; a few faint rays from the beak over the posterior surface, concentric strie of growth distinct; anterior pest impression smaspinals arenvaley ge small and su uborbicular, Length 1,4, ine greatest height 353, L; apical angle 100°. Near ML. faba of Hall. —llawarra. 44. Modiolopsis imbricata. —Moderately elongate, enlarging poste- riorly, very sdtaclapaels dorsal margin straight, and prolonged ; infe- rior margin straight anteriorly, front rounded ; lateral surface depressed or somewhat excavate from the beak obliquely backward and down- ward, having neat concentric subimbricate markings (and some fine . Mo dio ue arcodes.—A thick species aes the the scroll in form aed in exterdal — ngs ; but it is much broader in pimporsvn, than shell, being much ey nged posteriorly than in M imbricata ; line from beak pos ight soni decidedly carinate, beaks thicker. The fibrous texture is very distinct The anterior muscu in the Myophora of Bronn.—Length 12 inch; height much less than half length. Looks much like an Area in general fo orm.- oe Hill. 46. Modiolopsis acutifrons—Thick, elongate, very much broa posteriorly ; cardinal line straight, very oblique, very much shorter than shell; front acuminate, posterior broadly rounded ;_ eaotasine margin ex- cavate near anterior extremity and also just posterior to beak ; lateral surface den 2 a downward and backward ascaiets: “ous beak to 0 pos- erior margin very convex, hardly carinate ; surface marked with a few concentric folds, and some lines of growth. Anterior muscular impres- * Judging from this texture, the species of Modiolopsis (Hall) are more allied to Sitio than ‘ola aut although having a large and strong anterior muscular im- press a See 160 "Fossils from Australia. sion large and deeply — scarcely pata Texture of shell finely fibrous as in preceding species. .—Length 3? inches; angle be- tween cardinal line and line of elongation of shell bet 32°. Resem- bles much a Gervillia in ate oblique form.—LIllaw 47. Avicula.— ?— very near A. ser, of Verssan Russia, he prominent either side; ears rather large and longitudinally’ striate. —Length and height 24 inches; distance at lower margin between middle of two coste a fifth of an inch. Only one valve was obtained and that was convex. Near P. Fittoni of Sic. (Strzelecki, p. 277, pl. 14, fig. 2,) but rays much more numerous.— Harper’ s Hill. 49. Pecten tenuicollis.—Nearly orbicular ; coste nit twenty-four, very slender and smooth with nearly flat smooth interstices having an intermediate smaller costa.—Length of specimen 14 inch; height 13 inch nearly ; distance of middle of two coste at lo wer margin about 4 ofa line. Only a single valve was cbtained and that was very con- er’s Hill. arge; crossed obliquely by a few folds and striate longivddhasiby: tohgth and height 44 inches; thickness 14 inch.—Jllawarra. The following additional species of fossil shells from Australia in our collections are described by Morris in Strzelecki’s N. S. Wales and Van Dieman’s Land, Mr. J. D. Sowerby i in Mitchell’s Australia, or _G. Sowerby in Darwin on Volcanic Isl:ads. From Harper’s Hill’:—Bellerophon micromphalus s (M.); Platy- = fone sabres te , P. rotundatum (M.)3; Theca lanceolata (M.); ); Eurydesma cordata - .); Eurydesma J. D. 8.) Pecten illawarrensis (M. ); Pachydomus anti- J.D. afi) quatus I. D. S.) M., P. cuneatus (, S.) M., Gane ats (M. rom Illawarra Plane maria Strzeleckiana Sa ); Spirifer Dar- winii (/.); 8. subradiatus (G. S.), 8 aye ula (G.S.), S. "vesperiio (6.3); Productus brachytheerus (G. S.); AMlosinase curvatum (M 3 Orthonota (Cardinia) costata (M.); Pterinea macroptera (M.) Our collections contain also other Br te ned species from these localities, besides several species from Glen the species of corals described by Lonsdale, and: several new spebied of coal plants from llawarra and Newcastle. ~~